Datasets:

tasksource
/

CREPE

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (3)

train · 3.46k rows

id stringlengths 10 10	question stringlengths 18 294	comment stringlengths 28 6.89k	passages sequence	presuppositions sequence	corrections sequence	labels sequence	raw_presuppositions sequence	raw_labels sequence	raw_corrections sequence
2018-20583	Why does Latin America have mestizos while places like the US/Canada don't have much? Why haven't white settlers in other places intermixed heavily with the natives like Latin America?	It’s due to the ‘one drop rule’... originally practiced in the United States. (Can’t comment on Canada). While the Spaniards who colonized Mexico, Central and South America had the casta system which categorized different races and the races of their offspring by different combinations of mothers and fathers (races). While the casta system was clearly racist, it did provide a way for those in the so-called ‘lesser’ races to ‘improve’ their standing in the casta system. Even allowing for respected citizens although physically of obvious mestizo or other combinations of races to ‘improve ‘ or alter their place in the casta system through ability/good works/social standing. Meanwhile in the United States slavery was going on and having even one black grandparent or a great great grandparent or the like would brand you as black. That’s the one drop rule in a nut shell. A system that led to white US citizens today having very low levels of native or African American genetics while Mexicans have around 40% Native American DNA.	[ "This group does \"not\" include Métis people of the United States (usually with Anglo-Indigenous mixed ancestry) or Métis people of Canada (usually with Franco-Indigenous or Scottish-Indigenous mixed ancestry) residing in the US, nor does it include Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, nor Multiracial Americans, whose ethnic identity is Native American or Latin American Indian. Their commonality is that they are all descendants of the indigenous American Indians and White Europeans. In fact the words Métis and Mestizos have the same meaning which is someone of American Indian and White European descent. Many Mestizos identify with their Latin American Indian ancestry while others tend to self-identify with their European ancestry, others still celebrate both.\n", "The mestizo historian Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of Spanish conquistador Sebastián Garcilaso de la Vega and of the Inca princess Isabel Chimpo Oclloun arrived in Spain from Peru. He lived in the town of Montilla, Andalucía, where he died in 1616. The mestizo children of Francisco Pizarro were also military leaders because of their famous father. Starting in the early 19th and throughout the 1980s, France and Sweden saw the arrival of hundreds of Chileans, many of whom fled Chile during the dictatorial government of Augusto Pinochet.\n\nSection::::Hispanic Asia and Oceania.\n\nSection::::Hispanic Asia and Oceania.:Philippines.\n", "Countries like majority-mixed race Brazil and majority-black Haiti practice similar racial views that separate the mixed race from the \"pure blooded\" blacks. The Spanish speaking countries that practice racial views similar to that of United States (one drop of black blood) are the ones with much smaller overall African descendant populations, where mixed race mulatto and black populations together make up less than 10% and thus grouped together by the white/mestizo majorities.\n", "In many parts of Latin America being white is more a matter of socio-economic status than specific phenotypic traits, and it is often said that in Latin America \"money whitens\". Within Latin America there are variations in how racial boundaries have been defined. In Argentina, for example, the notion of mixture has been downplayed. Alternately, in countries like Mexico and Brazil mixture has been emphasized as fundamental for nation-building, resulting in a large group of bi-racial \"mestizos\", in Mexico, or tri-racial \"pardos\", in Brazil, who are considered neither fully white nor fully non-white.\n", "Section::::Genetic studies.\n\nSection::::Genetic studies.:Population genetics.\n", "As colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. Colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, hybrid communities existed.\n", "In 1932, ruthless dictator Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez was responsible for La Matanza (\"The Slaughter\"), known as the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre in which the Native American indigenous people were murdered in an effort to wipe out the indigenous people in El Salvador during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising. Indigenous peoples, mostly of Lenca, Cacaopera and Pipil descent are still present in El Salvador in several communities, conserving their languages, customs, and traditions.\n", "Another ethnic group in Mexico, the Mestizos, is composed of people with varying degrees of European and indigenous ancestry, with some showing a European genetic ancestry higher than 90%. However, the criteria for defining what constitutes a Mestizo varies from study to study as in Mexico a large number of white people have been historically classified as Mestizos because after the Mexican revolution the Mexican government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial ones in an effort to unite all Mexicans under the same racial identity.\n", "Hyperdescent is the rule in the rest of Latin America as well. The mestizo populations of Latin America usually consider themselves to be of European culture rather than American Indian. This is also apparent in the United States, where the practice of hypodescent is the rule among the non-Hispanic population contrasting with hyperdescent among Hispanics. Nearly half of U.S. Hispanics called themselves \"white\" in the 2000 Census, along with 80% of the population of Puerto Rico. Non-Hispanics, on the other hand, if they are of mixed race, will usually call themselves white only if they are a small fraction (1/8 or 1/16) American Indian, but otherwise will claim being of mixed race or even of the minority race. In the 2000 Census, of 35,305,818 Hispanics, only 407,073 (or just over 1%) called themselves American Indian, and only 2,224,082 (just over 6%) claimed to be of mixed race, even though these Hispanic groups (such as Mexicans) are majority mestizo in their home countries.\n", "Roberto Cintli Rodríguez questions how and why \"peoples who are clearly red or brown and undeniably Indigenous to this continent have allowed ourselves, historically, to be framed by beaurecrats and the courts, by politicians, scholars, and the media as alien, illegal, and less than human.\" Academic Inés Hernández-Ávila has reflected on the potential for Chicanx people to reconnect with their ancestry as a source of power for creating global change: \"The day each mestiza/mestizo truly searches for and finds her/his roots, respectfully and humbly, and furthermore validates those peoples who still maintain their identity as original peoples of this continent of America, North, Central, and South- on that day we will be radical and much more capable of transforming our world, our universe, and our lives.\"\n", "The largest Latin American immigrant groups in Canada are Colombian Canadians, Mexican Canadians and Salvadoran Canadians.\n\nLatin Americans comprise a heterogeneous variation of ancestral and racial origins that span from South and North America to Europe, Africa, and Asia. Therefore, a Latin American can be of any race, but the most frequent races found in the region are Mestizos, Whites, Indigenous Americans, Blacks, and Asians\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Historical background.:The Filipino Nobility during the Colonial Period.:The Royal Cedula of Charles II and the Indigenous Nobles.\n\nThe emergence of the mestizo class was a social phenomenon not localized in the Philippines, but was also very much present in the American continent.\n", "Due to the colonization of the Americas and Oceania by Europeans, the cultural, ethnic and linguistic make-up of the Americas and Oceania has been changed. This is most visible in former settler colonies such as the United States of America, Argentina, Australia, Canada, Brazil and New Zealand, where the traditional indigenous population has been predominantly replaced demographically by non-indigenous settlers due to transmitted disease and conflict. This demographic takeover in settler countries has often resulted in the linguistic, social, and cultural marginalisation of indigenous people. However, even in countries where large populations of indigenous people remain or the indigenous peoples have mixed (mestizo) considerably with European settlers, such as Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Ecuador, relative marginalisation still exists.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In Mexico, where zambos were sometimes known as \"lobos\" (literally meaning wolves), they form a sizeable minority. According to the 2015 Intercensus Estimate, 896,829 people identified as both Afro-Mexican and Indigenous Mexican. The great majority of the country's Afro-descended population has been absorbed into the wider mestizo population. Greater concentrations can only be found in communities scattered around the southern coastal states, including Michoacán, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Yucatán, and Veracruz, where the country's Afro-Mexicans reside.\n", "Generally, it can be said that in scholarship, as well as popular discourse, there has been a tendency of talking about indigenous peoples in terms of ethnicity, about Afro-minorities and white socio-economic privilege in terms of race, and about mestizos in tems of national identity. It is now however becoming recognized that processes of identity formation and social stratification in regards to all population groups in Mexico can be analyzed both in terms of race and of ethnicity.\n\nSection::::Mexico.:Mestizos.\n", "Section::::Ethnicity research.:Meso-Americans.\n\nArnaiz-Villena also co-authored a paper on the origins of Mesoamerican populations, which made claims concerning multi-ethnic origins of pre-Columbian populations in the area. The paper argued that the peopling of the Americas \"was probably more complex than postulated by Greenberg and others (three peopling waves)\", but noted that \"Meso and South American Amerindians tend to remain isolated in the Neighbor-Joining, correspondence and plane genetic distance analyses.\"\n\nSection::::Ethnicity research.:Ethnic Macedonians.\n", "History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States\n\nThe history of Latinos and Hispanics in the United States is wide-ranging, spanning more than four hundred years and varyingday United States, too. Hispanics (whether criollo or mestizo) became the first American citizens in the newly acquired Southwest territory after the Mexican–American War, and remained a majority in several states until the 20th century.\n", "Section::::Mexico.:Mestizaje.\n", "This second mixing occurred originally through American expansion and conquest of formerly Mexican territory and has continued through Mexican immigration to the United States. Elizondo believes that the position of the mestizo/a puts him/her in a unique position as both insider and outsider. From this unique position, the mestizo/a has the potential to help bring about a new, united humanity. Elizondo writes, \"With each new mestizaje, some racio-cultural frontiers that divide humankind are razed and a new unity is formed.\"\n", "Due to the extensiveness of the modern definition of Mestizo, various publications offer different estimations of this group, some try to use a biological, racial perspective and calculate the Mestizo population in contemporary Mexico as being around a half and two thirds of the population, while others use the culture-based definition, and estimate the percentage of Mestizos as high as 90% of the Mexican population, several others mix-up both due lack of knowledge in regards to the modern definition and assert that mixed ethnicity Mexicans are as much as 93% of Mexico's population.\n", "Section::::Spanish Empire.\n\nIn the colonial territories administered by the Spanish Empire, racial mixing between Spaniard settlers and the indigenous peoples resulted in the restrictive racial classes, like mestizo, which promoted Spanish cultural hegemony and restricted 'Otherness' within these colonized societies.\n\nMestizos and other mixed raced combinations were categorized into different castas by colonial administrators as a means of maintaining Spanish dominance over the majority. This system was applied to Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines, where large populations of mixed raced individuals made up the increasing majority of the colonized population.\n", "Fernández compiled his estimation of groups based on criteria of cultural patterns, not on genotypes nor even phenotype. In these estimations, therefore, \"whites\" encompasses all those whose practiced culture is predominantly Iberian-derived, while \"mestizos\" encompasses those whose practiced culture noticeably mixes Iberian and Amerindian cultural traditions, and \"Amerindians\" only those whose practiced culture is predominantly indigenous.\n", "Section::::Census and social definitions in different regions.:Honduras.\n\nAs of 2013, Hondurans of solely white ancestry are a small minority in Honduras, accounting for 1% of the country's population. An additional 90% of the population is mestizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry.\n\nSection::::Census and social definitions in different regions.:Mexico.\n", "In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis (with upper-case), as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French and Indigenous ancestry. French-speaking Canadians, when using the word métis, are referring to Canadian Métis ethnicity, and all persons of mixed Amerindian and European ancestry, rather than the broader concept of mixed people in general ( with lowercase), present in all other French-speaking countries, as would speakers of Spanish; the usual term to refer to mixed-ethnicity people in general is thus \"mulâtre\", which is considered elsewhere pejorative. In the United States, Métis Americans and Mestizo Americans are two distinct racial and ethno-racial identities, as reflected in the use of French and Spanish loanwords, respectively.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23724	Why is x=y a diagonal line on a graph?	If x = 1, then y also = 1. In a graph, that would be the point (1,1). If x = 2, then y also = 2. In a graph, that would be the point (2,2) If x = 3, then y also = 3. In a graph, that would be the point (3,3) Follow this logic, and draw a line between these points, and you will quickly see that it is a straight, diagonal line.	[ "By analogy, the subset of the Cartesian product \"X\"×\"X\" of any set \"X\" with itself, consisting of all pairs (x,x), is called the diagonal, and is the graph of the equality relation on \"X\" or equivalently the graph of the identity function from \"X\" to \"x\". This plays an important part in geometry; for example, the fixed points of a mapping \"F\" from \"X\" to itself may be obtained by intersecting the graph of \"F\" with the diagonal.\n", "In the case of formula_50 the equation is formula_51 and the set of its solutions formula_52 has a vertical line as its graph, as shown in the figure to the right. The value formula_53 where the line intersects the formula_12-axis in the point formula_55, is called an Except for formula_56 when the graph coincides with the graphs of this kind do not intersect the they have no \n", "Let formula_6 and formula_7 be any two locally linear graphs, select a triangle from each of them, and glue the two graphs together by identifying corresponding pairs of vertices in these triangles (this is a form of the clique-sum operation on graphs). Then the resulting graph remains locally linear.\n\nThe Cartesian product of any two locally linear graphs remains locally linear, because any triangles in the product come from triangles in one or the other factors. For instance, the nine-vertex Paley graph (the graph of the 3-3 duoprism) is the Cartesian product of two triangles.\n", "In words, the range of values permitted for \"X\" is not restricted by the choice of \"Y\", once \"Z\" is fixed. Independence statements belonging to this model are similar to embedded multi-valued dependencies (EMVD s) in databases.\n\nSection::::Types of graphoids.:Graph-induced graphoids.\n\nIf there exists an undirected graph \"G\" such that,\n\nthen the graphoid is called graph-induced. \n", "If formula_6 is a 3-regular triangle-free graph, then the line graph formula_11 is a graph formed by expanding each edge of formula_6 into a new vertex, and making two vertices adjacent in formula_11 when the corresponding edges of formula_6 share an endpoint. These graphs are 4-regular and locally linear. Every 4-regular locally linear graph can be constructed in this way. For instance, the graph of the cuboctahedron can be formed in this way as the line graph of a cube, and the nine-vertex Paley graph is the line graph of the utility graph formula_15.\n", "To use the vertical line test, take a ruler or other straight edge and draw a line parallel to the \"y\"-axis for any chosen value of \"x\". If the vertical line you drew intersects the graph more than once for any value of \"x\" then the graph is not the graph of a function. If, alternatively, a vertical line intersects the graph no more than once, no matter where the vertical line is placed, then the graph is the graph of a function. For example, a curve which is any straight line other than a vertical line will be the graph of a function. As another example, a sideways parabola (one whose directrix is a vertical line) is not the graph of a function because some vertical lines will intersect the parabola twice.\n", "To test whether a graph of a relation represents a function of the first variable \"x\", one uses the vertical line test. To test whether a graph represents a function of the second variable \"y\", one uses the horizontal line test. If the function has an inverse, the graph of the inverse can be found by reflecting the graph of the original function in the line \"y\"=\"x\".\n", "where \"m\" is the slope of the line and b is the \"y\"-intercept. When \"θ\" = 0 the graph will be undefined. The equation can be rewritten to eliminate discontinuities in this manner:\n\nIn polar coordinates on the Euclidean plane, the intercept form of the equation of a line that is non-horizontal, non-vertical, and does not pass through pole may be expressed as,\n\nwhere formula_30 and formula_31 represent the \"x\" and \"y\" intercepts respectively.\n", "A peripheral vertex in a graph of diameter formula_14 is one that is distance formula_14 from some other vertex—that is, a vertex that achieves the diameter. Formally, formula_3 is peripheral if formula_24.\n\nA pseudo-peripheral vertex formula_3 has the property that for any vertex formula_2, if formula_3 is as far away from formula_2 as possible, then formula_2 is as far away from formula_3 as possible. Formally, a vertex \"u\" is pseudo-peripheral, \n\nif for each vertex \"v\" with formula_31 holds formula_32.\n", "The above equation is not applicable for vertical and horizontal lines because in these cases one of the intercepts does not exist. Moreover, it is not applicable on lines passing through the pole since in this case, both \"x\" and \"y\" intercepts are zero (which is not allowed here since formula_30 and formula_31 are denominators).\n\nA vertical line that doesn't pass through the pole is given by the equation\n\nSimilarly, a horizontal line that doesn't pass through the pole is given by the equation\n\nThe equation of a line which passes through the pole is simply given as:\n", "where for \"x\" ≠ \"y\", \n\nand for \"x\" = \"y\", \n\nAn equivalent formulation of this condition is\n\nIt can be seen as a generalization of the median property, in the sense that any partition of the points, in particular as induced by any hyperplane through \"y\", has the same and opposite sum of positive \"directions\" from \"y\" on each side. In the one dimensional case, the hyperplane is the point \"y\" itself, and the sum of directions simplifies to the (directed) counting measure.\n\nSection::::Generalizations.\n", "The set of solutions defines a function formula_57 and, simultaneously, the graph of this function, by interpreting the pairs formula_18 as formula_59 provided that any two such solutions that differ in their second value also differ in their respective first values The set formula_52 violates this condition: all real values formula_13 in the second component have the same first component formula_62 Nevertheless, a graph for this set may be drawn, but it is not a graph of a function under the conventional assignment of axes, it obviously fails the vertical line test. This is the only type of straight line which is not the graph of any function formula_57.\n", "The contour of the piecewise linear interpolant is a set of curves made up of these line segments. Any point on the edge connecting formula_19 and formula_20 can be written as\n\nwith formula_22 in formula_23, and the linear interpolant over the edge is\n\nSo setting formula_25\n\nSince this only depends on values on the edge, every triangle which shares this edge will produce the same point, so the contour will be continuous. Each triangle can be tested independently, and if all are checked the entire set of contour curves can be found.\n\nSection::::Piecewise linear continuation.\n", "BULLET::::- Select a vertex \"v\" from \"D\"[\"i\"]. Add \"v\" to the beginning of \"L\" and remove it from \"D[\"i\"].\n\nBULLET::::- For each neighbor \"w\" of \"v\" not already in \"L\", subtract one from \"d\" and move \"w\" to the cell of D corresponding to the new value of \"d\".\n", "Initializing the variables \"L\", \"d\", \"D\", and \"k\" can easily be done in linear time. Finding each successively removed vertex \"v\" and adjusting the cells of \"D\" containing the neighbors of \"v\" take time proportional to the value of \"d\" at that step; but the sum of these values is the number of edges of the graph (each edge contributes to the term in the sum for the later of its two endpoints) so the total time is linear.\n\nSection::::Relation to other graph parameters.\n", "The codomain formula_16, however, cannot be determined from the graph alone.\n\nThe graph of the cubic polynomial on the real line\n\nis\n\nIf this set is plotted on a Cartesian plane, the result is a curve (see figure).\n\nSection::::Examples.:Functions of two variables.\n\nThe graph of the trigonometric function\n\nis\n\nIf this set is plotted on a three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the result is a surface (see figure).\n", "An arrow is considered to be directed \"from\" \"x\" \"to\" \"y\"; \"y\" is called the \"head\" and \"x\" is called the \"tail\" of the arrow; \"y\" is said to be a \"direct successor\" of \"x\" and \"x\" is said to be a \"direct predecessor\" of \"y\". If a path leads from \"x\" to \"y\", then \"y\" is said to be a \"successor\" of \"x\" and \"reachable\" from \"x\", and \"x\" is said to be a \"predecessor\" of \"y\". The arrow is called the \"inverted arrow\" of .\n", "BULLET::::- When adding a vertex \"v\" to a graph \"L\"(\"G\") for which \"G\" has four or fewer vertices, it might be the case that the line graph representation is not unique. But in this case, the augmented graph is small enough that a representation of it as a line graph can be found by a brute force search in constant time.\n", "The graph of a function is contained in a Cartesian product of sets. An X–Y plane is a cartesian product of two lines, called X and Y, while a cylinder is a cartesian product of a line and a circle, whose height, radius, and angle assign precise locations of the points. Fibre bundles are not Cartesian products, but appear to be up close. There is a corresponding notion of a graph on a fibre bundle called a section.\n\nSection::::Tools for plotting function graphs.\n\nSection::::Tools for plotting function graphs.:Hardware.\n\nBULLET::::- Graphing calculator\n\nBULLET::::- Oscilloscope\n\nSection::::Tools for plotting function graphs.:Software.\n", "The correspondence between dependence and graphs was later extended to directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) and to other models of dependency.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n\nA dependency model \"M\" is a subset of triplets (\"X\",\"Z\",\"Y\") for which the predicate \"I\"(\"X\",\"Z\",\"Y\"): \"X\" is independent of \"Y\" given \"Z\", is true. A graphoid is defined as a dependency model that is closed under the following five axioms:\n\nBULLET::::1. Symmetry: formula_1\n\nBULLET::::2. Decomposition: formula_2\n\nBULLET::::3. Weak Union: formula_3\n\nBULLET::::4. Contraction: formula_4\n\nBULLET::::5. Intersection: formula_5\n", "Here \"z\" is the free variable, while \"x\" and \"y\" are dependent on \"z\". Any point in the solution set can be obtained by first choosing a value for \"z\", and then computing the corresponding values for \"x\" and \"y\".\n", "The parallel composition \"Pc = Pc(X,Y)\" of two TTGs \"X\" and \"Y\" is a TTG created from the disjoint union of graphs \"X\" and \"Y\" by merging the sources of \"X\" and \"Y\" to create the source of \"Pc\" and merging the sinks of \"X\" and \"Y\" to create the sink of \"Pc\".\n", "For example, to draw the solution set of \"x\" + 3\"y\" 9, one first draws the line with equation \"x\" + 3\"y\" = 9 as a dotted line, to indicate that the line is not included in the solution set since the inequality is strict. Then, pick a convenient point not on the line, such as (0,0). Since 0 + 3(0) = 0 9, this point is in the solution set, so the half-plane containing this point (the half-plane \"below\" the line) is the solution set of this linear inequality.\n", "For linear and quadratic functions, the graph of any function can be obtained from the graph of the parent function by simple translations and stretches parallel to the axes. For example, the graph of \"y\" = \"x\" − 4\"x\" + 7 can be obtained from the graph of \"y\" = \"x\" by translating +2 units along the X axis and +3 units along Y axis. This is because the equation can also be written as \"y\" − 3 = (\"x\" − 2).\n", "Section::::Nonplanar graphs.\n\nA directed acyclic graph (regardless of planarity) has a dominance drawing if and only if the partially ordered set of its vertices, ordered by reachability, has order dimension two. The (rotated) dominance drawing of a transitively reduced directed acyclic graph may be used as a Hasse diagram of the corresponding partial order.\n\nSection::::Codominance.\n\nGiven a dominance drawing of a directed acyclic graph \"D\" = (\"V\", \"E\"),\n\ninverting the interpretation of one axis results in a new relation one could call \"coreachability\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00717	What exactly washing kitchen utensils after preparing meat does? It won't remove 100% of bacteria. And if there were any organisms present there would still be some transfer through water tap, etc. I know it helps, but will it really PREVENT an illness if there were harmful bacteria present?	For most bacteria/viruses, the number is very important. For others (noro virus for example) it is pretty much 1 and you are infected. Washing does quite a few things, it removed the food that bacteria can feed on and multiply from consuming. It removed some of the bacteria, and if you are washing in hot water with soap, it will kill most of them. A dish washer with a heated dry cycle for example gets the utensils up to ~200 F, which will kill almost every single bacteria that is infectious to people.	[ "Diagnosis of trichinosis is confirmed by a combination of exposure history, clinical diagnosis, and laboratory testing.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Exposure history.\n\nAn epidemiological investigation can be done to determine a patient's exposure to raw infected meat. Often, an infection arises from home-preparation of contaminated meat, in which case microscopy of the meat may be used to determine the infection. Exposure determination does not have to be directly from a laboratory-confirmed infected animal. Indirect exposure criteria include the consumption of products from a laboratory-confirmed infected animal, or sharing of a common exposure with a laboratory-confirmed infected human.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Clinical diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Removal and treatment.\n\nFecal coliform, like other bacteria, can usually be inhibited in growth by boiling water, treating with chlorine, or UV disinfection. Washing thoroughly with soap after contact with contaminated water can also help prevent infections. Gloves should always be worn when testing for fecal coliform. Municipalities that maintain a public water supply will typically monitor and treat for fecal coliforms. It can also be removed by iodine.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Public health risk monitoring.\n", "BULLET::::- Prevent cross-contamination in the kitchen by using separate cutting boards for foods of animal origin and other foods and by thoroughly cleaning all cutting boards, countertops, and utensils with soap and hot water after preparing raw food of animal origin.\n\nBULLET::::- Do not drink unpasteurized milk or untreated surface water.\n\nBULLET::::- Make sure that people with diarrhea, especially children, wash their hands carefully and frequently with soap to reduce the risk of spreading the infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Wash hands with soap after contact with pet feces.\n\nSection::::Genome.\n", "Section::::Transmission.\n\n\"Balantidium\" is the only ciliated protozoan known to infect humans. Balantidiasis is a zoonotic disease and is acquired by humans via the feco-oral route from the normal host, the pig, where it is asymptomatic. Contaminated water is the most common mechanism of transmission.\n\nSection::::Role in disease.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nBalantidiasis in humans is common in the Philippines, but it can be found anywhere in the world, especially among those that are in close contact with swine. The disease is considered to be rare and occurs in less than 1% of the human population. The disease poses a problem mostly in developing countries, where water sources may be contaminated with swine or human feces.\n", "Other proven prevention methods for \"E. coli\" transmission include handwashing and improved sanitation and drinking water, as transmission occurs through fecal contamination of food and water supplies. Additionally, thoroughly cooking meat and avoiding consumption of raw, unpasteurized beverages, such as juices and milk are other proven methods for preventing \"E.coli\". Lastly, avoid cross-contamination of utensils and work spaces when preparing food.\n\nSection::::Model organism in life science research.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nSome simple food-handling practices can help prevent \"Campylobacter\" infections.\n\nBULLET::::- Cook all poultry products thoroughly. Make sure that the meat is cooked throughout (no longer pink) and any juices run clear. All poultry should be cooked to reach a minimum internal temperature of .\n\nBULLET::::- Wash hands with soap before preparing food.\n\nBULLET::::- Wash hands with soap after handling raw foods of animal origin and before touching anything else.\n", "Foodborne illness usually arises from improper handling, preparation, or food storage. Good hygiene practices before, during, and after food preparation can reduce the chances of contracting an illness. There is a consensus in the public health community that regular hand-washing is one of the most effective defenses against the spread of foodborne illness. The action of monitoring food to ensure that it will not cause foodborne illness is known as food safety. Foodborne disease can also be caused by a large variety of toxins that affect the environment.\n", "BULLET::::- Mechanical removal (i.e., cleaning) using a soap or detergent. To be effective as a hygiene measure, this process must be followed by thorough rinsing under running water to remove pathogens from the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Using a process or product that inactivates the pathogens in situ. Pathogen kill is achieved using a \"micro-biocidal\" product, i.e., a disinfectant or antibacterial product; waterless hand sanitizer; or by application of heat.\n\nBULLET::::- In some cases combined pathogen removal with kill is used, e.g., laundering of clothing and household linens such as towels and bed linen.\n\nSection::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Hand washing.\n", "BULLET::::- If you are not sure of the safety of drinking water, boil it, or disinfect it with chemical disinfectant.\n\nBULLET::::- Wash hands thoroughly and frequently with soap, especially after using the toilet and after contact with pets and farm animals.\n\nBULLET::::- Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly, especially if they are to be eaten raw. Peel fruits and vegetables whenever possible.\n\nBULLET::::- Food handlers, professionals and at home, should observe hygienic rules during food preparation.\n\nBULLET::::- Professional food handlers should immediately report to their employer any fever, diarrhea, vomiting or visible infected skin lesions.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In many countries, restaurants are subject to inspections by health inspectors to maintain standards for public health, such as maintaining proper hygiene and cleanliness. As part of these inspections, cooking and handling practices of ground beef are taken into account to protect against the spread of E coli poisoning. The most common kind of violations of inspection reports are those concerning the storage of cold food at appropriate temperatures, proper sanitation of equipment, regular hand washing and proper disposal of harmful chemicals. Simple steps can be taken to improve sanitation in restaurants. As sickness is easily spread through touch, restaurants are encouraged to regularly wipe down tables, door knobs and menus.\n", "Several bacteria, such as E. coli, Clostridium botulinum, and Salmonella enterica, are well-known and are targeted for elimination via various industrial processes. Though bacteria are often the focus of food safety processes, viruses, protozoa, and molds are also known to cause food-borne illness and are of concern when designing processes to ensure food safety. Although the goal of food safety is to eliminate harmful organisms from food and prevent food-borne illness, detecting said organisms is another important function of food safety mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Food safety.:Monitoring and detection.\n", "Meat preservation as a survival technique dates back to ancient times. Indigenous peoples of Southern Africa, such as the Khoikhoi, preserved meat by slicing it into strips, curing it with salt, and hanging it up to dry. European seafarers preserved meat for their long journeys by curing meat in salt or brine. European settlers (Dutch, German, French) who arrived in southern Africa in the early 17th century used vinegar in the curing process, as well as saltpetre (potassium nitrate). The potassium nitrate in saltpeter kills\" Clostridium botulinum\", the deadly bacterium that causes botulism, while the acidity of the vinegar inhibits its growth. According to the World Health Organization, \"C. botulinum\" will not grow in acidic conditions (pH less than 4.6); therefore the toxin will not be formed in acidic foods. The antimicrobial properties of certain spices have also been drawn upon since ancient times. The spices introduced to biltong by the Dutch include pepper, coriander, and cloves. In January 2017, a research group at the University of Beira Interior in Portugal published a study on the antimicrobial properties of coriander oil (coriander being one of the main spices in the most basic of biltong recipes) against 12 bacterial strains, and found that 10 of the 12 strains of bacteria were killed with a relatively mild concentration of coriander oil (1.6%). In the two strains that were not effectively killed, \"Bacillus cereus\" and \"Enterococcus faecalis\", the coriander oil reduced their growth significantly.\n", "Unsafe and unreliable methods of cooking meat include the use of microwave ovens, curing, drying, and smoking, as these methods are difficult to standardize and control.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Pig farming.\n\nIncidence of infection can be reduced by:\n\nBULLET::::- Keeping pigs in clean pens, with floors that can be washed (such as concrete)\n\nBULLET::::- Not allowing hogs to eat carcasses of other animals, including rats, which may be infected with \"Trichinella\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cleaning meat grinders thoroughly when preparing ground meats\n\nBULLET::::- Control and destruction of meat containing trichinae, e.g., removal and proper disposal of porcine diaphragms prior to public sale of meat\n", "Balantidiasis\n\nBalantidiasis is a protozoan infection caused by infection with \"Balantidium coli\".\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n\nSymptoms can be local due to involvement of the intestinal mucosa, or systemic in nature and include either diarrhea or constipation.\n\nSection::::Transmission.\n\n\"Balantidium\" is the only ciliated protozoan known to infect humans. Balantidiasis is a zoonotic disease and is acquired by humans via the feco-oral route from the normal host, the pig, where it is asymptomatic. “Contaminated water is the most common mechanism of transmission. Equally dangerous, however, is the ingestion of contaminated food.” \n\nSection::::Morphology.\n", "Techniques that help prevent food borne illness in the kitchen are hand washing, rinsing produce, preventing cross-contamination, proper storage, and maintaining cooking temperatures. In general, freezing or refrigerating prevents virtually all bacteria from growing, and heating food sufficiently kills parasites, viruses, and most bacteria. Bacteria grow most rapidly at the range of temperatures between , called the \"danger zone\". Storing food below or above the \"danger zone\" can effectively limit the production of toxins. For storing leftovers, the food must be put in shallow containers\n", "There is a significant amount of evidence supporting the idea that microbial exposure is linked to allergies or other conditions, although scientific disagreement still exists. Since hygiene is difficult to define or measure directly, surrogate markers are used such as socioeconomic status, income, and diet.\n", "Routine cleaning of (hand, food, drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of pathogens. The infection risk from flush toilets is not high, provided they are properly maintained, although some splashing and aerosol formation can occur during flushing, particularly when someone has diarrhea. Pathogens can survive in the scum or scale left behind on baths, showers and wash basins after washing and bathing.\n", "Section::::Types.:Copper alloy surfaces.\n\nCopper-alloy surfaces have intrinsic properties which effectively and quickly destroy microbes and they are being installed in healthcare facilities and in a subway transit system as a protective public health measure in addition to regular cleaning. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has approved the registration of 355 different antibacterial copper alloys that kill \"E. coli\" O157:H7, \"methicillin\"-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (\"MRSA\"), \"Staphylococcus\", \"Enterobacter aerogenes\", and \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The EPA has determined that when cleaned regularly, these copper alloy surfaces:\n\nBULLET::::- Continuously reduce bacterial contamination, achieving 99.9% reduction within two hours of exposure;\n", "In August 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved Phage therapy which involves spraying meat with viruses that infect bacteria, and thus preventing infection. This has raised concerns, because without mandatory labelling consumers would not be aware that meat and poultry products have been treated with the spray.\n\nAt home, prevention mainly consists of good food safety practices. Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented by cooking it sufficiently, and either eating it quickly or refrigerating it effectively. Many toxins, however, are not destroyed by heat treatment.\n", "Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by the Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with \"S. aureus\", with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and \"The Guardian\" found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation also highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses \"filled with pus\".\n\nSection::::Health.:Cooking.\n", "Section::::Water quality standards for bacteria.\n\nSection::::Water quality standards for bacteria.:Drinking water standards.\n\nWorld Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality state that as an indicator organism \"Escherichia coli\" provides conclusive evidence of recent fecal pollution and should \"not\" be present in water meant for human consumption. In the U.S., the EPA \"Total Coliform Rule\" states that a water system is out of compliance if more than 5 percent of its monthly water samples contain coliforms.\n\nSection::::Water quality standards for bacteria.:Recreational standards.\n", "However, bleach is less effective in the presence of organic debris, so a small amount of food residue can be enough to permit survival of, e.g., Salmonella bacteria. Scrubbing followed by soaking in bleach is effective at reducing Salmonella contamination, but even this method does not completely eliminate Salmonella bacteria.\n\nIn hand-washing, plastic brushes with nylon bristles are preferred to washcloths or sponges, which can spread microorganisms. Use of soap or sanitizer is mandatory in washing by hand in public food facilities. \n\nSection::::Traditional dish-washing practice.\n\nSection::::Traditional dish-washing practice.:Indonesia.\n", "\"Fouling\" can harm the overall efficiency of the bioreactor, especially the heat exchangers. To avoid it, the bioreactor must be easily cleaned. Interior surfaces are typically made of stainless steel for easy cleaning and sanitation. Typically bioreactors are cleaned between batches, or are designed to reduce fouling as much as possible when operated continuously. Heat transfer is an important part of bioreactor design; small vessels can be cooled with a cooling jacket, but larger vessels may require coils or an external heat exchanger.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Photobioreactor.\n", "Food safety is a major focus of food microbiology. Numerous agents of disease, pathogens, are readily transmitted via food, including bacteria, and viruses. Microbial toxins are also possible contaminants of food. However, microorganisms and their products can also be used to combat these pathogenic microbes. Probiotic bacteria, including those that produce bacteriocins, can kill and inhibit pathogens. Alternatively, purified bacteriocins such as nisin can be added directly to food products. Finally, bacteriophages, viruses that only infect bacteria, can be used to kill bacterial pathogens. Thorough preparation of food, including proper cooking, eliminates most bacteria and viruses. However, \"toxins produced\" by contaminants may not be liable to change to non-toxic forms by heating or cooking the contaminated food due to other safety conditions.\n" ]	[ "Washing kitchen utensils won't prevent illness because it won't remove 100% of bacteria." ]	[ "Washing kitchen utensils removes most bacteria, and for many viruses, you need a large number of viruses to become infected." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Washing kitchen utensils won't prevent illness because it won't remove 100% of bacteria." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Washing kitchen utensils removes most bacteria, and for many viruses, you need a large number of viruses to become infected." ]
2018-03630	What's the origin of the hand shake?	It was a sign of peace. The handshake showed you that the other person didn't have a weapon in their hands.	[ "The cocktail shaker can be traced to 7000 BCE in prehispanic Mexico and South America, where the jar gourd was used as a closed container. In 1520, Cortés wrote to King Charles V of Spain of a drink made from cacao, served to Montezuma with much reverence, frothy and foaming from a golden cylinder. Egyptians as long ago as 3500 BCE added spices to their fermented grain concoctions before serving to make them more palatable.\n", "By the mid-19th century, the cocktail shaker as we now know it was in wide use, invented by an innkeeper who, while using two containers to pour drinks back and forth between, noticed that one container's mouth was smaller than the other's and held the two together and shook them \"for a bit of a show\". Rapid design advancement occurred during the late 19th century, with several patent improvements occurring during the 1870s and 1880s (see Patent history below), including the addition of integral strainer mechanisms to shakers.\n", "The original cocktail of vodka with seasoned tomato and clam juice made its debut at the Polonaise nightclub in Manhattan in November 1953. The drink was introduced as the \"Smirnoff Smiler\" by owner Paul Pawlowski. In December 1953 columnist Walter Winchell reported that the drink was seasoned with \"a dash of Wooooshhhtasheer Sauce\". \n\nIn 1959, cartoonist and creator of \"The Addams family\", Charles Addams (employed by the New Yorker magazine, a few blocks from the Polonaise nightclub in Manhattan) claimed he invented the \"Gravel Gertie\", a cocktail of clam/tomato juice and vodka seasoned with tobasco sauce. \n", "The Shake (dance)\n\nThe Shake was a fad dance of mid-1960s, characteristic of \"tense jerkiness\" of limbs and head shaking, basically with no particular danced moves or steps. \n", "Another popular theory suggests it evolved from a cocktail called the Martinez served sometime in the early 1860s at the Occidental Hotel in San Francisco, which people frequented before taking an evening ferry to the nearby town of Martinez, California. Alternatively, the people of Martinez say a bartender in their town created the drink, or maybe the drink was named after the town. Indeed, a \"Martinez Cocktail\" was first described in Jerry Thomas' 1887 edition of his \"Bartender's Guide, How to Mix All Kinds of Plain and Fancy Drinks\":\n\nBULLET::::- Take 1 dash of Boker's bitters\n", "Shake hands\n\nShake hands may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Handshake\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shake Hands with the Devil\" (book), a 2003 nonfiction book by Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire, a witness of the Rwandan genocide\n\nBULLET::::- \"\", a 2004 documentary film based on the book\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shake Hands with the Devil\" (2007 film), a Canadian dramatic film based on the book\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shake Hands with Beef\", a single by the band Primus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Let's Shake Hands\", the debut single from the band The White Stripes\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shake Hands Forever\", a 1975 novel by Ruth Rendell in the Inspector Wexford series\n", "In 1962, Carl La Marca, bar manager at the Baker Hotel in Dallas, invented the \"Imperial Clam Digger\", adding a basil garnish and dash of lime to an existing version of the \"Smirnoff Smiler\", called the \"Clam Digger\". \n", "The term handpan first appeared online in the fall of 2007 on the website of an American steelpan producer Pantheon Steel. It was used to describe its own development of a new instrument which was launched as an alternative to the Hang.\n", "In the early 1950s cocktail shakers enjoyed a brief resurgence as soldiers familiar with them returned and became part of the housing boom featuring \"rec rooms\" with bars. By the later part of the decade though, shakers were quickly giving way to modern electric appliances that either added a mixing unit to the shaker's lid or did away with the shaker entirely, with the introduction of the electric blender.\n\nBy the mid-1860s, the use of a pair of tumblers to mix drinks was common practice. The patent history involves improvements on this practice:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Shaken, not stirred\n", "The waving of the hand is a nonverbal gesture that has an unclear origin but is said to have dated back to as far as the 18th century however, it was neither called waving, nor was it used as saying \"hello\", or \"goodbye.\" The original gesture of waving was saluting. In the 18th century, knights removed the guard of their helmets to show their identity, following with a salute to show they come in peace; saluting is also used to show others that they are not armed with weapons and do not pose a threat. The action of saluting wasn't formalised until the 1780s by the European armies, and since then became a common way of properly addressing one another in the military setting. There is also an alternate ASL origin. In the 1800s waving handkerchiefs was a way to show approval, excitement, or to call attention for the deaf, and the Romans, which is known as the \"Chautauqua salute.\" It was recorded during a Canadian event in 1884 that multiple attendees forgot their handkerchief, therefore they waved their hands in the air as a way to clap during the event.\n", "Some historians believe it was originally developed by Maroons, African slaves who escaped into the wilds of Jamaica when the British captured the island from Spain in 1655. Adapting to their new surroundings, the former slaves made use of the natural food sources available to them, creating the spicy sauce and slowly cooking the meat over a smoking wood fire. Other historians argue the case for the practice of jerking originating with the Amerindians in Jamaica from the Arawak and Taino tribes who intermingled with the Maroons.\n", "Shake was used in such films as Peter Jackson's \"The Lord of the Rings\" and \"King Kong\", as well as \"Harry Potter\" films and \"Cloverfield\". It was also used by The Embassy to create a television advertisement for Citroën with a dancing car. Shake was used by Broadway Video for restoring the release of “Saturday Night Live: The Complete First Season” DVD box set. It is also in use by CBS Digital for creating new visual effects for Star Trek Remastered.\n", "In 1941, the era of the cocktail shaker faltered seriously, as the United States entered World War II and all non-essential uses of metal were redirected towards the war effort. The same companies and equipment formerly used to manufacture cocktail shakers were used to make artillery shells and other war materials.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe idea of a stand mixer was formulated by Herbert Johnston, an engineer working at the Hobart Corporation. He had been inspired after seeing a baker mix dough, and thought that there must be a better way of doing the task. In 1914, development began, and soon the model \"H\" mixer was launched for industrial work. The U.S. Navy ordered mixers for two new s, and , as well as the U.S. Navy's first dreadnought battleship, . In 1917, Hobart stand mixers became standard equipment on all U.S. Navy ships, prompting development to begin on the first home models.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"The Air Up There\" (1994), Jimmy Dolan's signature move from his playing days was the \"Jimmy Dolan shake and bake.\"\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Television.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Family Guy\" Season 3, episode 12 - \"To Love and Die in Dixie\" - Lois says she made dinner with Shake 'n Bake, and Stewie replies, \"And I helped!\", echoing a line from the product's commercials.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mano a borsa\" is an Italian gesture, used when something is unclear. It is created by extending all the digits on the hand bringing them together with palms facing up and moving the hand up and down by the action of the wrist and/or elbow. It implies a question, such as \"what do you want?\", \"what are you saying?\" or \"what is your point?\", and it generally requires a response. This gesture can be done with either hand or both hands.\n", "BULLET::::- Early hand gestures in childhood predicts a development for children\n", "Archaeological ruins and ancient texts show that handshaking – also known as dexiosis – was practiced in ancient Greece as far back as the 5th century BC; a depiction of two soldiers shaking hands can be found on part of a 5th-century BC funerary stele on display in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin (stele SK1708) and other funerary steles like the one of the 4th century BC which depicts Thraseas and his wife Euandria handshaking (see images on the right). The handshake is believed by some to have originated as a gesture of peace by demonstrating that the hand holds no weapon. Meanwhile, Muslim scholars tell that custom of handshaking was introduced by the people of Yemen.\n", "Some historians contend that African slaves who worked in the Cuban sugar cane fields during the 19th century were instrumental in the cocktail's origin. Guarapo, the sugar cane juice often used in Mojitos, was a popular drink among the slaves who named it. It never originally contained lime juice.\n", "Various sources have attributed the origin of the handshake, as an ancient sign of bravery and respect, to Lord Baden-Powell's encounter after battle with Prempeh I, or to earlier published works by Ernest Thompson Seton. There exist various versions of the Prempeh story, all centering on African warriors using the left hand to hold their shields and to lower it and shake the left hand of the person was to show they trusted each other.\n", "Its heyday in Europe was from the mid-18th to mid-19th century, when it was commonly played by elaborately dressed black Africans, who made all manner of contortions while playing. Some of these gestures survive today, in the stick twirling by bass and tenor drummers. An aspect of the elaborate costumes survives in the leopard skin apron worn by bass drummers in British military bands; however the use of the \"Jingling Johnny\" was discontinued in the British Army in 1837.\n", "In October, 1968, Seagram president Victor Fischel and Mott's Clamato marketer Ray Anrig claimed to have invented the seasoned tomato/clam/vodka cocktail, the \"Clamdigger\" earlier in 1968, in Manhattan. Seagram, headquartered 2 blocks from the Polonaise nightclub, filed a trademark application on the name \"Clamdigger\" claiming first use on May 31, 1968. From late 1968 to the end of 1969, Seagram and Mott's ran a major advertising promotion of the \"Clam Digger\" cocktail recipe in national magazines. \n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Origins.\n", "Hand mortar\n\nThe hand mortar is a firearm and early predecessor of modern grenade launchers that was used in the late 17th century and 18th century to throw fused grenades. The action was similar to a flintlock, matchlock, or wheellock firearm (depending on the date of production), but the barrel was short, usually 2 inches (5 cm) to 4 inches (10 cm) long (though some are reported to have barrels up to 13 inches (33 cm) long), and had a large bore to accommodate the grenade; usually between 2 and 2.5 inches (5 to 6 cm).\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "The true origin of the Martinez cocktail is unclear. Two early stories attribute the making of a cocktail named the Martinez to bartender Jerry Thomas at the Occidental Hotel or by a bartender by the name of Richelieue who worked at a saloon in Martinez, California. Both stories are difficult to verify because records of drinks at the time are missing or incomplete, but the 1887 edition of Thomas' \"The Bar-Tender's Guide\" includes a recipe for the Martinez. It calls for a pony of Old Tom gin, a glass of vermouth, two dashes of Maraschino, and a dash of bitters with ice, garnished with a slice of lemon. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06728	How does birth control that you stick in your arm work?	It slowly releases the hormone Progestin into the implanted person's system. Progestin thickens cervix mucus (stops sperm) and prevents eggs from being released. It's basically the same thing as taking any Progestin based birth control pill, except the implant does it on its own without the user having to remember to do anything.	[ "Nexplanon/Implanon consists of a single rod made of ethylene vinylacetate copolymer that is 4 cm long and 2mm in diameter. It is similar to a matchstick in size. The rod contains 68 mg of etonogestrel (sometimes called 3-keto-destrogestrel), a type of progestin. Peak serum etonogestrel concentrations have been found to reach 781–894 pg/mL in the first few weeks, gradually decreasing to 192–261 pg/mL after 1 year, 154–194 pg/mL after 2 years, and 156–177 pg/mL after 3 years, maintaining ovulation suppression and contraceptive efficacy. Serum levels maintain relatively stable through 36 months, which implies that the method may be effective for longer than 3 years.\n", "One of the more common forms of contraception that contains only levonorgestral is an IUD. One IUD, the Mirena is a small hollow cylinder containing levonorgestral and polydimethylsiloxane and covered with a release rate controlling membrane.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Emergency birth control.\n", "Etonogestrel birth control implant\n\nEtonogestrel birth control implant, sold under the brand names Nexplanon among others, is a device made up of a single rod containing etonogestrel which is used for birth control. It is one of the most effective forms of birth control with a one-year failure rate around 0.05%. The device is placed under the skin and lasts at least 3 years. Following removal fertility quickly returns.\n", "BULLET::::- RISUG consists of injecting a polymer gel, styrene maleic anhydride in dimethyl sulfoxide, into the vas deferens. The polymer has a positive charge, and when negatively charged sperm pass through the vas deferens, the charge differential severely damages the sperm. A second injection washes out the substance and restores fertility. , RISUG is in Phase III of human testing in India and has been patented in India, China, Bangladesh and the United States. Vasalgel is a brand name of polymer gel injection that is being tested in the United States. Testing on rabbits and primates showed positive results.\n", "The herbal preparation of St John's wort and some enzyme-inducing drugs (e.g. anticonvulsants or rifampicin) may reduce the effectiveness of ECP, and a larger dose may be required, especially in women who weigh more than 165 lbs.\n\nSection::::Intrauterine device.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Electric.\n\nElectrical implants are being used to relieve pain and suffering from rheumatoid arthritis. The electric implant is embedded in the neck of patients with rheumatoid arthritics, the implant sends electrical signals to electrodes in the vagus nerve. The application of this device is being tested an alternative to medicating sufferers of rheumatoid arthritis for their lifetime.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Contraception.\n\nContraceptive implants are primarily used to prevent unintended pregnancy and treat conditions such as non-pathological forms of menorrhagia. Examples include copper- and hormone-based intrauterine devices.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cosmetic.\n", "The antiprogestin ulipristal acetate is available as a micronized emergency contraceptive tablet, effective up to 120 hours after intercourse. Ulipristal acetate ECPs developed by HRA Pharma are available over the counter in Europe and by prescription in over 50 countries under the brand names \"ellaOne\", \"ella\" (marketed by Watson Pharmaceuticals in the United States), \"Duprisal 30\", \"Ulipristal 30\", and \"UPRIS\".\n", "A number of methods to perform sterilization via the cervix are being studied. One involves putting quinacrine in the uterus which causes scarring and infertility. While the procedure is inexpensive and does not require surgical skills, there are concerns regarding long-term side effects. Another substance, polidocanol, which functions in the same manner is being looked at. A device called Essure, which expands when placed in the fallopian tubes and blocks them, was approved in the United States in 2002.\n\nSection::::Research directions.:Males.\n", "BULLET::::- 75 µg gestodene (UK: Femodette, Bayer; RU: Logest, Bayer; Brazil: Femiane, Bayer)\n\nBULLET::::- 3000 µg drospirenone: 24 days + 4 days placebo (US, EU, RU: Yaz; Bayer Schering Pharma AG. Cleonita); 21 days + 7 days placebo (US, EU: , Bayer); 24 days + 4 days placebo and levomefolate calcium (US: Beyaz; Bayer)\n\nBULLET::::- 30 µg ethinylestradiol\n\nBULLET::::- 1500 µg norethisterone acetate (UK: Loestrin 30, Galen; US: Loestrin 1.5/30, Duramed; Microgestin 1.5/30, Watson; Junel 1.5/30, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 300 µg norgestrel (US: Lo/Ovral, Wyeth; Low-Ogestrel, Watson; Cryselle, Barr)\n", "Section::::Female.:Human chorionic gonadotropin.\n\nHuman chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), also known as the “hormone of pregnancy” is a hormone that is normally produced during pregnancy and plays an integral role throughout reproduction.\n\nIt is crucial in maintaining pregnancy, from the stages of placentation through to early embryo development. hCG is also used in assisted reproductive techniques as it can be used to replace Luteinizing Hormone (LH) in final maturation induction.\n\nSection::::Male.\n\nThere currently are no effective medications to treat oligospermia, so other assisted reproductive technologies are used.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe possibility of the subdermal contraceptive implant began when silicone was discovered in the 1940s and found to be bio-compatible with the human body.\n\nIn 1964, Folkman and Long published the first study demonstrating that such a rod could be used to deliver drugs.\n", "Cervical dilation may be induced mechanically by placing devices inside the cervix that will expand while in place. A balloon catheter may be used. Other products include laminaria stick (made of dried seaweed) or synthetic hygroscopic materials, which expand when placed in a moist environment.\n\nSection::::In hysteroscopy.\n", "A full list of contraindications can be found in the WHO \"Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use 2009\" and the CDC \"United States Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use 2010\"\n\nSection::::Device description.\n", "Common side effects when given by injection include pain at the site of injection and altered taste. Severe allergic reactions may occur when it is injected into a vein or muscle. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe; however, use is likely okay during breastfeeding. It works by supplying a required component for making a number of blood clotting factors. Found sources include green vegetables, vegetable oil, and some fruit.\n", "Although there is variability in the response to estrus synchronization, studies show consistently high pregnancy rates following Fixed Time Artificial Insemination with CIDR synchronization of ovarian follicle development.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Oestrus synchronization.:Sheep and goats.\n", "Section::::Composition and hormonal release.\n\nThe hormonal IUD is a small 'T'-shaped piece of plastic, which contains levonorgestrel, a type of progestin.\n\nThe cylinder of the device is coated with a membrane that regulates the release of the drug.\n\nMirena releases the drug at an initial rate of 20 micrograms per day. This declines to a rate of 14 micrograms per day after five years, which is still in the range of clinical effectiveness.\n\nSkyla releases 14 micrograms per day and declines to five micrograms per day after three years.\n", "The effectiveness trial of Lea's Shield was too small to determine method effectiveness. The actual pregnancy rate was 15% per year. Of the women in the trial, 85% were parous (had given birth). The study authors estimate that for nulliparous women (those who have never given birth) the pregnancy rate in typical use may be lower, around 5% per year.\n\nSection::::Medical use.:Compared to other barrier methods.\n", "BULLET::::- control of conception,\n\nand which does not achieve its principal intended action in or on the human body by pharmacological, immunological or metabolic means, but which may be assisted in its function by such means;\"\n\nSection::::Definitions by Region.:European Union.:Legal framework.\n", "Section::::Types.:Intravasal control valve (ICV).\n\nAn intravasal control valve is a reversible valve implanted in the vas deferens with the ability to either inhibit or permit sperm passage depending on the position of the device. Bionyx has developed a T-shaped intravasal control valve composed of gold and stainless steel for use in humans. Through rotation, a perforated ball within the T can be used to obstruct sperm flow or allow sperm flow. Skilled microsurgery is required for the ICV implant.\n\nSection::::Types.:Chemosterilization.\n", "Yuzpe regimen\n\nThe Yuzpe regimen is a method of emergency contraception that uses a combination of ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel. It is less effective and less commonly used than a larger dose of levonorgestrel alone, a dose of ulipristal acetate, or insertion of a copper intrauterine device. It is designed to be used within 72 hours of unprotected sexual intercourse because it works by inhibiting ovulation.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nIUDs primarily work by preventing fertilization. The progestogen released from hormonal IUDs mainly works by thickening the cervical mucus, preventing sperm from reaching the fallopian tubes. IUDs may also function by preventing ovulation from occurring but this only occurs partially.\n", "BULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel (UK: Ovranette, Wyeth; Microgynon 30, Microgynon 30 ED, Bayer; US: Nordette, Duramed, Levora, Watson, Portia, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: 21 day cycle + 7 days no pills (Canada: Min-Ovral 21; EU: Ovoplex 150/30; Sweden: , )\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: 21 day cycle + 7 days placebo (Canada: Min-Ovral 28; Sweden: ; RU: Rigevidon 21+7, Richter Gedeon)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: extended cycle: 84 days + 7 days placebo (US: Seasonale, Duramed; Quasense, Watson; Jolessa, Barr, Introvale)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: extended cycle: 84 days + 7 days 10 µg ethinylestradiol only (US: Seasonique, Duramed; Camrese, Teva; Amethia, Watson)\n", "BULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/500 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/750 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg (UK: TriNovum, Janssen-Cilag; US: Ortho-Novum 7/7/7, Ortho-McNeil; Necon 7/7/7, Watson; Nortrel 7/7/7, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norgestimate combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/180 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/215 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/250 µg followed by 7 placebos (Ortho Tri-Cyclen, Ortho-McNeil; TriNessa, Watson; Tri-Sprintec, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 35 µg ethinylestradiol: biphasic\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone combination with 10 tablets 35 µg/500 µg, 11 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg, followed by 7 placebos (US: Ortho-Novum 10/11, Ortho-McNeil; Necon 10/11, Watson)\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/500 µg, 14 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg (UK: BiNovum, Janssen-Cilag)\n\nBULLET::::- 3/2/1 mg estradiol valerate: estrophasic\n", "Methods of male birth control include condoms, vasectomies and withdrawal. Between 25 and 75% of males who are sexually active would use hormonal birth control if it was available for them. A number of hormonal and non-hormonal methods are in trials, and there is some research looking at the possibility of contraceptive vaccines.\n", "Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with a spermicide. Like diaphragms, they are inserted vaginally before intercourse and must be placed over the cervix to be effective. Typical failure rates during the first year depend on whether or not a woman has previously given birth, being 24% in those who have and 12% in those who have not. The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward. Allergic reactions and more severe adverse effects such as toxic shock syndrome have been reported.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Intrauterine devices.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24035	How does slang create itself and become popularized in a society?	I would go with Mob mentality/proximity on this one. If someone you hang out with often used the word "rad" all the time, it's very likely you'll start using it too. Slang is no different.	[ "Slang terms are often known only within a clique or ingroup. For example, Leet (\"Leetspeak\" or \"1337\") was originally popular only among certain Internet subcultures, such as software crackers and online video gamers. During the 1990s, and into the early 21st century, however, Leet became increasingly more commonplace on the Internet, and it has spread outside Internet-based communication and into spoken languages. Other types of slang include SMS language used on mobile phones, and \"chatspeak\", (e.g., \"LOL\", an acronym meaning \"laughing out loud\" or \"laugh out loud\" or ROFL, \"rolling on the floor laughing\"), which are widely used in instant messaging on the Internet.\n", "Slang is often taken from social media as a sign of social awareness and shared knowledge of popular culture. This particular branch of slang has become more prevalent since the early 2000s as a result of the rise in popularity of social networking services, including Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. This has created new vocabularies associated with each new social media venue, such as the use of the term “friending” on Facebook, which is a verbification of “friend” used to describe the process of adding a new person to one's list of friends on the website, despite the existence of an analogous term “befriend“. This term is much older than Facebook, but has only recently entered the popular lexicon. Other examples of the slang found in social media include a general trend toward shortened words or acronyms. These are especially associated with services such as Twitter, which now has a 280 character limit for each message and therefore requires a briefer, more condensed manner of communication. This includes the use of hashtags which explicitly state the main content of a message or image, such as #food or #photography.\n", "In terms of higher order indexicality, anyone using these terms may desire to appear fresher, undoubtedly more playful, faddish, and colourful than someone who employs the standard English term \"beautiful\". This appearance relies heavily on the hearer's third-order understanding of the term's associated social nuances and presupposed use-cases.\n\nSection::::Social implications.:Subculture associations.\n\nOften, distinct subcultures will create slang that members will use in order to associate themselves with the group, or to delineate outsiders.\n", "The Internet has helped people from all over the world to become connected to one another, enabling \"global\" relationships to be formed. As such, it is important for the various types of slang used online to be recognizable for everyone. It is also important to do so because of how other languages are quickly catching up with English on the Internet, following the increase in Internet usage in predominantly non-English speaking countries. In fact, as of May 31, 2011, only approximately 27% of the online population is made up of English speakers.\n", "Frequently used slang also have become conventionalised into memetic \"unit[s] of cultural information\". These memes in turn are further spread through their use on the Internet, prominently through websites. The Internet as an \"information superhighway\" is also catalysed through slang. The evolution of slang has also created a 'slang union' as part of a unique, specialised subculture. Such impacts are, however, limited and requires further discussion especially from the non-English world. This is because Internet slang is prevalent in languages more actively used on the Internet, like English, which is the Internet's lingua franca.\n\nSection::::Around the world.\n", "Coleman also suggests that slang is differentiated within more general semantic change in that it typically has to do with a certain degree of “playfulness\". The development of slang is considered to be a largely “spontaneous, lively, and creative” speech process.\n", "The dating of slang words and phrases is difficult due to the nature of slang. Slang, more than any other language, remains spoken and resists being recorded on paper (or for that matter any other medium). By the time slang has been written down, it has been in use some time and has, in some cases, become almost mainstream.\n", "Eric Partridge, cited as the first to report on the phenomenon of slang in a systematic and linguistic way, postulated that a term would likely be in circulation for a decade before it would be written down. Nevertheless, it seems that slang generally forms via deviation from a standard form. This \"spawning\" of slang occurs in much the same way that any general semantic change might occur. The difference here is that the slang term's new meaning takes on a specific social significance having to do with the group the term indexes.\n", "Internet slang provides a channel which facilitates and constrains our ability to communicate in ways that are fundamentally different from those found in other semiotic situations. Many of the expectations and practices which we associate with spoken and written language are no longer applicable. The Internet itself is ideal for new slang to emerge because of the richness of the medium and the availability of information. Slang is also thus motivated for the \"creation and sustenance of online communities\". These communities, in turn, play a role in solidarity or identification or an exclusive or common cause.\n", "Although Internet slang began as a means of \"opposition\" to mainstream language, its popularity with today's globalized digitally literate population has shifted it into a part of everyday language, where it also leaves a profound impact.\n", "Words and phrases from popular Hollywood films and television series frequently become slang.\n\nSection::::Social implications.\n\nSection::::Social implications.:Indexicality.\n", "It is often difficult to collect etymologies for slang terms, largely because slang is a phenomenon of speech, rather than written language and etymologies which are typically traced via corpus.\n", "Section::::Defining slang.\n\nLinguists have no simple and clear definition of slang, but agree that it is a constantly changing linguistic phenomenon present in every subculture worldwide. Some argue that slang exists because we must come up with ways to define new experiences that have surfaced with time and modernity. Attempting to remedy the lack of a clear definition, however, Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter argue that an expression should be considered \"true slang\" if it meets at least two of the following criteria:\n", "As subcultures are also often forms of counterculture and counterculture itself can be defined as going against a standard, it follows that slang has come to be associated with counterculture.\n\nSection::::Social implications.:Social media and Internet slang.\n", "While colloquialisms and jargon may seem like slang because they reference a particular group, they do not necessarily fit the same definition, because they do not represent a particular effort to replace the general lexicon of a standard language. Colloquialisms are considered more acceptable and more expected in standard usage than slang is, and jargon is often created to talk about aspects of a particular field that are not accounted for in the general lexicon. However, this differentiation is not consistently applied by linguists; the terms \"slang\" and \"jargon\" are sometimes treated as synonymous, and the scope of \"jargon\" is at times extended to mean all forms of socially-restricted language.\n", "The use of internet slangs is not limited to the English language but extends to other languages as well. The Korean language has incorporated the English alphabet in the formation of its slang, while others were formed from common misspellings arising from fast typing. The new Korean slang is further reinforced and brought into everyday language use by television shows such as soap operas or comedy dramas like “High Kick Through the Roof” released in 2009.\n\nSection::::Linguistic future of the Internet.\n", "In its earliest attested use (1756), the word \"slang\" referred to the vocabulary of \"low\" or \"disreputable\" people. By the early nineteenth century, it was no longer exclusively associated with disreputable people, but continued to be applied to usages below the level of standard educated speech. The origin of the word is uncertain, although it appears to be connected with thieves' cant. A Scandinavian origin has been proposed (compare, for example, Norwegian \"slengenavn\", which means \"nickname\"), but based on \"date and early associations\" is discounted by the Oxford English Dictionary. Jonathan Green, however, agrees with the possibility of a Scandinavian origin, suggesting the same root as that of \"sling\", which means \"to throw\", and noting that slang is thrown language – a quick, honest way to make your point.\n", "The first recorded uses of slang in Britain occurred in the 16th century in the plays of Thomas Dekker, Thomas Middleton and William Shakespeare. The first books containing slang also appeared around that time: Robert Copland's \"The hye way to the Spytlell hous\" was a dialogue in verse between Copland and the porter of St Bartholomew's Hospital, which included Thieves' Cant; and in 1566, Thomas Harman's \"A Caveat or Warning for Common Cursitors, vulgarly called vagabonds\" was published. The \"Caveat\" contained stories of vagabond life, a description of their society and techniques, a taxonomy of rogues, and a short canting dictionary which was later reproduced in other works.\n", "Michael Adams remarks that, \"[Slang] is language... it is often impossible to tell, even in context, which interests and motives it serves... slang is on the edge.\" Slang dictionaries, collecting thousands of slang entries, offer a broad, empirical window into the motivating forces behind slang\".\n", "In scholarly research, attention has, for example, been drawn to the effect of the use of Internet slang in ethnography, and more importantly to how conversational relationships online change structurally because slang is used.\n", "Slang can infiltrate almost any element of daily life. For instance, London slang about money is believed to have been imported from India by returning servicemen during the nineteenth century. The terms \"\", meaning £500, and \"\", meaning £25, are believed by some to have come from old Indian rupee banknotes, which it is asserted used to feature images of those animals. Banknotes with such denominations were issued by Bank of Bengal, Bank of Bombay and Bank of Madras and some other private banks between 1810 and 1860.\n", "Still, while a great deal of slang takes off, even becoming accepted into the standard lexicon, much slang dies out, sometimes only referencing a group. An example of this is the term \"groovy\" which is a relic of 1960's and 70's American \"hippy\" slang. Nevertheless, for a slang term to become a slang term, people must use it, at some point in time, as a way to flout standard language. Additionally, slang terms may be borrowed between groups, such as the term \"gig\" which was originally coined by jazz musicians in the 1930s and then borrowed into the same hippy slang of the 1960s. 'The word \"groovy\" has remained a part of subculture lexicon since its popularization. It is still in common use today by a significant population. The word \"gig\" to refer to a performance very likely originated well before the 1930s, and remained a common term throughout the 1940s and 1950s before becoming a vaguely associated with the \"hippy slang of the 1960s\". The word \"gig\" is now a widely accepted synonym for a concert, recital, or performance of any type. \"Hippy\" is more commonly spelled \"hippie\".\n", "Section::::Views on Internet slang.\n\nThere have been ongoing debates about how the use of slang on the Internet influences language usage outside of technology. Even though the direct causal relationship between the Internet and language has yet to be proven by any scientific research, Internet slang has invited split views on its influence on the standard of language use in non-computer-mediated communications.\n", "British slang is English language slang used and originating in the United Kingdom and also used to a limited extent in Anglophone countries such as the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, especially by British expats. It is also used in the United States to a limited extent. Slang is informal language sometimes peculiar to a particular social class or group and its use in Britain dates back to before the 16th century. The language of slang, in common with the English language, is changing all the time; new words and phrases are being added and some are used so frequently by so many, they almost become mainstream.\n", "Slang is usually associated with a particular group and plays a role in constructing our identities. While slang outlines social space, attitudes about slang partly construct group identity and identify individuals as members of groups. Therefore, using the slang of a particular group will associate an individual with that group. Using Silverstein's notion of different orders of indexicality, it can be said that a slang term can be a second-order index to this particular group. Employing a slang term, however, can also give an individual the qualities associated with the term's group of origin, whether or not the individual is actually trying to identify as a member of the group. This allocation of qualities based on abstract group association is known as third-order indexicality.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00540	How do things catch fire without flame I.e just from heat?	> How do things catch fire without flame I.e just from heat? The only reason a flame can set other things on fire is because of the heat it generates. So the reality is that the only way to catch things on fire (ignoring unusual chemical reactions) is from heat, and other flames just happen to be one way to provide the necessary heat. Also, ask your wife how you can light a match by striking it on a matchbook if it takes a flame to set things on fire.	[ "In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Flame temperatures.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Flame temperatures.:Temperatures of flames by appearance.\n", "BULLET::::- Linseed oil and Danish oil in a confined space (such as a pile of oil-soaked rags left out in an uncovered container, especially if rags afterward used with anti-moisture solvent to clean up the oil) can oxidize leading to a buildup of heat and thus ignition.\n\nBULLET::::- Coal can ignite spontaneously when exposed to oxygen, which causes it to react and heat up when there is insufficient ventilation for cooling.\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrite oxidation is often the cause of coal spontaneous ignition in old mine tailings.\n", "Fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion (fire) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contains partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from combustion of either fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or from renewable fuels such as firewood, is harvested for diverse uses such as cooking, production of electricity or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy (incinerate) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous.\n", "Section::::Temperature.:Cool flames.\n\nAt temperatures as low as , fuel-air mixtures can react chemically and produce very weak flames called cool flames. The phenomenon was discovered by Humphry Davy in 1817. The process depends on a fine balance of temperature and concentration of the reacting mixture, and if conditions are right it can initiate without any external ignition source. Cyclical variations in the balance of chemicals, particularly of intermediate products in the reaction, give oscillations in the flame, with a typical temperature variation of about , or between \"cool\" and full ignition. Sometimes the variation can lead to an explosion.\n", "Section::::Fuels.:Solid fuels.\n\nThe act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:\n\nBULLET::::- Preheating phase, when the unburned fuel is heated up to its flash point and then fire point. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to dry distillation.\n\nBULLET::::- Distillation phase or gaseous phase, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light. Flames are often visible. Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.\n", "Charcoal, when freshly prepared, can self-heat and catch fire. This is separate from hot spots which may have developed from the preparation of charcoal. Charcoal that has been exposed to air for a period of eight days is not considered to be hazardous. There are many factors involved, two being the type of wood and the temperature at which the charcoal was prepared.\n\nSection::::Affected materials.:Coal.\n", "Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.\n", "This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made. But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire, with measures of it kindling, and measures going out. \n", "Fossil record of fire\n\nSection::::Fossil evidence.\n\nThe fossil evidence of fire comes mainly from charcoal. The earliest charcoal dates to the Silurian period. Charcoal results from organic matter exposed to high temperatures, which drives off volatile elements and leaves a carbon residue. Charcoal differs from coal, which is the fossilised remains of living plants and burns to leave soot.\n", "The \"Rudiger roll friction fire method\", also known as the \"fire roll\" method, is believed to have been invented by World War 2 POWs. A German survival expert named Rüdiger Nehberg wrote about this method in one of his books. A small amount of wood ash is rolled up inside of cotton like a cigar. The cotton is then placed between two boards and rolled back and forth. Pressure and speed are both gradually increased. With proper technique ignition can occur in seconds.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Percussion.\n", "Reaction is initiated by an activating energy, in most cases, it is heat. Several examples include friction, as in case of matches, heating an electrical wire, a flame (propagation of fire), or a spark (from a lighter or from any starting electrical device). There are also many other ways to bring sufficient activation energy including electricity, radiation, and pressure, all of which will lead to a temperature rise. In most cases, heat production enables self-sustainability of the reaction, and enables a chain reaction to grow. The temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor to get a flammable mix with self-sustainable combustion is called its flash-point.\n", "The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame of standard dimension. At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Most tables of material properties will only list material flash points. Although in general the fire points can be assumed to be about 10 °C higher than the flash points, although this is no substitute for testing if the fire point is safety critical. \n", "Smouldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smouldering reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers (including polyurethane foam) and dust. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of wildfires.\n\nSection::::Types.:Rapid.\n", "Non-combustible material – A non-combustible material is a substance that will not ignite, burn, support combustion, or release flammable vapors when subject to fire or heat, in the form in which it is used and under conditions anticipated. Any solid substance complying with either of two sets of passing criteria listed in Section 8 of ASTM E 136 when the substance is tested in accordance with the procedure specified in ASTM E 136 is considered to be non-combustible.\n\n1. Passing Criteria #1:\n\na. Weight loss of the specimen cannot exceed 50%.\n", "Section::::Thermonuclear flames.\n\nFlames do not need to be driven only by chemical energy release. In stars, subsonic burning fronts driven by burning light nuclei (like carbon or helium) to heavy nuclei (up to iron group) propagate as flames. This is important in some models of Type Ia supernovae. In thermonuclear\n\nflames, thermal conduction dominates over species diffusion, so the flame speed and thickness is determined by the thermonuclear energy release\n\nand thermal conductivity (often in the form of degenerate electrons).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Combustion\n\nBULLET::::- Flame detector\n\nBULLET::::- Flame test\n\nBULLET::::- International Flame Research Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Oxidizing and reducing flames\n", "The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called \"clinker\" if its melting point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and \"ash\" if its melting point is above the flame temperature.\n\nSection::::Protection and prevention.\n\nWildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as \"wildland fire use\" and \"prescribed or controlled burns\". \"Wildland fire use\" refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. \"Controlled burns\" are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.\n", "Section::::Polymer combustion.:General mechanistic scheme.\n\nTraditional polymers decompose under heat and produce combustible products; thus, they are able to originate and easily propagate fire (as shown in Figure 1).\n\nThe combustion process begins when heating a polymer yields volatile products. If these products are sufficiently concentrated, within the flammability limits, and at a temperature above the ignition temperature, then combustion proceeds. As long as the heat supplied to the polymer remains sufficient to sustain its thermal decomposition at a rate exceeding that required to feed the flame, combustion will continue.\n\nSection::::Polymer combustion.:Purpose and methods of fire-retardant systems.\n", "BULLET::::2. The heat is unable to escape (hay, straw, peat, etc. are good thermal insulators), and the temperature of the material rises.\n\nBULLET::::3. The temperature of the material rises above its ignition point (even though much of the bacteria are destroyed by ignition temperatures).\n\nBULLET::::4. Combustion begins if sufficient oxidizer, such as oxygen, and fuel are present to maintain the reaction into thermal run-away.\n\nSection::::Affected materials.\n\nBULLET::::- Haypiles and compost piles may self-ignite because of heat produced by bacterial fermentation.\n", "The process may begin with microbiological activity (bacteria or mold), but at some point, the process has to become chemical. Microbiological activity will also limit the amount of oxygen available in the hay. Moisture appears to be quite important, no matter what process. At 100 °C, wet hay absorbed twice the amount of oxygen of dry hay. There has been conjecture that the complex carbohydrates present in hay break down to simpler sugars, which are more readily oxidized.\n\nSection::::Affected materials.:Charcoal.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion in a fire produces a flame, and the heat produced can make combustion self-sustaining. Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood and coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that incandescent light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction commonly used to fuel rocket engines. This reaction releases 242 kJ/mol of heat and reduces the enthalpy accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):\n", "BULLET::::- Charcoal phase or solid phase, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for persistent presence of flame and the charred fuel does not burn rapidly and just glows and later only smoulders.\n\nSection::::Combustion management.\n", "In order for a positive identification of a fire accelerant to occur both field work and laboratory analysis must take place. This is because when a fire accelerant is used only ignitable liquid residues (ILRs) remain at the scene. It is the chemist's job to identify these ILRs and the investigators job to determine if they were used as fire accelerants or just present at the scene under normal circumstances.\n\nSection::::Fire accelerant vs. ignitable liquid.\n", "Many accelerants are hydrocarbon-based fuels, sometimes referred to as petroleum distillates: gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, turpentine, butane, and various other flammable solvents. These accelerants are also known as ignitable liquids. Ignitable liquids can leave behind tell-tale marks in the fire debris. These irregular burn patterns can indicate the presence of an ignitable liquid in a fire.\n", "It is common for the words fire accelerant and ignitable liquid to be used synonymously. It is important to understand that an ignitable liquid is a liquid that will readily ignite when exposed to an ignition source, while a fire accelerant is a material that is used to increase the rate of combustion for materials that do not readily burn.\n\nIgnitable liquids are not always fire accelerants, they may just be present at the scene under normal circumstances. \n" ]	[ "Flame is what causes things to catch fire.", "Things can catch on fire without flames. " ]	[ "Flame isn't required to start a fire. Fire can start spotaneously due to heat.", "Things can catch on fire with flames." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Flame is what causes things to catch fire.", "Things can catch on fire without flames. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Flame isn't required to start a fire. Fire can start spotaneously due to heat.", "Things can catch on fire with flames." ]
2018-11950	What causes the image to show a stretching/warped effect in video when the camera tilts (example in link)?	The camera used to make that video is crap. Crappy cameras don't make accurate recordings of reality. Inaccurate recordings typically involve visual distortion either in size, shape, color, pattern, or movement. As to the specific cause for that camera, I can't say for sure. Keep in mind that this video is also stabilized which throws another variable into the problem. I don't think your question has an objective answer because it represents a perfect storm of bad or broken technology, an abysmal camera operator, post-shot image stabilization, and potential compression/jpeg-ification/issues.	[ "When the camera back is parallel to a planar subject (such as the front of a building), all points in the subject are at the same distance from the camera, and are recorded at the same magnification. The shape of the subject is recorded without distortion. When the image plane is not parallel to the subject, as when pointing the camera up at a tall building, parts of the subject are at varying distances from the camera; the more distant parts are recorded at lesser magnification, causing the convergence of parallel lines. Because the subject is at an angle to the camera, it is also foreshortened.\n", "Despite the differences, for a scene that includes relatively little height, lens tilt can produce a result similar to that of a miniature scene, especially if the image is taken from above at a moderate angle to the ground. For a completely flat surface, the effect using tilt would be almost the same as that with a regular lens: the region of focus would be sharp, with progressive blurring toward the top or bottom of the image. The image of Jodhpur was made from such a scene; although the blurring was accomplished with digital postprocessing, a similar result could have been obtained using tilt.\n", "Though probably less common, similar difficulties arise if an object has significant extent along the line of sight, such as a long train receding from view, again photographed at a small angle to the ground, because parts of the train that are obviously at considerably different distances from the camera are rendered equally sharp.\n\nWith a view camera, tilt can usually be set with movements built into the camera; with a small- or medium-format camera, a tilt/shift lens or adapter is usually required.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Digital postprocessing.\n", "BULLET::::- Tilt-Coordination Remnant: For sustained specific force input in sway or surge, the simulator will achieve a steady-state pitch or roll angle because of tilt-coordination. If the input ends abruptly, then the highpass specific force response will initially cancel out the specific force associated with the tilt, but only for a brief time before the restricted simulator displacement prohibits translational acceleration of the simulator. If the tilt is removed quickly, then a tilt-coordination angular rate false cue will occur; if not, the remaining tilt will create a sensation of acceleration, called a tilt-coordination remnant false cue.\n", "When projecting images onto a completely flat screen, the distance light has to travel from its point of origin (i.e., the projector) increases the farther away the destination point is from the screen's center. This variance in the distance traveled results in a distortion phenomenon known as the pincushion effect, where the image at the left and right edges of the screen becomes bowed inwards and stretched vertically, making the entire image appear blurry.\n", "Tilting can be used as a reveal as in tilting up from seeing the murder victim, to the weapon, to the identity of the killer. It can also be an establishing shot, tilting down from a tall landmark to the characters or as in \"\" opening, tilting down from the stars, to the arc of the planet.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" uses tilt-shift photography in its opening credits sequence.\n\nBULLET::::- The 2019 remake of \"\" for the Nintendo Switch will utilize a tilt-shift graphical effect.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Gogel, W. C. 1969. The effect of object familiarity on the perception of size and distance. \"Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology\", 21\n\nBULLET::::- Merklinger, Harold M. 1996. \"Focusing the View Camera\". Bedford, Nova Scotia: Seaboard Printing Limited. . Available for download (PDF).\n", "Section::::Camera movements.\n\nTilt and swing are movements available on most view cameras, often on both the front and rear standards, and on some small- and medium format cameras using special lenses that partially emulate view-camera movements. Such lenses are often called tilt-shift or \"perspective control\" lenses. For some camera models there are adapters that enable movements with some of the manufacturer’s regular lenses, and a crude approximation may be achieved with such attachments as the 'Lensbaby' or by 'freelensing'.\n\nSection::::Depth of field.\n", "The \"2:3 pulldown\" telecine process creates a slight error in the video signal compared to the original film frames that can be seen in the above image. This is one reason why films viewed on typical NTSC home equipment may not appear as smooth as when viewed in a cinema and PAL home equipments. The phenomenon is particularly apparent during slow, steady camera movements which appear slightly jerky when telecined. This process is commonly referred to as telecine judder. Reversing the 2:3 pulldown telecine is discussed below.\n", "BULLET::::- make all parallel lines (such as four horizontal edges of a cubic room) cross in one point.\n\nPerspective projection distortion occurs in photographs when the film plane is not parallel to lines that are required to be parallel in the photo. A common case is when a photo is taken of a tall building from ground level by tilting the camera backwards: the building appears to fall away from the camera.\n\nIn the two images shown to the right, the first suffers from perspective distortion — in the second that distortion has been corrected.\n", "To compensate for camera shake in shooting video while walking, Panasonic introduced Power Hybrid OIS+ with five-axis correction: axis rotation, horizontal rotation, vertical rotation, horizontal and vertical.\n", "In cinematography, perspective distortion also has bearing on the in-camera special effect known as the dolly zoom, in which a zoom lens zooms out at the same time as the camera moves toward the subject, in such a way as to keep the subject the same size in the frame while the background \"changes size\" relative to the subject. This effect was made popular in the films \"Vertigo\" and \"Jaws\". Another example of this can be seen in the first \"\" film, just before the Black Rider comes down the road. The dolly zoom is used to create a compression effect in the road.\n", "It is to correct perspective using a general projective transformation tool, correcting vertical tilt (converging verticals) by stretching out the top; this is the \"Distort Transform\" in Photoshop, and the \"perspective tool\" in GIMP. However, this introduces vertical distortion – objects appear squat (vertically compressed, horizontally extended) – unless the vertical dimension is also stretched. This effect is minor for small angles, and can be corrected by hand, manually stretching the vertical dimension until the proportions look right, but is automatically done by specialized perspective transform tools.\n", "The ability to correct horizontal keystone distortion is generally only available on larger or professional level projectors. In most consumer units, this is easily corrected by moving the projector left or right as necessary, or less often by lens shifting, with similar principles as Tilt–shift photography.\n\nSection::::Correction.:Functionality.\n", "In photography, distortion is particularly associated with zoom lenses, particularly large-range zooms, but may also be found in prime lenses, and depends on focal distance – for example, the Canon EF 50mm 1.4 exhibits barrel distortion at extremely short focal distances. Barrel distortion may be found in wide-angle lenses, and is often seen at the wide-angle end of zoom lenses, while pincushion distortion is often seen in older or low-end telephoto lenses. Mustache distortion is observed particularly on the wide end of zooms, with certain retrofocus lenses, and more recently on large-range zooms such as the Nikon 18–200 mm.\n", "A tilting Point-of-view shot expresses either attention or head motion. Attention might convey a potential love interest with \"elevator eyes\" or concern with sizing up an opponent. Head motion could show a nodding \"yes\". Combining tilt with camera position could show a face plant or tipping over backwards. \n\nMinor tilting is used for reframing to maintain headroom.\n\nExtreme tilting would follow the subject past the zenith or nadir to a full 180 degrees, starting or ending with an inverted view of the world.\n", "Section::::Chubb contrast effect.\n", "Section::::F.:Field of View.\n\nThe maximum angle of view that can be seen through a lens.\n\nSection::::F.:Flutter.\n\nA rapid variation in the pitch or of a recorded audio signal usually on a turntable or tape recording, caused by variations in the speed of the turntable or tape drive.\n\nSection::::F.:Focal Length (of a lens).\n", "With a PC lens, the camera back can be kept parallel to the subject while the lens is moved to achieve the desired positioning of the subject in the image area. All points in the subject remain at the same distance from the camera, and the subject shape is preserved. If desired, the camera back can be rotated away from parallel to the subject, to allow some convergence of parallel lines or even to increase the convergence. Again, the position of the subject in the image area is adjusted by moving the lens.\n\nSection::::Perspective-control lenses.:Available lenses.\n", "Outside photography, extension distortion is familiar to many through side-view mirrors (see \"objects in mirror are closer than they appear\") and peepholes, though these often use a fisheye lens, exhibiting different distortion. Compression distortion is most familiar in looking through binoculars or telescopes, as in telescopic sights, while a similar effect is seen in fixed-slit strip photography, notably a photo finish, where all capture is parallel to the capture, completely eliminating perspective (a side view).\n\nSection::::Optics.\n", "Most current photographic lenses are designed to minimize field curvature, and so effectively have a focal length that increases with ray angle. Lenses of short focal lengths (ultra wide, wide and normal) below 50 mm typically suffer more from field curvature. Telephoto lenses typically have very little or no visible field curvature. The Petzval lens is one design which has significant amount of field curvature; images taken with the lens are very sharp in the centre, but at greater angles the image is out of focus. Film cameras, may be able to bend their image planes to compensate, particularly when the lens is fixed and known. This also includes plate film, which could still be bent slightly. Digital sensors are difficult to bend, although experimental products have been produced. By 2016 the only consumer cameras featuring curved sensors were \"selfie\" Sony Cybershot KW-1 and KW-11. Large mosaics of sensors (necessary anyway due to limited chip sizes) can be shaped to simulate a bend over larger scales.\n", "BULLET::::- The DoF extends between two parallel planes on either side of the plane of focus; the DoF is finite in depth but infinite in height and width.\n\nBULLET::::- The sharpness gradients on each side of the DoF are along the line of sight.\n\nBULLET::::- Objects at the same distance from the camera are rendered equally sharp.\n\nBULLET::::- Objects at significantly different distances from the camera are rendered with unequal sharpness.\n\nIn a photograph using tilt:\n", "Section::::The original experiments showing the TI and TAE.\n", "Theatrical features originally photographed at 24 frame/s are shown at 25 frame/s. While this is usually not noticed in the picture (but may be more noticeable during action speed, especially if footage was filmed undercranked), the 4% increase in playback speed causes a slightly noticeable increase in audio pitch by just over 0.679 semitones, which is sometimes corrected using a pitch shifter, though pitch shifting is a recent innovation and supersedes an alternative method of telecine for 25 frame/s formats.\n", "These artifacts appear in the form of sharp horizontal and vertical edges which are easily spotted by the human eye and produce false edges and ringing effects (large coefficients in high frequency sub-bands) due to quantization of coefficients of the Fourier-related transform used for transform coding of the residual frames\n\nBlock motion compensation divides up the \"current\" frame into non-overlapping blocks, and the motion compensation vector tells where those blocks come \"from\"\n\n(a common misconception is that the \"previous frame\" is divided up into non-overlapping blocks, and the motion compensation vectors tell where those blocks move \"to\").\n" ]	[ "When a camera tilts during a recording, an image shows a warped effect as seen in the provided video." ]	[ "The video provided was recorded with a bad quality camera, this is the cause of the warped effect and it wouldn't replicate with a good quality camera." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "When a camera tilts during a recording, an image shows a warped effect as seen in the provided video.", "When a camera tilts during a recording, an image shows a warped effect as seen in the provided video." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The video provided was recorded with a bad quality camera, this is the cause of the warped effect and it wouldn't replicate with a good quality camera.", "The video provided was recorded with a bad quality camera, this is the cause of the warped effect and it wouldn't replicate with a good quality camera." ]
2018-23365	What exactly causes our skin to "crawl" when we see something disturbing or unexpected?	That's your hair standing on end. Its caused by a hormone released in response to certain stresses. Its the same thing that makes a cats fur puff out when scared, and done for the same reason. Of course in cats and animals this makes them look bigger, to scare away threats. But we don't have nearly as much hair, having lost it over the course of several ancestor species that would eventually result in humans, so we're left with just the crawling sensation or goosebumps.	[ "BULLET::::- During a fire, crawling may be used because the air near the ground is easier to breathe\n\nSection::::In infants.\n", "Because of its unusual appearance, bridgewalking has been used in several horror films to suggest the demonic possession of a character. These have included \"The Exorcist\" and \"The Unborn\". Wrestler Bray Wyatt does this.\n\nSection::::Types of crawls.:Crab crawl.\n", "Section::::Basic biology.:Defense mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Importance of the central nervous system.\n\nThe central nervous system (CNS) works with the peripheral nervous system in cutaneous innervation. The CNS is responsible for processing the information it receives from the cutaneous nerves that detect a given stimulus, and then identifying the kind of sensory inputs which project to a specific region of the primary somatosensory cortex.\n\nSection::::The role of nerve endings on the surface of the skin.\n\nGroups of nerve terminals located in the different layers of the skin are categorized depending on whether the skin is hairy, nonhairy, or an exposed mucous membrane.\n", "Section::::Specialized function in vertebrates.:Aerial locomotion.\n", "Section::::Known monsters.:Crawling Creature.\n\nThe Crawling Creature is a reptilian monster that first appeared in \"Tales to Astonish\" #22 and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby.\n\nThe Crawling Creature is a reptilian monster that lived in the underground parts of the Grand Canyon where it menaced a lost tribe of cave people. While fleeing the Crawling Creature during a mining expedition, Walter Carter was saved by a passing helicopter.\n\nSection::::Known monsters.:Creature from the Black Bog.\n", "Section::::Specialized function in vertebrates.:Aerial locomotion.:Gliding lizards.\n", "BULLET::::- Orientations - Takes place in the US state of Missouri, in September 2004. Focuses on the turning (de-spelling of human disguise) of Michelle, a member of the supposedly extinct sphinx species. Explains many of the mechanisms of the \"Skin Deep\" world.\n\nBULLET::::- Exchanges - Takes place in Liverpool, England, in August 2004. Focuses on the turning of Anthony Gillis, as well as the interactions between several of the inhabitants of the Liverpool Avalon.\n", "The anterior insula processes a person's sense of disgust both to smells and to the sight of contamination and mutilation — even when just imagining the experience. This associates with a mirror neuron-like link between external and internal experiences.\n\nIn social experience, it is involved in the processing of norm violations, emotional processing, empathy, and orgasms.\n", "Crawling is a specific 4-beat gait involving the hands and knees. A typical crawl is left-hand, right-knee, right-hand, left-knee, or a hand, the diagonal knee, the other hand then its diagonal knee. This is the first gait most humans learn, and is mainly used during early childhood, or when looking for something on the floor or under low relief. It can be used to move with a lower silhouette, but there are better crawls for that purpose. This is the most natural of the crawls and is the one that requires the least effort.\n\nSection::::Types of crawls.:Bear crawl.\n", "The crab crawl is also useful for descending steep slopes with poor traction. Its feet-first orientation ensures a low center of mass to prevent tumbling, while the inverted posture allows one to see where they're going.\n\nSection::::Types of crawls.:Leopard crawl/High crawl.\n", "Several physiological and psychological conditions can account for reported experiences of shadowy shapes seeming alive. A sleep paralysis sufferer may perceive a \"shadowy or indistinct shape\" approaching them when they lie awake paralyzed and become increasingly alarmed.\n\nA person experiencing heightened emotion, such as while walking alone on a dark night, may incorrectly perceive a patch of shadow as an attacker.\n", "Section::::Soft bodied locomotion in invertebrates.:Fiber arrangement.:Connective tissue fibers.\n", "Cutaneous reflex in human locomotion\n\nCutaneous, or skin reflexes, are activated by skin receptors and play a valuable role in locomotion, providing quick responses to unexpected environmental challenges. They have been shown to be important in responses to obstacles or stumbling, in preparing for visually challenging terrain, and for assistance in making adjustments when instability is introduced. In addition to the role in normal locomotion, cutaneous reflexes are being studied for their potential in enhancing rehabilitation therapy (physiotherapy) for people with gait abnormalities.\n\nSection::::Background of reflex pathway.\n", "Section::::Synergism.:Topography in synergy with chemical and biological cues.\n", "The different kinds of sensory stimuli that are picked up by sensory neurons are grouped into two categories: epicritic and protopathic.\n\nEpicritic neurons detect gentle touch such as caresses; light vibrations; the ability to recognize the shape of an object being held; and two-point discrimination, or the spacing of two points being touched simultaneously.\n\nProtopathic neurons are responsible for detecting pain, itch, tickle, and temperature.\n\nThe different types of stimuli that are detected by a given receptor allow for a relative specificity between stimuli and receptor.\n\nSection::::Pathways to the CNS.\n", "Section::::The role of nerve endings on the surface of the skin.:Hairy skin.\n\nThe hairy parts of the body such as the forearm or the leg have two groups of nerve endings: those that end along with the hair follicles, and also with the arborizations of unmyelinated axons which are referred to as “free” nerve endings because they are served by both myelinated and unmyelinated axons.\n\nSection::::The role of nerve endings on the surface of the skin.:Nonhairy skin.\n\nNonhairy skin, such as the palms of hands and the soles of feet, has three types of nerve terminations.\n", "Whether infants crawl is also culturally determined. European parents in previous centuries discouraged it as being too animal-like. They kept their children in long dresses and other clothes that made crawling difficult or impossible. Some cultures consider it to be dirty and dangerous.\n\nSection::::Types of crawls.\n\nSection::::Types of crawls.:Standard crawl.\n", "Section::::Presentation.\n\nSection::::Presentation.:Complications.\n\nId reactions left untreated may become infected with bacteria.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nCauses include infection with dermatophytosis, \"Mycobacterium\", viruses, bacteria and parasites. Eczematous conditions including contact allergic dermatitis and stasis dermatitis as well as stitches and trauma have also been associated with id reactions. Radiation treatment of tinea capitis has been reported as triggering an id reaction.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n\nPotential explanations include\n\n1. Atypical immune recognition of autologous skin antigens\n\n2. Stimulation of normal T cells by changing skin constituents\n\n3. Lower threshold for skin irritation\n\n4. Spreading of infectious antigens causing a secondary response\n", "Recent experiments in mice monitoring claustrocortical axonal activity to changing visual stimuli suggest the claustrum signals stimulus changes. Interestingly although claustrocortical input to visual cortical areas were engaged, the strongest responses measured were in higher-order regions of the cortex, this included the anterior cingulate cortex which is densely innervated by claustral projection.\n\nSection::::Other animals.:Monkeys.\n", "Section::::Synopsis.:Issue 11: \"Along Came a Spider\".\n\nAn issue-long \"Tales of the Fear Agent\" illustrated by Francesco Francavilla. A population of human flies pays Heath to protect them from a race of spiders slowly taking over their world. However, when Heath becomes impregnated with the spiders' eggs he becomes the planet's greatest threat.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.:Issues 12–15: \"The Last Goodbye\".\n\nPicking up at the end of the \"My War\" arc, Heath, after finding out that Charlotte has remarried, drunkenly reflects on the graves of his fallen comrades, leading to an interlude depicting the origins of the Fear Agents.\n", "In rare cases, individuals become convinced that the sensation is due to the presence of real insects on or under the skin. In these cases, patients have what is known as delusional parasitosis. They believe that their skin is inhabited by, or under attack by, small insects or similar parasites, despite repeated reassurances from physicians, pest control experts, and entomologists.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "During Peepers is seen driving down a road while on the phone with X-Factor Investigations, claiming that he believes he is being followed. After hitting a deer, Peepers loses control of his car and finds himself lodged deep in the brush by the side of the road. While emerging from the wreckage, he is attacked, killed, and eaten by Predator X. Siryn received the call and rushed to investigate, but arrives only to find what remains of his body.\n", "Section::::Medical description.\n\nMorgellons is poorly understood but the general medical consensus is that it is a form of delusional parasitosis in which individuals have some form of actual skin condition that they believe contains some kind of fibers.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Mary Leitao and the MRF.\n", "Section::::Opposition.\n\nBased on Schiffman's \"Sensation and Perception\" (2001), the existence of specific and unique cortical cells for detecting specific features is doubtful. He states the following reasons:\n\nBULLET::::1. A cortical cell is not sufficiently precise or finely tuned enough for specific objects, and to some degree most cells respond to any complex stimulus.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07840	Why is it that after batteries die, If I wait like a day the machine still has more power than it did before dying again?	batteries don't store electricity, they're tiny chemical power plants. once the battery dies and you turn off the device, the reaction continues. it's slow, but given some time it can be enough to power the device again.	[ "As a mixed string of new and old batteries is depleted, the string voltage will drop, and when the old batteries are exhausted the new batteries still have charge available. The newer cells may continue to discharge through the rest of the string, but due to the low voltage this energy flow may not be useful, and may be wasted in the old cells as resistance heating.\n", "For cells that are supposed to operate within a specific discharge window, new cells with more capacity may cause the old cells in the series string to continue to discharge beyond the safe bottom limit of the discharge window, damaging the old cells.\n", "Even just a single string of batteries wired in series can have adverse interactions if new batteries are mixed with old batteries. Older batteries tend to have reduced storage capacity, and so will both discharge faster than new batteries and also charge to their maximum capacity more rapidly than new batteries.\n", "BULLET::::- Charging systems may attempt to gauge battery string capacity by measuring overall voltage. Due to the overall string voltage depletion due to the dead cells, the charging system may detect this as a state of discharge, and will continuously attempt to charge the series-parallel strings, which leads to continuous overcharging and damage to all the cells in the degraded series string containing the damaged battery.\n", "If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start a car.\n", "Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will \"reverse charge\" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\n", "Voltage depression is caused by repeated over-charging of a battery, which causes the formation of small crystals of electrolyte on the plates. These can clog the plates, increasing resistance and lowering the voltage of some individual cells in the battery. This causes the battery as a whole to seem to discharge rapidly as those individual cells discharge quickly and the voltage of the battery as a whole suddenly falls. This effect is very common, as consumer trickle chargers typically overcharge.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Temporary effects.:Voltage depression due to long-term over-charging.:Repair.\n", "Batteries also have a small amount of internal resistance that will discharge the battery even when it is disconnected. If a battery is left disconnected, any internal charge will drain away slowly and eventually reach the critical point. From then on the film will develop and thicken. This is the reason batteries will be found to charge poorly or not at all if left in storage for a long period of time.\n\nSection::::Chargers and sulfation.\n", "A common process often discribed to memory effect is voltage depression. In this case, the peak voltage of the battery drops more quickly than normal as it is used, even though the total energy remains almost the same. In modern electronic equipment that monitors the voltage to indicate battery charge, the battery appears to be draining very quickly. To the user, it appears the battery is not holding its full charge, which seems similar to memory effect. This is a common problem with high-load devices such as digital cameras and cell phones.\n", "Battery users may attempt to avoid the memory effect proper by fully discharging their battery packs. This practice is likely to cause more damage as one of the cells will be deep discharged. The damage is focused on the weakest cell, so that each additional full discharge will cause more and more damage to that cell.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Age and use—normal end-of-life.\n", "An estimated MTBF value of 100,000 hours (roughly, 140 months) at 25 °C and under full load is fairly common. Such a rating expects that, under the described conditions, 77% of the PSUs will be operating failure-free over three years (36 months); equivalently, 23% of the units are expected to fail within three years of operation. For the same example, only 37% of the units (fewer than a half) are expected to last 100,000 hours without failing. The formula for calculating predicted reliability, , is\n", "Some systems, operating at high temperature (Na-S) or using corrosive components are subject to failure even if they are not used (calendar ageing). Other technologies suffer from deterioration caused by charge-discharge cycles (cycle ageing), especially at high charging rates. These two types of ageing cause a loss of performance (capacity or voltage decrease), overheating and may eventually lead to critical failure (electrolyte leaks, fire, explosion). Some batteries can be maintained to prevent loss of performance due to ageing. For example, non-sealed lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen from the aqueous electrolyte when overcharged. The water has to be refilled regularly to avoid damage to the battery and the inflammable gases have to be vented out to avoid explosion risks. However, this maintenance has a cost and recent batteries, such as Li-Ion, are designed to have a long lifespan without maintenance. Therefore, most of the current systems are composed of securely sealed battery packs which are electronically monitored and replaced once their performance falls below a given threshold. Sometimes battery storage power stations are built with flywheel storage power systems in order to conserve battery power. Flywheels may handle rapid fluctuations better than older battery plants.\n", "The memory battery (aka motherboard, CMOS, real-time clock (RTC), clock battery) is generally a CR2032 lithium coin cell. This cell battery has an estimated life of 3 years when power supply unit (PSU) is unplugged or when the PSU power switch is turned off. This battery type, contrary to popular belief, is not rechargeable and trying to do so may result in an explosion. Motherboards have circuitry preventing batteries from being charged and discharged when a motherboard is powered on. Other common battery cell types can last significantly longer or shorter periods, such as the smaller CR2016 which will generally last about 40% less time than CR2032. Higher temperatures and longer power-off time will shorten battery cell life. When replacing battery cell, the system time and CMOS BIOS settings may revert to default values. Unwanted BIOS reset may be avoided by replacing battery cell with PSU power switch turned on and plugged into electric socket on the wall. On ATX motherboards, turning on power switch on PSU, will supply 5V standby power to the motherboard to keep CMOS memory energized during computer turned off period.\n", "Even though the recovery effect phenomenon is more prominent in the lead acid battery chemistry, its existence in alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries is still questionable. For instance, a systematic experimental case study shows that an intermittent discharge current in case of alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries results in a decreased usable energy output compared to a continuous discharge current of the same average value. This is primarily due to the increased overpotential experienced due to the high peak currents of the intermittent discharge over the continuous discharge current of same average value. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Capacity fading\n", "When recharged, the old cells recharge more rapidly, leading to a rapid rise of voltage to near the fully charged state, but before the new cells with more capacity have fully recharged. The charge controller detects the high voltage of a nearly fully charged string and reduces current flow. The new cells with more capacity now charge very slowly, so slowly that the chemicals may begin to crystallize before reaching the fully charged state, reducing new cell capacity over several charge/discharge cycles until their capacity more closely matches the old cells in the series string.\n", "Manufacturers supply run-time rating in minutes for packaged UPS systems. Larger systems (such as for data centers) require detailed calculation of the load, inverter efficiency, and battery characteristics to ensure the required endurance is attained.\n\nSection::::Batteries.:Common battery characteristics and load testing.\n\nWhen a lead–acid battery is charged or discharged, this initially affects only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte. With time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called \"interface charge\", spreads by diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.\n", "Tests by Sandia National Laboratories show that UltraBattery performs for much longer than conventional VRLA batteries in utility cycling. The cycling profile in these tests was intended to mimic frequency regulation duty with approximately 4 cycles per hour with a peak power intended to give a SoC range expected to be typical. The results showed that a conventional VRLA battery (cycling in a partial state of charge (PSoC) and 10% depth of discharge) dropped to 60% of its initial capacity after about 3000 cycles. In the same test an UltraBattery manufactured by East Penn ran for more than 22,000 cycles, maintaining essentially 100% of its initial capacity without having been supplied a recovery charge.\n", "Life span is usually specified in mean time between failures (MTBF), where higher MTBF ratings indicate longer device life and better reliability. Using higher quality electrical components at less than their maximum ratings or providing better cooling can contribute to a higher MTBF rating because lower stress and lower operating temperatures decrease component failure rates.\n", "Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Charge/discharge speed.\n\nFast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Overcharging.\n\nIf a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Memory effect.\n", "Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a \"memory effect\" if they are discharged and recharged to the same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery \"remembers\" the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by Ni–Cd batteries are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, it will be unable to get enough energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery appears \"dead\" earlier than normal.\n", "NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called \"memory effect\". The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Environmental conditions.\n", "Due to the interface charge, brief UPS \"self-test\" functions lasting only a few seconds may not accurately reflect the true runtime capacity of a UPS, and instead an extended \"recalibration\" or \"rundown\" test that deeply discharges the battery is needed.\n", "The deep discharge testing is itself damaging to batteries due to the chemicals in the discharged battery starting to crystallize into highly stable molecular shapes that will not re-dissolve when the battery is recharged, permanently reducing charge capacity. In lead acid batteries this is known as sulfation but also affects other types such as nickel cadmium batteries and lithium batteries. Therefore, it is commonly recommended that rundown tests be performed infrequently, such as every six months to a year.\n\nSection::::Batteries.:Testing of strings of batteries/cells.\n", "The effect can be overcome by subjecting each cell of the battery to one or more deep charge/discharge cycles. This must be done to the individual cells, not a multi-cell battery; in a battery, some cells may discharge before others, resulting in those cells being subjected to a reverse charging current by the remaining cells, potentially leading to irreversible damage.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Temporary effects.:High temperatures.\n\nHigh temperatures can also reduce the charged voltage and the charge accepted by the cells.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Temporary effects.:Other causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Operation below 32 °F (0 °C)\n", "If the battery is stored or repeatedly operated in this partially charged state for an extended period, the film will slowly crystallize into a solid. This process of \"sulfation\" takes time, so it only has a chance to build to significant levels if the battery is repeatedly discharged below this critical level. There are numerous other conditions that can lead to the same problem developing.\n" ]	[ "Batteries run out of energy.", "Once a battery dies, it stops producing power." ]	[ "Batteries do not store energy and a small electrical reaction continues to occur when a device is turned off. ", "Once a battery dies and a device is turned off, the battery, which is a tiny chemical power plant, continues it's reaction slowly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Batteries run out of energy.", "Once a battery dies, it stops producing power." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Batteries do not store energy and a small electrical reaction continues to occur when a device is turned off. ", "Once a battery dies and a device is turned off, the battery, which is a tiny chemical power plant, continues it's reaction slowly." ]
2018-02706	Why does hot water (Shower/hot tub) hurt at 1st, then feel totally wonderful after "you get used to it"?	Because your skin doesn't feel temperature, it feels temperature change. So when your cold skin touches hot water there is a big temperature difference which feels really hot, eventually your skin warms up and the temperature difference is much smaller so it doesn't give any burning sensation. I am not sure exactly why it feels good once the skin is warmed. I assume it's something about the heat getting into your muscles and relaxing them.	[ "BULLET::::- In \"central sensitization,\" nociceptive neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord become sensitized by peripheral tissue damage or inflammation. This type of sensitization has been suggested as a possible causal mechanism for chronic pain conditions. The changes of central sensitization occur after repeated trials to pain. Research from animals has consistently shown that when a trial is repeatedly exposed to a painful stimulus, the animal’s pain threshold will change and result in a stronger pain response. Researchers believe that there are parallels that can be drawn between these animal trials and persistent pain in people. For example, after a back surgery that removed a herniated disc from causing a pinched nerve, the patient may still continue to “feel” pain. Also, newborns who are circumcised without anesthesia have shown tendencies to react more greatly to future injections, vaccinations, and other similar procedures. The responses of these children are an increase in crying and a greater hemodynamic response (tachycardia and tachypnea).\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "BULLET::::- Multiple bee-sting like pains in the affected area\n\nBULLET::::- Occasionally, aching in the groin area or pain spreading across the buttocks\n\nBULLET::::- Usually more sensitive to light touch than to firm pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Hyper sensitivity to heat (warm water from shower feels like it is burning the area)\n\nBULLET::::- Occasionally, patients may complain of itching or a bothersome sensation rather than pain in the affected area.\n\nThe entire distribution of the nerve is rarely affected. Usually, the unpleasant sensation(s) affect only part of the skin supplied by the nerve.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Andy wants to see what it feels like to have the shower full with water during the time Mr. and Mrs. Bainbridge are at Andy's house for dinner with his parents. With a lot of time on his hands, Andy seals up the door with a silicone gun from his Dad. Unfortunately, he accidentally breaks the hot tap, and ends up nearly drowning in cold water. The only way out is through the fan. He reaches up and pulls it, and is on the insulation patches as the water rises up the stall. With his rubber duck with him, a fiber in the vent pokes him. In temporary pain his loses the duck after being startled. He goes after the duck, but realizes quickly that the ceiling there is unsupported. The ceiling caves in and he finds himself lying legs spread on the dinner table, nude.\n", "Many illusions in vision are caused by adaptation, the prolonged exposure to a previous stimulus. In such cases, the perception of a subsequent stimulus is altered. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as a contingent after-effect. Similarly, adaptation can cause such illusions in the sense of touch.\n\nBULLET::::- If one hand is immersed in cold water and the other in hot for a minute or so, and then both hands are placed in lukewarm water, the lukewarm water will feel hot to the hand previously immersed in cold water, and cold to the hand previously immersed in hot water.\n", "During the 1870s the bathing regimen became more diverse, and physicians prescribed various types of baths for patients. The period of time for tub baths became six to ten minutes and the time in the steam bath shortened to two minutes, with only one bath a day.\n", "Although details of services were left to bathhouse operators, the Park's superintendent set various rules. In the 1930s a tub bath could not take more than 20 minutes and shower no more than 90 seconds. During the next decade shower time was reduced to a minute, with maximum temperatures specified for several services. After a bath of about , the patient might spend 2–5 minutes in a vapor cabinet, get 15 minutes of packs (wet, hot or cold), followed by a tepid needle shower and light massage and alcohol rub.\n", "With the first album we were 16 years old when we wrote it. But now we’ve been on tour for four and a half years, we’ve experienced stuff. We’ve written about a lot of different things on this album because we’re older and we’ve experienced more of life, so we’ve got more to talk about.\n\nSection::::Artwork.\n", "The adaptive value of nociception is obvious; an organism detecting a noxious stimulus immediately withdraws the limb, appendage or entire body from the noxious stimulus and thereby avoids further (potential) injury. However, a characteristic of pain (in mammals at least) is that pain can result in hyperalgesia (a heightened sensitivity to noxious stimuli) and allodynia (a heightened sensitivity to non-noxious stimuli). When this heightened sensitisation occurs, the adaptive value is less clear. First, the pain arising from the heightened sensitisation can be disproportionate to the actual tissue damage caused. Second, the heightened sensitisation may also become chronic, persisting well beyond the tissues healing. This can mean that rather than the actual tissue damage causing pain, it is the pain due to the heightened sensitisation that becomes the concern. This means the sensitisation process is sometimes termed maladaptive. It is often suggested hyperalgesia and allodynia assist organisms to protect themselves during healing, but experimental evidence to support this has been lacking.\n", "Section::::Racing career.:1991/1992 season: Novice Chases.\n", "BULLET::::1. Has a suitable nervous system and sensory receptors\n\nBULLET::::2. Has opioid receptors and shows reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics\n\nBULLET::::3. Physiological changes to noxious stimuli\n\nBULLET::::4. Displays protective motor reactions that might include reduced use of an affected area such as limping, rubbing, holding or autotomy\n\nBULLET::::5. Shows avoidance learning\n\nBULLET::::6. Shows trade-offs between noxious stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements\n\nBULLET::::7. High cognitive ability and sentience\n\nSection::::Adaptive value.\n", "Section::::Robert Quine.\n", "BULLET::::2. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Jacques Lu Cont remix)\" – 7:51\n\nBULLET::::3. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Jacques Lu Cont dub)\" – 8:00\n\nBULLET::::4. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Goldfrapp remix)\" – 4:39\n\nBULLET::::5. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Bitstream Spansule mix)\" – 7:22\n\nBULLET::::6. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Telex remix)\" – 3:28\n\nBULLET::::- DVD: Mute / DVDBong36 (EU)\n\nBULLET::::2. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (video)\" – 3:49\n\nBULLET::::3. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (exclusive behind the scenes footage)\" – 3:52\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Newborn (Foster Remix by Kettel)\" – 5:26\n", "Section::::Baseball in Hot Springs.\n", "The modern medicine does in fact recommend the application of any kind of heat preferably to souse the affected limb into hot water (40-42 °C). Beside this first aid attempt to ease the pain it is recommended to clean the wound and to see a physician because antibiotics, further analgesics or even a tetanus prophylaxis might be appropriate.⁠\n\nSection::::Commercial Use.\n\nAlthough the greater weever is sold commercially in France, where it is seen as a delicacy, it is often caught as by-catch.⁠ ⁠\n", "Adjusting to post-injury changes in the body's sensation is difficult enough to cause some to give up on the idea of satisfying sex at first. But changes in sensitivity above and at the level of injury occur over time; people may find erogenous zones like the nipples or ears have become more sensitive, enough to be sexually satisfying. They may discover new erogenous zones that were not erotic before the injury; care providers can help direct this discovery. These erogenous areas can even lead to orgasm when stimulated. Such changes may result from \"remapping\" of sensory areas in the brain due to neuroplasticity, particularly when sensation in the genitals is completely lost.\n", "BULLET::::3. \"Newborn (Foster Remix by Kettel)\" – 5:26\n\nBULLET::::- 12\": Mute / 12Bong36 (EU)\n\nBULLET::::2. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Jacques Lu Cont remix)\" – 7:51\n\nBULLET::::3. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Jacques Lu Cont dub)\" – 8:00\n\nBULLET::::- 12\": Mute / L12Bong36 (EU)\n\nBULLET::::2. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Bitstream Threshold mix)\" – 6:07\n\nBULLET::::3. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Bitstream Spansule mix)\" – 7:21\n\nBULLET::::- CD: Mute / CDBong36 (EU)\n\nBULLET::::2. \"A Pain That I'm Used To\" – 4:11\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Newborn\" – 5:34\n\nBULLET::::- CD: Mute / LCDBong36 (EU)\n", "Section::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.:Habituation.\n\nHabituation is one of the simplest forms of animal learning. It has been stated there are no qualitative or quantitative differences between vertebrate species in this form of learning indicating there is no difference between mammals and amphibians in this process.\n\nSection::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.:Associative learning.\n\nNewts are capable of associative learning. They are able to associate chemical signals from a novel predator with another chemical stimulus when the second stimulus is the skin extract of another newt.\n\nSection::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.:Numeracy.\n", "In 2010, \"Feels Like the First Time\" was re-recorded to be included in the rhythm game \"\".\n\nThe song appears at the end of the 2012 film \"Magic Mike\" and was also used during the Riff Medley by the Treblemakers in the movie \"Pitch Perfect\". It was also featured in the 2013 film \"Anchorman 2\" and in the 2017 film \"I, Tonya\". \n", "BULLET::::6. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Goldfrapp remix)\" – 4:39\n\nBULLET::::7. \"Newborn (Foster Remix by Kettel)\" – 5:26\n\nBULLET::::- Club promo CD single.\n\nBULLET::::- Promo CD: Reprise / PRO-CD-101694 (US)\n\nBULLET::::2. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Jacques Lu Cont remix)\" – 7:51\n\nBULLET::::3. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Jacques Lu Cont dub)\" – 8:00\n\nBULLET::::4. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Goldfrapp remix)\" – 4:39\n\nBULLET::::5. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Bitstream Spansule mix)\" – 7:21\n\nBULLET::::6. \"A Pain That I'm Used To (Telex remix)\" – 3:29\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "Once the hot water has been added, the mate is ready for drinking, and it may be refilled many times before becoming \"lavado\" (washed out) and losing its flavor. When this occurs, the mound of \"yerba\" can be pushed from one side of the gourd to the other, allowing water to be added along its opposite side; this revives the mate for additional refillings and is called \"\"reformar o/el mate\"\" (reforming the mate).\n\nSection::::Etiquette.\n", "Robert Elwood and Mirjam Appel at the Queen's University of Belfast argue that pain may be inferred when the responses to a noxious stimulus are not reflexive but are traded off against other motivational requirements, the experience is remembered and the situation is avoided in the future. They investigated this by giving hermit crabs small electric shocks within their shells. Only crabs given shocks evacuated their shells indicating the aversive nature of the stimulus, but fewer crabs evacuated from a preferred species of shell demonstrating a motivational trade-off. Most crabs, however, did not evacuate at the shock level used, but when these shocked crabs were subsequently offered a new shell, they were more likely to approach and enter the new shell. They approached the new shell more quickly, investigated it for a shorter time and used fewer cheliped probes within the aperture prior to moving in. This demonstrates the experience of the electric shock altered future behaviour in a manner consistent with a marked shift in motivation to get a new shell to replace the one previously occupied.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Jacuzzi\n\nBULLET::::- List of spa towns\n\nBULLET::::- Massage\n\nBULLET::::- Peloids\n\nBULLET::::- Sauna\n\nBULLET::::- Spa, Belgium, a municipality of Belgium\n\nBULLET::::- Uniform Swimming Pool, Spa and Hot Tub Code\n\nBULLET::::- Water cure (therapy)\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Nathaniel Altman, \"Healing springs: the ultimate guide to taking the waters : from hidden springs to the world's greatest spas.\" Inner Traditions / Bear & Company, 2000.\n\nBULLET::::- Dian Dincin Buchman, \"The complete book of water healing.\" 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.\n", "A 1993 study titled \"When More Pain Is Preferred to Less: Adding a Better End\" by Kahneman, Fredrickson, Charles Schreiber, and Donald Redelmeier provided groundbreaking evidence for the peak–end rule. Participants were subjected to two different versions of a single unpleasant experience. The first trial had subjects submerge a hand in 14 °C water for 60 seconds. The second trial had subjects submerge the other hand in 14 °C water for 60 seconds, but then keep their hand submerged for an additional 30 seconds, during which the temperature was raised to 15 °C. Subjects were then offered the option of which trial to repeat. Against the law of temporal monotonicity, subjects were more willing to repeat the second trial, despite a prolonged exposure to uncomfortable temperatures. Kahneman et al. concluded that \"subjects chose the long trial simply because they liked the memory of it better than the alternative (or disliked it less).\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21066	Is it theoretically possible to make an object that burns melt instead?	sure, things burn usually by combining with oxygen. so heat something up in an environment without oxygen, and you have a decent chance of getting it to melt eventually.	[ "Tests by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, which is experimenting with the technique to make some difficult-to-fabricate parts from nickel alloys for the J-2X and RS-25 rocket engines, show that difficult to make parts made with the technique are somewhat weaker than forged and milled parts but often avoid the need for welds which are weak points.\n", "The reaction reaches very high temperatures, depending on the metal oxide used. The reactants are usually supplied in the form of powders, with the reaction triggered using a spark from a flint lighter. The activation energy for this reaction is very high however, and initiation requires either the use of a \"booster\" material such as powdered magnesium metal or a very hot flame source. The aluminium oxide slag that it produces is discarded.\n", "The second Melter can mentally agitate the molecules in solid matter so that it loses cohesion, thereby melting the object in question. Christopher has not been shown to be able to produce actual fire. He has melted bullets while they are in the air, and can even melt people with fatal effects.\n\nSection::::Other versions.\n\nSection::::Other versions.:Heroes Reborn.\n\nIn the Heroes Reborn universe created by Franklin Richards, Bruno Horgan/Melter appeared as a member of Loki's Masters of Evil.\n\nSection::::Other versions.:Marvel Cinematic Universe.\n", "A transparent version of Pyroceram, with β-quartz as the crystalline phase, was also described in 1950's patents. By 1963 this variant was also being seriously studied for use in making cookware. It would be extensively explored over the next two decades and result in the creation of Visions cookware, by Corning France, in the late 1970's.\n\nThe manufacture of the material involves controlled crystallization. NASA classifies it as a glass-ceramic product.\n", "The first description of melt electrospinning was by Charles Norton in a patent approved in 1936. After this first discovery, it wasn't until 1981 that melt electrospinning was described as part of a three-paper series. A meeting abstract on melt electrospinning in a vacuum was published by Reneker and Rangkupan 20 years later in 2001. Since this scientific publication in 2001, there have been regular articles on melt electrospinning, including reviews on the subject. In 2011, melt electrospinning combined with a translating collector was with proposed as a new class of 3D printing.\n\nSection::::Principles.\n", "One method often employed is to melt the reactants together and then later anneal the solidified melt. If volatile reactants are involved the reactants are often put in an ampoule that is evacuated -ofnt mixture \n\ncold e.g. by keeping the bottom of the ampoule in liquid nitrogen- and then sealed. The sealed ampoule is then put in an oven and given a certain heat treatment..\n\nSection::::Synthetic methods.:Oven techniques.:Solution methods.\n", "The heating agent and responsible reaction vary from product to product. Calcium oxide is used in the following reaction:\n\nCopper sulphate and powdered zinc can also be used, but this process is less efficient:\n\nAnhydrous calcium chloride is often used as well. In this case, no chemical reaction occurs, instead the heat of solution is generated.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Flameless ration heater\n\nBULLET::::- Beverage can\n\nBULLET::::- Self-heating food packaging\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Books, general references.\n\nBULLET::::- Yam, K.L., \"Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology\", John Wiley & Sons, 2009,\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Single-serving coffee can heats itself\n\nBULLET::::- Will Self-Heating Coffee Be Cool?\n", "Table 1. Examples of metal alkoxides.\n\nSection::::Precursors.:Metal carboxylates.\n", "Section::::Precursors.:Metal alkoxides.\n", "BULLET::::- smelting,\n\nBULLET::::- refining.\n\nMost pyrometallurgical processes require energy input to sustain the temperature at which the process takes place. The energy is usually provided in the form of combustion or from electrical heat. When sufficient material is present in the feed to sustain the process temperature solely by exothermic reaction (i.e. without the addition of fuel or electrical heat), the process is said to be \"autogenous\". Processing of some sulfide ores exploit the exothermicity of their combustion\n\nSection::::Calcination.\n", "Direct-heat melters are generally made from aluminum and can heat up to over 500°F. The uses vary from wax to solder. They heat with the heating element directly on the aluminum which is directly against the substance to be melted, hence the name \"direct melter\". Since direct-heat melters apply heat directly, they generally cannot be larger than 5-10 gallons.\n", "Table 2. Examples of metal carboxylates.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "The equation below displays some examples of roasting oxidation reactions used in refining zinc from sphalerite and other ores.\n", "In the future, there is hope that one day the benefits of both direct-heat melters and water-jacket melters can somehow be combined. Currently, research is being conducted to achieve that end among some of the leading makers of melting tanks.\n", "The process (often referred to as the KY process) was proposed in 1926 as continuation of the Czochralski and Verneuil methods due to their basic dimensional limitations of grown crystals. Initially it was used to grow mono-crystals of alkali metal halides. The process of direct crystallization of melted material differed by decreasing the boule's temperature while still in the crucible. Compared to others the technique allowed to produce very large single crystals that were free of cracks and damage due to restricted containment.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "Section::::Production.:Electro-slag remelting (ESR).\n\nIn the electro-slag remelting (ESR) process, steel scrap is first melted using the conventional process but is then remelted in a water-cooled form. With this process, a more even microstructure can be achieved which gives completely different properties than a material produced with the conventional method. There are different variants of the electro-slag remelting process where the remelting is done in vacuum or a protective atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Production.:Powder metallurgy.\n", "When selecting a melting tank, it is important that the application is known. For example, if melting large amounts of substances (or at least more than 10 or so gallons) is the goal, then water-jacket melting is the proper choice. If the substance needs to be heated to over 212°F, then a direct-heat melter would be necessary. If heavily-scented or colored substances are to be melted, then it is important that the melter be polished with a coating to prevent cross-contamination.\n", "For thermally robust materials, high temperature methods are often employed. For example, bulk solids are prepared using tube furnaces, which allow reactions to be conducted up to ca. 1100 °C. Special equipment e.g. ovens consisting of a tantalum tube through which an electric current is passed can be used for even higher temperatures up to 2000 °C. Such high temperatures are at times required to induce diffusion of the reactants. \n\nSection::::Synthetic methods.:Oven techniques.:Melt methods.\n", "Early theoretical work on the organic cooled concept was carried out at the Argonne National Laboratory between 1953 and 1956. As part of this work, Mine Safety Appliances studied a variety of potential biphenyl coolants. In 1956-75, Aerojet conducted studies on the rate of \"burnout\" of polyphenyl coolants, and in the following two years, Hanford Atomic Products carried out several studies of polyphenyl irradiation.\n", "One mechanism is a small meltable pellet that holds down a spring. When the pellet melts, the spring is released, separating the contacts and breaking the circuit. The Tamura LE series, NEC Sefuse SF series, Microtemp G4A series, and Hosho Elmwood D series, for example, may use alloy pellets that contain copper, beryllium, and silver to melt at a precise temperature.\n", "The type of tank used to melt candle wax is quite different from adhesives, solder, and tar. For example, tanks used for adhesives may need to be heated up to whilst an organic soy wax will be ruined at over and should never be heated above . A delicate soy wax used to make candles would be destroyed and burned if not heated in an even manner at lower temperatures than solder or tar. Also, since soaps and candles are scented and coloured, tanks designed for melting these substances need to be specially polished to ensure there is no contamination between different scented/coloured candles or soap. For this reason, there are melting tanks that are specially coated for candle wax melting.\n", "Water-jacket melters function more like a large, commercial double boiler in that they keep substances evenly heated but they generally only heat up to 212°F, since that is when the water would evaporate. They can be made of aluminum, but are generally made of stainless steel. Unlike direct-heat melters, water-jacket melters can be almost unlimited in size, with 153 gallons being common and up to the larger 1000-gallon melters and more.\n", "Friction between parts begins due to rotation from motor and the downward pressure. Heat is generated until the glass transition temperature, for amorphous polymers or the melting temperature, for semicrystalline polymers, is reached\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Step 3 Welding.:Phase 2.\n\nPart melting begins; material is melted and part of the melted material is extruded into the “flash”\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Step 3 Welding.:Phase 3.\n\nA steady state is reached between the melt layer and the amount of material squeezed into the flash. The spinning is then stopped.\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Step 3 Welding.:Phase 4.\n", "One proposed method of purifying asteroid materials is through the use of carbon monoxide (CO). Heating the material to 500 °F (260 °C) and exposing it to CO causes the metals to form gaseous carbonyls. This vapor can then be distilled to separate out the metal components, and the CO can then be recovered by another heating cycle. Thus an automated ship can scrape up loose surface materials\n", "Section::::Processing.\n\nProcessing PTFE can be difficult and expensive, because the high melting temperature, , is above the initial decomposition temperature, . Even when melted, PTFE does not flow, but instead behaves as a gel due to the absence of crystalline phase and high melt viscosity.\n\nSome PTFE parts are made by cold-moulding, a form of compression molding. Here, fine powdered PTFE is forced into a mould under high pressure (10–100 MPa). After a settling period, lasting from minutes to days, the mould is heated at , allowing the fine particles to fuse into a single mass.\n\nSection::::Applications and uses.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20602	Why Did the SR-71 Replace the A-12?	The mission of the A-12 was deemed too dangerous because a U2 had been shot down and made clear that due to recent advances in missile technology the Soviet Union could track and shoot at the A-12 before it even made it's first flight over the Soviet union. The project was cancelled due to budget concerns which included possible fighter and bomber variants, but by that point the SR-71 had already been ordered. The SR-71 had 2 seats and a higher fuel load making it better suited to the role for which the A-12 had been intended. So they used them for the role instead. The CIA soon proved that the aircraft was exceptional in the role and the value of it's reconnaissance convinced the White House to keep them in service for decades to come. With a fleet of SR-71's available the A-12 simply didn't have a role to play anymore so they put the highly classified aircraft into storage. It's not like the US military has ever been known for saving money...	[ "In late 1991, McDonnell Douglas made a move to separate its civil and military divisions in a bid to raise the estimated $4 billion development costs needed to develop the MD-12X trijet. Separating the costly military C-17 airlifter development, which had been a drain on the company's resources, from the profit-making production of the MD-80 and MD-11 airliners would make it easier to attract foreign investors for the MD-12X.\n", "Auverland continued to build SIMI's lightly modified version as the SC (in SC-200, -250, and SC-11 versions), and the more heavily modified version as the A-2, until the A-3 was introduced in July 1987.\n\nSection::::A series of afterlives.\n", "BULLET::::- 24 May 1963: Loss of first A-12 (#60–6926)\n\nBULLET::::- 20 July 1963: First Mach 3 flight\n\nBULLET::::- 7 August 1963: First flight of the YF-12A with Lockheed test pilot James Eastham at Groom Lake.\n\nBULLET::::- June 1964: Last production A-12 delivered to Groom Lake.\n\nBULLET::::- 25 July 1964: President Johnson makes public announcement of SR-71.\n\nBULLET::::- 29 October 1964: SR-71 prototype (#61-7950) delivered to Palmdale.\n\nBULLET::::- 22 December 1964: First flight of the SR-71 with Lockheed test pilot Bob Gilliland at AF Plant #42. First mated flight of the MD-21 with Lockheed test pilot Bill Park at Groom Lake.\n", "With the failure of the CIA's Project Rainbow to reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) of the U-2, preliminary work began inside Lockheed in late 1957 to develop a follow-on aircraft to overfly the Soviet Union. Designer Kelly Johnson said, \"In April 1958 I recall having long discussions with [CIA Deputy Director for Plans] Richard Bissell over the subject of whether there should be a follow-on to the U-2 aircraft. We agreed ... that there should be one more round before satellites would make aircraft reconnaissance obsolete for covert reconnaissance.\"\n", "The A-12 program was ended on 28 December 1966 — even before Black Shield began in 1967 — due to budget concerns and because of the SR-71, which began to arrive at Kadena in March 1968. The twin-seat SR-71 was heavier and flew slightly lower and slower than the A-12.\n", "From 1981 until 1985, the Avenger sat outside in Arizona waiting for her next duty assignment and in desperate need of repair and maintenance on various systems. On January 17, 1985 TBM 53503 was officially assigned to the CAF Rocky Mountain Wing.\n", "By this point, the seeds of the AMST program's demise had already been sown. In March 1976, the Air Force Chief of Staff, Gen. David C. Jones, asked the Air Force Systems Command to see if it would be possible to use a single model of the AMST for both strategic and tactical airlift roles, or alternatively, if it would be possible to develop conventional derivatives of the AMST for the strategic airlift role. This led to a series of studies that basically stated that such a modification was not easy, and would require major changes to either design to produce a much larger aircraft.\n", "During the 1980s, McDonnell Douglas was the only manufacturer to continue development of the trijet design with an update to the DC-10, the MD-11, which initially held a range and payload advantage over its closest medium wide-body competitors which were twinjets, the in-production Boeing 767 and upcoming Airbus A330. McDonnell Douglas had planned a new trijet called the MD-XX, which were lengthened versions of the MD-11. The MD-XX Long Range aircraft would have been capable of travelling distances up to 8,320 nautical miles and had a wingspan of 213 feet. The project was cancelled in 1996, one year before McDonnell Douglas was acquired by Boeing. Boeing ended production of the MD-11 after filling remaining customer orders since the MD-11 would have competed with the 767 and 777. A study to remove the MD-11's tail-mounted engine (which would have made it a twinjet) never came to fruition as it would have been very expensive, and the MD-11 had very little in common in terms of design or type rating with other Boeing airliners. In contrast to McDonnell Douglas sticking with their existing trijet configuration, Airbus (which never produced a trijet aircraft) and Boeing worked on new widebody twinjet designs that would become the A330 and 777, respectively. The MD-11's long range advantage was brief as it soon was threatened by the A330's four-engine derivative, the A340, and the 777.\n", "BULLET::::- 13 June 1962: SR-71 mock-up reviewed by USAF.\n\nBULLET::::- 30 July 1962: J58 engine completes pre-flight testing.\n\nBULLET::::- October 1962: A-12s first flown with J58 engines\n\nBULLET::::- 28 December 1962: Lockheed signs contract to build six SR-71 aircraft. Earlier in the month, on 17 December the 5th A-12 arrived at Groom Lake and the Air Force expressed an interest in obtaining reconnaissance versions of the Blackbird. Lockheed begins weapons systems development for the AF-12. Kelly Johnson obtained approval to design a Mach 3 Blackbird fighter/bomber.\n\nBULLET::::- January 1963: A-12 fleet operating with J58 engines\n", "Section::::Origins.\n\nProject Isinglass was developed as a result of the vulnerability of existing crewed reconnaissance aircraft, such as the Lockheed U-2 and the Lockheed A-12, to Soviet air defenses in the early 1960s, catalysed by the shooting down in May 1960 of Francis Gary Powers. Although there were continuing plans to overfly the Soviet Union with the A-12 – referred to by the CIA as Project Oxcart – these failed to come to pass, and the CIA began plans for an aircraft with superior performance to replace Oxcart.\n\nSection::::The Convair proposal.\n", "The deployed A-12s and the eight non-deployed aircraft were placed in storage at Palmdale. All surviving aircraft remained there for nearly 20 years before being sent to museums around the U.S. On 20 January 2007, despite protests by Minnesota's legislature and volunteers who had maintained it in display condition, the A-12 preserved in Minneapolis, Minnesota, was sent to CIA headquarters to be displayed there.\n\nSection::::Operational history.:Timeline.\n\nMajor events in the development and operation of the A-12 and its successor, the SR-71, include:\n", "AeroVironment modified and armored a T-28A to fly weather research for South Dakota School of Mines & Technology, funded by the National Science Foundation, and operated in this capacity from 1969 to 2005. SDSM&T was planning to replace it with another modified, but more modern, former military aircraft, specifically a Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. This plan was found to carry too many risks associated with the costly modifications required and the program was cancelled in 2018.\n\nSection::::Operational history.:Aerobatics and warbird display.\n", "In addition, Fairchild-Hiller, which was contracted for all the conversions, converted another 26 C-119Gs into AC-119Ks, primarily for the \"truck hunter\" role over the Ho Chi Minh Trail. These aircraft were called \"Stingers\" primarily in reference to the two M61 Vulcan 20-mm cannons they carried in addition to the AC-119G's four GAU-2/A miniguns. The AC-119K could be visually distinguished by the addition of two General Electric J85 turbojet engines in underwing pods. The conversions were completed at Fairchild-Hiller's facility in St. Augustine, Florida.\n", "Section::::Development.:A-X program.\n", "IMCO was in turn purchased by Rockwell International in 1966, which built the plane under its Aero Commander division before shifting production to Mexico in 1971, under a joint venture there called AAMSA. Production continued until 1984.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nBULLET::::- A-9\n\nBULLET::::- B-1\n\nBULLET::::- A-9 Super\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n\nBULLET::::- Bibliography\n\nBULLET::::- Taylor, John W. R. \"Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1965-66\". London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, 1965.\n\nBULLET::::- Taylor, John W. R. \"Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1966-67\". London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, 1966.\n", "Lockheed Martin may have used information gained from LASRE and the X-33 Advanced Technology Demonstrator to develop a potential future reusable launch vehicle. NASA and Lockheed Martin were partners in the X-33 program through a cooperative agreement.\n", "In February 1981, Rockwell International sold the Aero Commander division to Gulfstream Aerospace. The final Twin Commander model 1000, released in the early 1980s, was powered by Dash 10 engines. In December 1985, Gulfstream Aerospace was acquired by Chrysler Corp. With a new focus on the business jet market, production of the Twin Commander ended in 1986.\n", "BULLET::::- 4 – Noorduyn Norseman from 1950–52\n\nBULLET::::- 1 – Piper PA-18 Super Cub from 1950–52\n\nBULLET::::- 1 – Stinson Reliant from 1950–52\n\nBULLET::::- 5 – Consolidated PBY Catalina from 1949–58\n\nBULLET::::- 68 – Douglas DC-4 from 1946–60\n\nBULLET::::- 1 – Douglas DC-6B\n\nBULLET::::- 2 – Convair CV-340\n\nBULLET::::- 4 – Grumman G-44 Widgeon\n\nBULLET::::- 1 – Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar\n\nBULLET::::- 13 – Martin 2-0-2\n\nBULLET::::- 3 – Lockheed L-749A Constellation from 1958–59\n\nBULLET::::- 2 – Lockheed L-1049G Super Constellation from 1958–59\n\nBULLET::::- 8 – Boeing 377 Stratocruiser from 1958–60\n", "The second plane, X-15-2, was rebuilt after a landing accident on 9 November 1962 which damaged the craft and injured its pilot, John McKay. It was lengthened by , had a pair of auxiliary fuel tanks attached beneath its fuselage and wings, and a complete heat-resistant ablative coating was added. The plane was renamed the X-15A-2, and took flight for the first time on 25 June 1964. It reached its maximum speed of in October 1967 with pilot William \"Pete\" Knight of the U.S. Air Force in control.\n", "BULLET::::- 28 December 1966: Decision to terminate A-12 program by June 1968.\n\nBULLET::::- 31 May 1967: A-12s conduct Black Shield operations out of Kadena\n", "In the late 1950s, the United States Air Force (USAF) sought a replacement for its F-106 Delta Dart interceptor. As part of the Long Range Interceptor Experimental (LRI-X) program, the North American XF-108 Rapier, an interceptor with Mach 3 speed, was selected. However, the F-108 program was canceled by the Department of Defense in September 1959. During this time, Lockheed's Skunk Works was developing the A-12 reconnaissance aircraft for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) under the \"Oxcart\" program. Kelly Johnson, the head of Skunk Works, proposed to build a version of the A-12 named AF-12 by the company; the USAF ordered three AF-12s in mid-1960.\n", "Because the A-12 was well ahead of its time, many new technologies had to be invented specifically for the Oxcart project with some remaining in use in present day. One of the biggest problems that engineers faced at that time was working with titanium.\n", "Despite progress in the necessary structural and propulsion technology, NASA still had substantial problems to solve. The Department of Defense wanted it to carry a crew of two and even a small payload. The demands of being a human-rated vehicle, with instrumentation, environmental control systems and safety equipment, made the X-30 larger, heavier, and more expensive than required for a technology demonstrator. The X-30 program was terminated amid budget cuts and technical concerns in 1993.\n\nA more modest hypersonic program culminated in the unmanned X-43 \"Hyper-X\".\n", "BULLET::::- Northrop Grumman, with a navalized RQ-4 Global Hawk. In order to begin testing the surveillance package early, Northrop Grumman contracted with Flight Test Associates of the Mojave Spaceport to modify a Grumman Gulfstream II as a flying testbed.\n\nBULLET::::- Lockheed Martin, with a General Atomics MQ-9 Mariner\n", "BULLET::::- YA-10B Night/Adverse Weather (N/AW): Two-seat experimental prototype, for work at night and in bad weather. The one YA-10B prototype was converted from an A-10A.\n\nBULLET::::- A-10C: A-10As updated under the incremental Precision Engagement (PE) program.\n\nBULLET::::- A-10PCAS: Proposed unmanned version developed by Raytheon and Aurora Flight Sciences as part of DARPA's Persistent Close Air Support program. The PCAS program eventually dropped the idea of using an optionally manned A-10.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23325	Why can't we breathe with one lung and exhale with the other to maximize effectivity?	1. Both vent through the trachea. Inhaling exhaled gases wouldn't provide enough oxygenation over time. 2. The diaphragm spans the entire chest cavity and is incapable of contracting on only one side at a time.	[ "One of the reasons we can breathe is because of the elasticity of the lungs. The internal surface of the lungs on average in a non-emphysemic person is normally 63m2 and can hold about 5lts of air volume. Both lungs together have the same amount of surface area as half of a tennis court. Disease such as, emphysema, tuberculosis, can reduce the amount of surface area and elasticity of the lungs. Another big factor in the elasticity of the lungs is smoking because of the residue left behind in the lungs from the smoking. The elasticity of the lungs can be trained to expand further.\n", "Humans have two lungs, a right lung and a left lung. They are situated within the thoracic cavity of the chest. The right lung is bigger than the left, which shares space in the chest with the heart. The lungs together weigh approximately , and the right is heavier. The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract that begins at the trachea and branches into the bronchi and bronchioles, and which receive air breathed in via the conducting zone. The conducting zone ends at the terminal bronchioles. These divide into the respiratory bronchioles of the respiratory zone which divide into alveolar ducts that give rise to the alveolar sacs that contain the alveoli, where gas exchange takes place. Alveoli are also sparsely present on the walls of the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts. Together, the lungs contain approximately of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli. Each lung is enclosed within a pleural sac that contains pleural fluid which allows the inner and outer walls to slide over each other whilst breathing takes place, without much friction. This sac also divides each lung into sections called lobes. The right lung has three lobes and the left has two. The lobes are further divided into bronchopulmonary segments and pulmonary lobules. The lungs have a unique blood supply, receiving deoxygenated blood from the heart in the pulmonary circulation for the purposes of receiving oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide, and a separate supply of oxygenated blood to the tissue of the lungs, in the bronchial circulation.\n", "The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and many other animals including a few fish and some snails. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their function in the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas exchange. Respiration is driven by different muscular systems in different species. Mammals, reptiles and birds use their different muscles to support and foster breathing. In early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, a mechanism still seen in amphibians. In humans, the main muscle of respiration that drives breathing is the diaphragm. The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human speech possible.\n", "There are several conditions that may make one-sided lung ventilation necessary. Absolute indications include separation of the right from the left lung to avoid spillage of blood or pus from an infected or bleeding side to the unaffected side. Relative indications include the collapse of one lung and the selective ventilation of the remaining lung in order to facilitate exposure of the anatomical structures to be operated on in thoracic surgeries, such as the repair of a thoracic aortic aneurysm, pneumonectomy or lobectomy.\n\nSection::::Development and description.\n", "\"The third prediction states that if prediction two works in intermediate steps to create a function of an individual organ than each step will also help create the upper limitation of the function as well.\" (That whole sentence does not make sense and exhibits far too many grammatical errors; someone else please fix.) This means that if multiple units are working together in multiple steps, they will function together in order to make up a maximal upper limit (e.g.V in terms of function or ability. \n\nSection::::Within the respiratory system.\n", "The primary purpose of breathing is to bring atmospheric air (in small doses) into the alveoli where gas exchange with the gases in the blood takes place. The equilibration of the partial pressures of the gases in the alveolar blood and the alveolar air occurs by diffusion. At the end of each exhalation, the adult human lungs still contain 2,500–3,000 mL of air, their functional residual capacity or FRC. With each breath (inhalation) only as little as about 350 mL of warm, moistened atmospherically is added, and well mixed, with the FRC. Consequently, the gas composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle. Since the pulmonary capillary blood equilibrates with this virtually unchanging mixture of air in the lungs (which has a substantially different composition from that of the ambient air), the partial pressures of the arterial blood gases also do not change with each breath. The tissues are therefore not exposed to swings in oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions in the blood during the breathing cycle, and the peripheral and central chemoreceptors do not need to \"choose\" the point in the breathing cycle at which the blood gases need to be measured, and responded to. Thus the homeostatic control of the breathing rate simply depends on the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This then also maintains the constancy of the pH of the blood.\n", "The basic sidemount configuration requires different techniques for sharing gas, compared to the isolation manifolded twins back mount configuration. This means that a single set of standardised safety procedures is not possible while diving with team members using back mounted tanks.\n", "Alternative arrangements are cross current systems found in birds. and dead-end air-filled sac systems found in the lungs of mammals. In a cocurrent flow system, the blood and gas (or the fluid containing the gas) move in the same direction through the gas exchanger. This means the magnitude of the gradient is variable along the length of the gas-exchange surface, and the exchange will eventually stop when an equilibrium has been reached (see upper diagram in Fig. 2).\n\nCocurrent flow gas exchange systems are not known to be used in nature.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n", "The unidirectional airflow through the parabronchi exchanges respiratory gases with a \"crosscurrent\" blood flow (Fig. 9). The partial pressure of O (formula_3) in the parabronchioles declines along their length as O diffuses into the blood. The capillaries leaving the exchanger near the entrance of airflow take up more O than capillaries leaving near the exit end of the parabronchi. When the contents of all capillaries mix, the final formula_3 of the mixed pulmonary venous blood is higher than that of the exhaled air, but lower than that of the inhaled air.\n\nSection::::Plants.\n", "Section::::Views.:Both lungs concept.\n\nPope Benedict XVI and Pope John Paul II used the \"two lungs\" concept to relate Catholicism with Eastern Orthodoxy.\n\nSection::::Views.:Eastern Orthodox.\n", "Section::::Evolution of discontinuous gas exchange cycles.:Strolling arthropods hypothesis.\n", "Nevertheless, an alternative model has been proposed reinforced by certain experimental data. According to this model, respiratory rhythm is generated by two coupled anatomically distinct rhythm generators, one in the pre-Boetzinger complex and the other in the retrotrapezoid nucleus / parafacial respiratory group. Further survey provided evidence to the hypothesis that one of the networks is responsible for inspiration rhythm and the other for expiration rhythm. Therefore, inspiration and expiration are distinct functions and one does not induce the other, as is the common belief, but one of two dominates the behavior by generating a faster rhythm.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Swallowing.\n", "The marked difference between the composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead-end sacs connected to the outside air by long, narrow, tubes (the airways: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches and sub-branches down to the bronchioles). This anatomy, and the fact that the lungs are not emptied and re-inflated with each breath, provides mammals with a \"portable atmosphere\", whose composition differs significantly from the present-day ambient air.\n", "Another advantage is in the case where a user works at a supplier or partner site and needs access to network resources on both networks throughout the day. Split tunneling prevents the user from having to continually connect and disconnect.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n\nA disadvantage is that when split tunneling is enabled, users bypass gateway level security that might be in place within the company infrastructure. For example, if web or content filtering is in place, this is something usually controlled at a gateway level, not the client PC.\n", "Effective use of any alternate air source requires competence in the associated skill set. The procedures for receiving air from another diver or from one's own equipment are most effective and least likely to result in a life-threatening incident if well trained to the extent that they do not distract the diver from other essential matters. A major difference from buddy breathing is that the diver using a redundant alternative air source need not alternate breathing with the donor, which can be a substantial advantage in many circumstances. There is a further significant advantage when the alternate air source is carried by the diver using it, in that it is not necessary to locate the buddy before it is available, but this comes at the cost of extra equipment.\n", "Archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) and mammals show complete separation of the heart into two pumps for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of archosaurs evolved independently from that of mammals. In crocodilians, there is a small opening, the foramen of Panizza, at the base of the arterial trunks and there is some degree of mixing between the blood in each side of the heart, during a dive underwater; thus, only in birds and mammals are the two streams of blood—those to the pulmonary and systemic circulations—permanently kept entirely separate by a physical barrier.\n", "The lungs have a dual blood supply provided by a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the airways of the lungs, through the bronchial arteries that leave the aorta. There are usually three arteries, two to the left lung and one to the right, and they branch alongside the bronchi and bronchioles. The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns the oxygenated blood to the heart to supply the rest of the body.\n", "To use an inhaler without a spacer requires coordinating several actions in a set order (pressing down on the inhaler, breathing in deeply as soon as the medication is released, holding your breath, exhaling), and not everyone is able to master this sequence. Use of a spacer, particularly a valved holding chamber, avoids such timing issues. Valved holding chambers are particularly useful for children, people with severe shortness of breath, and those with cognitive impairment.\n", "Discontinuous gas exchange cycles vary widely among different species of insects, and these differences have been used in the past to support or refute hypotheses of the evolution of respiratory cycling in insects.\n\nSection::::Evolution of discontinuous gas exchange cycles.\n", "In case of insufficient amount of autologous nerve tissue or the inability to attach both nerve ends securely and tension free, these two options are not possible.\n", "Placement has been found to be easier with the aid of fiber optical equipment such as a bronchoscope. Currently, flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy examination is recommended before, during placement, and at the conclusion of the use of DLTs.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.\n\nOther methods of achieving a one sided lung ventilation are the Univent tube, which has a single tracheal lumen and blocker, and other endobronchial blockers.\n\nThe approach to ventilating each lung via a separate ventilator is called the DuoVent(TM) approach. This system operates by connecting both ventilators to a master control unit (MCU), allowing for synchrony between the two ventilators.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Carrier's constraint\n\nCarrier's constraint is the observation that air-breathing vertebrates which have two lungs and flex their bodies sideways during locomotion find it very difficult to move and breathe at the same time, because the sideways flexing expands one lung and compresses the other, shunting stale air from lung to lung instead of expelling it completely to make room for fresh air.\n\nIt was named, by English paleontologist Richard Cowen for David R. Carrier, who wrote his observations on the problem in 1987.\n\nSection::::Consequences.\n\nMost lizards move in short bursts, with long pauses for breath.\n", "Gas flow within the two-stroke engine is even more critical than for a four-stroke engine, as the two flows are both entering and leaving the combustion chamber simultaneously. A well-defined flow pattern is required, avoiding any turbulent mixing. The efficiency of the two-stroke engine depends on effective scavenging, the more complete replacement of the old spent charge with a fresh charge.\n", "If the probability of failure of each cell was statistically independent of the others, and each cell alone was sufficient to allow safe function of the rebreather, the use of three fully redundant cells in parallel would reduce risk of failure by five or six orders of magnitude.\n", "Split-cycle engines separate the four strokes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust into two separate but paired cylinders. The first cylinder is used for intake and compression. The compressed air is then transferred through a crossover passage from the compression cylinder into the second cylinder, where combustion and exhaust occur. A split-cycle engine is really an air compressor on one side with a combustion chamber on the other.\n\nPrevious split-cycle engines have had two major problems—poor breathing (volumetric efficiency) and low thermal efficiency. However, new designs are being introduced that seek to address these problems.\n" ]	[ "Humans should be able to inhale through on lung and exhale through the other." ]	[ "Inhaling the same gas you exhale wouldn't provide enough oxygen, and the diaphragm expands the entire chest which means it cannot contract one side at a time." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans should be able to inhale through on lung and exhale through the other.", "Humans should be able to inhale through on lung and exhale through the other." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Inhaling the same gas you exhale wouldn't provide enough oxygen, and the diaphragm expands the entire chest which means it cannot contract one side at a time.", "Inhaling the same gas you exhale wouldn't provide enough oxygen, and the diaphragm expands the entire chest which means it cannot contract one side at a time." ]
2018-02933	How come stalagmites and stalactites both occur in caves, but only ice stalagmites (AKA icicles) appear when it snows?	It's actually not that uncommon to see ice stalagmites (by the way you've got your icicles backwards, easy way to remember it is C is for ceiling) if you live a cold climate. My shed gets them and it eventually forms an ice wall if we've got a bad winter. Need some dripping water + consistently freezing temps though.	[ "A common stalactite found seasonally or year round in many caves is the ice stalactite, commonly referred to as icicles, especially on the surface. Water seepage from the surface will penetrate into a cave and if temperatures are below freezing the water will form stalactites. Creation may also be done by the freezing of water vapor. Similar to lava stalactites, ice stalactites form very quickly within hours or days. Unlike lava stalactites however, they may grow back as long as water and temperatures are suitable.\n", "In most of the world, bedrock caves are thermally insulated from the surface and so commonly assume a near-constant temperature approximating the annual average temperature at the surface. In some cold environments, such as that surrounding Mount Erebus, average surface (and thus cave) temperatures are below freezing, and with surface water available in summer, ice caves are possible and are sometimes overlain by fumarolic ice towers However, many ice caves exist in temperate climates, due to mechanisms that result in cave temperatures being \"colder\" than average surface temperatures where they formed.\n", "A common stalagmite found seasonally or year round in many caves is the ice stalagmite, commonly referred to as icicles, especially in above-ground contexts. Water seepage from the surface will penetrate into a cave and if temperatures are below freezing temperature, the water will collect on the floor into stalagmites. Deposition may also occur directly from the freezing of water vapor. Similar to lava stalagmites, ice stalagmites form very quickly within hours or days. Unlike lava stalagmites however, they may grow back as long as water and temperatures are suitable. Ice stalagmites are more common than their stalactite counterparts because warmer air rises to the ceilings of caves and may raise temperatures to above freezing.\n", "Ice stalactites may also form corresponding stalagmites below them, and given time, may grow together to form an ice column.\n\nSection::::Formation and type.:Concrete derived stalagmites.\n\nStalactites and stalagmites can also form on concrete ceilings and floors, although they form much more rapidly there than in the natural cave environment.\n", "Different freezing mechanisms result in visually and structurally distinct types of perennial cave ice.\n\n\"Ponded water\" - Surface water that collects and ponds in a cave before freezing will form a clear ice mass, and can be tens of metres thick and of great age. Large ice masses are plastic and can slowly flow in response to gravity or pressure from further accumulations. Sculpting from air flow and sublimation may reveal ancient accumulation bands within the ice.\n", "\"Permafrost\" - Even temperate environments can include pockets of bedrock that are below freezing year round, a condition called permafrost. For example, winter wind and an absence of snow cover may allow freezing deep enough to be protected from summer thaw, particularly in light-colored rock that does not readily absorb heat. Although the portion of a cave within this permafrost zone will be below freezing, permafrost generally does not allow water percolation, so ice formations are often limited to crystals from vapor, and deeper cave passages may be arid and completely ice-free. Ice caves in permafrost need not be cold-traps (although some are), provided they do not draught significantly in summer.\n", "This type of cave was first formally described by Englishman Edwin Swift Balch in 1900, who suggested the French term \"glacieres\" should be used for them, even though the term \"ice cave\" was then, as now, commonly used to refer to caves simply containing year-round ice. Among speleologists, \"ice cave\" is the proper English term. \n\nA cavity formed \"within\" ice (as in a glacier) is properly called a glacier cave.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nIce caves occur as static ice caves, such as Durmitor Ice Cave, and dynamic or cyclical ice caves, such as Eisriesenwelt.\n\nSection::::Temperature mechanisms.\n", "A distinction can be made between stratified slope deposits formed in screes and those of \"grèzes litées\" type. The first ones form in slopes with angles in excess of 30°, the latter ones in slopes with angles of 30–28° or as low as 5°. The \"grèzes litées\" type has been reported from Mediterranean mountains, Atlantic Europe, Central Europe, Himalaya, the Dry Andes and the Tropical Andes. There are relatively few reports of grèzes litées in the High Arctic, nevertheless these include Svalbard, Western Greenland and Southern Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.\n\nSection::::Early concept evolution.\n", "It is possible to sleep several consecutive nights in a snow cave, but care must be taken since a slight ice surface may develop on the inside of the cave from moisture in the exhaled air of the inhabitants. This is thought to result in reduced air ventilation through the snow cave walls and roof, and thus increase risk of suffocation. As a precaution it is common to scrape off a thin layer from the inside of the cave ceiling each day spent in the cave.\n", "During early summer, all three surveyed caves within the glacier are connected through perennial ice and are called the Snow Dragon Glacier Cave System. By late summer, the perennial ice melts away leaving only the disconnected glacier caves that have been individually named Snow Dragon, Pure Imagination, and Frozen Minotaur Caves. In 2013, a fourth glacier cave was discovered on the Sandy Glacier, but so far it has not been explored.\n\nSection::::Exploration.\n", "\"Evaporative cooling\" - In winter, dry surface air entering a moisture-saturated cave may have an additional cooling effect due to the latent heat of evaporation. This may create a zone within the cave that is cooler than the rest of the cave. Because many caves have seasonally-reversing draughts, the corresponding warming of the cave through condensation in summer may occur at a different location within the cave, but in any event a moisture-saturated cave environment is likely to experience much more evaporative cooling than condensative warming.\n\nSection::::Types of ice.\n", "Ice Mine is a mine shaft that may have been dug by prospectors looking for iron ore. Iron ore was not discovered but the prospectors did create a natural refrigerator. This has been formed in the shaft by the freezing and thawing of the rocks, melting snows and humid summer air. The rocks freeze in winter, contracting and allowing air to fill the empty spaces. Melting snow flows into the cave and is refrozen as ice. The ice remains thanks to cool air flowing down the mountainside and humid air rising up the mountain into the shaft. This process keeps the mine shaft icy until late summer.\n", "In summer, the cooler talus-covered slopes power an air exchange with sinkholes atop the ridge, with warm air entering the sinkhole to an ice cave. The air is cooled and vented on the algific slope. In winter, the airflow is reversed. Cool or cold air is drawn through the algific talus into the ice cave, with flowing water or atmospheric humidity being turned to ice. The air temperature on these slopes ranges from \"30 degrees F to 55 degrees F spring to fall\".\n", "Excavation may be accomplished more quickly if large blocks of interior snow are carved and slid out through a large, temporary \"excavation door\". Strength increases when all interior wall and ceiling surfaces follow an arched curve, with no flat sections. Once excavation is complete the excavation door can be permanently blocked using previously excavated blocks, and a smaller permanent door can be cut in the most desirable spot. Time and effort are required to hollow out the center of a Quinzhee, though these can be reduced by piling snow around a hollow structure, such as a pile of packs or a makeshift tent or dome. \n", "BULLET::::- III, II and I: Incorrectly labeled \"Proto-Solutréen\" by Schmidt, layer III and II were later correctly assigned to the Gravettian culture, that apart from bone fragments and ivory items, contained hardly any stone tools. reindeer, horse and snowshoe hare are most abundant.\n\nBULLET::::- The top layer I was re-attributed to the Magdalenian culture. It contained gouges, drills, scrapers and fragmented arrow tips made from antlers and ivory. Among the animal fossils are reindeer, horse, snowshoe hare, grouse, cave bear, mammoth and a small number of ibex remnants.\n", "Two other smaller caverns were also discovered in 2000, Queen’s Eye Cave and Candles Cave, and another chamber was found in a drilling project in 2009. The new cave, named Ice Palace, is deep and is not flooded, but its crystal formations are much smaller, with small \"cauliflower\" formations and fine, threadlike crystals.\n\nSection::::Exploration and scientific studies.\n", "Following the time-line, the next stratum is contemporary to the Riss glaciation in the Alps region (corresponding to the Illinoian in America) and contains few artefacts, still in the same cave of the Hyena. The Riss ice age was marked by two glaciations and one interglacial episode in between. During this Riss-Würm interglacial, the river flooded the cave of the Hyena but not continuously: remains of human habitat were found in the thick layer of deposits that it left behind. The sand present in the Reindeer cave (\"grotte du Renne\") is thought to have been deposited at the same period.\n", "Following this very damp period are a high number of Mousterian strata, notably in the Reindeer cave, the Bison cave and the Schoepflin gallery that prolongs them by 30 meters.\n\nThe Reindeer cave (\"grotte du Renne\") holds the richest Châtelperronian collection known to date, notably famous for its bone and ivory works.\n\nSection::::Surroundings.\n", "The cave contains a variety of formations, mostly concentrated in the southeast portion of the cave, where conditions are optimal for their growth. The speleothems present in the cave take a number of forms, most commonly stalactites (including the variant known as soda straws), stalagmites, columns, flow stone, draperies, and ribbons, but also including helectites, and cave pearls in rarer instances.\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n", "Tskaltubo is rich with karst caves. Such as “Satsurblia\" \"Prometheus\", \"Sataplia\" which provides visitors with breathtaking examples of stalactites, stalagmites, curtains, petrified waterfalls, cave pearls, underground rivers, and lakes. The temperature in the cave is always 13-15C.\n", "Section::::Mineral deposits.\n", "Inside the cave, water from rainfall and snow melt seeps down through the soil and cracks in the cave roof, accumulating as ice during the winter months. Dripping winter drainage often forms ice stalagmites that are tall. While the ice normally melts away in the summer, it has been known to last through an entire year before disappearing the following summer.\n", "Giant Crystal Cave was discovered in April 2000 by miners excavating a new tunnel for the Industrias Peñoles mining company located in Naica, Mexico, while drilling through the Naica fault, which they were concerned would flood the mine. The mining complex in Naica contains substantial deposits of silver, zinc and lead.\n", "Excavations started in the middle of the 19th century in the Fairies cave with their then owner the marquis de Vibraye. In his wake, the abbé Parat studied the main stratigraphic sequences in the caves and those of Saint-Moré upriver. Then from 1946 onward professor Leroy-Gourand and his team worked in the Hyena cave, Reindeer cave, Bison cave and Lagopede cave.\n", "Ice stalactites can also form under sea ice when saline water is introduced to ocean water. These specific stalactites are referred to as brinicles.\n\nIce stalactites may also form corresponding stalagmites below them and given time may grow together to form an ice column.\n\nSection::::Formation and type.:Concrete stalactites.\n" ]	[ "Only stalagmites appear when it snows.", "If stalagmites and stalactites both occur in caves, then it shouldn't need to snow to see icicles or stalagmites outdoors. " ]	[ "Both appear when it snows depending on the climate and amount of snow.", "Seeing icicles outdoors without snow is uncommon, icicles are also not called stalagmites, they are called stalactites. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only stalagmites appear when it snows.", "If stalagmites and stalactites both occur in caves, then it shouldn't need to snow to see icicles or stalagmites outdoors. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Both appear when it snows depending on the climate and amount of snow.", "Seeing icicles outdoors without snow is uncommon, icicles are also not called stalagmites, they are called stalactites. " ]
2018-07351	Why have illnesses adapted to be harmful ?	They haven't. They're just trying to be fruitful and multiply. Any illness brought to man or beast is simply happenstance, an unintended consequence of infection and proliferation. Besides that, most bacteria are generally harmless unless they grow out of control. Take Escherichia coli, for example (“E. coli” for short). It lives in the human intestine, and it's only a problem when other bacteria (“gut flora” is a technical term) aren't around to keep it in check. Other bacteria are downright helpful, such as Staphylococcus epidermidis. You might recognize its cousin S. aureus as the cause of “staph infections,” but S. epidermidis is harmless and can even help protect against skin cancer.	[ "According to the core message of the biodiversity hypothesis, it is essential to the development of our immune system that we are sufficiently exposed to diverse natural environments and especially to the microbes in them. The microbes in our surroundings influence our own microbiota which is further connected to our immune system. Furthermore, immunological disorders are the main cause of inflammatory diseases. In a sense, microbes train developing immune system to identify actual threats from harmless allergens, but there is not yet full consensus of the mechanism. During biological evolution, we have in a way outsourced many of the functions of our body to our microbiota. Microbiota trains immune system throughout the life: organs constantly process invacive particles and proteins. Functional immune system discriminates threatening particles from the harmless ones and products of one's own cells from foreign ones. Present populations of cities evidently have marks of chronic inflammation as a result of weakening immune defence.\n", "Anyhow, microbiotas of human body change throughout life and therefore all age groups benefit from being exposed to the microbes of natural environment. One's own way of life and choices related to housing, nutrition and movement are in an essential role in that exposure. Immune system can be strengthened throughout life with increased and diverse contact with nature. Immune system function weakens with age and therefore regular contact to natural environment is important to elders too.\n\nSection::::Urban planning.\n", "Human disease modifier gene\n\nA human disease modifier gene is a modifier gene that alters expression of a human gene at another locus that in turn causes a genetic disease. Whereas medical genetics has tended to distinguish between monogenic traits, governed by simple, Mendelian inheritance, and quantitative traits, with cumulative, multifactorial causes, increasing evidence suggests that human diseases exist on a continuous spectrum between the two.\n", "One psychological adaptation found solely in women is pregnancy sickness. This is an adaptation resulting from natural selection for the purpose of avoiding toxic-containing foods during pregnancy. Margaret Profet, an evolutionary biologist, provides evidence for this adaptation in a literature review on pregnancy sickness. Particular plant foods, whilst unharmful to adults, can contain toxins (e.g. teratogens) that are dangerous for developing embryos and can potentially cause birth defects such as facial asymmetry. Evidence lies in the finding that women who experience more extreme cases of pregnancy sickness tend to be less likely to miscarry or have babies with birth defects. This fits the criteria for an adaptation as it enhances fitness and increases reproductive success – it results in greater fertility of the mother and contributes to the health of the developing embryo.\n", "In humans, the gut microbiota has the largest numbers of bacteria and the greatest number of species compared to other areas of the body. In humans the gut flora is established at one to two years after birth, and by that time the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes have co-developed in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive of, the gut flora and that also provides a barrier to pathogenic organisms.\n", "When symbiotic gut flora populations are disrupted (e.g., by antibiotics), one becomes more vulnerable to pathogens. The rapid evolution of antibiotic resistance places an enormous selective pressure on the advantageous alleles of resistance passed down to future generations. The Red Queen hypothesis shows that the evolutionary arms race between pathogenic bacteria and humans is a constant battle for evolutionary advantages in outcompeting each other. The evolutionary arms race between the rapidly evolving virulence factors of the bacteria and the treatment practices of modern medicine requires evolutionary biologists to understand the mechanisms of resistance in these pathogenic bacteria, especially considering the growing number of infected hospitalized patients. The evolved virulence factors pose a threat to patients in hospitals, who are immunocompromised from illness or antibiotic treatment. Virulence factors are the characteristics that the evolved bacteria have developed to increase pathogenicity. One of the virulence factors of \"C\". \"difficile\" that largely constitutes its resistance to antibiotics is its toxins: enterotoxin TcdA and cytotoxin TcdB. Toxins produce spores that are difficult to inactivate and remove from the environment. This is especially true in hospitals where an infected patient's room may contain spores for up to 20 weeks. Combating the threat of the rapid spread of CDIs is therefore dependent on hospital sanitation practices removing spores from the environment. A study published in the \"American Journal of Gastroenterology\" found that to control the spread of CDIs glove use, hand hygiene, disposable thermometers and disinfection of the environment are necessary practices in health facilities. The virulence of this pathogen is remarkable and may take a radical change at sanitation approaches used in hospitals to control CDI outbreaks.\n", "Bacteria and fungi may form complex biofilms, protecting from immune cells and proteins; biofilms are present in the chronic \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Burkholderia cenocepacia\" infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.\n\nSection::::Immune evasion.:Viruses.\n", "Section::::Antibiotic resistance.:Nosocomial infections.\n\n\"Clostridium difficile\", gram-positive bacteria species that inhabits the gut of mammals, exemplifies one type of bacteria that is a major cause of death by nosocomial infections.\n", "An additional explanation for the overlap in symptoms shared by depression and sickness behavior is that the neurobiology associated with sickness behavior was co-opted to result in melancholic symptoms outside of illness by other adaptations. Based largely on the degree of overlap in symptoms major depression, sickness behavior, and starvation depression share, the argument is that sickness behavior likely evolved first due to its prevalence across animal species and the role infection plays as a major fitness threat. However, once the ability to down-regulate behavior to divert resources for immune function existed, the underlying mechanisms could then be used by other systems. This is thought to then allow for additional adaptations that add cognitive symptoms unique to melancholic depression to those stemming from normal sickness behavior.\n", "In his review of Noel T. Boaz's, \"Evolving Health: The Origins of Illness and How the Modern World is Making Us Sick\", Corruccini states,\n\nSection::::Academic life.:Research at Newton plantation.\n", "Cécile Vogt-Mugnier and her husband Oskar Vogt came up with the idea of pathoclisis through their research on insects and the human cerebral cortex. They defined it as the \"genomically-determined excessive variability, reaching in intensity the degree of pathological change\".\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nMore so than any other organ, the brain is remarkably heterogeneous in its cellular composition. The wide variety of cell types might thus be the basis for selective vulnerability.\n\nSection::::Role in neurodegenerative diseases.\n", "Researchers dispute whether this is actually a psychological adaptation, however evidence advocates it is the result of strong selective pressures in our hereditary past. For example, the toxins are found only in natural wild plant foods, not processed foods in our modern-day environment. Furthermore, pregnant women experiencing sickness have been found to avoid particular bitter or pungent smelling foods, potentially containing toxins. Pregnancy induced sickness only typically occurs 3 weeks after conception, around the time when the embryo has started forming major organs and is therefore at the highest risk. It is also a cross-cultural universal adaptation, a suggestion it is an innate mechanism.\n", "Apart from the true monogenic genetic disorders, environmental factors may determine the development of disease in those genetically predisposed to a particular condition. Stress, physical and mental abuse, diet, exposure to toxins, pathogens, radiation and chemicals found in almost all personal-care products and household cleaners are common environmental factors that determine a large segment of non-hereditary disease.\n\nIf a disease process is concluded to be the result of a combination of genetic and \"environmental factor\" influences, its etiological origin can be referred to as having a multifactorial pattern.\n", "More generally, the virulence of many pathogens in humans may not be a target of selection itself, but rather an accidental by-product of selection that operates on other traits, as is the case with antagonistic pleiotropy.\n\nSection::::Expansion into new environments.\n", "Firstly, the concept of adaptation is itself controversial, as it can be taken to imply, as the evolutionary biologists Stephen J. Gould and Richard Lewontin argued, that biologists agree with Voltaire's Doctor Pangloss in his 1759 satire \"Candide\" that this is \"the best of all possible worlds\", in other words that every trait is perfectly suited to its functions. However, all that evolutionary biology requires is the weaker claim that one trait is at least slightly better in a certain context than another, and hence is selected for.\n", "When health benefits that are based on diverse nature are taken seriously, cost savings may be major. For example, in Finland in year 2011, total costs of asthma and allergies for the society were 1,3—1,6 billion euros. The direct costs of allergic diseases, including disability to work, have decreased by 15% in the 2000s as a result of shift in Finnish national allergy programme. In the programme, the focus was shifted from curing the symptoms to prevention, for example by emphasizing connection to natural environment.\n\nSection::::Exposure to microbes.\n", "Recent comparative genomic studies have shown that immune response genes (protein coding and non-coding regulatory genes) have less evolutionary constraint, and are rather more frequently targeted by positive selection from pathogens that coevolve with the human subject. Of all the various types of pathogens known to cause disease in humans, helminths warrant special attention, because of their ability to modify the prevalence or severity of certain immune-related responses in human and mouse models. In fact recent research has shown that parasitic worms have served as a stronger selective pressure on select human genes encoding interleukins and interleukin receptors when compared to viral and bacterial pathogens. Helminths are thought to have been as old as the adaptive immune system, suggesting that they may have co-evolved, also implying that our immune system has been strongly focused on fighting off helminthic infections, insofar as to potentially interact with them early in infancy. The host-pathogen interaction is a very important relationship that serves to shape the immune system development early on in life.\n", "With selection, evolution can also produce more complex organisms. Complexity often arises in the co-evolution of hosts and pathogens, with each side developing ever more sophisticated adaptations, such as the immune system and the many techniques pathogens have developed to evade it. For example, the parasite \"Trypanosoma brucei\", which causes sleeping sickness, has evolved so many copies of its major surface antigen that about 10% of its genome is devoted to different versions of this one gene. This tremendous complexity allows the parasite to constantly change its surface and thus evade the immune system through antigenic variation.\n", "Section::::Prevention of inflammatory diseases and maintenance of health.\n\nMild inflammation and immunological imbalance are characteristic to a group of chronic non-communicable diseases and disorders that threaten public health. These include asthma, allergies, diabetes, inflammatory bowel diseases, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, neurological diseases and mental disorders. Prevention of many of these diseases have been improved by affecting known risk factors, but they explain only a fraction of chronic diseases and have not revealed the bottom reasons of increasing incidence of allergies.\n", "One hypothesis suggests that enhanced expression of proinflammatory cytokines and other mediators of inflammation in the maternal, fetal, and neonatal compartments may interfere with brain development, thereby increasing the risk for long-term brain dysfunction later in life.\n\n\"Increased Pro-inflammatory Cytokines\"br \n", "Section::::Natural selection in humans.\n\nThe Malaria parasite can exert a selective pressure on populations. This pressure has led to natural selection for erythrocytes carrying the sickle cell hemoglobin gene mutation (Hb S)—causing sickle cell anaemia—in areas where malaria is a major health concern, because the condition grants some resistance to this infectious disease.\n\nSection::::Resistance to herbicides and pesticides.\n\nJust as with the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, resistance to pesticides and herbicides has begun to appear with commonly used agricultural chemicals. For example:\n", "Section::::Possibilities of depression as a dysregulated adaptation.\n\nDepression, especially in the modern context, may not necessarily be adaptive. The ability to feel pain and experience depression, are adaptive defense mechanisms, but when they are \"too easily triggered, too intense, or long lasting\", they can become \"dysregulated\". In such a case, defense mechanisms, too, can become diseases, such as \"chronic pain or dehydration from diarrhea\". Depression, which may be a similar kind of defense mechanism, may have become dysregulated as well.\n", "One plausible mechanistic explanation for such phenomena could be, for example, a result of host immune genes that rapidly evolve in a continues arms race with members of its microbiome.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n", "An alternative explanation is that the developing immune system must receive stimuli (from infectious agents, symbiotic bacteria, or parasites) to adequately develop regulatory T cells. Without that stimuli it becomes more susceptible to autoimmune diseases and allergic diseases, because of insufficiently repressed T1 and T2 responses, respectively. For example, all chronic inflammatory disorders show evidence of failed immunoregulation. Secondly, helminths, non-pathogenic ambient pseudocommensal bacteria or certain gut commensals and probiotics, drive immunoregulation. They block or treat models of all chronic inflammatory conditions. \n\nSection::::Evidence.\n", "Disease-causing mutations in specific genes are usually severe in terms of gene function, and are fortunately rare, thus genetic disorders are similarly individually rare. However, since there are many genes that can vary to cause genetic disorders, in aggregate they constitute a significant component of known medical conditions, especially in pediatric medicine. Molecularly characterized genetic disorders are those for which the underlying causal gene has been identified, currently there are approximately 2,200 such disorders annotated in the OMIM database.\n" ]	[ "Illnesses adapted specifically to be harmful.", "Illnesses have adapted to be harmful. " ]	[ "They did not evolve to be like that, they just need to reproduce. Some bacteria are not harmful and are helpful.", "Illnesses have not adapted to be harmful, they just multiply. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Illnesses adapted specifically to be harmful.", "Illnesses have adapted to be harmful. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They did not evolve to be like that, they just need to reproduce. Some bacteria are not harmful and are helpful.", "Illnesses have not adapted to be harmful, they just multiply. " ]
2018-22362	Could I repeat mythbusters truck cannon experiment on the ISS?	1) Basically yes. The velocity relative to the surface would be 0, but as the object starts to fall and the earth rotates under it it would probably gain a small amount of surface-relative velocity. Especially once it hits the atmosphere and wind becomes a strong factor. 2) I don't know if it's exactly a Coriolis force, but the ball would have some surface-relative velocity. 3) Only if you have some very clever idea for how to launch an object from the ISS at 7.2 km/s. That's faster than even most railgun prototypes, and the stuff you're planning to drop probably is a lot more delicate than a railgun slug. 4) It would be exactly as through the ISS had fired its boosters; rocket engines work by throwing something out the back of the rocket at high speed, which is just what you're doing here. Lauching an object of nontrivial mass at that much speed would add significant energy to the ISS's orbit, which would probably raise its perigee some and make the orbit more eliptical.	[ "List of rocket experiments on Zingst\n\nSection::::Rocket Experiments.\n", "The Foot Controlled Maneuvering Unit was tested within Skylab. The purpose of it was to free the astronaut's hands. It was propelled by cold, high-pressured nitrogen gas located in a tank on the back. It was tested both suited and unsuited.\n\nSection::::Models.:Manned Maneuvering Unit.\n", "HTV-1 carried four and a half tonnes of payload, lower than the six tonne maximum payload of the HTV in order to allow the spacecraft to carry additional propellant and batteries for the in-orbit verification phase of the flight.\n\nIn the Unpressurised Logistics Carrier, the HTV-1 carried SMILES (Superconducting Submillimetre-Wave Limb Emission Sounder) and HREP (HICO-RAIDS Experiment Payload), which both were installed in the JEM Exposed Facility on the ISS. The Pressurised Logistics Carrier carried 3.6 tonnes of supplies for the International Space Station.\n", "BULLET::::- On the maiden flight of the SpaceX Falcon Heavy launch vehicle on February 6, 2018, Elon Musk used his Tesla Roadster as a dummy payload with a mannequin driver, which was sent to a heliocentric elliptical orbit with an aphelion of 2.6 AU by the second stage.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Project Mercury\n\nBULLET::::- Project Gemini\n\nBULLET::::- Project Apollo\n\nBULLET::::- Space Shuttle Pathfinder\n\nBULLET::::- Orion Abort Test Booster\n\nBULLET::::- Battleship (rocketry)\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- MSNBC: \"Orion Boilerplate Story\"(updated: 10:11 a.m. MT, Wed., March. 21, 2007)\n\nBULLET::::- BusinessTech: \"Orion-Ares Story\"(posted: 6 September 2006 10:41 am ET)\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Apollo History Archives\n", "An important part of the crew's schedule was regular exercise. They had three pieces of equipment for this: a stationary bicycle, a treadmill (TVIS), and a resistance device (IRED) for weight-lifting. The bicycle malfunctioned in mid-December 2000, and wasn't fixed until March. The treadmill, which used bungee cords to keep the crew member in place, was designed to reduce the vibrations caused by running. A normal treadmill would have produced enough vibrations to shake the station, and potentially affect the sensitive science experiments on board. The treadmill malfunctioned near the end of February, but some in-flight maintenance fixed the problem within a week.\n", "BULLET::::- FRAM-4 (top side) High Pressure Gas Tank (HPGT) (Oxygen depleted) replaced the one carried up on ELC-2, which was used to replace a depleted tank from Quest in EVA during STS-129\n\nBULLET::::- FRAM-5 (top side) Control Moment Gyroscope (CMG SN102) launched on ELC-2\n\nBULLET::::- FRAM-6 (keel side) Pump Module (PM SN0004). Originally held PM SN0005, launched on ELC-2. Healthy SN0005 and degraded SN0004 (on ESP-2) swapped robotically on 6 March 2015.\n", "BULLET::::- Cargo Transport Container (CTC) each can weigh between 1,000 and 1,300 lb A container used to transport smaller ORUs such as Remote Power Control Modules in bulk, which may also be used during EVA or by the SPDM. NASA purchased 5 CTCs for such deliveries.\n\nThree units – CTC-3 formerly on ELC-2 FRAM-2 (top side), was later moved to ESP-2 FRAM-3 via SPDM. CTC-2 on ELC-4 FRAM-2 (keel side), CTC-5 on ELC-3 FRAM-1 (top side)\n\nBULLET::::- Pitch/Roll-Joint (P/R‐J) x 2 units on the SSRMS. A Wrist joint with several degrees of freedom, designed to be replaced on orbit if required.\n", "In order to test these myths, the Build Team made a trip to the Marshall Space Flight Center to use one of their specialized vacuum chambers. The hammer and feather demonstration was not aired in the original episode due to time constraints, but can be seen as a supplement on the MythBusters website.\n\nSection::::Episode 105 – \"Viral Hour\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: September 3, 2008\n", "BULLET::::- The Common Propulsion Module Test Vehicle (CPM TV) performed its first successful test flight on March 29, 2014. The payloads included two CubeSats, a Synergy Moon payload and a music CD by \"ENCLOSURE\" by former Red Hot Chili Peppers guitarist, John Frusciante. The rocket reached an altitude of 10,000 feet and will be reused for the next test flight. All payloads were recovered intact.\n\nSection::::Research and development.:Satellite kits.\n", "BULLET::::- 2D Array - The 2d array system was launched as a small module inside of the SFU. This experiment was deployed to show that large structures could (in fact) be built in space.\n\nBULLET::::- HVSA - The Solar Array was a power source put into this system to head up multiple experiments. It is used to test the creation of \"electricity\" in the denseness of space from the use of technology only.\n", "BULLET::::- Self-siphoning beads — demonstrates momentum, energy and inertia\n\nBULLET::::- Water rocket — demonstrates conservation of momentum, conservation of energy, the gas laws and basic rocketry\n\nBULLET::::- Franklin bells — demonstrate electric charges\n\nBULLET::::- Oxford Electric Bell — an experimental electric bell that was set up in 1840 and which has run nearly continuously ever since\n\nBULLET::::- Wimshurst machine — an electrostatic generator\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n\nBULLET::::- Ammonia fountain — introduces concepts like solubility and the gas laws at entry level.\n\nBULLET::::- Barking dog reaction — demonstrates rapid exothermic chemical reaction\n", "BULLET::::- A VA spacecraft would have been launched mated together with a Functional Cargo Block (FGB) to resupply an Almaz station, in both crewed and uncrewed flights; This combination was known as the TKS spacecraft.\n\nWhile the VA spacecraft has seen some successful uncrewed test flights, both with and without a Functional Cargo Block, it never served in its intended role as a lunar or Almaz crew vehicle when the programs was canceled, and neither was it ever launched together with an Almaz space station.\n", "BULLET::::- Student Experiment on ASTRO-SPAS (SEAS)\n\nBULLET::::- Wake Shield Facility (WSF-3)\n\nBULLET::::- NIH-R4\n\nBULLET::::- Space Experiment Module (SEM)\n\nBULLET::::- EVA Development Flight Tests (EDTF-5)\n\nBULLET::::- Crane\n\nBULLET::::- Battery Orbital Replacement Unit\n\nBULLET::::- Cable Caddy\n\nBULLET::::- Portable Work Platform\n\nBULLET::::- Portable Foot Restraint Work Station (PFRWS)\n\nBULLET::::- Temporary Equipment Restraint Aid (TERA)\n\nBULLET::::- Articulating Portable Foot Restraint\n\nBULLET::::- Body Restraint Tether (BRT)\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-Use Tether (MUT)\n\nBULLET::::- Visualization in an Experimental Water Capillary pumped Loop (VIEW-CPL)\n\nBULLET::::- Biological Research In Canister (BRIC)\n\nBULLET::::- Commercial Materials Dispersion Apparatus Instrumentation Technology Associates Experiment (CCM-A) (formerly STL/NIH-C-6)\n\nBULLET::::- Commercial MDA ITA Experiment (CMIX-5)\n", "BULLET::::- Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) start and run\n\nBULLET::::- Air Data Probe (ADP) deployment\n\nBULLET::::- Main Landing Gear (MLG) arming and deployment\n\nBULLET::::- Drag chute arming and deployment\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel cell reactant valve closure\n", "This expedition also used the ISSpresso machine and tested a special cup designed to be drunk from in microgravity by using capillary flow. This was a further development of a zero gravity cup invented by astronaut Donald Pettit and tested on ISS in 2008. The new zero g coffee cup idea was further developed by a Fluid physicist at Portland State University among others.\n\nSection::::Crew.\n\nBULLET::::- Source: Spacefacts\n", "BULLET::::- Cargo Ascent and Return Vehicle: The CARV would deliver a redesigned capsule, capable of bringing back payload from orbit. It could be installed in place of the ATV pressurized cargo hold. In addition, it could be adapted to use a berth rather than a docking port at the US side of the station. Given the larger berthing ports there, it would be possible to transfer complete International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs) from the ATV to the station, which is only possible with the H-II Transfer Vehicle.\n", "On December 6, 2011, while conducting the \"Cannonball Chemistry\" experiment, the MythBusters crew accidentally sent a cannonball through the side of a house and into a minivan in a Dublin, California, neighborhood. Although the experiment was being carried out at the Alameda County Sheriff's Bomb Range under the supervision of the Alameda County Sheriff's Office, the errant projectile went over its intended target of water barrels and instead skipped up a hill that was intended as a secondary safety target, and soared into a neighboring community, striking a house and leaving a hole, before striking the roof of another house and smashing through a window of a parked minivan. No one was hurt by the rogue cannonball.\n", "BULLET::::- A small aerodynamic reentry module\n\nBULLET::::- A cylindrical service module with solar panels attached\n", "Four additional mounting slots were located on the top of the carrier and could accept 33 inch (83.8 centimeter) by 27 inch (68.6 centimeter) pallets or 33 inch (83.8 centimeter) by 55 inch (139.7 centimeter) pallets in any combination with up to 500 pounds (226.8 kilograms) of equipment. Any customer experiments and hardware that could be mounted on the side-mount carrier could also be flown on the cross-bay carrier.\n\nSection::::Astronaut involvement.\n", "BULLET::::- Robonaut 2 has an incredible pair of arms, and a set of legs in development, but what it needs is a way to attach itself to the outer walls of the International Space Station while in open space. Design a \"zero-G-foot\" for Robonaut 2 that will provide stability and support during space walks.\n\nBULLET::::- The James Webb Space Telescope is a large infrared space telescope designed to replace the Hubble Space Telescope. Design a large shield that can keep JWST cold while also allowing it to detect infrared light from faint sources such as distant galaxies and extrasolar planets.\n", "To test the structural integrity of a station which consisted of three spacecraft, the four men held onto their exercise treadmill and bounced up and down to see if this amplified any vibrations. It had been found that resonant frequencies could be created by running at certain speeds. The crew found that the station was perfectly safe with two spacecraft docked.\n", "To effect the simultaneous initiation of motion for the two cannonballs, one cannonball was fastened to a rope hanging through the muzzle opening of the cannon. When the cannon fired, the projected cannonball broke the suspension rope of the other, and the two cannonballs commenced their motion simultaneously. Due to experimental errors, the results, although close to Galileo's prediction, were deemed inconclusive by the academics.\n", "BULLET::::- Heat Rejection System Radiator (HRSR) launched on the top side of ELC-4\n\nBULLET::::- FRAM-1 (keel side) Cargo Transport Container-2 (CTC-2) delivered to ISS by HTV-2 (EP) via SPDM held by the SPDM since its initial delivery by the HTV-2\n\nBULLET::::- FRAM-2 (keel side) MUSES delivered by SpaceX Dragon CRS-11\n", "BULLET::::- CE Franklin \"British Rockets of the Napoleonic and Colonial Wars 1805-1901\". Spellmount Ltd.\n\nBULLET::::- Werrett, Simon. ‘William Congreve’s Rational Rockets.’ \"Notes & Records of the Royal Society\" 63 (2009): 35-56\n\nBULLET::::- In Timothy Mo's novel about the foundation of Hong Kong, \"An Insular Possession\", Congreve rockets are used by Captain Elliot from the steamer \"Nemesis\" against Chinese forts on the Pearl River.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Flashman at the Charge,\" a novel, Flashman is forced by Yakub Beg to shoot Congreve rockets against Russian munition ships during the period of the Crimean War.\n", "BULLET::::- A traversable interface between parts of the station spinning relative to each other requires large vacuum-tight axial seals.\n\nSection::::Centripetal.:Manned spaceflight.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15288	Why is televangelist Jim Bakker allowed to solicit donations on TV after going to jail for fraudulently soliciting donations on TV?	Because he served his time. And you do get a bucket of freeze dried food. If you get what you paid for (prayer, food buckets, etc.) it’s not fraud. What he got in trouble for was selling real estate that he couldn’t deliver because he was siphoning off the money.	[ "A confidential 1985 Internal Revenue Service report found that $1.3 million in ministry funds were used for the Bakkers' personal benefit from 1980 to 1983. The report recommended that PTL be stripped of its tax-exempt status but no action was taken until the Jessica Hahn scandal in 1987. Art Harris and Michael Isikoff wrote in \"The Washington Post\" that politics may have played a role in the three government agencies taking no action against PTL despite the evidence against them, as members of the Reagan administration were not eager to go after television ministers whose evangelical followers made up their base.\n", "A federal grand jury indicted Bakker for directing millions of dollars of church funds to personal use. Much of the nation watched the court case to see the outcome of the $165 million in donations.\n", "In 2005, one local church had an incident involving pedophilia, where an elder involved in running a boys' club was convicted of molesting young children. His fellow-elders complied with the secular authorities, and when the offending elder was found guilty by the court, he was duly excommunicated.\n", "On July 23, 1996, a North Carolina jury threw out a class action suit brought on behalf of more than 160,000 onetime supporters who contributed as much as $7,000 each to Bakker's coffers in the 1980s.\n", "BULLET::::- Chip Diller – Landis receives a letter from Diller, who is currently serving as a missionary in Africa. He recalls how he was prevented from going to Vietnam as his father was a prime donor to several right-wing political campaigns. When he learned of Doug Neidermeyer's fragging in Vietnam, he fell into alcoholism and despair. When he began seeing Jesus in his food, he became a born-again Christian and fell into his current profession as minister and missionary.\n", "Section::::U.S. Attorney General.:Prosecuted Klan.\n", "Section::::Career.:PTL.:Sexual misconduct and resignation.\n\nA $279,000 payoff for the silence of Jessica Hahn, who alleged that Bakker and former \"PTL Club\" co-host John Wesley Fletcher drugged and raped her, was paid with PTL's funds through Bakker's associate Roe Messner. Bakker, who made the PTL organization's financial decisions, allegedly kept two sets of books to conceal accounting irregularities. \"The Charlotte Observer\" reporters, led by Charles Shepard, investigated the PTL organization's finances and published a series of articles.\n", "In 1979, Bakker and his PTL ministry came under investigation by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for allegedly misusing funds raised on the air. The FCC report was finalized in 1982 and found that Bakker had raised $350,000 that he told viewers would go towards funding overseas missions but were actually used to pay for part of Heritage USA. The report also found that Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker used PTL funds for personal expenses. FCC commissioners voted four to three to drop the investigation, after which they allowed Bakker to sell the only TV station that he owned, therefore bypassing future FCC oversight. The FCC forwarded their report to the Justice Department, who declined to press charges, citing insufficient evidence. Bakker used the controversy to raise more funds from his audience, branding the investigation a \"witch-hunt\", and asking viewers to \"give the Devil a black eye\".\n", "However, during this time, the Bakkers are being investigated for various acts of scandalous behavior, beginning with Jim's 1980 affair with then-church secretary Jessica Hahn. They are also investigated for fraud (specifically, using followers' donated funds to support an upscale lifestyle as well as finance the Heritage USA project). These investigations ultimately led to a highly-publicized scandal involving the Bakkers and the PTL ministry in March 1987, which gained national attention. The Bakkers are defrocked and the PTL ministry and Heritage USA are then taken over by another televangelist, Rev. Jerry Falwell. Jim is later sentenced to prison on fraud and conspiracy charges (but this is not depicted in the movie).\n", "On November 1, 2008, just days before the United States presidential election between Barack Obama and John McCain, NBC ran an NRT anti-Obama ad featuring Jeremiah Wright during a broadcast of \"Saturday Night Live\". According to \"Newsweek\", \"the ad attacking Obama's former pastor was slick, with much better production values than the crude Reverend Wright videos running on the Internet. But it was too little, too late.\" Dann reported that the ad cost more than $11 million.\n", "Section::::Use of campaign funds for legal defense.:2012 FEC lawsuit.\n", "In 2007, Senator Chuck Grassley opened a probe into the finances of six televangelists who preach a \"prosperity gospel\". The probe investigated reports of lavish lifestyles by televangelists including: fleets of Rolls Royces, palatial mansions, private jets, and other expensive items purportedly paid for by television viewers who donate due to the ministries' encouragement of offerings. The six that were investigated are:\n\nBULLET::::- Kenneth and Gloria Copeland of Kenneth Copeland Ministries of Newark, Texas;\n\nBULLET::::- Creflo Dollar and Taffi Dollar of World Changers Church International and Creflo Dollar Ministries of College Park, Ga;\n", "In 2007, United States Senator Chuck Grassley announced an investigation of Hinn's ministry by the United States Senate Committee on Finance. In a letter to BHM, Grassley asked for the ministry to divulge financial information to the Senate Committee on Finance to determine if Hinn made any personal profit from financial donations, and requested that Hinn's ministry make the information available. The investigation also scrutinized five other televangelists: Paula White, Kenneth Copeland, Eddie L. Long, Joyce Meyer, and Creflo Dollar.\n", "KSL TV also reported that Herbert had meetings with, and received donations from Fred Lampropoulos, CEO of Merit Medical, months before the Governor's Office of Economic Development awarded a tax break to Merit to expand its business in Utah.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Campaign contributions.:2016.\n", "BULLET::::15. Hi. My name is Journey. I'm from Texas. And this question is for all (inaudible) pro-life candidates. In the event that abortion becomes illegal and a woman obtains an abortion anyway, what should she be charged with, and what should her punishment be? What about the doctor who performs the abortion?\n\nBULLET::::16. Hi. This is Tyler Overman from Memphis, Tennessee. And I have a quick question for those of you who would call yourselves Christian conservatives. The death penalty, what would Jesus do?\n", "Section::::Comments on Dover, Pennsylvania.\n\nOn his November 10, 2005 broadcast of \"The 700 Club\", Robertson told citizens of Dover, Pennsylvania that they had rejected God by voting out of office all seven members of the school board who support intelligent design.\n\n\"I'd like to say to the good citizens of Dover: if there is a disaster in your area, don't turn to God, you just rejected him from your city\", Robertson said on his broadcast.\n", "Section::::Controversies.:Foreclosure notice on home.\n", "In April 2019, Suhor was acquitted of the charges of trespassing and resisting arrest at the ECUA Headquarters, saying \"I feel good that we won, I feel that it's absolutely ridiculous that it got to this point. I have video proof that (ECUA chairwoman) Lois Benson lied under oath, and she knew it, saw I had the proof and didn't even bother to recant.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Separation of church and state in the United States\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Satanic Temple & The Separation of Church and State- WGBH News Nov 20, 2017\n", "Section::::Controversies.:Jesse Owens.\n", "He added that the decision would not apply to all members of the evangelical community: \"We want to see who in the group supports his (Robertson's) statements. Those who support the statements cannot do business with us. Those that publicly support Ariel Sharon's recovery ... are welcome to do business with us.\"\n", "Jane Whaley was convicted of misdemeanor assault in 2004 as a result of an incident two years earlier where former member Lacy Wien described \"blasting\" by a group of members, followed by the assault by Whaley. Wien was suing the church for $2.5 million in a separate case. After five years of appeals, the conviction was overturned.\n", "In 2008 ADF launched Pulpit Freedom Sunday with 35 churches—including several mega-churches–to directly challenge the Johnson Amendment. In acts of civil disobedience, pastors give sermons on \"blatantly political\" topics, which may include providing \"biblical perspectives\" on or endorsements of particular candidates, in defiance of IRS regulations and in hopes of triggering a First Amendment court challenge to the provisions. The 2008 event included Minnesota reverend Gus Booth, who encouraged his congregation to vote in the 2008 United States presidential election for Senator John McCain, and prohibited them from voting for Senator Barack Obama because of his position on abortion.\n", "Section::::Caperton Appeal.\n\nIn 2007, when the case came before the West Virginia Supreme Court, Caperton petitioned for Justice Benjamin to recuse himself because of Blankenship's contributions during the campaign. Benjamin declined and was ultimately part of the 3 to 2 majority that overturned the $50 million verdict.\n", "On October 13, 2016, Reverend Billy was arrested while protesting the World Food Prize in Des Moines, Iowa. He was charged with trespass for leaving the \"free speech area\" set up near the event. The prosecutor for the state requested \"that the Court preclude evidence or argument regarding 'free speech rights,' 'free expression,'right to assemble,' and/or other First Amendment arguments and evidence that 'free speech rights' can constitute 'justification' under the Iowa's criminal trespass statute, Iowa Code §716.7 (2015).\" The judge in the case ultimately dismissed the charges. \n", "Jamie McDaniel, a spokesperson for Soulforce who works to change the antigay policies of the SBC, said: \"It’s tragic that so many, like Rev. Latham, have never been told the truth that they can live with dignity and express their God-given sexuality in ways that are open, honest, loving and life-affirming. Trapped by Southern Baptist misinformation, many people of faith think their only option is to live a dark and secretive double-life. The SBC needs to be held accountable for causing this kind of needless suffering.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01101	How do restaurants with trackers know where you sit with pinpoint precision?	There is another device attached to the table that can tell it the table number through short range wireless (RFID). The system associates a tracker's ID with the order number. When the tracker is places on the table, it reads the table number from the RFID tags under the table and sends it to main device, along with the tracker's ID.	[ "Systems that use locating technologies that do not go through walls, such as infrared or ultrasound, tend to be more accurate in an indoor environment because only tags and receivers that have line of sight (or near line of sight) can communicate.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nRTLS can be used numerous logistical or operational areas such as:\n\nBULLET::::- locate and manage assets within a facility, such as finding a misplaced tool cart in a warehouse or medical equipment\n\nBULLET::::- notification of new locations, such as an alert if a tool cart improperly has left the facility\n", "A number of disparate system designs are all referred to as \"real-time locating systems\", but there are two primary system design elements:\n\nSection::::Locating concepts.:Locating at choke points.\n", "Typical restaurant POS software is able to create and print guest checks, print orders to kitchens and bars for preparation, process credit cards and other payment cards, and run reports. In addition, some systems implement wireless pagers and electronic signature-capture devices.\n", "Section::::Non-radio technologies.:Positioning based on visual markers.\n\nA visual positioning system can determine the location of a camera-enabled mobile device by decoding location coordinates from visual markers. In such a system, markers are placed at specific locations throughout a venue, each marker encoding that location's coordinates: latitude, longitude and height off the floor. Measuring the visual angle from the device to the marker enables the device to estimate its own location coordinates in reference to the marker. Coordinates include latitude, longitude, level and altitude off the floor.\n\nSection::::Non-radio technologies.:Location based on known visual features.\n", "The simplest form of choke point locating is where short range ID signals from a moving tag are received by a single fixed reader in a sensory network, thus indicating the location coincidence of reader and tag. Alternately, a choke point identifier can be received by the moving tag, and then relayed, usually via a second wireless channel, to a location processor. Accuracy is usually defined by the sphere spanned with the reach of the choke point transmitter or receiver. The use of directional antennas, or technologies such as infrared or ultrasound that are blocked by room partitions, can support choke points of various geometries.\n", "Another way to calculate relative location is if mobile tags communicate directly with each other, then relay this information to a location processor.\n\nSection::::Locating concepts.:Location accuracy.\n", "Online casinos and poker rooms have used geolocation in various ways over time. The first online casinos existed when few laws governed the internet (let alone online gambling), and players were simply asked to state their location. As laws regulating online gambling were passed, it became necessary to use technology to prove the physical location of players.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Wireless tracking uses a set of anchors that are placed around the perimeter of the tracking space and one or more tags that are tracked. This system is similar in concept to GPS, but works both indoors and outdoors. Sometimes referred to as indoor GPS. The tags triangulate their 3D position using the anchors placed around the perimeter. A wireless technology called Ultra Wideband has enabled the position tracking to reach a precision of under 100 mm. By using sensor fusion and high speed algorithms, the tracking precision can reach 5 mm level with update speeds of 200 Hz or 5 ms latency.\n", "A collection of successive snapshots from a mobile device's camera can build a database of images that is suitable for estimating location in a venue. Once the database is built, a mobile device moving through the venue can take snapshots that can be interpolated into the venue's database, yielding location coordinates. These coordinates can be used in conjunction with other location techniques for higher accuracy. Note that this can be a special case of sensor fusion where a camera plays the role of yet another sensor.\n\nSection::::Wireless technologies.\n", "Most systems use a continuous physical measurement (such as angle and distance or distance only) along with the identification data in one combined signal. Reach by these sensors mostly covers an entire floor, or an aisle or just a single room. Short reach solutions get applied with multiple sensors and overlapping reach.\n\nSection::::Wireless technologies.:Angle of arrival.\n", "The devices are linked wirelessly to a master computer within the bar or restaurant or to a central computer which controls many sites. In Minnesota control computers are linked to the Minnesota Gambling Control Board, which oversees all of the devices.\n\nSection::::Legality.\n", "BULLET::::- Geographical distance: This score is inversely proportional to the distance between the target place and the typical places that a user frequently visits. Other studies have shown that overall distribution of distances is similar to power-law distribution. The formula below calculates the probability of check-in for user formula_4 in place formula_3 according to its distance from all check-ins of user formula_4.formula_14\n", "Section::::Hospitality industry.\n\nHospitality point of sale systems are computerized systems incorporating registers, computers and peripheral equipment, usually on a computer network to be used in restaurants, hair salons or hotels. Like other point of sale systems, these systems keep track of sales, labor and payroll, and can generate records used in accounting and bookkeeping. They may be accessed remotely by restaurant corporate offices, troubleshooters and other authorized parties.\n", "To make quick service possible and to ensure accuracy and security, many fast food restaurants have incorporated hospitality point of sale systems. This makes it possible for kitchen crew people to view orders placed at the front counter or drive through in real time. Wireless systems allow orders placed at drive through speakers to be taken by cashiers and cooks. Drive through and walk through configurations will allow orders to be taken at one register and paid at another. Modern point of sale systems can operate on computer networks using a variety of software programs. Sales records can be generated and remote access to computer reports can be given to corporate offices, managers, troubleshooters, and other authorized personnel.\n", "Each Stock Exchange has opening hours that are based on specific time zones. People can trade in these exchanges remotely using electronic trading platforms. For those trading in different parts of the world, there are unique Trading Days based on the hours associated with any given time zone. For example, NASDAQ is open 9:30-16:00 ET and anyone outside of the Eastern Standard time zone will have a different Trading Day. The Trading Day for a person in Vancouver would be 6:30-13:00. During the part of the year when the US is on Standard time, in it would be 17:30-24:00 in Moscow, and in Shanghai it would be 22:30-5:00. Remote traders should find their trading hours based on the Stock Exchange hours and time zone.\n", "Section::::Robotics Technologies.:Blockout and Activity Zones.\n\nTo eliminate common false alarm triggered by popular audio or PIR sensors, Amaryllo devises an option on the mobile app to allow consumers to define areas where they can be ignored or can be monitored by their robots. If a robot are led to a certain area where movement later stops, the robot will rotate itself to resume it's predefined \"home\" positions to safeguard the most important asset. The combination of the above, enables Amaryllo robots to reduce false alarm raised by conventional pixel-based sensors.\n\nSection::::Robotics Technologies.:Fire Warning.\n", "Instead of long range measurement, a dense network of low-range receivers may be arranged, e.g. in a grid pattern for economy, throughout the space being observed. Due to the low range, a tagged entity will be identified by only a few close, networked receivers. An identified tag must be within range of the identifying reader, allowing a rough approximation of the tag location. Advanced systems combine visual coverage with a camera grid with the wireless coverage for the rough location.\n\nSection::::Wireless technologies.:Long range sensor concepts.\n", "Section::::Mobile robot navigation.:Autonomously randomized robot.\n\nAutonomous robots with random motion basically bounce off walls, whether those walls are sensed.\n\nSection::::Mobile robot navigation.:Autonomously guided robot.\n", "BULLET::::- Near: Within a couple of meters\n\nBULLET::::- Far: Greater than 10 meters away\n\nAn iBeacon broadcast has the ability to approximate when a user has entered, exited, or lingered in region. Depending on a customer's proximity to a beacon, they are able to receive different levels of interaction at each of these three ranges.\n", "BULLET::::- Location aware systems operate semi-automatically. They sense the location by several alternative technologies and provide the related content. If the sensing area is not narrow enough to detect every different object then the visitor will enter or select the content he or she wants. Location aware systems provides better quality tours to disabled people.\n", "BULLET::::- In step 6, we use the context of the particular task activities to establish the distances and, therefore, the resolutions at which the relevant objects and entities must be measured and recognized by the sensory processing component. This establishes a set of requirements and/or specifications for the sensor system to support each subtask activity.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "In January 2017, the Crowne Plaza ANA Narita hotel began using HOSPI robots primarily for serving drinks and clearing the tables. Panasonic also announced in the same year that there are four hospitals in Japan that use the HOSPI technology. In the same period, Narita International Airport also became the location of the first demonstration experiment of a HOSPI variant designed as an autonomous signage robot. This experiment is designed to evaluate the value of the signage robot in such a setting.\n\nCapabilities\n\nHospi has security features that prevent theft, its contents from being stolen.\n", "In-store analytics has become more like online store analytics. Using MAL, stores can see where shoppers go and where they linger, detect whether they are shopping alone or with friends or children, and match shopping to weather. One company with small stores located in malls found that the space just inside the entry was a dead zone, so they moved the popular items further inside the store. Another store couldn’t tell which display sold more effectively because they had duplicate inventory. They were about to remove the wall displays when they decided to check traffic with a Mobile Location Analytics company. After creating a heat map, they made the floor displays smaller and easier for customers to walk through to reach the wall displays. The stores want analytics to see if the displays erected at the end of aisles eat away the sales of the same item stacked halfway down the aisle or if they contribute to additional sales.\n", "Pedestrian dead reckoning and other approaches for positioning of pedestrians propose an inertial measurement unit carried by the pedestrian either by measuring steps indirectly (step counting) or in a foot mounted approach, sometimes referring to maps or other additional sensors to constrain the inherent sensor drift encountered with inertial navigation. The MEMS inertial sensors suffer from internal noises which result in cubically growing position error with time. To reduce the error growth in such devices a Kalman Filtering based approach is often used.\n", "DynaPCN Passenger Counter is based on noncontact stereoscopic vision. It is able to count individuals entering or leaving buses, trams or trains. The device can record time and date information for later statistical analysis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00964	how can they continue to discover more chambers in the pyramids year after year	Several reasons: * Better technology. Many chambers were detected by sonar or radar. They would send a signal through the stones and listen for irregular echoes. Today's sonar and radar imaging techniques are better than they were in the past. The equipment is more sensitive, uses different frequencies, and with digital signal processing, they can construct a better, 3D map. Robots can crawl through tinier spaces than ever before. * Different technology. IR and UV cameras that weren't available to the public several years ago are now consumer off-the-shelf technology. Drones can carry cameras to vantage points that were inaccessible before. * Different permissions. You have to get permission from the Government of Egypt to do scientific studies of the pyramids. Over time, the types and locations of research have changed.	[ "The newly revealed shaft descends some five metres. At the bottom of this pit stands a 1.5 metre tall door made of stone blocks. Behind this door, in which the team originally opened up a small window for the 10 February 2006 event, stands the single chamber.\n", "In May 2008, Zahi Hawass announced that an Egyptian team has been looking for the tomb of Ramesses VIII, concentrating around the tombs of Merenptah and Ramesses II. In August 2008, it was announced that two further tomb entrances had been located, and these would be investigated in October 2008. At the same time, clearance of the descending tunnel in KV17 has started.\n", "The pyramid does not have internal chambers, the chambers being located underground. These were constructed in a deep open ditch dug before the pyramid construction started and only later covered by the pyramid. The entrance to the underground chambers is located north of the pyramid from a pavement in the court in front of the pyramid face. This is different from the 4th dynasty pyramids for which the entrance to the internal chambers is located on the pyramid side itself. The entrance was hewn into the bedrock and floored and roofed with large slabs of white limestone, most of which have been removed in modern times.\n", "A small team headed by N. B. Millet of the Royal Ontario Museum and the architect J. E. Knudstad has been working at the site of the pyramid town and pyramid since 1989. Their goal is to expand on Petrie's work by re-gathering architectural details of the monuments there, which Petrie had neglected to record in his reports.\n\nOn 28 June 2019, the pyramid was opened to visitors for the first time since its discovery.\n\nSection::::Mortuary complex.\n\nSection::::Mortuary complex.:Main pyramid.\n", "The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, \"Upuaut 2\". After a climb of , he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone \"doors\" with two eroded copper \"handles\". Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it. The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.\n", "Section::::Muon scattering tomography.:Pyramid chamber detection.\n\nMuon tomography is extensively used for the ScanPyramid mission, which was launched on October 2015, in the hope of discovering hidden chambers in the Egyptian pyramids. The main objective was to use non destructive methods to find new pathways and chambers within the pyramid. In November 2017, it was reported that three separate teams independently found a large hidden chamber in the Great Pyramid of Giza with the help of muon tomography.\n\nSection::::CRIPT detector.\n", "The vertical shaft of KV63 was re-discovered on 10 March 2005. The discovery that the shaft led to a chamber was announced on 8 February 2006, by the Supreme Council of Antiquities, which credited the find to a team of U.S. archaeologists from the University of Memphis, under the leadership of Dr. Otto Schaden. The chamber — given the name \"KV63\" in accordance with the sequential numbering convention used in the Valley — was initially thought to be a tomb, the first new one to be revealed there since the discovery of KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun, by Howard Carter in 1922.\n", "Further excavations have revealed that the tomb is even larger than was first thought, as it contains more corridors, with more rooms, branching off from previously discovered parts of the tomb. At least 130 rooms or chambers have been discovered as of 2006 (only about 7% of which have been cleared), and work is still continuing on clearing the rest of the tomb.\n", "In 2013, the team began an effort to preserve the ancient Canaanite mudbrick gate and complex near the water system. \"Most of the first two weeks of the dig were spent searching for the bottom step and cleaning Macalister’s causeway. Tons of debris and rocks were removed in the process. When the bottom step was located and the causeway area clear, the team excavated three probes in the pool area. Each of the pool probes reached a depth of more than six feet before the end of the season and the bottom of the pool was discovered in only one probe (Eastern probe) — the one just below the bottom step of the water shaft.\"\n", "Djedefre's pyramid was architecturally different from those of his immediate predecessors in that the chambers were beneath the pyramid instead of inside. The pyramid was built over a natural mound and the chambers were created using the 'pit and ramp' method, previously used on some mastaba tombs. Djedefre dug a pit 21m x 9m and 20m deep in the natural mound. A ramp was created at an angle of 22º35' and the chambers and access passage were built within the pit and on the ramp. Once the 'inner chambers' were finished, the pit and ramp were filled in and the pyramid built over the top. This allowed the chambers to be made without tunneling, and avoided the structural complications of making chambers within the body of the pyramid itself.\n", "Hawass's archaeological team began excavating the site in 2006. The discovery of the pyramid was made in September 2008 with the unearthing of the structure from the sand. The structure originally reached in height, with sides long.\n\nOnce five stories tall, the pyramid was discovered beneath of sand, a small shrine, and mud-brick walls from later periods. It is the third known \"subsidiary\" pyramid to Teti's tomb and originally was and at its base, due to its walls having stood at a 51-degree angle. Buried next to the Saqqara Step pyramid, its base lies nineteen metres underground.\n", "Various expeditions have continued to explore the valley, adding greatly to the knowledge of the area. In 2001 the Theban Mapping Project designed new signs for the tombs, providing information and plans of the open tombs.\n", "Neville and Jenny are attacked by men wearing Anubis masks. The attackers escape. Stephen is surprised when Papa Antionio tells him that the men tried to enter his room but stopped when they saw light in his room. Papa Antonio orders his workers to repair the windows and has Neville and Jenny switch rooms with two of his workers. He also has some of his workers sit on the roof to make sure the attackers don’t come back again. Neville finds a letter one of the attackers dropped. It's from The Sphinx.\n", "Lehner's team has more recently included parts of Menkaure's valley temple and the town attached to the monument of Queen Khentkawes in their excavations. AERA's 2009 field season was recorded in a blog. AERA has conducted a number of archaeological field schools for Egyptian antiquities inspectors under the auspices of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities. The AERA team has run basic and advanced courses at Giza, as well as courses in salvage archaeology along the Avenue of Sphinxes north of Luxor Temple in the city of Luxor.\n", "When Gaston Maspero was reappointed to head the Egyptian Antiquities Service, the nature of the exploration of the valley changed again. Maspero appointed Howard Carter as the Chief Inspector of Upper Egypt, and the young man discovered several new tombs, and explored several others, clearing KV42 and KV20.\n\nSection::::Twentieth century.\n", "At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837–1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J.S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.\n", "In 1994, a team of archaeologists from the Czech Institute of Egyptology at Charles University in Prague began investigating a second large shaft tomb at Abusir in Egypt. In 1996, they located a burial chamber at the bottom of the shaft, below the desert. As they excavated they found tunnels that had been previously built by looters; these tunnels ended a few meters (yards) above the burial chamber. The shaft had been built through weak, brittle clay, and the team took the precaution of building a protective roof of reinforced concrete over the burial chamber to prevent a collapse of the shaft. The tomb and its vaulted roof were created from white limestone blocks, and a white limestone sarcophagus almost filled the chamber. The contents of the tomb were intact, making this the first unrobbed shaft tomb found in Egypt since 1941. The researchers dated the tomb to the late 26th dynasty (before 525 BC).\n", "There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so-called Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The main part of the Giza complex is a set of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller \"satellite\" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs for nobles surrounding the pyramid.\n", "When Gaston Maspero was reappointed as head of the Egyptian Antiquities Service, the nature of the exploration of the valley changed again. Maspero appointed English archaeologist Howard Carter as the Chief Inspector of Upper Egypt, and the young man discovered several new tombs and explored several others, clearing KV42 and KV20.\n", "While some of the inner framework of Senusret's pyramid has been preserved, the pyramid itself is almost all rubble. The burial chamber is flooded by Nile seepage water, and many of the pyramid's treasures were stolen in antiquity. According to the excavations, the tomb was robbed shortly after being sealed. Besides the central tomb passage, another tunnel has been found, its use being to transport funerary materials to the chambers. Maspero concluded that the transporting tunnel was used by thieves to rob the pyramid, because this is where funerary goods from the king’s chambers were found.\n", "Section::::Morturary complex.\n\nSection::::Morturary complex.:Layout.\n\nThe mortuary complex of Userkaf comprises the same structures as those of Userkaf's 4th dynasty predecessors: a high wall surrounded the complex with its pyramid and high temple and there was certainly a valley temple located closer to the Nile, yet to be uncovered. The valley temple was connected to the pyramid by a causeway whose exact trajectory is unknown, even though its first few meters are still visible today.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Area D-West\" (2005, 2008–present) – First opened in 2005 to investigate a possible throne room for the final palace, D-West has been open every year during the portion of the expedition devoted to excavation, which started in 2008, for the purpose of further uncovering palatial structures. In 2013, a storage room was found in D-West which was later identified as a wine cellar.\n", "The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, vertically above ground level and east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0 high and wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23\" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After , the passage becomes level and continues for an additional to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.\n", "The pyramid's true entrance is found on its north side. From here, a hallway lined with pink granite leads to a small room at the core of the pyramid, from where a shaft connects to the burial chamber. The chamber has been filled with Nile seepage water over the years, making new discoveries difficult. Attempts have been made to keep water out but pumping has not worked. No full statues of Amenemhat I were unearthed during archaeological expeditions. However, a limestone statuette's head, thought to belong to an image of the pharaoh, has been discovered.\n", "Khendjer's second portcullis chamber, antechamber and corridor were constructed in the corner of a large trench dug in the ground. The burial chamber, which is made of a colossal monolithic quartzite block, was placed in the trench before the pyramid construction started, in a manner similar to the burial chamber of Amenemhet III at Hawara. The weight of the quartzite block was estimated at 150 tons by G. Jéquier. The block was carved into two compartments destined to receive the king's coffin, canopic chest and funerary goods. Two large quartzite beams weighing 60 tons formed its roof. Once the block and its roof had been put into position, the workers built a gabled roof of limestone beams and a brick vault above it to relieve the weight of the pyramid. The mechanism for closing the vault consisted of sand-filled shafts on which rested the props of the northern ceiling slab. This would be lowered on the vault on draining the sand. After draining all the sand, the workmen escaped through the corridor which they filled with masonry and paved over its opening in the antechamber.\n" ]	[ "It should not be possible to discover more chambers in pyramids each and every year." ]	[ "Technology advances have allowed people to discover more chambers in pyramids every year. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It should not be possible to discover more chambers in pyramids each and every year.", "It should not be possible to discover more chambers in pyramids each and every year." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Technology advances have allowed people to discover more chambers in pyramids every year. ", "Technology advances have allowed people to discover more chambers in pyramids every year. " ]
2018-13530	How come we can store data on a CD? How does CD works	The reflective side of a CD is covered in tiny "dents" left by the disc burner. An LED laser is shot at the reflective part of the CD and then is reflected back at what is known as a "photodiode" which is a small device that produces a small charge when light hits it. The "dents" on the reflective side represent "0"s while the lack of a dent can represent a "1" and these effect the values received by the photodiode that can then be read as binary code.	[ "History of optical storage media\n\nAlthough research into optical data storage has been ongoing for many decades, the first popular system was the Compact Disc, introduced in 1982, adapted from audio (CD-DA) to data storage (the CD-ROM format) with the 1985 \"Yellow Book\", and re-adapted as the first mass market optical storage medium with CD-R and CD-RW in 1988. Compact Disc is still the \"de facto\" standard for audio recordings, although its place for other multimedia recordings and optical data storage has largely been superseded by DVD.\n", "Data is stored on the disc as a series of microscopic indentations. A laser is shone onto the reflective surface of the disc to read the pattern of pits and lands (\"pits\", with the gaps between them referred to as \"lands\"). Because the depth of the pits is approximately one-quarter to one-sixth of the wavelength of the laser light used to read the disc, the reflected beam's phase is shifted in relation to the incoming beam, causing destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam's intensity. This is converted into binary data.\n\nSection::::CD-ROM discs.:Standard.\n", "For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio. However, in 1988, the \"Yellow Book\" CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.\n\nSection::::Logical format.:Video CD (VCD).\n", "In 1997, Yamaha undertook a successful, large-scale experiment that connected MIDI instruments together over the Internet, enabling Ryuichi Sakamoto to transmit a keyboard performance to thousands of locations simultaneously. The next year, Yamaha announced a new technology called MidLive RS that developed this concept further, incorporating MIDI data into the RealSystem G2 video/audio SDK provided by RealNetworks. This technology enabled a Disklavier performance in one part of the world to be accurately reproduced in near real time on a similar instrument elsewhere in the world.\n", "Although research into optical data storage has been ongoing for many decades, the first popular system was CD, introduced in 1982, adapted from audio (CD-DA) to data storage (the CD-ROM format) with the 1985 \"Yellow Book\", and re-adapted as the first mass market optical storage medium with CD-R and CD-RW in 1988. Compact Disc is still the \"de facto\" standard for audio recordings, although its place for other multimedia recordings and optical data storage has largely been superseded by DVD.\n", "In the mid-1990s, a consortium of manufacturers (Sony, Philips, Toshiba, Panasonic) developed the second generation of the optical disc, the DVD.\n\nMagnetic disks found limited applications in storing the data in large amount. So, there was the need of finding some more data storing techniques. As a result, it was found that by using optical means large data storing devices can be made which in turn gave rise to the optical discs.The very first application of this kind was the Compact Disc (CD) which was used in audio systems.\n", "CD-Text is an extension of the \"Red Book\" specification for audio CD that allows for storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the lead-in area of the CD, where there is roughly five kilobytes of space available, or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.\n", "A recording medium is a physical material that holds information. Newly created information is distributed and can be stored in four storage media–print, film, magnetic, and optical–and seen or heard in four information flows–telephone, radio and TV, and the Internet as well as being observed directly. Digital information is stored on electronic media in many different recording formats.\n", "Disk storage is now used in both computer storage and consumer electronic storage, e.g., audio CDs and video discs (standard DVD and Blu-ray).\n", "Section::::Writable compact discs.\n\nSection::::Writable compact discs.:Recordable CD.\n\nRecordable Compact Discs, CD-Rs, are injection-molded with a \"blank\" data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated. The write laser of the CD recorder changes the colour of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. CD-Rs follow the \"Orange Book\" standard.\n", "In June 1985, the computer-readable CD-ROM (read-only memory) and, in 1990, CD-Recordable were introduced, also developed by both Sony and Philips. Recordable CDs were a new alternative to tape for recording music and copying music albums without defects introduced in compression used in other digital recording methods. Other newer video formats such as DVD and Blu-ray use the same physical geometry as CD, and most DVD and Blu-ray players are backward compatible with audio CD.\n", "Section::::Logical format.:Photo CD.\n", "Section::::Technical specifications.:Data access from computers.\n\nUnlike on a DVD or CD-ROM, there are no \"files\" on a \"Red Book\" audio CD; there is only one continuous stream of LPCM audio data, and a parallel, smaller set of 8 subcode data streams. Computer operating systems, however, may provide access to an audio CD as if it contains files. For example, Windows represents the CD's Table of Contents as a set of Compact Disc Audio track (CDA) files, each file containing indexing information, not audio data.\n", "CD Video\n\nCD Video (also known as CDV, CD-V, or CD+V) is a format of optical media disc that was introduced in 1987 that combines the technologies of standard compact disc and LaserDisc. CD-V discs are the same size as a standard 12-cm audio CD, and contain up to 20 minutes' worth of CD Audio that can be played on any audio CD player. It also contains up to 5 minutes of LaserDisc video information with digital CD-quality sound, which can be played back on a newer LaserDisc player capable of playing CD-V discs. \n\nSection::::Description.\n", "A DD-1EX Data Discman is in the permanent collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum and is currently displayed in the V&A's 20th Century Gallery. This early model did not include the ability to play sound. \n", "A CD is made from thick, polycarbonate plastic and weighs 15–20 grams. From the center outward, components are: the center spindle hole (15 mm), the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the program (data) area, and the rim. The inner program area occupies a radius from 25 to 58 mm.\n", "Compact disc\n\nCompact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony and released in 1982. The format was originally developed to store and play only sound recordings (CD-DA) but was later adapted for storage of data (CD-ROM). Several other formats were further derived from these, including write-once audio and data storage (CD-R), rewritable media (CD-RW), Video Compact Disc (VCD), Super Video Compact Disc (SVCD), Photo CD, PictureCD, CD-i, and Enhanced Music CD. The first commercially available audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan.\n", "The dye materials developed by Taiyo Yuden made it possible for CD-R discs to be compatible with Audio CD and CD-ROM discs.\n", "CD and DVD discs can be used as part of e-communications. Entire marketing presentations, catalogues, brochures and price lists can be stored on a CD. CDs are small and simple to hand out to target audiences and most modern computers have CD drive readers, however most of the same information can be presented on a website or email.\n\nSection::::Integrated marketing communications.\n", "Light induced magnetization melting in magnetic photoconductors has also been proposed for high-speed low-energy consumption magneto-optical storage.\n\nSection::::Storage media.:Paper.\n\nPaper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole.\n", "In October 2000, South Korean software company Cowon Systems released their first MP3 player, the CW100, under the brand name iAUDIO.\n\nSection::::History.:Archos Jukebox.\n\nIn December 2000, some months after the Creative's \"NOMAD Jukebox\", Archos released its \"Jukebox 6000\" with a 6GB hard drive.\n\nSection::::History.:Apple iPod.\n", "The frames of channel data are finally written to disc physically in the form of pits and lands, with each pit or land representing a series of zeroes, and with the transition points—the edge of each pit—representing 1.\n\nA Red Book-compatible CD-R has pit-and-land-shaped spots on a layer of organic dye instead of actual pits and lands; a laser creates the spots by altering the reflective properties of the dye.\n\nSection::::Technical specifications.:Data structure.\n", "Section::::Inner workings.:Analogue signal recovery from the disc.\n\nTo read the data from the disc, a laser beam shines on the surface of the disc. Surface differences between discs being played, and tiny position differences once loaded, are handled by using a movable lens with a very close focal length to focus the light on the disc. A low mass lens coupled to an electromagnetic coil is in charge of keeping focused the beam on the 600 nm wide data track.\n", "Section::::Further developments and applications.:Computer control.\n\nIn the early 1980s, Philips produced a LaserDisc player model adapted for a computer interface, dubbed \"professional\". In 1985, Jasmine Multimedia created LaserDisc jukeboxes featuring music videos from Michael Jackson, Duran Duran, and Cyndi Lauper. When connected to a PC this combination could be used to display images or information for educational or archival purposes, for example thousands of scanned medieval manuscripts. This strange device could be considered a very early equivalent of a CD-ROM.\n", "Philips later teamed up with Sony to develop a new type of disc, the compact disc or CD. Introduced in 1982 in Japan (1983 in the U.S. and Europe), the CD is about in diameter, and is single-sided. The format was initially designed to store digitized sound and proved to be a success in the music industry.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15257	What happens to someone when he or she consumes too much antibiotics and grows a resistance against it?	It's more accurate to say that the bacteria you're trying to treat will grow resistant to the antibiotic, not that the person becomes resistant to the drug. If bacteria grows resistant to antibiotics, it will develop into a strain that can't be treated with medication any more - which means that any symptoms that that bacteria cause in you will get worse and will no longer be fixed by prescriptions. One of the biggest and more immediate problems with taking too many antibiotics is that it kills all the good bacteria in your gut that helps you process food, however. This makes it really difficult to have normal digestion, which can cause really bad (and sometimes fatal) cases of diarrhea. Sometimes when this happens, that good bacteria will then eventually become resistant to the antibiotic and will come back in a form that's no longer helpful to you and begins to hurt you as much as bad bacteria would.	[ "Factors within the intensive care unit setting such as mechanical ventilation and multiple underlying diseases also appear to contribute to bacterial resistance. Poor hand hygiene by hospital staff has been associated with the spread of resistant organisms.\n\nCounterfeit medications may contain sub-therapeutic concentrations of antibiotics, designed to reduce the chance of detection, and this by definition, increases antimicrobial resistance.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Veterinary medicine.\n", "A course of one week of antibiotics is usually sufficient to treat the condition. However, if the condition recurs, antibiotics can be given in a cyclical fashion in order to prevent tolerance. For example, antibiotics may be given for a week, followed by three weeks off antibiotics, followed by another week of treatment. Alternatively, the choice of antibiotic used can be cycled.\n\nThe condition that predisposed the patient to bacterial overgrowth should also be treated. For example, if the bacterial overgrowth is caused by chronic pancreatitis, the patient should be treated with coated pancreatic enzyme supplements.\n", "BULLET::::2. mutations in the promoter regions of \"mtr\", resulting in the overexpression of genes that code for efflux pumps\n\nBULLET::::3. mutations in the \"penB\" gene that encodes for the bacterial porin. This form of resistance has only been observed with ceftriaxone which is administered through an intramuscular injection.\n\nSection::::Tetracyclines.\n", "Various microorganisms have survived for thousands of years by their ability to adapt to antimicrobial agents. They do so via spontaneous mutation or by DNA transfer. This process enables some bacteria to oppose the action of certain antibiotics, rendering the antibiotics ineffective. These microorganisms employ several mechanisms in attaining multi-drug resistance:\n\nBULLET::::- No longer relying on a glycoprotein cell wall\n\nBULLET::::- Enzymatic deactivation of antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased cell wall permeability to antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Altered target sites of antibiotic\n\nBULLET::::- Efflux mechanisms to remove antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Increased mutation rate as a stress response\n", "Because individuals may feel better before the infection is eradicated, doctors must provide instructions to them so they know when it is safe to stop taking a prescription. Some researchers advocate doctors' using a very short course of antibiotics, reevaluating the patient after a few days, and stopping treatment if there are no clinical signs of infection.\n\nCertain antibiotic classes result in resistance more than others. Increased rates of MRSA infections are seen when using glycopeptides, cephalosporins, and quinolone antibiotics. Cephalosporins, and particularly quinolones and clindamycin, are more likely to produce colonisation with \"Clostridium difficile\".\n", "BULLET::::4. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface These pumps within the cellular membrane of certain bacterial species are used to pump antibiotics out of the cell before they are able to do any damage. They are often activated by a specific substrate associated with an antibiotic. as in fluoroquinolone resistance.\n", "Some bacteria have developed resistance to multiple antibiotics, so-called \"superbugs.\" Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one example, and can be life-threatening without the appropriate therapy. Other examples of emerging resistant organisms include vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE), \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\" carbapenemase (KPC), and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing E coli (ESBL).\n\nIn order to combat the rise of antimicrobial resistance, antimicrobial stewardship programs have begun that focus on educating clinicians to improve their use of antibiotics by focusing on evidence-based approaches to minimize resistance.\n\nSection::::Examples of broad-spectrum antibiotics.\n\nIn humans: \n\nBULLET::::- Aminoglycosides (except for streptomycin)\n\nBULLET::::- Ampicillin\n\nBULLET::::- Amoxicillin\n\nBULLET::::- Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (Augmentin)\n", "BULLET::::- Broad-spectrum antibiotics administered within two hours of admission/diagnosis. For every hour a patient is denied AB therapy after the onset of septic shock, the patient's chance of survival is reduced by 7.9% (Survivesepsis.org 2005)\n\nFurther management is centered on Early Goal Directed Therapy (EGDT).\n\nBULLET::::- In the event of hypotension and/or lactate 4 mmol/L, delivering an initial minimum of 20 ml/kg of crystalloid or 5mls/kg of colloid. Recent updates to Surviving Sepsis Campaign recommend 30ml/kg bolus.\n", "Destruction of the resistant bacteria can also be achieved by phage therapy, in which a specific bacteriophage (virus that kills bacteria) is used.\n\nThere is research being done using antimicrobial peptides. In the future, there is a possibility that they might replace novel antibiotics.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Antibiotic resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Fecal bacteriotherapy\n\nBULLET::::- Mass drug administration\n\nBULLET::::- Multidrug resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmacoepidemiology\n\nBULLET::::- Small multidrug resistance protein\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eleftheria terrae\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations—An EU project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European hospitals\n\nBULLET::::- Merck - Tolerance and Resistance\n", "Children with impetigo can return to school 24 hours after starting antibiotic therapy as long as their draining lesions are covered.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nAntibiotics, either as a cream or by mouth, are usually prescribed. Mild cases may be treated with mupirocin ointments. In 95% of cases, a single 7-day antibiotic course results in resolution in children. It has been advocated that topical antiseptics are not nearly as efficient as topical antibiotics, and therefore should not be used as a replacement.\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – netilmicin\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 – ceftriaxone\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 – micronomicin\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 – cefmenoxime\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 – ceftazidime\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 – ceftizoxime\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 – norfloxacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 – cefonicid\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 – cefotetan\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 – temocillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 – cefpiramide\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 – imipenem/cilastatin, the first carbapenem\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 – ofloxacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – mupirocin\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – aztreonam\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – cefoperazone/sulbactam\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – co-ticarclav (ticarcillin/clavulanic acid)\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 – ampicillin/sulbactam\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 – cefixime\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 – roxithromycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 – sultamicillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 – ciprofloxacin, the first 2nd-gen fluoroquinolone\n", "Section::::Research.:Antibiotics: Biosynthesis and Resistance Mechanisms.\n", "Several factors determine the most appropriate choice for the initial antibiotic regimen. These factors include local patterns of bacterial sensitivity to antibiotics, whether the infection is thought to be a hospital or community-acquired infection, and which organ systems are thought to be infected. Antibiotic regimens should be reassessed daily and narrowed if appropriate. Treatment duration is typically 7–10 days with the type of antibiotic used directed by the results of cultures. If the culture result is negative, antibiotics should be de-escalated according to person's clinical response or stopped altogether if infection is not present to decrease the chances that the person is infected with multiple drug resistance organisms. In case of people having high risk of being infected with multiple drug resistance organisms such as \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\", \"Acinetobacter baumannii\", addition of antibiotic specific to gram-negative organism is recommended. For Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin or teicoplanin is recommended. For Legionella infection, addition of macrolide or fluoroquinolone is chosen. If fungal infection is suspected, an echinocandin, such as caspofungin or micafungin, is chosen for people with severe sepsis, followed by triazole (fluconazole and itraconazole) for less ill people. Prolonged antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended in people who has SIRS without any infectious origin such as acute pancreatitis and burns unless sepsis is suspected.\n", "BULLET::::1. Drug inactivation or modification: for example, enzymatic deactivation of \"penicillin\" G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases. Most commonly, the protective enzymes produced by the bacterial cell will add an acetyl or phosphate group to a specific site on the antibiotic, which will reduce its ability to bind to the bacterial ribosomes and disrupt protein synthesis.\n", "To limit the development of antimicrobial resistance, it has been suggested to:\n\nBULLET::::- Use the appropriate antimicrobial for an infection; e.g. no antibiotics for viral infections\n\nBULLET::::- Identify the causative organism whenever possible\n\nBULLET::::- Select an antimicrobial which targets the specific organism, rather than relying on a broad-spectrum antimicrobial\n\nBULLET::::- Complete an appropriate duration of antimicrobial treatment (not too short and not too long)\n\nBULLET::::- Use the correct dose for eradication; subtherapeutic dosing is associated with resistance, as demonstrated in food animals.\n\nBULLET::::- More thorough education of and by prescribers on their actions' implications globally.\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – rifaximin, the first ansamycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – azithromycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – flomoxef\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – isepamycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – midecamycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – rifapentine\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – teicoplanin\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 – cefpodoxime\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 – enrofloxacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 – lomefloxacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 – moxifloxacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 – arbekacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 – cefodizime\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 – clarithromycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 – cefdinir\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – cefetamet\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – cefpirome\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – cefprozil\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – ceftibuten\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – fleroxacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – loracarbef\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – piperacillin/tazobactam\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – rufloxacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 – brodimoprim\n", "Resistance may take the form of biodegredation of pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethazine-degrading soil bacteria introduced to sulfamethazine through medicated pig feces.\n\nThe survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance, but the growth of resistance to antibacterials also occurs through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use.\n", "BULLET::::- Hospitalized patients without risk for \"pseudomonas\": This group requires intravenous antibiotics, with a quinolone active against \"streptococcus pneumoniae\" (such as levofloxacin), a β-lactam antibiotic (such as cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ampicillin/sulbactam or high-dose ampicillin plus a macrolide antibiotic (such as azithromycin or clarithromycin) for seven to ten days.\n", "BULLET::::- 1972 – minocycline\n\nBULLET::::- 1972 – pristinamycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1973 – fosfomycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1974 – talampicillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1975 – tobramycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1975 – bacampicillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1975 – ticarcillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1976 – amikacin\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 – azlocillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 – cefadroxil\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 – cefamandole\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 – cefoxitin\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 – cefuroxime\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 – mezlocillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 – pivmecillinam\n\nSection::::From 1978.\n\nBULLET::::- 1979 – cefaclor\n\nBULLET::::- 1980 – cefmetazole\n\nBULLET::::- 1980 – cefotaxime\n\nBULLET::::- 1980 – piperacillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 – co-amoxiclav (amoxicillin/clavulanic acid)\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 – cefoperazone\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 – cefotiam\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 – cefsulodin\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 – latamoxef\n", "Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that \"most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections.\" On 26 May 2016 an E coli bacteria \"superbug\" was identified in the United States resistant to colistin, \"the last line of defence\" antibiotic.\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – ampicillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1961 – spectinomycin\n\nBULLET::::- 1961 – sulfamethoxazole\n\nBULLET::::- 1961 – trimethoprim, the first dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor\n\nBULLET::::- 1962 – cloxacillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1962 – fusidic acid\n\nBULLET::::- 1963 – fusafungine\n\nBULLET::::- 1963 – lymecycline\n\nBULLET::::- 1964 – gentamicin\n\nBULLET::::- 1964 – cefalotin, the first cephalosporin\n\nBULLET::::- 1966 – doxycycline\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 – carbenicillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 – rifampicin\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 – nalidixic acid, the first quinolone\n\nBULLET::::- 1968 – clindamycin, the second lincosamide\n\nBULLET::::- 1970 – cefalexin\n\nBULLET::::- 1971 – cefazolin\n\nBULLET::::- 1971 – pivampicillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1971 – tinidazole\n\nBULLET::::- 1972 – amoxicillin\n\nBULLET::::- 1972 – cefradine\n", "Cultures should be taken before treatment when indicated and treatment potentially changed based on the susceptibility report.\n\nAbout a third of antibiotic prescriptions written in outpatient settings in the United States were not appropriate in 2010 and 2011. Doctors in the U.S. wrote 506 annual antibiotic scripts for every 1,000 people, with 353 being medically necessary.\n\nHealth workers and pharmacists can help tackle resistance by: enhancing infection prevention and control; only prescribing and dispensing antibiotics when they are truly needed; prescribing and dispensing the right antibiotic(s) to treat the illness.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the individual level.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the hospital level.\n\nAntimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the farming level.\n", "The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.\n", "Preventive measures include only using antibiotics when needed, thereby stopping misuse of antibiotics or antimicrobials. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance, as well as side effects. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential. Health care providers can minimize spread of resistant infections by use of proper sanitation and hygiene, including handwashing and disinfecting between patients, and should encourage the same of the patient, visitors, and family members.\n" ]	[ "When someone consumes too much antibiotics they grow a resistance against it." ]	[ "Bacteria can grow resistant to an antibiotic; a person does not becomes resistant to an antibiotic." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "When someone consumes too much antibiotics they grow a resistance against it." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bacteria can grow resistant to an antibiotic; a person does not becomes resistant to an antibiotic." ]
2018-04272	Why are green bell peppers always cheaper than their red, yellow, and orange counterparts?	Quicker and easier to grow. Green peppers are the youngest of the four, and are therefore picked sooner and can be replanted quicker. Less resources are used, so they're cheaper.	[ "Section::::Colors.\n\nThe most common colors of bell peppers are green, yellow, orange and red. More rarely, brown, white, lavender, and dark purple peppers can be seen, depending on the variety. Most typically, unripe fruits are green or, less commonly, pale yellow or purple. Red bell peppers are simply ripened green peppers, although the \"Permagreen\" variety maintains its green color even when fully ripe. As such, mixed colored peppers also exist during parts of the ripening process.\n\nSection::::Use as a food.\n", "Like the tomato, bell peppers are botanical fruits but culinary vegetables. Pieces of bell pepper are commonly used in garden salads and as toppings on pizza or cheesesteaks. There are many varieties of stuffed peppers prepared using hollowed or halved bell peppers. Bell peppers (and other cultivars of \"Capsicum annuum\") may be used in the production of the spice paprika.\n", "Fresh, unpreserved green pepper drupes, largely unknown (and unavailable) in the West, are used in some Asian cuisines, particularly Thai cuisine. Their flavour has been described as \"spicy and fresh\", with a \"bright aroma\". They decay quickly if not dried or preserved, making them unsuitable for international shipping.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Wild pepper.\n", "Bell peppers are 94% water, 5% carbohydrates, and negligible fat and protein (table). They are rich sources of vitamin C, containing 97% of the Daily Value (DV) in a 100 gram reference amount (table). Red bell peppers have more vitamin C content than green bell peppers. Their vitamin B6 content is moderate (17% DV), with no other micronutrients present in significant amounts (table).\n", "Many varieties of the same species can be used in many different ways; for example, \"C. annuum\" includes the \"bell pepper\" variety, which is sold in both its immature green state and its red, yellow, or orange ripe state. This same species has other varieties, as well, such as the Anaheim chiles often used for stuffing, the dried ancho (before being dried it is referred to as a poblano) chile used to make chili powder, the mild-to-hot, ripe jalapeno used to make smoked jalapeno, known as chipotle.\n", "Cultivars grown in North America and Europe are believed to all derive from \"Capsicum annuum\", and have white, yellow, red or purple to black fruits. In 2016, world production of raw green chili peppers was 34.5 million tonnes, with China producing half of the world total.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Origins.\n", "Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of \"C. annuum\", immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.\n", "Several breeding programs are being conducted by corporations and universities. In the United States, New Mexico State University has released several varieties in the last few years. Cornell University has worked to develop regionally adapted varieties that work better in cooler, damper climates. Other universities such as UC Davis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, and Oregon State University have smaller breeding programs. Many vegetable seed companies breed different types of peppers as well.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Pequin peppers are highly valued in Mexico, often costing more than 10 times the price of other peppers, but their cultivation is limited due to low seed germination (15% average germination rate) and susceptibility to disease. Pequins prefer moderate shade levels (35% shade) and daily watering, though they are drought tolerant. In the wild, Pequins grow in the understory of trees as perennials; under cultivation, they are grown as annuals as disease susceptibilities limits their growth. Seeds germinate in 7 to 28 days, require 60 to 90 days for seedling development, and require 90 to 100 days after transplant to produce commercial fruit.\n", "According to the USDA, starting since 2010, California produces the most jalapeños followed by New Mexico and Texas, for a total of 462.5 million pounds of peppers (231,250 tons) in 2014. It is difficult to get accurate statistics on chilies and specific chilies as growers are not fond of keeping and sharing such data and reporting agencies often lump all green chilies together, or all hot chilies, with no separation of pod type. In New Mexico in 2002 the crop of jalapeños were worth $3 million at the farm gate and $20 million with processing.\n", "Worldwide in 2016, 34.5 million tonnes of green chili peppers and 3.9 million tonnes of dried chili peppers were produced. China was the world's largest producer of green chilis, providing half of the global total. Global production of dried chili peppers was about one ninth of fresh production, led by India with 36% of the world total.\n\nSection::::Species and cultivars.\n", "Though most New Mexico type peppers are long pod-type peppers, that ripen from green to red, the multitude of New Mexico type cultivars have a slight variance in taste, and widely varying appearances and heat levels. Some varieties may turn yellow, orange, or brown.\n", "Mature serrano pepper plants reach a height of 0.5 to 1.5 m (1.5 to 5.0 ft) tall. Each plant can hold up to 50 pepper pods. The fruit can be harvested while they are green or ripe. Unripe serrano peppers are green, but the color varies at maturity; common colors for the ripe fruit are green, red, brown, orange, and yellow. Serrano peppers do better in soils with a pH between 7.0 and 8.5 in warm temperatures above 75°F (24°C), with a low tolerance for frost.\n\nSection::::Serrano fruit.\n", "In 2005, a poll of 2,000 people revealed the pepper to be Britain's fourth-favourite culinary vegetable.\n\nIn Hungary, sweet yellow peppers – along with tomatoes – are the main ingredient of \"lecsó\".\n", "For growing, the pepper has been described as \"a good all-rounder to try at home\" by UK ethnobotanist James Wong, who said that they require temperatures of at least and suggested growing in pots to restrict growth and produce fruit sooner. When fully ripe, two peppers occupy the palm of the hand.\n", "The green fresh fruits are edible and used in Thai cuisine, as an ingredient in certain Thai curries or raw in certain Thai chili pastes (\"nam phrik\"). They are also used in Lao cuisine (Royal Horticultural Society 2001) and Jamaican cuisine. The fruits are incorporated into soups and sauces in the Côte d'Ivoire (Herzog and Gautier-Béguin 2001).\n", "Many types of peppers have been bred for heat, size, and yield. Along with selection of specific fruit traits such as flavor and color, specific pest, disease and abiotic stress resistances are continually being selected. Breeding occurs in several environments dependent on the use of the final variety including but not limited to: conventional, organic, hydroponic, green house and shade house production environments.\n", "Bell peppers are 94% water, 5% carbohydrates, and negligible fat and protein (table). They are rich sources of vitamin C, containing 97% of the Daily Value (DV) in a 100 gram reference amount (table). Red bell peppers have more vitamin C content than green bell peppers. The vitamin B6 content of a bell pepper is moderate (17% DV), with no other micronutrients present in significant amounts (table).\n\nSection::::Capsaicin in capsicum.\n", "The tepin can be hotter than the habanero or red savina, with the highest levels seen in green fruit 40-50 days after fruit set.\n", "Peppercorns are among the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20% of all spice imports.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Fresno Chili peppers are frequently used for ceviche, salsa and as an accompaniment for rice and black beans. Because of their thick walls, they do not dry well and are not good for chili powder. In cooking, they can often be substituted for or with jalapeño and serrano peppers. Mild green ones can typically be purchased in the summer while the hot red ones are available in the fall. It has different culinary usages depending on its maturity.\n", "The peppers are customarily fried in oil and served as tapas.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "Immature green Fresno chilis are more versatile and can be added to many types of dishes. They add mild heat and flavor to sauces, chutneys, dips, relishes, casseroles, soups, stews and savory dishes. Green Fresnos can also be pickled and eaten whole. They make an excellent garnish for Mexican and Southwestern American cuisine.\n", "Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.\n\nSection::::Intensity.\n", "Typically, the peppers are hand-picked during two harvests between September and December. They are roasted over embers, which gives them a distinct sweet, spicy flavour, more akin to bell peppers than chilli peppers, despite their small size. They are then peeled and again grilled in grill bar for extra flavour and texture then marinated with salt, pepper and olive oil and then de-seeded by hand, before being packed into jars or tins for sale.\n\nPiquillo peppers are often stuffed with meat, seafood, or cheese, and served as tapas.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05272	Why do our limbs/appendages feel tingly and weird when the circulation starts flowing after they were “asleep”?	A limb being asleep is not caused by having the circulation cut off. Loss of circulation is a legit medical emergency, and can result in the death of the tissue not getting blood. A limb falling asleep is caused by compression of the nerve that sends the sense of touch from that limb to the brain. When the pressure is removed, the nerve kind of fires randomly as its chemical gradients get back to normal, and that's what we perceive as the "pins and needles" feeling.	[ "The most familiar kind of paresthesia is the sensation known as \"pins and needles\" or of a limb \"falling asleep\". A less well-known and uncommon but important paresthesia is formication, the sensation of bugs crawling underneath the skin.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Transient.\n", "\"The treatise of nervous sections\" is a 548-page book which mentions 226 references in five languages: Latin, French, English, Italian, and German. Létiévant had not only read Galen and Ambroise Paré, but Paul Broca, Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, and even Silas Weir Mitchell. Two of the main topics of this treatise are: 1. Aesthesiography (from the Greek: aisthêsis) a new concept proposed by Létiévant, is a map of the incomplete anaesthesia which \"facilitates the interpretation\" of the cutaneous nerve lesions. Létiévant presents nine illustrations drawn by himself. 2. Tingling sign. Létiévant had already observed that pressure over the median nerve at the site of the repair or at a point distal to the repair, caused painful tingling in the fingers. It was then, in 1915, correctly interpreted as Tinel's sign.\n", "Obdormition\n\nObdormition (; from Latin \"obdormire\" \"to fall asleep\") is a medical term describing numbness in a limb, often caused by constant pressure on nerves or lack of movement. This is colloquially referred to as the limb \"going to sleep,\" and usually followed by paresthesia, colloquially called \"pins and needles\". \n", "Section::::Release.\n", "It was in March and August 1915 just few months before Jules Tinel when Hoffmann published two articles in journal \"Medizinische Klinic\" describing a method of evaluating success of nerve sutures and nerve regeneration. The sign termed as (H- sign) Hoffmann's sign was elicited by tapping distal to the site of injured nerve which produced tingling sensation, the sensation was neither permanent nor severe. In October 1915, Jules Tinel described the same phenomenon in French \"le signe de fourmillement\".\n", "The most common, everyday cause is temporary restriction of nerve impulses to an area of nerves, commonly caused by leaning or resting on parts of the body such as the legs (often followed by a pins and needles tingling sensation). Other causes include conditions such as hyperventilation syndrome and panic attacks. A cold sore outside the mouth (not a canker sore inside the mouth) can be preceded by tingling because a cold sore is caused by herpes simplex virus. The varicella zoster virus (shingles) also notably may cause recurring pain and tingling in skin or tissue along the distribution path of that nerve (most commonly in the skin, along a dermatome pattern, but sometimes feeling like a headache, chest or abdominal pain, or pelvic pain).\n", "Paresthesias of the hands, feet, legs and arms are common, transient symptoms. The briefest, electric shock type of paresthesia can be caused by tweaking the ulnar nerve near the elbow. Similar brief shocks can be experienced when any other nerve is tweaked (a tweaked neck nerve may cause a brief shock-like paresthesia toward the scalp). In the older age group, spinal column irregularities may tweak the spinal cord briefly when the head or back is turned, flexed, or extended into brief uncommon positions (Lhermitte's sign).\n", "In the nervous system there is a \"closed loop\" system of sensation, decision, and reactions. This process is carried out through the activity of sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. A touch or painful stimulus, for example, creates a sensation in the brain only after information about the stimulus travels there via afferent nerve pathways.\n\nSection::::Etymology and mnemonics.\n\nAfferent is derived from Latin participle \"afferentem\" (\"af- = ad-\" : to + \"ferre\" : bear, carry), meaning carrying into.\n", "In a normal human body, blood flow from the arterial system (higher pressure) to venous system (lower pressure) requires a pressure gradient. When this pressure gradient is diminished, blood flow from the artery to the vein is reduced. This causes a backup of blood and excessive fluid to leak from the capillary wall into spaces between the soft tissues cells, causing swelling of the extracellular space and a rise in intracompartmental pressure. This swelling of the soft tissues surrounding the blood vessels compresses the blood and lymphatic vessels further, causing more fluid to enter the extracellular spaces, leading to additional compression. This worsening cycle can eventually lead to a lack of sufficient oxygen in the soft tissues (tissue ischemia) and tissue death (necrosis). Tingling and abnormal sensation (paraesthesia) can begin as early as 30 minutes from the start of tissue ischemia and permanent damage can occur as early as 12 hours from the onset of the inciting injury.\n", "Axillary nerve dysfunction is any disorder caused by damage to the axillary nerve. The axillary nerve is a branch of the brachial plexus that innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles. This nerve can be injured or damaged in a variety of ways - penetrating injury such as knife or gunshot wounds, surgical trauma, stretch injury (common after motor cycle accidents), and various metabolic or rheumatic conditions that may cause focal disruption of the blood supply to the nerve. The exact cause of the axillary nerve dysfunction cannot be identified with electromyography, but the way that the nerve has responded to the injury, and whether or not the nerve is healing, can.\n", "Upon contact with the skin, anesthetic is secreted to numb the area. Common anesthetics from protein families ShK, Turripeptide, ADA, and CAP-ShK were found to be present during hematophagy. In addition, anticoagulants such as PS1, Meprin, and Kunitz were also present to prevent blood clotting. Furthermore, vasopressives were found and because the proboscis is thin, it is hypothesized for vasopressives to increase blood pressure to allow maximization of blood income and feeding time.\n", "BULLET::::- Paresthesia (altered sensation) - A person may complain of \"pins & needles\", numbness, and a tingling sensation. This may progress to loss of sensation (anesthesia) if no intervention is made.\n\nBULLET::::- Uncommon\n\nBULLET::::- Paralysis - Paralysis of the limb is a rare, late finding. It may indicate both a nerve or muscular lesion.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 1849, Dubois-Reymond in Germany first observed that human skin was electrically active. He immersed the limbs of his subjects in a zinc sulfate solution and found that electric current flowed between a limb with muscles contracted and one that was relaxed. He therefore attributed his EDA observations to muscular phenomena. Thirty years later, in 1878 in Switzerland, Hermann and Luchsinger demonstrated a connection between EDA and sweat glands. Hermann later demonstrated that the electrical effect was strongest in the palms of the hands, suggesting that sweat was an important factor.\n", "Was commissioned major, in the 5th regiment, infantry, attached to 1st Light Brigade, Maryland Volunteers of Baltimore 7 September 1847; appointed colonel 5th regiment, Maryland Volunteer Infantry, 5 February 1856; appointed brigadier general, 1st Light Brigade (composed of the 1st Light Cavalry regiment, a regiment of artillery and the Fifth Regiment), 14 February 1861, but not confirmed; no record of service in the Civil War (1861–1865).\n", "For example, in carpal tunnel syndrome where the median nerve is compressed at the wrist, Tinel's sign is often \"positive\" causing tingling in the thumb, index, middle finger and the radial half of the fourth digit. Tinel's sign is sometimes referred to as \"distal tingling on percussion\" or DTP. This distal sign of regeneration can be expected during different stage of somatosensory recovery.\n", "Infrapatellar branch of saphenous nerve\n\nThe infrapatellar branch of saphenous nerve is a nerve of the lower limb.\n\nThe saphenous nerve, located about the middle of the thigh, gives off a branch which joins the subsartorial plexus.\n\nIt pierces the sartorius and fascia lata, and is distributed to the skin in front of the patella.\n", "Section::::Applications and example.:Phantom limbs.\n\nIn the phenomenon of phantom limb sensation, a person continues to feel pain or sensation within a part of their body that has been amputated. This is strangely common, occurring in 60–80% of amputees. An explanation for this is based on the concept of neuroplasticity, as the cortical maps of the removed limbs are believed to have become engaged with the area around them in the postcentral gyrus. This results in activity within the surrounding area of the cortex being misinterpreted by the area of the cortex formerly responsible for the amputated limb.\n", "Procedures such as saphenous vein cutdown or orthopedic surgery that includes incisions or dissection over the distal tibia or medial malleolus can result in damage to the saphenous nerve, resulting in loss of cutaneous sensation in the medial leg. This is due to the intimate path that the saphenous nerve and the great saphenous vein travel. The saphenous nerve is also often damaged during vein harvest for bypass surgery and during trocar placement during knee arthroscopy. There appears to be occasional meaningful individual variation in the pathway of this nerve, such that the illustration of it done for Gray's Anatomy, for example, likely represents an unusual rather than usual course.\n", "Baroreceptors are integral to the body's function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.\n\nBaroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Kean begins the chapter with the sad tale of George Dedlow. George Dedlow had fought in the Civil War and in turn had both his arms and both his legs amputated for various reasons. These amputations brought on another neurological phenomenon: phantom limbs. George Dedlow, amongst millions of other war amputees, felt pain in limbs that he did not have.\n", "In 1991, Tim Pons and colleagues at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) showed that the primary somatosensory cortex in macaque monkeys undergoes substantial reorganization after the loss of sensory input. \n", "Francis Arthur Bainbridge described this reflex in 1918 when he was experimenting on dogs. Bainbridge found that infusing blood or saline into the animal increased heart rate. This phenomenon occurred even if arterial blood pressure did not increase. He further observed that heart rate increased when venous pressure rose high enough to distend the right atrium, but denervation of the vagi to the heart eliminated these effects.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of Action.\n", "Here it diverges from the artery, and emerges from behind the lower edge of the aponeurotic covering of the canal; it descends vertically along the medial side of the knee behind the sartorius, pierces the fascia lata, between the tendons of the Sartorius and Gracilis, and becomes subcutaneous.\n\nThe nerve then passes along the tibial side of the leg, accompanied by the great saphenous vein, descends behind the medial border of the tibia, and, at the lower third of the leg, divides into two branches: \n", "Section::::Application.\n\nCortical remapping helps individuals regain function from injury.\n\nSection::::Application.:Phantom limbs.\n\nPhantom limbs are sensations felt by amputees that make it feel like their amputated extremity is still there. Sometimes amputees can experience pain from their phantom limbs; this is called phantom limb pain (PLP).\n", "In 1968, Merzenich and two neurosurgeons, Ron Paul and Herbert Goodman, conducted an experiment to determine effects on the brain after a large bundle of peripheral nerves in adolescent monkeys' hands were cut and began to regenerate again. They knew that the peripheral nervous system could regenerate itself and sometimes during that process the neurons would 'rewire' themselves by accident. These 'wires' would accidentally connect to a different axon, stimulating the wrong nerve. This resulted in a \"false localization\" sensation; when the patient was touched on a specific area of the body, that touch was actually felt on a different part of the body than expected.\n" ]	[ "Lack of circulation causes tingly sensations in the limbs after they have \"fallen asleep\".", "A limb and/or appendgade falls asleep due to a lack of circulation." ]	[ "A limb being \"asleep\" is caused by compression of sensory nerves and when the pressure is removed the sensation returns to normal.", "A limb falling asleep is caused by compression of the nerve that sends sense of touch from the nerve to the brain." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Lack of circulation causes tingly sensations in the limbs after they have \"fallen asleep\".", "A limb and/or appendgade falls asleep due to a lack of circulation." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "A limb being \"asleep\" is caused by compression of sensory nerves and when the pressure is removed the sensation returns to normal.", "A limb falling asleep is caused by compression of the nerve that sends sense of touch from the nerve to the brain." ]
2018-02869	Why does mouthwash burn when you swish?	it's not the alcohol itself that's burning your throat. Instead, the ethanol in the liquid is making your throat's VR1 heat receptors more sensitive, prompting them to perceive your own body temperature as hot. Chillies work in a similar fashion.	[ "Section::::Ingredients.:Sodium lauryl sulfate (foaming agent).\n\nSodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS, since the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthrinse.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Sucralfate.\n", "Mouthwash should not be used immediately after brushing the teeth so as not to wash away the beneficial fluoride residue left from the toothpaste. Similarly, the mouth should not be rinsed out with water after brushing. Patients were told to \"spit don't rinse\" after toothbrushing as part of a National Health Service campaign in the UK.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20-50 ml (2/3 fl oz) of mouthwash. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out. Most companies suggest not drinking water immediately after using mouthwash. In some brands, the expectorate is stained, so that one can see the bacteria and debris.\n", "In January 2001 Mouthwash released their début full-length album, \"1000 Dreams\", on Hellcat Records which received critical acclaim around the world.\n", "Essential oils, found in Listerine mouthwash, contains eucalyptol, menthol, thymol, and methyl salicylate. CPC containing mouthwash contains cetyl pyridinium chloride, found in brands such as Colgate Plax, Crest Pro Health, Oral B Pro Health Rinse. In a meta-analyses completed in 2016, EO and CPC mouthrinses were compared and it was found that plaque and gingivitis levels were lower with EO mouthrinse when used as an adjunct to mechanical plaque removal (toothbrushing and interdental cleaning).\n\nSection::::Mouthwash.:Chlorhexidine.\n", "Cetylpyridinium chloride containing mouthwash (e.g. 0.05%) is used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis. Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or ulceration.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Chlorhexidine digluconate and Hexetidine (antiseptic).\n", "Alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque. Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the flavor, to provide \"bite\". Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it, or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals.\n", "Writing this statement is very strange for me as I have been in Mouthwash for the majority of my life and it is difficult to imagine life without it, but I can confirm that as of today we will no longer be playing together.\n\nWe would like to apologise to all our fans and say a huge thank you for making this a truly unforgettable and amazing experience. You were totally incredible and we are truly sorry that we cannot play some last shows for you guys. You are everything that is good about this band.\n", "A 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a Povidone-iodine solution was effective in preventing upper respiratory infection and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted. Other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Sanguinarine.\n", "In and \"\" (1919), the following recipe is offered: \"[One] teaspoonful of the following mixture after each meal: One ounce chloride of soda, one ounce liquor of potassa, one and one-half ounces phosphate of soda, and three ounces of water.\"\n", "Breath spray\n\nBreath spray is a product sprayed into the mouth for the purpose of eliminating (or at least covering up) halitosis. It is occasionally advertised as being for smokers or those who dip tobacco, and occasionally to cover up the smell of cigarette/cigar smoking. Common flavours include cinnamon, spearmint and peppermint, as well as company-specific flavours such as \"Ice Mint\" or \"Supermint\". \n\nSome breath sprays have an antibacterial or anti-plaque property; some others contain chlorine dioxide. As alcohol is frequently a prime ingredient of breath sprays, some brands advertise their products as alcohol-free.\n", "In relation to its antihistamine effect, oral doses of 20 mg daily of bilastine, measured as skin wheal-and-flare surface areas for 24 h, bilastine is capable of inhibiting 50% of the surface areas – throughout the whole administration interval.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "Hexetidine also has anti-plaque, analgesic, astringent and anti-malodor properties but is considered as an inferior alternative to Chlorhexidine.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Edible oils.\n", "Section::::Ingredients.:Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda).\n\nSodium bicarbonate is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash, indicated for any of the reasons that a salt water mouthwash might be used. Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride in aqueous solution are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Sodium chloride (salt).\n", "BULLET::::- Washington Senator R. Lorraine Wojahn noted that her mother washed out her mouth with soap when she was five years old, for trying some of her father's chewing tobacco.\n\nBULLET::::- Former president George W. Bush recalled that his mother had washed his mouth out with soap for \"getting fresh\" with her.\n\nBULLET::::- Following Toledo, Ohio mayor Carty Finkbeiner's use of profanity in a news conference in 1998, presidential candidate Ralph Nader sent him a bar of soap with which to wash out his mouth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hotsaucing\n\nBULLET::::- Castor oil\n\nBULLET::::- Grounding (discipline technique)\n\nBULLET::::- Spoiled child\n", "Mouthwash\n\nMouthwash, mouth rinse, oral rinse, or mouth bath is a liquid which is held in the mouth passively or swilled around the mouth by contraction of the perioral muscles and/or movement of the head, and may be gargled, where the head is tilted back and the liquid bubbled at the back of the mouth.\n", "Though classified as breath mints, it is unknown if the mints contain active antibacterial ingredients. The new packaging now claims to have a 'natural ingredient' that is scientifically proven to help kill the germs that cause bad breath. Such ingredient is not specified but the label points to a pending patent for this ingredient. Wrigley's product website for Eclipse describes the ingredient as Magnolia bark extract (MBE), which has its origins in traditional Chinese medicine. In lab tests, MBE is said to have killed almost all oral bacteria, including the types that cause bad breath and cavities. Eclipse is the first product in the US to contain MBE.\n", "A 2003 episode of the science television show \"MythBusters\" tested a number of methods that supposedly allow a person to fool a breath analyzer test. The methods tested included breath mints, onions, denture cream, mouthwash, pennies and batteries; all of these methods proved ineffective. The show noted that using these items to cover the smell of alcohol may fool a person, but, since they will not actually reduce a person's BrAC, there will be no effect on a breath analyzer test regardless of the quantity used, if any, it appeared that using mouthwash only raised the BrAC. Pennies supposedly produce a chemical reaction, while batteries supposedly create an electrical charge, yet neither of these methods affected the breath analyzer results.\n", "It is hypothesized that alcohol mouthwashes acts as a carcinogen (cancer-inducing). Generally, there is no scientific consensus about this. One review stated:\n", "BULLET::::- Convicted murderer Steven W. Bowman was alleged to have washed out his girlfriend's mouth with soap in July 2000, when she mentioned her other romantic partner's name; before murdering him.\n\nBULLET::::- A teacher in Rochester, New York was suspended in 2004 for washing out the mouth of a student for using vulgar language. Following her suspension, parents and family members of her students signed a petition supporting her actions and requesting her reinstatement.\n", "Sucralfate is a mucosal coating agent, composed of an aluminum salt of sulfated sucrose. It is not recommended for use in the prevention of oral mucositis in head and neck cancer patients receiving radiotherapy or chemoradiation due to a lack of efficacy found in a well-designed, randomized controlled trial.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Tetracycline (antibiotic).\n", "Wisk\n\nWisk was a brand of laundry detergent manufactured in the United States by Unilever (1956 to 2008) and Sun Products (2008 to 2017). \n\nSection::::History.\n\nWisk was introduced in the United States by Lever Brothers Company in 1956 as the first liquid laundry detergent. \n\nIn 2008, Wisk was purchased by Vestar Capital Partners after Lever Brothers' parent company Unilever divested its North American laundry brands and combined with Vestar Capital Partners' Huish Detergents, Inc. to form The Sun Products Corporation.<> \n", "Acid reflux, or gastroesophageal reflux disease, can greatly exacerbate the mouth-alcohol problem. The stomach is normally separated from the throat by a valve, but when this valve becomes herniated, there is nothing to stop the liquid contents in the stomach from rising and permeating the esophagus and mouth. The contents—including any alcohol—are then later exhaled into the breathalyzer. One study of 10 individuals suffering from this condition did not find any actual increase in Breath Ethanol.\n", "Although being butch was viewed as deviant and socially unacceptable by gay male society, being swish has since lost its mainstream gay status post-Stonewall, and in addition to being used occasionally by mainstream culture is now most often derogatory even when used by gay men. Though it may be assumed that most post-Stonewall gay men view acting swish as internalized homophobia, a concession to stereotypes of gay men as less than manly. However, the Castro clone, a hyper-masculine, macho standard and ideal behaviour that replaced swish, adapted many camp elements such as dishing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00339	Why does it start to feel like you’re looking at someone else when you stare at yourself in a mirror for too long?	Urban legend says it's because you are seeing the faces of yourself in past lives. Most likely it is really because you are focusing on your eyes so intensely that your brain puts the rest of your face in your peripheral vision from what you remember it to be and not necessarily what it is.	[ "Alexander McQueen later described his thoughts on the idea used during VOSS of forcing his audience to stare at their own reflection in the mirrored walls for over an hour:\n\n\"Ha! I was really pleased about that. I was looking at it on the monitor, everyone trying not to look at themselves. It was a great thing to do in the fashion industry—turn it back on them! God, I’ve had some freaky shows.\"\n", "Section::::Neurological basis.\n\nAll patients with mirrored-self misidentification have some type of right hemisphere dysfunction. The right hemisphere, particularly frontal right hemisphere circuits, is involved in processing self-related stimuli and helps one recognize a picture or reflection of oneself. An impairment in the right hemisphere, the likely source of the \"self\" in the brain, can inhibit one's ability to recognize faces, especially one's own.\n", "\"You’re not just this static thing. You encompass everything. In order to make any change in the world, you need to be okay with yourself first and all those different characters of who you are. You see everyone putting their best foot forward on their socials and look like a different version of themselves, [but] that’s just one dimension of who they are. In reality, all of us harbor anxiety, sadness [and] depression. We want to embrace all sides of who every person is and be vulnerable in that. You are master of your own image.\"\n", "Section::::Famous studies.:Case two: patient FE.\n", "Alternatively, this effect can also be seen when an observer stands \"between\" two parallel fully reflective mirrors, as in some dressing rooms, some elevators, or a house of mirrors. A weaker version of this effect can be seen by standing between any two parallel reflective surfaces, such as the glass walls of a small entry lobby into some buildings. The partially reflective glass produces this sensation, diluted by the visual noise of the views through the glass into the surrounding environment.\n\nSection::::Explanation of effect.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Octopon\" and \"Bad Machine\" (2012–14).\n", "Section::::History.:\"Soul Contract\" and \"Zebra Session\" (2014–2017).\n", "Section::::Famous studies.\n\nThere are two famous case studies of patients with mirrored-self misidentification that have contributed to the overall understanding of this delusion.\n\nSection::::Famous studies.:Case one: patient TH.\n", "Section::::Prevalence.\n", "Only patients who have both factor 1 (impaired facial processing or mirror agnosia) and factor 2 (cranial damage to the right hemisphere) will develop the mirrored-self misidentification delusion. Patients with impaired facial processing who do not have mirrored-self misidentification have prosopagnosia. Patients who experience right hemisphere dysfunction but do not have impaired facial processing or mirror agnosia will experience general sensory-motor and cognitive impairment.\n\nSection::::Self-recognition in patients without mirrored-self misidentification.\n", "\"I rigged up a camera and tape recorder next to [a] mirror, so that every time the fear of losing myself overtook me and drove me to the 'reality check' of the mirror, I was able to both record my physical appearance objectively and also record myself on tape repeating the passage in Critique that was currently driving me to self-transcendence.\"\n", "Section::::As phenomenon.\n", "BULLET::::- Level 3: Identification. This stage is characterized by the new ability to identify self: an individual can now see that what's in the mirror is not another person but actually them. It is seen when a child, instead of referring to the mirror while referring to themselves, refers to themselves while looking in the mirror.\n\nBULLET::::- Level 4: Permanence. Once an individual reaches this level they can identify the self beyond the present mirror imagery. They are able to identify the self in previous pictures looking different or younger. A \"permanent self\" is now experienced.\n", "The feeling is a common one, being reported by over two thirds of the students questioned in a 1913 study.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "Section::::Two-factor theory of delusional belief.:Factor 1.\n", "The identical double might be seen by the sufferer or be witnessed by others, and can be classed as a doppelgänger phenomenon. Others have reported a sort of out-of-body experience, whereby their consciousness inhabits the \"ikiryō\" to see their own lifeless body.\n\nSection::::Similar activity or phenomena.\n", "A 2010 paper in the journal \"Perception\" identified one specific method of reliably reproducing a scrying illusion in a mirror and hypothesized that it \"might be caused by low level fluctuations in the stability of edges, shading and outlines affecting the perceived definition of the face, which gets over-interpreted as ‘someone else’ by the face recognition system.\"\n\nSection::::Modern-day traditions and fictions.\n", "The looking-glass self comprises three main components that are unique to humans (Shaffer 2005).\n\nBULLET::::1. We imagine how we must appear to others in a social situation.\n\nBULLET::::2. We imagine and react to what we feel their judgment of that appearance must be.\n\nBULLET::::3. We develop our sense of self and respond through this perceived judgments of others.\n", "In a few select case studies, patients with this delusion have such extensive right-hemisphere cranial damage that one is also unable to identify close relatives and others with whom the patient has close association. Such extensive damage in mirrored-self misidentification patients is rare; typically patients retain the ability to recognize others’ reflections in the mirror. When such extensive neurological damage occurs, the affected patient relies on non-facial cues to identify relatives. When looking in a mirror, the patient can only use facial cues to recognize one self. Therefore, in these rare cases, despite damage to the entire facial recognition area of the brain, the patient is still able to recognize relatives but unable to recognize the self in the mirror.\n", "Section::::Methods of study.\n\nThis delusion is usually researched through conducting clinical case studies or inducing a state of hypnosis within healthy participants. When completing a case study, researchers use descriptive observational methods. Hypnosis research is typically completed in the lab as an experiment with both control and random assignment.\n\nSection::::Methods of study.:Clinical case studies.\n", "BULLET::::- Level 1: Differentiation. The individual realizes the mirror is able to reflect things. They see that what is in the mirror is different from what is surrounding them. At this level they can differentiate between their own movement in the mirror and the movement of the surrounding environment.\n\nBULLET::::- Level 2: Situation. At this point an individual can link the movements on the mirror to what is perceived within their own body. This is the first hint of self-exploration on a projected surface where what is visualized on the mirror is special to the self.\n", "In one of the first experiments to enhance psychological connectedness with the future self, participants were given immersive virtual reality technology and instructed to look at themselves in a virtual mirror. The experimenters randomized whether participants saw an age-progressed version of themselves (meant to look approximately 70 years old) or a current-aged self. Participants that interacted with their future self were more likely to delay present monetary rewards and indicated greater intentions to save for retirement. Leveraging the insights from this experiment, firms such as Merrill Lynch have since adopted web applications with age-progressing software in order to increase retirement savings.\n", "David Hume pointed out that we tend to think that we are the same person we were five years ago. Though we have changed in many respects, the same person appears present as was present then. We might start thinking about which features can be changed without changing the underlying self. Hume, however, denies that there is a distinction between the various features of a person and the mysterious self that supposedly bears those features. When we start introspecting, \"we are never intimately conscious of anything but a particular perception; man is a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed one another with an inconceivable rapidity and are in perpetual flux and movement\".\n", "Viewing one's own facial reflection in the mirror causes neurological changes in the right inferior frontal gyrus, the right inferior occipital gyrus, the right inferior parietal lobe, and the right parietal area. These changes, which all occur in the right hemisphere, highlight the role of the right hemisphere in self-related cognition and processing and support the theory that the right hemisphere is the most likely substrate for the \"self\" in the brain. When the right hemisphere is damaged in any way, the patient will most likely lose the ability to recognize one's face - the most common feature of self-recognition. When paired with mirror agnosia or impaired facial processing, damage in any of these areas of the right hemisphere of the brain can lead to difficulties in self-recognition. Delusions such as mirrored-self misidentification can then develop.\n", "This psychological effect is often used in the cinema, where an actor will be shown apparently looking at himself or herself in the mirror. What viewers see is different from what the actor sees, because the camera is not right behind the actor, but the position of the actor is often chosen so that his or her image is nicely framed in the mirror for the camera.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17665	How fast does heat transfer between two objects? Does more heat cause it to transfer faster?	The rate of transfer is proportional to the difference in temperatures, and inversely proportional to the resistance to heat flow (basically, insulating property) of the materials.	[ "Rate of heat flow = - (heat transfer coefficient) * (area of the body) * (variation of the temperature) / (length of the material)\n\nThe formula for the rate of heat flow is:\n\nformula_2 is the net heat (energy) transfer,\n\nformula_3 is the time taken,\n\nformula_4 is the difference in temperature between the cold and hot sides,\n\nformula_5 is the thickness of the material conducting heat (distance between hot and cold sides),\n\nformula_6 is the thermal conductivity, and\n\nformula_7 is the surface area of the surface emitting heat.\n", "Maximum fluid temperatures near the tube wall are present when the fluid is heated, and because the heat transfer coefficient is strongly depended of angle (formula_26), the calculation of the maximum local temperature is not straight forward. For this purpose, correlations for the peripherally averaged Nusselt number are, if none, of little use when keeping heat flux conditions constant. On the other hand, correlations for the peripherally averaged Nusselt number for constant wall temperature are very useful.\n\nThe secondary flow:\n\nBULLET::::- Increases heat transfer rates.\n\nBULLET::::- Increases friction loses.\n\nBULLET::::- Decreases entrance length.\n", "The thermal conductivity of the tube material usually depends on temperature; the mean thermal conductivity is often used.\n\nSection::::Combining convective heat transfer coefficients.\n\nFor two or more heat transfer processes acting in parallel, convective heat transfer coefficients simply add:\n\nFor two or more heat transfer processes connected in series, convective heat transfer coefficients add inversely:\n\nFor example, consider a pipe with a fluid flowing inside. The approximate rate of heat transfer between the bulk of the fluid inside the pipe and the pipe external surface is:\n\nwhere\n\nSection::::Overall heat transfer coefficient.\n", "The overall heat transfer coefficient takes into account the individual heat transfer coefficients of each stream and the resistance of the pipe material. It can be calculated as the reciprocal of the sum of a series of thermal resistances (but more complex relationships exist, for example when heat transfer takes place by different routes in parallel):\n\nwhere:\n", "In the case of a moving heat source applied to a plate that is so thin that temperature does not vary in the through-thickness dimension, the third term becomes zero, and the problem is two-dimensional conduction. The factors that determine whether temperature varies through the thickness include: \n\nBULLET::::- welding speed (increases thermal gradient in through thickness direction),\n\nBULLET::::- thermal diffusivity (decreases thermal gradient in through thickness direction),\n\nBULLET::::- thickness (increases thermal gradient in through thickness direction).\n", "During the earliest attempts to enhance heat transfer, plain (or smooth) surfaced were used. This surface requires a special surface geometry able to provide higher formula_1 values per unit surface area in comparison with a plain surface. The ratio of formula_1 of an enhanced heat transfer surface to the plain surface is called Enhancement Ratio \" formula_3\". Thus,\n\nThe heat transfer rate for a two-fluid counterflow heat exchanger is given by\n\nIn order to better illustrate the benefits of enhancement, the total length 'L' of the tube is multiplied and divided in the equation\n", "By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the formula:\n\nwhere \n\nBULLET::::- formula_2 is heat flux (W/m²),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3 is density (kg/m³),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4 is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/kg·K),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_5 is the change in temperature (K),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_6 is velocity (m/s).\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Conduction.\n", "If the hot fluid had a much larger heat capacity rate, then when hot and cold fluids went through a heat exchanger, the hot fluid would have a very small change in temperature while the cold fluid would heat up a significant amount. If the cool fluid has a much lower heat capacity rate, that is desirable. If they were equal, they would both change more or less temperature equally, assuming equal mass-flow per unit time through a heat exchanger. In practice, a cooling fluid which has both a higher specific heat capacity and a lower heat capacity rate is desirable, accounting for the pervasiveness of water cooling solutions in technology—the polar nature of the water molecule creates some distinct sub-atomic behaviors favorable in practice.\n", "Until the mid-1930s, the study of the theory of heat transfer from a moving source was neglected, and temperature distribution due to moving heat sources could only be calculated approximately. In 1935, Daniel Rosenthal published the first literature applying the exact theory of heat flow from a moving source to arc welding. Rosenthal's theoretical model included several assumptions:\n\nBULLET::::- Material properties are constant,\n\nBULLET::::- The heat source is a point source,\n\nBULLET::::- The surface of the work piece does not lose heat to the atmosphere,\n\nBULLET::::- Heat created by the Joule effect is neglected\n", "In this method, the ratio of the conductive heat resistance within the object to the convective heat transfer resistance across the object's boundary, known as the \"Biot number\", is calculated. For small Biot numbers, the approximation of \"spatially uniform temperature within the object\" can be used: it can be presumed that heat transferred into the object has time to uniformly distribute itself, due to the lower resistance to doing so, as compared with the resistance to heat entering the object.\n\nSection::::Modeling approaches.:Climate models.\n", "BULLET::::2. Cardwell (1971) \"p.\"99\n\nBULLET::::3. Rumford (1804) \"An enquiry concerning the nature of heat and the mode of its communication\" \"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society\" \"p.\"77\n\nBULLET::::4. Cardwell (1971) \"pp\"99-100\n", "The rate of heat flow is the amount of heat that is transferred per unit of time in some material, usually measured in watts (joules per second). Heat is the flow of thermal energy driven by thermal non-equilibrium, so that 'heat flow' is a redundancy (i.e. a pleonasm, and the same for ‘work flow’). Heat must not be confused with stored thermal energy, and moving a hot object from one place to another must not be called heat transfer. But, in spite of all these remarks, it is common in normal parlance to say ‘heat flow’, to talk of ‘heat content’, etc.\n", "Where formula_7 is the overall thermal resistance per unit tube length. And it is given by\n\nThe subscripts 1 and 2, describe the two different fluids. The surface efficiency is represented by formula_9 employing extended surfaces.\n\nOne aspect to take into consideration is that the latter equation does not include any fouling resistances due to its simplicity, which can be important. In order to enhance the performance of the heat exchanger, the term, formula_10 must be increased.\n", "For a fluid flowing in a straight circular pipe with a Reynolds number between 10,000 and 120,000 (in the turbulent pipe flow range), when the fluid's Prandtl number is between 0.7 and 120, for a location far from the pipe entrance (more than 10 pipe diameters; more than 50 diameters according to many authors) or other flow disturbances, and when the pipe surface is hydraulically smooth, the heat transfer coefficient between the bulk of the fluid and the pipe surface can be expressed explicitly as:\n\nwhere:\n", "Section::::Basis.\n\nA hot fluid's heat capacity rate can be much greater than, equal to, or much less than the heat capacity rate of the same fluid when cold. In practice, it is most important in specifying heat-exchanger systems, wherein one fluid usually of dissimilar nature is used to cool another fluid such as the hot gases or steam cooled in a power plant by a heat sink from a water source—a case of dissimilar fluids, or for specifying the minimal cooling needs of heat transfer across boundaries, such as in air cooling.\n", "Section::::Convective heat transfer correlations.:Forced convection.:Internal flow, turbulent flow.\n\nThe Dittus-Bölter correlation (1930) is a common and particularly simple correlation useful for many applications. This correlation is applicable when forced convection is the only mode of heat transfer; i.e., there is no boiling, condensation, significant radiation, etc. The accuracy of this correlation is anticipated to be ±15%.\n", "Heat transfer enhancement\n\nHeat transfer enhancement is the process of increasing the effectiveness of heat exchangers. This can be achieved when the heat transfer power of a given device is increased or when the pressure losses generated by the device are reduced. A variety of techniques can be applied to this effect, including generating strong secondary flows or increasing boundary layer turbulence.\n\nSection::::Principle.\n", "The spatiotemporal criterion defines an event as two events being the same if and only if they occur in the same space at the same time. Davidson however provided this scenario; if a metal ball becomes warmer during a certain minute, and during the same minute rotates through 35 degrees, must we say that these are the same event? However, one can argue that the warming of the ball and the rotation are possibly temporally separated and are therefore separate events.\n\nSection::::Lewis.\n", "By the second law of thermodynamics, heat will flow from hotter bodies to adjacent colder bodies, in proportion to the difference of temperature and of the thermal conductivity of the material between them. When heat flows into (or out of) a material, its temperature increases (respectively, decreases), in proportion to the amount of heat divided by the amount (mass) of material, with a proportionality factor called the specific heat capacity of the material.\n", "Note that this empirical correlation is specific to the units given.\n\nSection::::Heat transfer coefficient of pipe wall.\n\nThe resistance to the flow of heat by the material of pipe wall can be expressed as a \"heat transfer coefficient of the pipe wall\". However, one needs to select if the heat flux is based on the pipe inner or the outer diameter.\n", "Section::::Explanation.\n\nWhen two bodies of different temperatures meet, the hotter body will cool off, and the cooler body will heat up, until they are separated or until they meet at a temperature in between. What that temperature is, and how quickly it is reached, depends on the thermodynamic properties of the two bodies. The important properties are temperature, density, specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity.\n", "Moving heat source model for thin plates\n\nMoving heat sources is a topic in transient heat transfer that is applicable to engineering problems, particularly welding engineering. In the early 20th Century, welding engineers began studying moving heat sources, both empirically and theoretically. Depending on welding parameters, plate geometry and material properties, the solution takes three different forms: semi-infinite, intermediate, or thin plate. The temperature distribution and cooling rates can be determined from theoretical solutions to the problem, allowing engineers to better understand the consequences of heat sources on weldability and end item performance.\n\nSection::::Empirical Solutions.\n", "Heat transfer\n\nHeat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.\n", "For cases where formula_37, there is available recommendations provided by Shah and Joshi. The heat transfer coefficient may be used in the equation for the Newton’s law of cooling equation br\n\nand can be evaluated from the correlation,\n\nformula_39\n", "For achieving a reduced thermal resistance, the enhanced surface geometry may be used to increase one or both terms formula_11 in relation to the plain surfaces, leading to a reduced thermal resistance per unit tube length, formula_7. This reduced term may be used to achieve one of the following three objectives:\n\n1. Size reduction. maintaining the heat exchange rate formula_13 constant, the length of the heat exchanger may be reduced, providing a heat exchanger of smaller proportions.\n\n2. Increased formula_14. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24447	when baking, why do you only incorporate one egg at a time?	So they can properly incorporate. Butter (like all fat) doesn’t like mixing with liquid so you add the eggs one at a time to help the fat gradually emulsify (basically breaking the fat down into smaller particles so it bonds better to the liquid)	[ "Separating eggs\n\nSeparating eggs is a process, generally used in cooking, in which the egg yolk is removed from the egg white. This allows one part of the egg to be used without the other part, or each part to be treated in different ways. Recipes for custard call for egg yolks, for example. The most common reason for separating eggs is so the whites can be whipped.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "The 2013 FDA Food Code states that in serving highly susceptible populations (preschool age children; older adults; individuals with compromised immune systems; and individuals who receive meals through custodial care-giving environments such as child or adult day care centers, kidney dialysis centers, hospitals, or nursing homes ): “Pasteurized eggs or egg products shall be substituted for raw eggs in the preparation of Foods such as Caesar salad, hollandaise or Béarnaise sauce, mayonnaise, meringue, eggnog, ice cream, egg-fortified beverages and recipes in which more than one egg is broken and the eggs are combined.”\n", "Chicken eggs are graded by size for the purpose of sales. Some maxi eggs may have double-yolks and some farms separate out double-yolk eggs for special sale.\n\nSection::::Farming issues.:Color of eggshell.\n", "Although many recipes require eggs to be at room temperature, it is easiest to separate eggs that are cold. Eggs that are at room temperature can be separated, but this requires greater caution to avoid breaking the yolk. One solution is to separate the eggs, cover them, and then allow them to come to room temperature. In this method eggs should not be allowed to sit too long because of the risk of bacteria growth. An alternate solution is to bring the bowl of egg whites (or yolks) up to temperature by placing it in another bowl of hot water.\n", "Double-yolk eggs occur when ovulation occurs too rapidly, or when one yolk becomes joined with another yolk. These eggs may be the result of a young hen's reproductive cycle not yet being synchronized.\n\nDouble-yolked eggs seldom lead to successful hatchlings without human intervention, as the chicks interfere with each other's hatching process and do not survive.\n\nHigher-order yolks are rare, although heavier poultry breeds such as the Buff Orpington have been known to lay triple-yolk eggs occasionally.\n\nSection::::Chicken egg yolk.:Yolkless eggs.\n", "In the conservation of numbers task, Piaget gave children a row of egg cups and a bunch of eggs, placing them in rows of equal length, but not equal number. Piaget then asked the children to take just enough eggs to fill the cups, and when the children attempted to do so, they were surprised to find that they had too many or too few eggs. Again, centration is present here, where the child pays attention to the length of the rows and not the numbers within each row.\n", "To make hollandaise sauce, beaten egg yolks are combined with butter, lemon juice, salt, and water, and heated gently while being mixed. Some cooks use a double boiler to control the temperature. Some recipes add melted butter to warmed yolks; others call for unmelted butter and the yolks to be heated together; still others combine warm butter and eggs in a blender or food processor. Temperature control is critical, as excessive temperature can curdle the sauce.. Some chefs start with a reduction. The reduction consists of vinegar, water and cracked peppercorns. These ingredients are reduced to \"au sec\" or almost dry, strained, and added to the egg yolk mixture.\n", "However, these will also add some flavor to the recipe.\n", "There are exceptions to this rule: in single wall kitchens, it’s geometrically impossible to achieve a true triangle—but efficiency can still be achieved through the configuration of the three items, and how far apart they are.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "\"Double bagging\", using two condoms at once, is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber. This claim is not supported by research. The limited studies that have been done found that the simultaneous use of multiple condoms decreases the risk of condom breakage.\n", "The same principles apply to the triple album, which comprises three units. Packages with more units than three are often packaged as a box set.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "It is worth noting in passing that the term \"sandwich\" in British or Australian use always refers to a filling of any sort between two slices of bread: that is, bread slices from a loaf. An egg sandwich is thus egg between two bread slices. The same filling served in a cut roll, bagel, muffin or the like is not, ever, a \"sandwich\". It is an egg roll, egg bagel, egg muffin etc. \n\nSection::::Types of egg sandwich.:Egg salad sandwich.\n\nIt is also common, in the United States, to use egg salad as a sandwich filling.\n\nSection::::History as fast food.\n", "Prompted by meat rationing during World War II, a manager for a White Castle at St. Louis introduced the first fast food egg dish with a fried egg sandwich. However, the dish was unpopular, and was abandoned as soon as wartime meat rationing was lifted. Fast food restaurants did not begin serving egg dishes again until the 1970s, starting with the McDonald's Egg McMuffin, invented in 1971 by a McDonald's franchisee in Santa Barbara, California.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs Benedict, a form of open-faced egg sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Creamed eggs on toast\n\nBULLET::::- Egg McMuffin, a popular fast-food breakfast egg sandwich\n", "New products have been developed which potentially allow for better egg timing; these use the temperature of the water in which the eggs are being cooked to indicate the cooking state of the eggs. This kind of timer has the potential to more accurately indicate the state of the egg while it is being cooked as they do not rely on certain conditions (water hardness, hob temperature, atmospheric pressure).\n", "The dish is often either covered or flipped while cooking to obtain even cooking, and requires a degree of skill and temperature control to prevent burning either the egg or bread while the entire dish is cooked to the desired consistency.\n\nSection::::Appearance in pop culture.\n", "Product designers were familiar with the IKEA effect long before it was given a name. Norton and his colleagues noted that, while not yet named or scientifically established, it had been recognized by marketers for a long time. For instance, when instant cake mixes were first marketed in the 1950s, many homemakers were resistant because the instant mixes made cooking \"too easy\", which made their labor and skill feel \"undervalued.\" Because homemakers didn't feel \"invested\" in the baking process, they put no value on the product. In response to this problem, the producers of the cake mixes made a simple change in the recipe: homemakers were required to add an egg. By adding one more step – cracking an egg – homemakers felt like they were actually baking, which resulted in increased instant cake mix sales.\n", "In the early '90s, the National Kitchen & Bath Association introduced the multiple rectangle concept - the idea being where the microwave or separate ovens were considered a fourth or fifth element, taking into account families who didn't always eat together and the assumption that there might be multiple cooks. It never caught on - partly because of insufficient PR and partly due to too much flexibility in deciding what the four corners of the rectangle actually were.\n", "According to the Kashrut, that is the set of Jewish dietary laws, kosher food may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law). Kosher meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed () or stored together. Eggs are considered \"pareve\" (neither meat nor dairy) despite being an animal product and can be mixed with either milk or kosher meat. Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked \"pareve\" despite by definition containing egg.\n\nSection::::Human use.:Vaccine manufacture.\n", "Different methods:\n\nBULLET::::- Break the egg and use your fingers to strain out the yolk, while the whites run into the bowl below.\n", "Most traditional egg timers have a set time of about three minutes, that being the approximate time it takes to cook an average sized hen's egg in water. Hard-boiled eggs take longer to cook. The three minute egg timer is for soft-boiled eggs.\n\nThe egg changes rapidly during the first few minutes of cooking. The changes cannot be seen through the eggshell, so timing is important.\n\nSection::::Memo Park Timer.\n", "All methods for separating eggs make use of the fact that the yolk can hold itself together while the white is more runny. Since the yolks of older eggs are more watery, which makes separation difficult, it is best to begin with the freshest eggs available.\n", "Human multiple births can occur either naturally (the woman ovulates multiple eggs or the fertilized egg splits into two) or as the result of infertility treatments such as IVF (several embryos are often transferred to compensate for lower quality) or fertility drugs (which can cause multiple eggs to mature in one ovulatory cycle).\n", "Omelette\n\nIn cuisine, an omelette or omelet is a dish made from beaten eggs fried with butter or oil in a frying pan (without stirring as in scrambled egg). It is quite common for the omelette to be folded around a filling such as cheese, chives, vegetables, mushrooms, meat (often ham or bacon), or some combination of the above. Whole eggs or egg whites are beaten, sometimes with a small amount of milk, cream, or water.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "An egg mark may contain a number of information parts - in the EU only the producer code is required. Additional information may be printed along with the date of production being the most common to find. Other information may contain the method of production especially in the non-EU world where the numbered levels do not apply.\n", "In Louisiana, USA, egg tapping is known as egg-knocking. Marksville, Louisiana claims to host the oldest egg-knocking competition in the US, dating back to the 1950s. Competitors pair up on the steps of the courthouse on Easter Sunday and knock the tips of two eggs together. If a participant's egg shell cracks they have to forfeit it, a process that continues until just one egg remains.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22401	why do things look so much further away in pictures?	Because the photo you took and what you're using to view that photo is physically smaller than the span your eyes saw those mountains with in person. If I draw a picture of a mountain on a piece of 8.5x11" paper, the mountain is going to be and look smaller than the real thing.	[ "in a close-up photograph of a miniature scene, the DoF is limited, and it often is impossible to have everything appear sharp even at the lens's smallest aperture. Consequently, the foreground and background are often blurred, with the blur increasing with distance above or below the center of the image. In a photograph of a full-size scene, the DoF is considerably greater; in some cases, it is difficult to have much of the scene \"outside\" the DoF, even at the lens's maximum aperture. Thus a difference in DoF is one characteristic by which a photograph of a full-size scene is readily distinguished from one of a miniature model.\n", "The above photos were taken using a 35 mm camera, using lenses of the given focal lengths.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Constant object size.\n\nThe photographer often moves to keep the same image size on the film for a particular object. Observe in the comparison images below that although the foreground object remains the same size, the background changes size; thus, perspective is dependent on the distance between the photographer and the subject. The longer focus lenses compress the perception of depth, and the shorter focus exaggerate it. \n", "In most photography and all telescopy, where the subject is essentially infinitely far away, longer focal length (lower optical power) leads to higher magnification and a narrower angle of view; conversely, shorter focal length or higher optical power is associated with lower magnification and a wider angle of view. On the other hand, in applications such as microscopy in which magnification is achieved by bringing the object close to the lens, a shorter focal length (higher optical power) leads to higher magnification because the subject can be brought closer to the center of projection.\n\nSection::::Thin lens approximation.\n", "\"Photos taken using a 35 mm camera with a 100 mm, a 70 mm, a 50 mm, and a 28 mm lens, at different distances from the subject.\"\n\nSection::::Artistic uses.\n\nSection::::Artistic uses.:Technical background.\n", "When objects are taken from closer than about 6 1/2 feet a normal base will produce excessive parallax and thus exaggerated depth when using ortho viewing methods. At some point the parallax becomes so great that the image is difficult or even impossible to view. For such situations, it becomes necessary to reduce the baseline in keeping with the 1:30 rule.\n", "As distance or the size of the acceptable circle of confusion increases, the depth of field increases; however, increasing the size of the aperture or increasing the focal length reduces the depth of field. Depth of Field changes linearly with F-number and circle of confusion, but changes in proportional to the square of the focal length and the distance to the subject. As a result, photos taken at extremely close range have a proportionally much smaller depth of field.\n", "Outside photography, extension distortion is familiar to many through side-view mirrors (see \"objects in mirror are closer than they appear\") and peepholes, though these often use a fisheye lens, exhibiting different distortion. Compression distortion is most familiar in looking through binoculars or telescopes, as in telescopic sights, while a similar effect is seen in fixed-slit strip photography, notably a photo finish, where all capture is parallel to the capture, completely eliminating perspective (a side view).\n\nSection::::Optics.\n", "One can see that if magnification remains constant, a longer focal length results in a smaller axial magnification, and a smaller focal length in a larger axial magnification. That is, when using a longer focal length while moving the camera/lens away from the object to maintain the same magnification \"M\", objects seem shallower, and the axial distances between objects seem shorter. The opposite—increased axial magnification—happens with shorter focal lengths while moving the camera/lens towards the object.\n\nSection::::Optics.:Calculating distances.\n", "The \"field size\" explains how much of the subject and its surrounding area is visible within the camera's field of view, and is determined by two factors: the distance of the subject from the camera (\"camera-subject distance\") and the focal length of the lens. Note that the shorter a lens's focal length, the wider its angle of view (the 'angle' in wide-angle lens, for instance, which is \"how much you see\"), so the same idea can also be expressed as that the lens's \"angle of view\" plus \"camera-subject distance\" is the camera's \"field of view\".\n", "Perspective is a property that depends only on viewpoint (camera position). But if moving a lens to a smaller-format camera causes a photographer to move further from the subject, then the perspective will be affected.\n", "This effect is also used for dolly zooms. The perspective of the so-called \"normal\" lens, 50 mm focal length for 35 mm film format, is conventionally regarded as a \"correct\" perspective, though a longer lens is usually preferred for a more pleasing perspective for portraits.\n\nSection::::Telescopes as long-focus lenses.\n\nFrom the invention of photography in the 19th century, images have been captured using standard optical telescopes including telescope objectives adapted as early portrait lenses. Besides being used in an astronomical role in astrophotography, telescopes are adapted as long-focus lenses in nature photography, surveillance, machine vision and long-focus microscopy.\n", "When a camera lens is focused to project an object some distance away onto the film or detector, the objects that are closer in distance, relative to the distant object, are also \"approximately\" in focus. The range of distances that are nearly in focus is called the depth of field. Depth of field generally increases with decreasing aperture diameter (increasing f-number). The unfocused blur outside the depth of field is sometimes used for artistic effect in photography. The subjective appearance of this blur is known as bokeh.\n", "Lenses with longer or shorter focal lengths produce an expanded or contracted field of view that appears to distort the perspective when viewed from a normal viewing distance. Lenses of shorter focal length are called \"wide-angle lenses\", while longer-focal-length lenses are referred to as long-focus lenses (with the most common of that type being the \"telephoto lenses\"). Superimposing a wide-angle image print against the original scene would require holding it closer to the eye, while the telephoto image would need to be placed well into the depth of the photographed scene, or a tiny print to be held at arm's length, to match their perspectives.\n", "The DOF beyond the subject is always greater than the DOF in front of the subject. When the subject is at the hyperfocal distance or beyond, the far DOF is infinite, so the ratio is 1:∞; as the subject distance decreases, near:far DOF ratio increases, approaching unity at high magnification. For large apertures at typical portrait distances, the ratio is still close to 1:1.\n\nSection::::DOF formulae.\n", "BULLET::::- Another monocular cue of depth perception is that of lighting and shading. Artists also use lighting to establish shadows. Shading in a scene or on an object allows the audience to locate the light source relative to the object. Making two objects at different distances have the same shading gives the impression that they are in similar positions relative to the light source, and therefore, they are apparently much closer than they are in actuality.\n", "The magnification reached in those conditions is the focal distance of the objective lens (\"f\") divided by the focal distance of the close-up lens; i.e., the focal distance of the objective lens (in meters) multiplied by the diopter value (\"D\") of the close-up lens:\n\nIn the example above, if the lens has a 300 mm focal distance, magnification is equal to .\n\nGiven the small size of most sensors (about 25mm for APS C sensors) a 20mm insect will almost fill the frame at this magnification. Using a zoom lens makes it easy to frame the subject as desired.\n", "Because the size of objects is increased in proportion to the enhanced depth, there is no miniaturization effect as with hyperstereo, but the same telephoto compression seen in extreme zoom flat photographs also occurs. Specifically, there is a reduction in the relative sizes of objects at different distances so that objects that are further away appear to be larger than closer objects that are actually the same size. Note that this effect is negligible at lower zoom levels and most observers cannot distinguish between telephoto pictures taken with wide base and normal pictures taken with a normal base at an equivalent distance. So pictures taken at 40 feet with a 4x zoom and a 10-inch base will appear similar to pictures taken at 10 feet with no zoom and a 2.5-inch base.\n", "Long shot\n\nIn photography, filmmaking and video production, a long shot (sometimes referred to as a full shot or wide shot) typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surroundings. These are typically shot now using wide-angle lenses (an approximately 25 mm lens in 35 mm photography and 10 mm lens in 16 mm photography). However, due to sheer distance, establishing shots and extremely wide shots can use almost any camera type.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "To avoid eyestrain and distortion, each of the two 2D images should be presented to the viewer so that any object at infinite distance is perceived by the eye as being straight ahead, the viewer's eyes being neither crossed nor diverging. When the picture contains no object at infinite distance, such as a horizon or a cloud, the pictures should be spaced correspondingly closer together.\n", "Pictures taken in this fashion take on the appearance of a miniature model, taken from a short distance, and those not familiar with such pictures often cannot be convinced that it is the real object. This is because we cannot see depth when looking at such scenes in real life and our brains aren't equipped to deal with the artificial depth created by such techniques, and so our minds tell us it must be a smaller object viewed from a short distance, which would have depth. Though most do eventually realize that it is, indeed, an image of a large object from far away, many find the effect bothersome. This doesn't rule out using such techniques, but it is one of the factors that need to be considered when deciding whether or not such a technique should be used.\n", "The exact shape of this region varies depending on what kind of camera lens is being simulated, but typically it is a frustum of a rectangular pyramid (hence the name). The planes that cut the frustum perpendicular to the viewing direction are called the \"near plane\" and the \"far plane\". Objects closer to the camera than the near plane or beyond the far plane are not drawn. Sometimes, the far plane is placed infinitely far away from the camera so all objects within the frustum are drawn regardless of their distance from the camera.\n", "Early instances of forced perspective used in low-budget motion pictures showed objects that were clearly different from their surroundings: often blurred or at a different light level. The principal cause of this was geometric. Light from a point source travels in a spherical wave, decreasing in intensity (or \"illuminance\") as the inverse square of the distance travelled. This means that a light source must be four times as bright to produce the same illuminance at an object twice as far away. Thus to create the illusion of a distant object being at the same distance as a near object and scaled accordingly, much more light is required. When shooting with forced perspective, it's important to have the aperture stopped down sufficiently to achieve proper DOF (depth of field), so that the foreground object and background are both sharp. Since miniature models would need to be subjected to far greater lighting than the main focus of the camera, the area of action, it is important to ensure that these can withstand the significant amount of heat generated by the incandescent light sources typically used in film and TV production.\n", "In movies and other forms of \"3D\" entertainment, hyperstereo may be used to simulate the viewpoint of a giant, with eyes a hundred feet apart. The miniaturization would be just what the photographer (or designer in the case of drawings/computer generated images) had in mind. On the other hand, in the case of a massive ship flying through space the impression that it is a miniature model is probably not what the film makers intended!\n", "In cinematography, perspective distortion also has bearing on the in-camera special effect known as the dolly zoom, in which a zoom lens zooms out at the same time as the camera moves toward the subject, in such a way as to keep the subject the same size in the frame while the background \"changes size\" relative to the subject. This effect was made popular in the films \"Vertigo\" and \"Jaws\". Another example of this can be seen in the first \"\" film, just before the Black Rider comes down the road. The dolly zoom is used to create a compression effect in the road.\n", "As \"s\" is decreased, \"s\" must be increased. For example, consider a normal lens for a 35 mm camera with a focal length of \"f\" = 50 mm. To focus a distant object (\"s\" ≈ ∞), the rear nodal point of the lens must be located a distance \"s\" = 50 mm from the image plane. To focus an object 1 m away (\"s\" = 1,000 mm), the lens must be moved 2.6 mm farther away from the image plane, to \"s\" = 52.6 mm.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03069	Do red lasers consume less power than blue lasers if they are perceived as equally bright.	Well, it's got a couple of factors. First, the eye has three types of sense cells, that respond to different, overlapping parts of the [spectrum of light]( URL_1 ). Added together, the [eye is most sensitive to yellow and green light]( URL_0 ). Red and blue are much less sensitive, with blue about 2/3 the sensitivity of red. That's why green laser pointers are so awesome! However, it's far from clear that the 0.5W parameter is actually a precise measure of the photon power output. Unless we're talking about a piece of scientific equipment, it's at best an upper power limit based on extrapolation from the input electrical power. If it's not a typo, it's likely 0.5W because that's the limit above which you're a Class IV laser subject to all sorts of safety and regulatory requirements. Most laser pointers are Class IIIR, less than 0.5mW. You're talking about a Class IIIB laser, which in itself is not eye-safe and should never be "perceived" by human eyes - but since you're saying battery powered and IIIB battery powered devices are super-exotic I'm going to presume you meant 0.5mW. Either way, red pump diodes have an efficiency of about 22-32%. That means you get less than 1/3 the electrical energy you put in. For blue it's more like 15-20%. If you use the same batteries and provide the same current you might get half as many photons out of the blue laser pointer. Perceived brightness is also a function of collimation, how small the spot is, and that's another whole perception vs reality discussion.	[ "Highest powers and wavelength tunability can be reached when the frequency doubling process is resonator enhanced, resulting in Watt-class sources spanning across the visible wavelength range. For instance, in 2.6 W of output power around 400 nm were demonstrated.\n\nSection::::History.:Diode-pumped solid state lasers.\n", "Diode lasers which emit light at 445 nm are becoming popular as handheld lasers. Lasers emitting wavelengths below 445 nm appear violet (but are sometimes called blue lasers). Some of the most commercially common blue lasers are the diode lasers used in Blu-ray applications which emit 405 nm \"violet\" light, which is a short enough wavelength to cause fluorescence in some chemicals, in the same way as radiation further into the ultraviolet (\"black light\") does. Light of a shorter wavelength than 400 nm is classified as ultraviolet.\n", "BULLET::::- Wavelength of the beam: an infrared or ultraviolet laser beam does not present any visual effect risk to pilots, as they cannot see it. However, at high powers it can present an eye damage risk. In some cases, this hazard may be greater since a pilot would not know they were being illuminated. In general, the eyes of pilots in an illuminated nighttime cockpit are most sensitive to greenish-yellow light (of wavelength around 500–600 nanometers, peaking at 555 nm). A blue or red laser will appear much dimmer—and thus less distracting—than a green or yellow laser of equal power. For example, a 10-watt continuous-wave yttrium aluminium garnet laser at 532 nanometers (green) can appear brighter to the eye than an 18-watt continuous-wave argon-ion laser that outputs 10 watts of 514 nm (green-blue) light plus 8 watts of 488 nm (blue) light.\n", "Blue lasers can also be fabricated directly with InGaN semiconductors, which produce blue light without frequency-doubling. 445 nm through 465 nm blue laser diodes are currently available on the open market. The devices are significantly brighter than 405 nm laser diodes, since the longer wavelength is closer to the peak sensitivity of the human eye. Commercial devices like laser projectors have driven down the prices on these diodes.\n\nSection::::Appearance.\n", "Some vendors are now selling collimated diode blue laser pointers with measured powers exceeding 1,500 mW. However, since the claimed power of \"laser pointer\" products also includes the IR power (in DPSS technology only) still present in the beam (for reasons discussed below), comparisons on the basis of strictly visual-blue component from DPSS-type lasers remain problematic, and the information is often not available. Because of the higher neodymium harmonic used, and the lower efficiency of frequency-doubling conversion, the fraction of IR power converted to 473 nm blue laser light in optimally configured DPSS modules is typically 10–13%, about half that typical for green lasers (20–30%).\n", "Violet lasers may be constructed directly with GaN (gallium nitride) semiconductors, as noted. However, a few higher-powered (120 mW) 404–405 nm \"violet\" laser pointers have become available which are not based on GaN, but also use frequency-doubler technology starting from 1 watt 808 nm gallium arsenide infrared diode lasers being directly doubled, without a longer-wave diode-pumped solid state laser interposed between diode laser and doubler-crystal.\n", "Though green (532 nm) lasers are most common, IR filtering problems may also exist in other DPSS lasers, such as DPSS red (671 nm), yellow (589 nm) and blue (473 nm) lasers. These DPSS laser wavelengths are usually more exotic, more expensive, and generally manufactured with higher quality components, including filters, unless they are put into laser pointer style pocket-pen packages. Most red (635 nm, 660 nm), violet (405 nm) and darker blue (445 nm) lasers are generally built using dedicated laser diodes at the output frequency, not as DPSS lasers. These diode-based visible lasers do not produce IR light.\n\nSection::::Regulations and misuse.\n", "In addition to the safety hazards of unfiltered IR from DPSS lasers, the IR component may be inclusive of total output figures in some laser pointers.\n", "Yellow DPSSLs use an even more complicated process: An 808 nm pump diode is used to generate 1,064 nm and 1,342 nm light, which are summed in parallel to become 593.5 nm. Due to their complexity, most yellow DPSSLs are only around 1% efficient, and usually more expensive per unit of power.\n\nAnother method is to generate 1,064 and 1,319 nm light, which are summed to 589 nm. This process is more efficient, with about 3% of the pump diode's power being converted to yellow light.\n\nSection::::Comparison to diode lasers.\n", "Xenon is used extensively because of its good efficiency, although krypton is often used for pumping neodymium doped laser rods. This is because the spectral lines in the near-IR range better match the absorption lines of neodymium, giving krypton better transfer efficiency even though its overall power output is lower. This is especially effective with Nd:YAG, which has a narrow absorption profile. Pumped with krypton, these lasers can achieve up to twice the output power obtainable from xenon. Spectral line emission is usually chosen when pumping Nd:YAG with krypton, but since all of xenon's spectral lines miss the absorption bands of Nd:YAG, when pumping with xenon the continuum emission is used.\n", "Blue lasers can also be fabricated directly with InGaN semiconductors, which produce blue light without frequency doubling. 450 nm (447 nm plus/minus 5 nm) blue laser diodes are currently available on the open market. Some blue diodes are capable of very high power; such as Nichia's NDB7K75 diode, which can continuously output over 5 watts of energy if overdriven. The devices are brighter for the same power than 405 nm violet laser diodes, since the longer wavelength is closer to the peak sensitivity of the human eye. Mass production of laser diodes for commercial devices like laser projectors have driven down prices. Recent popularity of the high-power version of these 447 nm pointers, which also have improved optics for better collimation and lower divergence, rivals the hazards associated with the use of these portable devices by persons of questionable intention and cost has diminished to be competitive with DPSS green lasers wavelengths.\n", "The efficiency of absorption of pumping energy in the fiber is an important parameter of a double-clad fiber laser. In many cases this efficiency can be approximated with\n\nwhere\n\nThe filling factor may depend on the initial distribution of the pump light, the shape of the cladding, and the position of the core within it.\n", "ICF research turned to using an \"optical frequency multiplier\" to convert the incoming IR light into the ultraviolet at about 351 nm, a technique that was well known at the time but was not efficient enough to be worthwhile. Research on the GDL laser at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics in 1980 first achieved efficient frequency tripling techniques which were then used next (for the first time at LLNL) on Shiva's successor, the Novette laser. Every laser-driven ICF system after Shiva has used this technique.\n", "A Laser TV requires lasers in three distinct wavelengths—red, green, and blue. While red laser diodes are commercially available, there are no commercially available green laser diodes which can provide the required power at room temperature with an adequate lifetime. Instead, frequency doubling can be used to provide the green wavelengths. Several types of lasers can be used as the frequency doubled sources: fibre lasers, inter-cavity doubled lasers, external cavity doubled lasers, eVCSELs, and OPSLs (Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers). Among the inter-cavity doubled lasers, VCSELs have shown much promise and potential to be the basis for a mass-produced frequency doubled laser.\n", "Pump light can be used more efficiently by creating a fiber disk laser, or a stack of such lasers.\n", "In 2012, Nichia and OSRAM developed and manufactured commercial high-power green laser diodes (515/520 nm), which compete with traditional diode-pumped solid-state lasers.\n", "Optical frequency multipliers are common in high-power lasers, notably those used for inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments. ICF attempts to use a laser to heat and compress a target containing fusion fuel, and it was found in experiments with the Shiva laser that the infrared frequencies generated by the laser lost most of its energy in the hot electrons being generated early in the heating process. In order to avoid this problem much shorter wavelengths needed to be used, and experiments on the OMEGA laser and NOVETTE laser validated the use of frequency tripling KDP crystals to convert the laser light into the ultraviolet, a process that has been used on almost every laser-driven ICF experiment since then, including the National Ignition Facility.\n", "Krypton's white discharge is often used to good effect in colored gas discharge tubes, which are simply painted or stained to create the desired color (for example, \"neon\" type multi-colored advertising signs are often entirely krypton-based). Krypton produces much higher light power than neon in the red spectral line region, and for this reason, red lasers for high-power laser light-shows are often krypton lasers with mirrors that select the red spectral line for laser amplification and emission, rather than the more familiar helium-neon variety, which could not achieve the same multi-watt outputs.\n", "For continuous wave operation, it is required for the population inversion of the gain medium to be continually replenished by a steady pump source. In some lasing media, this is impossible. In some other lasers, it would require pumping the laser at a very high continuous power level which would be impractical or destroy the laser by producing excessive heat. Such lasers cannot be run in CW mode.\n\nSection::::Continuous and pulsed modes of operation.:Pulsed operation.\n", "A laser can be classified as operating in either continuous or pulsed mode, depending on whether the power output is essentially continuous over time or whether its output takes the form of pulses of light on one or another time scale. Of course even a laser whose output is normally continuous can be intentionally turned on and off at some rate in order to create pulses of light. When the modulation rate is on time scales much slower than the cavity lifetime and the time period over which energy can be stored in the lasing medium or pumping mechanism, then it is still classified as a \"modulated\" or \"pulsed\" continuous wave laser. Most laser diodes used in communication systems fall in that category.\n", "Furthermore, usual laser sources start lasing at a voltage between 1-2 volts and reach their full brightness at voltages between 3.5-4V, and the power/voltage curve between these points are usually not perfectly linear. Consequently, the dynamics of the color palette in a real lasershow use is decreased to only a few thousands of different colors.\n\nSection::::Typical terminology.:TTL Modulation.\n", "Until the late 1990s, when blue semiconductor lasers were developed, blue lasers were large and expensive gas laser instruments which relied on population inversion in rare gas mixtures and needed high currents and strong cooling.\n", "The estimates above are valid for a medium uniformly filled with pump and signal light. Spatial hole burning may slightly reduce the efficiency because some regions are pumped well, but the pump is not efficiently withdrawn by the signal in the nodes of the interference of counter-propagating waves.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Population inversion\n\nBULLET::::- Laser construction\n\nBULLET::::- Laser science\n\nBULLET::::- List of laser articles\n\nBULLET::::- List of laser types\n\nSection::::References and notes.\n\nBULLET::::- A.saharn Lasing action\n\nBULLET::::- Physics Encyclopedia online [in Russian]\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Gain media Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology\n", "Commercial HeNe lasers are relatively small devices, among gas lasers, having cavity lengths usually ranging from 15 cm to 50 cm (but sometimes up to about 1 meter to achieve the highest powers), and optical output power levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mW.\n", "Real stars are not monochromatic, but emit a range of wavelengths approximating a black body distribution. It is not necessarily true that stars ahead of the observer would show a bluer color. This is because the whole spectral energy distribution is shifted. At the same time that visible light is blueshifted into invisible ultraviolet wavelengths, infrared light is blueshifted into the visible range. Precisely what changes in the colors one sees depends on the physiology of the human eye and on the spectral characteristics of the light sources being observed.\n\nSection::::Doppler effect on intensity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24575	Why do the tips of our toe and finger nails turn white?	Isn’t it because it extends over your skin so they’re no longer “attached” directly to your skin?	[ "Protein is a building material for new nails; therefore, low dietary protein intake may cause anemia and the resultant reduced hemoglobin in the blood filling the capillaries of the nail bed reflects varying amounts of light incident on the nail matrix resulting in lighter shades of pink ultimately resulting in white nail beds when the hemoglobin is very low. When hemoglobin is close to 15 or 16 grams, most of the spectrum of light is absorbed and only the pink color is reflected back and the nails look pink.\n", "Skin and fingernails are made of a similar type of keratinized protein as hair. That means that drips, slips and extra hair tint around the hairline can result in patches of discolored skin. This is more common with darker hair colors and persons with dry absorbent skin. That is why it is recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hands.\n", "As new nail plate cells are made, they push older nail plate cells forward; and in this way older cells become compressed, flat, and translucent. This makes the capillaries in the nail bed below visible, resulting in a pink color.\n\nThe lunula (\"small moon\") is the visible part of the matrix, the whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula can best be seen in the thumb and may not be visible in the little finger.\n\nThe nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate.\n", "Also known as \"true\" leukonychia, this is the most common form of leukonychia, in which small white spots appear on the nails. Picking and biting of the nails are a prominent cause in young children and nail biters. Besides parakeratosis, air that is trapped between the cells may also cause this appearance. It is also caused by trauma. In most cases, when white spots appear on a single or a couple of fingers or toes, the most common cause is injury to the base (matrix) of the nail. When this is the case, white spots disappear after around eight months, which is the amount of time necessary for nails to regrow completely. The pattern and number of spots may change as the nail grows.\n", "The onychodermal band is the seal between the nail plate and the hyponychium. It is just under the free edge, in that portion of the nail where the nail bed ends and can be recognized in fair-skinned people by its glassy, greyish colour. It is not visible in some individuals while it is highly prominent on others.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Parts of the nail.:Eponychium.\n", "Leukonychia\n\nLeukonychia (or leuconychia), is a medical term for white discolouration appearing on nails. It is derived from the Greek words \"leuko\" (\"white\") and \"onyx\" (\"nail\"). The most common cause is injury to the base of the nail (the matrix) where the nail is formed.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Leukonychia totalis.\n", "Stratum lucidum\n\nThe stratum lucidum (Latin for \"clear layer\") is a thin, clear layer of dead skin cells in the epidermis named for its translucent appearance under a microscope. It is readily visible by light microscopy only in areas of thick skin, which are found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.\n", "BULLET::::- Tobacco: tar in smoke from tobacco products (and also smokeless tobacco products) tends to form a yellow-brown-black stain around the necks of the teeth above the gumline The nicotine and tar in tobacco, combined with oxygen, turns yellow and over time will absorb into the pores of enamel and stain the teeth yellow. The dark brown to black stains along the gum line of the teeth are the result of the porous nature of calculus immediately picking up the stains from nicotine and tar.\n", "Psoriatic nails are characterized by a translucent discolouration in the nail bed that resembles a drop of oil beneath the nail plate. Early signs that may accompany the \"oil drop\" include thickening of the lateral edges of the nail bed with or without resultant flattening or concavity of the nail; separation of the nail from the underlying nail bed, often in thin streaks from the tip-edge to the cuticle; sharp peaked \"roof-ridge\" raised lines from cuticle to tip; or separation of superficial layers of the nail followed by loss of patches of these superficial layers, leaving thin red nails beneath; or nail pitting–punctate changes along the nail plate surface.\n", "Section::::Function.:Entoptic effects in the fovea.\n\nThe presence of the pigment in the radially arranged axons of the Henle fiber layer causes it to be dichroic and birefringent to blue light. This effect is visible through the Haidinger's brush when the fovea is pointed to a polarized light source.\n", "More common than a complete absence of pigment cells is localized or incomplete hypopigmentation, resulting in irregular patches of white on an animal that otherwise has normal colouring and patterning. This partial leucism is known as a \"pied\" or \"piebald\" effect; and the ratio of white to normal-coloured skin can vary considerably not only between generations, but between different offspring from the same parents, and even between members of the same litter. This is notable in horses, cows, cats, dogs, the urban crow and the ball python but is also found in many other species.\n", "This condition consists of a whitening of parts of the nail plate in the form of small white dots. There are three different variations of partial leukonychia; punctate, transverse and longitudinal leukonychia. Some of the more serious variations of leukonychia partialis may lead to leukonychia totalis.\n\nSection::::Types.:Leukonychia partialis.:Leukonychia striata.\n", "Leukonychia striata, transverse leukonychia, or Mees' lines are a whitening or discoloration of the nail in bands or \"stria\" that run parallel the lunula (nail base). This is commonly caused by physical injury or disruption of the nail matrix. Common examples include excessive biting or tapping of the nails, trauma or injury from accidents involving doors or windows, and extensive use of manicure. It may also occur in great toenails as a result of trauma from footwear. Alternatively, the condition can be caused by heavy metal poisoning, most commonly by lead. Finally, it can be caused by cirrhosis of the liver or chemotherapy.\n", "Matt Fagerholm of RoberEbert.com writes about A LIGHT BENEATH THEIR FEET:\n", "Melanonychia\n\nMelanonychia is a black or brown pigmentation of the normal nail plate, and may be present as a normal finding on many digits in Afro-Caribbeans, as a result of trauma, systemic disease, or medications, or as a postinflammatory event from such localized events as lichen planus or fixed drug eruption.\n", "This condition consists of a whitening of the entire nail and mostly likely occurs on all nails. Whitening of one, and only one, entire nail is not recognized as a symptom of Leukonychia totalis but as a likely result of mechanical trauma. Leukonychia totalis may be a clinical sign of hypoalbuminaemia (low albumin), which can be seen in nephrotic syndrome (a form of kidney failure), liver failure, protein malabsorption and protein-losing enteropathies. A genetic condition or a side effect from taking sulphonamides (a family of antibiotics) can also cause this appearance.\n\nSection::::Types.:Leukonychia partialis.\n", "\"Onyx\" comes through Latin (of the same spelling), from the Greek ὄνυξ, meaning \"claw\" or \"fingernail\". Onyx with flesh-colored and white bands can sometimes resemble a fingernail. The English word \"nail\" is cognate with the Greek word.\n\nSection::::Varieties.\n\nOnyx is formed of bands of chalcedony in alternating colors. It is cryptocrystalline, consisting of fine intergrowths of the silica minerals quartz and moganite. Its bands are parallel to one another, as opposed to the more chaotic banding that often occurs in agates.\n", "The thickness of the \"stratum corneum\" varies throughout the body. In the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet (sometimes knees, elbows, knuckles,) this layer is stabilized and built by the \"stratum lucidum\" (clear phase) which allows the cells to concentrate keratin and toughen them before they rise into a typically thicker, more cohesive SC. The mechanical stress of heavy structural strain causes this SL phase in these regions which require additional protection in order to grasp objects, resist abrasion or impact, and avoid injury. In general, the \"stratum corneum\" contains 15 to 20 layers of dead cells. The stratum corneum has a thickness between 10 and 40 μm.\n", "Section::::Work.:Recent studies.\n\nProvencio's research team has found that in albino mice, the amount of melanopsin protein in various retinal cells varies based on the environmental light conditions. In constant light conditions, melanopsin cell number did not increase. However, when these constant-light mice were exposed to light-dark schedules, there was regain of melanopsin cell number. This study shows that bouts of darkness or the order of light and dark periods may control the normal development of the melanopsin system.\n", "BULLET::::- White superficial onychomycosis (WSO) is caused by fungal invasion of the superficial layers of the nail plate to form \"white islands\" on the plate. It accounts for around 10 percent of onychomycosis cases. In some cases, WSO is a misdiagnosis of \"keratin granulations\" which are not a fungus, but a reaction to nail polish that can cause the nails to have a chalky white appearance. A laboratory test should be performed to confirm.\n", "BULLET::::- Increased entry of megakaryocytes into the systemic circulation. Under normal circumstances in healthy individuals, megakaryocytes that arise from the bone marrow are trapped in the pulmonary capillary bed and broken down before they enter the systemic circulation. It is thought that in disorders where there is right-to-left shunting or lung malignancy, the megakaryocytes can bypass the breakdown within the pulmonary circulation and enter the systemic circulation. They are then trapped within the capillary beds within the extremities, such as the digits, and release platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). PDGF and VEGF have growth promoting properties and cause connective tissue hypertrophy and capillary permeability.\n", "Terry's nails is a physical condition in which a person's fingernails or toenails appear white with a characteristic \"ground glass\" appearance without any lunula. The condition is thought to be due to a decrease in vascularity and an increase in connective tissue within the nail bed. It frequently occurs in the setting of liver failure, cirrhosis, diabetes mellitus, congestive heart failure, hyperthyroidism, or malnutrition. Eighty percent of patients with severe liver disease have Terry's nails, but they are also found in patients with kidney failure, in patients with congestive heart failure and are described as a brown arc near the ends of the nails. The recognition of characteristic nail patterns, such as Terry’s nails, may be a helpful herald for early diagnosis of systemic diseases.\n", "Nails that have undergone a French manicure are characterized by a lack of artificial base color and white tips at the free edge of the nail. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as \"French tips\". The nail tips are painted white, while the rest of the nails are polished in a pink or a suitable nude shade. French manicures can be achieved with artificial nails. However, it is also as common to perform a French manicure on natural nails. Another technique is to whiten the underside of the nail with white pencil and paint a sheer color over the entire nail.\n", "Like all skin, it is made of two types of tissues: the deeper dermis, the living tissue which includes capillaries and glands, and the epidermis, the layer just beneath the nail plate, which moves toward the finger tip with the plate. The epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal \"grooves\" called matrix crests (\"cristae matricis unguis\"). In old age, the nail plate becomes thinner, and these grooves become more visible.\n", "Raynaud’s disease is a rare peripheral vascular syndrome that narrows blood vessels, generally in the hands and feet, due to cold or stressful emotion. It is recognized by the reduction of blood flow to fingers and toes with periodic spasm and results in a drastic color change to white or blue. The disease may further develop into ischaemic pain and necrosis of fingers or toes. The pathology of Raynaud's disease starts with the activation of sympathetic nervous system triggered by cold or the feeling of stress.\n\nSection::::Types of Blood Vessel Disorder.:Venous thromboembolism.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02665	Why is failure oftentimes followed by depression ?	Mainly because of society. A failure is a step you have to take before success. It allows you to grow and learn in order to get better. Also, success wouldn’t be as important if it wasn’t for failures.. but we only hear about the successes and never the failures when it comes to other people so we see it as a bad thing and it leads to depression. Hello fellow Frenchie btw!	[ "Failure\n\nFailure is the state or condition of not meeting a desirable or intended objective, and may be viewed as the opposite of success. Product failure ranges from failure to sell the product to fracture of the product, in the worst cases leading to personal injury, the province of forensic engineering.\n\nSection::::In science.\n\nMIT neuroscience professor Earl K. Miller discovered that the reason why we keep repeating mistakes is because brain cells may only learn from experience when we do something right and not when we fail.\n", "Failure can be differentially perceived from the viewpoints of the evaluators. A person who is only interested in the final outcome of an activity would consider it to be an \"Outcome Failure\" if the core issue has not been resolved or a core need is not met. A failure can also be a \"process failure\" whereby although the activity is completed successfully, a person may still feel dissatisfied if the underlying process is perceived to be below expected standard or benchmark.\n\nBULLET::::1. Failure to anticipate\n\nBULLET::::2. Failure to perceive\n\nBULLET::::3. Failure to carry out a task\n", "Due to the convention's nature, there is no such term as \"failure\" which can be applied. \"For when something goes \"wrong\", something far more \"right\", more revelatory may emerge. This sort of sudden near-miracle presently is made more likely by chance procedures.\" As a conclusion, a happening is fresh while it lasts and cannot be reproduced.\n", "The term \"miserable failure\" has also been popularized as a result of a widely known \"Google bombing,\" which caused Google searches for the term to turn up the White House biography of George W. Bush.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cascading failure\n\nBULLET::::- Disaster\n\nBULLET::::- Error\n\nBULLET::::- Fail-safe\n\nBULLET::::- Failure analysis\n\nBULLET::::- Failure mode\n\nBULLET::::- Failure rate\n\nBULLET::::- Governance failure\n\nBULLET::::- Market failure\n\nBULLET::::- Murphy's law\n\nBULLET::::- Normal accidents\n\nBULLET::::- Setting up to fail\n\nBULLET::::- Single point of failure\n\nBULLET::::- Structural failure\n\nBULLET::::- System accident\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Further reading.\n", "\"Wired\" magazine editor Kevin Kelly explains that a great deal can be learned from things going wrong unexpectedly, and that part of science's success comes from keeping blunders \"small, manageable, constant, and trackable\". He uses the example of engineers and programmers who push systems to their limits, breaking them to learn about them. Kelly also warns against creating a culture (e.g., school system) that punishes failure harshly, because this inhibits a creative process, and risks teaching people not to communicate important failures with others (e.g., null results).\n\nSection::::Criteria.\n", "The criteria for failure are heavily dependent on context of use, and may be relative to a particular observer or belief system. A situation considered to be a failure by one might be considered a success by another, particularly in cases of direct competition or a zero-sum game. Similarly, the degree of success or failure in a situation may be differently viewed by distinct observers or participants, such that a situation that one considers to be a failure, another might consider to be a success, a qualified success or a neutral situation.\n", "Section::::Types of failure.\n\nThere are multiple types of failure that can be reached before ending a set. They are listed here in order of increasing intensity.\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-failure. The set is ended just before failure, as judged based on sensory feedback from the muscles.\n\nBULLET::::- Tempo failure. The tempo or cadence used for the initial few repetitions can no longer be maintained. Additional repetitions cannot be performed at the same tempo.\n\nBULLET::::- Form failure. Proper form for repetitions can no longer be maintained. Additional repetitions cannot be performed using proper form.\n", "It may also be difficult or impossible to ascertain whether a situation meets criteria for failure or success due to ambiguous or ill-defined definition of those criteria. Finding useful and effective criteria, or heuristics, to judge the success or failure of a situation may itself be a significant task.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "The concept was first used in Seddon's 1992 book, \"I Want you to Cheat\" and again in his 2003 book 'Freedom from Command and Control'.\n\nIt has since been used by managers in service organisations and borrowed by systems theorists, authors and management consultants across the world. \n", "Rather than the simple description of symptoms that many product users or process participants might use, the term failure scenario / mechanism refers to a rather complete description, including the preconditions under which failure occurs, how the thing was being used, proximate and ultimate/final causes (if known), and any subsidiary or resulting failures that result.\n", "The concept of a single point of failure has also been applied to fields outside of engineering, computers, and networking, such as corporate supply chain management and transportation management.\n\nDesign structures that create single points of failure include bottlenecks and series circuits (in contrast to parallel circuits).\n", "Section::::Early history – integrated circuits.\n\nThe initial focus of physics of failure techniques tended to be limited to degradation mechanisms in integrated circuits. This was primarily because the rapid evolution of the technology created a need to capture and predict performance several generations ahead of existing product.\n", "Section::::History.:2018-present: \"In The Future Your Body Will Be The Furthest Thing From Your Mind\".\n", "Over time, as more is understood about a failure, the failure cause evolves from a description of symptoms and outcomes (that is, effects) to a systematic and relatively abstract model of how, when, and why the failure comes about (that is, causes).\n\nThe more complex the product or situation, the more necessary a good understanding of its failure cause is to ensuring its proper operation (or repair). Cascading failures, for example, are particularly complex failure causes. Edge cases and corner cases are situations in which complex, unexpected, and difficult-to-debug problems often occur.\n\nSection::::Types of failure causes.:Failure by corrosion.\n", "Despite this difference in the source of failure between software and hardware, several software reliability models based on statistics have been proposed to quantify what we experience with software: the longer software is run, the higher the probability that it will eventually be used in an untested manner and exhibit a latent defect that results in a failure (Shooman 1987), (Musa 2005), (Denney 2005).\n", "Failure cause\n\nFailure causes are defects in design, process, quality, or part application, which are the underlying cause of a failure or which initiate a process which leads to failure. Where failure depends on the user of the product or process, then human error must be considered.\n\nSection::::Component failure / failure modes.\n", "Murray's Exploration in Personal (1938) was one of the first studies that actually identified fear of failure as an actual motive to avoid failure or to achieve success. His studies suggested that inavoidance, the need to avoid failure, was found in many college-aged men during the time of his research in 1938. This was a monumental finding in the field of psychology because it allowed other researchers to better clarify how fear of failure can actually be a determinant of creating achievement goals as well as how it could be used in the actual act of achievement.\n", "Section::::Case Studies.:From a design engineer's POV.\n", "In summary, the two studies that were done above created a more precise definition of fear of failure, which is \"a dispositional tendency to experience apprehension and anxiety in evaluative situations because individuals have learned that failure is associated with aversive consequences\".\n\nSection::::Inability to experience fear.\n", "Failure demand\n\nFailure demand is a systems concept used in service organisations first discovered and articulated by Professor John Seddon as 'demand caused by a failure to do something or do something right for the customer'. Seddon makes the distinction between 'failure demand' and 'value demand', which is what the service exists to provide. Failure demand represents a common type of waste found in service organizations.\n\nFailure demand is discovered during the application of the Vanguard Method to service organisations.\n", "It is clear that further refinement of the component database with selective calibration to different operation profiles is needed. In addition, comparisons of FMEDA results with field failure studies, have shown that human factors, especially maintenance procedures, affect the failure rates and failure modes of products.\n", "A person setting themselves up for failure may do so because they have a fear of failure, an unrealistic assessment of their own abilities, or because they are naive and uninformed regarding the abilities necessary to succeed. In some cases, an individual has an unjustified expectation that they will fail, a self-reinforcing negative spiral, or failure neurosis – perhaps driven by a sense of guilt, or by the compulsion to repeat self-destructive behaviour.\n\nSection::::In television.\n", "A decreasing failure rate (DFR) describes a phenomenon where the probability of an event in a fixed time interval in the future decreases over time. A decreasing failure rate can describe a period of \"infant mortality\" where earlier failures are eliminated or corrected and corresponds to the situation where λ(\"t\") is a decreasing function.\n\nMixtures of DFR variables are DFR. Mixtures of exponentially distributed random variables are hyperexponentially distributed.\n\nSection::::Decreasing Failure Rate.:Renewal processes.\n", "There are some limitations with the use of physics of failure in design assessments and reliability prediction. The first is physics of failure algorithms typically assume a ‘perfect design’. Attempting to understand the influence of defects can be challenging and often leads to Physics of Failure (PoF) predictions limited to end of life behavior (as opposed to infant mortality or useful operating life). In addition, some companies have so many use environments (think personal computers) that performing a PoF assessment for each potential combination of temperature / vibration / humidity / power cycling / etc. would be onerous and potentially of limited value.\n", "Fear of failure as described above has been studied frequently in the field of sport psychology. Many scholars have tried to determine how often fear of failure is triggered within athletes. As well as what personalities of athletes most often choose to use this type of motivation. Studies have also been conducted to determine the success rate of this method of motivation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00355	Why can we sometimes "feel" sometimes presence when someone is looking at you?	> Why can we sometimes "feel" sometimes presence when someone is looking at you? You can't. Really, you can't. There have been studies done, there is no such sense. What does happen is people tend to somewhat regularly scan their environment visually, looking for attention from other humans. If they don't find anything they tend to forget about even looking, but if someone is looking it is a memorable event. And considering all the times other people are scanning the room checking people's sight lines it isn't astonishing that sometimes they sync up. So what you imagine is some mystical sense is a combination of normal human behavior and cognitive error.	[ "Writing after another skin conductance test in 2004 showed a negative result, Lobach & Bierman concluded that \"the staring paradigm is not the easily replicable paradigm that it is claimed to be\".\n\nSection::::Gaze detection.\n", "\"“I was in bed and about to fall asleep when I had the distinct impression that “I” was at the ceiling level looking down at my body in the bed. I was very startled and frightened; immediately [afterward] I felt that, I was consciously back in the bed again.”\"\n", "Section::::The oppositional gaze.:Postcolonial gaze.:The male tourist gaze.\n", "A study conducted by the University of Sydney's Vision Centre concluded that when test subjects are presented with limited cues to determine whether or not they are being stared at, they tend to assume that they are, despite having too little information to make that determination. Test subjects asked to determine if an individual wearing dark sunglasses is looking at them, for example, would assume they are indeed being stared at, even though the starer's eyes were obscured and the actual position of their eyes was not known to the subject. Humans, they reason, are \"hard-wired\" to err on the side of caution since the consequences of \"not\" recognizing such a potential threat or important social cue would be more detrimental than a false positive error.\n", "Presence is very similar to distal attribution or externalization which is like projecting one's presence and mind beyond the limits of our sensory organs and perceiving the environment in such a way. A distinction is made between two separate perceptions. The first being the unmediated perceptions in which we are unable to feel anything beyond our physical surroundings. The second being the mediated presence through technology which forces us to suddenly perceive two different environments at the same time: The one immediately around us and the one projected for us through technology. Mediated experiences are not limited to virtual technology and can also be experienced with spatially distant places such as space with a telescope or a camera.\n", "Section::::Later studies.\n\nA 1913 study by John E. Coover asked ten subjects to state whether or not they could sense an experimenter looking at them, over a period of 100 possible staring periods. The subjects' answers were correct 50.2% of the time, a result that Coover called an \"astonishing approximation\" of pure chance. Coover concluded that although the feeling of being stared at was common, experimentation showed it to be \"groundless\". He suggested that the \"tingling\" sensation described by Titchener was an example of motor automatism.\n", "Formerly called bio-PK, \"direct mental interactions with living systems\" (DMILS) studies the effects of one person's intentions on a distant person's psychophysiological state. One type of DMILS experiment looks at the commonly reported \"feeling of being stared at.\" The \"starer\" and the \"staree\" are isolated in different locations, and the starer is periodically asked to simply gaze at the staree via closed circuit video links. Meanwhile, the staree's nervous system activity is automatically and continuously monitored.\n", "The feeling is a common one, being reported by over two thirds of the students questioned in a 1913 study.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "Various studies have explored the reliability with which humans can visually detect gazes from other individuals. Brain imaging has shown that the brain cells which are activated when a test subject can see that they are being stared at are distinct from the cells activated when the starer's eyes are averted away from the subject by just a few degrees . It is theorized that the ability to precisely detect the target of a starer's gaze has conferred an evolutionary advantage by improving threat detection capabilities, as well as facilitating nonverbal communication. Compared to the eyes of other animals, the uniquely visible and well-defined sclera and iris of human eyes provides further evidence of its evolutionary importance for the species, and are thought to have developed as humans became more reliant upon complex communication for survival and reproductive success.\n", "BULLET::::- It is unusual for an apparitional figure to engage in any verbal interaction with the percipient; this is consistent with the finding that the majority of such experiences only involve one sense (most commonly the visual).\n\nSection::::Psychological implications.\n\nSection::::Psychological implications.:Psychological theories of perception.\n", "Psychologist Edward B. Titchener reported in 1898 that some students in his junior classes believed that they could \"feel\" when they were being stared at from behind, and a smaller proportion believed that by staring at the back of a person's neck they could force them to turn around. Both phenomena were said to occur in public places such as classrooms and public halls. His students described the feeling as \"a state of unpleasant tingling, which gathers in volume and intensity until a movement which shall relieve it becomes inevitable\".\n", "BULLET::::2. presence can be a sense of realism, such as computer-generated environments looking, feeling, or otherwise seeming real\n\nBULLET::::3. presence can be a sense of transportation. This is a more complex concept than the traditional feeling of one being there. Transportation also includes users feeling as though something is “here” with them or feeling as though they are sharing common space with another person together\n\nBULLET::::4. presence can be a sense of immersion, either through the senses or through the mind\n", "Section::::The gaze in systems of power.\n", "Bottom-up processing is also known as data-driven processing, because it originates with the stimulation of the sensory receptors. Psychologist James Gibson opposed the top-down model and argued that perception is direct, and not subject to hypothesis testing as Gregory proposed. He stated that sensation is perception and there is no need for extra interpretation, as there is enough information in our environment to make sense of the world in a direct way. His theory is sometimes known as the \"ecological theory\" because of the claim that perception can be explained solely in terms of the environment. An example of bottom up-processing involves presenting a flower at the center of a person's field. The sight of the flower and all the information about the stimulus are carried from the retina to the visual cortex in the brain. The signal travels in one direction.\n", "Sensitivity to eye contact is present in newborns. From as early as four months old cortical activation as a result of eye contact has suggested that infants are able to detect and orient towards faces that make eye contact with them . This sensitivity to eye contact remains as the presence of eye contact has an effect on the processing of social stimuli in slightly older infants. For example, a 9-month-old infant will shift its gaze towards an object in response to another face shifting its gaze towards the same object. \n", "According to IDC surveys, employees \"often feel that IM gives their workdays the kind of 'flow' that they feel when sitting directly among their colleagues, being able to ask questions of them, and getting the kind of quick responses that allow them to drive on to the next task\". This phenomenon has been called the \"Presence Effect\" in contrast to its predecessor the \"water cooler\" effect, whereby this level of flow was only thought to be achieved in person.\n", "Increase in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) shows larger activation for direct than averted gaze in this area . It has been suggested that this increased activation is related to initial increased face encoding. However, these effects are absent when one has already been presented with a face and its gaze shifts towards the participant. This indicates that when attending to face identity, face encoding effects can be masked. \n\nSection::::Activation in the brain.:Anterior, right side of superior temporal sulcus (aSTS).\n", "Psychic staring effect\n\nThe psychic staring effect (sometimes called scopaesthesia) is a supposed phenomenon in which humans detect being stared at by extrasensory means. The idea was first explored by psychologist Edward B. Titchener in 1898 after students in his junior classes reported being able to \"feel\" when somebody was looking at them, even though they could not see this person. Titchener performed a series of laboratory experiments that found only negative results. The effect has been the subject of contemporary attention from parapsychologists and fringe researchers from the 1980s onwards, most notably Rupert Sheldrake.\n", "When directing gaze specifically towards the eye area, the anterior, right side of the superior temporal sulcus is activated, indicating facilitation of gaze direction encoding in this region when eye contact is present . Like the fusiform gyrus, this effect can also be masked in this area .\n\nSection::::Activation in the brain.:Posterior, right side of superior temporal sulcus (pSTS).\n", "Section::::In psychoanalysis.\n", "The sense of presence in virtual reality is also linked to the triggering of emotional and physiological responses. Research suggests that a strong presence can facilitate an emotional response, and this emotional response can further increase one's feeling of presence. Similarly, breaks in the presence (or a loss in the sense of presence) can cause physiological changes.\n\nSection::::Social science and psychology.:Understanding biases and stereotypes.\n", "When gaze is direct, the eye-contact effect produces activation in the social brain. These six regions demonstrate that perceived eye contact increases activation of elements within this network, with the area of activation depending on task demands and the social context.\n\nSection::::Activation in the brain.:Fusiform gyrus (FG).\n", "Section::::Encounter with.\n", "Research has empirically shown that such drastic over-estimation of one's effect on others is widely common. Many professionals in social psychology encourage people to be conscious of the spotlight effect and to allow this phenomenon to moderate the extent to which one believes one is in a social spotlight.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Background: Reide and Lance come from the same town, and have known each other almost all their lives. Reide is practical and situation oriented. It was his idea to leave the village and work for hire in Haven, in order to be less of a burden to the town that was his home. He proposed the idea to Lance, who agreed.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Terrai Hanswitch.\n\nAge: 22\n\nHeight: 167 cm\n\nTrigger: Skin contact with iron. (exact notes will be added)\n\nHeightening: (Amplificatory) The ability to repel attention. Implies that people are highly likely to not notice her presence.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Shadow.\n\nAge: 15\n\nHeight: 172 cm\n" ]	[ "You can feel when someone is looking at you." ]	[ "You cannot feel when someone is looking at you." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can feel when someone is looking at you." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You cannot feel when someone is looking at you." ]
2018-13339	How does salt improve plant growth?	Salt, as in table salt (sodium chloride) is not good for plants as it draws water away from them. However, minerals that help plant growth can come in the form of mineral salts, like epsom salt (magnesium sulfate). So really, it all depends what type if 'salt' you add to the soil	[ "Salt Tolerance and Disease Resistance: The genes for salt tolerance and disease resistance are also naturally found in L. mollis. In addition, this species has large spikes, strong rhizomes, and experiences vigorous growth in environments ranging from Siberia to Canada and Iceland and the northern parts of Japan.\n\nAll of these traits of L. mollis have the potential to be beneficial for crop improvement and domestication of new plant species in response to anthropogenic pressures and the increased need for food production.\n\nSection::::Human uses.\n", "High concentration of salt in the soil has negative effects on plants. For example, it reduces the yield that crop plants can produce in 7% of the land. On the other side, some plants show adaptations to changes in soil salinity, in that the plant's exposure to salt initiates certain mechanisms for cell osmotic regulation and causes changes in this plant's water obtaining and loss behaviors. One of such plants is the model plant \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", a member of the family Brassicaceae. \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" is native to Eurasia and was introduced to some parts of North America. It grows in rocky, sandy and disturbed terrains. It has been found in many studies that \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" showed enhanced Na and H extrusion from their cells after exposure to high salinity. Part of \"Arabidopsis\"’ range might have included high salinity soil and the plant started adapting to that.\n", "Upon high salt exposure, \"Arabidopsis\" experiences a negative osmotic pressure gradient between the salty solution and its xylem, and it absorbs Na through Na permeable transporters. The plant then reduces the impact of high Na+ abundance by improving Na+ efflux from its cells through SOS pathway\n\nTwo different paths in the SOS pathway can activate SOS1, a molecule that causes sodium efflux. One path is the SOS2-SOS3, the other is the PLD path. This is shown in figure 1. \n\nSOS2-SOS3 path:\n", "BULLET::::- Researchers from the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology and a number of US institutions studied the combined effects of drought and heat stress on \"Arabidopsis thaliana\". Their research suggests that the combined effects of heat and drought stress cause sucrose to serve as the major osmoprotectant.\n\nBULLET::::- Plant physiologists from The University of Putra Malaysia and The University of Edinburgh investigated the relative effects of tree age and tree size on the physiological attributes of two broadleaf species. A photosynthetic system was used to measure photosynthetic rate per unit of leaf mass.\n", "One of the experiments providing the previous pathway utilized \"Arabidopsis\" seedlings grown inside X-gal dishes. Researchers used 6–8 days old plants. The MIFE technique was employed to assess the magnitudes of fluxes of Na, K, and H. The experiment involved cutting 8–10 mm long root segments and placing them in a Perspex holder. Then they put the holder inside a 4 mL chamber containing the required solution. They gave around 50 minutes for that setting to reach equilibrium, then took the measurements. Through such a technique, they measured net ion fluxes. \n", "Biological hydraulic containment occurs when some plants, like poplars, draw water upwards through the soil into the roots and out through the plant, which decreases the movement of soluble contaminants downwards, deeper into the site and into the groundwater.\n\nSection::::Processes.:Phytodesalination.\n\nPhytodesalination uses halophytes (plants adapted to saline soil) to extract salt from the soil to improve its fertility\n\nSection::::Role of genetics.\n", "For example, a short-lived plant species that completes its reproductive life cycle during periods (such as a rainy season) when the salt concentration is low would be avoiding salt rather than tolerating it. Or a plant species may maintain a 'normal' internal salt concentration by excreting excess salts through its leaves, by way of a hydathode, or by concentrating salts in leaves that later die and drop off.\n", "Other work in transgenic bentgrass looks into salinity tolerance. The improved performance of the transgenic plants was associated with higher relative water content, higher sodium uptake and lower solute leakage in leaf tissues, with higher concentrations of Na+, K+, Cl- and total phosphorus in root tissues, and with higher auxin accumulation rate in the root tissue. This transgenic plant can survive in the presence of 1.7% sodium chloride (half seawater salinity concentration), while the non transgenic line and wild type plants cannot.\n", "Tolerance of high salt conditions can be obtained through several routes. High levels of salt entering the plant can trigger ionic imbalances which cause complications in respiration and photosynthesis, leading to reduced rates of growth, injury and death in severe cases. To be considered tolerant of saline conditions, the protoplast must show methods of balancing the toxic and osmotic effects of the increased salt concentrations. Halophytic vascular plants can survive on soils with salt concentrations around 6%, or up to 20% in extreme cases. Tolerance of such conditions is reached through the use of stress proteins and compatible cytoplasm osmotic solutes.\n", "Since \"Agropyron desertorum\" is a very versatile and resilient crop, it also has the potential to be grown in areas it is not native to. It can emerge and grow over a broad range of soil water, and is a very adaptable plant. It is especially able to grow in areas with bare and exposed mineral soil, which can even lead it to become invasive in certain areas. The ability of \"Agropyron desertorum\" to be grown in so many different environments makes it a very resourceful perennial crop.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary development.\n", "Drought resistance occurs by modifying the plant's genes responsible for the mechanism known as the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), which allows the plants to survive despite low water levels. This holds promise for water-heavy crops such as rice, wheat, soybeans and poplar to accelerate their adaptation to water-limited environments. Several salinity tolerance mechanisms have been identified in salt-tolerant crops. For example, rice, canola and tomato crops have been genetically modified to increase their tolerance to salt stress.\n\nSection::::Traits.:Stress resistance.:Herbicides.\n\nSection::::Traits.:Stress resistance.:Herbicides.:Glyphosate.\n", "\"A. holocarpa\" is very tolerant of saline conditions and can be used to help colonise saline waste dumps. Salts are extruded through the plants' vesiculated hairs to prevent salt reaching toxic levels.. \"A. holocarpa\" have unicellular salt bladders on both surfaces of their leaves that concentrate salt above the saturation point of NaCL and release to the exterior via the vesiculated hairs.\n", "Section::::Salt Farm Texel.:Soil salinity.\n\nThe soil salinity is expressed in the electric conductivity of the extract of a saturated soil paste (ECe in dS/m).\n\nAuthor Schleiff presented a classification of salt tolerance of crops based on ECe in dS/m that may be summarized as follows:\n\n^) The crop performs well (no yield reduction) up to the soil salinity level listed in the table. Beyond that level, the yield goes down.\n", "Increased sulfide has been shown to inhibit NH-N (ammoniacal nitrogen, an ammonium salt) uptake within the plant. NH-N is the most available form of nitrogen within the soil and it is a limiting nutrient in \"S. alterniflora\" productivity.\n\nA higher concentration of NH-N in the soil may show that the plant's uptake of NH-N has decreased, leaving excess molecules in the soil. In addition, reduced soils can cause plant nitrification to decrease, leading to a greater lack of NH-N uptake.\n\nSection::::Waterlogging hypothesis.:Possible solutions.\n", "When a plant is exposed to water deficit, it may accumulate a variety of osmotically active compounds such as amino acids and sugars, resulting in a lowering of the osmotic potential. Examples of amino acids that may be up-regulated are proline and glycine betaine. This is termed osmotic adjustment and enables the plant to take up water, maintain turgor and survive longer.\n\nSection::::Drought resistance traits.:Cell membrane stability.\n", "\"Malva arborea\" tolerates sea water to varying degrees, at up to 100% sea water in its natural habitat, excreting salt through glands on its leaves. This salt tolerance can be a competitive advantage over inland plant species in coastal areas. Its level of salinity tolerance is thought to be improved by soil with higher phosphate content, making guano enrichment particularly beneficial.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Salt deposition from sea spray is the primary factor influencing distribution of plant communities in coastal ecosystems. Ion concentrations of sea spray deposited on land generally mirror their concentrations in the ocean, except that potassium is often higher in sea spray. Deposition of salts on land generally decreases with distance from the ocean but increases with increasing wind speed. Salt deposition from sea spray is correlated with a decrease in plant height and significant scarring, shoot reduction, stem height decrease, and tissue death on the windward side of shrubs and trees. Variation in salt deposition also influences competition between plants and establishes gradients of salt tolerance.\n", "\"S. imbricata\" is a halophytic plant; under conditions of salt stress, the plant increases its water content (becomes more succulent) and decreases the surface area of its leaves. Tests on the germination rates of seeds show that \"Salsola imbricata\" sprouts more quickly and consistently at 20 °C than at higher temperatures, and shows higher germination rates at lower salinity levels than high ones. However, seeds treated at high salinity levels recovered their germination potential after immerssion in unsalted water.\n", "Brown and Pezeshki devised an experiment in which many \"S. alterniflora\" individuals were put under situations of increased salinity, increased water stress, and then a combined treatment. They found that those plants that experienced the combined treatment exhibited an increase in water stress, where plants are unable to get a sufficient amount of water from the soil, a decrease in photosynthetic activity, and ultimately death (Brown & Pezeshki 2007).\n", "It is surprising to find a higher concentration of sodium than of potassium in plant tissues; the former element is usually toxic, and the latter element is essential, to the metabolic processes of plants. Thus, most plants, and especially most crop plants, are \"glycophytes\", and suffer damage when planted in saline soils. \"S. soda\", and the other plants that were cultivated for soda ash, are \"halophytes\" that tolerate much more saline soils than do glycophytes, and that can thrive with much larger densities of sodium in their tissues than can glycophytes.\n", "The \"H. rhamnoides\" plant is particularly drought and salt tolerant and can thus be successfully used for land reclamation, against further soil erosion, as shelterbelt or in agroforestry. These characteristics are mainly due to the deep root system that the plant develops. For example, in eastern China, new agroforestry systems have been developed to reclaim land with high salinity contents and \"H. rhamnoides\" is included in the system as shelterbelt, providing a habitat to different birds and small mammals.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Soil and climate requirements.\n", "Salt tolerance is of importance in irrigated lands in (semi)arid regions where the soil salinity problem can be extensive as a result of the salinization occurring here. It concerns hundreds of millions of hectares. A regional distribution of the 3,230,000 km² of saline land worldwide is shown in salt affected area based on the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World.\n\nAdditionally, in areas where sprinkler irrigation is practiced, salty sprinkler water can cause considerable damage by leaf burning, whether the soil is saline or not.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Human use.:Companion plant.\n\nAzolla has been used for at least one thousand years in rice paddies as a companion plant, because of the presence of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria in symbiosis with azolla, and its tendency to block out light to prevent any competition from other plants, aside from the rice, which is planted when tall enough to poke out of the water through the azolla layer. Mats of mature azolla can also be used as a weed-suppressing mulch.\n", "Chemical priming has been proposed to increase tolerance to abiotic stresses in crop plants. In this method, which is analogous to vaccination, stress-inducing chemical agents are introduced to the plant in brief doses so that the plant begins preparing defense mechanisms. Thus, when the abiotic stress occurs, the plant has already prepared defense mechanisms that can be activated faster and increase tolerance.\n\nSection::::In plants.:Salt stress in plants.\n", "Arabidopsis thaliana responses to salinity\n\nAs a model organism, the \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" response to salinity is studied to aid understanding of other more economically important crops.\n" ]	[ "All salts improve plant growth.", "All salt improves plant growth." ]	[ "While table salt is not good for plants, epsom salt can aid plant growth.", "Some salt like table salt is dangerous for plants, other salt like epsom salt is good for plants." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All salts improve plant growth.", "All salt improves plant growth." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "While table salt is not good for plants, epsom salt can aid plant growth.", "Some salt like table salt is dangerous for plants, other salt like epsom salt is good for plants." ]
2018-00352	Why are prepackaged cold cuts folded in a way that makes it difficult to remove slices?	I think they are folded to make the product volume appear larger by introducing air pockets. The breaking apart problem OP describes becomes a side effect.	[ "Section::::Benefits and limitations.\n\nWhen investigating mammalian CNS activity, slice preparation has several advantages and disadvantages when compared to in vivo study.\n", "A knife folder works by striking the paper with a knife between two rollers. This knife is not sharp enough to cut through the paper and simply strikes and creases the paper along the line where the fold is required. Ideally, knife folding is used with thick paper, for \"cross folds\" (commonly employed for maps and also known as a \"French fold\") or if the paper has been stitched during the folding process; stitched sheets can ruin high friction rollers.\n\nSection::::Paper folders.\n", "List of culinary knife cuts\n\nThere are a number of regular knife cuts that are used in many recipes. Each produces a standardized cut piece of food. The two basic shapes for these cuts are the strip and the cube. Strips are generally cut to , and are defined by width, from thickest to thinnest as \"pont-neuf\", \"batonnet\", \"allumette\", \"julienne\", and \"fine julienne\". The cube shapes, in order from largest to smallest, are the large, medium, and small dice, the brunoise, and the fine brunoise.\n\nSection::::Strip cuts.\n", "A slicing knife serves a similar function to a carving knife, although it is generally longer and narrower. Slicers may have plain or serrated edges. Such knives often incorporate blunted or rounded tips, and feature \"kullenschliff\" (Swedish/German: \"hill-sharpened\") or \"Granton edge\" (scalloped blades) to improve meat separation. Slicers are designed to precisely cut smaller and thinner slices of meat, and are normally more flexible to accomplish this task. As such, many cooks find them better suited to slicing ham, roasts, fish, or barbecued beef and pork and venison.\n\nSection::::Meat knives.:Slicing.:Ham slicer.\n", "Another prominent feature on many folding knives is the opening mechanism. Traditional pocket knives and Swiss Army knives commonly employ the nail nick, while modern folding knives more often use a stud, hole, disk, or \"flipper\" located on the blade, all which have the benefit of allowing the user to open the knife with one hand.\n", "Folding knives are rarely if ever designed primarily for use as fighting knives or combat knives. However, many armies and military organizations have issued folding \"utility\" knives that were not intended to be used as weapons, but which had tactical features that appealed to military personnel as well as civilians. This includes the German Mercator \"Black Cat\" folding utility knife, the German Luftwaffe Fallschirmjäger-Messer, the British Ibberson World War II gravity knife, and the U.S. World War II M2 automatic pressbutton utility knife, also intended for use by parachute troops and flight crews.\n", "An \"offset\" bread knife 'doglegs' the handle above but parallel to the blade (rather than inline with it, although some are angled), providing clearance for the user's knuckles. This design makes it easier for the user to cut fully through the loaf without using an awkward grip, angling and 'see-sawing' the blade, or needing to position the knife handle over the edge of the counter or cutting board. While fairly specialized and unnecessary for most kitchens (and breads), the offset design is well-suited for high-volume/'production' work where much bread - particularly e.g. crusty loaves of baguette-type bread - is cut regularly and/or over long periods, to reduce fatigue. \"(An alternative seen mostly in Europe is a baguette 'chopper'/'guillotine' -- not properly a knife, and prone to produce more of a 'crushing' cut depending on the bread - but serving the same function.)\"\n", "The phrase has also been used by pizzerias outside the Washington and New York areas, including Virginia Slice in Pittsburgh, which was inspired by the \"legendary\" Adams Morgan jumbo slice pizzas.\n\nSection::::In mass media.\n", "Section::::Products.\n\nThe company is known as \"a manufacturer of cutting tools that increase industrial safety.\" Some of its products have been:\n\nCeramic-Blade Box Cutter, made in two versions – one a manual, three-position and the other an auto-retract. The former was a winner of the Red Dot Design Award for tools in 2011, with its double-sided ceramic blade featuring a rounded tip.\n", "In the early 1990s, tactical folding knives became popular in the U.S.A. The trend began with custom knifemakers such as Bob Terzuola, Michael Walker, Allen Elishewitz, Mel Pardue, Ernest Emerson, Ken Onion, Chris Reeve, Rick Hinderer, Warren Thomas, and Warren Osbourne. These knives were most commonly built as linerlocks. Blade lengths varied from , but the most typical models never exceeded in blade length for legal reasons in most US jurisdictions.\n", "In offline electronic media, individually sliced sections of a 2D image can be used to decrease the local computer processing requirements to change a section of that image.\n\nSection::::Tools.\n\nQuite a few industry standard programs offer the abilities to automatically slice a layout directly into tables using built in functions. These are outlined below:\n\nBULLET::::- Adobe Photoshop\n\nBULLET::::- Sketch\n\nBULLET::::- Adobe Fireworks (Previously published by Macromedia)\n\nBULLET::::- Adobe ImageReady (Discontinued after CS2, functionality from ImageReady ported into Photoshop since CS3)\n\nBULLET::::- GIMP\n\nBULLET::::- Jasc Paint Shop Pro\n", "There has been criticism against the notion of a \"Tactical Folding Knife\" when employed as a weapon instead of a utility tool. Students of knife fighting point out that any locking mechanism can fail and that a folding knife regardless of lock strength can never be as reliable as a fixed-blade combat knife. Lynn Thompson, martial artist and CEO of Cold Steel pointed out in an article in \"Black Belt\" magazine that most tactical folding knives are too short to be of use in a knife fight and that even though he manufactures, sells, and carries a tactical folder, it is not ideal for fighting. Of course the idea that sells tactical knives (beyond the plain appeal of them) is that it's better to have a knife that's not ideal than to not have your ideal combat knife because it was too large to carry with you. While a 10 inch fixed-blade Bowie knife might be far more ideal for combat, it isn't practical - or legal - for many people to carry one around with them on their belt all the time, and few people leave the house expecting or planning to get into a knife fight that day.\n", "Just as used postage stamps were cut out, soaked and placed in an album, collectors also cut out postal stationery indicia and mounted them conveniently in albums. Now, the practice is frowned upon by most collectors who collect the entire, thus saving the envelope's postal history, the knife of the envelope and the postmark. To illustrate how far things have shifted in emphasis from the collection of cut squares, the most recent United Postal Stationery Society publication on US 20th and 21st century stamped envelopes does not even mention cut squares, whereas its predecessor edition, just seven years earlier, devoted a section to their pricing. \n", "The term \"jumbo slice\" was first used in Adams Morgan by Chris Chishti, owner of Pizza Mart, which has operated in the neighborhood since the 1990s. In 1999, Chishti started creating larger pies by combining standard pizza dough balls; his first \"jumbo slice\" was , and over time grew to , , and finally, . As the jumbo slice developed, Chisti upgraded to larger ovens and, once constrained by the maximum size commercially available, even experimented with oval pizzas.\n", "Section::::Lock-blade knives.:Tactical folding knife.\n\nBuck's original lockback knife was originally marketed as a \"folding hunting knife\" and while it became popular with sportsmen, it saw use with military personnel as it could perform a variety of tasks. Custom knife makers began making similar knives, in particular was knifemaker Bob Terzuola. Terzuola is credited with coining the phrase \"Tactical Folder\".\n", "Most postal stationery pieces are collected as entires, that is, the whole card, sheet or envelope. In the 19th century the practice was to collect \"cut squares\" (or \"cut-outs\" in the UK) which involved clipping the embossed indicia from a postal envelope. This destroyed the envelope. As a result, one cannot tell from a cut square what specific envelope it came from and, many times, the cancellation information. The manner in which the stamped envelope is cut out (defined by the term \"knife\") vanishes on a cut square. Thus most collectors prefer entires to cut squares.\n", "Another type of telescoping sliding knife is the Kershaw Ripcord. This is a sheath knife that partially retracts into the handle, and has a small scabbard cap covering the remaining blade tip. The design utilizes a specialized belt hanger/holsters that grasps the retracted blade so the blade is pulled fully open when unholstering. It is a unique compact fixed blade alternative. During the 1990s, a similar sheath-activated sliding knife with embossed Red Star handle was sold in the United States, claimed to be a police knife from the People's Republic of China. However, no proof of this assertion has been shown.\n", "In former Czechoslovakia a popular type of open sandwich is called \"obložené chlebíčky\" (pl., sg. \"obložený chlebíček\") - slant ways cut slice of \"veka\" (long narrow white bread) spread with butter and/or with various combinations of mayonnaise salads and hard boiled egg, cheese, ham, salami, smoked fish (salmon or sprats or pickled herring), tomato, pickled cucumber, lettuce, raw onion or other vegetable, etc.\n", "In the middle of the 20th century, industrially produced, semi-processed ground meat cutlets were introduced in the USSR. Colloquially known as Mikoyan cutlets (named after Soviet politician Anastas Mikoyan), these were cheap pork or beef cutlet-shaped patties which resembled American burgers.\n\nA particular form known as Pozharsky cutlet is an elaborated version of minced poultry \"kotleta\" covered with breadcrumbs. A distinct feature of this cutlet is that butter is added to minced meat, which results in an especially juicy and tender consistency.\n", "BULLET::::- Buttermilk Crispy Tenders – These strips are formulated with the buttermilk recipe used for the August 2015 revamp of the fried chicken sandwich, and were introduced in U.S. restaurants in September 2017. While they bear a resemblance to Chicken Selects, they are created and prepared differently. They feature a buttermilk chicken base and are cooked from thawed instead of frozen. This creates a juicier product than the Selects as well as reduces cook time., though immediate supply issues caused them to effectively be removed from the menu until the end of December 2017. This was caused by demand being much higher than forecast.\n", "In recent years there has been even more development. Traditionally the machines' cutting tables were horizontal, but now vertical CNC plasma cutting machines are available, providing for a smaller footprint, increased flexibility, optimum safety and faster operation.\n\nSection::::CNC plasma cutting configurations.\n\nThere are 3 main configurations of CNC Plasma Cutting, and they are largely differentiated by the forms of materials before processing, and the flexibility of the cutting head.\n\nSection::::CNC plasma cutting configurations.:2-dimensional / 2-axis plasma cutting.\n", "Figures C and D are known as sliders or sliding knives. The knife blade must be pushed with the button along the length of the handle, finger pressure must overcome friction. The lock buttons on C & D are not automatic releases. Figure C is a Christy Cutter (trademark) and Figure D is an antique design. The simplicity of sliding mechanisms have allowed some knife manufacturers to build extremely thin gentlemen's models, that are very comfortable to pocket.\n\nSection::::Automatic OTF knives.\n", "BULLET::::- Fine julienne; the fine julienne measures approximately , and is the starting point for the fine brunoise cut.\n\nSection::::Cube cuts.\n\nCuts with six even sides include:\n\nBULLET::::- Large dice (\"Carré\" meaning \"square\" in French); sides measuring approximately .\n\nBULLET::::- Medium dice (Parmentier); sides measuring approximately .\n\nBULLET::::- Small dice (Macédoine); sides measuring approximately .\n\nBULLET::::- Brunoise; sides measuring approximately\n\nBULLET::::- Fine brunoise; sides measuring approximately\n\nSection::::Other cuts.\n\nOther cuts include:\n\nBULLET::::- Paysanne;\n\nBULLET::::- Lozenge; diamond shape,\n\nBULLET::::- Fermière; cut lengthwise and then sliced to desired thickness,\n\nBULLET::::- Rondelle; cut to desired thickness,\n", "Bacteria or allergens can easily be transmitted from one part of the kitchen to another or from one food to another via knives, hands, or surfaces such as chopping boards. To reduce the chance of this it is advised to use separate boards for different types of food such as raw meat, cooked meat, dairy and vegetables. Many professional kitchens follow this standard colour-coding system:\n\nBULLET::::- Blue cutting boards: raw seafood.\n\nBULLET::::- Red cutting boards: raw red meat.\n\nBULLET::::- Green cutting boards: vegetables and fruits.\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow cutting boards: poultry\n\nBULLET::::- Brown cutting boards: cooked meat\n", "A direct precursor to the English sandwich may be found in the Netherlands of the 17th century, where the naturalist John Ray observed that in the taverns beef hung from the rafters \"which they cut into thin slices and eat with bread and butter laying the slices upon the butter\". These explanatory specifications reveal the Dutch \"belegd broodje\", open-faced sandwich, was as yet unfamiliar in England.\n\nSection::::In various countries.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13173	How is it possible that my car keys unlock only my car and not all the others? Is it theoretically possible that my key could unlock a second car somewhere on the world (given I'm close by)?	Most modern cars have 3 layers of security when it comes to keys. Remote Identification, Physical Identification, and Encryption Identification. Remote identification is your keyless entry. It’s like when you yell for your mommy outside a locked room, if she recognizes your voice, she will respond and unlock the door to let you in. Voices can be similar, so if in the rare case some other kid sounds like you, she could be confused and let the wrong kid in. Physical Identification is the cut key itself, or in the case of Push Button start, the physical proximity of the key. When your mom opens the door, she would make sure you look like her child. You have a unique face but doppelgängers or your twin brother could fool her into thinking another kid is you. Encrypted Identification is the RFID chip inside the key that the immobilizer has to sense to allow the car to run. Even if you can duplicate the remote entry or physical key, the RFID reader will still need to read the encrypted code programmed to each key matches to the Immobilizer before the car is allowed to remain running for more than a few seconds. This is extremely difficult to duplicate and very short range, so the real key would need to be within a few inches of the ignition to work. It’s like your mom verifying your fingerprint or DNA to make sure you are you, even if you look and sound like her child.	[ "BULLET::::- \"\"Congratulate all the female comrades for International Day of the Woman.\"\" (Probably a simple greeting for International Women's Day on 8 March)\n\nThe moderator of an e-mail list for global numbers station hobbyists claimed that \"Someone on the Spooks list had already cracked the code for a repeated transmission [from Havana to Miami] if it was received garbled.\" Such code-breaking is possible if a one-time pad decoding key is used more than once. If used properly, however, the code cannot be broken.\n\nSection::::Formats.\n", "In 2015, it was reported that Samy Kamkar had built an inexpensive electronic device about the size of a wallet that could be concealed on or near a locked vehicle to capture a single keyless entry code to be used at a later time to unlock the vehicle. The device transmits a jamming signal to block the vehicle's reception of rolling code signals from the owner's fob, while recording these signals from both of his two attempts needed to unlock the vehicle. The recorded first code is sent to the vehicle only when the owner makes the second attempt, while the recorded second code is retained for future use. Kamkar stated that this vulnerability had been widely known for years to be present in many vehicle types but was previously undemonstrated. A demonstration was announced for DEF CON 23.\n", "If we can find 40 linearly independent sets of vectors (formula_1) keys ... (formula_2)keys, say, through reverse-engineering hardware, then we can completely break the system. At that point, one can extract the secret key array for any number of KSVs he wishes.\n\nIn other cases where the separate keys are not linearly independent, it is still possible to create Xkeys for any Xksv that is within the span of the (formula_3)KSVs for which we have found the private keys. There will be, however, no guarantee of them satisfying the 20 one and 20 zero bits property.\n", "Section::::How could this be broken?\n\nFirst, it is rare to find Akeys's, Bkeys's, Aksv and Bksv that have the above property that when each device does the operation, they can both come up with the same shared secret. Therefore, this means it exists a mathematical model that creates such subsets.\n", "Most keyless systems use a technique called rolling code to avoid replay attacks, in which the open command is intercepted to be used by a thief at a later time. In the rolling code, a pseudorandom number generator is used to generate a different unlock sequence to be sent each time the car is unlocked.\n\nSection::::Programming.\n", "In 2005, the UK motor insurance research expert Thatcham introduced a standard for keyless entry, requiring the device to be inoperable at a distance of more than 10 cm from the vehicle. In an independent test, the Nissan Micra's system was found to be the most secure, while certain BMW and Mercedes keys failed, being theoretically capable of allowing cars to be driven away while their owners were refueling. Despite these security vulnerabilities, auto theft rates have decreased 7 percent between 2009 and 2010, and the National Insurance Crime Bureau credits smart keys for this decrease.\n\nSection::::SmartKeys.\n", "Section::::Channel of exchange.\n\nKey exchange is done either in-band or out-of-band. In in-band key exchange, keys are exchanged through the same communication channel that will be encrypted. In out-on-band key, keys are exchanged through a channel other than the one that will be encrypted.\n\nSection::::The key exchange problem.\n", "In 2015, it was reported that Kamkar had built an inexpensive electronic device about the size of a wallet that could be concealed on or near a locked vehicle to capture a single keyless entry code to be used at a later time to unlock the vehicle. The device transmits a jamming signal to block the vehicle's reception of rolling code signals from the owner's fob, while recording these signals from both of his two attempts needed to unlock the vehicle. The recorded first code is sent to the vehicle only when the owner makes the second attempt, while the recorded second code is retained for future use. Kamkar stated that this vulnerability had been widely known for years to be present in many vehicle types, but was previously undemonstrated. A demonstration was announced for DEF CON 23.\n", "In other words, in a UKS, an opponent, say Eve, coerces honest parties Alice and Bob into establishing a secret key where at least one of Alice and Bob does not know that the secret key is shared with the other. For example, Eve may coerce Bob into believing he shares the key with Eve, while he actually shares the key with Alice. The “key share” with Alice is thus unknown to Bob.\n", "Since each iteration of S/KEY doesn't include the salt or count, it is feasible to find collisions directly without breaking the initial password. This has a complexity of 2, which can be pre-calculated with the same amount of space. The space complexity can be optimized by storing chains of values, although collisions might reduce the coverage of this method, especially for long chains.\n", "Section::::Efficiency.\n", "In some vehicles, attempts to use an unauthorised or \"non-sequenced\" key cause the vehicle to activate a timed no-start condition and in some highly advanced systems, even use satellite or mobile phone communication to alert a security firm that an unauthorised attempt was made to code a key.\n\nCoincidentally, this information is often recorded in modern automobile ECUs, which may record many other variables including speed, temperature, driver weight, geographic location, throttle position and yaw angle. This information can be used during insurance investigations, warranty claims or technical troubleshooting.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n", "A rolling code transmitted by radio signal that can be intercepted can be vulnerable to falsification. In 2015, it was reported that Samy Kamkar had built an inexpensive electronic device about the size of a wallet that could be concealed on or near a locked vehicle to capture a single keyless entry code to be used at a later time to unlock the vehicle. The device transmits a jamming signal to block the vehicle's reception of rolling code signals from the owner's fob, while recording these signals from both of his two attempts needed to unlock the vehicle. The recorded first code is forwarded to the vehicle only when the owner makes the second attempt, while the recorded second code is retained for future use. Kamkar stated that this vulnerability had been widely known for years to be present in many vehicle types, but was previously undemonstrated. A demonstration was done during DEF CON 23.\n", "Since the keys are generated linearly in the given system, it appears that if someone could determine the Akeys vector from any 40-50 different systems: formula_1 ... formula_5, and knew the Xksv from system X (this is public information from the protocol), then he could determine the Xkeys private key array.\n\nSection::::What do we know?\n\nIf we assume that we have 40 (formula_3)KSVs that are linearly independent, we’ll have a set of n linear equations on 40 unknown –\n\nThe Xkeys key vector array:\n", "A simpler version of the smart key system is the engine immobiliser, involving a security key system embedded into most modern vehicle's keys. A small chip rests on the vehicle's key or under the plastic key cover. When any key is inserted into the ignition, the ignition is coded. The key sends its security code to the ignition, which also has its own security code, and if the security codes match, the vehicle will start when the key is turned. However, if the key codes do NOT match, the vehicle will NOT start when the key is turned. Some early examples of this technology include Chrysler Corporation's Sentry Key System, or General Motors's PASSKey System.\n", "A second scenario exists under the name \"relay station attack\" (RSA). The RSA is based on the idea of reducing the long physical distance between the car and the regular car owner's SmartKey. Two relay stations will be needed for this: The first relay station is located nearby the car and the second is close to the SmartKey. So on first view, the Keyless Entry / Go ECU and the SmartKey could communicate together. A third person at the car could pull the door handle and the door would open. However, in every Keyless Entry / Go system provisions exist to avoid a successful two-way communication via RSA. Some of the most known are:\n", "A detailed description of an inexpensive prototype device designed and built by Samy Kamkar to exploit this technique appeared in 2015. The device about the size of a wallet could be concealed on or near a locked vehicle to capture a single keyless entry code to be used at a later time to unlock the vehicle. The device transmits a jamming signal to block the vehicle's reception of rolling code signals from the owner's fob, while recording these signals from both of his two attempts needed to unlock the vehicle. The recorded first code is forwarded to the vehicle only when the owner makes the second attempt, while the recorded second code is retained for future use. A demonstration was announced for DEF CON 23.\n", "Numerous vulnerabilities have been found in the immobilisers designed to protect modern cars from theft. Many vehicle immobilisers use the Megamos-chip, which has been proven to be crackable. The Megamos transponder is one of many different transponders found in today's immobiliser systems and also comes in many different versions. Hacking of an immobiliser in the real world would be performed on the vehicle, not on the key. It would be faster to program a new key to the vehicle than to try to clone the existing key, especially on modern vehicles.\n", "The very simple key schedule makes IDEA subject to a class of weak keys; some keys containing a large number of 0 bits produce weak encryption. These are of little concern in practice, being sufficiently rare that they are unnecessary to avoid explicitly when generating keys randomly. A simple fix was proposed: XORing each subkey with a 16-bit constant, such as 0x0DAE.\n\nLarger classes of weak keys were found in 2002.\n", "A key constraint applies to the set of tuples in a table at any given point in time. A key is not necessarily a unique identifier across the population of all \"possible\" instances of tuples that could be stored in a table but it does imply a data integrity rule that duplicates should not be allowed in the database table. Some possible examples of unique keys are Social Security Numbers, ISBNs, vehicle registration numbers or user login names.\n", "One of the earliest systems was found on the 1993 Chevrolet Corvette (called the Passive Keyless Entry System) and in Mercedes-Benz vehicles from 1998. \n", "As RKS fobs have become more prevalent in the automobile industry a secondary market of unprogrammed devices has sprung up. Some websites sell steps to program fobs for individual models of cars as well as accessory kits to remotely activate other car devices.\n", "Frances Oakes- also known as Fran. She is a student of Dr. Anderson.\n\nMarilyn Maury- a student of Dr. Anderson and friend of Frances Oakes who joins the educational trip in Florida.\n\nGrace James- a student of Dr. Anderson and friend of Frances Oakes who joins the educational trip in Florida.\n\nJack Walker- cousin of Frances Oakes in Florida that owned a motorboat, which they use for searching in Keys.\n\nMrs. Young- owner of rest house in Florida where Nancy and friends stayed.\n", "The system works by having a series of LF (low frequency 125 kHz) transmitting antennas both inside and outside the vehicle. The external antennas are located in the door handles. When the vehicle is triggered, either by pulling the handle or touching the handle, an LF signal is transmitted from the antennas to the key. The key becomes activated if it is sufficiently close and it transmits its ID back to the vehicle via RF (Radio frequency 300 MHz) to a receiver located in the vehicle. If the key has the correct ID, the PASE module unlocks the vehicle.\n", "BULLET::::- Bugatti: Keyless Entry Remote\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac: Adaptive Remote Start & Keyless Access\n\nBULLET::::- FIAT-Chrysler: Keyless Enter-N-Go\n\nBULLET::::- Ford: Intelligent Access with push-button start\n\nBULLET::::- General Motors: Passive Entry Passive Start (PEPS)\n\nBULLET::::- Honda: Smart Entry System\n\nBULLET::::- Hyundai: Proximity Key and smart entry key\n\nBULLET::::- Infiniti: Infiniti Intelligent Key with Push-button Ignition\n\nBULLET::::- Isuzu: Genius Entry\n\nBULLET::::- Jaguar Cars: Smart Key System\n\nBULLET::::- Kia Motors: Smart Key System\n\nBULLET::::- Lexus: Smart Access System\n\nBULLET::::- Lincoln: Intelligent Access System\n\nBULLET::::- Mazda: Advanced Keyless Entry & Start System\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz: Keyless Go integrated into SmartKeys\n\nBULLET::::- Mini: Comfort Access\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "A car key could open multiple cars. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Multiple layers of security prevent the wrong key from opening a car. " ]
2018-03259	why when someone gets the all clear that they are cancer free they still have a high chance to get it back?	Because we're never totally sure that every cancerous cell is out of your body and that another tumor won't form.	[ "Western conceptions of patients' rights for people with cancer include a duty to fully disclose the medical situation to the person, and the right to engage in shared decision-making in a way that respects the person's own values. In other cultures, other rights and values are preferred. For example, most African cultures value whole families rather than individualism. In parts of Africa, a diagnosis is commonly made so late that cure is not possible, and treatment, if available at all, would quickly bankrupt the family. As a result of these factors, African healthcare providers tend to let family members decide whether, when and how to disclose the diagnosis, and they tend to do so slowly and circuitously, as the person shows interest and an ability to cope with the grim news. People from Asian and South American countries also tend to prefer a slower, less candid approach to disclosure than is idealized in the United States and Western Europe, and they believe that sometimes it would be preferable not to be told about a cancer diagnosis. In general, disclosure of the diagnosis is more common than it was in the 20th century, but full disclosure of the prognosis is not offered to many patients around the world.\n", "BULLET::::- Whether early detection improves treatment outcomes: Even when treatment is available, sometimes early detection does not improve the outcome. If the treatment result is the same as if the screening had not been done, then the only screening program does is increase the length of time the person lived with the knowledge that he had cancer. This phenomenon is called lead-time bias. A useful screening program reduces the number of years of potential life lost (longer lives) and disability-adjusted life years lost (longer healthy lives).\n", "The third stage is \"Purposive-Clustered\". Here, an individual will be in closer proximity to cancer. This is the point at which a person is motivated to look for practical information that will address the specific problem. For example, a first-degree relative of a recently diagnosed breast cancer patient may seek genetic screening or BRCA 1/2 testing. The person could clearly benefit from such information- seeking behavior since medical authorities acknowledge that early detection of cancer leads to earlier treatments and better treatment outcomes.\n", "Cancer screening in Ireland\n\nBowelScreen, BreastCheck and CervicalCheck are cancer screening programmes organised by the Health Service Executive (HSE) in the Republic of Ireland.\n\nSection::::BowelScreen.\n\nBowelScreen is the national bowel cancer screening programme. It was launched in November 2012 by Minister for Health James Reilly, with the eventual aim of providing bi-annual screening to men and women aged 55–74.\n\nSection::::BreastCheck.\n", "BULLET::::- The extent to which a cancer is treatable: if a person has a low life expectancy or otherwise is in the end stages of a chronic condition, then such a patient may have a better life by ignoring the cancer even if one were found. If the diagnosis of cancer would not result in a change in care then cancer screening would not likely result in a positive outcome. Overdiagnosis in this case occurs, for example, in patients with end-stage renal disease and organizations recommend against cancer screening for such patients.\n\nSection::::By type.\n\nSection::::By type.:Breast cancer.\n", "The term previvor has been used to describe unaffected carriers. Unaffected carriers, or previvors, are those who have not diagnosed with cancer, but who know that they are likely to develop cancer due to certain genetic mutations that form a known cancer syndrome. They have a survived the predisposition, or higher risk, of cancer. As such, this is the first generation in human history who, armed with information about a predisposition to a cancer after opting into DNA testing, can make informed choices prior to cancer diagnosis. The typical previvor has tested positive for a BRCA mutation and learned that she is at high risk for developing breast cancer and ovarian cancer, and is attempting to manage that risk through a combination of increased surveillance through mammograms, breast MRIs, pelvic ultrasounds, oophorectomy, bilateral mastectomy, and other medical procedures. There has been much controversy over the term \"previvor\", due to the fact that the name compares these healthy women to people have actually been diagnosed with invasive cancer.\n", "The presumption was that by detecting cancer in an earlier stage, women will be more likely to be cured by treatment. This assertion, however, has been challenged by recent reviews which have found the significance of these net benefits to be lacking for women at average risk of dying from breast cancer.\n\nSection::::Mammography.:Mechanism.\n", "Sometimes, however, even when doctors use very sophisticated methods to try to identify the primary site, the part of the body the cancer cells came from cannot be determined. About 2 to 4 percent of all cancer patients have a cancer whose primary site is never found. Identifying the primary tumor site is important because knowing its location and type often helps doctors plan the best treatment. Treatment that is specific to the suspected type of cancer is likely to be more effective. Still, when diagnostic tests have not identified the primary site, doctors must decide whether the potential benefits of more extensive testing outweigh a patient’s discomfort, possible complications, and the financial costs.\n", "Screening for cancer is controversial in cases when it is not yet known if the test actually saves lives. Screening can lead to substantial false positive result and subsequent invasive procedures. The controversy arises when it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments. Cancer screening is not indicated unless life expectancy is greater than five years and the benefit is uncertain over the age of 70.\n\nSeveral factors are considered to determine whether the benefits of screening outweigh the risks and the costs of screening. These factors include:\n", "Genetic testing can be used to identify mutated genes or chromosomes that are passed through generations. People who test positive for having a genetic mutation are not necessarily condemned to develop the cancer linked with the mutation, however they possess an increased risk of developing cancer in comparison to the general population. It is advised that people get a genetic test if their family medical history includes: Multiple family members with cancer, someone in their family that got cancer at a particularly young age or by being part of a certain ethnic group.\n", "In 2012, the FDA also cleared QIAGEN's therascreen KRAS test, which is a genetic test designed to detect the presence of seven mutations in the KRAS gene in colorectal cancer cells. This test is used to aid physicians in identifying patients with metastatic colorectal cancer for treatment with Erbitux. The presence of KRAS mutations in colorectal cancer tissue indicates that the patient may not benefit from treatment with Erbitux. If the test result indicates that the KRAS mutations are absent in the colorectal cancer cells, then the patient may be considered for treatment with Erbitux.\n\nSection::::As a drug target.\n", "Traditionally, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has required studies of OS rather than PFS to demonstrate that a drug is effective against cancer, but recently the FDA. has accepted PFS. The use of PFS for proof of effectiveness and regulatory approval is controversial.\n\nIt is often used as a clinical endpoint in randomized controlled trials for cancer therapies.\n", "As more than 80% of colorectal cancers arise from adenomatous polyps, screening for this cancer is effective for both early detection and for prevention. Diagnosis of cases of colorectal cancer through screening tends to occur 2–3 years before diagnosis of cases with symptoms. Any polyps that are detected can be removed, usually by colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy, and thus prevent them from turning into cancer. Screening has the potential to reduce colorectal cancer deaths by 60%.\n", "For many patients with stage I cancer, adjuvant (preventative) therapy following surgery may not be appropriate and patients will undergo surveillance instead. The form this surveillance takes, e.g. the type and frequency of investigations and the length time it should continue, will depend on the type of cancer (non-seminoma or seminoma), but the aim is to avoid unnecessary treatments in the many patients who are cured by their surgery, and ensure that any relapses with metastases (secondary cancers) are detected early and cured. This approach ensures that chemotherapy and or radiotherapy is only given to the patients that need it. The number of patients ultimately cured is the same using surveillance as post-operative “adjuvant” treatments, but the patients have to be prepared to follow a prolonged series of visits and tests.\n", "Cancer survivors frequently need medical monitoring, and some treatments for unrelated diseases in the future may be contraindicated. For example, a patient who has had a significant amount of radiation therapy may not be a good candidate for more radiation treatments in the future. To assist with these needs, \"survivor care plans\" have been promoted. These are personalized documents that describe the person's diagnosis and treatment in detail, list common known side effects, and specifically outline the steps that the survivor should take in the future, ranging from maintaining a healthy weight to receiving specific medical tests on a stated schedule.\n", "The goal of any screening procedure is to examine a large population of patients and find the small number most likely to have a serious condition. These patients are then referred for further, usually more invasive, testing. Thus a screening exam is not intended to be definitive; rather it is intended to have sufficient sensitivity to detect a useful proportion of cancers. The cost of higher sensitivity is a larger number of results that would be regarded as suspicious in patients without disease. This is true of mammography. The patients without disease who are called back for further testing from a screening session (about 7%) are sometimes referred to as \"false positives\". There is a trade-off between the number of patients with disease found and the much larger number of patients without disease that must be re-screened.\n", "Screening can lead to false positive results and subsequent invasive procedures. Screening can also lead to false negative results, where an existing cancer is missed. Controversy arises when it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of the screening procedure itself, and any follow-up diagnostic tests and treatments.\n", "The goal of cancer screening is to provide useful health information which can guide medical treatment. A good cancer screening is one which would detect when a person has cancer so that the person could seek treatment to protect their health. Good cancer screening would not be more likely to cause harm than to provide useful information. In general, cancer screening has risks and should not be done except with a medical indication.\n", "Medical tests to determine whether the cancer has returned commonly provoke fears. Informally, this is called \"scanxiety\", a portmanteau of \"scan\" and \"anxiety\". A desire to avoid feeling this fear can prompt survivors to postpone or refuse tests.\n", "When a person is diagnosed with cancer, treatment is often the focus of discussion among patients, health care providers and family. However, the next phase of care, cancer survivorship, is much less discussed. The 2005 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report “From Cancer Patient to Cancer Survivor: Lost in Transition” raised the awareness of the issue. Survivors of cancer face unique challenges, while health care providers do not always have the time, resource and training to provide counseling and assistance.\n", "Screening tests must be effective, safe, well-tolerated with acceptably low rates of false positive and false negative results. If signs of cancer are detected, more definitive and invasive follow-up tests are performed to reach a diagnosis. Screening for cancer can lead to cancer prevention and earlier diagnosis. Early diagnosis may lead to higher rates of successful treatment and extended life. However, it may also falsely appear to increase the time to death through lead time bias or length time bias.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n", "Donna Ladd, a journalist with \"The Village Voice\", said in 1999 that Barrett relies heavily on negative research in which alternative therapies are shown to not work. Barrett said to Ladd that most positive case studies are unreliable. Barrett says that \"a lot of things don't need to be tested [because] they simply don't make any sense.\"\n", "The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for colorectal cancer using fecal occult blood testing, sigmoidoscopy, or colonoscopy, in adults, beginning at age 50 years and continuing until age 75 years. For people over 75 or those with a life expectancy of less than 10 years screening is not recommended. A new enzyme method for colorectal cancer screening is the M2-PK Test, which is able to detect bleeding and non-bleeding colorectal cancers and polyps. In 2008, Kaiser Permanente Colorado implemented a program that used automated calls and sends fecal immunochemical test kits to patients who are overdue for colorectal cancer screenings. The program has increased the proportion of all eligible members screened by 25 percent. DNA testing with Cologuard test has been FDA-approved.\n", "At 1pm, Emily Birenbaum called and said these exact words: \"Kelly, I understand that you called in this morning. I have the biopsy report and Kelly, it's cancer.\" I called out, \"Edward!\" and he came to me and we crowded around the phone, politely asking the simplest of questions. \"Is the test always correct?\" \"Does it say how much cancer there is?\" \"Could it be a false positive?\" After a very short conversation where we learned the phrase 'invasive ductal carcinoma', we hung up. The girls were at our knees, needing to be fed and put down for a nap. There was so much to do, on so many fronts, that the only thing to do was to start doing.\n", "The first paper reporting on results of the study was published in 1992, whereupon it generated considerable debate in the scientific community. In February 2014, the BMJ published more results from the study after following up on the participants for twenty-five years, with the authors concluding that \"annual mammography in women aged 40-59 does not reduce mortality from breast cancer beyond that of physical examination or usual care when adjuvant therapy for breast cancer is freely available.\" The study also reported substantial overdiagnosis among women who had been screened, which the authors stated accounted for about 22% of the cancers detected by screening.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14565	How can a particle have non-integer spin? (e.g. electrons) I thought quantamization refereed to possibility of only whole numbers value possible.	Quantization doesn't necessarily mean whole numbers for everything. It means that everything goes in discrete steps, in other words, quantized properties are like rungs on a ladder, and you have to be on a rung. Now if we start labeling where those rungs are, there's nothing to stop us from labeling them with half numbers. This works out nicely with electron spins. They don't ever have a spin of 0, rather they always have an angular momentum. So if we use +1/2 and -1/2, there is a step between those two possible spins of 1.	[ "where is the Planck constant and is the reduced Planck constant. In contrast, orbital angular momentum can only take on integer values of ; i.e., even-numbered values of .\n\nSection::::Quantum number.:Fermions and bosons.\n", "BULLET::::- The Â genus of a spin manifold is an integer, and is an even integer if in addition the dimension is 4 mod 8.\n\nBULLET::::- In general the Â genus is a rational invariant, defined for any manifold, but it is not in general an integer.\n", "The necessity of introducing half-integer spin goes back experimentally to the results of the Stern–Gerlach experiment. A beam of atoms is run through a strong heterogeneous magnetic field, which then splits into N parts depending on the intrinsic angular momentum of the atoms. It was found that for silver atoms, the beam was split in two—the ground state therefore could not be integer, because even if the intrinsic angular momentum of the atoms were as small as possible, 1, the beam would be split into 3 parts, corresponding to atoms with \"L\" = −1, 0, and +1. The conclusion was that silver atoms had net intrinsic angular momentum of .\n", "However, it was recognized in the early years of quantum mechanics that atomic spectra measured in an external magnetic field (see Zeeman effect) cannot be predicted with just , , and .\n", "BULLET::::- The ground state of the terms' structure has the maximal value \"S\" allowed by the Pauli exclusion principle.\n\nBULLET::::- The ground state has a maximal allowed \"L\" value, with maximal \"S\".\n\nBULLET::::- The primary multiplet has a corresponding \"J\" = \|\"L\" − \"S\"\| when the shell is less than half full, and \"J\" = \"L\" + \"S\", where the fill is greater.\n", "When atoms have even numbers of electrons the spin of each electron in each orbital has opposing orientation to that of its immediate neighbor(s). However, many atoms have an odd number of electrons or an arrangement of electrons in which there is an unequal number of \"spin-up\" and \"spin-down\" orientations. These atoms or electrons are said to have unpaired spins that are detected in electron spin resonance.\n\nSection::::Detection of spin.\n", "Those particles with half-integer spins, such as , , , are known as fermions, while those particles with integer spins, such as 0, 1, 2, are known as bosons. The two families of particles obey different rules and \"broadly\" have different roles in the world around us. A key distinction between the two families is that fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle; that is, there cannot be two identical fermions simultaneously having the same quantum numbers (meaning, roughly, having the same position, velocity and spin direction). In contrast, bosons obey the rules of Bose–Einstein statistics and have no such restriction, so they may \"bunch together\" even if in identical states. Also, composite particles can have spins different from their component particles. For example, a helium atom in the ground state has spin 0 and behaves like a boson, even though the quarks and electrons which make it up are all fermions.\n", "Nuclear spin is an intrinsic angular momentum that is quantized. This means that the magnitude of this angular momentum is quantized (i.e. \"S\" can only take on a restricted range of values), and also that the x, y, and z-components of the angular momentum are quantized, being restricted to integer or half-integer multiples of \"ħ\". The integer or half-integer quantum number associated with the spin component along the z-axis or the applied magnetic field is known as the magnetic quantum number, \"m\", and can take values from +\"S\" to −\"S\", in integer steps. Hence for any given nucleus, there are a total of angular momentum states.\n", "Section::::Quantum number.\n\nAs the name suggests, spin was originally conceived as the rotation of a particle around some axis. This picture is correct so far as spin obeys the same mathematical laws as quantized angular momenta do. On the other hand, spin has some peculiar properties that distinguish it from orbital angular momenta:\n\nBULLET::::- Spin quantum numbers may take half-integer values.\n\nBULLET::::- Although the direction of its spin can be changed, an elementary particle cannot be made to spin faster or slower.\n", ") = \\exp\\left( - \\frac{i}{\\hbar}\\theta \\hat{\\mathbf{a}} \\cdot \\widehat{\\mathbf{S}}\\right) /math\n\nHowever, unlike orbital angular momentum in which the \"z\"-projection quantum number \"\" can only take positive or negative integer values (including zero), the \"z\"-projection spin quantum number \"s\" can take all positive and negative half-integer values. There are rotational matrices for each spin quantum number.\n", "For a finite population of equally probable values indexed from lowest to highest, the -th -quantile of this population can equivalently be computed via the value of . If is not an integer, then round up to the next integer to get the appropriate index; the corresponding data value is the -th -quantile. On the other hand, if is an integer then any number from the data value at that index to the data value of the next can be taken as the quantile, and it is conventional (though arbitrary) to take the average of those two values (see Estimating the quantiles).\n", "Observations of the energy levels of molecules by Franco Rasetti in 1929 were inconsistent with the nuclear spin expected from proton–electron hypothesis. Molecular Raman spectroscopy of dinitrogen (N) showed that transitions originating from even-numbered rotational levels are more intense than those from odd levels, hence the even levels are more populated. According to quantum mechanics and the Pauli exclusion principle, the spin of the N nucleus is therefore an integer multiple of \"ħ\" (the reduced Planck constant). Yet both protons and electrons carry an intrinsic spin of ½ \"ħ\", and there is no way to arrange an odd number (14 protons + 7 electrons = 21) of spins ±½ \"ħ\" to give a spin that is an integer multiple of \"ħ\".\n", "For some atoms the spins of several unpaired electrons (s, s, ...) are coupled to form a \"total spin\" quantum number S. This occurs especially in light atoms (or in molecules formed only of light atoms) when spin-orbit coupling is weak compared to the coupling between spins or the coupling between orbital angular momenta, a situation known as LS coupling because L and S are constants of motion. Here L is the total orbital angular momentum quantum number.\n", "All observable subatomic particles have their electric charge an integer multiple of the elementary charge. The Standard Model's quarks have \"non-integer\" electric charges, namely, multiple of  \"e\", but quarks (and other combinations with non-integer electric charge) cannot be isolated due to color confinement. For baryons, mesons, and their antiparticles the constituent quarks' charges sum up to an integer multiple of \"e\".\n", "Each line segment is labelled with an integer called a spin number. A unit with spin number \"n\" is called an \"n\"-unit and has angular momentum \"nħ/2\", where \"ħ\" is the reduced Planck constant. For bosons, such as photons and gluons, \"n\" is an even number. For fermions, such as electrons and quarks, \"n\" is odd.\n", "Odd-mass-number nuclides are fermions, i.e. have half-integer spin. Generally speaking, since odd-mass-number nuclides always have an even number of either neutrons or protons, the even-numbered particles usually form part of a \"core\" in the nucleus with a spin of zero. The nucleon with the odd number (whether protons or neutrons) then form a second core with nucleons paired off, with most of the nuclear spin due to the orbital angular momentum and spin angular momentum of the last remaining nucleon. In all, 29 of the 110 primordial odd-mass nuclides have spin 1/2, 30 have spin 3/2, 24 have spin 5/2, 17 have spin 7/2, and nine have spin 9/2.\n", "\"Half-integer spin\" means that the intrinsic angular momentum value of fermions is formula_1 (reduced Planck's constant) times a half-integer (1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.). In the theory of quantum mechanics fermions are described by antisymmetric states. In contrast, particles with integer spin (called bosons) have symmetric wave functions; unlike fermions they may share the same quantum states. Bosons include the photon, the Cooper pairs which are responsible for superconductivity, and the W and Z bosons. (Fermions take their name from the Fermi–Dirac statistical distribution that they obey, and bosons from their Bose–Einstein distribution.)\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Concerning physical mechanisms, impurities and/or particular states (e.g., edge currents) are important for both the 'integer' and 'fractional' effects. In addition, Coulomb interaction is also essential in the fractional quantum Hall effect. The observed strong similarity between integer and fractional quantum Hall effects is explained by the tendency of electrons to form bound states with an even number of magnetic flux quanta, called \"composite fermions\".\n\nSection::::The Bohr atom interpretation of the von Klitzing constant.\n", "We may also use with particle spin quantum number \"s\", with \"s\" being integer for bosons, half-integer for fermions, so that\n\nAt an edge, fractional quantum Hall effect anyons are confined to move in one space dimension. Mathematical models of one-dimensional anyons provide a base of the commutation relations shown above.\n", "Just as in the one-dimensional case, we will shift attention from the spins to the spin-flips. The σ term in \"T\" counts the number of spin flips, which we can write in terms of spin-flip creation and annihilation operators:\n\nThe first term flips a spin, so depending on the basis state it either:\n\nBULLET::::1. moves a spin-flip one unit to the right\n\nBULLET::::2. moves a spin-flip one unit to the left\n\nBULLET::::3. produces two spin-flips on neighboring sites\n\nBULLET::::4. destroys two spin-flips on neighboring sites.\n\nWriting this out in terms of creation and annihilation operators:\n", "Since the allowed range of values of the spin in any region only depends on the values of \"H\" within one averaging volume from that region, the free energy contribution from each region only depends on the value of \"H\" there and in the neighboring regions. So \"F\" is a sum over all regions of a local contribution, which only depends on \"H\" and its derivatives.\n\nBy symmetry in \"H\", only even powers contribute. By reflection symmetry on a square lattice, only even powers of gradients contribute. Writing out the first few terms in the free energy:\n", "In some ways, spin is like a vector quantity; it has a definite magnitude, and it has a \"direction\" (but quantization makes this \"direction\" different from the direction of an ordinary vector). All elementary particles of a given kind have the same magnitude of spin angular momentum, which is indicated by assigning the particle a spin quantum number.\n", "Atomic spectra measure radiation absorbed or emitted by electrons \"jumping\" from one \"state\" to another, where a state is represented by values of , , and . The so-called \"Transition rule\" limits what \"jumps\" are possible. In general, a jump or \"transition\" is allowed only if all three numbers change in the process. This is because a transition will be able to cause the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation only if it involves a change in the electromagnetic dipole of the atom.\n", "which is the \"z\"-component of the angular momentum. The quantum condition demands that the integral of the constant formula_42 as formula_33 varies from 0 to formula_44 is an integer multiple of \"h\":\n\nAnd \"m\" is called the magnetic quantum number, because the \"z\" component of the angular momentum is the magnetic moment of the rotator along the \"z\" direction in the case where the particle at the end of the rotator is charged.\n", "The conventional definition of the spin quantum number, , is , where can be any non-negative integer. Hence the allowed values of are 0, , 1, , 2, etc. The value of for an elementary particle depends only on the type of particle, and cannot be altered in any known way (in contrast to the \"spin direction\" described below). The spin angular momentum, , of any physical system is quantized. The allowed values of are\n" ]	[ "Quantization refers to only whole numbers. ", "Quantamization refers to the possibility of only whole number values being possible." ]	[ "Quantization refers to discrete steps, not only whole numbers.", "Quantization doesn't necessarily mean whole numbers for everything." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Quantization refers to only whole numbers. ", "Quantamization refers to the possibility of only whole number values being possible." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Quantization refers to discrete steps, not only whole numbers.", "Quantization doesn't necessarily mean whole numbers for everything." ]
2018-24130	Biological difference of a smart person	Intelligence research is able to draw some pretty solid conclusions about the neural bases of intelligence. With MRI testing, it has been established that intelligence is highly correlated with the amount of frontal grey matter. The lateral prefrontal cortex is consistently activated during intelligence testing. Frontal and parietal brain regions, the memory centers, are also activated under test conditions. The ability to (1) recall facts and (2) connect facts to draw new inferences? That's a big part of intelligence.	[ "BULLET::::- Bacon remarks that with respect to philosophy and science, there are two radically different types of minds. These manifest \"idola specus\" in different ways, but both suffer from it. Some \"steady and acute\" minds are \"stronger and apter to mark the differences of things\", fixing upon \"the subtlest distinctions\". Others are \"lofty and discursive\" and more prone to mark resemblances, recognizing and putting together \"the finest and most general resemblances\". \"Both kinds, however, easily err in excess, by catching the one at gradations, the other at shadows.\"\n", "Based on a review of 37 neuroimaging studies, Jung and Haier (2007) proposed that the biological basis of intelligence stems from how well the frontal and parietal regions of the brain communicate and exchange information with each other. Subsequent neuroimaging and lesion studies report general consensus with the theory. A review of the neuroscience and intelligence literature concludes that the parieto-frontal integration theory is the best available explanation for human intelligence differences.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Investment theory.\n", "Johnson's research focuses on genetics, environmental, and social factors that influence the intelligence from childhood to adulthood, and longitudinal relationships between intelligence and other outcomes such as health. Some of her studies have looked a multiple factors in relation to academic achievement over time, including family risk factors, intelligence, depression, and child academic engagement. Her studies utilize quantitative genetic models that specify systematic transactions between genetic and environmental influences on behavior. In some research, twins separated at birth were studied to determine what familial and environmental factors contribute to individual traits, such as intelligence, and if these traits differ if each twin was exposed to different circumstances. \n", "Another problem is about the \"Flynn effect\" (Dickens & Flynn, 2002). Vocabulary performance (considered as crystallized intelligence) has smaller cohort effects than reasoning performance (considered as fluid intelligence). Both exposure to vocabulary task and reasoning task have been increased greatly in past decades. However, whatever there is a great increase in mental ability test score, the performance on fluid intelligence \"may merely reflect greater development of related neuronal patterns.\"\n", "Linda Gottfredson (2006) has argued that thousands of studies support the importance of intelligence quotient (IQ) in predicting school and job performance, and numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-\"g\" intelligences is either lacking or very poor. She argued that despite this the ideas of multiple non-\"g\" intelligences are very attractive to many due to the suggestion that everyone can be smart in some way. \n\nA critical review of MI theory argues that there is little empirical evidence to support it:\n", "Section::::Pharmacological influence.\n", "The Dickens/Flynn model, as outlined in the book, attempts to explain the Flynn effect by suggesting that genes and environment have interacted in manner which leads to a multiplying of influence from both on IQ scores. In particular, people now live in a cognitive environment that has changed substantially over the past century. New ways of thinking and new modes of communication and entertainment have changed the way people think across society. At an individual level a similar multiplying effect leads to people with a genetic advantage in intelligence seeking out more cognitively challenging environments—thus exaggerating individual differences in intelligence. In both cases the role of an enhanced cognitive environment plays a role in within-generation and across-generation differences in IQ scores.\n", "Several neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape, and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate.\n\nSection::::Health.\n", "According to a 2006 study many of Gardner's \"intelligences\" correlate with the \"g\" factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of \"g\", of cognitive abilities other than \"g\", and, in some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics.\n", "The Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation has tested hundreds of thousands of people to determine their \"aptitudes\" (\"intelligences\"), such as manual dexterity, musical ability, spatial visualization, and memory for numbers. There is correlation of these aptitudes with the \"g\" factor, but not all are strongly correlated; correlation between the \"g\" factor and \"inductive speed\" (\"quickness in seeing relationships among separate facts, ideas, or observations\") is only .5, considered a moderate correlation.\n", "A tendency to focus attention tightly has a number of psychological implications. While monotropism tends to cause people to miss things outside their attention tunnel, within it their focused attention can lend itself to intense experiences, deep thinking and flow states. However, this hyperfocus makes it harder to redirect attention, including starting and stopping tasks, leading to what is often described as executive dysfunction in autism, and stereotypies or perseveration where a person's attention is repeatedly pulled back to the same thing.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "Section::::Neurological theory.\n", "Some of her work has examined genetic influences on general intelligence, often referred to as \"g\". Her research validates the psychological construct of a higher-level \"g\" factor that is not closely associated with any specific test, but rather reflects shared variance across multiple mental ability tests.\n\nSection::::Representative Publications.\n\nBULLET::::- Deary, I. J., Johnson, W., & Houlihan, L. M. (2009). Genetic foundations of human intelligence. \"Human genetics\", \"126\"(1), 215-232.\n\nBULLET::::- Deary, I. J., Penke, L., & Johnson, W. (2010). The neuroscience of human intelligence differences. \"Nature Reviews Neuroscience\", \"11\"(3), 201-211.\n", "Section::::Different components of information processing.:Practical – contextual subtheory.\n\nSternberg's third subtheory of intelligence, called practical or contextual, \"deals with the mental activity involved in attaining fit to context\". Through the three processes of adaptation, shaping, and selection, individuals create an ideal fit between themselves and their environment. This type of intelligence is often referred to as \"street smarts.\"\n\n\"Adaptation\" occurs when one makes a change within oneself in order to better adjust to one's surroundings. For example, when the weather changes and temperatures drop, people adapt by wearing extra layers of clothing to remain warm.\n", "The psychologist J.P. Guilford first coined the terms convergent thinking and divergent thinking in 1956.\n\nSection::::Traits associated with divergent thinking.\n\nPsychologists have found that a high IQ alone does not guarantee creativity. Instead, personality traits that promote divergent thinking are more important. Divergent thinking is found among people with personality traits such as nonconformity, curiosity, willingness to take risks, and persistence.\n\nSection::::Promoting divergent thinking.\n", "Section::::Conscientiousness.\n\nThe association between conscientiousness and intelligence is complex and uncertain. Individuals with a lower level of intelligence are always assumed to tend to behave in an orderly fashion and do extra work, which is related to being conscientious, in order to compensate for their lower level of cognitive ability. However, although intelligence has been observed to be negatively correlated with conscientiousness in some studies, others have not found this correlation to be significant and have even found a positive relationship.\n", "Section::::Psychological factors.\n\nPsychological factors and preconceived notions about intelligence can be as influential on intelligence as genetic makeup. Children with early chronic stress show impaired corticolimbic connectivity in development. Early chronic stress is defined as inconsistent or inadequate care-giving and disruption to early rearing environment. These children showed decreased cognitive function, especially in fluid cognition, or the ability to effectively utilize working memory. The lack of connectivity between the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex can be blamed for this deficiency.\n\nSection::::Behavioral factors.\n", "brWhat are the Neuro-Physiological Causes of Performance Variations in Brain-Computer Interfacing?\n\nMoritz Grosse-Wentrup, Bernhard Schölkopf \n\nMax Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Tübingen, Germany\n", "Section::::Neuroscience basis.:Genetic factors of intelligence.\n", "Evidence from a twin study indicates a genetic contribution to cognitive functions. Heritability estimates have been found to be high for general cognitive functions but low for memory itself. Adjusting for the effects of education 79% of executive function can be explained by genetic contribution. A study combining twin and adoption studies found all cognitive functions to be heritable. Speed of processing had the highest heritability in this particular study.\n\nSection::::Cognitive reserve.\n", "Section::::Neuroscience basis.:Importance of critical period.\n", "There appear to be sex differences between the relationship of grey matter to intelligence between men and women. Men appear to show more intelligence to grey matter correlations in the frontal and parietal lobes, while the strongest correlations between intelligence and grey matter in women can be found in the frontal lobes and Broca's area. However, these differences do not seem to impact overall Intelligence, implying that the same cognitive ability levels can be attained in different ways.\n", "\"We can understand how intellectual performance emerges in the individual through the use of Gf–Gc theory, but understanding why intellectual performance takes the particular pattern it does requires comparison across individuals. The distinction between fluid and crystallized intelligence can only emerge to the extent that it is possible to develop a battery of tests that accurately distinguishes between material to which test takers should have been exposed and tasks that they should find novel.\" (Johnson & Bouchard, 2005)\n", "Giftedness is frequently not evenly distributed throughout all intellectual spheres. One gifted student may excel in solving logic problems yet be a poor speller. Another may be able to read and write at a far above-average level yet have trouble with mathematics.\n\nIt is possible that there are different types of giftedness with their own unique features, just as there are different types of developmental delay.\n", "Elephant brains also show a complexity similar to dolphin brains, and are also more convoluted than that of humans, and with a cortex thicker than that of cetaceans. It is generally agreed that the growth of the neocortex, both absolutely and relative to the rest of the brain, during human evolution, has been responsible for the evolution of human intelligence, however defined. While a complex neocortex usually indicates high intelligence, there are exceptions. For example, the echidna has a highly developed brain, yet is not widely considered very intelligent.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03639	With gold prices relatively much higher now than in the past compared to the cost of living, why are there very few individual gold panning/mining operations in e.g. California like the gold rush in the past?	Because humans have been extracting gold from the crust of the Earth for a very long time. That doesn't mean it is all gone, but it does mean that what is left is the stuff that was hardest to get to. Since it is harder to get to, on average it costs a good deal more per ounce to mine it. So unless a site is particularly rich in gold, it isn't really worthwhile.	[ "With the advent of cyanide heap leaching—a method of extracting gold from what was previously considered very low-grade ore—the next boom was on. Many companies processed the massive piles of \"overburden\" that had been removed from copper mines, or expanded the existing open-pit mines to extract the gold ore. Gold mines as widespread as the Robinson project near Ruth, and AmSelco's Alligator Ridge mine from Ely, kept the town alive during the 1980s and 1990s, until the recent revival of copper mining.\n", "The second-largest gold-mining district in California was Grass Valley-Nevada City district in Nevada County. Gold in Holocene gravels was found in 1850, followed a few years later by hydraulic mining of Tertiary gravels. By 1880, most of the mining had shifted to lode deposits, such as the Empire Mine. Through 1959, the district produced 10.4 million troy ounces (323 tonnes) of lode gold, and 2.2 million troy ounces (68.4 tonnes) of placer gold.\n", "Gold has been mined from placer gold deposits up and down the state and in different types of environment. Initially, rich, easily discovered, surface and river placers were mined until about 1864. Hydraulic mines, using powerful water cannons to wash whole hillsides, were the chief sources of gold for the next 20 years. In 1884, Judge Lorenzo Sawyer issued a decree prohibiting the dumping of hydraulic mining debris into the Sacramento River, effectively eliminating large-scale hydraulic operations. For the next 14 years, drift mining placer gold deposits in buried Tertiary channels partially made up for the loss of placer gold production, but overall production declined. Production rose again with the advent of large-scale dredging. The first successful gold dredge was introduced on the lower Feather River near Oroville in 1898.\n", "Major gold mining in California began during the California Gold Rush. Gold was found by James Marshall at Sutters Mill, property of John Sutter, in present-day Coloma. In 1849, people started hearing about the gold and after just a few years San Francisco's population increased to thousands. Gold production in California peaked in 1852, at 3.9 million troy ounces (121 tonnes) produced in that year. But the placer deposits worked in the early years were quickly exhausted, and production crashed. Hardrock mining (in California called \"quartz mining\") began in 1849, and placer mining by hydraulic mining began in 1852. Despite the new mining methods, by 1865 production was , less than one-quarter of peak production.\n", "Mountain man Pauline Weaver discovered placer gold on the east side of the Colorado River in 1862. Weaver's discovery started the Colorado River Gold Rush to the now ghost town of La Paz, Arizona and other locations along the river in the ensuing years. \n\nThe most prominent of these were those of the San Francisco district, which includes the towns of Oatman, Bullhead City and Katherine in Mohave County was discovered in 1863 or 1864, but saw little activity until a rush to the district occurred in 1902. The district produced 2.0 million ounces of gold through 1959.\n", "In the more remote mining locations of Western Australia, the work force however has moved away from being residential and to a fly-in fly-out roster. This led to the former mining towns not sharing the current boom with most of the work force residing in Perth, Kalgoorlie or even the capital cities on the east coast. Population and services in the Goldfields towns are far short of what they were during the golden era of the 1930s.\n\nSection::::Current situation.\n", "By the mid to late 1850s the easily accessible placer gold in California was gone, but much gold remained. The challenge of retrieving the gold took a professional mining approach to make it pay: giant machines and giant companies. Massive floating dredges scooped up millions of tons of river gravels, as steam and electrical power became available in the early 1900s. The last giant gold dredge in California was the Natomas Number 6 dredge operating in Folsom, California that ceased operations on 12 Feb 1962 as cost of operation began exceeding the value of the gold recovered. Many of these large dredges still exist today in state-sponsored heritage areas (Sumpter Valley Gold Dredge, this dredge was also an important part of the popular book series Skeleton Creek Written by Patrick Carmen in 2009, or tourist attractions (Dredge No. 4 National Historic Site of Canada).\n", "By 1914 Pioneer Gold Mines was set up with more industrial equipment, boilers and modern rock mill. The site worked through the 1920s and the profitable King vein exploited. But it was the collapse of world markets and the solid price of gold in the Depression, when the mines really took off; when men and investment ramped up production. The district was one of the few bright lights in the BC economy during the Depression - in a seven-year period in the 1930s, the mines of the Bridge River produced $370,000,000 in gold. Taylor installed a 100-ton a day capacity mill but under the direction of M. O'Brian, output increased fivefold.\n", "Was a mining district. Gold was discovered there back in about 1850. This caused a gold rush into the area. A number of mining towns where built more than a dozen hard rock mines where started. Many people lived there up into the mid 1940s. In 1962 many of the homes and stores were still habitable and all the mining equipment and buildings where still in place and ready for the owners to return and start mining again..\n", "Violent bandits often preyed upon the miners, such as the case of Jonathan R. Davis' killing of eleven bandits single-handedly. Camps spread out north and south of the American River and eastward into the Sierras. In a few years, nearly all of the independent miners were displaced as mines were purchased and run by mining companies, who then hired low-paid salaried miners. As gold became harder to find and more difficult to extract, individual prospectors gave way to paid work gangs, specialized skills, and mining machinery. Bigger mines, however, caused greater environmental damage. In the mountains, shaft mining predominated, producing large amounts of waste. Beginning in 1852, at the end of the '49 gold rush, through 1883, hydraulic mining was used. Despite huge profits being made, it fell into the hands of a few capitalists, displaced numerous miners, vast amounts of waste entered river systems, and did heavy ecological damage to the environment. Hydraulic mining ended when public outcry over the destruction of farmlands led to the outlawing of this practice.\n", "The boom started during the Great Depression was short-lived, with the outbreak of the Second World War, the gold mining industry declined once more, for very similar reasons as it had at the beginning of the First World War.\n\nSection::::History.:Post-war.\n", "By 1855, the economic climate had changed dramatically. Gold could be retrieved profitably from the goldfields only by medium to large groups of workers, either in partnerships or as employees. By the mid-1850s, it was the owners of these gold-mining companies who made the money. Also, the population and economy of California had become large and diverse enough that money could be made in a wide variety of conventional businesses.\n\nSection::::Profits.:Path of the gold.\n", "As the easier gold was recovered, the mining became much more capital and labor-intensive as the hard rock quartz mining, hydraulic mining, and dredging mining evolved. By the mid-1880s, it is estimated that 11-million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US$6.6 billion at November 2006 prices) had been recovered via \"hydraulicking,\" a style of hydraulic mining that later spread around the world, despite its drastic environmental consequences. By the late 1890s, dredging technology had become economical, and it is estimated that more than 20 million ounces (620 t) were recovered by dredging (worth approximately US$12 billion at November 2006 prices). Both during the Gold Rush and in the decades that followed, hard-rock mining wound up being the single-largest source of gold produced in the Gold Country.\n", "The emergence of Japan as a major buyer of minerals, combined with technological advances in ore separation, saw a shift in many mines from uneconomic production to sustainable production. By the mid-1980s, one of the few productive mining industries in Australian was gold mining because its price had been fixed since World War II.\n\nOther factors lifted the production in gold, such as the development of the efficient carbon-in-pulp method for recovering very fine-grained and low-grade gold. It became feasible to mine entire zones of gold bearing veins via open cut or underground mining instead of only main veins.\n", "Gold rushes were typically marked by a general buoyant feeling of a \"free-for-all\" in income mobility, in which any single individual might become abundantly wealthy almost instantly, as expressed in the California Dream.\n\nGold rushes helped spur waves of immigration that often led to permanent settlement of new regions. Activities propelled by gold rushes define significant aspects of the culture of the Australian and North American frontiers. At a time when the world's money supply was based on gold, the newly-mined gold provided economic stimulus far beyond the gold fields, feeding into local and wider economic booms.\n", "By the early 1860s, while hydraulic mining was at its height, small-scale placer mining had largely exhausted the rich surface placers, and the mining industry turned to hard rock (called quartz mining in California) or hydraulic mining, which required larger organizations and much more capital. By the mid-1880s, it is estimated that 11 million ounces of gold (worth approximately US$7.5 billion at mid-2006 prices) had been recovered by hydraulic mining in the California Gold Rush.\n\nSection::::History.:California Gold Rush.:Environmental consequences.\n", "In its 1988 Report for Wilco Mining Company, Jaques Whitford and Associates notes that \"these operations ceased production for reasons other than depletion of reserves, such as inefficient mining and milling techniques, no inexpensive readily available source of power, and reports of rich gold and silver deposits in Ontario [that] lured the development capital and skilled labour force away.\" (Jaques Whitford and Associates Ltd., 1988)\n", "Many silver rushes followed upon gold rushes. As transportation and infrastructure improve, the focus may change progressively from gold to silver to base metals. In this way, Leadville, Colorado started as a placer gold discovery, achieved fame as a silver-mining district, then relied on lead and zinc in its later days. Butte, Montana began mining placer gold, then became a silver-mining district, then became for a time the world’s largest copper producer.\n\nSection::::Gold rushes by region.\n\nSection::::Gold rushes by region.:Australia and New Zealand.\n", "However, the wall street crash of 1929 even affected a mining town in Oregon. Mining was halted and people left town. By 1930 the census stated that only 10 people currently lived in Cornucopia. Although, it only took a few years for the mining plants to open back up again, and by 1934 the mines were processing gold once again. By 1938 the mining company was raking in money, making a profit of $100,000 in September (Equivalent to $1,727,681 on 3/20/2017). The mines continued to grow more as time went on; Cornucopia was responsible for 66% of the gold in Oregon in 1939. The census in 1940, just 10 years after the town was practically deserted during the beginning of the great depression, enumerated 352 people and the mines were the 7th largest in the nation. However, in the beginning of 1942 President Roosevelt closed all gold mining operations in American so that miners could focus on producing metals for war. The town became abandoned and never recovered.\n", "In 1900 the Golden Gate was still producing prodigious amounts of gold, but despite this, the profitability of the Croydon Goldfield was in decline. Despite extensive efforts to secure new payable lodes, it was the lack of success of deep exploration that spelled the end of mining at Croydon. Gold production declined during the years leading up to World War I and by 1915 most mining activities had ceased.\n\nSection::::History.:Rogers' No. 1 Golden Gate.\n", "In Oct, 1942 the US government passed the War Production Board Limitation Order which signaled the demise of gold mining in California. The government needed men for the war and gold was not considered a strategic war metal.\n\nSection::::Landmarks.\n\nBULLET::::- Argonaut and Kennedy Mines: California Historical Landmark No. 786.\n", "The gold rush radically changed the California economy and brought in an array of professionals, including precious metal specialists, merchants, doctors, and attorneys, who added to the population of miners, saloon keepers, gamblers, and prostitutes. A San Francisco newspaper stated, \"The whole country... resounds to the sordid cry of gold! Gold! \"Gold!\" while the field is left half planted, the house half built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of shovels and pick axes.\" Over 250,000 miners found a total of more than $200 million in gold in the five years of the California Gold Rush. As thousands arrived, however, fewer and fewer miners struck their fortune, and most ended exhausted and broke.\n", "That prosperity came to an end in 1893. In the wake of that year's economic crisis, Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. With that, the price dropped, and many of Aspen's mines had to close. Smuggler ceased most operations and laid off 70 of its miners.\n\nSection::::History.:1894–1917: Post-boom years.\n", "After the Gold Rush had concluded, gold recovery operations continued. The final stage to recover loose gold was to prospect for gold that had slowly washed down into the flat river bottoms and sandbars of California's Central Valley and other gold-bearing areas of California (such as Scott Valley in Siskiyou County). By the late 1890s, dredging technology (also invented in California) had become economical, and it is estimated that more than 20 million ounces (620 t) were recovered by dredging.\n", "A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants went into streams and rivers. many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01209	Why after a long day you're tired but feel "okay" and go to sleep for 3 hours and then feel way worse than you did when you originally went to sleep? Why does your body not build off that already "okay" feeling and feel more rested?	When you sleep your brain goes through different brain wave cycles. When you wake up, your brain might still be on deep sleep brain waves, ever woken up and been totally paralyzed? That's because you're brain is still in deep sleep. This is also why when an alarm or something wakes us up, we usually don't feel refreshed straight away. But if we wake up when we feel like we usually do feel good. So basically, your brain needs sleep and it will feel better when you wake up but it might take a few minutes.	[ "Sleep is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened.\n", "On the other hand, it is during sleep that beta-amyloid residues are degraded to prevent plaque formation. It is the glymphatic system that is responsible for this and this phenomenon is called glymphatic clearance. Thus, during wakefulness, the AB burden is greater because the metabolic activity and oxidative stress are higher and there is no degradation of the protein by the glymphatic clearance whereas during sleep, the burden will be smaller as there will be less metabolic activity and oxidative stress in addition to the glymphatic clearance that occurs at this time.\n", "\"Team Sleep\" was finally released on May 10, 2005, to mostly positive reviews. \"The best part about it is having completion of something you've been working on, and having it done right,\" Moreno said in a statement. \"It's fun, working with different people, everybody works differently. When I have time off from music, I want to make other music. That's what I do, that's what's fun, that's what makes me happy.\"\n", "BULLET::::- : A pulsus paradoxus is an exaggerated decrease in systolic blood pressure during inspiration. It can indicate certain medical conditions in which there is reduced cardiac output, such as cardiac tamponade or constrictive pericarditis. Also known as the Pulse Paradox.\n\nBULLET::::- : The \"second wind\" is a sudden period of increased wakefulness in individuals deprived of sleep that tends to coincide with the individual's circadian rhythm. Although the individual is more wakeful and aware of their surroundings, they are continuing to accrue sleep debt and thus, are actually exacerbating their sleep deprivation.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects\" describe how individuals who fail to have an adequate period of sleep (7–8 hours in 24 hours) or who have been awake longer than the conventional 16–17 hours will suffer sleep deprivation. A sleep deficit accumulates with successive sleep-deprived days, and additional fatigue may be caused by breaking daily sleep into two shorter periods in place of a single unbroken period of sleep. A sleep deficit is not instantly reduced by one night's sleep; it may take two or three conventional sleep cycles for an individual to return to unimpaired performance.\n", "Sleep can also serve to weaken synaptic connections that were acquired over the course of the day but which are not essential to optimal functioning. In doing so, the resource demands can be lessened, since the upkeep and strengthening of synaptic connections constitutes a large portion of energy consumption by the brain and tax other cellular mechanisms such as protein synthesis for new channels. Without a mechanism like this taking place during sleep, the metabolic needs of the brain would increase over repeated exposure to daily synaptic strengthening, up to a point where the strains become excessive or untenable.\n", "One study has linked lack of sleep to a reduction in rodent hippocampal neurogenesis. The proposed mechanism for the observed decrease was increased levels of glucocorticoids. It was shown that two weeks of sleep deprivation acted as a neurogenesis-inhibitor, which was reversed after return of normal sleep and even shifted to a temporary increase in normal cell proliferation. More precisely, when levels of corticosterone are elevated, sleep deprivation inhibits this process. Nonetheless, normal levels of neurogenesis after chronic sleep deprivation return after 2 weeks, with a temporary increase of neurogenesis.\n", "The human organism physically restores itself during sleep, healing itself and removing metabolic wastes which build up during periods of activity. This restoration takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\n", "Because disrupted sleep is a significant contributor to fatigue, a diagnostic evaluation considers the quality of sleep, the emotional state of the person, sleep pattern, and stress level. The amount of sleep, the hours that are set aside for sleep, and the number of times that a person awakens during the night are important. A sleep study may be ordered to rule out a sleep disorder.\n\nDepression and other psychological conditions can produce fatigue, so people who report fatigue are routinely screened for these conditions, along with drug abuse, poor diet, and lack of physical exercise, which paradoxically increases fatigue.\n", "Stressors can be categorised into the Challenge/Hindrance stressor model. Challenge stressors, while unpleasant, allow for growth and achievement such as time pressure in a work context. Hindrance stressors are those that cause unnecessary burden and do not contribute to achievement such as poor work supervision. Self-reported quality of sleep reduces in relation to more hindrance stressors but not to challenge stressors. Sleep duration does not change in relation to the hindrance: challenge ratio and neither does increased stressful working hours effect self-reported sleep quality.\n\nSection::::Sleep quality perception.\n", "The circadian rhythm influences the ideal timing of a restorative sleep episode. Sleepiness increases during the night. REM sleep occurs more during body temperature minimum within the circadian cycle, whereas slow-wave sleep can occur more independently of circadian time.\n", "Finally, on the opposite end of the spectrum, other patients may report feeling that they have slept much longer than is observed. It has been proposed that this experience be subclassified under sleep state misperception as \"positive sleep state misperception\", \"reverse sleep state misperception\", and \"negative sleep state misperception\".\n\nSection::::Symptoms and diagnosis.:Diagnostic criteria.\n", "An even lighter type of sleep has been seen in rats that have been kept awake for long periods of time. In a process known as local sleep, specific localized brain regions went into periods of short (~80 ms) but frequent (~40/min) NREM-like states. Despite the on and off periods where neurons shut off, the rats appeared to be awake, although they performed poorly at tests.\n\nSection::::Physiological effects.:Other effects.:Weight gain.\n", "Studies show that sleep restriction has some potential in the treatment of depression. Those who suffer from depression tend to have earlier occurrences of REM sleep with an increased number of rapid eye movements; therefore, monitoring patients' EEG and awakening them during occurrences of REM sleep appears to have a therapeutic effect, alleviating depressive symptoms. This kind of treatment is known as wake therapy. As many as 60% of patients, when sleep-deprived, show immediate recovery, although most relapse the following night. The effect has been shown to be linked to increases in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). It has been shown that chronotype is related to the effect of sleep deprivation on mood in normal people: those with morningness preference become more depressed following sleep deprivation while those with eveningness preference show an improvement in mood. A comprehensive evaluation of the human metabolome in sleep deprivation in 2014 found that 27 metabolites are increased after 24 waking hours and suggested serotonin, tryptophan, and taurine may contribute to the antidepressive effect.\n", "In addition, as a result of continuous muscular activity without proper rest time, effects such as cramping are much more frequent in sleep-deprived individuals. Extreme cases of sleep deprivation have been reported to be associated with hernias, muscle fascia tears, and other such problems commonly associated with physical overexertion.\n\nA 2006 study has shown that while total sleep deprivation for one night caused many errors, the errors were not significant until after the second night of total sleep deprivation. However, combining alcohol with acute sleep deprivation results in a tripled rate of driving off the road when using a simulator.\n", "Generally, the aircrew work-rest cycle for deployed C-130 crews in 1968 through 1970 was 12 hours on and 14 hours off for five cycles. The crew reported for duty in the evening, worked 12 hours, rested 14 hours, then reported for duty two hours later than the previous evening. By the 5th cycle, the crew had delayed its report time 10 hours and was now reporting in the morning. The crew worked 12 hours that day, ate, slept for 12 hours, and then reported for work again that evening. At the end of that night, the crew had been awake for 24 hours. As a result of this work-rest schedule the crews were never properly rested \n", "Sleep loss is currently proposed to disturb endocrine regulation of energy homeostasis leading to weight gain and obesity. For instance, laboratory sleep deprivation studies in young men have demonstrated that one night of wakefulness (typically found in shift workers) exerts significant effects on the energy balance the next morning, including reduced energy expenditure, enhanced hedonic stimulus processing in the brain underlying the drive to consume food, and overeating that goes beyond satiety. Further recent studies have shown that a reduction of sleep duration to four hours for two consecutive nights has been shown to decrease circulating leptin levels and to increase ghrelin levels, as well as self-reported hunger. Similar endocrine alterations have been shown to occur even after a single night of sleep restriction.\n", "The most pronounced physiological changes in sleep occur in the brain. The brain uses significantly less energy during sleep than it does when awake, especially during non-REM sleep. In areas with reduced activity, the brain restores its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecule used for short-term storage and transport of energy. In quiet waking, the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, thus this reduction has a noticeable effect on overall energy consumption.\n", "However, upon clinical observation, it is found that patients may severely overestimate the time they took to fall asleep—often reporting having slept half the amount of time indicated by polysomnogram or electroencephalography (EEG), which may record normal sleep. Observing such discrepancy between subjective and objective reports, clinicians may conclude that the perception of poor sleep is primarily illusionary.\n", "Sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects describe how individuals who fail to have an adequate period of sleep (7–8 hours in 24 hours) or who have been awake longer than the conventional 16–17 hours will suffer sleep deprivation. A sleep deficit accumulates with successive sleep-deprived days, and additional fatigue may be caused by breaking daily sleep into two shorter periods in place of a single unbroken period of sleep. A sleep deficit is not instantly reduced by one night's sleep; it may take two or three conventional sleep cycles for an individual to return to unimpaired performance.\n", "Sleepiness can be dangerous when performing tasks that require constant concentration, such as driving a vehicle. When a person is sufficiently fatigued, microsleeps may be experienced. In individuals deprived of sleep, somnolence may spontaneously dissipate for short periods of time; this phenomenon is the second wind, and results from the normal cycling of the circadian rhythm interfering with the processes the body carries out to prepare itself to rest.\n\nThe word \"somnolence\" is derived from the Latin \"somnus\" meaning \"sleep\".\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Circadian rhythm disorders.\n", "The fatigue-model is supported by subjective self-report and physiological studies. Arousal, as measured by electroencephalograph (EEG), decreases as sleep loss increases, leading to a decrease in the desire to perform and exert effort. Short-term sleep loss is associated with blunting in the recognition of negative and positive facial expressions. Various forms of emotional expression, including facial and vocal expression, are adversely affected by sleep loss. Following one night of sleep deprivation, participants show decreased facial expressiveness in response to positive stimuli, as well as decreased vocal expression of positive emotion. Sleep deprivation slows the generation of facial reactions in response to emotional faces. One to two nights of sleep loss in healthy adults is associated with a decrease in the generated intensity of positive moods (i.e. happiness and activation), as well as an increase in the generated intensity of negative moods (i.e. anger, depression, fear, and fatigue). Long-term chronic exposure to insufficient sleep is associated with a decline in optimism and sociability, and an increase in subjective experiences of sleepiness and fatigue. Furthermore, sleep restricted to five hours a night over the course of a week causes significant increases in self-reports of subjective mood disturbance and sleepiness.\n", "\"\"ObZen\" and \"Koloss\" are great albums but, to me, they are a little too perfect. It didn't really capture what we sounded like honestly.\n\n\"But where we recorded live you get to hear the push and pull, one person might be a little ahead and the other might be a little behind. If you kill that, you can kill the energy.\"\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Fatigue is generally considered a more long-term condition than sleepiness (somnolence). Although sleepiness can be a symptom of medical issues, it usually results from lack of restful sleep, or a lack of stimulation. Chronic fatigue, on the other hand, is a symptom of a greater medical problem in most cases. It manifests in mental or physical weariness and inability to complete tasks at normal performance. Both are often used interchangeably and even categorized under the description of 'being tired.' Fatigue is often described as an uncomfortable tiredness, whereas sleepiness is comfortable and inviting.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Measurement.\n", "Thus, in many people, there is a dip when the drive for sleep has been building for hours and the drive for wakefulness has not yet started. This is, again quoting Czeisler, \"a great time for a nap\". The drive for wakefulness intensifies through the evening, making it difficult to get to sleep 2–3 hours before one's usual bedtime when the \"wake maintenance zone\" ends.\n\nSection::::Sleep cultures.\n" ]	[ "Should feel better after a few hours of rest.", "If you feel fine before sleeping and sleep for a short period of time, you should never feel worse if you already felt fine." ]	[ "Body sleeps in cycles and you need to complete a full cycle to feel rested otherwise you will feel tired. ", "It is possible for the brain to still be in a deep sleep cycle, when waking up prematurely it can cause irritation, it's best to sleep again to feel better. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Should feel better after a few hours of rest.", "If you feel fine before sleeping and sleep for a short period of time, you should never feel worse if you already felt fine." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Body sleeps in cycles and you need to complete a full cycle to feel rested otherwise you will feel tired. ", "It is possible for the brain to still be in a deep sleep cycle, when waking up prematurely it can cause irritation, it's best to sleep again to feel better. " ]
2018-03715	How do engineers get different amounts of horsepower out of engines that have the same number of cylinders without adding turbochargers etc?	The cylinder count isn't what defines the power, the displacement has a far large effect on power than cylinder count does. There are a bunch of knobs that can be turned to dial in the performance of an engine. Cylinder aspect ratio, engine displacement, cylinder count, piston weight, and valve timing all have significant impacts. An engine with 6 small skinny cylinders with light weight pistons can get up to extremely high RPMs and generate a ton of power as seen in F1 engines. Its going to be stupid expensive and short lived but it'll do it An engine with 8 big fatter cylinders with heavier pistons is going to be a much larger engine and can't put out as much power as the super fast one, but will put out good numbers while having good longevity as seen in many V8s out there.	[ "Section::::Wickström engine production.\n", "The quantity of power unit components a driver may use during the season was reduced from four complete power units during the entire season in 2017 to a new system where each of the power unit components is considered separately. Therefore, in 2018, each driver is permitted to use up to three each of internal combustion engines (ICE), heat motor generator units (MGU-H), and turbochargers (TC); and two each of the kinetic motor generator units (MGU-K), energy stores (ES), and control electronics (CE).\n", "The amount of fuel delivered is controlled by the duration of actuation of the fuel injector(s). This value is taken from a programme in the ECM that has 16 points for load and 16 points for speed. These 256 primary values are then modified by coolant temperature, intake air temperature, oxygen content of the exhaust, car battery voltage and throttle position - to provide 65,000 possible injector duration points.\n", "SRT has built four V8s, which it has applied to five vehicles: Chrysler 300, Dodge Challenger, Dodge Charger, Dodge Magnum and Jeep Grand Cherokee. Their first V8 was a 6.1-liter naturally aspirated HEMI V8 engine that made . However, the Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT-8 only had . Their second unit is a 6.4-liter naturally aspirated Apache V8 engine that originally made but was upgraded to produce after 2014. SRT's most powerful variant is a 6.2-liter supercharged V8, with two separate units used on the Hellcat and Demon models. The Hellcat's version makes and the Demon's makes . On 100-octane fuel, though, the Demon's engine makes .\n", "In Europe, the DIN 70020 standard tests the engine fitted with all ancillaries and exhaust system as used in the car. The older American standard (SAE gross horsepower, referred to as bhp) used an engine without alternator, water pump, and other auxiliary components such as power steering pump, muffled exhaust system, etc., so the figures were higher than the European figures for the same engine. The newer American standard (referred to as SAE net horsepower) tests an engine with all the auxiliary components (see \"Engine power test standards\" below).\n", "In some cases, real-world outputs for production V8s (4.5 in particular) were down from TVRs quoted output. Some of these have seen some form of modification (ECU, induction, exhaust etc.) to bring the power back up to the factory quoted output.\n", "Section::::On-road emissions patterns identified by PEMS.\n\nNearly all modern engines, when tested new and according to the accepted testing protocols in a laboratory, produce relatively low emissions well within the set standards. As all individual engines of the same series are supposed to be identical, only one or several engines of each series get tested. The tests have shown that:\n\nBULLET::::1. The bulk of the total emissions can come from relatively short high-emissions episodes\n\nBULLET::::2. Emissions characteristics can be different even among otherwise identical engines\n", "If the engine is multi-cylinder, the result would be multiplied by that factor. If each cylinder is of a different liter displacement, the results would also be multiplied by that factor. These results are the product of the values of the internal energy that were assumed for the four states of the system at the end each of the four strokes (two rotations). They were selected only for the sake of illustration, and are obviously of low value. Substitution of actual values from an actual engine would produce results closer to that of the engine. Whose results would be higher than the actual engine as there are many simplifying assumptions made in the analysis that overlook inefficiencies. Such results would overestimate the power output.\n", "Because of the cylinder arrangement in the VR6 - with two rows of combustion chambers within the same cylinder head, the intake and exhaust ports between the two rows of cylinders are of varying lengths. Without compensation, these varying port lengths would result in the two rows of cylinders producing different amounts of power at a particular engine RPM. Depending on the specific generation of VR6, the difference in port lengths are compensated for by specific tuning of the intake manifold, the camshaft overlap and lift profile, or a combination thereof.\n", "BULLET::::3. manufactured in the record-claiming specification by a manufacturer whose WMI number is shown on the VIN, including vehicles that are modified by either professional tuners or others that result in a VIN with a WMI number in their name (for example, if a Porsche-based car is remanufactured by RUF and has RUF's WMI W09, it is eligible; but if it has Porsche's WMI, WP0, it is not eligible)\n\nBULLET::::4. pre-1981 vehicles must be made by the original vehicle manufacturer and not modified by either professional tuners or individuals\n", "An example is the Buick 231 odd-fire, which has a firing order 1-6-5-4-3-2. As the crankshaft is rotated through the 720° required for all cylinders to fire, the following events occur on 30° boundaries:\n\nNote that the firing order is not solely dictated by the odd or even firing arrangement of the engine, it is an engine specific design choice.\n", "When one or both of the following criteria are met, a limitation of the charging pressure is set.\n\nBULLET::::- In first, second and reverse gear there is an RPM dependable maximum value. The ECU calculates which gear that is in use by comparing the speed of the automobile and the engines RPM.\n\nBULLET::::- When pre ignition/pinging occurs a maximum charge pressure is set on the basis of a mean value from each cylinders retarding of the ignition.\n\nOne or both of the following criteria initiates a lowering of the charging boost pressure to basic boost pressure.\n", "The design point calculation for a two spool turbojet, has two compression calculations; one for the Low Pressure (LP) Compressor, the other for the High Pressure (HP) Compressor. There is also two turbine calculations; one for the HP Turbine, the other for the LP Turbine.\n", "BULLET::::- BMW 114\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 116\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 117\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 132\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 139\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 801\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 802\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 803\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 804\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 805\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-002 (Bramo 109-002)\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-003\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-018\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-028\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-510\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-511\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-528\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-548\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-558\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-708\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 109-718\n\nBULLET::::- BMW P-3306\n\nBULLET::::- BMW P-3307\n\nBULLET::::- BMW MTU 6011\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 6002\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 6011\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 6012(MTU 6012) Turboshaft engine\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 8025\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 8026\n\nBULLET::::- BMW GO-480-B1A6\n", "Two factors (crankshaft speed and engine load) are used to index into a two-dimensional matrix of numeric values known as the \"fuel map\". The value read from the map is offset by other environmental factors (such as coolant temperature). This corrected value is then used to meter fuel by pulse-width modulating the fuel injectors. Because each bank of the V8 feeds an exhaust line with its own oxygen sensor, the air/fuel ratio can be monitored and controlled for the banks independently.\n", "A few manufacturers such as Honda and Toyota switched to the new ratings immediately, with multi-directional results; the rated output of Cadillac's supercharged Northstar V8 jumped from under the new tests, while the rating for Toyota's Camry 3.0 L \"1MZ-FE\" V6 fell from . The company's Lexus ES 330 and Camry SE V6 were previously rated at but the ES 330 dropped to while the Camry declined to . The first engine certified under the new program was the 7.0 L LS7 used in the 2006 Chevrolet Corvette Z06. Certified power rose slightly from .\n", "Section::::Impact on engine design and on auto-industry development.\n", "BULLET::::- 2001–2012 Ford Ranger\n\nBULLET::::- 2001–2010 Mazda B4000\n\nBULLET::::- 1997–2010 Ford Explorer/Mercury Mountaineer\n\nBULLET::::- 2004–2006 Ford Courier\n\nBULLET::::- 2005–2010 Ford Mustang\n\nBULLET::::- 2005–2009 Land Rover LR3\n\nSection::::Turbo and supercharging.\n\nA number of companies have produced forced induction versions of the engine.\n\nJanspeed produced single and twin-turbo 2.8 and 2.9 engines.\n\nSprintex produced 2.8 and 2.9 supercharged engines.\n\nTurbo Technics produced single and twin turbo 2.8 and 2.9 engines:\n\nBULLET::::- 2.8 single\n\nBULLET::::- 2.8 single\n\nBULLET::::- 2.8 single\n\nBULLET::::- 2.8 twin\n\nBULLET::::- 2.9 twin\n\nBULLET::::- 2.9 twin\n\nBULLET::::- 2.9 twin\n\nBULLET::::- 2.9 twin MINKER\n", "Engine swaps are also somewhat common within the Volkswagen tuning scene, often placing Type 2 (Bus), Type 3, and Type 4 (Squareback) engines in the Type 1 (Beetle). Water-cooled engines, such as the GTI 16-valve four, VR6, or 1.8 T are commonly swapped into the Mark II GTI, Jetta, and Corrado. Less common is the swap into a Mark 1 Golf or Cabriolet, giving an amazing power-to-weight ratio, even with minimally modified powerplants. Porsche engines are also very popular one of the most popular is to take the engine from a Porsche 911 super 1600.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_3 is the number of cylinders\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2 is the cylinder bore in centimeters\n\nBULLET::::- formula_7 is the stroke in centimeters\n\nBULLET::::- formula_8 is the engine speed in revolutions per second\n\nBULLET::::- K is a coefficient depending on the number of cylinders (single-cylinder engine 0.00020 / two-cylinder engine 0.00017 / four-cylinder engine 0.00015 / six-cylinder engine and engine with more cylinders 0.00013)\n\nSection::::France.:1956 formula.\n\nIn a circular issued on 28 December 1956, the chevaux fiscaux was defined as:\n\nwhere :\n\nBULLET::::- formula_10 = puissance administrative\n\nBULLET::::- formula_11 = constant of 0.00015\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3 = number of cylinders\n", "The German formula applied a higher tax horse-power factor to two stroke engine cars than to four stroke engined cars based on the fact each cylinder in a two stroke engine fires (has a power stroke) every revolution where an otto cycle or 4 stroke cylinder only fires every second revolution .\n\nThe formula for tax horsepower was as follows:\n\nIn these formulae:\n\nIncomplete fractions were rounded up to the nearest whole number so a four stroke engined car of 1,000cc would end up designated as a 4PS (or four horsepower) car for car tax purposes.\n", "Power unit suppliers are required to provide all teams using their engines with an identical specification of power units. The change was introduced to ensure parity after Mercedes's works team was observed to have access to additional engine performance settings that were not available to their customer teams.\n", "Section::::Engine power test standards.:Society of Automotive Engineers/SAE International.:SAE certified power.\n\nIn 2005, the SAE introduced \"SAE Certified Power\" with SAE J2723. This test is voluntary and is in itself not a separate engine test code but a certification of either J1349 or J1995 after which the manufacturer is allowed to advertise \"Certified to SAE J1349\" or \"Certified to SAE J1995\" depending on which test standard have been followed. To attain certification the test must follow the SAE standard in question, take place in an ISO 9000/9002 certified facility and be witnessed by an SAE approved third party.\n", "BULLET::::- Each driver was limited to a maximum of eight engines throughout the season, in addition to four engines for practice/testing purposes; using additional engines resulted in a 10-place grid penalty for each additional engine used. To aid improvements in reliability, the engines were detuned from 19,000 RPM to 18,000 rpm.\n", "A potential disadvantage of converting an engine from MAF to MAFless mode is that where the MAP sensor is used to measure airflow, the corresponding fuel calculations must be performed by the computer based on tables of information programmed by the engine tuner. If other parts of the engine are subsequently modified with an effect on airflow through the engine, these fuel tables must be adjusted to match the revised engine hardware. \n\nAs airflow is measured from the MAP sensor, turbocharger variations will affect the fuel flow measurement resulting in higher or lower fuel flow.\n" ]	[ "Engines with the same number of cylinders should have the same amount of horsepower." ]	[ "The displacement is more important for power than the number of cylinders." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Engines with the same number of cylinders should have the same amount of horsepower." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The displacement is more important for power than the number of cylinders." ]
2018-06166	Why does Earth's armosphere glow blue in pictures taken from space?	It is the same reson that the sky is blue from the ground. The atmosphere scatter the blue light more then the other colors so it looks blue. The amount of scattering depend on the wavelength of light. Blue scatter most and red on the others side of the spectrum scatter the least. Is is the same reason that a sun set looks looks red/orange. The light passes trough more atmosphere when it is low so more light is scattered. The result is that the light that reaches you is primary red/orange..	[ "BULLET::::- Blue: At yet lower altitudes, atomic oxygen is uncommon, and molecular nitrogen and ionized molecular nitrogen take over in producing visible light emission, radiating at a large number of wavelengths in both red and blue parts of the spectrum, with 428 nm (blue) being dominant. Blue and purple emissions, typically at the lower edges of the \"curtains\", show up at the highest levels of solar activity. The molecular nitrogen transitions are much faster than the atomic oxygen ones.\n", "The sodium emissions come from a thin sodium layer approximately 10 km thick at an altitude of 90–100 km, above the mesopause and in the D-layer of the ionosphere. The red oxygen lines originate at altitudes of about 300 km, in the F-layer. The green oxygen emissions are more spatially distributed. How sodium gets to mesospheric heights is not yet well understood, but it is believed to be a combination of upward transport of sea salt and meteoritic dust.\n", "Fluorescence is a powerful non-invasive tool to track the status, resilience, and recovery of photochemical processes, and provides important information on overall photosynthetic performance with implications for related carbon sequestration. The early responsiveness of fluorescence to atmospheric, soil and plant water balance, as well as to atmospheric chemistry and human intervention in land usage, makes it a useful biological indicator in improving the understanding of Earth system dynamics.\n", "BULLET::::- TRACE – The Transition Region and Coronal Explorer is a NASA Small Explorer program (SMEX) to image the solar corona and transition region at high angular and temporal resolution. It has passband filters at 173 Å, 195 Å, 284 Å, 1600 Å with a spatial resolution of 0.5 arc sec, the best at these wavelengths.\n", "The thermosphere contains an appreciable concentration of elemental sodium located in a 10-km thick band that occurs at the edge of the mesosphere, 80 to 100 km above Earth's surface. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming meteors. Astronomers have begun utilizing this sodium band to create \"guide stars\" as part of the optical correction process in producing ultra-sharp ground-based observations.\n\nSection::::Energy input.\n\nSection::::Energy input.:Energy budget.\n", "Z Andromedae shows also a strong ultraviolet emission, which follows the optical behaviour; absorption lines identified during the quiescent phase becomes emission lines during outbursts. Elements identified in this region of the spectrum are carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon in their ionized states.\n\nSection::::Spectrum.:Radio.\n\nThe radio flux from Z Andromedae at the beginning of outbursts is lower than the usual quiescent level, and has a maximum after the optical one. After the outbursts, radio jets can be seen flowing out of this system, in a direction perpendicular to the orbital plane.\n\nSection::::Spectrum.:X-ray.\n", "The electromagnetic waves coming from the solar corona are emitted mainly in the X-rays. This radiation is not visible from the Earth because it is filtered by the atmosphere. Before the first rocket missions, the corona could be observed only in white light during the eclipses, while in the last fifty years the solar corona has been photographed in the EUV and X-rays by many satellites (Pioneer 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Helios, Skylab, SMM, NIXT, Yohkoh, SOHO, TRACE, Hinode).\n", "BULLET::::2. a linear temperature rise vs. log column mass in the chromosphere, and\n\nBULLET::::3. transition region (TR) with different gradients.\n\nFor the underlying photosphere, the effective temperature was found to be 2800 K, and a solar chemical composition was used. The last spectrum taken in the series after the flare was used for the quiescent chromosphere.\n\nThe line asymmetries have been attributed to downward moving material, specifically a series of flare-triggered downward moving chromospheric condensations, or chromospheric downward condensations (CDC)s as on the Sun.\n\nSection::::Theory of coronal heating.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The first study of the spectral energy distribution of the planet was published in July 2013.\n", "After the sun has also set for these altitudes at the end of nautical twilight, the intensity of light emanating from earlier mentioned lines decreases, until the oxygen-green remains as the dominant source.\n\nWhen astronomical darkness has set in, the green 557.7 nm oxygen line is dominant, and atmospheric scattering of starlight occurs.\n\nDifferential refraction causes different parts of the spectrum to dominate, producing a golden hour and a blue hour.\n\nSection::::Relative contributions.\n", "BULLET::::- EUVIP - Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Photometer Experiment (1990-8/Army Space & Strategic Defense Command) will establish the behavior of the upper atmosphere and plasmasphere needed for Army secure communication systems design, prediction of magnetic storms, and characterization of the aurora.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "The nighttime views were obtained with the new satellite's \"day-night band\" of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), which detects light in a range of wavelengths from green to near-infrared, and uses filtering techniques to observe dim signals such as city lights, gas flares, auroras, wildfires, and reflected moonlight. Auroras, fires, and other stray light have been removed in the case of the \"Black Marble\" images to emphasize the city lights. The images have been used to study the spatial distribution of economic activity, to select sites for astronomical observatories, and to monitor human activities around protected areas.\n", "Thor analyses red sprites, blue and gigantic jets from the Space Station over Earth at night. Sprites appear as luminous reddish-orange flashes and last 20 milliseconds at most. They often occur in clusters within atmosphere above the troposphere at an altitude range of 50–90 km (31–56 mi). They were first photographed on July 6, 1989 by scientists from the University of Minnesota and have subsequently been captured in video recordings many thousands of times. Even though these were discovered only 20 years ago, they hold the key to comprehend the Earth's electrical circuitry that give rise to the storms and currents that churn up the atmosphere. Blue jets can move at speeds of up to 360,000 km/h (220,000 mph) and without a high speed camera they can be easily missed by the human eye.\n", "Oxygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands peaking at the wavelengths 687 and 760 nm. Some remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platform. This approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is possible to discriminate the vegetation's reflectance from its fluorescence, which is much weaker. The measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal-to-noise ratio and the physical structure of vegetation; but it has been proposed as a possible method of monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale.\n", "BULLET::::- The fourth point, located at about 20° below the antisolar point, visible only at higher altitudes in the air or in space.\n\nSection::::Under an overcast sky.\n", "Chromospheric activity is signaled by the presence of emission cores in the Ca II H and K resonance lines. Balmer emission, or Hα, is also associated with active chromospheres. X-ray emission is known as a tracer for active coronal regions, and ultraviolet (UV) emission and flaring are, by solar analogy, known to be associated with stellar active and transition regions. These areas on the Sun are associated with intense magnetic fields, and sunspot activity is enhanced in and around these magnetically active regions.\n", "Numerous experiments have been done with those two methods in the troposphere. At higher altitudes, NASA studied inducing noctilucent clouds in 1960 and 2009. In 1984 satellites from three nations took part in an artificial cloud experiment as part of a study of solar winds and comets. A European satellite released and ignited barium and copper oxide 43,000 miles in space to create a 2,000 mile mauve and green plume visible for 22 minutes. It was part of a study of magnetic and electric fields.\n", "Section::::Observation of airglow on other planets.\n\nThe Venus Express spacecraft contains an infrared sensor which has detected near-IR emissions from the upper atmosphere of Venus. The emissions come from nitric oxide (NO) and from molecular oxygen.\n\nScientists had previously determined in laboratory testing that during NO production, ultraviolet emissions and near-IR emissions were produced. The UV radiation has been detected in the atmosphere, but until this mission, the atmosphere-produced near-IR emissions were only theoretical.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Polar aurora\n\nBULLET::::- Optical phenomena\n\nBULLET::::- Ionized air glow\n\nBULLET::::- Zodiacal light\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Description and Images\n", "The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave \"windows\" of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet-C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven-meter waves.\n\nSection::::Optical properties.:Emission.\n", "Section::::Subsequent \"Blue Marble\" images.:DSCOVR.\n\nOn July 21, 2015, NASA released a new \"Blue Marble\" photograph taken by a U.S. Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR), a solar weather and Earth observation satellite that was launched in February 2015 and will provide a near-continuous view of the entire sunlit-side of the Earth. The image was taken on July 6, 2015. The photograph, of the Western Hemisphere, is centered over Central America. The Western United States, Mexico and the Caribbean are visible, but much of South America is hidden beneath cloud cover. Greenland can be seen at the upper edge of the image.\n", "Pan-sharpening techniques can result in spectral distortions when pan sharpening satellite images as a result of the nature of the panchromatic band. The Landsat panchromatic band for example is not sensitive to blue light. As a result, the spectral characteristics of the raw pansharpened color image may not exactly match those of the corresponding low-resolution RGB image, resulting in altered color tones. This has resulted in the development of many algorithms that attempt to reduce this spectral distortion and to produce visually pleasing images.\n", "Since the corona has been photographed at high resolution in the X-ray range of the spectrum by the satellite Skylab in 1973, and then later by Yohkoh and the other following space instruments, it has been seen that the structure of the corona is quite varied and complex: different zones have been immediately classified on the coronal disc.\n\nThe astronomers usually distinguish several regions, as described below.\n\nSection::::Physical features.:Active regions.\n\nActive regions are ensembles of loop structures connecting points of opposite magnetic polarity in the photosphere, the so-called coronal loops.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Sky glows blue when photographed from out space." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Sky is blue due to scattering of blue light." ]
2018-07133	How plastic from TidePods dissolves in the wash	The plastic is a specific polymer that dissolves easily in water called poly$vinyl alcohol$. It's covered in alcohol groups $an oxygen atom bound to a hydrogen atom$ that look a lot like water, and help the polymer dissolve. In the pod, the polymer chains are stuck together in a plastic mass. When they are exposed to water, the polymer would rather interact with the water. As the polymer chain gets surrounded by more and more water molecules, it get separated from the plastic mass around the pod and dissolves into the wash. This polymer loves water so much that you should be sure your hands are very dry before handling the pods, or you could soften the pod so much they develop holes or stick together.	[ "Waterlogging commonly occurs over a long period of time in polystyrene foams that are constantly exposed to high humidity or are continuously immersed in water, such as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as supplemental flotation under boat seats, and for below-grade exterior building insulation constantly exposed to groundwater. Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as impermeable plastic sheeting or a sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation.\n\nSection::::Forms produced.:Copolymers.\n", "In general, the process of microbial plastic biodegradation results in a considerable decrease in polymer molecular weight, causing the plastic to lose its structural integrity. There are several different ways in which microorganisms can carry out the process of plastic degradation, and the mechanism differs slightly depending on the environmental conditions. \n\nSection::::Mechanism of biodegradation.:Direct Action.\n", "BULLET::::- Maciel Cicchetti, Argentina. Coxswain. 2nd Volvo Ocean Race.\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Carlin, Ireland. Reporter.\n\nSection::::2014-2015 Volvo Ocean Race.:Grounding.\n", "When all the available Na ions have been replaced with calcium or magnesium ions, the resin must be recharged by eluting the Ca and Mg ions using a solution of sodium chloride or sodium hydroxide, depending on the type of resin used. For anionic resins, regeneration typically uses a solution of, sodium hydroxide (lye) or potassium hydroxide. The waste waters eluted from the ion-exchange column containing the unwanted calcium and magnesium salts are typically discharged to the sewage system.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Lime softening.\n", "Once saturated with water, the gel can be regenerated by heating it to 120 °C (250 °F) for 1–2 hours. Some types of silica gel will \"pop\" when exposed to enough water. This is caused by breakage of the silica spheres when contacting the water.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "BULLET::::- Deposition of minerals: Calcium carbonate (limescale) in hard water can deposit on surfaces when water dries. The deposits can be dissolved by vinegar or other acid.\n", "1. Water penetrates the bulk of the device, attacking the chemical bonds in the amorphous phase and converting long polymer chains into shorter water-soluble fragments. This causes a reduction in molecular weight without the loss of physical properties as the polymer is still held together by the crystalline regions. Water penetrates the device leading to metabolization of the fragments and bulk erosion.\n\n2. Surface erosion of the polymer occurs when the rate at which the water penetrating the device is slower than the rate of conversion of the polymer into water-soluble materials.\n", "Additionally, plastics degrade slowly, often over hundreds if not thousands of years. This increases the probability of microplastics being ingested and incorporated into, and accumulated in, the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The entire cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment is not yet known, but research is currently underway to investigate this issue.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n\nThe term \"microplastics\" was introduced in 2004 by Professor Richard Thompson, a marine biologist at the University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Primary microplastics.\n", "Section::::Types of plastic debris.:Macrodebris.\n\nPlastic debris is categorized as macrodebris when it is larger than 20 mm. These include items such as plastic grocery bags. Macrodebris are often found in ocean waters, and can have a serious impact on the native organisms. Fishing nets have been prime pollutants. Even after they have been abandoned, they continue to trap marine organisms and other plastic debris. Eventually, these abandoned nets become too difficult to remove from the water because they become too heavy, having grown in weight up to 6 tons.\n\nSection::::Decomposition of plastics.\n", "Section::::Degradation.\n\nOnce implanted, a biodegradable device should maintain its mechanical properties until it is no longer needed and then be absorbed by the body leaving no trace. The backbone of the polymer is hydrolytically unstable. That is, the polymer is unstable in a water based environment. This is the prevailing mechanism for the polymers degradation. This occurs in two stages.\n", "Estimates suggest something like 9 million tonnes of plastic is added to the ocean every year. It is thought this plastic will need 450 years or more to biograde. Once in the ocean, plastics are shredded by marine amphipods into microplastics. There are now beaches where 15 percent of the sand are grains of microplastic. In the oceans themselves, microplastics float in surface waters amongst the plankton, where they are ingested by plankton eaters.\n", "Removal of the remaining liquid (solvent) phase requires a drying process, which is typically accompanied by a significant amount of shrinkage and densification. The rate at which the solvent can be removed is ultimately determined by the distribution of porosity in the gel. The ultimate microstructure of the final component will clearly be strongly influenced by changes imposed upon the structural template during this phase of processing.\n", "Some companies produce biodegradable additives, to enhance biodegradation. Plastic can have starch powder added as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but this still does not lead to the complete breaking down of the plastic.\n\nSome researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as Biopol; however, these are expensive at present.\n\nSection::::Properties and classifications.:Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics.:Bioplastics.\n", "BULLET::::- Under certain chemical conditions (typically in base-catalyzed sols), the particles may grow to sufficient size to become colloids, which are affected both by sedimentation and forces of gravity. Stabilized suspensions of such sub-micrometre spherical particles may eventually result in their self-assembly—yielding highly ordered microstructures reminiscent of the prototype colloidal crystal: precious opal.\n", "Section::::Welding techniques.:Solvent welding.\n\nIn solvent welding, a solvent is applied which can temporarily dissolve the polymer at room temperature. When this occurs, the polymer chains are free to move in the liquid and can mingle with other similarly dissolved chains in the other component. Given sufficient time, the solvent will permeate through the polymer and out into the environment, so that the chains lose their mobility. This leaves a solid mass of entangled polymer chains which constitutes a solvent weld.\n", "Section::::Where microplastics can be found.:Freshwater ecosystems.\n", "MonoSol is one of the companies that develops the water-soluble film used for laundry and dishwasher detergent packs, used by brands including Tide, with roughly $250 million in annual sales and controlling around 90-percent of the market. The film is designed to be soluble in cold water.\n", "The hydrophobic nature of plastic surfaces stimulates rapid formation of biofilms, which support a wide range of metabolic activities, and drive succession of other micro- and macro-organisms.\n", "Section::::Mathematical Model.\n\nBy mathematically modeling the rate of diffusion of water in the material and the rate of degradation of the material, it is possible to predict whether a certain material will undergo surface or bulk erosion by looking at the ratio between the two rates.\n\nThe rate of diffusion of water is modeled by the equation\n\nformula_1\n\nWhere is the mean length of the material and D is the diffusion coefficient of water inside the polymer.\n\nThe rate of degradation is modeled by the following equation\n\nformula_2\n", "Section::::Non-chemical devices.\n", "BULLET::::- Marcus Eriksen et al. (2014) reported that 92% of marine plastic (by count) is smaller than microplastics and would escape the system. Microplastic and synthetic fibers have been discovered frozen into ice cores, abundant on the sea floor, and on every beach worldwide. Along the way, it passes through the bodies of billions of organisms. The study shows that plastic mass is mainly found in the two larger size classes (86%). The project intends to capture pieces before they disintegrate too far.\n", "One method of degreasing is that of vapor degreasing, in which the adherend is dipped in a solvent. When removed from the solvent, the vapors condense on the surface of the adherend and dissolve any contaminants that had existed. These contaminants then drip off the adherend with the condensed vapors.\n\nSection::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Degreasing.:In lieu of vapor degreasing.\n", "Understanding the different types of plastic chemical degradation as this helps determine what not to expose plastics to As the polymers that are composed of the plastics can deteriorate easily by changes in temperature, water or light it is important to understand how these affect the polymers. Listed below are the chemical reactions that occur with the deterioration of the polymer's structure.\n", "Section::::Red and brown clays.\n", "Section::::Corrosion in nonmetals.:Corrosion of polymers.\n\nPolymer degradation involves several complex and often poorly understood physiochemical processes. These are strikingly different from the other processes discussed here, and so the term \"corrosion\" is only applied to them in a loose sense of the word. Because of their large molecular weight, very little entropy can be gained by mixing a given mass of polymer with another substance, making them generally quite difficult to dissolve. While dissolution is a problem in some polymer applications, it is relatively simple to design against.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00544	If there is a finite amount of water on Earth, would the Biblical global flood be possible?	No, not given the current water supply and the current rough terrain of the land. Even if all the ice in the world melted, and all the rain fell, the seas would not rise enough to cover nearly all the land.	[ "Though the vapor-canopy theory has fallen into disfavour among most creationists, Dillow in 1981 and Vardiman in 2003 attempted to defend the idea. Among its more vocal adherents, controversial Young Earth Creationist Kent Hovind uses it as the basis for his eponymous \"Hovind Theory\". Jehovah's Witnesses propose as the water source of the deluge a \"heavenly ocean\" that was over the earth from the second creative day until the Flood.\n\nSection::::Modern geology and flood geology.\n", "In 1970, Camping dated the Great Flood to 4990 BC. Using this date, taking the statement in Genesis 7:4 (\"Seven days from now I will send rain on the earth\") to be a prediction of the end of the world, and combining it with 2 Peter 3:8 (\"With the Lord a day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years are as a day\"), Camping concluded that the end of the world would occur in 2011, 7000 years from 4990 BC. Camping takes the 17th day of the second month mentioned in Genesis 7:11 to be May 21, and hence predicts the Rapture to occur on this date.\n", "Many cultures have myths about a flood that cleanses the world in preparation for rebirth. Such stories appear on every inhabited continent on earth. An example is the biblical story of Noah. In \"The Oxford Companion to World Mythology\", David Leeming notes that, in the Bible story, as in other flood myths, the flood marks a new beginning and a second chance for creation and humanity.\n\nSection::::Mythical themes and types.:Founding myths.\n", "Genesis flood narrative\n\nThe Genesis flood narrative is a flood myth found in the Tanakh (chapters 6–9 in the Book of Genesis). The story tells of God's decision to return the Earth to its pre-creation state of watery chaos and then remake it in a reversal of creation. The narrative has very strong similarities to parts of the Epic of Gilgamesh which predates the Book of Genesis.\n", "Geologists conclude that no evidence for such a flood is observed in the preserved rock layers and moreover that such a flood is physically impossible, given the current layout of land masses. For instance, since Mount Everest currently is approximately 8.8 kilometres in elevation and the Earth's surface area is 510,065,600 km, the volume of water required to cover Mount Everest to a depth of 15 cubits (6.8 m), as indicated by Genesis 7:20, would be 4.6 billion cubic kilometres. Measurements of the amount of precipitable water vapor in the atmosphere have yielded results indicating that condensing all water vapor in a column of atmosphere would produce liquid water with a depth ranging between zero and approximately 70mm, depending on the date and the location of the column. Nevertheless, there continue to be adherents to the belief in flood geology, and in recent years new theories have been introduced such as catastrophic plate tectonics and catastrophic orogeny.\n", "Section::::Tablet XI.\n", "Numerous other societies, including the Babylonian, had produced apocalyptic literature and mythology which dealt with the end of the world and of human society. Many of which also included stories that refer back to the Biblical Noah or describe a similar flood. The \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", written ca. 2000–1500 BC, details a myth where the angry gods send floods to punish humanity, but the ancient hero Utnapishtim and his family are saved through the intervention of the god Ea.\n", "Anthropologist Patrick Nunn rejects this view and highlights the fact that much of the human population lives near water sources such as rivers and coasts, where unusually severe floods can be expected to occur occasionally and will be recorded in local mythology.\n\nSection::::Proposed mechanisms of flood geology.\n", "In the late 17th century, there were famous speculations accounting for the Genesis flood by natural causes. Thomas Burnet’s \"Telluris Theoria Sacra\" (Sacred Theory of the Earth) had water rising from the hollow earth. William Whiston's \"A New Theory of the Earth\" postulated that major changes in the earth’s history could be attributed to the action of comets.\n", "2 Peter 2:5 refers to Noah as a \"preacher of righteousness\". In the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, Jesus compares Noah's flood with the coming Day of Judgement: \"Just as it was in the days of Noah, so too it will be in the days of the coming of the Son of Man. For in the days before the flood, people were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, up to the day Noah entered the ark; and they knew nothing about what would happen until the flood came and took them all away. That is how it will be at the coming of the Son of Man.\"\n", "Most other authorities interpret the Atrahasis flood as universal. A. R. George, and Lambert and Millard make it clear that the gods' intention in Atrahasis is to \"wipe out mankind\". The flood destroys \"all of the earth\". The use of a comparable metaphor in the Gilgamesh epic suggests that the reference to \"dragonflies [filling] the river\" is simply an evocative image of death rather than a literal description of the flood However, the local river flood in Atrahasis could accomplish destruction of all \"mankind\" and \"all of the earth\" if the scope of \"mankind\" is limited to all of the people living on \"all of the land\" of the flood plains in the lower river valley known to the Atrahasis writer.\n", "BULLET::::7. There was stunned shock at Adad's deeds which turned everything to blackness. The land was shattered like a pot.\n\nBULLET::::8. All day long the south wind blew rapidly and the water overwhelmed the people like an attack.\n\nBULLET::::9. No one could see his fellows. They could not recognize each other in the torrent.\n\nBULLET::::10. The gods were frightened by the flood, and retreated up to the Anu heaven. They cowered like dogs lying by the outer wall.\n\nBULLET::::11. Ishtar shrieked like a woman in childbirth.\n", "Professor Walter Brueggemann, formerly of Columbia Theological Seminary, wrote that God's promise in inverts the destructive action of the Flood story and marks the decisive end of the Genesis pre-history.\n\nSection::::In modern interpretation.:Genesis chapter 9.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Flood myth.\n", "Section::::Alternative translations.\n\nAs with most translations, especially from an ancient, dead language, scholars differ on the meaning of ambiguous sentences.\n", "BULLET::::- Fred Kohler as Jepson\n\nBULLET::::- Ralf Harolde as Norwood\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Van Sloan as Prof. Carlysle\n\nBULLET::::- Samuel Hinds as Chief Forecaster\n\nSection::::Production notes.\n\nThe film opens with a quote from the Bible's Book of Genesis, Chapter 9, verse 11: \"And I shall establish my covenant with you; neither shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of the flood; neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy the earth.\"\n", "A world-wide deluge, such as described in Genesis, is incompatible with modern scientific understanding of natural history, especially geology and paleontology.\n\nIn ancient Mesopotamia, the Sumerian King List reads \n", "BULLET::::- Variations on story of an elderly man lived through the Johnstown Flood (or in Johnstown PA) and bored countless of his contemporaries with his narratives about the Johnstown Flood. When he died, he went to Heaven and was greeted by St. Peter, whom he told that he wanted to tell the gripping story one more time. He's permitted to retell the story but warned that Noah will be in the crowd or audience.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Austin, Pennsylvania Dam Failure\n\nBULLET::::- St. Francis Dam disaster\n\nBULLET::::- Vajont Dam disaster\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "The Masoretic Text of the Torah places the Great Deluge 1,656 years after Creation, or 1656 AM (\"Anno Mundi\", \"Year of the World\"). Many attempts have been made to place this time-span at a specific date in history. At the turn of the , Joseph Scaliger placed Creation at , Petavius calculated , and according to James Ussher's chronology, Creation took place in , dating the Great Deluge to .\n\nSection::::Historicity.:Flood geology.\n", "Another ancient flood myth is the Hindu story of Matsya the fish. According to this story, the god Vishnu takes the form of a fish and warns the ancestor Manu about a coming flood. He tells Manu to put all the creatures of the earth into a boat. Unlike the Biblical and Mesopotamian floods, however, this flood is not a unique event brought on by a divine choice; instead, it's one of the destructions and recreations of the universe that happen at regular intervals in Hindu mythology.\n\nSection::::Themes and narratives.:National myth.\n\nSection::::Themes and narratives.:National myth.:The Patriarchs.\n", "In the c. 6th century BC \"Book of Genesis\", the god Yahweh, who created man out of the dust of the ground, decides to flood the earth because of the sinful state of mankind. It is also Yahweh who then gives the protagonist Noah instructions to build an ark in order to preserve human and animal life. When the ark is completed, Noah, his family, and representatives of all the animals of the earth are called upon to enter the ark. When the destructive flood begins, all life outside of the ark perishes. After the waters recede, all those aboard the ark disembark and have Yahweh's promise that he will never judge the earth with a flood again. He causes a rainbow to form as the sign of this promise.\n", "Given that conventional plate tectonics accounts for much of the geomorphic features of continents and oceans, it is natural that creationists would seek to develop a high speed version of the same process. CPT explains many geological features, provides mechanisms for the Biblical flood, and minimizes appeals to miracles.\n", "The Epic of Atrahasis provides additional information on the flood and flood hero that is omitted in Gilgamesh XI and other versions of the Ancient Near East flood myth. According to Atrahasis III ii, lines 40–47 the flood hero was at a banquet when the storm and flood began: \"He invited his people ... to a banquet ... He sent his family on board. They ate and they drank. But he (Atrahasis) was in and out. He could not sit, could not crouch, for his heart was broken and he was vomiting gall.\"\n", "\"The Year of the Flood\" details the events of \"Oryx and Crake\" from the perspective of the lower classes in the pleeblands, specifically the God's Gardeners. God's Gardeners are a religious sect that combines some Biblical practices and beliefs with some scientific practices and beliefs. They are vegetarians devoted to honoring and preserving all plant and animal life, and they predict a human species-ending disaster, which they call \"The Waterless Flood\". This prediction becomes true in a sense, as Crake's viral pandemic destroys human civilization.\n", "Professor Gary Rendsburg, however, notes that the Flood story has many similarities with the Epic of Gilgamesh. He argues that several sources would be unlikely to track these plot elements from the Epic of Gilgamesh independently. Thus, Rendsburg argues that the Flood story was composed as a unified whole.\n\nSection::::Commandments.\n\nMaimonides cited the parashah for one positive commandment:\n\nBULLET::::- To \"be fruitful and multiply\"\n\nThe \"Sefer ha-Chinuch\", however, attributed the commandment to \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03163	Why are you supposed to pump your brakes when you are going to jump start a dead car?	Nothing fancy -- you just want to make sure the brakes are on so the car doesn't move when the engine starts. And with no vacuum pressure from the engine, it's harder to set the brakes on.	[ "A vehicle with a manual transmission may be push started. This requires caution while pushing the vehicle and may require the assistance of several persons or another vehicle. If the vehicle battery cannot provide power to the ignition system, push starting may be ineffective. Most vehicles with automatic transmissions cannot be started this way because the hydraulic torque converter in the transmission will not allow the engine to be driven by the wheels.\n\nSection::::Other methods.:Military vehicles.\n", "In the absence of a complete lock-up of the transmission of power between engine and wheels a car engine might die while idling. Even on a gentle long descent the driver might be unaware of engine failure until power was required and it could be dangerous particularly if braking-assistance depended on the engine and the reservoir or reserves proved inadequate.\n\nSection::::Market.:False sense of security.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1993 Warner Bros. film \"Demolition Man\", as Sylvester Stallone's character is fighting the malfunctioning AI of his out-of-control police car, he shouts for the system to \"Brake! Brake! Brake now, you Mickey Mouse piece of shit!\"\n", "With the series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models. Later repairs, of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978, added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park. As a byproduct of sudden unintended acceleration, vehicles now include gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent gear selection.\n", "Renault introduced the technology in all of its European models in 2010.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Roewe.\n\nIn 2009, Roewe's Rover 75 based 750 was fitted with stop-start as standard with the hybrid 1.8 Rover K-series engine.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:SAAB.\n\nA Start/Stop function was fitted to the second-generation 9-5 in 2009. The button to control the system was placed next to the gearshift like SAAB ignition keys of old.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Suzuki.\n", "BULLET::::3. This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low traction surface, allowing to steer even in most emergency braking conditions.\n\nBULLET::::4. When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been triggered.\n\nSection::::Brake types.\n", "In vehicles with automatic transmissions, the parking brake was originally intended for emergency stopping (for instance, if the foot brake completely failed due to a loss of hydraulic pressure or other malfunction). As safety regulations became stringent in the 1980s, and modern brake systems became more reliable (using dual-circuit hydraulics and low-brake-fluid sensors), modern brakes no longer cause emergencies in normal contexts; a brake warning light appears on the dashboard if there was a problem. It is no longer as necessary for a driver to use this brake for emergencies, although if it were to be used, the parking brake lever should be slowly engaged to help reduce speed. \n", "For drive-by-wire automobiles, a brake-accelerator interlock switch, or \"smart throttle\" would eliminate or at least curtail any instance of unintended acceleration not a result of pedal misapplication by causing the brake to override the throttle. An unintended acceleration event would require the failure of such a mechanism if it were present. Such a solution would not be applicable to older vehicles lacking a drive-by-wire throttle.\n", "BULLET::::- 2005: Ida Starr St John involved in sudden and unintended acceleration accident with her Toyota Camry. The Camry immediately accelerated without her pressing the accelerator pedal and pressing the brake pedal did nothing to stop the vehicle.\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: The 2004 model year Ford Mustang Cobra was recalled by Ford for accelerator pedals that failed to return to idle after being fully pressed.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Incidents involving the 2005 Kia Amanti and Kia Sephia had been reported that were preceded by a racing or highly revving engine.\n", "Motorists may carry jumper cables in case of accidental discharge of the vehicle battery (for example, by headlights or ignition switch left on while the engine is not running). Safe procedures for connecting and disconnecting cables are given in the vehicle manual.\n\nSection::::Jumper cables.\n", "When activated, some earlier ABSes caused the brake pedal to pulse noticeably. As most drivers rarely or do not brake hard enough to cause brake lock-up, and drivers typically do not read the vehicle's owners manual, this may not be noticeable until an emergency. Some manufacturers have therefore implemented a brake assist system that determines that the driver is attempting a \"panic stop\" (by detecting that the brake pedal was depressed very fast, unlike a normal stop where the pedal pressure would usually be gradually increased, Some systems additionally monitor the rate at the accelerator was released) and the system automatically increases braking force where not enough pressure is applied. Hard or panic braking on bumpy surfaces, because of the bumps causing the speed of the wheel(s) to become erratic may also trigger the ABS, sometimes causing the system to enter its ice mode, where the system severely limits maximum available braking power. Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves safety and control for drivers in most on-road situations.\n", "There are some solutions to this issue that are now used in modern pedal systems. The pedal can have a vigilance function built in, where drivers must release and re-press the pedal in response to an audible signal. This prevents it from being defeated by the above circumstances and is a standard feature on most British DSD systems.\n", "Push starting is most successful when the automobile is using a gasoline engine, uses a carburetor, and uses a capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) or an inductive discharge ignition system. Automobiles with other types of engine, ignition, and fuel delivery configurations may work, but may be more difficult to start. Some engines must have a battery providing some electricity since fuel injection systems must have power to operate.\n\nSection::::Types.:Automatic or manual gearbox.\n", "Vintage cars may have 6-volt electrical systems, or may connect the positive terminal of the battery to the chassis. The methods intended for boosting 12-volt, negative-ground vehicles cannot be used in such cases.\n", "That exact car had experienced the same problem when Frank Bernard had driven it as a loaner car a few days earlier. Bernard told investigators that he was accelerating to get past a merging truck when the accelerator pedal jammed into the floor mat and remained there when he took his foot off the pedal. Bernard was able to slow the car down to with the brakes, but was only able to bring the car to a complete stop after putting the car in neutral.\n", "Since automobile accessories like compressors and water pumps have typically been designed to run on a serpentine belt on the engine, those systems must be redesigned to function properly when the engine is turned off. Typically, an electric motor is used to power these devices instead.\n\nThis technology has also been used on Honda Motor scooters in Asian markets for the last decade. Their PCX 125cc model was released in 2010 to be sold in Europe with this technology, though their North American model does not feature it.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "The arm-drop start prevents bracket racers from using the delay box, a popular device that is typically used in this genre of drag racing. Typically, with the Christmas tree, the delay box is designed to allow a driver to press the throttle pedal on the second amber, allowing the box to launch the car one second, or in the case on the third amber, a half-second later. The arm drop's unpredictability prevents this popular technique from being used, which forces drivers to watch the official to launch the car.\n", "One of those vehicles, a 2009 ES350, was given as a loaner car to California Highway Patrol officer Mark Saylor on August 28, 2009. Saylor and his wife, daughter, and brother-in-law were driving on highway 125 in San Diego, California, when their car accelerated out of control and crashed into an embankment, killing everyone in the car. This crash gained nationwide news coverage due to a recorded 911 call from Chris Lastrella, Saylor’s brother-in-law. In the moments before the crash, Lastrella could be heard telling the operator that the accelerator was stuck and that the brakes wouldn’t work. \n", "In most vehicles with rear drum brakes, two emergency brake/parking brake cables actuate the brake drums mechanically, but with much less force than is available through the primary hydraulic brake system. It is common for this type of system to work well when facing downhill but be unable to hold the vehicle stopped without using wheel chocks when facing up a steep hill. An improvement over stock parking brakes is useful for off road vehicles such as tractors, tow trucks, 4x4's, construction vehicles or any drum brake vehicle on ice or steep terrain. Some manufactures use a transmission brake which locks the entire drivetrain.\n", "Poorly adjusted engines could easily flood with fuel when attempting to restart while coasting and become unusable until dried out. Fuel management has since become so sophisticated this ceased to be a problem with the introduction of high quality fuel injection systems.\n\nSection::::Market.:Automatic transmission.\n\nThere was the appeal of the \"power everything\" car which automatically started its engine. Many early automatics had no lock up of their transmission, for example Dynaflow, Powerglide and Ultramatic though Hydramatic did. \n\nSection::::Vehicle manufacturers.\n\nThese US manufacturers provided Startix as original equipment during the 1930s:\n\nBULLET::::- Pierce-Arrow\n\nBULLET::::- Packard\n\nBULLET::::- Hudson\n\nBULLET::::- Lincoln\n", "BULLET::::- Tractors used to be fitted with a lever in the cab to operate the trailer brakes. The vehicle could be slowed down or stopped using the trailer brakes only. Theoretically this was a sure way to prevent jackknifing, but this lever was often the cause of jackknifing in a roundabout way. Frequent use of the trailer brakes alone caused them to overheat and fade while the tractor brakes remained fresh. In the event of an emergency stop, the driver would go straight for the foot brake and the truck would surely jackknife because the tractor brakes would lock while the trailer brakes would be ineffective due to previous overheating.\n", "In traffic, at a red light, many motorists will start to inch up in anticipation of the light turning green (watching the signal of the perpendicular traffic). This will give them a \"head start\" on other motorists on the road.\n\nSection::::In achieving a goal.\n\nA head start could be an improved start in an attempt to achieve some goal, such as in one's education or the completion of a task. In such cases, the head start is usually earned by working harder or by using more efficient means of reaching that point.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Handicapping\n\nBULLET::::- False start\n", "Brake Assist detects circumstances in which emergency braking is required by measuring the speed with which the brake pedal is depressed. Some systems additionally take into account the rapidity of which the accelerator pedal is released, pre-tensioning the brakes when a \"panic release\" of the accelerator pedal is noted. When panic braking is detected, the Brake Assist system automatically develops maximum brake boost in order to mitigate a driver's tendency to brake without enough force. In doing so, Brake Assist has been shown to reduce stopping distance by a significant margin (up to 20% in some studies).\n\nSection::::Systems.\n\nSection::::Systems.:Mercedes-Benz.\n", "A vehicle equipped with an automatic transmission (including semi automatic) is difficult to push start since selection of transmission gears is possible only when the internals of such a gearbox are rotating. However, automatics with both front and rear hydraulic pumps can be push-started with no problems. The last American automobile with this type of transmission was the 1969 Chevrolet Corvair with a Powerglide automatic.\n\nSection::::Types.:Petrol or diesel engines.\n", "and Denso.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Fiat Group.\n\nFiat introduced the Robert Bosch GmbH made system in the end of 2008 in the Fiat 500.\n\nStarting September 2009, Alfa Romeo also introduced this system in its Alfa Romeo Mito series utilising Fiat Powertrain Technologies (FPT) 1.4 L Turbo petrol MultiAir engines.\n\nSection::::Carmakers and models.:Ford.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03429	why are mens feelings and mental health not taken more seriously in an abortion scenario?	I've always looked at it like this. Of course a man's wishes should be heard. But that gives you a democracy of two. That creates an obvious problem. How to break ties when each wants something different. Since it is the woman's body being affected she has more stake in the matter so she breaks the tie. Well if you break down the decision tree then, if both are in agreement the woman gets her wish, if both are not in agreement, the woman still gets her wish. So you might as well just say the woman gets her wish.	[ "Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions and mental-health problems other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy. A report by the American Psychological Association concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester, with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain. Some older reviews concluded that abortion was associated with an increased risk of psychological problems; however, they did not use an appropriate control group.\n", "In December 2011, the U.K. Royal College of Psychiatrists undertook a systematic review to clarify the question of whether abortion had harmful effects on women's mental health. The review, conducted by the National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health and funded by the U.K. Department of Health, concluded that while unwanted pregnancy may increase the risk of mental-health problems, women faced with unwanted pregnancies have similar rates of mental-health problems whether they choose to carry the pregnancy to term or to have an abortion.\n", "Post-abortion syndrome has not been validated as a discrete psychiatric condition and is not recognized by the American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Medical Association, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, nor the American Public Health Association.\n\nThe Guttmacher Institute reports that as of August 2018, of the 22 U.S. states that include information on possible psychological responses to abortion, eight states stress negative emotional responses.\n\nSection::::Legal and political history.\n", "Later in 1989, responding to the political debate over the question, the American Psychological Association (APA) undertook a review of the scientific literature. Their review, published in the journal \"Science\", concluding that \"the weight of the evidence from scientific studies indicates that legal abortion of an unwanted pregnancy in the first trimester does not pose a psychological hazard for most women.\" The APA task force also concluded that \"severe negative reactions after abortions are rare and can best be understood in the framework of coping with normal life stress.\"\n", "In 2008, the American Psychological Association concluded after a review of available evidence that induced abortion did not increase the risk of mental-health problems. In 2011, the U.K. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health similarly concluded that first-time abortion in the first trimester does not increase the risk of mental-health problems compared with bringing the pregnancy to term. The U.K. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists likewise summarized the evidence by finding that abortion did not increase the risk of mental-health problems in women carrying an unwanted pregnancy. A 2008 systematic review of the medical literature on abortion and mental health found that high-quality studies consistently showed few or no mental-health consequences of abortion, while poor-quality studies were more likely to report negative consequences.\n", "Some women do experience negative emotions after an abortion, but not at rates different from women who wanted an abortion and did not have one or from women who have miscarriages. Women having abortions receive support from abortion providers. Anti-abortion crisis pregnancy centers and religious groups offer counseling as do pro-choice/pro-voice groups, like Exhale.\n\nSection::::Post-abortion syndrome.\n\nThe idea that abortion has negative psychological effects was widely promoted by crisis pregnancy centers in the 1970s and the term \"post-abortion syndrome\" has widely been used by anti-abortion advocates to broadly include any negative emotional reactions attributed to abortion.\n", "Systematic reviews of the scientific literature have concluded that there are no differences in the long-term mental health of women who obtain induced abortions as compared to women in appropriate control groups—that is, those who carry unplanned pregnancies to term. While some studies have reported a statistical correlation between abortion and mental health problems, these studies are typically methodologically flawed and fail to account for confounding factors, or, as with results of women having multiple abortions, yield results inconsistent with other similar studies. Higher-quality studies have consistently found no causal relationship between abortion and mental-health problems. The correlations observed in some studies may be explained by pre-existing social circumstances and emotional health. Various factors, such as emotional attachment to the pregnancy, lack of support, and conservative views on abortion may increase the likelihood of experiencing negative reactions. However, negative mental health impacts can result from any pregnancy outcome. \n", "Major medical and psychiatric expert groups have consistently found that abortion does not cause mental-health problems. In 2008, the American Psychological Association reviewed the literature on abortion and mental health and concluded that the risk of mental health problems following a single, first-trimester induced abortion of an adult women is no greater than carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term. While observing that abortion may both relieve stress and \"engender additional stress,\" they explicitly rejected the idea that abortion is \"inherently traumatic.\" Among those women who do experience mental health issues, the APA concluded that these issues are most likely related to pre-existing risk factors. Since these and other risk factors may also predispose some women to more negative reactions following a birth, the higher rates of mental illness observed among women with a prior history of abortion are more likely to be caused by these other factors than by abortion itself. The panel noted severe inconsistency between the outcomes reported by studies on the effect of multiple abortions. Additionally, the same factors which predispose a woman to multiple unwanted pregnancies may also predispose her to mental health difficulties. Therefore, they declined to draw a firm conclusion on studies concerning multiple abortions.\n", "Alternative scenarios have been put forth as more accurate and realistic representations of the moral issues present in abortion. John Noonan proposes the scenario of a family who was found to be liable for frostbite finger loss suffered by a dinner guest whom they refused to allow to stay overnight, although it was very cold outside and the guest showed signs of being sick. It is argued that just as it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation for the guest to protect them from physical harm, it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation of a fetus.\n", "Abortion and mental health\n\nThe relationship between induced abortion and mental health is an area of political controversy, though scientific and medical expert bodies have repeatedly concluded that induced abortion poses no greater mental-health risks than carrying unwanted pregnancies to term.\n", "Alternative scenarios have been put forth as more accurate and realistic representations of the moral issues present in abortion. John Noonan proposes the scenario of a family who was found to be liable for frostbite finger loss suffered by a dinner guest whom they refused to allow to stay overnight, although it was very cold outside and the guest showed signs of being sick. It is argued that just as it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation for the guest to protect him from physical harm, it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation of a fetus.\n", "In 2006, the U.K.'s House of Commons Science and Technology Committee undertook another inquiry into scientific developments and included a request for the RCP to update their 1994 statement on abortion in light of more recent studies. In 2008, the RCP did update their position statement to recommend that women should be screened for risk factors that may be associated with subsequent development of mental health problems and should counselled about the possible mental health risks of abortion. The revised RCP position statement included a recommendation for a systematic review of abortion and mental health with special consideration of \"whether there is evidence for psychiatric indications for abortion.\" This modified opinion was influenced by a growing body of literature showing a link between abortion and mental health problems, including a 30 year longitudinal study of about 500 women born in Christchurch New Zealand and a Cornwall inquest into the abortion related suicide of a well known British artist, Emma Beck. This recommendation resulted in the 2011 review conducted by the National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health.\n", "Section::::Current scientific evidence.\n", "In some hospitals, mental health problems resulting from carrying a pregnancy to term were acceptable to the TAC as endangering a woman's health. This made abortion partially accessible (albeit with at best limited access and some rather unacceptable delays) in some communities as women could claim to be suicidal and on this basis insist that continuation of the unwanted pregnancy represented an imminent danger to mental health.\n\nIn other TAC's the law was interpreted much more closely, making it difficult to get an abortion in the hospital even if they did have a TAC.\n", "In 1994, the U.K.'s House of Lord's Commission of Inquiry into the Operation and Consequences of The Abortion Act published a report (commonly referred to as the Rawlinson Report) which concluded that there was no scientific evidence that abortion provided any mental health benefits but instead may put women at risk for psychiatric illness greater than if woman carried to term. The Commission recommended that abortion providers \"should initiate independent and long-term follow up of those clients considered to be most at risk of emotional distress.\" In a press release, the Rawlinson commission stated that the Royal College of Psychiatrists (RCP) had provided written testimony stating that there are \"no psychiatric indications for abortion,\" noting that this \"raises serious questions given that 91% of abortion are carried out on the grounds of the mental health of the mother.\" In response, the RCP issued a statement that the Rawlinson commissions summary of their written statement was \"an inaccurate portrayal of the College's views on abortion,\" adding that \"There is no evidence of increase risk of major psychiatric disorder or of long lasting psychological distress [following abortion].\n", "Intrusive thoughts can develop after the loss. Panic disorder and obsessive thoughts may also develop as a response to a miscarriage. Men may experience pain and psychological effects but react by adopting \"compensatory behaviours\" such as increasing consumption of alcohol. Because men can consider their role to be supportive, they may not have their loss recognized.\n\nSection::::Posttraumatic stress disorder.\n", "The district court, in setting the initial injunction against enforcing this law, relied on studies that showed some correlation between abortion and suicide, but showed no evidence that an abortion causes a woman to be at greater risk for suicide. Rather, the studies indicated that the same factors that cause a woman to seek an abortion, like emotional distress, domestic violence and socioeconomic disadvantage, also make them more likely to be depressed and suicidal. The scientific consensus is that abortion does not increase the risk of any mental health problems.\n", "A study was done involving 300 women approached by pro-life protesters at an abortion clinic in Buffalo, New York. It found that while some women were upset by the protesters, none of the 300 women changed their minds as a result of protester actions in relation to their decision to get an abortion.\n\nSection::::Statistics.\n", "To help make a distinction between \"person\" and \"biological human\", Warren notes that we should respect the lives of highly intelligent aliens, even if they are not biological humans. She thinks there is a cluster of properties that characterize persons:\n\nBULLET::::1. consciousness (of objects and events external and/or internal to the being), and in particular the capacity to feel pain\n\nBULLET::::2. reasoning (the \"developed\" capacity to solve new and relatively complex problems)\n\nBULLET::::3. self-motivated activity (activity which is relatively independent of either genetic or direct external control)\n", "Section::::Safety.:Mental health.\n", "The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists reports that 23% of abortion providers offer abortions at 20 weeks of gestation and later, most often using a method called dilation and evaluation (D&E).\n\nSection::::Mental health.\n\nA wanted abortion in any trimester is not associated with mental health harms. Overall, abortion does not increase the risk of experiencing symptoms of depression, anxiety or stress in the short term or over five years. A previous history of mental health conditions, sexual assault, and intimate partner violence were strongly associated with experiencing negative mental health outcomes after the abortion.\n\nSection::::Incidence.\n", "Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities, more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively. Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called \"post-abortion syndrome\", but this is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the United States.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Unsafe abortion.\n", "Some right-to-life advocacy groups allege a link between abortion and subsequent mental-health problems. Some U.S. state legislatures have mandated that patients be told that abortion increases their risk of depression and suicide, despite the fact that such risks are not supported by the bulk of the scientific literature, and are contradicted by mainstream organizations of mental-health professionals such as the American Psychological Association.\n", "Under the 1967 Abortion Act, abortion in the United Kingdom was legalized only when two doctors agreed that carrying the pregnancy to term would be detrimental to a woman's physical or mental health. Consideration of mental health also played a role in the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision \"Roe v. Wade\" which ruled that state governments may not prohibit late terminations of pregnancy when \"necessary to preserve the [woman's] life or health\". This rule was clarified by the 1973 judicial decision \"Doe v. Bolton\", which specifies \"that the medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors—physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age—relevant to the well-being of the patient.\" It is by this provision that women in the US can legally choose abortion when screenings reveal abnormalities of a viable fetus.\n", "The Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act 2018 (Act No. 31 of 2018; previously Bill No. 105 of 2018) came into effect in 2019, and is an Act of the Oireachtas which defines the circumstances and processes within which abortion may be legally performed in Ireland. This law permits terminations to be carried out up to 12 weeks of pregnancy; or where there is a risk to the life, or of serious harm to the health, of the pregnant woman; or where there is a risk to the life, or of serious harm to the health, of the pregnant woman in an emergency; or where there is a condition present which is likely to lead to the death of the foetus either before or within 28 days of birth.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16774	How do whales not die of dehydration? Do they drink salt water?	Whales and dolphins don't usually drink water. They can get enough water from breaking down body fat (metabolic water) or through the food they eat. Marine mammals in general do have kidneys that can extract salt much better than ours. Seals/sea lions for example can have urine that is many times more salty than seawater, allowing them to hydrate by drinking sea water. However, like I said before, marine mammals tend to get a lot fo their water through their food and fat.	[ "Baleen whales have a small, yet functional, vomeronasal organ. This allows baleen whales to detect chemicals and pheromones released by their prey. It is thought that 'tasting' the water is important for finding prey and tracking down other whales. They are believed to have an impaired sense of smell due to the lack of the olfactory bulb, but they do have an olfactory tract. Baleen whales have few if any taste buds, suggesting they have lost their sense of taste. They do retain salt-receptor taste-buds suggesting that they can taste saltiness.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Migration.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Organs.\n\nThe stomach consists of three chambers. The first region is formed by a loose gland and a muscular forestomach (missing in beaked whales), which is then followed by the main stomach and the pylorus. Both are equipped with glands to help digestion. A bowel adjoins the stomachs, whose individual sections can only be distinguished histologically. The liver is large and separate from the gall bladder.\n\nThe kidneys are long and flattened. The salt concentration in cetacean blood is lower than that in seawater, requiring kidneys to excrete salt. This allows the animals to drink seawater.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Senses.\n", "BULLET::::- Humpback whale, \"Megaptera novaeangliae\" CR (Arabian Sea Population)\n\nBULLET::::- Suborder: Odontoceti\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Physeteridae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Physeter\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sperm whale, \"Physeter macrocephalus\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Superfamily: Platanistoidea\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Kogiidae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Kogia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pygmy sperm whale, \"Kogia breviceps\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Ziphidae\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Hyperoodontinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Indopacetus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Longman's beaked whale, \"Indopacetus pacificus\" DD\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Delphinidae (marine dolphins)\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Stenella\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pantropical spotted dolphin, \"Stenella attenuata\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Striped dolphin, \"Stenella coeruleoalba\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Spinner dolphin, \"Stenella longirostris\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Lagenodelphis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Fraser's dolphin, \"Lagenodelphis hosei\" DD\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Grampus\"\n", "The reniculate structure in cetaceans and pinnipeds does not result in a greater concentrating ability. While many marine mammals can concentrate their urine beyond the concentration of sea water, only pinnipeds and otters can reach levels of Na and Cl concentrations similar to sea water, making it possible for them to consume salt water without losing fresh water. However, pinnipeds and cetaceans typically regulate their water balance by metabolism and only drink sea water occasionally to maintain salt balance. In contrast, sea otters and manatees often drink sea and fresh water.\n", "A few studies have confirmed that Indian Ocean humpbacked dolphins perform a highly skilled and communal feeding behavior known as strand feeding, in which individuals collectively work together to herd fish onto exposed sand banks, after which they deliberately beach themselves to capture the beached fish.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2002, fourteen Alaskans ate \"muktuk\" (whale blubber) from a beached whale, resulting in eight of them developing botulism, with two of the affected requiring mechanical ventilation.\n", "Unlike most animals, whales are conscious breathers. All mammals sleep, but whales cannot afford to become unconscious for long because they may drown. They are believed to exhibit unihemispheric slow-wave sleep, in which they sleep with half of the brain while the other half remains active. This behavior was only documented in toothed whales until footage of a humpback whale sleeping (vertically) was shot in 2014.\n", "When born, calves are generally 10 to 15 feet long. They feed off their mothers milk, which is produced and fed to their calves through mammary gland slits. The calf is able to roll its tongue into a tube and siphon in the milk that is ejected into the water. Occasionally pods of dolphins are found trailing mothers and their calves, and it has been speculated that they are consuming be leftover milk that the calf does not eat.\n", "When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the esophagus where it enters a three-chambered-stomach. The first compartment is known as the fore-stomach; this is where food gets ground up into an acidic liquid, which is then squirted into the main stomach. Like in humans, the food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes. Then, the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach, where it meets fat-digesting enzymes, and is then mixed with an alkaline liquid to neutralize the acid from the fore-stomach to prevent damage to the intestinal tract. Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (invertebrates) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing urine more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.\n", "Among others, seals and whales belong to the aquatic mammals. Earless seals and eared seals have solved the problem of sleeping in water via two different methods. Eared seals, like whales, show unihemispheric sleep. The sleeping half of the brain does not awaken when they surface to breathe. When one half of a seal's brain shows slow-wave sleep, the flippers and whiskers on its opposite side are immobile. While in the water, these seals have almost no REM sleep and may go a week or two without it. As soon as they move onto land they switch to bilateral REM sleep and NREM sleep comparable to land mammals, surprising researchers with their lack of \"recovery sleep\" after missing so much REM.\n", "Sirenians are referred to as \"sea cows\" because their diet consists mainly of sea-grass. When eating, they ingest the whole plant, including the roots, although when this is impossible they feed on just the leaves. A wide variety of seagrass has been found in dugong stomach contents, and evidence exists they will eat algae when seagrass is scarce. West Indian manatees eat up to 60 different species of plants, as well as fish and small invertebrates to a lesser extent.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Keystone species.\n", "Pygmy killer whales are occasionally involved in mass strandings. As seen in other cetaceans, these strandings often involve a sick or injured individual; even when pushed back out to the sea by rescuers, the healthy individuals will often strand again and refuse to leave until the death of the individual in declining health.\n", "Whales and dolphins have been kept in captivity for use in education, research and entertainment since the 19th century.\n\nSection::::Relationship to humans.:Captivity.:Belugas.\n", "Some Inuit consume as much as 15–20% of their calories from carbohydrates, largely from the glycogen found in raw meats. Furthermore, the blubber, organs, muscle and skin of the diving marine mammals that the Inuit eat have significant glycogen stores that are able to delay postmortem degradation, particularly in cold weather.\n", "By necessity, terrestrial animals in captivity become accustomed to drinking water, but most free-roaming animals stay hydrated through the fluids and moisture in fresh food. When conditions impel them to drink from bodies of water, the methods and motions differ greatly among species. Many desert animals do not drink even if water becomes available, but rely on eating succulent plants.\n", "Sharks have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea is damaging to living tissue so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain \"trimethylamine oxide\". This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like fresh water fish.\n\nSection::::Thermoregulation.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Whales & Dolphins Guide to the Biology and Behaviour of Cetaceans\", Maurizio Wurtz and Nadia Repetto.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals\", editors Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen,\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odin\" Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- \"Modes of Production and Minke Whaling: The Case of Iceland\", Gísli Pálsson (2000).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Project Minke - Minke whales from the West Coast of Scotland\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Northeast Pacific Minke Whale Project - Minke whales from the Northeast Pacific\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Minke Whale Project - Dwarf minke whale research team based at James Cook University, North Queensland, Australia\"\n", "They can drink salt water because their supraorbital gland filters excess salt from the bloodstream. The salt is excreted in a concentrated fluid from the nasal passages.\n\nThe great auk of the Northern Hemisphere, now extinct, was superficially similar to penguins, and the word \"penguin\" was originally used for that bird, centuries ago. They are only distantly related to the penguins, but are an example of convergent evolution.\n\nSection::::Anatomy and physiology.:Isabelline penguins.\n", "Like right whales in other oceans, North Pacific right whales feed primarily on copepods, mainly the species \"Calanus marshallae\". They also have been reported off Japan and in the Gulf of Alaska feeding on copepods of the genus \"Neocalanus\" with a small quantity of euphausiid larvae, \"Euphausia pacifica\".\n", "Emus drink infrequently but ingest large amounts when the opportunity arises. They typically drink once a day, first inspecting the water body and surrounding area in groups before kneeling down at the edge to drink. They prefer being on firm ground while drinking, rather than on rocks or mud, but if they sense danger, they often stand rather than kneel. If not disturbed, they may drink continuously for ten minutes. Due to the scarcity of water sources, emus are sometimes forced to go without water for several days. In the wild, they often share water holes with kangaroos, other birds and animals; they are wary and tend to wait for the other animals to leave before drinking.\n", "Most species are very rarely observed, and little is known about their behavior. They are typically found in groups, possibly segregated between sexes. Some species are so uncommon, they have yet to be observed alive. On the surface, they are typically very slow swimmers and do not make obvious blows. They have never been observed raising their flukes above the water. They are all very deep divers, and many feed entirely on squid.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Conservation and management issues.\n", "River dolphins, unlike most other cetaceans, can turn their head 90°. Other cetaceans have fused neck vertebrae and are unable to turn their head at all.\n\nThe baleen of baleen whales consists of long, fibrous strands of keratin. Located in place of the teeth, it has the appearance of a huge fringe and is used to sieve the water for plankton and krill.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Brain.\n", "Most data about pygmy right whales come from individual specimens washed up on coastlines; they are rarely encountered at sea and so they are not the primary subject of any whale watching cruises.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n\nThe pygmy right whale is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix II, as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements.\n", "Melon-headed whales were found stranded in South Carolina in 2008. In January, three stranded melon-headed whales were discovered. They were found to have died out at sea and the waves brought them onto the beach. Three more melon-headed whales were discovered after this at different times. Necropsies were done on them; they all had similar infections, hemorrhages, and other problems. However, an actual cause of death was never determined.\n\nSection::::Parasites.\n" ]	[ "Whales might lack enough hydration because their environment is salt water." ]	[ "Whales don't usually drink water and can get enough water from breaking down body fat or through food." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Whales might lack enough hydration because their environment is salt water.", "Whales might lack enough hydration because their environment is salt water." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Whales don't usually drink water and can get enough water from breaking down body fat or through food.", "Whales don't usually drink water and can get enough water from breaking down body fat or through food." ]
2018-04464	Why can't endangered mammal species like the giant panda be artificially inseminated like cattle and other livestock?	Artificial insemination is used all the time, but you get one chance per female panda per year and that's it. If the female panda does not become pregnant, you have to wait an entire year for her 24 hour fertility window to roll back around. Panda fetuses are so small and panda moms are such pregnancy ninjas that it is very hard to tell if a panda is pregnant. Sometimes you don't know until a baby panda appears, and then they die at a rate of about 30%. tldr; Pandas make poor candidates for Handmaid's-Tale-style breeding programs.	[ "Section::::New technologies.:Interspecific pregnancy.\n\nA potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. It has been used for the Spanish Ibex and Houbara bustard.\n\nSection::::Ethical Considerations.\n", "Attempts have also been made to reproduce giant pandas by interspecific pregnancy by implanting cloned panda embryos into the uterus of an animal of another species. This has resulted in panda fetuses, but no live births.\n\nSection::::Uses and human interaction.\n\nSection::::Uses and human interaction.:Early references.\n", "BULLET::::- Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Romania\n\nBULLET::::- Russia\n\nBULLET::::- Spain\n\nBULLET::::- Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom\n\nSection::::In animals.\n\nAI is useful for pets, livestock, endangered species, and animals in zoos or marine parks difficult to transport. \n\nSection::::In animals.:Reasons and techniques.\n", "Getting captive wild animals to breed naturally can be a difficult task. Giant pandas for example lose interest in mating once they are captured, and female giant pandas only experience estrus once a year, which only lasts for 48 to 72 hours. Many researchers have turned to artificial insemination in an attempt to increase the populations of endangered animals. It may be used for many reasons, including to overcome physical breeding difficulties, to allow a male to inseminate a much larger number of females, to control the paternity of offspring, and to avoid injury incurred during natural mating. It also creates more genetically diverse captive populations, enabling captive facilities to easily share genetic material with each other without the need to move animals. Scientist of the Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Germany, from the working group of Michael Lierz, developed a novel technique for semen collection and artificial insemination in parrots producing the world's first macaw by assisted reproduction\n", "With the pandas' arrival, the Toronto zoo has refurbished its seasonal attraction area into an extensive educational centre - the Giant Panda Interpretive Centre. In 2014, after her first estrus, Er Shun was artificially inseminated - the first such procedure performed on a panda in Canada. No baby was born in 2014 and it was believed that Er Shun experienced a pseudopregnancy, a phenomenon common in giant pandas.\n", "The laboratory recorded a major success in the Assisted reproductive technology (ART) of wild animals, when the world's first successful artificial insemination of an in estrus induced spotted deer, by non-surgical intra-vaginal insemination done in the laboratory, led to the birth of a live fawn on 14 March 2006. This achievement was further followed by an artificial insemination (AI) assisted birth of an Indian blackbuck fawn in August 2007. These were the first reports in the world of such successful AI of wild animals.\n", "BULLET::::- Human-mediated gene flow: The captive genetic management of threatened species is the only way in which humans attempt to induce gene flow in ex situ situation. One example is the Giant Panda which is part of an international breeding program in which genetic materials are shared between zoological organizations in order to increase genetic diversity in the small populations. As a result of low reproductive success, artificial insemination with fresh/frozen-thawed sperm was developed which increased cub survival rate. A 2014 study found that high levels of genetic diversity and low levels of inbreeding were estimated in the breeding centers.\n", "On the other hand, only 5 million motile sperm may be needed per cycle with IUI (\"n\"=5 million)\n\nThus, only 1–3 samples may be needed for a child if used for IUI.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Social implications.\n\nOne of the key issues arising from the rise of dependency on assisted reproductive technology (ARTs) is the pressure placed on couples to conceive; 'where children are highly desired, parenthood is culturally mandatory, and childlessness socially unacceptable'.\n", "SPAR employs extremely stringent safety standards; samples will only be submitted for \"sperm washing\" and cryopreservation that have first been screened for HIV virus particles and infected cells by specialized molecular biology tests. Only samples that have been determined to have an undetectable HIV viral burden will be submitted for infertility procedures.\n", "In July 2009, Chinese scientists confirmed the birth of the first cub to be successfully conceived through artificial insemination using frozen sperm. The cub was born at 07:41 on 23 July that year in Sichuan as the third cub of You You, an 11-year-old. The technique for freezing the sperm in liquid nitrogen was first developed in 1980 and the first birth was hailed as a solution to the problem of lessening giant panda semen availability, which had led to inbreeding. Panda semen, which can be frozen for decades, could be shared between different zoos to save the species. It is expected that zoos in destinations such as San Diego in the United States and Mexico City will now be able to provide their own semen to inseminate more giant pandas. In August 2014, a rare birth of panda triplets was announced in China; it was the fourth of such births ever reported.\n", "Yet, for some species, such as a Bactrian camel embryo inside a Dromedary, pregnancy can be carried to term with no other intervention than the embryo transfer. This is possible for gaur embryos inside cattle as well, but with severe intrauterine growth restriction, with uncertainty of how much is caused by the IVF procedure itself, and how much is caused by interspecies incompatibility.\n", "In non-domesticated animals, IVM can also be used for the conservation of endangered species whilst maintaining genetic diversity. However, due to limited resources and the species-specific nature of assisted reproductive technologies, the application of techniques such as IVM is still rare for non-domesticated animals.\n\nSection::::Success rate and future uses.\n", "The Guidelines on Surrogacy Arrangements involving Assisted Reproductive Procedures state that the approval of an ethics committee must be obtained before surrogacy agreements are allowed to proceed. The Ethics Committee on Assisted Reproductive Technology must determine, among other mandatory considerations and requirements, that:\n\nBULLET::::1. Where there is one intending parent, he or she will be a genetic parent of any resulting child; or\n\nBULLET::::2. Where there are two intending parents, at least one will be a genetic parent of any resulting child; and\n", "BULLET::::- A pilot project planned by Planktos, a U.S. company, was cancelled in 2008 for lack of funding. The company blamed environmental organizations for the failure.\n", "There are also countries in which any form of surrogacy is illegal, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Estonia, Moldova, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, China, Japan, and the United States (in the states of Arizona, Michigan, Indiana, North Dakota). Due to varying options within a home country many people seeking a commercial surrogate choose to seek markets abroad. India legalized commercial surrogacy in 2001. Legalization was pushed forward with the hope that medical tourism, and specifically reproductive tourism in India would increase.\n\nSection::::Economic and social impacts.\n", "BULLET::::- Samrupa, the world's first Murrah buffalo (a type of water buffalo) calf cloned using a simple \"Hand guided cloning technique\" was born in 2009 at National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal, India, but died due to a lung infection five days after she was born. Garima-I, a buffalo calf cloned using an \"Advanced Hand guided Cloning Technique\" was born in 2009 at the NDRI. Two years later in 2011, she died of a heart failure. Garima-II, another cloned calf was born in 2010. This buffalo was inseminated with frozen-thawed semen of a progeny tested bull and gave birth to a female calf, Mahima in 2013. A cloned male buffalo calf Shresth was born in 2010 at the NDRI.\n", "A potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. It has been carried out for the Spanish ibex.\n\nSection::::Genetic management of captive populations.\n", "Using \"in vitro\" analysis, GM salmon's ejaculate was much less concentrated and had a lower sperm count and decreased sperm velocity, all of which can decrease GM salmon's fertilization success.\n\nSection::::Concerns.:Solutions.\n\nAquaBounty addresses these concerns by producing only sterile female salmon by converting the eggs to having triploid sets of genes. Any egg batch with more than 5% diploid genes. Additionally, the fish will be raised in land-based fish farms with no connection to rivers that lead to oceans.\n\nSection::::Government regulation.\n\nSection::::Government regulation.:United States.\n", "Potential applications include carrying human fetuses to term as a potential yet ethically controversial alternative to surrogate mothers or artificial uteri for gay male couples, mothers with damaged uteri or heterosexual couples that do not want to risk childbirth. It would also provide a sober, drug-free and nonsmoking carrier that is less expensive than human surrogates. For animals, it could be a valuable tool in preservation programs of endangered species, providing a method of ex-situ conservation. It could also avail for recreation of extinct species.\n\nSection::::Causes of failure.\n", "The scientists also attempted to clone macaques using nuclei from adult donors, which is much more difficult. They implanted 42 surrogates, resulting in 22 pregnancies, but there were still only two infant macaques, and they died soon after birth.\n\nSection::::Implications.\n", "Commercial surrogacy is criminal under the Human Reproductive Technology Ordinance 2000. The law is phrased in a manner that no one can pay a surrogate, no surrogate can receive money, and no one can arrange a commercial surrogacy (the same applies to the supply of gametes), no matter within or outside Hong Kong. Normally only the gametes of the intended parents can be used.\n", "With ART, the process of sexual intercourse is bypassed and fertilization of the oocytes occurs in the laboratory environment (i.e., in vitro fertilization).\n", "There are other cultural consequences as well. Women who are surrogates face the risk and consequences of being rejected from society or being discriminated against. There is another issue, the “dilemma of all rural surrogates: being suspected of adultery -a cause for shunning or worse”.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Citizenship.\n\nThere was an issue of the citizenship of children, as many countries do not recognize surrogacy and these babies therefore have no legal standing \n\nSection::::Controversy.:Baby Manji controversy.\n", "For example, a deaf British couple, Tom and Paula Lichy, have petitioned to create a deaf baby using IVF. Some medical ethicists have been very critical of this approach. Jacob M. Appel wrote that \"intentionally culling out blind or deaf embryos might prevent considerable future suffering, while a policy that allowed deaf or blind parents to select \"for\" such traits intentionally would be far more troublesome.\"\n\nSection::::Ethics.:Profit desire of the industry.\n", "This method can be effective in small populations as it is fairly accessible, however the procedure is costly, invasive as well as the individual being at risk of infection after surgery. Surgical sterilisation is permanent, as a result it may not be appropriate for use in native populations due to the risk of potentially losing genetic variation.\n" ]	[ "Can't artificially inseminate endangered animals to increase numbers." ]	[ "You can, it just doesn't work well for those situations." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Can't artificially inseminate endangered animals to increase numbers." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can, it just doesn't work well for those situations." ]
2018-04053	How do countries loan money to other countries?	Most of it is done through bonds. In your example, Canada would announce there are issuing bonds, each one will be worth $1000 CAD in 20 years. There would then auction them off. Anyone, countries, corporations, individuals, would bid on them, and they would sell for maybe $500, give them a yield of about 3.5% a year. Note that Canada is not borrowing money from anyone in particular. They are offering a few million bonds, and whoever buys them, they are the lender.	[ "The recipient government is also then left with the original payment in its domestic currency. These payments are amalgamated into a fund that is used to further fund development. This can take the form of investments in infrastructure or industry, paying down the debt or deficit, or stabilizing the currency. The investment of these funds can take the form of loans rather than grants, creating a permanent pool of investment capital. For instance, Germany's Marshall Plan counterpart funds were used to set up such an investment fund, and it is still in operation today.\n\nSection::::Example.\n", "The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania were the first countries to benefit. It also now works in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Guatemala, Guinea, Haiti, Indonesia, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda and Vietnam.\n", "Governments create debt by issuing government bonds and bills. Less creditworthy countries sometimes borrow directly from a supranational organization (e.g. the World Bank) or international financial institutions.\n", "In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality, which was established in the 1950s. Low-income countries can borrow on concessional terms, which means there is a period of time with no interest rates, through the Extended Credit Facility (ECF), the Standby Credit Facility (SCF) and the Rapid Credit Facility (RCF). Nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), the Flexible Credit Line (FCL), the Precautionary and Liquidity Line (PLL), and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI) to members facing urgent balance-of-payments needs.\n", "Section::::Monetary financing.:Restrictions.\n\nMonetary financing used to be standard monetary policy in many countries, such as Canada or France, while in others it was and still is prohibited. In the Eurozone, Article 123 of the Lisbon Treaty explicitly prohibits the European Central Bank from financing public institutions and state governments. In Japan, the nation's central bank \"routinely\" purchases approximately 70% of state debt issued each month, and owns, as of Oct 2018, approximately 440 trillion JP¥ (approx. $4trillion) or over 40% of all outstanding government bonds.\n", "One method of setting up a counterpart fund is to have businesses in the country receiving aid that want to import a commodity place an order with their government and pays for the import in their local currency. The government then uses some of their foreign assistance, still in the foreign currency, to pay for the goods. This makes importing far easier as the unstable currencies in developing nations are often of little international value. Agreements are also usually signed so that these imports can only come from the nation that gave the aid, benefiting the donor's export industry. Another method is for goods to be donated to a developing nation's government and for them to then sell the goods to the population, and use the proceeds to set up a fund.\n", "BULLET::::- Direct Lending: This is the simplest structure whereby the loan is conditioned upon the purchase of goods or services from businesses in the organizing country.\n\nBULLET::::- Financial Intermediary Loans: Here, the export–import bank lends funds to a financial intermediary, such as a commercial bank, that in turn loans the funds to the importing entity.\n\nBULLET::::- Interest Rate Equalization: Under an interest rate equalization, a commercial lender provides a loan to the importing entity at below market interest rates, and in turn receives compensation from the export–import bank for the difference between the below-market rate and the commercial rate.\n", "Export–Import Bank\n\nExport–Import Bank or Exim Bank is the common name for the export credit agency found in many countries. They can be full agencies of the government or semi-private institutions, such as state-owned corporations or public–private partnerships.\n\nSection::::Export–import banks.\n\nBULLET::::- Export–Import Bank of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Export–Import Bank of Korea\n\nBULLET::::- Export–Import Bank of the Republic of China\n\nBULLET::::- Nigerian Export-Import Bank\n\nBULLET::::- Export–Import Bank of Thailand\n\nBULLET::::- Export–Import Bank of Romania\n\nBULLET::::- African Export–Import Bank\n\nBULLET::::- Exim Bank of China\n\nBULLET::::- Export–Import Bank of Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Exim Bank (India)\n\nBULLET::::- State Export-Import Bank of Ukraine\n", "In economics funds are injected into the market as capital by lenders and taken as loans by borrowers. There are two ways in which the capital can end up at the borrower. The lender can lend the capital to a financial intermediary against interest. These financial intermediaries then reinvest the money against a higher rate. The use of financial intermediaries to finance operations is called indirect finance. A lender can also go the financial markets to directly lend to a borrower. This method is called direct finance.\n\nSection::::Purpose of Funding.\n\nSection::::Purpose of Funding.:Research funding.\n", "In the latter case, the central bank may purchase government bonds by conducting an open market purchase, i.e. by increasing the monetary base through the money creation process. If government bonds that have come due are held by the central bank, the central bank will return any funds paid to it back to the treasury. Thus, the treasury may \"borrow\" money without needing to repay it. This process of financing government spending is called \"monetizing the debt\".\n", "Under each category there are a number of financiers, all with varying policies and guidelines regarding their procedures, security, pricing and target markets. There are providers of import and export factoring, and their conditions vary widely.\n\nSection::::Transaction structure.\n", "BULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Lithuania)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Republic of Macedonia)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Malaysia)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (Mauritius)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Moldova)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Montenegro)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance and Planning (Myanmar)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Nepal)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Netherlands)\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Ministry of Finance (Nigeria)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Norway)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Oman)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Ontario)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance, Revenue and Economic Affairs (Pakistan)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Papua New Guinea)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Economy and Finance (Peru)\n", "To assist in the reinvestment of released capital, most International Financial Institutions provide guidelines indicating probable shocks, programs to reduce a country’s vulnerability through export diversification, food buffer stocks, enhanced climate prediction methods, more flexible and reliable aid disbursement mechanisms by donors, and much higher and more rapid contingency financing. Sometimes outside experts are brought to control the country's financial institutions.\n\nSection::::Recent debt relief.:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.\n", "BULLET::::- CAF - Development Bank of Latin America (CAF)\n\nBULLET::::- Inter-American Development Bank Group (IDB, IADB)\n\nBULLET::::- African Development Bank (AfDB)\n\nBULLET::::- New Development Bank (NDB)\n\nBULLET::::- Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)\n\nThere are also several \"sub-regional\" multilateral development banks. Their membership typically includes only borrowing nations. The banks lend to their members, borrowing from the international capital markets. Because there is effectively shared responsibility for repayment, the banks can often borrow more cheaply than could any one member nation. These banks include:\n\nBULLET::::- Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)\n\nBULLET::::- Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI)\n", "BULLET::::1. Balance of payments support, which is currently mainly the domain of the International Monetary Fund. With balance of payments support the funds go to the central bank for foreign exchange purposes, while with budget support they generally go to the Ministry of Finance (or equivalent) and into the budget for public spending.\n\nBULLET::::2. Project aid, where development assistance funds are used by donors to implement a specific project, with donors retaining control of the project's financing and management.\n", "Section::::International Finance Facility for Immunisation.\n", "Unofficial currency substitution or de facto currency substitution is the most common type of currency substitution. Unofficial currency substitution occurs when residents of a country choose to hold a significant share of their financial assets in foreign currency, even though the foreign currency is not legal tender there. They hold deposits in the foreign currency because of a bad track record of the local currency, or as a hedge against inflation of the domestic currency.\n", "BULLET::::- Chinese loans to the Venezuelan governments of Nicolás Maduro and Hugo Chávez\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese loans to the Malaysia government of Najib Razak\n\nBULLET::::- Loans to Djibouti to develop a strategic port. Chinese loans total 77% of the country's total debt.\n\nBULLET::::- An estimated $7.1-billion in Chinese debt is held by the Republic of the Congo. The exact number is unknown even to the Congolese government.\n\nBULLET::::- Loans to Kyrgyzstan, as part of the Belt and Road Initiative\n\nBULLET::::- Loans to Laos, as part of the Belt and Road Initiative\n", "St Vincent and the Grenadines,\n\nSaint Lucia,\n\nSeychelles,\n\nTimor-Leste,\n\nTonga,\n\nPapua New Guinea,\n\nSamoa,\n\nSolomon Islands,\n\nSwaziland,\n\nVanuatu.\n", "Central banks throughout the world have sometimes cooperated in buying and selling official international reserves to attempt to influence exchange rates and avert financial crisis. For example, in the Baring crisis (the \"Panic of 1890\"), the Bank of England borrowed GBP 2 million from the Banque de France. The same was true for the Louvre Accord and the Plaza Accord in the post gold-standard era.\n\nSection::::History.:Post Gold Standard Era.\n", "The parallel loan is very similar to a back-to-back loan. The parallel loan was one of the proactive management of operating exposure that offsetting expected foreign exchange exposure. Two business companies in different countries will borrow currency to each other for a particular period of time and they will return the borrowed currencies on the date they agreed to with the same loaned amount. The two loans will be valued at the prevailing spot rate and the prescribed period. The currencies borrowing activities conducted outside the foreign exchange market to avoid foreign exchange risk and legal limitations.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Poland)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Portugal)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Quebec)\n\nBULLET::::- Rivers State Ministry of Finance\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Public Finance (Romania)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Russia)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (Rwanda)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Saskatchewan)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Saudi Arabia)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Serbia)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Singapore)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Somalia)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (South Sudan)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Economy and Enterprise (Spain)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of the Treasury (Spain)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Sri Lanka)\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Finance (Sweden)\n", "Like money, financial instruments may be \"backed\" by state military fiat, credit (i.e. social capital held by banks and their depositors), or commodity resources. Governments generally closely control the supply of it and usually require some \"reserve\" be held by institutions granting credit. Trading between various national currency instruments is conducted on a money market. Such trading reveals differences in probability of debt collection or store of value function of that currency, as assigned by traders.\n", "Many smaller credit unions make home loans as correspondents, selling the loan once the mortgage is complete. Some banks act like as correspondents, making mortgages in their own name, but later selling those notes to a larger institution. Correspondent lenders may, in some cases, continue to service the loan, keeping the loan in their name, while collecting a fee from the primary lender who now holds the note.\n\nCorrespondent lenders usually underwrite their loans according to the guidelines of the larger lender, allowing for the loan to be sold quickly.\n", "Djibouti and the International Monetary Fund\n\nRelations between the International Monetary Fund and Djibouti began in 1978, at the time of Djibouti's membership. Since that time, Djibouti has taken out three different kinds of loans or credit lines from the IMF. A Stand-By-Credit, an Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility, and Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility plan.\n\nSection::::Background.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10317	What does it mean when we say the universe is expanding?	First you need to understand that space is a thing that exist, it's not just vacuum. Human usually understand concept that they can relate to an experience they have in the world we exist, but what space really is, is outside of the human experience, so it's hard for some people to understand it. It's too abstract. But basically, space is where matter exist. So you have gravity that pull matter toward each other. But there is also another force that we call Dark Energy, that is not really well known, but the effect of that Dark Energy is that it stretch space, expending it. And the expanding space, drag matter along with it. The stretching is really small, and the closer two point in space are, the smaller the stretching. At the same time, the closer two mass are from each other the stronger the gravity between them is stronger. So at the scale of the universe the distance between star in a galaxy and even the distance between the two galaxies that are close by, the gravity is far more stronger, than the stretching of space. But in long distance in the scale of the universe like the distance between far away galaxy add up and become stronger than the gravity between those galaxies, which make them go further away from each other. We can only observe a portion of the Universe, beyond that we don't know. Is space infinite, but continue to expand even more. Does it expand inside of something else? What would be that something? We can only make hypothesis about that, because we can't observe it and maybe we will never be able to observe it.	[ "Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as \"metric expansion\". In mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\".\n", "Section::::Theoretical basis and first evidence.:Measuring distance in a metric space.\n\nIn expanding space, distance is a dynamic quantity which changes with time. There are several different ways of defining distance in cosmology, known as \"distance measures\", but a common method used amongst modern astronomers is comoving distance. \n", "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n", "The proposed field and its quanta (the subatomic particles related to it) have been named \"inflaton\". If this field did not exist, scientists would have to propose a different explanation for all the observations that strongly suggest a metric expansion of space has occurred, and is still occurring much more slowly today.\n\nSection::::Overview of metrics and comoving coordinates.\n\nTo understand the metric expansion of the universe, it is helpful to discuss briefly what a metric is, and how metric expansion works.\n", "The expansion of the universe is the increase of the distance between two distant parts of the universe with time. It is an intrinsic expansion whereby \"the scale of space itself changes\". The universe does not expand \"into\" anything and does not require space to exist \"outside\" it. Technically, neither space nor objects in space move. Instead it is the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changes in scale. Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, this limitation does not restrict the metric itself. To an observer it appears that space is expanding and all but the nearest galaxies are receding into the distance.\n", "Around 1930, Edwin Hubble discovered that light from remote galaxies was redshifted; the more remote, the more shifted. This was quickly interpreted as meaning galaxies were receding from earth. If earth is not in some special, privileged, central position in the universe, then it would mean all galaxies are moving apart, and the further away, the faster they are moving away. It is now understood that the universe is expanding, carrying the galaxies with it, and causing this observation. Many other observations agree, and also lead to the same conclusion. However, for many years it was not clear why or how the universe might be expanding, or what it might signify.\n", "The metric expansion of space is described using the mathematics of metric tensors. The coordinate system we use is called \"comoving coordinates\", a type of coordinate system which takes account of time as well as space and the speed of light, and allows us to incorporate the effects of both general and special relativity.\n\nSection::::Overview of metrics and comoving coordinates.:Example: \"Great Circle\" metric for Earth's surface.\n", "Another revolutionary observation in 1998 seemed to complicate the situation further: two distant supernovae were found in separate studies to be fainter than expected in a steadily expanding universe; that is, they were not merely moving away from the earth but accelerating. Thus, the universe's expansion was calculated to have been accelerating since approximately 5 billion years ago. Given the gravitation braking effect that all the matter of the universe should have had on this expansion, a variation of Einstein's cosmological constant was reintroduced to represent an energy inherent in space, balancing the equations for a flat, accelerating universe. It also gave Einstein's cosmological constant new meaning, for by reintroducing it into the equation to represent dark energy, a flat universe expanding ever faster can be reproduced. \n", "These assumptions when combined with General Relativity result in a universe that is governed by the Friedmann–Robertson–Walker metric (FRW metric). The FRW metric allows for a universe that is either expanding or contracting (as well as stationary but unstable universes). When Hubble's Law was discovered, most astronomers interpreted the law as a sign the universe is expanding. This implies the universe was smaller in the past, and therefore led to the following conclusions:\n\nBULLET::::1. the universe emerged from a hot, dense state at a time in the past,\n", "Theory and observations suggest that very early in the history of the universe, there was an inflationary phase where the metric changed very rapidly, and that the remaining time-dependence of this metric is what we observe as the so-called Hubble expansion, the moving apart of all gravitationally unbound objects in the universe. The expanding universe is therefore a fundamental feature of the universe we inhabit — a universe fundamentally different from the static universe Albert Einstein first considered when he developed his gravitational theory.\n\nSection::::Overview of metrics and comoving coordinates.:Comoving coordinates.\n", "BULLET::::- the Copernican Principle which demands that no place in the universe is preferred (that is, the universe has no \"starting point\").\n\nScientists have tested carefully whether these assumptions are valid and borne out by observation. Observational cosmologists have discovered evidence — very strong in some cases — that supports these assumptions, and as a result, metric expansion of space is considered by cosmologists to be an observed feature on the basis that although we cannot see it directly, scientists have tested the properties of the universe and observation provides compelling confirmation. Sources of this confidence and confirmation include:\n", "Accelerating expansion of the universe\n\nThe accelerating expansion of the universe is the observation that the expansion of the universe is such that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time.\n", "Until the theoretical developments in the 1980s no one had an explanation for why this seemed to be the case, but with the development of models of cosmic inflation, the expansion of the universe became a general feature resulting from vacuum decay. Accordingly, the question \"why is the universe expanding?\" is now answered by understanding the details of the inflation decay process which occurred in the first 10 seconds of the existence of our universe. During inflation, the metric changed exponentially, causing any volume of space that was smaller than an atom to grow to around 100 million light years across in a time scale similar to the time when inflation occurred (10 seconds).\n", "The metric expansion of space is of a kind completely different from the expansions and explosions seen in daily life. It also seems to be a property of the universe as a whole rather than a phenomenon that applies just to one part of the universe or can be observed from \"outside\" it.\n", "Taken together, these phenomena overwhelmingly support models that rely on space expanding through a change in metric. It was not until the discovery in the year 2000 of direct observational evidence for the changing temperature of the cosmic microwave background that more bizarre constructions could be ruled out. Until that time, it was based purely on an assumption that the universe did not behave as one with the Milky Way sitting at the middle of a fixed-metric with a universal explosion of galaxies in all directions (as seen in, for example, an early model proposed by Milne). Yet before this evidence, many rejected the Milne viewpoint based on the mediocrity principle.\n", "One of the biggest puzzles in contemporary cosmology is why the expansion of the Universe is accelerating. About seventy percent of the Universe today consists of so-called dark energy that counteracts gravity's attractive force and causes this acceleration. Very little is known about what dark energy is. CHIME is in the process of making precise measurements of the acceleration of the Universe to improve the knowledge of how dark energy behaves. The experiment is designed to observe the period in the Universe's history during which the standard ΛCDM model predicts that dark energy began to dominate the energy density of the Universe and when decelerated expansion transitioned to acceleration.\n", "Over time, the space that makes up the universe is expanding. The words 'space' and 'universe', sometimes used interchangeably, have distinct meanings in this context. Here 'space' is a mathematical concept that stands for the three-dimensional manifold into which our respective positions are embedded while 'universe' refers to everything that exists including the matter and energy in space, the extra-dimensions that may be wrapped up in various strings, and the time through which various events take place. The expansion of space is in reference to this 3-D manifold only; that is, the description involves no structures such as extra dimensions or an exterior universe.\n", "The brown line on the diagram is the worldline of the Earth (or, at earlier times, of the matter which condensed to form the Earth). The yellow line is the worldline of the most distant known quasar. The red line is the path of a light beam emitted by the quasar about 13 billion years ago and reaching the Earth in the present day. The orange line shows the present-day distance between the quasar and the Earth, about 28 billion light years, which is, notably, a larger distance than the age of the universe multiplied by the speed of light: \"ct\".\n", "Section::::Cosmic inflation.\n", "The Red Shift refers to the change in the wavelength of light that is received from objects moving away from us (thereby lengthening wavelengths, producing a red shift). Scientists interpret the red shift in light received from other galaxies as evidence that the galaxies are moving away from our own, that some galaxies are billions of light years distant from the Milky Way, and that therefore the light has been traveling for billions of years, requiring a universe billions of years in age.\n", "American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that the distances to faraway galaxies were strongly correlated with their redshifts. This was interpreted to mean that all distant galaxies and clusters are receding away from our vantage point with an apparent velocity proportional to their distance: that is, the farther they are, the faster they move away from us, regardless of direction. Assuming the Copernican principle (that the Earth is not the center of the universe), the only remaining interpretation is that all observable regions of the universe are receding from all others. Since we know that the distance between galaxies increases today, it must mean that in the past galaxies were closer together. The continuous expansion of the universe implies that the universe was denser and hotter in the past.\n", "At a fundamental level, the expansion of the universe is a property of spatial measurement on the largest measurable scales of our universe. The distances between cosmologically relevant points increases as time passes leading to observable effects outlined below. This feature of the universe can be characterized by a single parameter that is called the scale factor which is a function of time and a single value for all of space at any instant (if the scale factor were a function of space, this would violate the cosmological principle). By convention, the scale factor is set to be unity at the present time and, because the universe is expanding, is smaller in the past and larger in the future. Extrapolating back in time with certain cosmological models will yield a moment when the scale factor was zero; our current understanding of cosmology sets this time at 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago. If the universe continues to expand forever, the scale factor will approach infinity in the future. In principle, there is no reason that the expansion of the universe must be monotonic and there are models where at some time in the future the scale factor decreases with an attendant contraction of space rather than an expansion.\n", "Technically, the metric expansion of space is a feature of many solutions to the Einstein field equations of general relativity, and distance is measured using the Lorentz interval. This explains observations which indicate that galaxies that are more distant from us are receding faster than galaxies that are closer to us (see Hubble's law).\n\nSection::::Theoretical basis and first evidence.:Cosmological constant and the Friedmann equations.\n", "This metric contains a scale factor, which describes how the size of the universe changes with time. This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made, called comoving coordinates. In this coordinate system, the grid expands along with the universe, and objects that are moving only because of the expansion of the universe, remain at fixed points on the grid. While their \"coordinate\" distance (comoving distance) remains constant, the \"physical\" distance between two such co-moving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the universe.\n", "Physicists have postulated the existence of dark energy, appearing as a cosmological constant in the simplest gravitational models, as a way to explain the acceleration. According to the simplest extrapolation of the currently-favored cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, this acceleration becomes more dominant into the future. In June 2016, NASA and ESA scientists reported that the universe was found to be expanding 5% to 9% faster than thought earlier, based on studies using the Hubble Space Telescope.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03980	With plastic being known as one of the worst things for the environment, why has Snapple begun proudly advertising their new "glass" bottles as really being plastic?	Unfortunately, environmentalism is complex. It could be made easier if we simply accounted for Carbon directly with a carbon tax. Glass is a very efficiently recycled material. It is also easy to reuse. However, it most often ends up in landfills and is much heavier and required much more material than plastic. Plastic is actually recycled more often than glass and can be freighted without using as much fuel owing to the lower weight.	[ "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Despite its positioning as a mature market product, glass does enjoy a high level of consumer acceptance and is perceived as a \"premium\" quality packaging format.\n\nSection::::Glass container production.:Lifecycle impact.\n\nGlass containers are wholly recyclable and the glass industries in many countries have a policy, sometimes required by government regulations, of maintaining a high price on cullet to ensure high return rates. Return rates of 95% are not uncommon in the Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland). Return rates of less than 50% are usual in other countries.\n", "Companies like Aquafina have also taken recycling into consideration. Previously when water bottles were bought in packs of 24, there was a plastic wrap around the bottles and there was a cardboard base. This packaging wasn't recyclable, but now some water companies have made the packaging totally recyclable, and also have eliminated the cardboard base. Just eliminating the cardboard base saves 20 million pounds of corrugated material annually. The plastic reduction in the bottles themselves saves 75 million pounds of plastic.\n\nSection::::Replacements for plastics.\n", "How glass containers compare to other packaging types (plastic, cardboard, aluminium) is hard to say; conclusive lifecycle studies are yet to be produced.\n\nSection::::Float glass process.\n", "Non-deposit glass containers are collected in large glass garbage bins, for clear or coloured glass, placed centrally in most urban areas.\n\nThe 1.5 L refillable PET bottle with a deposit of 4.00 kr has been discontinued, and has been replaced by the 1.5 L non-refillable PET bottle. The last day for returning bottles made by Spendrups for deposit was 30 June 2007, and the last day for bottles made by Coca-Cola Sweden was 30 June 2008.\n", "At least one other commercial attempt has been made toward the creation of cheap, non-plastic containers for water. In 2009, Ecologic Brands, Inc. released a water bottle which was created using a combination of recyclable, sustainable sheet stock such as bamboo or palm leaves. The design was entered into INNOVIC's Next Big Thing Award for 2009. The company has since gone on to create a paper jug which can be used as a holder for a recyclable plastic bag for liquids such as milk and detergent.\n", "Art Forms from the Ocean - 11 April - 31 August 2008\n\nNeon - 1 December 2007 – 24 March 2008\n\nOne-off Factory, \"featuring Mathias Bengtsson and Anne Vibeke Mou\" - 6 October - 18 November 2007\n\nNorth + South - 1 July - 23 September 2007\n\nLynette Wallworth - 17 March - 17 June 2007\n\nSnowdomes - 25 November 2006 – 4 March 2007\n\nLybensky & Brychtova \"(What then Shall we Choose? Weight or Lightness?)\" - 17 July - 12 November 2006\n\nWearing Glass - 12 May - 9 July 2006\n", "In the 1980s, Wen Ken's factory officially displaced the use of glass bottles by packing its cooling water in plastic bottles instead. Many consumers saw plastic as a more lightweight and convenient packaging and this boosted the sales of the cooling water.\n", "Section::::Content.:Karma and moderation.\n", "Glass collection points, known as \"bottle banks\" are very common near shopping centres, at civic amenity sites and in local neighborhoods in the United Kingdom. The first bottle bank was introduced by Stanley Race CBE, then president of the Glass Manufacturers’ Federation and Ron England in Barnsley on 6 June 1977. Development work was done by the DoE at Warren Springs laboratory, Stevenage, (now AERA at Harwell) and Nazeing Glass Works, Broxbourne to prove if a usable glass product could be made from over 90% recycled glass. It was found necessary to use magnets to remove unwanted metal closures in the mixture.\n", "Glass is 100% recyclable and can be recycled without loss in quality or purity. Recycled glass is referred to as cullet and is used in production of glass to reduce the amount of other materials used and reduce the amount of energy required. Cullet usually makes up 25% to 60% of the batch. Verallia North America has set a goal to make cullet account for 50% of all batches used in their production by 2013. Verallia North America has started the \"Captain Cullet and little Gob O'Glass\" campaign to spread awareness of glass recycling to children. This is an interactive project to educate the younger generation about the importance of recycling and includes activities such as a \"Virtual Education Program\" and animated cartoons.\n", "Following the successful launch of the GreenBottle milk container, the company unveiled its designs for a paper wine bottle. The launch was met with international enthusiasm, gaining press coverage, and eventually sales, from around the world.\n\nGreenBottle is a commercially viable, environmentally green alternative to plastic, glass and laminated cartons.\n\nSection::::The process.\n", "BULLET::::- Sale restriction of reusable beverage containers containing Bisphenol A in Multnomah County: in October 2011, Multnomah County's Board of Health adopted a policy brought forward by Cogen that restricted the sale of all reusable beverage containers that contain Bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical used in certain hard plastic containers like baby bottles, sippy cups and water bottles within Multnomah County.\n", "Glass bottles are fully recyclable, either to be reused as bottle or to be melted and reused as glass, resulting in a saving of energy and raw materials.\n\nRecycling one glass bottle can save enough energy to power a computer for 25 minutes.\n\nSection::::PET bottles.\n\nPET bottles are mostly recycled as a raw material. In many countries, PET plastics are coded with the resin identification code number \"1\" inside the universal recycling symbol, usually located on the bottom of the container.\n\nSection::::HDPE bottles.\n", "Petcore, the European trade association that fosters the collection and recycling of PET, reported that in Europe alone, 1.6 million tonnes of PET bottles were collected in 2011 - more than 51% of all bottles. After exported bales were taken into account, 1.12 million tons of PET flake were produced. 440,000 tons were used to produce fibres, 283,000 tons to produce more bottles, 278,000 tons to produce APET sheets, 102,000 tons for strapping tape and 18,000 tons for miscellaneous applications. (Source: PCI for Petcore and EuPR)\n", "Following the programme's airing in the UK, the BBC announced its intention to completely ban single-use plastics within its organisation by 2020. In April 2018, in response to growing public support directly linked to Blue Planet II, the British government announced it is considering a national ban on single-use plastic products. It was also reported that Queen Elizabeth II's decision to ban plastic bottles and straws across the Royal estates was in part a response to the documentary.\n", "Pratt has organised the build of a $50 million, 100% recycled plastics plant in Sydney. This plant will enable Visy to make its PET and HDPE bottles out of 100% recycled plastic resin for everything from soft drink bottles to shampoo bottles to milk bottles. At full capacity, this facility will remove some 2 billion plastic bottles from the waste stream and recycle them into new bottles.\n", "The National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR), the trade association for the PET plastic packaging industry in the United States and Canada, identifies five major, generic end-use categories for recycled PET plastic: 1) packaging applications, including new bottles; 2) sheet and film applications, including some thermoforming applications; 3) strapping; 4) engineered resins applications; and 5) fiber applications. According to the nonprofit Recycling Across America, five individual serving PET plastic bottles provide enough fiber to make one square foot of carpet or to fill one ski jacket.\n", "In 2008 the amount of post-consumer PET bottles collected for recycling and sold in the United States was approx. 1.45 billion pounds.\n\nIn 2012, 81% of the PET bottles sold in Switzerland were recycled.\n\nIncreasing energy prices may increase the volume of recycling PET bottles. In Europe, the EU Waste Framework Directive mandates that by 2020 there should be 50% recycling or reuse of plastics from household streams.\n", "Low plastic water bottle\n\nLow plastic water bottles are bottles that use 50 percent or less plastic than a regular water bottle. The low plastic water bottle has seen a gigantic increase in production over the last few years. This is mainly because making low plastic bottles is more efficient, cost-effective, and more environmentally friendly than producing regular bottles. A large number of water companies now exclusively use a low plastic design for their 16.9 oz bottles, the most notable of these companies being Aquafina.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n", "The resulting surplus of green glass from imported bottles may be exported to producing countries, or used locally in the growing diversity of secondary end uses for recycled glass. , Cory Environmental were shipping glass cullet from the UK to Portugal.\n\nSection::::By country.:United States of America.\n", "PET bottles are also recycled as-is (re-used) for various purposes, including for use in school projects, and for use in solar water disinfection in developing nations, in which empty PET bottles are filled with water and left in the sun to allow disinfection by ultraviolet radiation. PET is useful for this purpose because many other materials (including window glass) that are transparent to visible light are opaque to ultraviolet radiation.\n", "In 2007 Unilever launched its new Persil Small and Mighty variant in the UK and Ireland. A 2013 update showcased a new design of bottle that enabled consumers to use the in built, flexible plastic dosing ball as a measurer and stain removal pre-treatment device. The ball is contained in a circular cutout in the centre of the bottle and is simply filled and placed directly into the drum. Because it's made of soft, heat resistant plastic it can be washed with the laundry and makes no banging noises. This campaign was launched with the tagline \"For Whatever life throws\".\n", "Bottle banks commonly stand beside collection points for other recyclable waste like paper, metals and plastics. Local, municipal waste collectors usually have one central point for all types of waste in which large glass containers are located. There are now over 50,000 bottle banks in the United Kingdom, and 752,000 tons of glass are now recycled annually.\n", "The first UK special edition bottle was produced in 1993. In celebration of the 1996 NCAA Men's Basketball Champions, Maker's Mark printed a bottle that had a denim background with white type. The team's coach at the time, Rick Pitino, signed the bottle.\n" ]	[ "Plastic is the worst thing for the environment.", "If plastic is considered one of the worst things for the environment, Snapple should not be using plastic bottles, instead of plastic. " ]	[ "It is more complex than plastic is worse than glass. The process of how it gets reused is important. Also how it gets transported. Plastic can be transported using less fuel. ", "While plastic is bad for the environment, it is more effecient to use and are easily reused, compared to glass. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Plastic is the worst thing for the environment.", "If plastic is considered one of the worst things for the environment, Snapple should not be using plastic bottles, instead of plastic. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is more complex than plastic is worse than glass. The process of how it gets reused is important. Also how it gets transported. Plastic can be transported using less fuel. ", "While plastic is bad for the environment, it is more effecient to use and are easily reused, compared to glass. " ]
2018-04966	How do linguists figure out how ancient languages sounded like, and by extension, how languages are related?	They consider the sound shifts between related languages and extrapolate backwards in time, using the calculated rates and patterns of sound changes over time. Vocabulary in hypothesized proto-languages is denoted by * before the word. You'll see more * words than non-* words. Proto-languages are really only hypothesized based on this historical comparison. There's a limit on how far back a language family can be reconstructed because of the rate of change. So far afaik reconstruction can only go back about 6,000 years. That's why Nostratic, Proto-World/Proto-Human and other more ancient proto-languages can't be reconstructed.	[ "Section::::Demonstrating genetic relationship.:Origin and development of the method.\n\nLanguages have been compared since antiquity. For example, in the 1st century BC the Romans were aware of the similarities between Greek and Latin, which they explained mythologically, as the result of Rome being a Greek colony speaking a debased dialect. In the 9th or 10th century AD, Yehuda Ibn Quraysh compared the phonology and morphology of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic, but attributed this resemblance to the Biblical story of Babel, with Abraham, Isaac and Joseph retaining Adam's language, with other languages at various removes becoming more altered from the original Hebrew.\n", "Some of these languages were documented directly through inscriptions, mainly in Paleohispanic scripts, that date for sure between the 5th century BC, maybe from the 7th century in the opinion of some researchers, until the end of the 1st century BC or the beginning of the 1st century AD.\n\nBULLET::::- Vasconic languages\n\nBULLET::::- Proto-Basque --- Unattested, partially reconstructed through internal analysis of modern Basque. Proto-Basque is also the ancestor or sibling of the Aquitanian language (see below).\n", "Some scholars have undertaken studies attempting to establish super-families, linking, for example, Indo-European, Uralic, and other families into Nostratic. These attempts have not been accepted widely. The information necessary to establish relatedness becomes less available as the time depth is increased. The time-depth of linguistic methods is limited due to chance word resemblances and variations between language groups, but a limit of around 10,000 years is often assumed. The dating of the various proto-languages is also difficult; several methods are available for dating, but only approximate results can be obtained.\n\nSection::::Diachronic and synchronic analysis.\n", "In the mid-1990s a group at Pennsylvania University computerised the comparative method and used a different IE database with 20 ancient languages. In the biological field several software programs were then developed which could have application to historical linguistics. In particular a group at the University of Auckland developed a method that gave controversially old dates for IE languages. A conference on \"Time-depth in Historical Linguistics\" was held in August 1999 at which many applications of quantitative methods were discussed. Subsequently many papers have been published on studies of various language groups as well as comparisons of the methods.\n", "BULLET::::- In contrast, the \"Moscow school\" of linguists, perhaps best known for its advocacy of the Nostratic hypothesis (though active in many other areas), has confidence in the traceability of regular sound changes at very great time depths, and believes that reconstructed proto-languages can be pyramided on top of each other so as to attain still earlier proto-languages, without violating the principles of the standard comparative method.\n\nSection::::Toward a resolution of the conflict?\n", "The findings of historical linguistics are often used as a basis for hypotheses about the groupings and movements of peoples, particularly in the prehistoric period. In practice, however, it is often unclear how to integrate the linguistic evidence with the archaeological or genetic evidence. For example, there are numerous theories concerning the homeland and early movements of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, each with its own interpretation of the archaeological record.\n\nSection::::Sub-fields of study.\n\nSection::::Sub-fields of study.:Comparative linguistics.\n", "BULLET::::- The Tabula Cortonensis, a bronze tablet from Cortona, is believed to record a legal contract, with about 200 words. Discovered in 1992, this new tablet contributed the word for \"lake\", \"tisś\", but not much else.\n\nBULLET::::- A stele, from a Sanctuary at Poggio Colla, believed to be connected with the cult of the goddess Uni, with about 70 letters. Only discovered in 2016, it is still in the process of being deciphered.\n\nSection::::Corpus.:Inscriptions on monuments.\n", "Section::::Sample text.\n\nSection::::Sample text.:Inscription by Entemena of Lagaš.\n\nThis text was inscribed on a small clay cone c. 2400 BC. It recounts the beginning of a war between the city-states of Lagaš and Umma during the Early Dynastic III period, one of the earliest border conflicts recorded. (RIME 1.09.05.01)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of extinct languages of Asia\n\nBULLET::::- List of languages by first written accounts\n\nBULLET::::- Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary\n\nBULLET::::- Sumerian literature\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- (grammar treatment for the advanced student)\n", "Before the 20th century, linguists analysed language on a diachronic plane, which was historical in focus. This meant that they would compare linguistic features and try to analyse language from the point of view of how it had changed between then and later. However, with Saussurean linguistics in the 20th century, the focus shifted to a more synchronic approach, where the study was more geared towards analysis and comparison between different language variations, which existed at the same given point of time.\n", "Through comparative linguistics it is possible to reconstruct the vocabulary found in the proto-language, and in this way achieve knowledge of the cultural, technological and ecological context that the speakers inhabited. Such a context can then be compared with archaeological evidence. This vocabulary includes, in the case of PIE:\n\nBULLET::::- pastoralism, including domesticated cattle, horses, and dogs\n\nBULLET::::- agriculture and cereal cultivation, including technology commonly ascribed to late-Neolithic farming communities, e.g., the plow\n\nBULLET::::- a climate with winter snow\n\nBULLET::::- transportation by or across water\n\nBULLET::::- the solid wheel used for wagons, but not yet chariots with spoked wheels\n", "Section::::Demonstrating genetic relationship.:Application.:Step 5, examine the reconstructed system typologically.\n\nIn the final step, the linguist checks to see how the proto-phonemes fit the known typological constraints. For example, a hypothetical system,\n", "The comparative method follows the Neogrammarian rule: the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception. The method compares languages and uses the sound laws to find a common ancestor. For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English: \"piede\" and \"foot\", \"padre\" and \"father\", \"pesce\" and \"fish\". Since there is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can assume that these languages stem from a common parent language.\n", "In the case of Bronze Age literature, philology includes the prior decipherment of the language under study. This has notably been the case with the Egyptian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Hittite, Ugaritic and Luwian languages. Beginning with the famous decipherment and translation of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, a number of individuals attempted to decipher the writing systems of the Ancient Near East and Aegean. In the case of Old Persian and Mycenaean Greek, decipherment yielded older records of languages already known from slightly more recent traditions (Middle Persian and Alphabetic Greek).\n", "Section::::Accuracy.\n\nThere are no objective criteria for the evaluation of different reconstruction systems yielding different proto-languages. Many researchers concerned with linguistic reconstruction agree that the traditional comparative method is an \"intuitive undertaking.\"\n", "In the study of languages, sophisticated techniques were developed enabling the understanding of how an idiom evolves over time. Hence, the speech of past ages may be successively reconstructed in theory by using only modern speech and the rules of phonetic and morphological change, and other learning, which may be augmented by and checked against the literature of the past, if available. Methods of Comparative linguistics also assisted in associating related 'sister' languages, which together stem from an ancient parent language. Further, such groups of related languages may form branches of even larger language families, e.g., Afroasiatic.\n", "Modern knowledge of Sumerian phonology is flawed and incomplete because of the lack of native speakers, the transmission through the filter of Akkadian phonology and the difficulties posed by the cuneiform script. As I. M. Diakonoff observes, \"when we try to find out the morphophonological structure of the Sumerian language, we must constantly bear in mind that we are not dealing with a language directly but are reconstructing it from a very imperfect mnemonic writing system which had not been basically aimed at the rendering of morphophonemics\".\n\nSection::::Phonology and grammar.:Phonemic inventory.:Consonants.\n", "The combinatorial method was developed to replace the etymological method because the latter bases itself on circular reasoning, in which the assumed relationship purportedly proves the interpretation of the text and vice versa, thus being inadequate for scientific study or proof. While mainstream specialists in Etruscology have long since abandoned the etymological method in favour of the slow, rigorous work of the combinatorial method, the etymological method is still popular with amateurs wishing to prove a relationship between ancient texts and an existing language.\n\nSection::::Archaeological-antiquarian analysis.\n", "In a few fortuitous instances, which have been used to verify the method and the model (and probably ultimately inspired it), a literary history exists from as early as a few millennia ago, allowing the descent to be traced in detail. The early daughter languages, and even the proto-language itself, may be attested in surviving texts. For example, Latin is the proto-language of the Romance language family, which includes such modern languages as French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan and Spanish. Likewise, Proto-Norse, the ancestor of the modern Scandinavian languages, is attested, albeit in fragmentary form, in the Elder Futhark. Although there are no very early Indo-Aryan inscriptions, the Indo-Aryan languages of modern India all go back to Vedic Sanskrit (or dialects very closely related to it), which has been preserved in texts accurately handed down by parallel oral and written traditions for many centuries.\n", "In the 18th century James Burnett, Lord Monboddo analyzed numerous languages and deduced logical elements of the evolution of human language. His thinking was interleaved with his precursive concepts of biological evolution. Some of his early concepts have been validated and are considered correct today. In his \"The Sanscrit Language\" (1786), Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit and Persian had resemblances to Classical Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages. From this idea sprung the field of comparative linguistics and historical linguistics. Through the 19th century, European linguistics centered on the comparative history of the Indo-European languages, with a concern for finding their common roots and tracing their development.\n", "The Linguists\n\nThe Linguists is an independent 2008 American documentary film produced by Ironbound Films about language extinction and language documentation. It follows two linguists, Greg Anderson of the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages and David Harrison of Swarthmore College, as they travel around the world to collect recordings of some of the last speakers of several moribund (dying) languages: Chulym in Siberia; Chemehuevi in Arizona, U.S.; Sora in Odisha, India; and Kallawaya in Bolivia.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "About 2,300 specula are known from collections all over the world. As they were popular plunderables, the provenance of only a minority is known. An estimated time window is 530–100 BC. Most probably came from tombs.\n\nMany bear inscriptions naming the persons depicted in the scenes, so they are often called picture bilinguals. In 1979, Massimo Pallottino, then president of the \"Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici\" initiated the Committee of the \"Corpus Speculorum Etruscanorum\", which resolved to publish all the specula and set editorial standards for doing so.\n", "The mapping and recording of small-scale phonological changes poses difficulties, especially as the practical technology of sound recording dates only from the 19th century. Written texts provide the main (indirect) evidence of how language sounds have changed over the centuries. But note Ferdinand de Saussure's work on postulating the existence and disappearance of laryngeals in Proto-Indo-European as an example of other methods of detecting/reconstructing sound-changes within historical linguistics. Poetic devices such as rhyme and rhythm may provide clues to previous phonological habits.\n\nSection::::Types.:Spelling changes.\n", "In most cases, the ability to identify substrate influence in a language requires knowledge of the structure of the substrate language. This can be acquired in numerous ways:\n\nBULLET::::- The substrate language, or some later descendant of it, still survives in a part of its former range;\n\nBULLET::::- Written records of the substrate language may exist to various degree;\n\nBULLET::::- The substrate language itself may be unknown entirely, but it may have surviving close relatives that can be used a base of comparison.\n", "Recently, computerised statistical hypothesis testing methods have been developed which are related to both the comparative method and lexicostatistics. Character based methods are similar to the former and distanced based methods are similar to the latter (see Quantitative comparative linguistics). The characters used can be morphological or grammatical as well as lexical. Since the mid-1990s these more sophisticated tree- and network-based phylogenetic methods have been used to investigate the relationships between languages and to determine approximate dates for proto-languages. These are considered by many to show promise but are not wholly accepted by traditionalists. However, they are not intended to replace older methods but to supplement them. Such statistical methods cannot be used to derive the features of a proto-language, apart from the fact of the existence of shared items of the compared vocabulary. These approaches have been challenged for their methodological problems, since without a reconstruction or at least a detailed list of phonological correspondences there can be no demonstration that two words in different languages are cognate.\n", "List of languages by first written accounts\n\nThis is a list of languages arranged by the approximate dates of the oldest existing texts recording a complete sentence in the language. It does not include undeciphered scripts, though there are various claims without wide acceptance, which, if substantiated, would push backward the first attestation of certain languages. It also does not include inscriptions consisting of isolated words or names from a language.\n\nIn most cases, some form of the language had already been spoken (and even written) considerably earlier than the dates of the earliest extant samples provided here.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21432	Why can foreign car companies like Honda (Japanese), Volkswagen (German), and Hyundai (South Korean) make successful sedan-type cars in the United States, but domestic companies GM and Ford struggle to make good-selling sedans.	There's a columnist in Bloomberg [who argues]( URL_0 ) that during the oil embargo in the 1970s Americans turned to fuel efficient sedans like Hondas, and were impressed with how infrequently they broke down. When the Big Three in the US tried to catch up, their sedans were trash. They got better, but : > The Big Three have never been able to convince the reviewers — or, more importantly, the car-buying public — that their sedans were as good as their Japanese competition. To put it another way, the American car companies have never been able to shed the reputation they gained in the 1970s for making lousy sedans. I experienced this bias when I was buying a new car after driving American my whole life. Choice between the Chevy Cobalt and a Honda Civic, and I went with No 2 because of the reputation for longevity and gas mileage. 14 years later, the old beast is still with me, and I believe I may die before it does.	[ "Others, such as the Honda Fit, Honda S2000, Acura TSX, and Acura RL, were imported from Japan. Some vehicles, such as the older CR-V (in the eastern United States) and the Civic SI hatchback, were imported from the UK. Some Accord passenger cars were imported from Mexico and starting from 2008 all CR-V's sold in the Americas are made in Mexico, in the early 2000s. In 2009, production of 4-door Civic sedans began at a new factory in Greensburg, Indiana.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Other automakers with manufacturing operations in the United States.:Hyundai.\n", "BULLET::::- Big Three automobile manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- 1950s American automobile culture\n\nBULLET::::- American automobile industry in the 1950s\n\nBULLET::::- Canada–United States Automotive Products Agreement\n\nBULLET::::- Effects of the 2008–10 automotive industry crisis on the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Ford\n\nBULLET::::- History of Chrysler\n\nBULLET::::- History of Ford Motor Company\n\nBULLET::::- History of General Motors\n\nBULLET::::- List of automobile manufacturers of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of defunct automobile manufacturers of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of automobiles manufactured in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Passenger vehicles in the United States\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The US was the largest producer of vehicles in the world in 2003, followed by Japan and Germany. While most vehicles sold in the US were manufactured by the Big Three, foreign corporations such as Japan's Toyota Motor Company have starting manufacturing in the US and are now an integrated part of the US automobile industry. According to many sources, the extended US operations of foreign based companies now rival those of American automobile manufacturers. For example, Toyota Motor Company now operates twelve manufacturing plants in the US, producing 1.55 million vehicles, 61.66% of the roughly 2.5 million vehicles the company sells in the US each year.\n", "Prior to the 1980s, most manufacturing facilities were owned by the Big Three (GM, Ford, Chrysler) and AMC. Their U.S. market share has dropped steadily as numerous foreign-owned car companies have built factories in the U.S. Toyota had 31,000 direct employees in the U.S. in 2012, meaning a total payroll of about $2.1 billion, compared to Ford's 80,000 U.S. employees supplying their 3,300 dealerships and Chrysler's 71,100 U.S. employees supplying their 2,328 dealerships.\n\nSection::::Development history.\n\nSection::::Development history.:Production.\n", "Some note that the crisis occurred mainly as a result of business of the Big Three U.S. automakers which had limited access to offshore production as opposed to their Asian counterparts. Analysts point out that Asian companies that manufacture automobiles mostly in Asia but also in the U.S. were not experiencing similar problems. They were able to produce compact automobiles in the Pacific Rim area for less cost (in Dollars). A December 22, 2008 article in \"The New York Times\" stated, \"For the most part, the so-called auto transplants – foreign-owned car companies with major operations in the United States – have deep pockets and ample credit, and they are not facing potential bankruptcy like General Motors and Chrysler.\" Much of the criticism centered on structural differences between the Big Three and the \"transplants\" (foreign companies manufacturing in U.S.) that result in major cost differentials.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.:Other automakers with manufacturing operations in the United States.:Volvo.\n\nVolvo Cars opened its first assembly plant in the United States, in Ridgeville, South Carolina. Assembly of Volvo S60s commenced there in September 2018.\n\nSection::::Domestic makes - Big Three.\n\nThese makes from the Big Three are currently marketed in the U.S.\n\nSection::::Domestic makes - non-Big Three.\n\nBULLET::::- Equus\n\nBULLET::::- Fisker\n\nBULLET::::- Karma\n\nBULLET::::- Panoz\n\nBULLET::::- Rezvani\n\nBULLET::::- Tesla\n\nBULLET::::- Saleen\n\nSection::::Import makes, with some assembly in the U.S..\n\nSome passenger vehicles from the following import makes are currently assembled in the U.S.\n\nSection::::Import-only makes.\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 - Daihatsu enters the US making it the first time all nine Japanese manufacturers are present; Toyota Camry becomes third Japanese car manufactured at Toyota's Erlanger, Kentucky assembly plant\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 - Lexus is launched in the US by Toyota\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 - Infiniti is launched in the US by Nissan\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 - United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI) founded in Australia as a joint venture between Toyota and Holden\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 - Mazda HR-X was one of the first hydrogen (combined with Wankel rotary) car\n", "During the same period, Dodge marketed several small Mitsubishi models, mostly sold as Dodge Colts (versions of which would later also be sold under the Plymouth and Eagle brands as well). Chrysler Corporation did not develop its in-house subcompacts during the late 1960s (which GM and Ford Motor Company had done with the Vega and Pinto) where they partnered with an overseas manufacturer with Mitsubishi and Hillman. \n\nThe \"Plymouth Cricket\" (a rebadged Hillman Avenger) and Ford's entire Merkur line were introduced to the U.S. market, but were not as successful.\n", "BULLET::::- The United States' Big Three are General Motors, Ford, and Fiat Chrysler (FCA US).\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea's Big Three are SsangYong, Hyundai and Kia, although Hyundai owns 33% of Kia.\n\nSection::::United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Daimler AG and BYD Auto have a joint venture called Denza, both companies hold a 50-50% stake.\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor and Nissan have a 50-50% joint venture called Dongfeng Motor Company.\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor and PSA Group have a 50-50% joint venture called Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroen,\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor has a 50-50% joint venture with Honda called Dongfeng Honda,\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor has a joint venture with AB Volvo called Dongfeng Nissan-Diesel,\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor has a 50-50% joint venture with Renault named Dongfeng Renault in Wuhan, which was founded in the end of 2013\n", "However, many Americans view a Toyota vehicle made in Kentucky, a Saab built in Ohio, or a Mercedes-Benz vehicle made in Alabama as an \"import\" (or import make), while others view a Pontiac vehicle made in Australia as a \"domestic\" vehicle. This perception is due to the respective brands' longstanding association with their parent countries: Toyota with Japan, Mercedes-Benz with Germany, and Pontiac with the United States.\n\nThe country of origin of any particular vehicle can be easily determined:\n", "Hyundai Motor Company started manufacturing in the United States in 2005, when their plant in Montgomery, Alabama started the production of the Sonata sedan. It was joined in 2006 by the new Santa Fe SUV.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Other automakers with manufacturing operations in the United States.:Kia Motors.\n\nKia Motor Company, partially owned by Hyundai, has built a manufacturing plant in West Point, Georgia, which produces the Optima sedan and the Kia Sorento SUV.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Other automakers with manufacturing operations in the United States.:Mazda.\n", "BULLET::::- Dong-A Motor Co. took over Geohwa Co.;\n\nBULLET::::- Kia Besta launched;\n\nBULLET::::- Number of vehicles registered in South Korea exceeded one million.\n\nBULLET::::- 1986: Government designated automobile industry for rationalization, based on the \"Industry Development Act\";\n\nBULLET::::- Government revised the \"Road Transportation & Vehicle Act, and other related regulations;\n\nBULLET::::- Dong-A Motor Co. took over Geohwa Co. and renamed it Ssangyong Motor Co.;\n\nBULLET::::- Hyundai Excel, and Hyundai Presto AMX Model, launched and exported to United States;\n\nBULLET::::- Hyundai Excel nominated by Fortune magazine for the \"Best Product 10\" award;\n\nBULLET::::- Daewoo Le Mans, based on Opel Kadett, launched.\n", "BULLET::::- AMC defunct in 1987 (remaining stock purchased by Chrysler Corporation from Renault)\n\nBULLET::::- Eagle defunct in 1998 (was established as the successor to American Motors)\n\nBULLET::::- SRT defunct as of 2014 (consolidated back into Dodge)\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Other automakers with manufacturing operations in the United States.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Other automakers with manufacturing operations in the United States.:BMW.\n", "While the American automakers were investing in or buying foreign competitors, the foreign automakers continued to establish more production facilities in the United States. In the 1990s, BMW and Daimler-Benz opened SUV factories in Spartanburg County, South Carolina and Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, respectively. In the 2000s, assembly plants were opened by Honda in Lincoln, Alabama, Nissan in Canton, Mississippi, Hyundai in Montgomery, Alabama and Kia in West Point, Georgia. Toyota opened an engine plant in Huntsville, Alabama in 2003 (along with a truck assembly plant in San Antonio, Texas) and is building an assembly plant in Blue Springs, Mississippi. Volkswagen has announced a new plant for Chattanooga, Tennessee. Also, several of the Japanese auto manufacturers expanded or opened additional plants during this period. For example, while new, the Alabama Daimler-Benz and Honda plants have expanded several times since their original construction. The opening of Daimler-Benz plant in the 1990s had a cascade effect. It created a hub of new sub-assembly suppliers in the Alabama area. This hub of sub-assemblies suppliers helped in attracting several new assembly plants into Alabama plus new plants in nearby Mississippi, Georgia and Tennessee.\n", "BULLET::::- Ford of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- General Motors of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Canada\n\nForeign automakers that had plants in Canada: \n\nBULLET::::- Suzuki\n\nBULLET::::- CAMI Automotive Joint venture between General Motors and Suzuki\n\nBULLET::::- Volvo Cars\n\nBULLET::::- Volvo Halifax Assembly, closed in 1998\n\nDefunct Canadian Automakers & Brands:\n\nBULLET::::- Acadian (General Motors)\n\nBULLET::::- American Motors Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Bricklin\n\nBULLET::::- Brockville Atlas\n\nBULLET::::- Brooks Steam Motors\n\nBULLET::::- Derby (Canadian automobile)\n\nBULLET::::- Galt Gas-Electric\n\nBULLET::::- Gray-Dort Motors\n\nBULLET::::- Kennedy Motors\n\nBULLET::::- Laurentian (Pontiac)\n\nBULLET::::- Manic GT\n\nBULLET::::- McKay Motor Car Company\n\nBULLET::::- McLaughlin Automobile\n\nBULLET::::- Meteor (Ford)\n\nBULLET::::- Orion International\n", "Honda introduced their first executive car, the Honda Legend (sold as the Acura Legend in the United States) in 1985. The Legend was produced until 2012, and then from 2014 until the present.\n\nSection::::Production by country.:South Korea.\n\nA growing number of Asian manufacturers started offering executive cars, such as Kia Cadenza, Hyundai Azera and Genesis G80.\n\nSection::::Production by country.:Spain.\n\nSEAT's only executive car was the 1963-1973 SEAT 1500, a rebadged version of the FIAT 2300.\n\nSection::::Production by country.:Sweden.\n", "Captive imports were the other response by U.S. car makers to the increase in popularity of imported economy cars in the 1970s and 1980s. These were cars bought from overseas subsidiaries or from companies in which they held a significant shareholding. GM, Ford, and Chrysler sold imports for the U.S. market. The Buick Opel, Ford Cortina, Mercury Capri, Ford Festiva, and Dodge Colt are examples.\n", "BULLET::::- Sollers JSC is involved in joint ventures with Ford (Ford Sollers) and Mazda to produce cars.\n\nBULLET::::- Tata Motors also formed a joint venture in India with Fiat and gained access to Fiat's diesel engine technology.\n\nBULLET::::- Tata Motors and Marcopolo have a joint venture called Tata Marcopolo, where Tata owns 51% and Marcopolo owns 49%.\n\nBULLET::::- Volvo Group and Eicher Motors has a 50-50% joint venture called VE Commercial Vehicles.\n\nSection::::Top vehicle manufacturing groups by volume.\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 - Honda Accord becomes the first Japanese car built in the United States at Honda's Marysville, Ohio manufacturing facility\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 - Mitsuoka 1st car (BUBU shuttle 50)\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 - Holden and Nissan form a joint venture in Australia; Nissan Sunny (Sentra) assembled at Nissan's Smryna, Tennessee facility\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 - Toyota opens NUMMI, the first joint venture plant in the United States with General Motors\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 - Acura is launched in the US by Honda\n", "Section::::International markets.:Mexico.:VAM Rambler American.:1974.\n", "Honda was the first Japanese automaker to build a factory in the United States. Following the success of the Civic and Accord, the company opened a new plant in Marysville, Ohio in 1982 to assemble the model, which went on to become the most popular car in the US in 1989. Honda expanded their operations and the scope of models manufactured in the US, building the Anna engine plant and East Liberty automobile assembly plant, and in 2001 opening Honda Manufacturing of Alabama in Lincoln. Most models sold under the Honda and Acura brands in North America are currently manufactured in either the U.S. or Canada.\n", "In 1973 and 1974, as it became clear that the American car market would begin to favor smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, Ford's then-President Lee Iacocca was highly interested in buying powertrains from Honda Motor Company as a way to minimize the cost of developing a small Ford car for the North American market, such as a modified version of Ford of Europe's Ford Fiesta. The plan was rejected by Henry Ford II, who stated: \"No car with my name on the hood is going to have a Jap engine inside.\" Although, strictly speaking, it was too late for that, as the Ford Motor Company had been selling a Mazda compact pickup truck as the Ford Courier since late 1971, Henry Ford II did not like the idea of flagship North American passenger car models moving in that direction. Ford Motor Company did go on to adapt to the era in which Japanese, German, and American participation in a globalized automobile industry became tightly integrated. For example, Ford's relationship with Mazda was well developed even before the end of HF2's period of influence. However, in Iacocca's view, it lagged several years behind GM and Chrysler, due to Henry Ford II's unappealable influence, before others led it forward despite his resistance.\n", "Section::::International markets.:Mexico.:VAM Rambler American.:1972.\n", "Contracts with General Motors soon followed, and Jo-Han produced Pontiac models for the 1955 model year. Over time, Jo-Han became known more for Chrysler models, though Oldsmobile, Cadillac, Studebaker (often Larks), and American Motors were also well represented making Jo-Han a strong competitor to AMT and later to MPC. Oldsmobile and Cadillac models appeared through the 1960s and 1970s, including the 1962 Oldsmobile compact Cutlass F-85. Their last promotional model made was the 1979 Cadillac Coupe de Ville.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23456	why does our brain hear lanny or Yaurel based on what we see that is written and how does it work ?	I believe the frequency is different for both voices and your age/hearing ability affects which one you hear. Laurel if you’re on the older side of things. Like how older people cannot here a mosquito device used to deter teens	[ "Sounds that are found in words are called embedded sounds and these sounds are the causation of auditory illusions. These sounds can be recreated simply by changing how you form your mouth while saying the word; same word yet someone could hear two different sounds. For example, if someone is looking at two different people saying \"far\" and \"bar\", the word they will hear will be determined by who they look at.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThere are a multitude of different examples out in the world of auditory illusions. These are examples of some auditory illusions:\n\nBULLET::::- Binaural beats\n", "Much like the McGurk Effect, when listeners were also able to see the words being spoken, they were much more likely to correctly identify the missing phonemes. Like every sense, the brain will use every piece of information it deems important to make a judgement about what it is perceiving. Using the visual cues of mouth movements, the brain will you both in top-down processing to make a decision about what phoneme is supposed to be heard. Vision is the primary sense for humans and for the most part assists in speech perception the most.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Context.\n", "Section::::Multimodal perception.:Lip reading.\n\nLip reading is a multimodal process for humans. By watching movements of lips and face, humans get conditioned and practice lip reading. Silent lip reading activates the auditory cortex. When sounds are matched or mismatched with the movements of the lips, temporal sulcus of the left hemisphere becomes more active.\n\nSection::::Multimodal perception.:Integration effect.\n", "It may be the case that it is not necessary and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for example. After obtaining at least a fundamental piece of information about phonemic structure of the perceived entity from the acoustic signal, listeners can compensate for missing or noise-masked phonemes using their knowledge of the spoken language. Compensatory mechanisms might even operate at the sentence level such as in learned songs, phrases and verses, an effect backed-up by neural coding patterns consistent with the missed continuous speech fragments, despite the lack of all relevant bottom-up sensory input.\n", "Section::::Image perception.:Notational audiation.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Caryl Haskins\n\nBULLET::::- Haskins Laboratories\n\nBULLET::::- Alvin Liberman\n\nBULLET::::- reading machine\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Remez\n\nBULLET::::- Philip Rubin\n\nBULLET::::- spectrogram\n\nBULLET::::- motor theory of speech perception\n\nBULLET::::- speech synthesis\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Cooper, F.S., Liberman, A. M., & Borst, J. M., The interconversion of audible and visible patterns as a basis for research in the perception of speech. \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\", 1951, 37, 318-325.\n", "These cues are also used by other animals, but there may be differences in usage, and there are also localization cues which are absent in the human auditory system, such as the effects of ear movements. Animals with the ability to localize sound have a clear evolutionary advantage.\n\nSection::::How sound reaches the brain.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nThe phonemic restoration effect was first documented in a 1970 paper by Richard M. Warren entitled \"Perceptual Restoration of Missing Speech Sounds\". The purpose of the experiment was to give a reason to why in background of extraneous sounds, masked individual phonemes were still comprehensible.\n", "Section::::Bats.:Auditory cortex.\n\nThe auditory cortex in bats is quite large in comparison with other mammals. Various characteristics of sound are processed by different regions of the cortex, each providing different information about the location or movement of a target object. Most of the existing studies on information processing in the auditory cortex of the bat have been done by Nobuo Suga on the mustached bat, \"Pteronotus parnellii\". This bat's call has both CF tone and FM sweep components.\n", "Section::::Parallel processing pathways in the brain.\n", "Section::::Image properties.\n\nSection::::Image properties.:Tempo.\n", "Section::::Training effects and plasticity of temporal-envelope processing.\n\nPerceptual learning resulting from training has been reported for various auditory AM detection or discrimination tasks, suggesting that the responses of central auditory neurons to ENV cues are plastic and that practice may modify the circuitry of ENV processing.\n", "It is not easy to identify what acoustic cues listeners are sensitive to when perceiving a particular speech sound:\n\n\"At first glance, the solution to the problem of how we perceive speech seems deceptively simple. If one could identify stretches of the acoustic waveform that correspond to units of perception, then the path from sound to meaning would be clear. However, this correspondence or mapping has proven extremely difficult to find, even after some forty-five years of research on the problem.\"\n", "A group of psychologists conducted a study to test the McGurk effect with aphasia patients and speech reading. The subjects watched dubbed videos in which the audio and visual did not match. Then after they completed the first part of the experiment, the experimenters taught the aphasic patients to speech read, which is the ability to read lips. The experimenters then conducted the same test and found that the people still had more of an advantage of audio only over visual only, but they also found that the subjects did better in audio-visual than audio alone. The patients also did improve their place of articulation and their manner of articulation. This all means that aphasic patients might benefit from learning how to speech read (lip reading).\n", "TFS cues are thought to be important for the identification of speakers and for tone identification in tonal languages. In addition, several vocoder studies have suggested that TFS cues contribute to the intelligibility of speech in quiet and noise. Although it is difficult to isolate TFS from ENV cues, there is evidence from studies in hearing-impaired listeners that speech perception in the presence of background noise can be partly accounted for by the ability to accurately process TFS, although the ability to “listen in the dips” of fluctuating maskers does not seem to depend on periodic TFS cues.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Auditory imagery.\n", "Section::::Image perception.:Dreaming.\n", "Section::::Different applications.:Auditory systems.:Other systems.\n\nOther approaches to the substitution of hearing for vision use binaural directional cues, much as natural human echolocation does. An example of the latter approach is the \"SeeHear\" chip from Caltech.\n\nOther visual-auditory substitution devices deviate from the vOICe's greyscale mapping of images. Zach Capalbo's Kromophone uses a basic color spectrum correlating to different sounds and timbres to give users perceptual information beyond the vOICe's capabilities.\n\nSection::::Different applications.:Nervous system implants.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Theater Online\" (undated): \"PWP’s production of Voices in the vacant storefront at 2 Great Jones Street in Noho fits perfectly with the company’s long-standing mission to “wake up” non-theater sites for theatrical performance.\"\n\nSection::::Production details.:Characters.\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Wardell, farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Wardell, his wife\n\nBULLET::::- John Wardell, 14-year-old son\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Wardell, 12-year-old son\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Francis, a young farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Hilda Francis, his wife\n\nBULLET::::- Mort Davis, an old farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Dirdla, a Russian farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Rose, his 18-year-old daughter\n\nBULLET::::- Ms. Smythe, radio announcer\n\nBULLET::::- Mr. Wordsworth, radio commentator\n\nBULLET::::- Purcell, a rich local businessman\n", "Section::::Examples.:In bat auditory cortex.\n", "Section::::Neural basis.:Executive Control.\n", "BULLET::::- Bagehot, a congressman\n\nBULLET::::- Harriet, his debutante daughter\n\nBULLET::::- Mrs. Martin, a neighbor\n\nBULLET::::- Mary, her daughter\n\nBULLET::::- Mrs. Doscher, another neighbor\n\nBULLET::::- First Girl\n\nBULLET::::- First Boy\n\nBULLET::::- Second Girl\n\nBULLET::::- Second Boy\n\nBULLET::::- Third Girl\n\nBULLET::::- Third Boy\n\nBULLET::::- First Dowager\n\nBULLET::::- Second Dowager\n\nBULLET::::- Senator\n\nBULLET::::- Another Senator\n\nBULLET::::- Ambassador\n\nBULLET::::- Painted Woman\n\nBULLET::::- Young Attache\n\nBULLET::::- Bill, Harriet's debutante ball date\n\nBULLET::::- Governor Lee\n\nBULLET::::- Red Cross Worker\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n\nVassar College houses a number of artifacts from and information about the play:\n\nBULLET::::- Philalelatheis\n\nBULLET::::- Documentary Chronicle: May 2, 1931\n\nBULLET::::- Experimental Theatre\n\nBULLET::::- Manuscripts\n", "Section::::Role in speech and music perception.:Role of TFS in speech and music perception.\n\nThe ability to accurately process TFS information is thought to play a role in our perception of pitch (i.e., the perceived height of sounds), an important sensation for music perception, as well as our ability to understand speech, especially in the presence of background noise.\n\nSection::::Role in speech and music perception.:Role of TFS in speech and music perception.:Role of TFS in pitch perception.\n", "In the auditory system of bats, like in auditory systems of other vertebrates, primary sensory afferent neurons, which receive inputs from hair cells from a restricted region of the organ of Corti in the cochlea, are the simple feature detectors. These structures are sensitive to a restricted range of frequencies and therefore function as tuned filters. Experimentally, Nobuo Suga and his colleagues (1990) noted that various constant frequency (CF) and frequency modulated (FM) harmonics excited different parts of the basilar membrane because of the frequency difference in the call. Auditory nerve fibers take this slightly-processed sensory information to the cochlear nucleus where information either converges or diverges into parallel pathways. In \"Pteronotus parnellii\", a CF-FM bat, these parallel pathways process CF and FM harmonics separately and contain neurons that exhibit amplitude, frequency, and harmonic selectivity. These pathways converge in the medial geniculate body—giving rise to more complex feature detectors that respond to specific combinations of CF and FM signals.\n", "During the native language acquisition period, it has been documented that infants may react strongly to the more wild-speech features to which they are exposed, compared to more tame and familiar speech features. But the results of such tests are inconclusive.\n\nIn the context of language acquisition, sound symbolism has been shown to play an important role. The association of foreign words to subjects and how they relate to general objects, such as the association of the words takete and baluma with either a round or angular shape, has been tested to see how languages symbolize sounds.\n\nSection::::In other languages.\n" ]	[ "Humans hear lanny or Yaurel based off of what we see that is written." ]	[ "Not every human hears the same, age and hearing ability will determine what is heard." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans hear lanny or Yaurel based off of what we see that is written.", "Humans hear lanny or Yaurel based off of what we see that is written." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Not every human hears the same, age and hearing ability will determine what is heard.", "Not every human hears the same, age and hearing ability will determine what is heard." ]
2018-00814	How do apps such as Hq Trivia earn profit from giving away money everyday? Where are they getting this money from?	They don't make ANY money... yet. HQ is run by the same people that founded Vine. They're burning through venture capital money right now in an attempt to get as many users as possible. This is similar to the business model used by Venmo, by the way. Once they have a ton of users, they'll figure out a way to make money off of them. But they're not spending money that quickly, and they're getting tons of users. Eventually, they'll start running ads, like other internet companies.	[ "HQ Trivia has partnered with Nike, Wendy's, Warner Bros. and other organisations to promote products and movies such as \"Rampage\", \"\" and \"The Lego Movie 2\". Special modes of game-play have included formats such as \"Winner Takes All\" and \"The 100\".\n", "On May 31, 2018, HQ introduced HQ Sports, a spinoff game in which players answer sports trivia questions. HQ Sports is hosted by Lauren Gambino, co-host of the fantasy football web show \"Offsides\". HQ Sports is usually played every Monday and Wednesday at 8:00 pm ET. The standard top prize for HQ Sports shows is $1,000.\n\nSection::::Games.:HQ Words.\n", "HQ Trivia\n\nHQ (also known as HQ Trivia, Sports and Words) is an app and mobile trivia game, released on August 26, 2017, for iOS and later for Android on December 31, 2017. Players can play for free in daily trivia games through which they can win or split prize money. HQ was developed by Vine creators Rus Yusupov and Colin Kroll.\n", "Omaze is a privately owned, for-profit company which claims that 15% of the donations go to CAFA, which handles the money and later distributes it toward the charity organisation(s). 70% are \"typically used to actually get the prize, process payments and advertise to awesome people like you\", and \"the remaining 15 cents of your dollar goes to Omaze—it’s used to cover the cost of providing and maintaining the technology and team that makes this all happen.\" It is unclear, how much of the 15% that go toward CAFA are actually distributed toward charity.\n", "\"Goat Simulator\" has performed well on Amazon Underground, leading \"Wired\" writer Brian Barrett to argue that the lack of need for payment may make the app particularly appealing to children, for whom even a small amount of money requires parental consent.\n", "On 21 March 2012, Zynga announced that it would acquire OMGPop for $180 million, saying \"It is our mission to provide consumers with fun, free games. We believe OMGPop will help us fulfill our promise.\"\n", "HQ Trivia takes the form of a live game show, which usually airs daily at 9PM US Eastern Time, with another show at 3PM US Eastern on Tuesdays and Thursdays. In 2018, the app broadcast games in Germany, Australia, and the U.K.\n", "Aside from the 100 Collectible stickers, over 100 Bonus stickers have been released to celebrate various occasions and miscellany. Many sticker releases coincide with holidays, world events, or particular achievements.\n\nThe \"Superuser\" sticker is only available to Superusers.\n\nFor a time, there were 25 golden stickers. Users who had the most check-ins against their friends at a certain category were awarded this sticker.\n", "Swarm 5.0 introduced 52 new stickers and “Collectible Categories.” There are 100 stickers that each coincide with a popular category, such as Diner, Bowling Alley, and Pizza Place. Users can upgrade stickers to earn 2x and 3x coin multipliers by continuing to check in to those 100 collectible categories.\n\nSection::::Features.:Challenges.\n", "In 2018, the company released a time management game — Cooking Diary. On March 19, 2019 Cooking Diary won \"People's Choice Award\" at the 15th International Mobile Gaming Awards.\n\nThe game is available on two platforms: Apple AppStore and Google Play.\n\nSection::::Games.:Ravenhill.\n\nIn 2018, the company released a hidden object game — Ravenhill: Hidden Mystery.\n\nThe game is available on Apple AppStore and Google Play.\n\nSection::::Games.:Riddleside.\n\nIn 2019, the company released a match-3 project - Riddleside: Fading Legacy.\n\nThe game is available on Apple AppStore.\n\nSection::::Games.:Manastorm.\n", "The Best Mobile App Awards recognised Pokerist Texas Poker as one of the best games of 2013 in their 2013 Overall Awards Platinum Award in the Card and Casino category. \n\nKamaGames was nominated for the Best Social Operator award for social gaming at the EGR Operator Awards for 2 years running in 2016 and 2017 and won the Innovation in Social Casino at the EGR Marketing and Innovation awards in 2018.\n", "In 2011, \"Parallel Kingdom\" partnered with PlayMob in \"Food For Good\". PK players could use the in-game currency, \"Food\", to purchase real food for children suffering from droughts in Kenya. The initiative resulted in 2500 meal vouchers for SOS Children, said to be the world's largest charity for orphaned and abandoned children.\n\nIn June 2012, \"Parallel Kingdom\" partnered with PlayMob in \"Save a dog, Feed a cat, Buy a hat\". PK players used in-game currency, Food, to purchase in-game limited edition hats. Each hat purchased resulted in a cash donation made to cat and dog charities.\n", "HQ has been criticized for its method of paying winners. Some players or previous winners may have a grey cash-out button. A grey cash-out button means that either the player hasn't won anything or they are soft-banned from the game due to \"bot checking\". For iOS users, some winners will have the cash-out button gray. For Android users, the cash-out button can be clicked, but it will display a message saying that they need $0.01 more to cash-out even though they have won the game. Typically, victorious players receive under $1, although payouts have on occasion gotten as high as $100,000 and a pair of HQ Nike sneakers. In order to cash out and receive their winnings through a PayPal deposit, winners previously needed to have achieved a \"minimum prize balance\" of $20 accumulated within a period of 90 days, or all prior winnings are forfeited, per the game's terms of service. Starting on January 26, 2018, during the 3 pm EST show, it was announced that there would be no minimum amount to cash out.\n", "In 2012, EarlyShares produced “a nationwide road tour, offering free workshops about exactly what crowdfunding is, how to do it and the ramifications of it”.\n\nIn September 2012, EarlyShares acquired HelpersUnite, a donation based crowdfunding portal dedicated to cause related projects, for an undisclosed sum.\n\nThat month EarlyShares became the \"key sponsor\" of the Small Business Challenge, a competition for businesses with fewer than 100 employees and entrepreneurs with startup ideas that are seeking to raise capital through crowdfunding. The competition is designed to \"reward companies that show the most potential for job creation\".\n", "In 2013, the company launched a charitable initiative aimed at their users in the Gulf region during the month of Ramadan, which enabled users to donate Palringo credits through a special charity Bot. They raised over US $230,000 for Charity Right and Islamic Relief. \n\nIn 2014, they ran the campaign again but this time opened it up their entire user base by adding Child's Play, a charity aimed at providing video game entertainment to sick children in hospital. In total, more than $235,000 was raised. \n", "Charity partners are featured prominently on the site, each receiving their own social page to champion their cause and build a community of supporters. Gamers can choose to champion their favorite charity, possibly eventually becoming a \"Grambassador\" and engaging in real-life charity work and attending VIP events.\n\nSection::::Investors.\n", "In May 2019, the game began offering prize money to those who correctly answer specific questions within the game, rather than only those who correctly answer all the questions. The number of questions for the 9PM ET shows was also increased, from 12–15 questions to 25–30 questions, and the prize pots for those shows were increased to accommodate this.\n\nSection::::Games.:HQ Sports.\n", "In December 2018, HQ Trivia launched another game called HQ Words, a word puzzle game in the style of \"Wheel of Fortune\". Players first spin a wheel to receive a free letter which automatically appears for them if it is in a specific puzzle. Players are then given a series of 12 puzzles in which they fill in letters to complete the word or short sentence. Initially, if players entered 3 letters wrong in a puzzle, they were eliminated from the game. Beginning on February 13, 2019, HQ Words began allowing 10 incorrect letter choices across all the game's puzzles. By April 2019, it has changed to 5 strikes plus one for each level the player has attained in the current HQ season. The prize has ranged from $1,000 to $10,000. HQ Words is usually hosted by comedian Anna Roisman, but has been guest hosted by Matt Richards, Timothy Dunn, and Neil Patrick Harris.\n", "Since October 2015, players can also play a limited-time special event, usually around holidays and other annual events, such as Halloween or Black Friday. They occur once per month for several days. These events are themed like the three areas, having their own set of businesses and upgrades, but are only available during that their event. If a player reaches at least one of the objectives of that event, they will get a badge shown in the Swag & Stats page. As the player progresses in some events, they may acquire free gold or Mega Bucks based on unlocks, even a special badge that provides investment specific boosts when equipped. The events recycle, so if a player has missed a passed event, they will have a second opportunity to complete the tasks. Generally, these events last anywhere from three days to a week.\n", "In February 2012 the company issued a profit warning and stated they had sold their overseas businesses, 2ergo Americas, 2ergo Australia and 2ergo India. The company said this would help stabilise the business by reducing monthly outgoings by £250,000. They have now focussed their business on a new application, Podifi, which is a mobile contactless payment and loyalty device.\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 - EGR Winners - Affiliate Programme of the Year, Customer Services Operator of the Year, Social Casino Product of the Year\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 - EGR Winners - Innovation in Slots, Innovation in Bingo\n\nSection::::Websites.\n", "The developers offer 4 potbuck packages a month, usually, for $49.99 for 750 potbucks and a rare, often unique item, $19.99 for 420 potbucks and an uncommon item, $9.99 for 250 potbucks and a themed item for the month, and 9.99 for 125 potbucks only (no free gift). They also sometimes, especially during rally events and Canadian and US holidays, offer sales on potbucks, as well as offering player-specific sales upon reaching certain levels. These \"player-specific\" sales are limited to a 26 hour time span, or until the next level is reached, whichever comes first, so if you want to acquire them you must purchase them as they are offered or they will be forever lost, as they do not \"stack\". \n", "In October 2017, the company announced it was opening a studio in Barcelona. \n\nIn May 2019, the company acquired Dublin-based DIGIT Game Studios, its collaborator on mobile strategy game \"Star Trek Fleet Command\". \n\nIn June 2019, the company shared it had surpassed $1 billion in lifetime revenues. \n\nSection::::Games.\n\nIn January 2012, Scopely launched its first free-to-play mobile game \"Dice with Buddies\", followed that year by \"Jewels with Buddies\" and \"Bubble Galaxy with Buddies\", which debuted as the #1 free app in the App Store.\n", "During Ramadan in 2015, Palringo raised more than $300,000 from its gaming community to be split between Action Against Hunger and Islamic Relief Worldwide. \n\nFor 2016, the company’s Ramadan charity campaign was ‘Heroes Against Hunger’, in which they released a new game bot to raise funds to protect against various disasters. The total raised was $207,000. \n", "Some large established video games developers are acquiring small operators to capitalize on the social gaming industry. The Walt Disney Company purchased social game developer Playdom for $763.0 million, and Electronic Arts purchased PopCap Games for $750.0 million in July 2011.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n" ]	[ "HQ Trivia is making money.", "The business HQ Trivia is profitable, despite them giving away money. " ]	[ "They are not making money.", "HQ Trivia is not a profitable business and they are indeed currently losing money. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "HQ Trivia is making money.", "The business HQ Trivia is profitable, despite them giving away money. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They are not making money.", "HQ Trivia is not a profitable business and they are indeed currently losing money. " ]
2018-24331	Did Native Americans not have plagues?	There wasn't an American plague that was given to the Europeans. Plagues like the ones that decimated the Native Americans. This comes from a few facts, but the really basic thing that stands out is that the germs that cause deadly plagues are a result of an accidental mutation in a disease that normally inhabits another species of animal; this hop is rare, but the chances go way up if you expose a whole lot of animals to a whole lot of people. This happened in Europe because Europe, out of everywhere in the world, won the domesticated animals contest. In North America specifically, there simply weren't a lot of animals that could be domesticated (there are reasons that out of the millions of species of animals that exist, we've domesticated maybe 13 if you really stretch, across the whole of human existence: Cow, pig, sheep, chicken, dog, cat, ~~ox~~ donkey, horse, llama, camel, yak, honey bee, silk worm. That's about it, at least for the colonial era; As we've gotten more technology, we can domesticate tougher-to-domesticate animals (like just in the last couple decades we can finally start domesticating buffalo/bison). The fact that we Europeans could domesticate pigs and sheep and cows and goats, meant they could settle in one place rather than nomadically hunt for food, which made planting crops desirable, which leads to more food, which leads to more people, and more domestication, then more food, then more food, and boom, a city. Another part of plagues is that they need to spread quickly to kill quickly, and old European cities were fertile breeding grounds of horrible sanitation and open meat markets before refrigeration. [This video]( URL_0 ) goes into more depth and explains it in a more complete way, and there's a follow-up that goes into why animals in America were less helpful in domestication. EDIT: TIL that an ox is just a male (sterilized) cow. For whatever reason I thought they were like an offshoot of yaks.	[ "In the first half of the 17th century, the Great Plague of Milan claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy, or about 14% of the population. In 1656, the plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants. More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain. The plague of 1649 probably reduced the population of Seville by half. In 1709–1713, a plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700–1721, Sweden v. Russia and allies) killed about 100,000 in Sweden, and 300,000 in Prussia. The plague killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of Helsinki, and claimed a third of Stockholm's population. Western Europe's last major epidemic occurred in 1720 in Marseilles, in Central Europe the last major outbreaks happened during the plague during the Great Northern War, and in Eastern Europe during the Russian plague of 1770–72.\n", "The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. The septicaemic plague is a form of \"blood poisoning\", and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck, and armpits, which oozed pus and bled. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When the plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land.\n", "The Native American population was devastated after contact with the Old World by introduction of many fatal diseases. In a well documented case of germ warfare involving British commander Jeffery Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, their correspondence included a proposal and agreement to give smallpox-infected blankets to Indians in order to \"Extirpate this Execrable Race\". During the siege of Fort Pitt late in the French and Indian War, as recorded in his journal by sundries trader and militia Captain, William Trent, on June 24, 1763, dignitaries from the Delaware tribe met with Fort Pitt officials, warned them of \"great numbers of Indians\" coming to attack the fort, and pleaded with them to leave the fort while there was still time. The commander of the fort refused to abandon the fort. Instead, the British gave as gifts two blankets, one silk handkerchief and one linen from the smallpox hospital to two Delaware Indian dignitaries. A devastating smallpox epidemic plagued Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes area through 1763 and 1764, but the effectiveness of individual instances of biological warfare remains unknown. After extensive review of surviving documentary evidence, historian Francis Jennings concluded the attempt at biological warfare was \"unquestionably effective at Fort Pitt\"; Smallpox after Pontiac's Rebellion killed 400,000–500,000 (possibly even up to 1.5 million) Native Americans.\n", "Chamomile was identified by Pliny as treatment for headaches and inflammation of the kidneys and liver.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Herbal medicines.:Disease prevention.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Herbal medicines.:Disease prevention.:Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis).\n\nHyssop was believed by Romans to prevent both the Antonine and Cyprian plagues. This inaccurate assumption was most likely based on the fact that Hyssop has oils that can treat coughing often found in plague victims.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Herbal medicines.:Disease prevention.:Garlic (Allium Sativum).\n\nGarlic is suggested as a sort of panacea in Galen's studies, and as such was used to fend off virus, bacteria, parasites, and fungus in Imperial Rome.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Herbal medicines.:Cough treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Herbal medicines.:Cough treatment.:Marshmallow (Althea officinallis).\n", "Plague has a long history as a biological weapon. Historical accounts from ancient China and medieval Europe detail the use of infected animal carcasses, such as cows or horses, and human carcasses, by the Xiongnu/Huns, Mongols, Turks and other groups, to contaminate enemy water supplies. Han Dynasty General Huo Qubing is recorded to have died of such a contamination while engaging in warfare against the Xiongnu. Plague victims were also reported to have been tossed by catapult into cities under siege.\n", "BULLET::::- In May 2006, KSL Newsradio reported a case of plague found in dead field mice and chipmunks at Natural Bridges National Monument about west of Blanding in San Juan County, Utah.\n\nBULLET::::- In May 2006, Arizona media reported a case of plague found in a cat.\n\nBULLET::::- In June 2006, one hundred deaths resulting from pneumonic plague were reported in Ituri district of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Control of the plague was proving difficult due to the ongoing conflict.\n", "Any plague is supposed to be brought on by the Mindye or some of its little ones. I have no doubt that, in generations gone by, there has been an awful plague of cholera or black fever, and that the wind at the time, or some other appearance from the north-west has given rise to this strange being.\n\nSection::::History.:Treaty.\n", "In the first century AD, Rufus of Ephesus, a Greek anatomist, refers to an outbreak of plague in Libya, Egypt, and Syria. He records that Alexandrian doctors named Dioscorides and Posidonius described symptoms including acute fever, pain, agitation, and delirium. Buboes—large, hard, and non-suppurating—developed behind the knees, around the elbows, and \"in the usual places.\" The death toll of those infected was very high. Rufus also wrote that similar buboes were reported by a Dionysius Curtus, who may have practiced medicine in Alexandria in the third century BC. If this is correct, the eastern Mediterranean world may have been familiar with bubonic plague at that early date.\n", "According to historian Kyle Harper, the symptoms attributed by ancient sources to the Plague of Cyprian better match a viral disease causing a hemorrhagic fever, such as ebola, rather than smallpox. (Conversely, Harper believes that the Antonine Plague was caused by smallpox.)\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "In the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC), Thucydides described an epidemic disease which was said to have begun in Ethiopia, passed through Egypt and Libya, then come to the Greek world. In the Plague of Athens, the city lost possibly one third of its population, including Pericles. Modern historians disagree on whether the plague was a critical factor in the loss of the war. Although this epidemic has long been considered an outbreak of plague, many modern scholars believe that typhus, smallpox, or measles may better fit the surviving descriptions. A recent study of DNA found in the dental pulp of plague victims suggests that typhoid was actually responsible.\n", "The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world. Plague was present in at least one location in the Islamic world virtually every year between 1500 and 1850. Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 to it in 1620–1621, and again in 1654–1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740–1742. Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and 31 between 1751 and 1800. Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.\n", "The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean from 14th through 17th centuries. Notable later outbreaks include the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, the Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652), the Great Plague of London (1665–1666), the Great Plague of Vienna (1679), the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1722 and the 1771 plague in Moscow.\n", "McNeill divided the book into six chapters and provides a cohesive progression of time that links all the chapters together. The titles of the chapters are as follows: Man the Hunter, Breakthrough to History, Confluence of the Civilized Disease-Pools of Eurasia: 500 B.C. to A.D 1200, The Impact of the Mongol Empire on Shifting Disease Balances(1200-1500), Transoceanic Exchanges(1500-1700), and The Ecological Impact of Medical Science and Organization Since 1700.\n\nMcNeill's writing style is one that focuses heavily on the details to ensure that the reader has a thorough knowledge of the subject he presents.\n", "Plagues and Peoples\n\nPlagues and Peoples is a book on epidemiological history by William Hardy McNeill published in New York City in 1976. It was a critical and popular success, offering a radically new interpretation of the extraordinary impact of infectious disease on cultures as a means of enemy attack. The book ranges from examining the effects of smallpox in Mexico, the bubonic plague in China, to the typhoid epidemic in Europe.\n", "Plasmids of \"Y. pestis\" have been detected in archaeological samples of the teeth of seven Bronze Age individuals from 5000 years ago (3000 BC), in the Afanasievo culture in Siberia, the Corded Ware culture in Estonia, the Sintashta culture in Russia, the Unetice culture in Poland and the Andronovo culture in Siberia. \"Y. pestis\" existed over Eurasia during the Bronze Age. Estimates of the age of the Most recent common ancestor of all \"Y. pestis\" is estimated at 5,783 years Before Present.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Plague! The Musical\", by David Massingham and Matthew Townend\n\nSection::::Art, media, and entertainment.:Television.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plague\" (2003 \"Dead Zone\" episode)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plague\" (2004 \"Deadwood\" episode)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Plague\" (1994 \"Diagnosis: Murder\" episode)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Plague\", second episode of the 1966 \"Doctor Who\" serial \"The Ark\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Plague\" (1996 \"Father Ted\" episode)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Plague\", English title of 2018 Spanish TV series \"La peste\"\n\nSection::::Religion.\n\nBULLET::::- Plagues of Egypt, the 10 calamities that God inflicted on Egypt in the book of Exodus\n\nBULLET::::- The seven plagues poured out from seven bowls in Revelation 15:5-16:21\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "In 1466, perhaps 40,000 people died of plague in Paris. During the 16th and 17th centuries, plague visited Paris for almost one year out of three. The Black Death ravaged Europe for three years before it continued on into Russia, where the disease hit somewhere once every five or six years from 1350 to 1490. Plague epidemics ravaged London in 1563, 1593, 1603, 1625, 1636, and 1665, reducing its population by 10 to 30% during those years. Over 10% of Amsterdam's population died in 1623–1625, and again in 1635–1636, 1655, and 1664. There were 22 outbreaks of plague in Venice between 1361 and 1528. The plague of 1576–1577 killed 50,000 in Venice, almost a third of the population. Late outbreaks in central Europe included the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, which is associated with troop movements during the Thirty Years' War, and the Great Plague of Vienna in 1679. Over 60% of Norway's population died from 1348 to 1350. The last plague outbreak ravaged Oslo in 1654.\n", "Some of the earliest instances of biological warfare were said to have been products of the plague, as armies of the 14th century were recorded catapulting diseased corpses over the walls of towns and villages to spread the pestilence.\n", "BULLET::::- Bauer, S. Wise, \"The Story of the World Activity Book Two: The Middle Ages : From the Fall of Rome to the Rise of the Renaissance\", Peace Hill Press, 2003,\n\nBULLET::::- Byrne, Joseph Patrick, \"Daily Life during the Black Death\", Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006,\n\nBULLET::::- Byrne, Joseph Patrick, \"Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues\", ABC-Clio, 2008,\n\nBULLET::::- Fee, Elizabeth, \"AIDS: the burdens of history\", University of California Press, 1988,\n\nBULLET::::- Haggard, Howard W., \"From Medicine Man to Doctor: The Story of the Science of Healing\", Courier Dover Publications, 2004,\n", "In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy, or about 14% of the population. In 1656, the plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants. More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain. The plague of 1649 probably reduced the population of Seville by half. In 1709–1713, a plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700–1721, Sweden v. Russia and allies) killed about 100,000 in Sweden, and 300,000 in Prussia. The plague killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of Helsinki, and claimed a third of Stockholm's population. Europe's last major epidemic occurred in 1720 in Marseille.\n", "During the early Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) mentioned \"plague-bearing seeds\" (\"pestifera semina\") in his \"On the Nature of Things\" (c. AD 613). Later in 1345, Tommaso del Garbo (c. 1305–1370) of Bologna, Italy mentioned Galen's \"seeds of plague\" in his work \"Commentaria non parum utilia in libros Galeni\" (Helpful commentaries on the books of Galen).\n\nSection::::Development.:Late Middle Ages.\n", "One hypothesis about the epidemiology—the appearance, spread, and especially disappearance—of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The black rat (\"Rattus rattus\") was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger brown rat (\"Rattus norvegicus\"). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology. The dynamic complexities of rat ecology, herd immunity in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity, and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its unexplained disappearance.\n", "The presence and death of a christian missionary during these events at Mohill is recorded. The conversion to Christianity and subsequent veneration of Manchan of Mohill (d. 538) as saint by the local populace is notable. This parish is named \"Mohill-Manchan\" to this day. \n", "Section::::History.\n", "The cause of the plague has long been disputed and other scientists have disputed the findings, citing serious methodologic flaws in the dental pulp-derived DNA study. The disease is most commonly transmitted through poor hygiene habits and public sanitation conditions; during the period in question related to Athens above, the whole population of Attica was besieged within the Long Walls and lived in tents.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Sixteenth and 17th centuries.\n\nA pair of epidemics struck the Mexican highlands in 1545 and 1576, causing an estimated 7 to 17 million deaths. A study published in 2018 suggests that the cause was typhoid fever.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03994	How do companies finance the purchasing of other companies?	Generally they buy them in in a combination of stock and cash. That means the owners of the company getting bought get some cold hard cash, plus some shares of the new company. In your example, Disney bought Lucas films for about $4B. It was about half in Disney stock and half cash. The mixture of stock and cash can vary heavily in a purchase. Sometimes its a full cash purchase, sometimes its a full stock purchase, other times, as in the example above, its a combination. In another cool Disney example, when Disney bought Pixar, it was all stock. Disney bought Pixar for about $7B in stock. The largest shareholder of Pixar, Steve Jobs (yes that Steve Jobs), since there was so much stock being exchanged, immediately became one of the largest private shareholders of Disney, owning close to 10% of the company (actually I believe he was the largest shareholder, and stayed that way until after his passing, his wife lowered their stake below 5%)	[ "Payment in the form of the acquiring company's stock, issued to the shareholders of the acquired company at a given ratio proportional to the valuation of the latter. They receive stock in the company that is purchasing the smaller subsidiary.\n\nSection::::Financing.:Financing options.\n", "Purchase price allocations are performed in conformity with the purchase method of merger and acquisition accounting. In the United States, a second method (known as the pooling or pooling-of-interests method) was discontinued after the issuance of the Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 141 “Business Combinations” (“SFAS 141”) and SFAS 142.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nA company wishes to acquire a particular target company for a variety of reasons. After much negotiation, a purchase price of $30B is agreed upon by both sides. As of the acquisition date, the target company reported net identifiable assets of $8B on its own balance sheet. \n", "Section::::Strategic planning.\n\nPEGs spend much time developing strategic plans and an investment case for a new platform to determine why they are buying a business and how to generate an attractive return. This analysis is usually even more comprehensive for businesses that are new to a PEG. For add-on acquisitions, PEGs sometimes lean more on the expertise of its relevant portfolio company's management to determine the fit, synergies and strategic benefits of a transaction.\n", "There are also a variety of structures used in securing control over the assets of a company, which have different tax and regulatory implications:\n\nBULLET::::- The buyer buys the shares, and therefore control, of the target company being purchased. Ownership control of the company in turn conveys effective control over the assets of the company, but since the company is acquired intact as a going concern, this form of transaction carries with it all of the liabilities accrued by that business over its past and all of the risks that company faces in its commercial environment.\n", "BULLET::::- Backward integration: This is a process by which a company acquires another company that produces the raw material or the ancillaries which are used by the former. This type of takeover guarantees, to a certain extent, an uninterrupted supply of raw materials and components at fair prices.\n", "The vast literature on empirical studies over value creation in cross-border M&A is not conclusive, but points to higher returns in cross-border M&As compared to domestic ones when the acquirer firm has the capability to exploit resources and knowledge of the target's firm and of handling challenges.\n", "BULLET::::- Forward integration: It is a process by which a company acquires another company that make use of its products to manufacture finished goods. This type of acquisition can go up to the point of retail outlets.\n", "Section::::Financing.:Private equity financing.\n\nIf a bank is unwilling to lend, the management will commonly look to private equity investors to fund the majority of buyout. A high proportion of management buyouts are financed in this way. The private equity investors will invest money in return for a proportion of the shares in the company, though they may also grant a loan to the management. The exact financial structuring will depend on the backer's desire to balance the risk with its return, with debt being less risky but less profitable than capital investment.\n", "BULLET::::- The buyer buys the assets of the target company. The cash the target receives from the sell-off is paid back to its shareholders by dividend or through liquidation. This type of transaction leaves the target company as an empty shell, if the buyer buys out the entire assets. A buyer often structures the transaction as an asset purchase to \"cherry-pick\" the assets that it wants and leave out the assets and liabilities that it does not. This can be particularly important where foreseeable liabilities may include future, unquantified damage awards such as those that could arise from litigation over defective products, employee benefits or terminations, or environmental damage. A disadvantage of this structure is the tax that many jurisdictions, particularly outside the United States, impose on transfers of the individual assets, whereas stock transactions can frequently be structured as like-kind exchanges or other arrangements that are tax-free or tax-neutral, both to the buyer and to the seller's shareholders.\n", "The five most common ways to value a business are\n\nBULLET::::- asset valuation,\n\nBULLET::::- historical earnings valuation,\n\nBULLET::::- future maintainable earnings valuation,\n\nBULLET::::- relative valuation (comparable company and comparable transactions),\n\nBULLET::::- discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation\n\nProfessionals who value businesses generally do not use just one method but a \"combination\"\n", "BULLET::::- First, for each of the three cases, a scenario specific, \"internally consistent\" forecast of cashflows - see discussion under Financial modeling - is constructed for the years leading up to the assumed divestment by the private equity investor.\n\nBULLET::::- Next, a divestment price - i.e. a Terminal value - is modelled by assuming an exit multiple consistent with the scenario in question. (Of course, the divestment may take various forms - see Investments in private equity under Private equity.)\n", "Mergers are generally differentiated from acquisitions partly by the way in which they are financed and partly by the relative size of the companies. Various methods of financing an M&A deal exist:\n\nSection::::Financing.:Cash.\n\nPayment by cash. Such transactions are usually termed acquisitions rather than mergers because the shareholders of the target company are removed from the picture and the target comes under the (indirect) control of the bidder's shareholders.\n\nSection::::Financing.:Stock.\n", "BULLET::::- The company buys a number of smaller companies using a stock swap, diluting the value of the target's stock.\n", "BULLET::::- Taxation: A profitable company can buy a loss maker to use the target's loss as their advantage by reducing their tax liability. In the United States and many other countries, rules are in place to limit the ability of profitable companies to \"shop\" for loss making companies, limiting the tax motive of an acquiring company.\n", "\"Companies\" tend to be lenders of capital. When companies have surplus cash that is not needed for a short period of time, they may seek to make money from their cash surplus by lending it via short term markets called money markets. Alternatively, such companies may decide to return the cash surplus to their shareholders (e.g. via a share repurchase or dividend payment).\n\nSection::::Raising capital.:Borrowers.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Individuals\" borrow money via bankers' loans for short term needs or longer term mortgages to help finance a house purchase.\n", "Section::::Different types.:Strategic mergers.\n\nA Strategic merger usually refers to long term strategic holding of target (Acquired) firm. This type of M&A process aims at creating synergies in the long run by increased market share, broad customer base, and corporate strength of business. A strategic acquirer may also be willing to pay a premium offer to target firm in the outlook of the synergy value created after M&A process.\n\nSection::::Different types.:Acqui-hire.\n", "To account for this type of investment, the purchasing company uses the equity method. Under the equity method, the purchaser records its investment at original cost. This balance increases with income and decreases for dividends from the subsidiary that accrue to the purchaser.\n\nTreatment of \"Purchase Differentials\": At the time of purchase, purchase differentials arise from the difference between the cost of the investment and the book value of the underlying assets.\n\nPurchase differentials have two components:\n\nBULLET::::- The difference between the fair market value of the underlying assets and their book value.\n", "Section::::Documentation.\n\nThe documentation of an M&A transaction often begins with a letter of intent. The letter of intent generally does not bind the parties to commit to a transaction, but may bind the parties to confidentiality and exclusivity obligations so that the transaction can be considered through a due diligence process involving lawyers, accountants, tax advisors, and other professionals, as well as business people from both sides.\n", "Finally, the acquirer adds both the value of the written-up assets ($24B) as well as the goodwill ($6B) onto the balance sheet, for a total of $30B in new net assets on the acquirer's balance sheet. \n", "Corporate acquisitions can be characterized for legal purposes as either \"asset purchases\" in which the seller sells business assets to the buyer, or \"equity purchases\" in which the buyer purchases equity interests in a target company from one or more selling shareholders. Asset purchases are common in technology transactions where the buyer is most interested in particular intellectual property rights but does not want to acquire liabilities or other contractual relationships. An asset purchase structure may also be used when the buyer wishes to buy a particular division or unit of a company which is not a separate legal entity. There are numerous challenges particular to this type of transaction, including isolating the specific assets and liabilities that pertain to the unit, determining whether the unit utilizes services from other units of the selling company, transferring employees, transferring permits and licenses, and ensuring that the seller does not compete with the buyer in the same business area in the future.\n", "Instead of going through underwriters, corporations can make a primary issue or right issue of its debt or stock, which involves the issue by a corporation of its own debt or new stock directly to institutional investors or the public or it can seek additional capital from existing shareholders.\n", "Often a company acquiring another pays a specified amount for it. This money can be raised in a number of ways. Although the company may have sufficient funds available in its account, remitting payment entirely from the acquiring company's cash on hand is unusual. More often, it will be borrowed from a bank, or raised by an issue of bonds. Acquisitions financed through debt are known as leveraged buyouts, and the debt will often be moved down onto the balance sheet of the acquired company. The acquired company then has to pay back the debt. This is a technique often used by private equity companies. The debt ratio of financing can go as high as 80% in some cases. In such a case, the acquiring company would only need to raise 20% of the purchase price.\n", "The process begins with defining the type of business that would make a good acquisition. Generally businesses within the same segment or a highly complementary market segment are targeted. Once defined the target business is approached and if interest is shown due diligence is performed to ascertain the financial and other conditions of the business.\n\nWhen the financial terms are agreed upon, and the contract is signed the merger portion of the acquisition begins. Overlapping processes, personnel and products are evaluated and the better-performing pieces are retained.\n\nSection::::Single business acquisitions and split and sell.\n", "Section::::NCI at the reporting date.:Intra-group trading.\n\nIn a group of companies, they can have trade relations with each other. For example, company A buys goods for one price and sells them to another company inside the group for another price. Thus, company A has earned some revenue from selling, but the group as a whole didn't make any profit out of that transaction. Until those goods are sold to an outsider company, the group has unrealised profit.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Associate company\n\nBULLET::::- Business valuation\n\nBULLET::::- Consolidation (business)\n\nBULLET::::- Enterprise value\n\nBULLET::::- Minority interest\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "As synergy plays a large role in the valuation of acquisitions, it is paramount to get the value of synergies right. Synergies are different from the \"sales price\" valuation of the firm, as they will accrue to the buyer. Hence, the analysis should be done from the acquiring firm's point of view. Synergy-creating investments are started by the choice of the acquirer, and therefore they are not obligatory, making them essentially real options. To include this real options aspect into analysis of acquisition targets is one interesting issue that has been studied lately.\n\nSection::::Financing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01068	How does the electric company measure how much electricity you are using during different times of the day. (peak vs non peak hours) If they only read it once a month.	If they're billing you for power you're using at different times of day then they are either reading it multiple times per day or they have a smart meter that is storing the data and being read out once a month Old power meters were dumb, they were just a dial that spun up quicker the more power you used. Modern power meters have communication built in. Some communicate via 4G and cell towers, others communicate over the powerlines using a system like TWACS. If they read your meter at the beginning and end of peak hours then they know how much you used during peak. If they use 4G to send back hourly readings then they can give you a graph of how much power you used each hour. The alternative solution is a smart meter that records the data and then someone plugs into once a month, but systems like TWACS and 4G are preferred because you no longer need a dude driving around in a truck just to read meters.	[ "Larger local authorities tend to trade their unmetered energy on a half-hourly basis. To do so, they employ a meter administrator who will use daily data from a photo-electric control unit (PECU) array which is then used to calculate the energy consumption. A PECU array is a device that holds a representative number of the photocells that authority uses on their street lights or traffic signals. By trading energy as unmetered half-hourly the authority will accurately pay for the energy consumed by their declared unmetered equipment, and because the data is downloaded daily the authority will see their energy invoices change throughout the year to represent the changes in season and daily lighting levels.\n", "Data collector\n\nIn the UK electricity system, a data collector (DC) is responsible for determining the amount of electricity supplied so that the customer can be correctly billed.\n\nSection::::Half-hourly.\n\nFor half-hourly metered supplies, the HHDC retrieves the energy consumption data from the meter and makes any necessary estimates. The HH data is a history of the customer's electricity consumption for each half-hour period.\n\nSection::::Non-half-hourly.\n", "Electric power is usually measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). For example, if an electric load that draws 1.5 kW of electric power is operated for 8 hours, it uses 12 kWh of electric energy. In the United States, a residential electric customer is charged based on the amount of electric energy one uses. On the customer bill, the electric utility states the amount of electric energy, in kilowatt-hours (kWh), that the customer used since the last bill, and the cost of the energy per kilowatt-hour (kWh).\n", "If the equipment is street lighting the same process is used; however, the annual hours will change as each photocell is assigned a set number of annual hours which indicate how and when the lights turn on and off. These annual hours have been set by Elexon and are not locally agreed with the UMSO by the customer.\n", "When energy savings during certain periods are desired, some meters may measure demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. \"Time of day\" metering allows electric rates to be changed during a day, to record usage during peak high-cost periods and off-peak, lower-cost, periods. Also, in some areas meters have relays for demand response load shedding during peak load periods.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Direct current.\n", "Section::::Units.\n\nThe most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour [\"kWh\"], which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600,000 joules. Some electricity companies use the SI megajoule instead.\n\nDemand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a quarter- or half-hour.\n", "Data from the DC (EAC/ AA's) is provided to the non half hourly data aggregator, which aggregates the individual values provided into a single figure split in a number of ways e.g. geographically or by supplier. This aggregated data is then provided to the Central Systems, maintained by Elexon, to determine the value of energy which has been used by suppliers so that they are able to settle with the distribution network which generated the energy. The process is known as balancing and settlement and is regulated according to the Balancing and Settlement Code (BSC).\n\nSection::::Payment.\n", "Savings are determined through simulation of the energy use of the facility, or of a sub-facility. The simulation model must be calibrated so that it predicts an energy pattern that approximately matches actual metered data.\n", "For a non-half-hourly supply, the NHHDC sets the change of supplier (CoS) read from a meter read, a customer read or a deemed read. A deemed read is one estimated by the NHHDC based on any previous or subsequent readings. A CoS read can be disputed up to final reconciliation. Final reconciliation is fourteen months afterwards. If a normal read comes in after final reconciliation that is lower than the CoS read, the new supplier should credit the customer.\n", "Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid, while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls. Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid. This is handled by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes. If the net electricity use is below zero, the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month. Other approaches involve the use of two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter. Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions, making a second meter unnecessary.\n", "Smart meter power data usage patterns can reveal much more than how much power is being used. Research has demonstrated that smart meters sampling power levels at two-second intervals can reliably identify when different electrical devices are in use.\n", "Half-hourly meters (HHM) record electricity consumption for every half-hour of every day, and generally provide this data to the supplier automatically via a telephone connection. Some organisations with high annual energy consumption do not use HHM, as their supplies are mainly on unrestricted or Economy 7 (day/night or 'evening and weekend') tariffs. However, they may nevertheless have to provide 'footprint reports'.\n\nSection::::Operating mechanisms.\n", "If, however, the unmetered supplies are being traded as non half-hourly the UMSO undertakes the responsibility to calculate an EAC (Estimated Annual Consumption). This is done using a simple formula which takes into account the circuit watts of the equipment and the annual hours of operation. For example, a piece of equipment that is in use 24 hours per day will have annual hours of 8766. For, say, a CCTV camera rated at 24 circuit watts the EAC would be 210.384kWh, calculated as circuit watts x annual hours divided by 1000.\n", "Electrical energy is typically sold to consumers in kilowatt hours. The cost of running an electric device is calculated by multiplying the device's power consumption in kilowatts by the running time in hours and then by the price per kilowatt hour. The unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Prices vary considerably by locality. In the United States prices in different states can vary by a factor of three.\n", "Electricity meter\n\nAn electricity meter, electric meter, electrical meter, or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electric energy consumed by a residence, a business, or an electrically powered device.\n\nElectric utilities use electric meters installed at customers' premises for billing purposes. They are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common one being the kilowatt hour (\"kWh\"). They are usually read once each billing period.\n", "Some utilities will charge customers based on their individual peak demand. The highest demand during each month or even a single 15 to 30 minute period of highest use in the previous year may be used to calculate charges.\n\nSection::::Demand Tariff.\n", "Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by sources such as electric batteries. It is usually supplied to businesses and homes (as domestic mains electricity) by the electric power industry through an electric power grid. Electric energy is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (1 kW·h = 3.6 MJ) which is the product of the power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using an electricity meter, which keeps a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer.\n", "BULLET::::- Demand rates - based on the peak demand of electricity a consumer uses\n\nBULLET::::- Tiered within TOU - different rates depending on how much they use at a specific time of day\n\nBULLET::::- Seasonal rates - charged for those that do not use their facilities year round (e.g. a cottage)\n\nBULLET::::- and weekend/holiday rates - generally different rates than during normal times. among the few residential rate structures offered by modern utilities.\n", "Before the seller can sell electricity to the buyer, the project must be fully tested and commissioned to ensure reliability and comply with established commercial practices. The commercial operation date is defined as the date after which all testing and commissioning has been completed and is the initiation date to which the seller can start producing electricity for sale (i.e. when the project has been substantially completed). The commercial operation date also specifies the period of operation, including an end date that is contractually agreed upon.\n\nSection::::Contract timeline.:Preemptive termination date.\n", "Testing included SMART Shift, a time-of-day rate plan that helps customers save money by load shifting and SMART Cooling, an air-conditioning technology that helps reduce peak demand in the summer. During the project, eView was developed to assist customers in monitoring their electric use and costs as well as estimating current month usage to measure against their energy budget. eView is an in-home device that communicates with the smart meter through wireless technology and informs the consumer of the price of electricity and how much was being used.\n", "Time of use (TOU) net metering employs a smart (electric) meter that is programmed to determine electricity usage any time during the day. Time-of-use allows utility rates and charges to be assessed based on when the electricity was used (i.e., day/night and seasonal rates). Typically the generation cost of electricity is highest during the daytime peak usage period, and lowest at night.\n", "The two most common distinctions between customer classes are load size and usage profile. In many cases, time-of-use (TOU) and load factor are more significant factors than load size. Contribution to peak-load is an extremely important factor in determining customer rate class (e.g. large users are normally charged on a per kVA basis based on their monthly peak load). Consumer loads may be characterized as peak, off-peak, base load, and seasonal. Utilities rate each load differently, because each has different implications for a power system and costs.\n", "Investors in the energy industry typically look to the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for comparing generation technologies (e.g. solar power, natural gas) in the long term, as it includes ongoing fuel, maintenance, and operation costs. The U.S. Department of Energy tracks and makes publicly available levelized cost of energy figures for competing technologies. These figures will vary substantially in other countries due to different energy policies and domestic energy sources.\n", "In retail energy markets, supplier obligations are settled on an hourly or subhourly basis. For most customers, consumption is measured on a monthly basis, based on meter reading schedules. Load profiles are used to convert the monthly consumption data into estimates of hourly or subhourly consumption in order to determine the supplier obligation. For each hour, these estimates are aggregated for all customers of an energy supplier, and the aggregate amount is used in market settlement calculations as the total demand that must be covered by the supplier.\n\nSection::::Calculating and recording load profiles.\n", "Customers are usually charged a monthly service fee and additional charges based on the electrical energy (in kWh) consumed by the household or business during the month. Commercial and industrial consumers normally have more complex pricing schemes. These require meters that measure the energy usage in time intervals (such as a half-hour) to impose charges based on both the amount of energy consumed and the maximum rate of consumption, i.e. the maximum demand. This is usually called peak demand charge. Frequent reporting also allows the retailer to pass on the spot price (with some markup) to its customers.\n\nSection::::Monopoly supply.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16637	I've read the wiki, but still need it dubbed down. What does "right to work" mean? I'm from Kansas, which is a right to work state, but I still don't understand it.	Workers unions work best when most or all of the workers at any particular business have joined the union, because this allows all of the workers to negotiate with the business as one group, which tends to result in better outcomes for those workers, like better pay, better benefits, better pensions, and more protections. One of the best ways a union can enforce that is by negotiating a contract with the business where it's agreed that the business will only hire people who join the union. These "right to work" laws do not actually create any substantial right to work or pay, but they do make those sorts of contracts illegal. It's just called a "right to work" because that sounds a lot better than banning union security agreements.	[ "Right to work\n\nThe right to work is the concept that people have a human right to work, or engage in productive employment, and may not be prevented from doing so. The right to work is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law through its inclusion in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, where the right to work emphasizes economic, social and cultural development.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n\nArticle 23.1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:\n", "Right-to-work law\n\nIn the context of U.S. labor politics, \"right-to-work laws\" refers to state laws that prohibit union security agreements between companies and labor unions. Under these laws, employees in unionized workplaces are banned from negotiating contracts which require all members who benefit from the union contract to contribute to the costs of union representation.\n", "Right-to-work laws (either by statutes or by constitutional provision) exist in 26 U.S. states, in the Southern, Midwestern, and interior Western states. Business interests represented by the United States Chamber of Commerce have lobbied extensively to pass right-to-work legislation. Such laws are allowed under the 1947 federal Taft–Hartley Act. A further distinction is often made within the law between people employed by state and municipal governments and those employed by the private sector, with states that are otherwise union shop (i.e., workers must pay for union representation in order to obtain or retain a job) having right to work laws in effect for government employees; provided, however, that the law also permits an \"agency shop\" where employees pay their share for representation (less than union dues), while not joining the union as members.\n", "The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights states in Part III, Article 6:\n\nThe African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights also recognises the right, emphasising conditions and pay, i.e. labor rights. Article 15, states:\n\nSection::::History.\n", "According to the Conservative think tank, the American Enterprise Institute, the term \"right to work\" was coined by \"Dallas Morning News\" editorial writer William Ruggles.\n\nSection::::History.:Wagner Act (1935).\n\nThe National Labor Relations Act, generally known as the Wagner Act, was passed in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's \"Second New Deal.\" Among other things, the Act provided that a company could lawfully agree to be any of the following:\n", "A February 2011 study by the Economic Policy Institute found:\n", "The first arguments concerning the right to work centered on the rights of a dissenting minority with respect to an opposing majoritarian collective bargain. President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal had prompted many U.S. Supreme Court challenges, among which were challenges regarding the constitutionality of the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA). In 1936, as a part of its ruling in \"Carter v. Carter Coal Co.\" the Court ruled against mandatory collective bargaining, stating:\n", "According to the National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation, right-to-work laws prohibit union security agreements, or agreements between employers and labor unions, that govern the extent to which an established union can require employees' membership, payment of union dues, or fees as a condition of employment, either before or after hiring. Right-to-work laws do not aim to provide general guarantee of employment to people seeking work, but rather are a government ban on contractual agreements between employers and union employees requiring workers to pay for the costs of union representation.\n", "Section::::U.S. states with right-to-work laws.\n\nThe following 26 states have right-to-work laws:\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama (adopted 1953, Constitution 2016)\n\nBULLET::::- Arizona (Constitution, adopted 1946)\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas (Constitution, adopted 1947)\n\nBULLET::::- Florida (Constitution, adopted 1944, revised 1968)\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia (adopted 1947)\n\nBULLET::::- Idaho (adopted 1985)\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana (adopted, 2012)\n\nBULLET::::- Iowa (adopted 1947)\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas (Constitution, adopted 1958)\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky (adopted 2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Louisiana (adopted 1976)\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan (adopted, 2012)\n\nBULLET::::- Mississippi (Constitution, adopted 1954)\n\nBULLET::::- Nebraska (Constitution and statute, adopted 1946)\n\nBULLET::::- Nevada (adopted 1951)\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina (adopted 1947)\n\nBULLET::::- North Dakota (adopted 1947)\n\nBULLET::::- Oklahoma (Constitution, adopted 2001)\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Origins.\n\nAccording to \"Slate,\n\nright-to-work laws are derived from legislation forbidding unions from forcing strikes on workers, as well as from legal principles such as liberty of contract, which as applied here sought to prevent passage of laws regulating workplace conditions.\n\nAccording to \"PandoDaily\" and \"NSFWCORP\", the term itself was coined by Vance Muse, a Republican operative who headed an early right-to-work group, the \"Christian American Association\", to replace the term \"American Plan\" after it became associated with the anti-union violence of the First Red Scare. Muse used racist rhetoric in his defense of \"right-to-work\" laws.\n", "Section::::Rights of workers.:Full employment.\n\n\"We must first direct our attention to a fundamental issue: the question of finding work, or, in other words, the issue of suitable employment for all who are capable of it.\" The problem is not a lack of resources—\"conspicuous natural resources remain unused\"—but poor organization. The criterion of full employment will only be achieved through planning and coordination among all the indirect employers, and a better coordination of education with employment.\n\nSection::::Rights of workers.:Wages and benefits.\n", "Right-to-work proponents, including the Center for Union Facts, contend that political contributions made by unions are not representative of the union workers. The agency shop portion of this had previously been contested with support of National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation in \"Communications Workers of America v. Beck\", resulting in \"Beck rights\" preventing agency fees from being used for expenses outside of collective bargaining if the non-union worker notifies the union of their objection. The right to challenge the fees must include the right to have it heard by an impartial fact finder. Beck applies only to unions in the private sector, given agency fees were struck down for public-sector unions in \"Janus v. AFSCME\" in 2018.\n", "Right-to-work laws are statutes in effect and enforced in twenty-seven U.S. states that prohibit union security agreements between employers and workers' unions. In order to build membership and bolster their financial resources, unions often try to convince employers to include a \"union security clause\" in the contracts they negotiate. These clauses specify union membership and financial support requirements for employees. Security clauses are necessary, argue the unions, to support the costs of bargaining and employee representation.\n", "In the United States, \"right to work\" laws as passed by states have sometimes been attempts to curtail union organizing. In other cases, they have been directed against regulation of qualifications for certain positions, including professional fields governed by professional organizations. Numerous U.S. states have passed laws requiring licensing, testing, or educational requirements, often in response to voter complaints about ill-prepared persons, such as people claiming medical expertise. The Friedmans reported in 1980 that\n", "Under Right-to-work laws, employees in unionized workplaces may not be compelled to join a union, nor compelled to pay for any part of the cost of union representation. When union leadership chooses to be certified as exclusive representatives of a bargaining unit, it thereby subjects itself to the Duty of Fair Representation, a federal requirement to serve all members of the bargaining unit, irrespective of whether they pay dues or not. It is based on this choice to be exclusive representatives that unions create the condition whereby they then claim those in Right To Work states who refuse to pay dues are \"free-riders\" and that Right To Work laws therefore deprive unions of their property.\n", "Section::::Arguments for and against.:Freedom of association.\n", "On November 18, 2016, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the right of local governments to enact local right-to-work laws in Kentucky, Ohio, and the other states of its jurisdiction.\n\nIn August 2018, 67% of Missouri voters rejected a right-to-work law with 33% voting in favor.\n\nSection::::Arguments for and against.\n\nSection::::Arguments for and against.:Minority rights and due process.\n", "Section::::U.S. states with right-to-work laws.:Repealed and local right-to-work laws.:Indiana.\n\nBefore its passage in 2012, the Republican-controlled Indiana General Assembly passed a right-to-work bill in 1957, which led to the Democratic takeover of Indiana's Governor's Mansion and General Assembly in the coming elections, and eventually, the new Democrat-controlled legislature repealing the right-to-work law in 1965.\n\nSection::::U.S. states with right-to-work laws.:Repealed and local right-to-work laws.:Missouri.\n\nThe legislature of Missouri passed a right-to-work bill in 2017, but the law was defeated in a 2018 referendum before it could take effect.\n\nSection::::U.S. states with right-to-work laws.:Repealed and local right-to-work laws.:New Hampshire.\n", "National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation\n\nThe National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation, established in 1968, is a nonprofit, charitable organization whose stated mission is to \"eliminate coercive union power through strategic litigation, public information, and education programs\".\n\nSection::::Right-to-work principle.\n\nThe Right to Work principle–the guiding concept of the National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation–affirms the right of every American to work for a living without being compelled to belong to a union.\n", "The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution limit the power of the federal and state governments to discriminate. The private sector is not directly constrained by the Constitution, but several laws, particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964, limit the private sector discrimination against certain groups. The Fifth Amendment has an explicit requirement that the Federal Government not deprive individuals of \"life, liberty, or property\", without due process of law and an implicit guarantee that each person receive equal protection of the law. The Fourteenth Amendment explicitly prohibits states from violating an individual's rights of due process and equal protection. Equal protection limits the State and Federal governments' power to discriminate in their employment practices by treating employees, former employees, or job applicants unequally because of membership in a group, like a race, religion or sex. Due process protection requires that employees have a fair procedural process before they are terminated if the termination is related to a \"liberty\", like the right to free speech, or a property interest.\n", "Section::::Arguments for and against.:Free riders.\n", "Many laws were supported by existing professionals and their organizations in an effort to ensure a level of competence. Other observers believe their efforts were directed at simply restraining competition to increase prices for fees. In response, entrepreneurs and activists have won numerous court cases securing constitutional protection for the right to earn a living. Such cases have won the right to work for Louisiana monks who sell caskets, Philadelphia independent tour guides, Colorado taxi drivers, and Connecticut interior designers.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Some states had right-to-work laws in the past, but repealed them or had them declared invalid. There are also some counties and municipalities located in states without right-to-work laws that have passed local laws to ban union security agreements.\n\nSection::::U.S. states with right-to-work laws.:Repealed and local right-to-work laws.:Delaware.\n\nIn Delaware, Seaford passed a right-to-work ordinance in 2018.\n\nSection::::U.S. states with right-to-work laws.:Repealed and local right-to-work laws.:Illinois.\n\nIn Illinois, Lincolnshire passed a local right-to-work ordinance, but it was struck down by the District Court of Northern Illinois and Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals. \n", "In 1935, the National Labor Relations Act recognized and protected \"the rights of most workers in the private sector to organize labor unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to take part in strikes and other forms of concerted activity in support of their demands.\" However, many states hold to the principle of at-will employment, which says an employee can be fired for any or no reason, without warning and without recourse, unless violation of State or Federal civil rights laws can be proven. In 2011, 11.8% of U.S. workers were members of labor unions with 37% of public sector (government) workers in unions while only 6.9% of private sector workers were union members.\n", "Although Texas is a right-to-work state, such protections are governed by law; the state does not have a constitutional provision related to right-to-work.\n\nSection::::Articles of the Texas Constitution of 1876.:Article 17: \"Mode of amending the Constitution of this State\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15862	Why exactly does the toilet bowl get dirty over time (like the ring around the water)	Not all of the line at the edge of the water is bacteria. In the water the city provides there are metals and other things that actually give the water a certain taste. (Distilled water tastes different than tap) the lining on the edge of the water is a combination of bacteria and leftover stuff from the water evaporating. If your house gets it's water from a well that's rich in iron, you'll see a slightly rust colored ring at the edge	[ "Tired of being bossed around by his brother (Gobble), who is extremely overweight and spends his whole time lying in bed watching TV and eating junk food, while he just spends the whole day working, a young man runs away from home; when he stops at a toilet block, he gets locked in. The messages in the graffiti written around the toilet block seem to come true. The effects of the message include: The toilet paper roll in the holder starting to \"rock'n'roll,\" the toilet block getting locked, people gathering around and dancing, a rat being flushed away into the toilet and a velvet throne replacing the toilet. As the toilet block opens, the man writes a message saying that his brother disappears and the man goes home and sees that his brother is gone forever\n", "Pollutant concentration levels are influenced by the age and condition of the collection system and the amount of infiltration/inflow in comparison to the sanitary flow. Pollutant concentration peaks depend on size and slope of the piping system, time interval between storms, and solids accumulation in the collection system. Steeper sewer gradients and pipe bottom shapes that maintain high velocity flow during low-flow conditions will reduce sediment accumulation in sewers; and periodic sewer flushing of individual lines during dry weather may move accumulated solids to the wastewater treatment plant before stormwater runoff causes simultaneous peak flow in the entire collection system.\n", "Section::::Operation and maintenance.:Inappropriate wastes.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Sewage (treated and untreated).\n\nGroundwater pollution can be caused by untreated waste discharge leading to diseases like skin lesions, bloody diarrhea and dermatitis. This is more common in locations having limited wastewater treatment infrastructure, or where there are systematic failures of the on-site sewage disposal system. Along with pathogens and nutrients, untreated sewage can also have an important load of heavy metals that may seep into the groundwater system.\n", "Category 3 Water - Known as \"black water\" and is grossly unsanitary. This water contains unsanitary agents, harmful bacteria and fungi, causing severe discomfort or sickness. Type 3 category are contaminated water sources that affect the indoor environment. This category includes water sources from sewage, seawater, rising water from rivers or streams, ground surface water or standing water. Category 2 Water or Grey Water that is not promptly removed from the structure and or have remained stagnant may be re classified as Category 3 Water. Toilet back flows that originates from beyond the toilet trap is considered black water contamination regardless of visible content or color.\n", "The \"first flush\" from urban runoff can be extremely dirty. Storm water may become contaminated while running down the road or other impervious surface, or from lawn chemical run-off, before entering the drain.\n", "BULLET::::- Insoluble particles small enough to be carried through the septic tank will accumulate at the soil interface of the disposal trench; non-biodegradable particles like synthetic fiber lint from laundry, mineral soil from washing, or bone and eggshell fragments from garbage disposals will remain to fill interstitial areas formerly available for water flow out of the trench.\n", "The next one there was old lady Grayson – she couldn't get in so she peed in the basin\n\nit was the same water the next washed her face in – and nobody knew they were there.\n\n/poem\n", "At this point, the toilet parts without their molds look like and are about as strong as soft clay. After about one hour the top core mold (interior of toilet) is removed. The rim mold bottom (which includes a place to mount the holding tank) is removed, and it then has appropriate slanted holes for the rinsing jets cut, and the mounting holes for tank and seat are punched into the rim piece. Valve holes for rapid water entry into the toilet are cut into the rim pieces. The exposed top of the bowl piece is then covered with a thick slip and the still-uncured rim is attached on top of the bowl so that the bowl and hollow rim are now a single piece. The bowl plus rim is then inverted, and the toilet bowl is set upside down on the top rim mold to hold the pieces together as they dry. Later, all the rest of the mold pieces are removed. As the clay body dries further it hardens more and continues to shrink. After a few hours, the casting is self-supporting, and is called greenware.\n", "After flushing, the flapper valve in the water tank closes or the flush valve shuts; water lines and valves connected to the water supply refill the toilet tank and bowl. Then the toilet is again ready for use.\n\nSection::::Bowl design.:Siphonic bowls.:Double trap siphonic toilet.\n", "It is a commonly held misconception that when flushed, the water in a toilet bowl swirls one way if the toilet is north of the equator and the other way if south of the equator, due to the Coriolis effect – usually, counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. In reality, the direction that the water takes is much more determined by the direction that the bowl's rim jets are pointed, and it can be made to flush in either direction in either hemisphere by simply redirecting the rim jets during manufacture. On the scale of bathtubs and toilets, the Coriolis effect is too weak to be observed except under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.\n", "Plastic bottles, plastic bags, inflatable toys, baseballs and environmental debris like tree limbs, are all skimmed from the waterways and deposited into oversized dumpsters for removal. In decades past, there used to be larger items, such as sofas and refrigerators. But over the years, the skimmer boats have removed most of those. Still, there is the occasional unlikely item, such as the live deer that was recently rescued to dry ground.\n", "Section::::Washboard Sam version.\n", "A risk for periphyton stems from urbanization. Increased turbidity levels associated with urban sprawl can smother periphyton causing its detachment from the rocks on which it lives. It can be important for the clearance of harmful chemicals and reducing turbidity.\n\nPeriphyton serves as an indicator of water quality because:\n\nSection::::Food source.\n", "Decentralized failures in dry weather mainly occur from collection sewer line blockages, which can arise from a debris clog or tree root intrusion into the line itself. Approximately half of SSOs in the United States are caused by blockage. Grease is the blocking agent in approximately half of U.S. SSOs attributed to blockage, and solid debris is the blocking agent for another 25 percent. Roots are a contributing factor in approximately one-quarter of United States SSOs attributed to blockage. Grease deposits are caused by cooking fats liquified with hot water for discharge to sanitary sewers. These fats congeal as solid deposits in the cooler sewer. Solid debris includes soiled clothing, diapers, and sanitary napkins flushed down the toilet rather than being put in a waste bin.\n", "Section::::Indoor use and end uses.:Indoor leaks.\n\nLeaks, or flows of water without a discernible purpose, were observed in nearly 90 percent of monitored homes. The loss of water through leaks accounted for 12 percent of average indoor water use. Estimated loss of water in average household is 6200 gallons (23,500 liters) per year. Common types of leaks include running toilets, slow-leaking toilet flappers, partially opened or dripping faucets, and other cracked or open supply lines. While all observed leaks are included in indoor use, some leaks could occur on outdoor bibs or water features.\n\nSection::::Indoor use and end uses.:Dish washing.\n", "After the pieces are removed from the kiln and fully cooled, they are inspected for cracks or other defects. Then, the flushing mechanism may be installed on a one-piece toilet. On a two-piece toilet with a separate tank, the flushing mechanism may only be placed into the tank, with final assembly at installation.\n", "Some of the heavier sediment and small objects may settle in a catch basin, or sump, which lies immediately below the outlet, where water from the top of the catch basin reservoir overflows into the sewer proper. The catchbasin serves much the same function as the \"trap\" in household wastewater plumbing in trapping objects.\n", "All plumbing fixtures have traps in their drains; these traps are either internal or external to the fixtures. Traps are pipes which curve down then back up; they 'trap' a small amount of water to create a water seal between the ambient air space and the inside of the drain system. This prevents sewer gas from entering buildings. \n\nMost water closets, bidets, and many urinals have the trap integral with the fixture itself. The visible water surface in a toilet is the top of the trap's water seal.\n", "The rapid influx of water into the bowl causes the standing water in the bowl to rise and fill the S-shaped siphon tube mounted in the back of the toilet. This starts the toilet's siphonic action. The siphon action quickly \"pulls\" nearly all of the water and waste in the bowl and the on-rushing tank water down the drain in about 4–7 seconds —it flushes. When most of the water has drained out of the bowl, the continuous column of water through the siphon is broken when air enters the siphon tube. The toilet then gives its characteristic gurgle as the siphonic action ceases and no more water flows out of the toilet.\n", "Since 1994, there is a significant move towards using less water for flushing toilets. This has resulted in the emergence of low flush toilet designs and local or national standards on water consumption for flushing. As an alternative some people modify an existing high flush toilet to use less water by placing a brick or water bottle into the toilet's water tank. Other modifications are often done on the water system itself (such as by using greywater), or a system that pollutes the water less, for more efficient water use.\n", "Category 2 Water - Refers to a source of water that contains a significant degree of chemical, biological or physical contaminants and causes discomfort or sickness when consumed or even exposed to. Known as \"grey water\". This type carries microorganisms and nutrients of micro-organisms. Examples are toilet bowls with urine (no feces), sump pump failures, seepage due to hydrostatic failure and water discharge from dishwashers or washing machines.\n", "Restaurant and foodservice kitchens produce much waste grease which is present in the drain lines from various sinks, dishwashers and cooking equipment such as combi ovens and commercial woks. If not removed, the grease can clump and cause blockage and back-up in the sewer.\n", "Section::::Bowl design.:Non-siphonic bowls.:Washdown toilet.\n\nWashdown toilets are the most common form of pedestal and cantilever toilets outside North America. The bowl has a large opening at the top which tapers down to a water trap at the base. It is flushed from the top by water discharged through a flushing rim or jets. The force of the water flowing into the bowl washes the waste through the trap and into the drains.\n", "Toilet cleaner\n\nToilet cleaners are chemical solutions used for cleaning the toilet, usually in conjunction with a toilet brush.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nToilet cleaner is sprayed around the rim and the bowl of the toilet prior to the use of the toilet brush. The toilet brush is used to scrub the toilet, removing stubborn stains and biological debris. In recent times, automatic toilet bowl cleaners that clip onto the rim of the toilet and clean with every flush have also become prevalent.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08136	why are humans seemingly the only species that appreciate/understand music and more specifically, rhythm?	There was a study done on shelter dogs - they slept longer and barked less when classical music played, compared to no music. Also, some guys composed music specifically so cats would like it. The same guys did music for monkeys too. Cows produce more milk when music is played consistently at milking time. Elephants can keep a drum beat better than an average person. Also birds. Just, in general.	[ "Snowden and Teie created species-specific music and tested it on cotton-top tamarins, \"Saguinus oedipus\" at the University of Wisconsin. The results of this study, indicated that species-specific music was the most effective music to elicit a response. There have also been cases where composers have performed with animals for example, David Rothenberg, is a musician who has created music with humpback whales, \"Megaptera novaeangliae.\" Both of these examples are discussed in greater detail below.\n", "Some types of parrots can know rhythm . Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation of rhythm yet posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost (e.g. by stroke). \"There is not a single report of an animal being trained to tap, peck, or move in synchrony with an auditory beat\" (, cited in , who adds, \"No doubt many pet lovers will dispute this notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lippizaner horses of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. It is not clear whether they are doing so or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them.\") Human rhythmic arts are possibly to some extent rooted in courtship ritual .\n", "Music is the only form of communication that saves us from an overwhelming amount of small talk. This is not only a human phenomenon, but happens throughout the animal world. Thomas makes examples of animals from termites and earthworms to gorillas and alligators that perform some sort of rhythmic noise making that can be interpreted as music if we had full range of hearing. From the vast number of animals that participate in music it is clear that the need to make music is a fundamental characteristic of biology. Thomas proposes that the animal world is continuing a musical memory that has been going since the beginning of time.\n", "Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, \"do animals have music?\" François-Bernard Mâche's \"Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion\" (1983), a study of \"ornitho-musicology\" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's \"Langage, musique, poésie\" (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that \"in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human.\"\n", "Entrainment (biomusicology)\n\nEntrainment in the biomusicological sense refers to the synchronization (e.g. foot tapping) of organisms to an external perceived rhythm such as human music and dance. Humans are the only species for which all individuals experience entrainment, although there are documented examples of entrained nonhuman individuals.\n\nSection::::Beat induction.\n", "Perhaps the most well-known form of music found in non-human animals is birdsong. Birdsong is different from normal calls. For example, a call will usually simply function to communicate a direct message. For instance, a bird call could be used to direct attention that a predator is near. Meanwhile, a song contains more repetition and usually will have distinct structure to it, with a specific beginning, middle, and end. In many species of songbirds, songs seem to be used both as a way to attract potential mates, as well as to mark and defend one's territory. It has been observed that young songbirds acquire their ability to produce song from imitation of adult birds. Interestingly enough, there seems to be a critical period for song learning. In one experiment, they compared birds raised in isolation, (this involved isolation from other birds as well as the vocalizations of other birds), with those raised in a colony, without these forms of isolation. Using an fMRI scan and the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) as a measurement of brain activity, it was found that birds raised in the isolation condition did not appear to show a preference between their own songs and a repetitive song. Meanwhile, colony-raised birds showed a stronger reaction to their own song being played back.\n", "Section::::Computational models.\n\nComputational neuroscience is the theoretical study of the brain used to uncover the principles and mechanisms that guide the development, organization, information-processing and mental abilities of the nervous system. Many computational models have attempted to quantify the process of how various rhythms are created by humans.\n\nSection::::Computational models.:Avian song learning.\n\nJuvenile avian song learning is one of the best animal models used to study generation and recognition of rhythm. The ability for birds to process a tutor song and then generate a perfect replica of that song, underlies our ability to learn rhythm.\n", "Snowden and Teie performed an experiment on Cotton-top tamarins, \"Saguinus oedipus\", to determine if music would lead to behavioural changes, and whether music made by other species would elicit similar behavioural responses as the music of one's own species. This experiment involved two separate categories of music - one was affiliation-based, the other was fear/threat-based music. Within the two categories, the experimenter varied whether the music was produced by humans or tamarins. During the experiment, a baseline behaviour measurement was established, proceeded by the experimental condition, which was a piece of music that was played for 30 seconds. Following this, behaviour was analyzed for a total of 5 minutes. This analysis was made by an observer who was unaware of the true hypothesis of the experiment, and simply noted different behaviours which they had witnessed. The experimenters found that the Tamarins altered their behaviour specifically when listening to Tamarin music. For example, when music from the affiliation condition was played, the behavioural response of the tamarins involved a decrease in overall movement and an increase in both social and foraging behaviour. This contrasted the behaviour observed when the fear/threat based music was played. During this condition, the Tamarins were more likely to move around and show anxiety-based behaviour, as well as, an increase in social behaviour similar to that seen in the affiliation condition. Although the Tamarins did not show behavioural changes to human music as clearly as they did to their species-specific music, there was some behavioural change. The Tamarins showed decreased movement when listening to human fear/threat based music and a decrease in anxious behaviour when listening to human affiliation music. This experiment, demonstrates that music is capable of eliciting changes in the behaviour of animals, most especially when the music is species-specific.\n", "Section::::Auditory enrichment and therapeutic effects of music on animals.:Dogs.\n", "Composers have evoked or imitated animal sounds in compositions including Jean-Philippe Rameau's \"The Hen\" (1728), Camille Saint-Saëns's \"Carnival of the Animals\" (1886), Olivier Messiaen's \"Catalogue of the Birds\" (1956–58) and Pauline Oliveros's \"El Relicario de los Animales\" (1977). Other examples include Alan Hovhaness's \"And God Created Great Whales\" (1970), George Crumb's \"Vox Balaenae\" (Voice of the Whale) (1971) and Gabriel Pareyon's \"Invention over the song of the Vireo atriccapillus\" (1999) and \"Kha Pijpichtli Kuikatl\" (2003). The Indian zoomusicologist, A. J. Mithra has composed music using bird, animal and frog sounds since 2008.\n\nSection::::Functions and effects of music on animals.\n", "It has been noted since ancient times that elephants seem to have an affinity for music. Performing circus elephants commonly follow musical cues, and early American circuses such as Adam Forepaugh and Barnum & Bailey even featured \"elephant bands.\" In the 1950s, German evolutionary biologist Bernard Rensch found that elephants can distinguish 12 tones on the musical scale and remember simple melodies, even when played on different instruments at various pitches, timbres, and meters.\n", "This animal model has been said to be more similar to humans than birds. It has been shown that humans demonstrate 15–30 Hz (Beta) oscillations in the cortex while performing muscle coordination exercises. This was also seen in macaque monkey cortices. The cortical local field potentials (LFPs) of conscious monkeys were recorded while they performed a precision grip task. More specifically, the pyramidal tract neurons (PTNs) were targeted for measurement. The primary frequency recorded was between 15–30 Hz, the same oscillation found in humans. These findings indicate that the macaque monkey cortex could be a good model for rhythm perception and production. One example of how this model is used is the investigation of the role of motor cortex PTNs in \"corticomuscular coherence\" (muscle coordination). In similar study where LFPs were recorded from macaque monkeys while they performed a precision grip task, it was seen that the disruption of the PTN resulted in a greatly reduced oscillatory response. Stimulation of the PTN caused the monkeys to not be able to perform the grip task as well. It was concluded that PTNs in the motor cortex directly influence the generation of Beta rhythms.\n", "Musicians Caninus, Hatebeak and Lil B have used animals as lead or backing vocalists.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 20th century classical music\n\nBULLET::::- Aleatoricism\n\nBULLET::::- Avant-garde\n\nBULLET::::- Biomusicology\n\nBULLET::::- Contemporary music\n\nBULLET::::- Sound map\n\nBULLET::::- Zoomusicology\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Baptista, L. Gray, P. M. Krause, B. et al. The Music of Nature and the Nature of Music. \"Science:\" January 5, 2001.\n\nBULLET::::- Cope, David \"Techniques of the Contemporary Composer\" ()\n\nBULLET::::- Krause, Bernie. The Great Animal Orchestra: Finding the Origins of Music in the World's Wild Places. (Little Brown, March, 1012)\n", "Section::::Emotion recognition.:Complexity.\n\nBecause musical complexity is a psychophysical dimension, the cue-redundancy model predicts that complexity is perceived independently of experience. However, South African and Finnish listeners assign different complexity ratings to identical African folk songs. Thus, the cue-redundancy model may be overly simplistic in its distinctions between structural feature detection and cultural learning, at least in the case of complexity.\n\nSection::::Emotion recognition.:Repetition.\n", "Neuroscientist Ani Patel proposes beat induction—referring to it as \"beat-based rhythm processing\"—as a key area in music-language research, suggesting beat induction \"a fundamental aspect of music cognition that is not a byproduct of cognitive mechanisms that also serve other, more clearly adaptive, domains (e.g. auditory scene analysis or language)\" (Patel, 2008).\n\nSection::::Evolutionary function.\n", "Section::::Functions and effects of music on animals.:Mammals.\n", "The 9th century scholar al-Jahiz wrote works on the social organization and communication methods of animals like ants. The 11th century Arabic writer Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the \"Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals\", an early treatise dealing with the effects of music on animals. In the treatise, he demonstrates how a camel's pace could be hastened or retarded with the use of music, and shows other examples of how music can affect animal behavior, experimenting with horses, birds and reptiles. Through to the 19th century, a majority of scholars in the Western world continued to believe that music was a distinctly human phenomenon, but experiments since then have vindicated Ibn al-Haytham's view that music does indeed have an effect on animals.\n", "Section::::Functions and effects of music on animals.:Insects.\n", "BULLET::::- A marsh wren can learn to sing over 150 bird songs, while the white-crowned sparrow can only learn a single song. Thus, the number of songs that can be sung varies between species of birds, due to relative limitations in their cognitive processing abilities.\n", "Although it was long generally thought that cats were unresponsive to music, recent studies have shown that they do in fact respond to music which has been created with species-specific frequencies. Results suggested that cats do benefit from music therapy when the sounds have been composed to target their auditory senses. Other findings include age-related sensitivity (older and younger cats were more responsive than middle aged cats).\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the human ability to be entrained was developed by the forces of natural selection as an important part of achieving the specific altered state of consciousness, battle trance. Achieving this state, in which humans lose their individuality, do not feel fear and pain, are united in a shared collective identity, and act in the best interests of the group, was crucial for the physical survival of our ancestors against the big African predators, after hominids descended from the safer trees to the dangerous ground and became terrestrial.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Choir\n\nBULLET::::- Evolutionary musicology\n", "At least two groups of scientists, namely Luis Felipe Baptista and Robin A. Keister in 2005, and Adam Tierney and colleagues in 2011, have argued that birdsong has a similar structure to music. Baptista and Keister argue that the way birds use variations of rhythm, relationships of musical pitch, and combinations of notes is somewhat musical, perhaps because some birds exploit variation in song to avoid monotony, or mimic other species. Tierney argues that the similar motor constraints on human and avian song drive these to have similar song structures, including \"arch-shaped and descending melodic contours in musical phrases\", long notes at the ends of phrases, and typically small differences in pitch between adjacent notes.\n", "Primates also have been trained to use touch screens to tell a researcher their musical preferences. In Toronto, for hundreds of songs in random order, orangutans were given one 30-second segment of a song, and then chose between repeating that segment or 30 seconds of silence. Different orangutans chose to replay from 8% to 48% of the segments, and all exhibited stress throughout the trials. There was no pattern of selections by genre, and the researchers did not look for other attributes which were shared by the orangutans' chosen segments. No comparison was available of how many 30-second segments humans would repeat in the same situation. In another experiment the orangutans did not distinguish between music played in its original order and music sliced into half-second intervals which were played in random order. Chimpanzees can hear higher frequencies than humans; if orangutans can too, and if these overtones are present in the recordings, the overtones would affect their choices.\n", "In a study at the University of Leicester, Liam MacKenzie and Adrian North found that playing music for dairy cows had an effect on the amount of milk that they produced. Over a nine-week period, dairy cows were exposed to fast ( 120 BPM), slow (< 100 BPM), and no music. Music was played for the cows 12 hours a day from 5 AM to 5 PM. The study found that cows exposed to slow music, like REM's 'Everybody Hurts' or Beethoven's 'Pastoral Symphony,' produced 3% more milk than cows that were exposed to fast music, like Pumping on your Stereo by Supergrass and 'Size of a Cow' by Wonderstuff. Bovine milk production has long been thought to be affected by exposure to music. Some farmers already expose their cows to music to aid in milk production.\n" ]	[ "Humans are the only species that appreciate/understand music and more specifically, rhythm.", "Only humans enjoy music." ]	[ "Humans are not the only species that appreciate/understand music and more specifically, rhythm; dogs, cats, monkeys, cows, elephants and birds also appreciate music.", "Other animals such as dogs, cats, cows, and elephants have shown positive reactions to music." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans are the only species that appreciate/understand music and more specifically, rhythm.", "Only humans enjoy music." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans are not the only species that appreciate/understand music and more specifically, rhythm; dogs, cats, monkeys, cows, elephants and birds also appreciate music.", "Other animals such as dogs, cats, cows, and elephants have shown positive reactions to music." ]
2018-03221	how does fusion of atoms cause a huge explosion in a nuclear weapon?	There are two kinds of nuclear weapons fission and fusion bombs. Fission bombs work by taking a mass of a super-heavy element like Uranium or Plutonium and putting it in a super critical state. Basically you shoot a lump of uranium into another (the gun method) or more commonly detonate explosives to suddenly compress the Uranium uniformly. This causes an out of control reaction where the atoms break apart become lighter elements. The released free neutrons smash into other atoms smashing them as well in a process called a chain-reaction. As atoms break apart they release energy. The famous equation E=MC^2 defines that the amount of energy released from matter in this reaction is equal to its Mass x the speed of light Squared. Which is a HUGE amount of energy. Fusion bombs work by fusing small amount of Hydrogen gas into Helium. They typical work but putting a small amount of hydrogen at the core of a Fission bomb to trigger the nuclear fusion. As lighter elements like hydrogen fuse energy is released E=MC^2. This is the mechanism that our sun operates by. The key difference is that lighter elements release energy when they fuse, while heavier elements like Uranium require more energy inputed into them to cause fusion than they release. And the opposite is true. Uranium releases energy as it breaks down, while Helium for instance would require the input of energy to be broken down. The tipping point for this on the Periodic Table is Iron. Iron is the lightest element that requires more energy to cause fusion than it releases. Once a star starts to make Iron at it's core it dies because it can no longer produce enough energy to counter it's own gravity. The largest stars explode as a result of this, causing a super nova. The release of energy during a super nova is what creates elements heavier than iron. URL_0	[ "BULLET::::2. Energy released in the primary stage is transferred to the secondary (or fusion) stage. The exact mechanism whereby this happens is highly classified. This energy compresses the fusion fuel and sparkplug; the compressed sparkplug becomes critical and undergoes a fission chain reaction, further heating the compressed fusion fuel to a high enough temperature to induce fusion, and also supplying neutrons that react with lithium to create tritium for fusion.\n", "In early news accounts, pure fission weapons were called atomic bombs or A-bombs and weapons involving fusion were called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs. Practitioners however favor the terms nuclear and thermonuclear, respectively.\n\nSection::::Nuclear reactions.\n\nNuclear fission separates or splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms. Nuclear fusion combines together lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. Both reactions generate roughly a million times more energy than comparable chemical reactions, making nuclear bombs a million times more powerful than non-nuclear bombs, which a French patent claimed in May 1939.\n", "In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is forced into supercriticality—allowing an exponential growth of nuclear chain reactions—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the \"gun\" method) or by compression of a sub-critical sphere or cylinder of fissile material using chemically-fueled explosive lenses. The latter approach, the \"implosion\" method, is more sophisticated than the former.\n", "BULLET::::1. An implosion assembly type of fission bomb explodes. This is the primary stage. If a small amount of deuterium/tritium gas is placed inside the primary's core, it will be compressed during the explosion and a nuclear fusion reaction will occur; the released neutrons from this fusion reaction will induce further fission in the plutonium-239 or uranium-235 used in the primary stage. The use of fusion fuel to enhance the efficiency of a fission reaction is called boosting. Without boosting, a large portion of the fissile material will remain unreacted; the Little Boy and Fat Man bombs had an efficiency of only 1.4% and 17%, respectively, because they were unboosted.\n", "Nuclear explosion\n\nA nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission or nuclear fusion or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion-based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a pure fusion weapon remains a hypothetical device.\n", "BULLET::::- staged thermonuclear weapons are essentially arrangements of two or more \"stages\", most usually two. The first stage is always a boosted fission weapon as above. Its detonation causes it to shine intensely with x-radiation, which illuminates and implodes the second stage filled with a large quantity of fusion fuel. This sets in motion a sequence of events which results in a thermonuclear, or fusion, burn. This process affords potential yields up to hundreds of times those of fission weapons.\n", "Atomic bombs are based on the theory of nuclear fission, that when a large atom splits, it releases a massive amount of energy. Thermonuclear weapons, (colloquially known as \"hydrogen bombs\") use the energy from an initial fission explosion to create an even more powerful fusion explosion.\n", "BULLET::::4. Pushed from both sides (from the primary and the spark plug), the lithium deuteride fuel is highly compressed and heated to thermonuclear temperatures. Also, by being bombarded with neutrons, each lithium-6 atom splits into one tritium atom and one alpha particle. Then begins a fusion reaction between the tritium and the deuterium, releasing even more neutrons, and a huge amount of energy.\n", "Section::::Fusion in fusors.:Net power.\n\nAt such conditions, the atoms are ionized and make a plasma. The energy generated by fusion, inside a hot plasma cloud can be found with the following equation.\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3 is the fusion power density (energy per time per volume),\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\" is the number density of species A or B (particles per volume),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4 is the product of the collision cross-section \"σ\" (which depends on the relative velocity) and the relative velocity of the two species \"v\", averaged over all the particle velocities in the system, and\n", "The public records for devices that produced the highest proportion of their yield via fusion-only reactions are possibly the Taiga Soviet peaceful nuclear explosions of the 1970s, with 98% of their 15 kiloton explosive yield being derived from fusion reactions, a total fission fraction of 0.3 kilotons in a 15 kt device.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Nuclear.\n\nIn addition to stellar nuclear explosions, a man-made nuclear weapon is a type of explosive weapon that derives its destructive force from nuclear fission or from a combination of fission and fusion. As a result, even a nuclear weapon with a small yield is significantly more powerful than the largest conventional explosives available, with a single weapon capable of completely destroying an entire city.\n\nSection::::Properties of explosions.\n\nSection::::Properties of explosions.:Force.\n", "Nuclear isomers have also been investigated for use in pure fusion weaponry. Hafnium and tantalum isomers can be induced to emit very strong gamma radiation. Gamma emission from these isomers may have enough energy to start a thermonuclear reaction, without requiring any fissile material.\n\nNanotechnology can theoretically be used to develop miniaturised laser-triggered pure fusion weapons that will be easier to produce than conventional nuclear weapons.\n\nSection::::Hypothetical effects of a pure fusion weapon.\n", "BULLET::::- Shaped charge: The effect of the explosive charge is focused onto a specially shaped metal liner to project a hypervelocity jet of metal, to perforate heavy armour.\n\nBULLET::::- Explosively formed penetrator: Instead of turning a thin metal liner into a focused jet, the detonation wave is directed against a concave metal plate at the front of the warhead, propelling it at high velocity while simultaneously deforming it into a projectile.\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear: A runaway nuclear fission (fission bomb) or nuclear fusion (Thermonuclear weapon) reaction causes immense energy release.\n", "The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). All such weapons derive a significant portion of their energy from fission reactions used to \"trigger\" fusion reactions, and fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.\n", "BULLET::::- Finally, the heat for fusion ignition comes not from the primary but from a second fission bomb called the spark plug, embedded in the heart of the secondary. The implosion of the secondary implodes this spark plug, detonating it and igniting fusion in the material around it, but the spark plug then continues to fission in the neutron-rich environment until it is fully consumed, adding significantly to the yield.\n", "The secondary fusion stage—consisting of outer pusher/tamper, fusion fuel filler and central plutonium spark plug—is imploded by the X-ray energy impinging on its pusher/tamper. This compresses the entire secondary stage and drives up the density of the plutonium spark plug. The density of the plutonium fuel rises to such an extent that the spark plug is driven into a supercritical state, and it begins a nuclear fission chain reaction. The fission products so produced heat the highly compressed, and thus superdense, thermonuclear fuel surrounding the spark plug to the region of some three hundred million Kelvins, igniting fusion reactions between fusion fuel nuclei. In modern weapons fueled by lithium deuteride, the fissioning plutonium spark plug also emits free neutrons which collide with lithium nuclei and supply the tritium component of the thermonuclear fuel.\n", "When this type of bomb explodes, the fission of the highly enriched uranium or plutonium core creates neutrons, some of which escape and strike atoms of lithium-6, creating tritium. At the temperature created by fission in the core, tritium and deuterium can undergo thermonuclear fusion without a high level of compression. The fusion of tritium and deuterium produces a neutron with an energy of 14 MeV—a much higher energy than the 1 MeV of the neutron that began the reaction. This creation of high-energy neutrons, rather than energy yield, is the main purpose of fusion in this kind of weapon. This 14 MeV neutron then strikes an atom of uranium-238, causing fission: without this fusion stage, the original 1 MeV neutron hitting an atom of uranium-238 would probably have just been absorbed. This fission then releases energy and also neutrons, which then create more tritium from the remaining lithium-6, and so on, in a continuous cycle. Energy from fission of uranium-238 is useful in weapons: both because depleted uranium is much cheaper than highly enriched uranium and because it cannot go critical and is therefore less likely to be involved in a catastrophic accident.\n", "BULLET::::- Mobile magazine explosion: On 25 May 1865, in Mobile, Alabama, in the United States, an ordnance depot (magazine) exploded, killing 300 people. This event occurred just after the end of the American Civil War, during the occupation of the city by victorious Federal troops.\n", "Nuclear weapons possess enormous destructive power from nuclear fission or combined fission and fusion reactions. Building on scientific breakthroughs made during the 1930s, the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada collaborated during World War II, in what was called the Manhattan Project, to counter the suspected Nazi German atomic bomb project. In August 1945, two fission bombs were dropped on Japan, standing to date as the only use of nuclear weapons in combat. The Soviet Union started development shortly thereafter with their own atomic bomb project, and not long after that both countries developed even more powerful fusion weapons known as \"hydrogen bombs\".\n", "BULLET::::- : On 20 April 1944, the Liberty ship SS \"Paul Hamilton\" was attacked off Cape Bengut near Algiers by Luftwaffe bombers. The ship and 580 personnel aboard were destroyed within 30 seconds when the cargo of bombs and explosives detonated.\n\nBULLET::::- West Loch disaster: On 21 May 1944, an ammunition handling accident in Pearl Harbor destroyed six LSTs and three LCTs. Four more LSTs, ten tugs, and a net tender were damaged. Eleven buildings were destroyed ashore and nine more damaged. Nearly 400 military personnel were killed.\n", "A third important nuclear reaction is the one that creates tritium, essential to the type of fusion used in weapons. Tritium, or hydrogen-3, is made by bombarding lithium-6 (Li) with a neutron (n). This neutron bombardment will cause the lithium-6 nucleus to split, producing helium-4 (He) plus tritium (T) and energy:\n", "Some atoms, notably uranium-238, do not usually undergo fission when struck by slow neutrons, but do split when struck with neutrons of high enough energy. The fast neutrons produced in a hydrogen bomb by fusion of deuterium and tritium have even higher energy than the fast neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This makes it possible to increase the yield of any given fusion weapon by the simple expedient of adding layers of cheap natural (or even depleted) uranium. Fast fission of uranium-238 provides a large part of the explosive yield, and fallout, in many designs of hydrogen bomb.\n", "BULLET::::- Ivy Mike shot off Operation Ivy, the first detonation of a thermonuclear weapon, yields 10.4 megatons of TNT out of a fusion fuel of liquid deuterium.\n\nBULLET::::- Cousins and Ware build a larger toroidal pinch device in England and demonstrated that the plasma in pinch devices is inherently unstable.\n\nBULLET::::- 1953\n\nBULLET::::- The Soviet RDS-6S test, code named \"Joe 4\", demonstrated a fission/fusion/fission (\"Layercake\") design for a nuclear weapon.\n", "Section::::Types.:Thermobaric.\n\nA thermobaric bomb is a type of explosive that utilizes oxygen from the surrounding air to generate an intense, high-temperature explosion, and in practice the blast wave typically produced by such a weapon is of a significantly longer duration than that produced by a conventional condensed explosive. The fuel-air bomb is one of the best-known types of thermobaric weapons.\n\nSection::::Types.:Nuclear fission.\n", "BULLET::::- Fort York magazine explosion: On 27 April 1813, the magazine of Fort York in Ontario (now Toronto) was fired by retreating British troops during an American invasion. Thirty thousand pounds of gunpowder and thirty thousand cartridges exploded sending debris, cannon and musket balls over the American troops. Thirty eight soldiers, including General Zebulon Pike the American commander, were killed and 222 were wounded.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04218	Does washing hands with hot water really get them any cleaner than washing with warm/cold water?	After a quick google search, I have found that there have been many studies about this, and all of them have concluded that washing with cold water is just as effective as washing with hot water.	[ "Hot water that is comfortable for washing hands is not hot enough to kill bacteria. Bacteria grow much faster at body temperature (37 C). However, warm, soapy water is more effective than cold, soapy water at removing natural oils which hold soils and bacteria. Contrary to popular belief however, scientific studies have shown that using warm water has no effect on reducing the microbial load on hands.\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n", "With the aim of decreasing net efficiency, some brands of laundry detergent have been reformulated for use with cold water. By allowing the consumer to use cold water rather than hot, each load cuts back significantly on energy costs.\n\nSection::::Environmentally benign alternatives.:2-Butoxylethanol, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether (EGBE).\n\n2-Butoxyethanol is a common glycol ether used as a solvent in carpet, hard-surface, glass, and oven cleaners owing to its surfactant properties. It is a relatively cheap, volatile solvent of low toxicity. It has the further advantage of not bioaccumulating.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental effects of laundry wastewater\n\nBULLET::::- Green cleaning\n", "One must use soap and warm running water if possible and wash all the skin and nails thoroughly. However, ash can substitute for soap (see substances above) and cold water can also be used.\n", "Second-hand goods are considered to be quite safe. The South Australian Public Health Directorate says that the health risk of buying used clothing is very low. It explains that washing purchased items in hot water is just one of several ways to eliminate the risk of contracting infectious diseases.\n\nSection::::Sale of new goods.\n", "During laundering, temperature and detergent work to reduce microbial contamination levels on fabrics. Soil and microbes from fabrics are severed and suspended in the wash water. These are then \"washed away\" during the rinse and spin cycles. In addition to physical removal, micro-organisms can be killed by thermal inactivation which increases as the temperature is increased. Chemical inactivation of microbes by the surfactants and activated oxygen-based bleach used in detergents contributes to the hygiene effectiveness of laundering. Adding hypochlorite bleach in the washing process achieves inactivation of microbes. A number of other factors can contribute including drying and ironing.\n", "However, higher-temperature washing uses more energy, and many fabrics and elastics are damaged at higher temperatures. Temperatures exceeding have the undesirable effect of inactivating the enzymes when using biological detergent.\n\nMany machines are cold-fill, connected to cold water only, which they heat to operating temperature. Where water can be heated more cheaply or with less carbon dioxide emission than by electricity, cold-fill operation is inefficient.\n", "In 2013 the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene (IFH) reviewed some 30 studies of the hygiene effectiveness of laundering at temperatures ranging from room temperature to 70 °C, under varying conditions. A key finding was the lack of standardisation and control within studies, and the variability in test conditions between studies such as wash cycle time, number of rinses, etc. The consequent variability in the data (i.e., the reduction in contamination on fabrics) obtained, in turn makes it extremely difficult to propose guidelines for laundering with any confidence, based on currently available data. As a result, there is significant variability in the recommendations for hygienic laundering of clothing etc. given by different agencies.\n", "Routine cleaning of (hand, food, drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of pathogens. The infection risk from flush toilets is not high, provided they are properly maintained, although some splashing and aerosol formation can occur during flushing, particularly when someone has diarrhea. Pathogens can survive in the scum or scale left behind on baths, showers and wash basins after washing and bathing.\n", "Items contaminated by chemicals such as wax, cigarette ash, poisons, mineral oils, wet paints, oiled tools, furnace filters, etc. can contaminate a dishwasher, since the surfaces inside small water passages cannot be wiped clean as surfaces are in hand-washing, so contaminants remain to affect future loads. Objects contaminated by solvents may explode in a dishwasher.\n\nSection::::Differences between dishwashers and hand washing.:Environmental comparison.\n\nDishwashers use less water, and therefore less fuel to heat the water, than hand washing, except for small quantities washed in wash bowls without running water.\n", "The International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a risk management approach to reducing home infection risks. This approach uses microbiological and epidemiological evidence to identify the key routes of infection transmission in the home. These data indicate that the critical routes involve the hands, hand and food contact surfaces and cleaning utensils. Clothing and household linens involve somewhat lower risks. Surfaces that contact the body, such as baths and hand basins, can act as infection vehicles, as can surfaces associated with toilets. Airborne transmission can be important for some pathogens. A key aspect of this approach is that it maximises protection against pathogens and infection, but is more relaxed about visible cleanliness in order to sustain normal exposure to other human, animal and environmental microbes.\n", "First one should rinse hands with warm water, keeping hands below wrists and forearms, to prevent contaminated water from moving from the hands to the wrists and arms. The warm water helps to open pores, which helps with the removal of microorganisms, without removing skin oils. One should use five milliliters of liquid soap, to completely cover the hands, and rub wet, soapy hands together, outside the running water, for at least 20 seconds. The most commonly missed areas are the thumb, the wrist, the areas between the fingers, and under fingernails. Artificial nails and chipped nail polish harbor microorganisms.\n", "Handwashing prevents spreading infection. Washing before and after handling food, after using the bathroom, changing diapers, or handling pets.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nCaregivers of infants less than four months old:\n\nBULLET::::- 41% didn't wash their hands after petting animals;\n\nBULLET::::- 32% didn't wash their hands after changing the baby's diaper;\n\nBULLET::::- 15% didn't wash their hands after using the bathroom;\n\nBULLET::::- 10% didn't wash their hands after handling raw meat;\n\nBULLET::::- 5% didn't wash their hands after gardening or working with soil.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Chinese milk scandal\n\nBULLET::::- Daigou\n\nBULLET::::- Food safety\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Of concern is recent data suggesting that, in reality, modern domestic washing machines do not reach the temperature specified on the machine controls.\n\nSection::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Medical hygiene at home.\n", "BULLET::::- Drying with the jet-air dryer resulted in an increase on average of the total number of bacteria on the finger pads by 42% and on the palms by 15%.\n\nBULLET::::- After washing and drying hands with a paper towel, the total number of bacteria was reduced on average on the finger pads by up to 76% and on the palms by up to 77%.\n", "Section::::Cleaning processes.:Finishing.\n\nCleaners often polish hoods for easier cleaning and improved appearance. Cleaners apply a certification sticker to the hood of each cleaned kitchen exhaust system to enable the authority having jurisdiction as well as insurance adjusters and health inspectors to check for compliance with the local, county and state fire codes. Vinegar and warm water can be used to remove any white residue left from the commercial kitchen grease cleaning process.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n\nMany jurisdictions have adopted this nations minimum available standard, National Fire Protection Association Standard 96, \"Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations\",\n", "Once the chemicals are applied, they are allowed to dwell on the surface of the grease for a period of time, before being washed off of the surface with hot water. In extreme situations, where grease buildup is too heavy for a chemical application and a rinse, scrapers may be used to remove excess buildup from the contaminated surfaces, before chemicals are applied.\n\nSection::::Cleaning processes.:Hot water pressure-washing.\n", "A major variation in method is the temperature and state of the water. Asians and Latin Americans usually prefer running water because it is seen as being more hygienic as the water is not being reused, and usually use cold water. This is practical in environments where hot water is rarely available from the tap, and sinks are perceived as dirty surfaces (essentially a convenient drain). Westerners usually prefer standing hot water. This is practical in environments where hot water is cheaply and easily available, and sinks are perceived as clean surfaces (essentially a bowl with a convenient drainage device). In this method, the sink is usually first filled with dirty dishes (which may have already been rinsed and scraped to remove most food) and hot, soapy water. The detergent is added while the sink is filling with water, so a layer of suds forms at the top. Then the dishes are washed one by one and thoroughly rinsed to remove the grease dislodged by soap and mechanical action as well as the soap itself, then placed on a rack to begin drying, or dried and put away immediately by a second person. When the sink is empty, if there are more dishes to be washed they may be added to the same dishwater, or the sink may be drained and refilled if clean, hot dishwater is desired.\n", "The effect of the laundry balls may be explained by simple mechanical action and by the usage of hotter water. Some manufacturers claim that their products reduce energy consumption, but their pamphlets recommend using hot water. Hot water will clean some types of spots better than cold water, leading some people to conclude that the balls worked. The mechanical action of the laundry balls can help clean some types of spots, but a golf ball will achieve the same effect for much less money.\n\nSection::::Claimed mechanisms of action.:Infrared.\n", "BULLET::::- Improved handwashing practices among healthcare staff must be implemented through proper orientation and training. Functional hand washing stations at strategic points of care within the health facilities must be provided. In low resource settings, a sink or basin with water and soap or hand sanitizer need to be available at points of care and toilets.\n", "There are five critical times during the day where washing hands with soap is important to reduce fecal-oral transmission of disease: after defecation, after cleaning a child's bottom, before feeding a child, before eating and before preparing food or handling raw meat, fish, or poultry.\n\nSection::::Public health.:Behavior change.\n", "The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA recommends hand washing over hand sanitizer rubs, particularly when hands are visibly dirty. The increasing use of these agents is based on their ease of use and rapid killing activity against micro-organisms; however, they should not serve as a replacement for proper hand washing unless soap and water are unavailable.\n", "Conventionally, the household laundering machine would heat up the tap water to provide a better laundry condition for the dirty stain on the cloth to dissolve. This is because most stubborn stain have better solubility in the hot solvent. However, the energy used in this process is not negligible and thus it is a cost-worthy way to do traditional household laundering. After laundry enzymes were introduced into the market, the situation has been improved significantly. For energy saving, there are no longer extra usage of high temperature in household or dishwashers because the temperature used has been lessened recently. It is mentioned that laundry enzymes are still in highest performance even in cold tap water, and thus for most of the household laundry, there is no need to heat up for a household washing machine to heat up the tap water. From this perspective, laundry enzymes are considered indispensable in helping save household bills\n", "BULLET::::- Rinse skin with water/shower.\n\nBULLET::::- Rinse immediately contaminated clothing and skin with plenty of water before removing clothes.\n\nBULLET::::- Take off immediately all contaminated clothing. [As modified by IV ATP]\n\nBULLET::::- Take off contaminated clothing. [As modified by IV ATP]\n\nBULLET::::- Wash contaminated clothing before reuse. [As modified by IV ATP]\n\nBULLET::::- P364: And wash it before reuse. [Added by IV ATP]\n\nBULLET::::- In case of fire:\n\nBULLET::::- In case of major fire and large quantities:\n\nBULLET::::- Explosion risk in case of fire.\n\nBULLET::::- DO NOT fight fire when fire reaches explosives.\n", "No evidence supports the idea that reducing modern practices of cleanliness and hygiene would have any impact on rates of chronic inflammatory and allergic disorders, but a significant amount of evidence that it would increase the risks of infectious diseases. The phrase \"targeted hygiene\" has been used in order to recognize the importance of hygiene in avoiding pathogens.\n", "Dish washing is usually done using an implement for the washer to wield, unless done using an automated dishwasher. Commonly used implements include cloths, sponges, brushes or even steel wool. As fingernails are often more effective than soft implements like cloths at dislodging hard particles, washing simply with the hands is also done and can be effective as well. Dishwashing detergent is also generally used, but bar soap can be used acceptably, as well. Rubber gloves are often worn when washing dishes by people who are sensitive to hot water or dish-washing liquids. According to dermatologists, the use of protective gloves is highly recommended whenever working with water and cleaning products, since some chemicals may damage the skin, or allergies may develop in some individuals. Dish gloves are also worn by those who simply don't want to touch the old food particles. Many people also wear aprons.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16579	How and why do certain cities/states impose stricter gun laws than others?	The Bill of Rights isnt absolute, there are limits. For example, shouting "Fire!" in a theater isnt protected Free Speech. Also, the US was set up to try and retain as much local control over the government as possible, so the courts were giving the right to interpret laws. So, the Founders knew that just because people in one region were OK with something other regions may not.	[ "Examples of local laws: NYC, for example, limits the color of all guns and bans all BB guns, paintball guns and pellet guns. Yonkers requires a handgun license before one may ask for a license to own a BB or pellet handgun.\n", "BULLET::::- Some states have state preemption for some or all gun laws, which means that only the state can legally regulate firearms. In other states, local governments can pass their own gun laws more restrictive than those of the state.\n\nBULLET::::- Some states and localities place additional restrictions on certain semi-automatic firearms that they have defined as assault weapons, or on magazines that can hold more than a certain number of rounds of ammunition.\n", "Because of their inability to regulate firearms directly, some cities, such as Los Angeles, have prohibited residents from possessing a handgun or rifle magazine that fit more than 10 rounds, require firearms be stored in locked containers or with trigger locks installed when not in use, and have enacted ammunition regulations. Many jurisdictions have enacted ordinances restricting or banning the discharge of firearms, and use zoning laws to impose significant restrictions to the establishment of gun stores and shooting ranges within their boundaries.\n\nSection::::Firearm sales.\n", "Firearm regulations are uniform throughout the state, and a firearms permit is valid throughout the state, in all areas other than in a few specially-defined areas. These specially-defined prohibited areas include:\n\nBULLET::::- In a government building, where ingress into such building is restricted or screened by security personnel and overseen by a POST certified, sworn peace officer\n\nBULLET::::- In a courthouse\n\nBULLET::::- In a jail or prison\n\nBULLET::::- In a place of worship, unless the governing body or authority of the place of worship permits the carrying of weapons or long guns by license holders\n", "BULLET::::- In some states, peaceable journey laws give additional leeway for the possession of firearms by travelers who are passing through to another destination.\n\nBULLET::::- Some states require a background check of the buyer when a firearm is sold by a private party. (Federal law requires background checks for sales by licensed gun dealers, and for any interstate sales.)\n\nBULLET::::- Some states have enacted red flag laws that enable a judge to issue an order to temporarily confiscate the firearms of a person who presents an imminent threat to others or to themselves.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Gun laws in the United States by state\n\nGun laws in the United States regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition. State laws (and the laws of the District of Columbia and of the U.S. territories) vary considerably, and are independent of existing federal firearms laws, although they are sometimes broader or more limited in scope than the federal laws.\n", "Illinois has state preemption for certain areas of gun law, which overrides the home rule guideline in those cases. Some local governments have enacted ordinances that are more restrictive than those of the state in areas not covered by state preemption.\n\nSection::::Summary table.\n\nonlyinclude\n\n/onlyinclude\n\nSection::::FOID cards.\n", "In 2015, the state legislature set out to make the local gun laws in North Carolina more uniform across the board. They acknowledged the need for local governments prohibit firearms in local government buildings, but they also restricted a local government's ability to prohibit on \"municipal and county recreational facilities that are specifically identified by the unit of local government\".\n", "Firearm owners are subject to the firearm laws of the state they are in, and not exclusively their state of residence. Reciprocity between states exists in certain situations, such as with regard to concealed carry permits. These are recognized on a state-by-state basis. For example, Idaho recognizes an Oregon permit, but Oregon does not recognize an Idaho permit. Florida issues a license to carry both concealed weapons and firearms, but others license only the concealed carry of firearms. Some states do not recognize out-of-state permits to carry a firearm at all, so it is important to understand the laws of each state when traveling with a handgun.\n", "California law (§53071 GC) prohibits county and city authorities from enacting regulations regarding the registration or licensing of firearms. This provides for uniform firearm laws and prevents situations found in other states (such as New York) where traveling with an otherwise legal firearm could put a citizen at risk of violating local city ordinances.\n", "The carrying of weapons, either openly or concealed, is regulated by the states, and these laws have changed rapidly over the past decade. most states grant licenses to carry handguns on a shall-issue basis to qualified applicants. A few states leave the issuance of carry permits to the discretion of issuing authorities (called may-issue), while eleven states allow the carrying of firearms in a concealed manner without a permit (called Constitutional carry). Twenty-six states allow for open carrying of handguns without a permit while, in general, twenty states require a permit to do so and four states plus Washington D.C. ban open-carry of handguns. There have been legal challenges to concealed-carry laws, with different rulings to their constitutional validity.\n", "Illinois has state preemption of firearm laws for \"the regulation, licensing, possession, and registration of handguns and ammunition for a handgun, and the transportation of any firearm and ammunition\". There is also state preemption for \"the regulation of the possession and ownership of assault weapons\", except for laws passed before July 20, 2013, which are grandfathered in. In other areas of gun law, some local governments have passed ordinances that are more restrictive than those of the state.\n", "New York is generally perceived to be a highly restrictive state for purchasing, possessing, or carrying firearms, as most firearms regulations are defined at the local level. This is especially the case for New York City and its surrounding suburbs, and larger urban centers throughout the state where most New York State residents live and work. In contrast, most rural areas in New York State have relatively permissive firearms policies, particularly with respect to concealed carry. \n", "Protecting people from crime in large cities is hard considering that population growths daily.The crime control act of 1990 was put into place to ensure the safety of the people. There were many specific instances where Crime control act protected the people from the danger of the society during the time. Protecting children by ensuring drug-free zones, prevent money laundering, and finally ensure safety by providing stricter gun free zones.\n", "BULLET::::- California, Massachusetts, and New York vary within state, as the criteria for what constitutes \"good cause\" is defined at the local level. Issuing authorities in inland California, rural portions of Massachusetts, and Upstate New York generally accept self-defense without evidence of a specific threat as \"good cause\" and will grant permits to the vast majority of applicants who pass a background check and complete the required firearms safety training. Meanwhile, concealed carry permits are difficult to virtually impossible to obtain by ordinary citizens in urban areas, such as New York City, Long Island, Boston, Los Angeles, and San Francisco metropolitan areas. In these locations, the definition of \"good cause\" is generally limited to specific and immediate threats on an applicant's life that cannot be mitigated by any other means. There are also \"moderately restrictive\" local jurisdictions in these states where the local \"good cause\" definitions may be more restrictive than locales that practice shall-issue licensing, but less restrictive than those counties or municipalities that rarely or never issue permits.\n", "It has been acknowledged that the popular portrayal of Dodge City in film and fiction carries a note of truth, however, as gun crime was rampant in the city prior to the establishment of a local government. Soon after the city's residents officially established their first municipal government, however, a law banning concealed firearms was enacted and crime was reduced soon afterwards. Similar laws were passed in other frontier towns to reduce the rate of gun crime as well. As UCLA law professor Adam Wrinkler noted:\n", "Gun laws in Washington\n\nThe state of Washington in the United States has laws regulating the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition.\n\nThe Constitution of Washington protects an individual's right to bear arms. Washington preempts localities from regulating firearms in any manner more restrictive than State law except as explicitly authorized by the State legislature. Authorized local firearm regulations include:\n", "BULLET::::- Some states and localities require that individual firearms be registered with the police or with another law enforcement agency.\n\nBULLET::::- All states allow some form of concealed carry, the carrying of a concealed firearm in public.\n\nBULLET::::- Many states allow some form of open carry, the carrying of an unconcealed firearm in public on one's person or in a vehicle.\n", "BULLET::::- NFA weapons are weapons that are heavily restricted at a federal level by the National Firearms Act of 1934 and the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986. These include automatic firearms (such as machine guns), short-barreled shotguns, and short-barreled rifles. Some states and localities place additional restrictions on such weapons.\n\nBULLET::::- Some states have enacted castle doctrine or stand-your-ground laws, which provide a legal basis for individuals to use deadly force in self-defense in certain situations, without a duty to flee or retreat if possible.\n", "Firearm possession is only legal with the proper permit firearms permit, which is very hard to obtain. The only real exception is for Citidef units, which may use heavy weapons. (Since Block Mania the security on these is extreme and they are only issued during wartime.) In spite of this, many firearms are in circulation; some are sold on the black market while others are left over from the various invasions that have occurred over the past thirty years. Some families still possess twentieth-century handguns that have been handed down through the years. These are sometimes found by crime blitzes and will usually earn culprits the same penalty as a lasblaster from their time period.\n", "Section::::Political arguments.:Public policy arguments.\n\nPublic policy arguments are based on the idea that the central purpose of government is to establish and maintain order. This is done through public policy, which Blackstone defined as \"the due regulation and domestic order of the kingdom, whereby the inhabitants of the State, like members of a well-governed family, are bound to conform their general behavior to the rules of propriety, good neighborhood, and good manners, and to be decent, industrious, and inoffensive in their respective stations.\"\n\nSection::::Political arguments.:Public policy arguments.:Gun violence debate.\n", "In Nebraska, to purchase a handgun, a permit to purchase is required. Rifles and shotguns are not subject to gun laws more restrictive than those at the federal level. As of January 1, 2007, Nebraska became the 48th state to legalize concealed carry; permits to carry are being issued by the Nebraska State Patrol. NFA firearms (machine guns, short barreled shotguns, short barreled rifles, and silencers) are legal to own as long as they are compliant with federal law.\n", "State level laws vary significantly in their form, content, and level of restriction. Forty-four states have a provision in their state constitutions similar to the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which protects the right to keep and bear arms. The exceptions are California, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, and New York. In New York, however, the statutory civil rights laws contain a provision virtually identical to the Second Amendment. Additionally, the U.S. Supreme Court held in \"McDonald v. Chicago\" that the protections of the Second Amendment to keep and bear arms for self-defense in one's home apply against state governments and their political subdivisions.\n", "BULLET::::- No-issue jurisdiction: one that – with very limited exceptions – does not allow any private citizen to carry a concealed handgun in public\n\nState regulations relating to the issuance of concealed carry permits generally fall into four categories described as Unrestricted, Shall Issue, May Issue, and No Issue.\n\nSection::::State laws.:Permitting policies.:Unrestricted.\n", "In many cases, state firearms laws can be considerably less restrictive than federal firearms laws. This does not confer any \"de jure\" immunity against prosecution for violations of the federal laws. However, state and local police departments are not legally obligated to enforce federal gun law as per the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in \"Printz v. United States\".\n\nSection::::Common subjects of state laws.\n\nFirearm related matters that are often regulated by state or local laws include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Some states and localities require that a person obtain a license or permit in order to purchase or possess firearms.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03807	Why can’t certain pets of the same species be housed together without being aggressive towards each other? How can these animals safely breed if they can’t be housed together as pets?	Hamsters live in parts of the world where they have to roam a relatively large area to find enough food, desert-like areas. In the wild hamsters can't afford to live together in numbers because there isn't enough food nearby to support them all. Aggression towards each other is their way of ensuring they space out. That said, males and females treat each other differently than groups of females or males. A male and female as pets would get along great together... a little too great. In the wild, a typical social structure for hamsters would be females each living in small territories that don't, or slightly, overlap, and males guarding a larger territory against other males, covering the territory of several females.	[ "Commonly affected breeds include:\n\nBULLET::::- Alaskan Klee Kai\n\nBULLET::::- Boxer\n\nBULLET::::- Chihuahua\n\nBULLET::::- Dachshund (miniature)\n\nBULLET::::- Bulldog\n\nBULLET::::- Maltese\n\nBULLET::::- Miniature Schnauzer\n\nBULLET::::- Pekingese\n\nBULLET::::- Pomeranian\n\nBULLET::::- Poodle (toy and miniature)\n\nBULLET::::- Pug\n\nBULLET::::- Shetland Sheepdog\n\nBULLET::::- Siberian Husky\n\nBULLET::::- Whippet\n\nBULLET::::- Yorkshire Terrier\n\nSection::::Other animals.:Cats.\n", "States, cities, and towns in Western nations commonly enact local ordinances to limit the number or kind of pets a person may keep personally or for business purposes. Prohibited pets may be specific to certain breeds (such as pit bulls or Rottweilers), they may apply to general categories of animals (such as livestock, exotic animals, wild animals, and canid or felid hybrids), or they may simply be based on the animal's size. Additional or different maintenance rules and regulations may also apply. Condominium associations and owners of rental properties also commonly limit or forbid tenants' keeping of pets.\n", "Some breeds appear to have an increased risk of mild cases as young dogs, including the Afghan Hound, American Staffordshire Terrier, Boston Terrier, Boxer, Chihuahua, Chow Chow, Shar-Pei, Collie, Dalmatian, Doberman Pinscher, Bulldog, French Bulldog, English Bull Terrier, Miniature Bull Terrier, German Shepherd, Great Dane, Old English Sheepdog, American Pit Bull Terrier, West Highland White Terrier, Rat Terrier, Yorkshire Terrier, Dachshund, and Pug.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Cats.\n", "Because of common crossbreeding in populated areas, many cats are simply identified as belonging to the mixed types of domestic long-haired and domestic short-haired cat, depending on their type of fur.\n", "For one thing, we would no longer allow breeding. People could not create different breeds. There would be no pet shops. If people had companion animals in their homes, those animals would have to be refugees from the animal shelters and the streets. You would have a protective relationship with them just as you would with an orphaned child. But as the surplus of cats and dogs (artificially engineered by centuries of forced breeding) declined, eventually companion animals would be phased out, and we would return to a more symbiotic relationship—enjoyment at a distance.\n", "Inbreeding was observed to increase juvenile mortality in 11 small animal species.\n\nA common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings). This practice generally has a negative effect on measures of reproductive success, including decreased litter size and puppy survival.\n\nIncestuous matings in birds result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (e.g. reduction in hatchability of eggs and reduced progeny survival).\n\nSection::::Reproductive systems.:Inbreeding.:Inbreeding avoidance.\n", "Yet the HUD allows local housing authorities to set specific local rules on pet keeping. In the Country of Santa Cruz, the Housing Authority allows both small and large pets.\n", "The USDA issues permits for keeping and breeding certain exotic species, whether captured from the wild or bred. In the United States, for example, it is illegal to import non-human primates for the pet trade, but animals bred in captivity exist in the trade, using animals descended from those brought in legally before the ban was enacted. As of September 2014, most US states forbid or regulate the possession of exotic pets, but 5 states have no license or permit requirements.\n", "Populations are particularly vulnerable when the dogs bred are closely related. Inbreeding among purebreds has exposed various genetic health problems not always readily apparent in less uniform populations. Mixed-breed dogs are more genetically diverse due to the more haphazard nature of their parents' mating. However, \"haphazard\" is not the same as \"random\" to a geneticist. The offspring of such matings might be less likely to express certain genetic disorders because there might be a decreased chance that both parents carry the same detrimental recessive alleles, but some deleterious recessives occur across many seemingly unrelated breeds, and therefore merely mixing breeds is no guarantee of genetic health. Also, when two poor specimens are bred, the offspring could inherit the worst traits of both parents. This is commonly seen in dogs from puppy mills.\n", "Zoonotic disease is known to occur in a small number of exotic pets. The American Veterinary Medical Association, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the National Animal Control Association, the American Zoo and Aquarium Association and the CDC all discourage the private ownership of certain exotic animals. Animals that are captive-bred in the United States have no risk of contracting any harmful disease as they are not exposed to it in any way.\n", "In 2003, the US Captive Wild Animal Safety Act (CWASA) became law, and in September 2007 the US Fish and Wildlife Service enacted rules to enforce it. The law bans the sale or transport of big cats across state lines for the pet trade, and applies to cheetahs, cougars, jaguars, leopards, clouded leopards, snow leopards, lions, tigers, and their hybrids.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Trafficking.\n\nIllegally transporting exotic pets is also known as wildlife smuggling, and the industry generates an estimated $7 Billion to $23 Billion (USD) each year. \n", "Section::::Animals.:Laboratory animals.\n\nSystematic inbreeding and maintenance of inbred strains of laboratory mice and rats is of great importance for biomedical research. The inbreeding guarantees a consistent and uniform animal model for experimental purposes and enables genetic studies in congenic and knock-out animals. The use of inbred strains is also important for genetic studies in animal models, for example to distinguish genetic from environmental effects. The mice that are inbred typically show considerably lower survival rates.\n\nSection::::Humans.\n\nSection::::Humans.:Effects.\n", "According to a survey promoted by Italian family associations in 2009, it is estimated that there are approximately 45 million pets in Italy. This includes 7 million dogs, 7.5 million cats, 16 million fish, 12 million birds, and 10 million snakes.\n\nSection::::Effects on pets' health.\n\nKeeping animals as pets may be detrimental to their health if certain requirements are not met. An important issue is inappropriate feeding, which may produce clinical effects. The consumption of chocolate or grapes by dogs, for example, may prove fatal.\n", "The phylogenetic relationships of the serval are as follows:\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.:Hybrid.\n\nIn April 1986, the first savannah cat, a hybrid between a male serval and a female domestic cat was born; it was larger than a typical domestic kitten and resembled its father in its coat pattern. It appeared to have inherited a few domestic cat traits, such as tameness, from its mother. This cat breed may have a dog-like habit of following its owner about, and can be a good swimmer. Over the years it has gained popularity as a pet.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "Laws governing ownership of Savannah cats in the United States vary according to state. The majority of states follow the code set by the United States Department of Agriculture, which defines wild or domesticated hybrid crosses as domesticated. Some states have set more restrictive laws on hybrid cat ownership, including Hawaii, Massachusetts, Texas and Georgia. Some cities may have laws that differ from the state. For example, Savannahs more than five generations from the serval are allowed to be owned in New York state, but not in the city of New York.\n", "Although the breeding population has been largely isolated from wild populations outside the US, they still have the potential to transmit zoonotic disease. There is a considerable risk of monkey B virus from rhesus macaques. Research workers have died from this disease contracted from non-human primate research subjects. Additionally, there is considerable risk to the non-human primate pet through transmission of human disease. One such example is herpes simplex virus, which can be deadly to certain smaller monkeys.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Wildlife smuggling\n\nBULLET::::- Exotic felines as pets\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In the meantime, Max and Duke raid a sausage factory for food. While there, Duke tells Max about his previous owner, Fred, an elderly man who adopted him as a puppy and loved spending time with him. One day, Duke got lost while chasing a butterfly and was caught by Animal Control, but Fred never came to claim him. Max convinces him to visit Fred's house in a nearby neighborhood, confident Fred will still love him and take him back. When they arrive at Fred's house, they learn from the resident cat Reginald that Fred has died. Heartbroken, Duke accuses Max of attempting to get rid of him and barks at the new homeowners who have just returned to the house and called Animal Control. The handlers catch Max, but Duke interferes long enough for Max to escape and ends up being captured instead.\n", "The cat flea affects both the cat and the dog worldwide. The cat flea can also maintain its life cycle on other carnivores and on omnivores, but these are only chosen when more acceptable hosts become unavailable. Adult cat fleas do not willingly leave their hosts, and inter-animal transfer of \"adult\" fleas is rare except in animals that share sleeping quarters. A flea which becomes separated from its host will often die within hours from starvation.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "The list of cat breeds is quite large: most cat registries actually recognize between 30 and 40 breeds of cats, and several more are in development, with one or more new breeds being recognized each year on average, having distinct features and heritage. Owners and breeders compete in cat shows to see whose animal bears the closest resemblance (best \"conformance\") to an idealized definition, based on breed type and the breed standard for each breed.\n", "However, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats may show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens, which may include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression.\n\nThough cats and dogs are often characterized as natural enemies, they can live together if correctly socialized.\n", "For livestocks such as horses, donkeys, goats, pigs, ducks, geese, chickens or any other reptiles, written permission from the Council is needed. Reptiles and spiders are discouraged, unless the tenants can prove that they can meet the special care and welfare needs of them.\n\nYet, one must never keep animals prohibited by Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976 due to safety concern. Exotic animals and farm animal, such as cockerels, are not allowed normally.\n\nSection::::Policy comparison.:The United Kingdom.:Pet keeping requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- adequate housing may be difficult and/or expensive to procure or build. This is usually only a problem for large and/or highly active animals that need a large amount of space.\n\nBULLET::::- it may be difficult to provide the correct environment (such as temperature or amount of sunlight)\n\nBULLET::::- feeding the correct diet may be difficult or impossible\n\nBULLET::::- providing the right social environment for highly social species may be impractical or impossible in a home setting.\n", "Section::::Notable species.\n\nSection::::Notable species.:Rats and mice.\n", "Just like any other pet, the way it is raised will determine its temperament. The more a chick is handled while it is being raised, the more docile and adjusted to human interaction it will become. Talking and giving treats also helps chicks adapt to their new owners. Roosters tend to be more aggressive because part of their job is to protect the flock. Breeds such as Silkies and many bantams are generally docile. \n\nSome cities in the United States allow chickens as pets, while others ban them. Some may only ban roosters due to the crowing. \n", "Veterinary surgeons recognize that the psychological state of a captive or domesticated animal must be taken into account if its behavior and health are to be understood and optimized.\n\nCommon causes of disordered behavior in captive or pet animals are lack of stimulation, inappropriate stimulation, or overstimulation. These conditions can lead to disorders, unpredictable and unwanted behavior, and sometimes even physical symptoms and diseases. For example, rats who are exposed to loud music for a long period will ultimately develop unwanted behaviors that have been compared with human psychosis, like biting their owners.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Pets of same species cannot be housed together." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "They canbe housed together. They will likely mate. In the wile it is different because they haveto protect their food territory. " ]
2018-22266	How do people Smooth out ice in Downhill Ice Skating?	The same way they make bobsled and luge runs. The ice isn't very thick, and you apply it with a mister or similar slow application method. Each layer freezes before you put the next one on, and freezes so quickly it doesn't have time to slide downhill. Zambonis do that as well, but since the rink is flat and horizontal they can put more water down and rely on the water's ability to self-level.	[ "Because the offsets are relatively small in slalom, ski racers take a fairly direct line and often knock the poles out of the way as they pass, which is known as blocking. (The main blocking technique in modern slalom is cross-blocking, in which the skier takes such a tight line and angulates so strongly that he or she is able to block the gate with the outside hand.) Racers employ a variety of protective equipment, including shin pads, hand guards, helmets and face guards.\n\nSection::::Clearing the gates.\n", "The Arlberg technique is based on the similarly of these concepts, introducing each stage as a series of modifications on the previous concepts. The snowplough is typically introduced to beginners by having them move their legs to produce a \"pizza slice\" shape, tips together and tails apart. Speed along the fall line can be controlled by adjusting the angle of the slice; with the tails far apart more drag is created, slowing the skier. Turns are accomplished through brute force, having the skier rotate the ski on the inside of the turn so it moves inward through sideways pressure from the leg and rotation of the foot.\n", "The Arlberg technique is a progressive system that takes the skier from the snowplough turn to the parallel Christie through measured stages of improvement. The system, or slightly modified versions, remains in widespread use to this day. Modern ski equipment is also capable of a more efficient turning style known as carving that uses entirely different techniques and movements. Some ski schools have started moving students directly from the snowplough to carving as early as possible, avoiding learning stemming habits that may be difficult to un-learn.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "One of the skiing techniques used by this class is called the three track method, and was developed as part of the American Training System. For skiers with an amputation, one of the first skills learned using this technique is how to walk with the ski so the skier can learn how to flex the ankle, knee and hip. This allows the skier to determine their centre of gravity. The skier is then taught how hop turn in order to understand arm and leg coordination while on skis. This technique is only used while stationary and is not a competition skill. The skier next learns how to fall down and get back up again. The next skill learned is climbing gentle terrain, followed by learning to go down a straight run and learning to stop. After this, the skier learns how to get on and off a ski lift. This is followed by learning how to traverse the fall line, which teaches the skier how to maintain the ski edge. Other skills are then taught including the Uphill Christie, beginning turns, parallel turns, short swings and moguls.\n", "The latest arrival is from UK company Proslope who produce a matting with variable filament lengths to emulate the gradual edge grip and release of snow. As with some other surfaces, the system is coloured white, is modular, and works both with and without a misting system.\n\nSection::::Ski and board preparation.\n", "Downhill skiing focusses much of its attention on the development of skier techniques for smoothly turning the skis. This is used both for directional control as well as the primary method for controlling speed. When the skier is pointed down the hill, or \"along the fall line\", they will accelerate. If the same skier points the skis across the fall line, or more radically, uphill, speed will be reduced. Using turns, the skier can control the amount of time the skis are pointed down the fall line, and thereby control their speed.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Snow sliders\" – The ability of a ski or other runner to slide over snow depends on both the properties of the snow and the ski to result in an optimum amount of lubrication from melting the snow by friction with the ski—too little and the ski interacts with solid snow crystals, too much and capillary attraction of meltwater retards the ski. Before a ski can slide, it must overcome the maximum value static friction, formula_1, for the ski/snow contact, where formula_2 is the coefficient of static friction and formula_3 is the normal force of the ski on snow. Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when the ski is moving over the snow.\n", "Carving is based on the shape of the ski itself; when the ski is rotated onto its edge, the pattern cut into its side causes it to bend into an arc. The contact between the arc of the ski edges and the snow naturally causes the ski to tend to move along that arc, slowing the skier and changing their direction of motion.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Snowplow turn.\n", "BULLET::::- Skate skis: Designed for skiing on groomed surfaces. Recommended lengths are between 170 and 200 centimetres (up to 110% of the skier's height) for adult skiers. The entire bottom of each skate ski is a glide zone—prepared for maximum glide. Traction comes from the skier pushing away from the edge of the previous ski onto the next ski.\n", "BULLET::::- further refinement of the basic Christie turn continues through development of \"weighting\", moving the skis into the turn by moving weight from one ski to the other, as opposed to pushing the skis directly.\n", "Downhill skiing technique focuses on the use of turns to smoothly turn the skis from one direction to another. Additionally, the skier can use the same techniques to turn the ski away from the direction of movement, generating skidding forces between the skis and snow which further control the speed of the descent. Good technique results in a flowing motion from one descent angle to another one, adjusting the angle as needed to match changes in the steepness of the run. This looks more like a single series of S's than turns followed by straight sections.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Stemming.\n", "Modern downhill technique is generally a combination of carving and skidding, varying the ratio between the two when rapid control over the turn or speed is required. Nevertheless, pure carving and pure stemming are used in certain circumstances. Pure carving is a useful technique on slopes of moderate steepness and smooth snow—\"groomer carving\" is widespread and there are skis dedicated to this style. However, competitive mogul skiing remains an almost pure parallel Christie technique, although the turn initiation is aided by the moguls themselves.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A German provider that guarantees year round skiing is Mr. Snow. The company does not only produce dry slopes for downhill skiing, snowboarding and cross country skiing but also provides tubing tracks and rental opportunities for events. The material of Mr. Snow is claimed to have very good sliding capacities, is predictable in all climates and does not harm the ski or sliding surface. Mr. Snow works without the use of silicone which is not necessary to achieve good sliding characteristics. The snow carpet evidently has no negative environmental impact. So the mats can remain on the surface 365 days a year.\n", "One of the para-Alpine skiing techniques used by this class is called the three track method, and was developed as part of the American Training System. One of the first skills learned using this technique is how to walk with the ski so the skier can learn how to flex the ankle, knee and hip. This allows the skier to determine their centre of gravity. The skier is then taught how hop turn in order to understand arm and leg coordination while on skis. This technique is only used while stationary and is not a competition skill. The skier next learns how to fall down and get back up again. The next skill learned is climbing gentle terrain, followed by learning to go down a straight run and learning to stop. After this, the skier learns how to get on and off a ski lift. This is followed by learning how to traverse the fall line, which teaches the skier how to maintain the ski edge. Other skills are then taught including the Uphill Christie, beginning turns, parallel turns, short swings and moguls.\n", "Modern skis make carving turns so simple that the Arlberg technique of gradual progression is no longer universal. Many ski schools graduate advancing students directly from the snowplough to the carving turn. These are taught as two entirely separate techniques, one using stemming and the other using the movement of the knees, so the progressive connection emphasized in the Arlberg technique is no longer maintained. This is by no means universal, and many schools continue to follow the classic Arlberg progression.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Rybizka, Benno (1938) \"The Hannes Schneider Ski Technique\" Harcourt, Brace\n", "The current head coaches at Mariposa are Leigh for singles, Lee Barkell for pairs, and David Islam for ice dancing. David Islam and Paul Matheson will become the co-owners in June 2017.\n", "The motion of a skier is determined by the physical principles of the conservation of energy and the frictional forces acting on the body. For example, in downhill skiing, as the skier is accelerated down the hill by the force of gravity, their gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, the energy of motion. In the ideal case, all of the potential energy would be converted into kinetic energy; in reality, some of the energy is lost to heat due to friction.\n", "The second type of frictional force acting on a skier is drag. This is typically referred to as \"air resistance\". The drag force is proportional to the cross-sectional area of a body (e.g. the skier) and the square of its velocity and density relative to the fluid in which the body is traveling though (e.g. air). To go faster, a skier can try to reduce the cross-sectional area of their body. Downhill skiers can adopt more aerodynamic positions such as tucking. Alpine ski racers wear skin tight race suits. The general area of physics which addresses these forces is known as fluid dynamics.\n", "The skier uses either a classic diagonal stride cross-country technique, or the faster skate skiing technique. In races, the skate-skiing technique is almost exclusively used. The skis are hot waxed from tip to tail, to avoid slowing the dog team down. Classic skis with grip wax are not used for races but are occasionally used for extended back-country travel.\n", "Schneider travelled to the United States in 1936 to demonstrate his techniques at a winter sports show in the Boston Garden. The demonstrations were held on a wooden slide that was covered with shaved ice. He repeated these demonstrations Madison Square Garden two weeks later. The techniques were soon taken up by US instructors.\n", "Early downhill techniques were based on two techniques, the telemark style or stemming. Over time, the latter became much more popular, and the more athletic telemark has remained a niche technique since the 1900s. Stemming is based on creating turning forces by the edge of the ski over the snow at an angle to the forward movement of the skier. The angle between the ski and the motion over the snow creates sideways forces that cause the skier to turn. In general, the skier angles the ski by keeping the tip roughly in-line with their shoulders, while pushing the tail of the ski out and to the side. The various styles of stemming turns differ primarily in form;\n", "Section::::How to ski/board it.\n\nThe initial 50 metres have to be skied or boarded by everyone taking Le Pas de Chavanette. Especially without fresh snow, the slope gets icy quickly, turning the area between moguls into ice sheets. Not making a turn in these situations means that you miss the next mogul, and pick up too much speed to make the next one after that, starting off a tumble that ends a couple of hundred metres down the slope, while hitting a few dozen icy bumps in the course.\n", "No ski poles are used, and no assistance from others (such as being pushed from the gate) is allowed. In heavy snow conditions the tracks can become clogged up, which reduces inrun speed and may cause an unpredictable descent for athletes. Event personnel standing by the sides of the inrun are often assigned to use leaf blowers to prevent the tracks from clogging up with snow.\n\nSection::::Rules and technique.:Takeoff and transition phase.\n", "The new gates allow a more direct path down a slalom course through the process of cross-blocking or shinning the gates. Cross-blocking is a technique in which the legs go around the gate with the upper body inclined toward, or even across, the gate; in this case the racer's outside pole and shinguards hit the gate, knocking it down and out of the way. Cross-blocking is done by pushing the gate down with the arms, hands, or shins. By 1989, most of the top technical skiers in the world had adopted the cross-block technique.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n", "Also located on the runs are moguls (bumps) that, when hit, causes the racer to go airborne and slow down slightly when landing. While airborne, players can perform freestyle tricks and earn bonus points. However, if the player botches the trick, the racer may tumble and fall, losing time. At the end of each run, final scores are calculated based on the amount of time remaining on the run and points scored from completing freestyle tricks. If the player earns enough points, they may race the next level \"solo\" (without other skiers onscreen). The points earned in qualifying runs convert to additional seconds on the solo run timer. The high scores on each of the runs are saved in memory until the console is powered off.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04797	Why do "rolling stretches" (ie rolling a lacrosse ball under your foot) hurt so good?	This practice results in a “myofascial release”. Fascia is a thin layer of tissue that surrounds muscles, you may have come across a film-like substance around a chicken breast —not the skin. Muscles that are tight or contracted may be relieved through rolling on a lacrosse ball or stretching as you mention, increasing blood flow and relaxing contracted muscles by stretching the fascia. The reason it hurts initially is because the muscles are being forced to extend/flex more than they are accustomed to.	[ "While necessary for sports and ordinary motions, this protective reaction is counterproductive for stretching, i.e., lengthening muscles.\n\nSection::::A history of active stretching.\n\nBULLET::::1. Sir Charles Sherrington conceptualized the principle of reciprocal innervation circa 1904 and demonstrated it circa 1913.\n\nBULLET::::2. A. D. Munrow's work proposed these principles for ‘active’ mobilizing exercises. 1962\n", "BULLET::::- Passive stretching (also called: static-passive stretching; assisted relaxed stretching) - 1. A static stretch (See: \"static stretching\") in which an external force (such as the floor or another person) holds the performer in the static position. 2. The practice of having a relaxed limb moved beyond its normal range of motion with the assistance of a partner. In \"active stretching\", in contrast, the limb is extended to its maximum range using only the muscles of that limb.\n\nBULLET::::- Pike - To be bend forward at the waist with the legs and trunk kept straight.\n", "BULLET::::- Al Garcia, who has appeared in \"Tourist Season\" and \"Double Whammy\", makes his third appearance. Luis Cordova makes a joking reference to Garcia's \"victory\" in a bass fishing tournament in the latter novel.\n\nBULLET::::- A passing reference is made to Mick Stranahan in \"Stormy Weather\", when Clinton Tyree, aka \"Skink,\" camps on Mick's old stilt house, which has been abandoned since the former occupant \"married a beautiful twelve-string guitarist and moved to the island of Exuma.\"\n", "Stretching for too long or too much can give way to an injury. For most activities, the normal range of motion is more than adequate. Any sudden movements or going too fast can cause a muscle to tighten. This leads to extreme pain and the performer should let the muscle relax by resting.\n\nSection::::Risk of Injury.\n", "BULLET::::2. Friction is damaging to the superficial blood vessels directly under the skin. It occurs when two surfaces rub against each other. The skin over the elbows can be injured due to friction. The back can also be injured when patients are pulled or slid over bed sheets while being moved up in bed or transferred onto a stretcher.\n", "A plantar fasciitis foot stretch is one of the recommended methods to reduce pain caused by plantar fasciitis (Figure 1). To do the plantar fascia stretch, while sitting in a chair place the ankle on the opposite knee and hold the toes of the impaired foot, slowly pulling back. The stretch should be held for approximately ten seconds, three times per day\n\nSection::::Pain management.:Medial tibial stress syndrome (shin splint).\n", "Because it is used for so many movements and is in a shortened position when seated, the TFL becomes tight easily. TFL stretches lengthen this important muscle.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Strain.\n\nA small case notes that “it seems possible that a sloped or banked surface could predispose an individual to a TFL strain.” In such a case, “treatment usually consists of rest, heat, and flexibility exercises”, such as lliotibial band stretching.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Stretching prior to strenuous physical activity has been thought to increase muscular performance by extending the soft tissue past its attainable length in order to increase range of motion. Many physically active individuals practice these techniques as a “warm-up” in order to achieve a certain level of muscular preparation for specific exercise movements. When stretching, muscles should feel somewhat uncomfortable but not physically agonizing.\n", "Some people get injuries while doing yoga and aerobics so one needs to be careful while doing it. While most stretching does not cause injury, it is said that quick, ballistic stretching can if it is done incorrectly. If a bone, muscle or any other part is stretched more than its capacity it may lead to dislocation, muscle pulls, etc. or something even more severe too.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dance\n\nBULLET::::- Physical Exercise\n\nSection::::See also.:Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Arnheim, Daniel D. \"Dance Injuries: Their Prevention And Care.\" 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1991. Print.\n", "There are different positives and negatives for the two main types of stretching: static and dynamic. Static stretching is better at creating a more intense stretch because it is able to isolate a muscle group better. But this intense of a stretch may hinder one's athletic performance because the muscle is being over stretched while held in this position and, once the tension is released, the muscle will tend to tighten up and may actually become weaker than it was previously . Also, the longer the duration of static stretching, the more exhausted the muscle becomes. This type of stretching has been shown to have negative results on athletic performance within the categories of power and speed .\n", "After passing through the tarsal tunnel, the flexor digitorum longus tendon must curve around a bony landmark called the sustenaculum tali. Flexor digitorum longus pain can occur with a trip and fall on uneven surface when the toes are not able to grip the surface totally. One can also injure the flexor digitorum longus muscle while running on a beach in the sand without any footwear, making the muscle vulnerable at the calcaneus attachment for injuries. In case of flexor digitorum longus pain or strain, the patient will find it tough to walk and will have excruciating pain in the feet and ankles. Support braces along with warm compresses are the most preferred way of treating flexor digitorum longus pain or strain.\n", "BULLET::::- Dorsiflexion: In order to stretch the anterior muscles of the lower leg, crossover shin stretches work well. This motion will stretch the dorsiflexion muscles, mainly the anterior tibialis, extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus, by slowly causing the muscles to lengthen as body weight is leaned on the ankle joint by using the floor as resistance against the top of the foot. Crossover shin stretches can vary in intensity depending on the amount of body weight applied on the ankle joint as the individual bends at the knee. This stretch is typically held for 15–30 seconds.\n", "A study sponsored and done by the American Council on Exercise revealed that the extensions are around 70-90 percent effective compared to the triangle push up for the triceps. However, extensions put no pressure on the wrists so they are an alternative for people with wrist strain or injury.\n\nSection::::Execution.\n\nInstructions:\n\nBULLET::::1. Lie on a flat bench with feet on the ground and head hanging just off the top of the bench, so that the edge of the bench rests in the pit between neck and head.\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nWhile swimming Lazuri (Free Colchian) or sport style:\n\nBULLET::::- The legs are pressed tightly together, the arms are pressed closely along the bodyline, the elbows should not jut out (to avoid excess resistance). The palms are touching the thighs;\n\nBULLET::::- The pelvis-waist takes a particularly active part, the legs are also active supporters, especially from the viewpoint of balance, the arms do not take any part at all;\n", "Although static stretching is part of some warm-up routines, a study in 2013 indicated that it weakens muscles. For this reason, an active dynamic warm-up is recommended before exercise in place of static stretching.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nStudies have shed light on the function, in stretching, of a large protein within the myofibrils of skeletal muscles named titin. A study performed by Magid and Law demonstrated that the origin of passive muscle tension (which occurs during stretching) is actually within the myofibrils, not extracellularly as had previously been supposed.\n", "Dynamic stretching is a movement based stretch aimed on increasing blood flow throughout the body while also loosing up the muscle fibers. Standard dynamic stretches typically involve slow and controlled active contraction of muscles. An example of such a dynamic stretch are lunges. Another form of dynamic stretching is ballistic stretching, which is an active stretch that involves bouncing or swinging back and forth at a high speed in order to take a muscle beyond its typical range of motion using momentum. Ballistic stretching may cause damage to the joints.\n\nSection::::Types of stretches.:Static stretching.\n", "BULLET::::- Stretching the muscle in a prone position passively. Passive stretching is manual, and does not include infant involvement. Two people can be involved in these stretches, one person stabilizing the infant while the other holds the head and slowly brings it through the available range of motion. Passive stretching should not be painful to the child, and should be stopped if the child resists. Also, discontinue the stretch if changes in breathing or circulation are seen or felt.\n", "The basic functional movement of tensor fasciae latae is walking. The tensor fasciae latae is heavily utilized in horse riding, hurdling and water skiing. Some problems that arise when this muscle is tight or shortened are pelvic imbalances that lead to pain in hips, as well as pain in the lower back and lateral area of knees.\n", "Stretching can be dangerous when performed incorrectly. There are many techniques for stretching in general, but depending on which muscle group is being stretched, some techniques may be ineffective or detrimental, even to the point of causing hypermobility, instability, or permanent damage to the tendons, ligaments, and muscle fiber. The physiological nature of stretching and theories about the effect of various techniques are therefore subject to heavy inquiry.\n", "BULLET::::3. Shearing is a separation of the skin from underlying tissues. When a patient is partially sitting up in bed, their skin may stick to the sheet, making them susceptible to shearing in case underlying tissues move downward with the body toward the foot of the bed. This may also be possible on a patient who slides down while sitting in a chair.\n", "A new treatment for acute strains is the use of platelet rich plasma (PRP) injections which have been shown to accelerate recovery from non surgical muscular injuries.\n\nIt is recommended that the person injured should consult a medical provider if the injury is accompanied by severe pain, if the limb cannot be used, or if there is noticeable tenderness over an isolated spot. These can be signs of a broken or fractured bone, a sprain, or a complete muscle tear.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Repetitive strain injury\n\nBULLET::::- Pulled hamstring\n\nBULLET::::- Sprain\n\nBULLET::::- Achilles tendon rupture\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The simplest static stretches are static-passive stretches, which bring the joint to its end range of motion and hold it there using external forces. There are more advanced forms of static stretching, such as proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), which involves both active muscle contractions and passive external forces. PNF stretching may involve contracting either the antagonist muscles, agonist muscles, or both (CRAC).\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n\nStretching has been found both effective, and ineffective based on its application for treatment. \n", "There are stretches and exercises which have provided reduced levels of pain for some people. There are different sources of pain for people since there are so many ligament, muscles and nerves in the area. Sometimes women do pelvic floor exercises for compression after childbirth. However, there have been cases where the wrong stretches make the constant pain worse. Some people need to strengthen the muscles, others should stretch, while for some people it is purely neurological. There have been cases where doing stretches have helped bicyclists. Acupuncture has helped decrease pain levels for some people, but is generally ineffective. Chiropractic adjustments to the lower back have also helped some patients with pudendal nerve issues.\n", "Although many people engage in stretching before or after exercise, the medical evidence has shown this has no meaningful benefit in preventing specifically muscle soreness. \n\nStretching does not appear to reduce the risk of injury during exercises, except perhaps for runners. There is some evidence that pre-exercise stretching may increase athletes' range of movement.\n", "The nerve may become painful over a period of time as weight gain makes underwear, belting or the waistband of pants gradually exert higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20392	Why do wild fires like the one in California start and how are they controlled?	Because it is too dry in the summer. You need dry conditions. There is no rain in the summer. Towards the end of the summer, the temperature drops. Differences in temperature = differences in air pressure. The atmosphere attempts to balance the air pressure. This causes wind. It allows fires to spread extremely quickly. The differences in temperature create moisture, like condensation too. This moisture is enough to cause a spark on a power line. It's been dry for months. Spark start fire. Wind fuels it and spreads it so fast that by the time some counties are aware of the fire, it's too late and they just need to get out.	[ "Bush fires, forest fires, and mine fires are generally started by lightning, but also by human negligence or arson. They can burn thousands of square kilometers. If a fire intensifies enough to produce its own winds and \"weather\", it will form into a firestorm. A good example of a mine fire is the one near Centralia, Pennsylvania. Started in 1962, it ruined the town and continues to burn today. Some of the biggest city-related fires are The Great Chicago Fire, The Peshtigo Fire (both of 1871) and the Great Fire of London in 1666.\n", "In industrialized countries, controlled burning is usually overseen by fire control authorities for regulations and permits.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThere are two basic causes of wildfires. One is natural (lightning) and the other is people. Controlled burns have a long history in wildland management. Pre-agricultural societies used fire to regulate both plant and animal life. Fire history studies have documented periodic wildland fires ignited by indigenous peoples in North America and Australia.\n", "Section::::Suppression as a rule.\n", "Section::::Changes to policy.\n", "A number of catastrophic fire events over the years greatly influenced fire management policies. The worst loss of life in United States history due to a wildfire occurred in 1871 when the Peshtigo Fire swept through Wisconsin, killing more than 1500 people. The Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889 in California and especially the Great Fire of 1910 in Montana and Idaho contributed to the philosophy that fire was a danger that needed to be suppressed. The Great Fire of 1910 had burned , destroyed a number of communities and killed 86 people, and this event prompted various land management agencies to emphasize wildfire suppression. U.S. Government land agencies, including the National Park Service, generally followed the fire management policies established by the U.S. Forest Service, which oversees the majority of the nation's forestlands. (See \"The Big Burn\" a 2014 PBS documentary American Experience (season 27)).\n", "Section::::Fire as a management tool.:Mixed conifer forests in the US Sierra Nevada.\n\nMixed conifer forests in the United States Sierra Nevada used to have fire return intervals that ranged from 5 years up to 300 years, depending on the local climate. Lower elevations had more frequent fire return intervals, whilst higher and wetter elevations saw much longer intervals between fires. Native Americans tended to set fires during fall and winter, and land at a higher elevation was generally occupied by Native Americans only during the summer.\n\nSection::::Fire as a management tool.:Finnish boreal forests.\n", "Section::::History of wildfire policy in the U.S..\n", "Section::::Mapping.\n", "Section::::Effects of an altered fire regime.:Climate change.\n", "Section::::Causes and effects of wildfires.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Fires, both naturally caused and prescribed, were once part of natural landscapes in many areas. These practices ended in the early 20th century when US fire policies were enacted with the goals of suppressing all fires. Since 1995, the US Forest Service has slowly incorporated burning practices into its forest management policies.\n\nSection::::Back burning.\n\nBack burning involves starting small fires along a man-made or natural firebreak in front of a main fire front. Back burning reduces the amount of fuel that is available to the main fire by the time that it reaches the burnt area.\n", "Section::::History.:Human involvement.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nThree major natural causes of wildfire ignitions exist: \n\nBULLET::::- dry climate\n\nBULLET::::- lightning\n\nBULLET::::- volcanic eruption\n", "Three events between 1978 and 1988 precipitated a major fire use policy review in 1989: the Ouzel fire in Rocky Mountain National Park, the Yellowstone fires of 1988 in and around Yellowstone National Park, and the Canyon Creek fire in the Bob Marshall Wilderness on the Lewis and Clark National Forest. In all three cases, monitored fires burned until they threatened developed areas. While none of the Yellowstone fires of 1988 were caused by controlled burns, later investigations proved the fire use policy was appropriate, though needing strengthening and improvement.\n", "Section::::19th century and early firefighting.\n\nIn the eastern United States, with its significant rainfall, wildfires are relatively small and have rarely posed great risk to life and property. As settlements moved further west into drier areas, the first large scale fires were encountered. Range fires on the Great Plains and forest fires in the Rocky Mountains were far larger and more destructive than what had ever been seen in the east.\n", "The policy began to be questioned in the 1960s, when it was realized that no new giant sequoia had grown in the forests of California, because fire is an essential part of their life cycle. In 1962, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall assembled a Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management to look into wildlife management problems in the national parks. This Advisory Board wrote what is now referred to as the Leopold Report, named after its chair, zoologist and conservationist A. Starker Leopold, which did not confine its report to wildlife, but took the broader ecological view that parks should be managed as ecosystems. The passage of the 1964 Wilderness Act encouraged the allowance of natural processes to occur, including fire. Afterwards, the National Park Service changed its policy in 1968 to recognize fire as an ecological process. Fires were to be allowed to run their courses as long as they could be contained within fire management units and accomplished approved management objectives. Several parks established fire use programs, and policies were gradually changed from fire control to fire management. The Forest Service enacted similar measures in 1974 by changing its policy from fire control to fire management, allowing lightning fires to burn in wilderness areas. This included both naturally caused fire and intentional prescribed fire. In 1978, the Forest Service abandoned the 10:00 am policy in favor of a new policy that encouraged the use of wildland fire by prescription.\n", "Wildland fire, known in Australia as bush fire, has played a major role in Australia due to arid conditions. Notable fire services tasked with wildfire suppression include NPWS (National Parks and Wildlife Service, NSW), the New South Wales Rural Fire Service, the South Australian Country Fire Service, and the Victorian Department of Environment Land Water and Planning (DELWP) and the Country Fire Authority.\n\nSection::::History.:Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- After about 1900, public demand led the US government to fight forest fires in the American West, and set aside land as national forests and parks to protect them from fires. This policy led to fewer fires, but also led to growth conditions such that, when fires did occur, they were much larger and more damaging. Modern research suggests that this policy was misguided, and that a certain level of wildfires is a natural and important part of forest ecology.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Abuse proof prescription-painkillers may spur heroin habit\n", "Section::::Human risk and exposure.\n", "Section::::Fire as a management tool.\n", "In the wild, many trees depend on fire as a successful way to clear out competition and release their seeds. In particular, the giant sequoia depends on fire to reproduce: the cones of the tree open after a fire releases their seeds, the fire having cleared all competing vegetation. Due to fire suppression efforts during the early and mid 20th century, low-intensity fires no longer occurred naturally in many groves, and still do not occur in some groves today. The suppression of fires also led to ground fuel build-up and the dense growth which posed the risk of catastrophic wildfires. It wasn't until the 1970s that the National Park Service began systematic fires for the purpose of new seed growth. \"Eucalyptus regnans\" or mountain ash of Australia also depends on fire but in a different fashion. They carry their seeds in capsules which can deposit at any time of the year. Being flammable, during a fire the capsules drop nearly all of their seeds and the fire consumes the eucalypt adults, but most of the seeds survive using the ash as a source of nutrients; at their rate of growth, they quickly dominate the land and a new eucalyptus forest grows.\n", "Wildfire emergency management\n\nWildfires are outdoor fires that occur in the wilderness or other vast spaces. Other common names associated with wildfires are brushfire and forest fire. Since wildfires can occur anywhere on the planet, except for Antarctica, they pose a threat to civilizations and wildlife alike. In terms of emergency management, wildfires can be particularly devastating. Given their ability to destroy large areas of entire ecosystems, there must be a contingency plan in effect to be as prepared as possible in case of a wildfire and to be adequately prepared to handle the aftermath of one as well.\n", "Wildfire suppression in the United States has had a long and varied history. For most of the 20th century, any form of wildland fire, whether it was naturally caused or otherwise, was quickly suppressed for fear of uncontrollable and destructive conflagrations such as the Peshtigo Fire in 1871 and the Great Fire of 1910. In the 1960s, policies governing wildfire suppression changed due to ecological studies that recognized fire as a natural process necessary for new growth. Today, policies advocating complete fire suppression have been exchanged for those who encourage wildland fire use, or the allowing of fire to act as a tool, such as the case with controlled burns.\n", "Other modules came into existence as the use and flexibility of fire use modules became more apparent. Most notable of these fire use modules includes those on the Stanislaus National Forest (Calvarase FUM, Summit FUM, etc.), The Ashley National Forest (Chepeta FUM, Kings Peak FUM), The Bureau of Land Managements Unaweep WFM and The Nature Conservancy's Southern Rockies.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00029	Why does the speed of sound vary at different temperatures?	Sound is created by vibrations in the air. The warmer that air is, the less dense it is, and thus the slower it can pass sounds, because the molecules are farther apart and take longer to bounce off each other to pass along the sound. Other factors: altitude and gas composition(though that really varies very little throughout the globe)	[ "In the Earth's atmosphere, the chief factor affecting the speed of sound is the temperature. For a given ideal gas with constant heat capacity and composition, the speed of sound is dependent \"solely\" upon temperature; see Details below. In such an ideal case, the effects of decreased density and decreased pressure of altitude cancel each other out, save for the residual effect of temperature.\n", "Section::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:Practical application to air.\n\nBy far the most important factor influencing the speed of sound in air is temperature. The speed is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, giving an increase of about per degree Celsius. For this reason, the pitch of a musical wind instrument increases as its temperature increases.\n", "In fact, assuming an ideal gas, the speed of sound \"c\" depends on temperature only, not on the pressure or density (since these change in lockstep for a given temperature and cancel out). Air is almost an ideal gas. The temperature of the air varies with altitude, giving the following variations in the speed of sound using the standard atmosphere—\"actual conditions may vary\".\n\nGiven normal atmospheric conditions, the temperature, and thus speed of sound, varies with altitude:\n\nSection::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.\n\nSection::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:General physical considerations.\n", "The behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things:\n\nBULLET::::- A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium.\n", "Speeds of sound of the elements\n\nThe speed of sound in any chemical element in the fluid phase has one temperature-dependent value. In the solid phase, different types of sound wave may be propagated, each with its own speed: among these types of wave are longitudinal (as in fluids), transversal, and (along a surface or plate) extensional.\n\nSection::::Notes.\n\nBULLET::::- Ref. CRC: Values are \"at room temperature\" unless noted, and \"for normal atmospheric pressure\" (\"at 1 atm\" for gases).\n", "In gases, adiabatic compressibility is directly related to pressure through the heat capacity ratio (adiabatic index), while pressure and density are inversely related to the temperature and molecular weight, thus making only the completely independent properties of \"temperature and molecular structure\" important (heat capacity ratio may be determined by temperature and molecular structure, but simple molecular weight is not sufficient to determine it).\n", "The medium in which a sound wave is travelling does not always respond adiabatically, and as a result, the speed of sound can vary with frequency.\n", "Note that in this example we have assumed that temperature is low enough that heat capacities are not influenced by molecular vibration (see heat capacity). However, vibrational modes simply cause gammas which decrease toward 1, since vibration modes in a polyatomic gas give the gas additional ways to store heat which do not affect temperature, and thus do not affect molecular velocity and sound velocity. Thus, the effect of higher temperatures and vibrational heat capacity acts to increase the difference between the speed of sound in monatomic vs. polyatomic molecules, with the speed remaining greater in monatomics.\n", "In fluids, only the medium's compressibility and density are the important factors, since fluids do not transmit shear stresses. In heterogeneous fluids, such as a liquid filled with gas bubbles, the density of the liquid and the compressibility of the gas affect the speed of sound in an additive manner, as demonstrated in the hot chocolate effect.\n", "The speed of sound is raised by humidity but decreased by carbon dioxide. The difference between 0% and 100% humidity is about at standard pressure and temperature, but the size of the humidity effect increases dramatically with temperature. The carbon dioxide content of air is not fixed, due to both carbon pollution and human breath (e.g., in the air blown through wind instruments).\n", "Here it is the case that \"v\" = \"fλ\".\n\nSection::::Experimental methods.:High-precision measurements in air.\n", "This equation is correct to a much wider temperature range, but still depends on the approximation of heat capacity ratio being independent of temperature, and for this reason will fail, particularly at higher temperatures. It gives good predictions in relatively dry, cold, low-pressure conditions, such as the Earth's stratosphere. The equation fails at extremely low pressures and short wavelengths, due to dependence on the assumption that the wavelength of the sound in the gas is much longer than the average mean free path between gas molecule collisions. A derivation of these equations will be given in the following section.\n", "For air, we introduce the shorthand\n\nIn addition, we switch to the Celsius temperature , which is useful to calculate air speed in the region near \n\n0 °C (about 273 kelvin). Then, for dry air,\n\nwhere \"formula_4\" (theta) is the temperature in degrees Celsius(°C).\n\nSubstituting numerical values \n\nfor the molar gas constant in J/mole/Kelvin, and\n\nfor the mean molar mass of air, in kg; and using the ideal diatomic gas value of , we have\n\nFinally, Taylor expansion of the remaining square root in formula_4 yields\n", "For a given ideal gas the molecular composition is fixed, and thus the speed of sound depends only on its temperature. At a constant temperature, the gas pressure has no effect on the speed of sound, since the density will increase, and since pressure and density (also proportional to pressure) have equal but opposite effects on the speed of sound, and the two contributions cancel out exactly. In a similar way, compression waves in solids depend both on compressibility and density—just as in liquids—but in gases the density contributes to the compressibility in such a way that some part of each attribute factors out, leaving only a dependence on temperature, molecular weight, and heat capacity ratio which can be independently derived from temperature and molecular composition (see derivations below). Thus, for a single given gas (assuming the molecular weight does not change) and over a small temperature range (for which the heat capacity is relatively constant), the speed of sound becomes dependent on only the temperature of the gas.\n", "If the ends of the same tube are now both closed or both opened as in the last two animations, the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic becomes formula_14. By the same method as above, the fundamental frequency is found to be\n\nAt 20 °C (68 °F) the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s (1129 ft/s). This speed is temperature dependent and increases at a rate of 0.6 m/s for each degree Celsius increase in temperature (1.1 ft/s for every increase of 1 °F).\n\nThe velocity of a sound wave at different temperatures:-\n\nBULLET::::- v = 343.2 m/s at 20 °C\n\nBULLET::::- v = 331.3 m/s at 0 °C\n", "The speed of sound in a plasma for the common case that the electrons are hotter than the ions (but not too much hotter) is given by the formula (see here)\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- \"m\" is the ion mass;\n\nBULLET::::- \"μ\" is the ratio of ion mass to proton mass ;\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is the electron temperature;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Z\" is the charge state;\n\nBULLET::::- \"k\" is Boltzmann constant;\n\nBULLET::::- \"γ\" is the adiabatic index.\n", "This equation is derived from the first two terms of the Taylor expansion of the following more accurate equation:\n\nDividing the first part, and multiplying the second part, on the right hand side, by gives the exactly equivalent form\n\nwhich can also be written as\n\nwhere T denotes the thermodynamic temperature.\n", "In non-ideal gas behavior regimen, for which the van der Waals gas equation would be used, the proportionality is not exact, and there is a slight dependence of sound velocity on the gas pressure.\n\nHumidity has a small but measurable effect on the speed of sound (causing it to increase by about 0.1%–0.6%), because oxygen and nitrogen molecules of the air are replaced by lighter molecules of water. This is a simple mixing effect.\n\nSection::::Altitude variation and implications for atmospheric acoustics.\n", "The speed of sound in air varies with temperature, meaning that a vessel flute's pitch will change in hot or cold air. However, varying the playing airspeed can change the pitch by three semitones. This is enough to cancel the expected pitch effects of any probable temperature change.\n\nAir pressure variations do not affect pitch (the ratio of pressure to air density in an ideal gas is constant. Air pressure and density changes therefore cancel, and have no effect on the speed of sound; air is nearly an ideal gas, so there is nearly no effect).\n", "However, there are variations in this trend above . In particular, in the stratosphere above about , the speed of sound increases with height, due to an increase in temperature from heating within the ozone layer. This produces a positive speed of sound gradient in this region. Still another region of positive gradient occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above .\n\nSection::::Practical formula for dry air.\n\nThe approximate speed of sound in dry (0% humidity) air, in metres per second, at temperatures near , can be calculated from\n\nwhere \"formula_4\" is the temperature in degrees Celsius (°C).\n", "Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In air at sea level, the speed of sound is approximately using the formula . In fresh water, also at 20 °C, the speed of sound is approximately . In steel, the speed of sound is about . The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive, being subject to a second-order anharmonic effect, to the sound amplitude, which means there are non-linear propagation effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound (see parametric array).\n", "Section::::Factors affecting sound transmission class.:Sound absorption.\n\nSound absorption entails turning acoustical energy into some other form of energy, usually heat.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting sound transmission class.:Sound absorption.:Mass.\n", "The speed of sound in the ocean at different depths can be measured directly, e.g., by using a velocimeter, or, using measurements of temperature and salinity at different depths, it can be calculated using a number of different sound speed formulae which have been developed. Examples of such formulae include those by Wilson, Chen and Millero and Mackenzie. Each such formulation applies within specific limits of the independent variables.\n", "The frequency of the vibrational modes depends on the speed of sound in air, which varies with air density. A change in temperature, and only to a much smaller degree also a change in humidity, influences the air density and thus the speed of sound, and therefore affects the tuning of wind instruments. The effect of thermal expansion of a wind instrument, even of a brass instrument, is negligible compared to the thermal effect on the air.\n\nSection::::Parts.\n", "Although given as a function of depth, the speed of sound in the ocean does not depend solely on depth. Rather, for a given depth, the speed of sound depends on the temperature at that depth, the depth itself, and the salinity at that depth, in that order.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04480	Why are certain words put inside brackets when someone is being quoted?	the speaker didn’t say those words, the writer added them in so you would know what they meant. for example if i’m being interviewed & say “he scored 30 points”, the reader isn’t going to know who i’m talking about, so the article might say “[Lebron] scored 30 points”	[ "When quoted material is in any way altered, the alterations are enclosed in square brackets within the quotation. For example: Plaintiff asserts his cause is just, stating, \"[m]y causes is just.\" Although in the original quoted sentence the word \"my\" was capitalized, it has been modified in the quotation and the change signalled with brackets. Similarly, where the quotation contained a grammatical error, the quoting author signalled that the error was in the original with \"[\"sic\"]\" (Latin for 'thus'). (\"California Style Manual\", section 4:59 (4th ed.))\n\nSection::::Specific uses.:Law.\n", "People also use quotation marks in this way to distance the writer from the terminology in question so as not to be associated with it, for example to indicate that a quoted word is not official terminology, or that a quoted phrase presupposes things that the author does not necessarily agree with; or to indicate special terminology that should be identified for accuracy's sake as someone else's terminology, as when a term (particularly a controversial term) pre-dates the writer or represents the views of someone else, perhaps without judgement (contrast this neutrally distancing quoting to the negative use of scare quotes).\n", "In American writing, double quotes are used normally (the primary style). If quote marks are used inside another pair of quote marks, then single quotes are used as the secondary style. For example: \"Didn't she say 'I like red best' when I asked her wine preferences?\" he asked his guests. If another set of quotes is nested, double quotes are used again, and they continue to alternate as necessary (though this is rarely done). \n", "Quotes are sometimes used for emphasis in lieu of underlining or italics, most commonly on signs or placards. This usage can be confused with ironic or altered-usage quotation, sometimes with unintended humor. For example, \"For sale: \"fresh\" fish, \"fresh\" oysters\", could be construed to imply that \"fresh\" is not used with its everyday meaning, or indeed to indicate that the fish or oysters are anything but fresh. As another example, \"Cashiers' desks open until noon for your \"convenience\"\" could be interpreted to mean that the convenience was for the bank employees, not the customers.\n\nSection::::Order of punctuation.\n", "Square brackets—also called crotchets or simply brackets (US)—are often used to insert explanatory material or to mark where a [word or] passage was omitted from an original material by someone other than the original author, or to mark modifications in quotations.\n\nA bracketed ellipsis, […], is often used to indicate omitted material: \"I'd like to thank [several unimportant people] for their tolerance [...]\"\n", "In Polish books and publications, this style for use of guillemets (also known as »German quotes«) is used almost exclusively. In addition to being standard for second level quotes, guillemet quotes are sometimes used as first level quotes in headings and titles but almost never in ordinary text in paragraphs.\n\nAnother style of quoting is to use an em-dash to open a quote; this is used almost exclusively to quote dialogues, and is virtually the only convention used in works of fiction.\n\nAn en-dash is sometimes used in place of the em-dash, especially so in newspaper texts.\n\nSection::::Specific language features.:Portuguese.\n", "Sometimes the words in square brackets are incorrectly incorporated into the quotation, and/or the ellipsis is omitted.\n\nWatson's original statement first appeared in a 1929 article, \"Adaptation,\" in the journal \"Nature:\" The second version of the quotation, given above, is formed by combining the introduction and conclusion of a passage in Watson's paper, one from the first page and one from the third. The first passage reads:\n\nThe concluding passage reads:\n\nSection::::Published works.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Palaeontology and the Evolution of Man\", Romanes Lecture, Oxford, 1928\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Animal Bones from Skara Brae\" (1931)\n", "Noun phrases can also be placed in \"apposition\" (where two consecutive phrases refer to the same thing), as in \"that president, Abraham Lincoln, ...\" (where \"that president\" and \"Abraham Lincoln\" are in apposition). In some contexts the same can be expressed by a prepositional phrase, as in \"the twin curses of famine and pestilence\" (meaning \"the twin curses\" that are \"famine and pestilence\").\n\nParticular forms of noun phrases include:\n\nBULLET::::- phrases formed by the determiner \"the\" with an adjective, as in \"the homeless\", \"the English\" (these are plural phrases referring to homeless people or English people in general);\n", "There is no space on the internal side of quote marks, with the exception of ¼ \"firet\" (~ ¼ em) space between two quotation marks when there are no other characters between them (e.g. ,„ and ’”).\n\nThe above rules have not changed since at least the previous BN-76/7440-02 standard from 1976 and are probably much older.\n\nHowever, the part of the rules that concerns the use of guillemets conflicts with the Polish punctuation standard as given by dictionaries, including the \"Wielki Słownik Ortograficzny PWN\" recommended by the Polish Language Council. The PWN rules state:\n", "Additionally, a small letter can be replaced by a capital one, when the beginning of the original text is omitted for succinctness, for example, when referring to a verbose original: \"To the extent that policymakers and elite opinion in general have made use of economic analysis at all, they have, as the saying goes, done so the way a drunkard uses a lamppost: for support, not illumination\", it can be quoted succinctly as: \"[P]olicymakers […] made use of economic analysis […] the way a drunkard uses a lamppost: for support, not illumination.\" When nested parentheses are needed, brackets are used as a substitute for the inner pair of parentheses within the outer pair. When deeper levels of nesting are needed, convention is to alternate between parentheses and brackets at each level.\n", "Quotes indicating verbal irony, or other special use, are sometimes called scare quotes. They are sometimes gestured in oral speech using air quotes, or indicated in speech with a tone change or by replacement with \"supposed[ly]\" or \"so-called\".\n\nSection::::Usage.:Signalling unusual usage.\n\nQuotation marks are also used to indicate that the writer realises that a word is not being used in its current commonly accepted sense:\n", "The convention of quoting was common in Usenet newsgroups by 1990, and is supported by many popular email interfaces, either by default or as a user-settable option. In Microsoft Outlook, for instance, this option is labeled \"prefix each line of the original.\" Besides inserting markers automatically in quoted lines, some interfaces assume that a line starting with a \"codice_1\" character or similar is quoted text, and will automatically display it in a distinctive font or color:\n", "Bracketed comments inserted into a quote indicate where the original has been modified for clarity: \"I appreciate it [the honor], but I must refuse\", and \"the future of psionics [see definition] is in doubt\". Or one can quote the original statement \"I hate to do laundry\" with a (sometimes grammatical) modification inserted: He \"hate[s] to do laundry\".\n", "Instead of an attribution line, one may indicate the author by a comment in brackets, at the beginning of the quotation:\n\nAnother alternative, used in Fidonet and some mail user agents, is to place the initials of the author before the quoting marker. This may be used with or without attribution lines:\n\nSection::::Trimming and reformatting.\n", "The panelists were given only specific key words and must complete the entire quotation. For example, the words \"score\" and \"seven\" would lead to Abraham Lincoln's famous opening line from the Gettysburg Address, \"Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.\"\n\nSection::::Rounds.:What Are They Talking About?\n\nA quote was given completely out of context and the panelists had to determine the context of why the quote was said.\n\nSection::::Rounds.:Was It Something I Said?\n", "Pull quotes need not be a verbatim copy of the text being quoted; depending on a publication's house style, pull quotes may be abbreviated for space or paraphrased for clarity, with or without indication.\n", "which both use the meaning of the quoted words to complete the sentence, and mention them as they are attributed to W. V. Quine, to argue against his teachers' hard distinction. His claim was that quotations could not be analyzed as simple expressions that mention their content by means of naming it or describing its parts, as sentences like the above would lose their exact, twofold meaning.\n", "Alternatively, empty square brackets can also indicate omitted material, usually single letter only. The original \"Reading is also a process and it also changes you.\" can be rewritten in a quote as: It has been suggested that reading can \"also change[] you\".\n\nThe bracketed expression \"[\"sic\"]\" is used after a quote or reprinted text to indicate the passage appears exactly as in the original source, where it may otherwise appear that a mistake has been made in reproduction.\n\nIn translated works, brackets are used to signify the same word or phrase in the original language to avoid ambiguity.\n", "This has been compared to the Christian theological method of prooftexting:\n\nThe Institute for Creation Research (ICR) described the use of \"[a]n evolutionist's quote mistakenly used out of context\" to \"negate the entirety of [an] article and creationist claims regarding the lack of transitional forms\" as \"a smoke screen\".\n", "Placement of a pull quote on a page may be defined in a publication's or website's style guide. Such a typographic device may or may not be aligned with a column on the page. Some designers, for example, choose not to align the quote. In that case, the quotation cuts into two or more columns, as in the example shown. Because the pull quote invites the reader to read about the highlighted material, the pull quote should appear before the text it cites and, generally, fairly close to it.\n", "The curved apostrophe is the same character as the closing single quote. \"Smart quotes\" features, however, wrongly convert initial apostrophes (as in 'tis, 'em, 'til, and '89) into \"opening\" single quotes. (An example of this error appears in the advertisements for the television show \"'Til Death\"). The two very different functions of this character can cause confusion, particularly in British styles, in which single quotes are the standard primary.\n", "\"The Chicago Manual of Style\", 17th edition (2017), acknowledges this type of use but, in section 7.57, cautions against its overuse: \"Quotation marks are often used to alert readers that a term is used in a nonstandard (or slang), ironic, or other special sense ... [T]hey imply 'This is not my term,' or 'This is not how the term is usually applied.' Like any such device, scare quotes lose their force and irritate readers if overused.\"\n\nSection::::Usage.:Use–mention distinction.\n", "These same systems often drew the grave accent (`, U+0060) as an open quote glyph (actually a high-reversed-9 glyph, to preserve some usability as a grave). Thus, using a grave accent instead of a quotation mark as the opening quote gave a proper appearance of single quotes at the cost of semantic correctness. Nothing similar was available for the double quote, so many people resorted to using two single quotes for double quotes, which would look like the following:\n", "\"Ambidextrous\" quotation marks were introduced on typewriters to reduce the number of keys on the keyboard, and were inherited by computer keyboards and character sets. Some computer systems designed in the past had character sets with proper opening and closing quotes. However, the ASCII character set, which has been used on a wide variety of computers since the 1960s, only contains a straight single quote () and double quote ().\n", "The usual usage is to inform the reader that any errors or apparent errors in quoted material do not arise from errors in the course of the transcription, but are intentionally reproduced, exactly as they appear in the source text. It is generally placed inside square brackets to indicate that it is not part of the quoted matter.\n\n\"Sic\" may also be inserted derisively, to call attention to the original writer's spelling mistakes or erroneous logic, or to show general disapproval or dislike of the material.\n\nSection::::Etymology and historical usage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13586	How do certain medications cause people to gain weight?	Often it simply slows down the person's metabolism (rate at which the person uses energy), which means that food that is eaten is more likely to be stored as excess weight.	[ "BULLET::::- Interference with the body's ability to absorb specific nutrients in food. For example, Orlistat (also known as Xenical and Alli) blocks fat breakdown and thereby prevents fat absorption. The OTC fiber supplements glucomannan and guar gum have been used for the purpose of inhibiting digestion and lowering caloric absorption\n\nAnorectics are primarily intended to suppress the appetite, but most of the medications in this class also act as stimulants (e.g., amphetamine), and patients have abused medications \"off label\" to suppress appetite (e.g. digoxin).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Anti-obesity medication\n\nAnti-obesity medication or weight loss medications are pharmacological agents that reduce or control weight. These medications alter one of the fundamental processes of the human body, weight regulation, by altering either appetite, or absorption of calories. The main treatment modalities for overweight and obese individuals remain dieting and physical exercise.\n", "Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition; these include insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, steroids, certain anticonvulsants (phenytoin and valproate), pizotifen, and some forms of hormonal contraception.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Social determinants.\n", "There are a number of less commonly used medications. Some are only approved for short term use, others are used off-label, and still others are used illegally. Most are appetite suppressants that act on one or more neurotransmitters. Racemic amphetamine, phendimetrazine, diethylpropion, and phentermine are approved by the FDA for short term use, while bupropion, topiramate, and zonisamide are sometimes used off-label. Recombinant human leptin is very effective in those with obesity due to congenital complete leptin deficiency via decreasing energy intake and possibly increases energy expenditure. This condition is, however, rare and this treatment is not effective for inducing weight loss in the majority of people with obesity. It is being investigated to determine whether or not it helps with weight loss maintenance.\n", "Section::::Medication.:Other medications.\n\nOther weight loss medications have also been associated with medical complications, such as fatal pulmonary hypertension and heart valve damage due to Redux and Fen-phen, and hemorrhagic stroke due phenylpropanolamine. Many of these substances are related to amphetamine.\n", "Certain medications can cause either weight loss or weight gain. These side effects are often listed for each medication and should be considered when attempting to manage a person's weight.\n\nSection::::Key components of weight management.:Diseases.\n\nAs previously stated, acute illnesses can effect weight management by increasing a person's BMR. There are also several other medical conditions that are associated with either weight loss or weight gain. Examples of conditions that are associated with weight gain include hypothyroidism and Cushing's Syndrome. Examples of conditions that are associated with weight loss include hyperthyroidism and many cancers.\n\nSection::::Body Mass Index (BMI).\n", "Section::::Medication.:Cetilistat.\n\nCetilistat is a medication designed to treat obesity. It acts in the same way as the older medication Orlistat by inhibiting pancreatic lipase, an enzyme that breaks down triglycerides in the intestine. Without this enzyme, triglycerides from the diet are prevented from being hydrolyzed into absorbable free fatty acids and are excreted undigested.\n\nA published phase 2 trial found cetilistat significantly reduced weight with and was better tolerated than orlistat.\n\nSection::::Medication.:Lorcaserin.\n", "Several anti-obesity medications are currently approved by the FDA for long term use. Orlistat reduces intestinal fat absorption by inhibiting pancreatic lipase.\n\nLorcaserin has been found to be effective in the treatment of obesity with a weight loss of 5.8 kg at one year as opposed to 2.2 kg with placebo and it is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in the treatment of obesity. Side effects may include serotonin syndrome.\n\nThe combination drug phentermine/topiramate (Qsymia) is approved by the FDA as an addition to a reduced-calorie diet and exercise for chronic weight management.\n", "Certain drugs may increase appetite either as their primary effect or as a side effect. Antidepressants, such as mirtazapine or amitriptyline, and antipsychotics, particularly chlorpromazine and haloperidol, as well as tetrahydrocannabinol (found in cannabis), all present an increase in appetite as a side effect. In states where it is approved, medicinal cannabis may be prescribed for severe appetite loss, such as that caused by cancer, AIDS, or severe levels of persistent anxiety. Other drugs or supplements which may increase appetite include antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine, promethazine or cyproheptadine), and B vitamin supplements (such as vitamin B12 and vitamin B-complex).\n", "Another medication, orlistat, blocks absorption of dietary fats, and as a result may cause oily spotting bowel movements (steatorrhea), oily stools, stomach pain, and flatulence. A similar medication designed for patients with Type 2 diabetes is Acarbose; which partially blocks absorption of carbohydrates in the small intestine, and produces similar side effects including stomach pain and flatulence.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Lorcaserin (Belviq) was approved June 28, 2012 for obesity with other co-morbidities. The average weight loss by study participants was modest, but the most common side effects of the medication are considered benign. It reduces appetite by activating a type of serotonin receptor known as the 5-HT receptor in a region of the brain called the hypothalamus, which is known to control appetite.\n\nSection::::Medication.:Sibutramine.\n", "One medication, orlistat, is current widely available and approved for long term use. Weight loss however is modest with an average of at 1 to 4 years and there is little information on how these drugs affect longer-term complications of obesity. Its use is associated with high rates of gastrointestinal side effects.\n", "In people with type 2 diabetes mellitus, the medication metformin (Glucophage) can reduce weight.\n\nMetformin limits the amount of glucose that is produced by the liver as well as increases muscle consumption of glucose. It also helps in increasing the body's response to insulin.\n\nSection::::Medication.:Exenatide/liraglutide/semaglutide.\n", "Ephedra was removed from the US market in 2004 over concerns that it raises blood pressure and could lead to strokes and death.\n\nSection::::Medication.\n\nSome patients find that diet and exercise is not a viable option; for these patients, anti-obesity medications can be a last resort. Some prescription weight loss medications are stimulants, which are recommended only for short-term use, and thus are of limited usefulness for extremely obese patients, who may need to reduce weight over months or years.\n\nSection::::Medication.:Orlistat.\n", "The usefulness of certain drugs depends upon the comorbidities present. Metformin is preferred in overweight diabetics, as it may lead to mild weight loss in comparison to sulfonylureas or insulin. The thiazolidinediones, on the other hand, may cause weight gain, but decrease central obesity. Diabetics also achieve modest weight loss with fluoxetine, orlistat and sibutramine over 12–57 weeks. Preliminary evidence has however found higher number of cardiovascular events in people taking sibutramine verses control (11.4% vs. 10.0%). The long-term health benefits of these treatments remain unclear.\n", "Section::::Herbal and alternative medicine.\n\nMany products marketed as botanical weight loss supplements actually contain unapproved stimulants including analogues of amphetamine, methamphetamine and ephedra. Some botanical supplements include high dosages of compounds found in plants with stimulant effects including yohimbine and higenamine.\n\nCanadian clinical practice guidelines state that there is insufficient evidence to recommend in favor of or against using herbal medicine, dietary supplements or homeopathy against obesity.\n\nConjugated linoleic acid is claimed to help reduce obesity but it is ineffective for this use.\n", "Because of potential side effects, and limited evidence of small benefits in weight reduction especially in obese children and adolescents, it is recommended that anti-obesity medications only be prescribed for obesity where it is hoped that the benefits of the treatment outweigh its risks.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of action.\n\nCurrent and potential anti-obesity medications may operate through one or more of the following mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Catecholamine releasing agents such as amphetamine, phentermine, and related substituted amphetamines (e.g., bupropion) which act as appetite suppressants are the main tools used for the treatment of obesity.\n\nBULLET::::- Increase of the body's metabolism.\n", "Given the epidemic proportions of obesity in the Western world and the fact that it is increasing rapidly in some poorer countries, observers expect developments in this area to snowball in the near future.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Stimulation.\n\nWeight loss or loss of appetite (\"cachexia\") is an effect of some diseases, and a side effect of some prescription drugs. Three agents are approved for appetite stimulation in the United States: megestrol - a progesterone available as an oral tablet, oxandrolone - an oral anabolic steroid, and dronabinol - a cannabinoid available in an oral capsule.\n", "Weight loss with these drugs is modest. Over the longer term, average weight loss on orlistat is , sibutramine is and rimonabant is . Orlistat and rimonabant lead to a reduced incidence of diabetes, and all three drugs have some effect on cholesterol. However, there is little information on how these drugs affect the longer-term complications or outcomes of obesity. In 2010 it was found that sibutramine increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes in people with a history of cardiovascular disease.\n", "Five medications have evidence for long-term use orlistat, lorcaserin, liraglutide, phentermine–topiramate, and naltrexone–bupropion. They result in weight loss after one year ranged from 3.0 to 6.7 kg (6.6-14.8 lbs) over placebo. Orlistat, liraglutide, and naltrexone–bupropion are available in both the United States and Europe, whereas lorcaserin and phentermine–topiramate are available only in the United States. European regulatory authorities rejected the latter two drugs in part because of associations of heart valve problems with lorcaserin and more general heart and blood vessel problems with phentermine–topiramate. Orlistat use is associated with high rates of gastrointestinal side effects and concerns have been raised about negative effects on the kidneys. There is no information on how these drugs affect longer-term complications of obesity such as cardiovascular disease or death.\n", "Liraglutide (Saxenda) is another GLP-1 analogue for daily administration.\n\nSemaglutide (Ozempic) is yet another GLP-1 analogue, more effective and approved once weekly.\n\nSection::::Medication.:Amylin/pramlinatide.\n\nAn analogue of amylin (secreted by the Beta cells of the pancreas in a fixed ratio when insulin is released and activated) pramlintide, originally developed by Amylin Pharmaceuticals, now owned by AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, is currently available for treating diabetes and is in testing for treating obesity in non-diabetics.\n\nSection::::Medication.:Phentermine/topiramate.\n", "Other classes of medications in development include lipase inhibitors, similar to orlistat. Another lipase inhibitor, called GT 389-255, was being developed by Peptimmune (licensed from Genzyme). This was a novel combination of an inhibitor and a polymer designed to bind the undigested triglycerides therefore allowing increased fat expulsion without side effects such as oily stools that occur with orlistat. The development stalled as Phase 1 trials were conducted in 2004 and there was no further human clinical development afterward. In 2011, Peptimmune filed for Chapter 7 Liquidation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Weight loss effects of water\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Some anti-obesity medications can have severe, even, lethal side effects, fen-phen being a famous example. Fen-phen was reported through the FDA to cause abnormal echocardiograms, heart valve problems, and rare valvular diseases. One of, if not the first, to sound alarms was Sir Arthur MacNalty, Chief Medical Officer (United Kingdom). As early as the 1930s, he warned against the use of dinitrophenol as an anti-obesity medication and the injudicious and/or medically unsupervised use of thyroid hormone to achieve weight reduction. The side effects are often associated with the medication's mechanism of action. In general, stimulants carry a risk of high blood pressure, faster heart rate, palpitations, closed-angle glaucoma, drug addiction, restlessness, agitation, and insomnia.\n", "Lisdexamfetamine is a USFDA-approved drug that is used for the treatment of moderate to severe binge eating disorder in adults.\n\nThree other classes of medications are also used in the treatment of binge eating disorder: antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and anti-obesity medications. Antidepressant medications of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) have been found to effectively reduce episodes of binge eating and reduce weight. Similarly, anticonvulsant medications such as topiramate and Zonisamide may be able to effectively suppress appetite. The long-term effectiveness of medication for binge eating disorder is currently unknown.\n", "Used on a short-term basis clinically to treat obesity, some appetite suppressants are also available over-the-counter. Most common natural appetite suppressants are based on \"Hoodia\", a genus of 13 species in the flowering plant family Apocynaceae, under the subfamily Asclepiadoideae. Several appetite suppressants are based on a mix of natural ingredients, mostly using green tea as its basis, in combination with other plant extracts such as fucoxanthin, found naturally in seaweed. Drugs of this class are frequently stimulants of the phenethylamine family, related to amphetamine (informally known as \"speed\").\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00606	is it healthier to eat an entire pizza at once, or spread out over several meals? Or is it the same?	It's a bit worse all at once, because you will get a sugar rush followed by an insulin crash. This is the sort of thing that can contribute to Type II diabetes. Also it gets you in the habit of not stopping when full.	[ "Frequent pizza eaters in Italy have been found to have a relatively low incidence of cardiovascular disease and digestive tract cancers relative to infrequent pizza eaters, although the nature of the correlation between pizza and such perceived benefits is unclear. Pizza consumption in Italy might only indicate adherence to traditional Mediterranean dietary patterns, which have been shown to have various health benefits.\n\nSome attribute the apparent health benefits of pizza to the lycopene content in pizza sauce, which research indicates likely plays a role in protecting against cardiovascular disease and various cancers.\n\nSection::::National Pizza Month.\n", "In 2017, the world pizza market was $128 billion and in the US it was $44 billion spread over 76,000 pizzerias. Overall, 13% of the U.S. population aged 2 years and over, consumed pizza on any given day.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.\n", "The Pillsbury recipe which went viral in September 2014 had a similar, though smaller, recipe which called for less cooking time. The recipe recommended a pan with tall sides (square or round), and called for three layers of dough and a total of 28–33 minutes of cooking time (8 for the rounds and 20–25 for the finished pizza).\n\nThe \"Daily Mirror\" gave a total of 5,000 calories for a six-layer Boston Pizza pizza cake. The \"Daily Mail\", reviewing the Pillsbury recipe, estimated that each pizza cake had 3,818 calories, or 636 per slice of the layered pie.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "In the province of Quebec Pizza-ghetti is a combination meal commonly found in fast food or family restaurants. It consists of a pizza, sliced in half, accompanied by a small portion of spaghetti with a tomato based sauce. Although both pizza and spaghetti are considered staples of Italian cuisine, combining them in one dish is completely unknown in Italy. A popular variant involves using spaghetti as a pizza topping, under the pizza's mozzarella cheese\n", "Jawed Khan, a former Chishti employee, opened Pizza Napoli in 1999, offering a pie at a time when Chishti was still at . Khan, who also began using the term \"jumbo slice\", told the \"Washington City Paper\": \"We came in with the biggest slice.\" Chishti responded by going to a larger size, and staked his claim to the term by hanging a plastic sign in his window reading \"Jumbo Slice\".\n", "Studies have shown that eating monotonous meals (limited variety in food) results in long-term sensory-specific satiety. By continuing to eat similar meals, a dieter can reduce their overall food intake and use sensory-specific satiety as a tool for weight loss. On the contrary, sensory-specific satiety can also cause obesity because of the stimulation of hunger for foods of different variety. The higher energy content the food has, the less likely sensory-specific satiety will become activated.\n\nSection::::Age in relation to sensory-specific satiety.\n", "Some mass-produced pizzas by fast food chains have been criticized as having an unhealthy balance of ingredients. Pizza can be high in salt, fat and calories (food energy). The USDA reports an average sodium content of 5,101 mg per pizza in fast food chains. There are concerns about negative health effects. Food chains have come under criticism at various times for the high salt content of some of their meals.\n", "These non-trivial multivalued dependencies on a non-superkey reflect the fact that the varieties of pizza a restaurant offers are independent from the areas to which the restaurant delivers. This state of affairs leads to redundancy in the table: for example, we are told three times that A1 Pizza offers Stuffed Crust, and if A1 Pizza starts producing Cheese Crust pizzas then we will need to add multiple rows, one for each of A1 Pizza's delivery areas. There is, moreover, nothing to prevent us from doing this incorrectly: we might add Cheese Crust rows for all but one of A1 Pizza's delivery areas, thereby failing to respect the multivalued dependency {Restaurant} formula_1 {Pizza Variety}.\n", "Many regional variations of pizza in the United States have been developed, many bearing only a casual resemblance to the Italian original. Pizza became most popular in America after soldiers stationed in Italy returned from World War II. During the latter half of the 20th century, pizza became an iconic dish of considerable popularity in the United States. The American slang terms \"za\" and \"slice\" can also refer to pizza. The thickness of the crust depends on what the consumer prefers; both thick and thin crust are popular. Often, foods such as barbecued chicken and bacon cheeseburgers are used to create new types of pizza.\n", "Infection causes a relative protein deficiency that leads to reduced weight gain or even weight loss. This due in part to a reduction in appetite. There is also a loss in digestive efficiency. Lesions in the allow a loss of protein and in addition protein is diverted to tissue repair and immune and inflammatory processes. Protein supplementation of the diet can prevent the appearance of clinical signs which argues strongly that pathogenesis is a consequence of the relative protein deficiency.\n", "In 1985, the late writer, historian, and film critic George Fasel learned of the correlation and wrote about it in an op-ed for \"The New York Times.\" The term \"Pizza Connection\" referring to this phenomenon was coined in 2002 by \"New York Times\" columnist Clyde Haberman, who commented on the two earlier publications of the theory in the \"Times,\" and predicted a rise in subway fare.\n", "Eating one meal away from home each week translates to 2 extra pounds each year or a daily increase of 134 calories and a decrease in diet quality by 2 points on the Healthy Eating Index.\n", "A popular variant of pizza in Italy is Sicilian pizza (locally called \"sfincione\" or \"sfinciuni\"), a thick-crust or deep-dish pizza originating during the 17th century in Sicily: it is essentially a focaccia that is typically topped with tomato sauce and other ingredients. Until the 1860s, \"sfincione\" was the type of pizza usually consumed in Sicily, especially in the Western portion of the island. Other variations of pizzas are also found in other regions of Italy, for example \"pizza al padellino\" or \"pizza al tegamino\", a small-sized, thick-crust and deep-dish pizza typically served in Turin, Piedmont.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:United States.\n", "Recipe books dating back to the 1800s describe the recipe as follows: \"For 3 \"crescie\", and one for the father confessor, it takes 16 pounds of flour, a half of milk, eggs 40, 3 ounces of salt, pepper, an ounce and half of lard, 3 pounds of dry cheese and 8 of fresh cheese, included with the eyes, 2 little \"fogliette\" of oil, and half \"paolo\" of good saffron, and this dose is enough for 24 people and father confessor\". The 40 eggs provided in this recipe had to remember the 40 days of Lent..\n", "Traditionally, meals in Italy typically contained four or five courses. Especially on weekends, meals are often seen as a time to spend with family and friends rather than simply for sustenance; thus, meals tend to be longer than in other cultures. During holidays such as Christmas and New Year's Eve, feasts can last for hours.\n", "Super Sunday food is usually served buffet style, rather than as a sit-down meal. Foods traditionally eaten on Super Sunday include buffalo wings, chili, baby back ribs, dipping sauces, pizza, and potato chips. Many pizza delivery businesses see their order numbers double as roughly 60 percent of the take out ordered on Super Sunday is pizza. Roughly of chips, 1.25 billion chicken wings, and of guacamole are consumed during Super Sunday.\n", "A more complicated method that allows greater freedom with meal times and snacks is \"carb counting.\" This approach is taught to diabetic patients in the UK and elsewhere as \"Dose Adjustment For Normal Eating\" or DAFNE.\n", "Pizza-ghetti\n\nPizza-ghetti is a combination meal commonly found in fast food or family restaurants throughout the province of Quebec and other parts of Canada.\n\nIt consists of a pizza, sliced in half, accompanied by a small portion of spaghetti with a tomato based sauce. Although both pizza and spaghetti are considered staples of Italian cuisine, combining them in one dish is completely unknown in Italy. An infrequent variant involves using spaghetti as a pizza topping, under the pizza's mozzarella cheese.\n", "Section::::Factors that affect the thermic effect of food.\n\nThe thermic effect of food is increased by both aerobic training of sufficient duration and intensity or by anaerobic weight training. However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of the meals ingested. Meal frequency has little to no effect on TEF; assuming total calorie intake for the days are equivalent.\n", "BULLET::::- Meat feast parmo - topped with pepperoni, chicken and ham\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parmo Zeno\" - topped with cheese and onions\n\nDue to its size, a full parmo is usually served in a pizza box with any accompanying chips and salad, although a large round polystyrene tray is also common.\n\nIn 2019, Pizza Hut introduced a parmo under the name \"chicken melt\", with variations including pepperoni, garlic mushrooms and BBQ Americano.\n\nSection::::Nutritional information.\n", "Section::::Nutritional information.\n\nThe commercial version of Spatini spaghetti sauce mix lists a serving size of two teaspoons or six grams, which seasons a half cup when prepared. One serving contains 20 calories, 620 milligrams of sodium (26% Daily Value), 2 grams of sugars, 4 grams of carbohydrates (1% Daily Value), with no fat, protein, cholesterol, or fiber.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n", "Post-opening, under the direction of head chef Joe Hunter, Pizza Brain has established itself as one of Philadelphia's best pizza shops. It has received local, national and international recognition, for its creative pizza pies.\n\nNotable awards, reviews and lists include: \n\n3 \"Philadelphia Magazine\" \"Best of Philly\" awards\n\nBusiness Insider's Best Pizza in Every State, \n\nZagat's 10 Killer Slices of Pizza in Philly\n\nNylon Magazine's 15 Best Pizza Slices in America,\n\nThe Daily Meal's 10 Best Pepperoni Pizzas In America and\n\nFood Network's 50 Top Pizza Deliveries from Coast to Coast.\n", "Typically, jumbo slices are offered in only two varieties: cheese and pepperoni. Individual slices can measure more than in length, weigh approximately , and typically folded to eat. Dough balls for jumbo slice pies can weigh more than . Prior to application, sauce is held in a large receptacle sometimes nicknamed a \"garbage can\", and the mozzarella-provolone cheese mix can arrive in shipments. A single jumbo slice may contain more than 1,000 kilocalories (4200 kJ), as confirmed in a study conducted by ABC Research Corp. on behalf of the \"Washington City Paper\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Pizza is a common fast food category in the United States, with nationwide chains including Papa John's, Domino's Pizza, Sbarro and Pizza Hut. It trails only the burger industry in supplying children's fast food calories. Menus are more limited and standardized than in traditional pizzerias, and pizza delivery is offered.\n", "BULLET::::- California-style pizza is distinguished by the use of non-traditional ingredients, especially varieties of fresh produce. Some typical California-style toppings include Thai-inspired chicken pizza with peanut sauce, bean sprouts, and shaved carrots, taco pizzas, and pizzas with chicken and barbecue sauce as toppings.\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago-style pizza is distinguished by a thick moist crust formed up the sides of a deep-dish pan and sauce as the last ingredient, added atop the cheese and toppings. \"Stuffed\" versions have two layers of crust with the sauce on top.\n" ]	[ "Healthier to eat entire pizza at once." ]	[ "It is less healthy to eat a whole pizza at once. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Healthier to eat entire pizza at once." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is less healthy to eat a whole pizza at once. " ]
2018-09602	If fish are cold-blooded how do they move so quickly in ice-cold water?	There are different methods depending on the fish species. Some are adapted to the colder water, their body's proteins most efficient at the lower temperature. They can idly swim and save energy for short bursts of speed when needed. Combine that with colder water often holding more oxygen and it can be quite the system. Some fish, such as tuna and some sharks, have a form of warm-bloodedness. They use the heat created from moving their muscles to raise their body temperature above the surrounding water. The fastest fish in the world use this method. It's also why tuna steaks are such a deep red.	[ "Further studies on animals that were traditionally assumed to be cold-blooded have shown that most creatures incorporate different variations of the three terms defined above, along with their counterparts (ectothermy, poikilothermy, and bradymetabolism), thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types. Some fish have warm-blooded characteristics, such as the opah. Swordfish and some sharks have circulatory mechanisms that keep their brains and eyes above ambient temperatures and thus increase their ability to detect and react to prey. Tunas and some sharks have similar mechanisms in their muscles, improving their stamina when swimming at high speed.\n\nSection::::Heat generation.\n", "In some fish, a rete mirabile allows for an increase in muscle temperature in regions where this network of vein and arteries is found. The fish is able to thermoregulate certain areas of their body. Additionally, this increase in temperature leads to an increase in basal metabolic temperature. The fish is now able to split ATP at a higher rate and ultimately can swim faster.\n\nThe eye of a swordfish can generate heat to better cope with detecting their prey at depths of 2000 feet.\n\nSection::::Muscular system.\n", "Fish are cold-blooded, and in general their body temperature is the same as that of their surroundings. They gain and lose heat through their skin and during respiration and are able to regulate their circulation in response to changes in water temperature by increasing or reducing the blood flow to the gills. Metabolic heat generated in the muscles or gut is quickly dissipated through the gills, with blood being diverted away from the gills during exposure to cold. Because of their relative inability to control their blood temperature, most teleosts can only survive in a small range of water temperatures.\n", "Although most fish are exclusively ectothermic, there are exceptions. The only known bony fishes (infraclass Teleostei) that exhibit endothermy are in the suborder Scombroidei – which includes the billfishes, tunas, and the butterfly kingfish, a basal species of mackerel – and also the opah. The opah, a lampriform, was demonstrated in 2015 to utilize \"whole-body endothermy\", generating heat with its swimming muscles to warm its body while countercurrent exchange (as in respiration) minimizes heat loss. It is able to actively hunt prey such as squid and swim for long distances due to the ability to warm its entire body, including its heart, which is a trait typically found in only mammals and birds (in the form of homeothermy). In the cartilaginous fishes (class Chondrichthyes), sharks of the families Lamnidae (porbeagle, mackerel, salmon, and great white sharks) and Alopiidae (thresher sharks) exhibit endothermy. The degree of endothermy varies from the billfishes, which warm only their eyes and brain, to the bluefin tuna and the porbeagle shark, which maintain body temperatures in excess of above ambient water temperatures.\n", "BULLET::::- Homeothermy: Although most fish are exclusively ectothermic, there are exceptions. Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures. Endothermic teleosts (bony fish) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes, tunas, including a \"primitive\" mackerel species, \"Gasterochisma melampus\". All sharks in the family Lamnidae – shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark – are endothermic, and evidence suggests the trait exists in family Alopiidae (thresher sharks). The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to bluefin tuna and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 °C above ambient water temperatures. \"See also gigantothermy\". Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased muscle strength, higher rates of central nervous system processing, and higher rates of digestion.\n", "BULLET::::- Tachymetabolism maintains a high \"resting\" metabolism (Greek: ταχύς \"tachys/tachus\" \"fast, swift\", μεταβάλλειν \"metaballein\" \"turn quickly\"). In essence, tachymetabolic creatures are \"on\" all the time. Though their resting metabolism is still many times slower than their active metabolism, the difference is often not as large as that seen in bradymetabolic creatures. Tachymetabolic creatures have greater difficulty dealing with a scarcity of food.\n\nSection::::The variety of thermoregulation types.\n", "H.M. Vernon has done work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that species of the same class showed very similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being 38.5 °C, fish 39 °C, Reptilia 45 °C, and various Molluscs 46 °C.\n\nTo cope with low temperatures, some fish have developed the ability to remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing; some use natural antifreeze or antifreeze proteins to resist ice crystal formation in their tissues.\n", "The opah utilizes retia mirabilia to conserve heat, making it the newest addition to the list of regionally endothermic fish. Blood traveling through capillaries in the gills must carry cold blood due to their exposure to cold water, but retia mirabilia in the opah's gills are able to transfer heat from warm blood in arterioles coming from the heart that heats this colder blood in arterioles leaving the gills. The huge pectoral muscles of the opah, which generate most of the body heat, are thus able to control the temperature of the rest of the body.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n", "Mostly fish have white muscles, but the muscles of some fishes, such as scombroids and salmonids, range from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their colour from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, which tuna express in quantities far higher than most other fish. The oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles.\n", "Section::::Circulation.\n", "BULLET::::- interacting with naturally occurring hormones, changing their shape and impact\n\nBULLET::::- affecting hormone synthesis or metabolism, causing an improper balance or quantity of hormones\n\nSection::::Osmoregulation.\n\nTwo major types of osmoregulation are osmoconformers and osmoregulators. Osmoconformers match their body osmolarity to their environment actively or passively. Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers, although their ionic composition may be different from that of seawater.\n", "The tuna's heart must pump blood to the bodily extremities at a quick rate to conserve heat and reduce heat loss. The heart of tunas is able to adapt to colder water temperatures, mainly by increasing blood flow and pumping warm blood to the muscle tissues at a faster rate.\n", "Most fish are completely cold-blooded. Some, such as tuna and lamnid sharks (such as the salmon shark), have evolved regional endothermy, in which parts of the body core are kept at a warmer temperature. These fish have retia arranged to warm muscles used for propulsion, and some visceral organs, while other organs, such as the heart, remain cooler. Only \"L. guttatus\" is known to have retia within its gill arches (which are also insulated by fat), an arrangement that warms the entire body core including the heart.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Stickleback fish have both marine and freshwater species, the freshwater species evolving since the last ice age. Freshwater species can survive colder temperatures. Scientists tested to see if they could reproduce this evolution of cold-tolerance by keeping marine sticklebacks in cold freshwater. It took the marine sticklebacks only three generations to evolve to match the 2.5 degree Celsius improvement in cold-tolerance found in wild freshwater sticklebacks. Microbial cells and recently mammalian cells are evolved under nutrient limiting conditions to study their metabolic response and engineer cells for better characteristics.\n\nSection::::For teaching.\n", "BULLET::::- S Salmons, FA Sreter \"Significance of impulse activity in the transformation of skeletal muscle type\" \"Nature\" 1976, Volume 263, Issue 5572, pp 30–34 (cited 586 times in Google Scholar as of September 2014)\n\nBULLET::::- Brenda R. Eisenberg, Stanley Salmons \"The reorganization of subcellular structure in muscle undergoing fast-to-slow type transformation\" \"Cell and Tissue Research\" October 1981, Volume 220, Issue 3, pp 449–471 (cited 195 times in Google Scholar as of January 2013)\n", "Since southern bluefin tunas must constantly be swimming to drive water over the gills and provide their bodies with oxygen, there is a requirement for their metabolic rate to constantly be high. Unlike other organisms, the southern bluefin tuna cannot expend more energy to produce heat in cold temperatures, while slowing down metabolism to cool down in high temperature waters and maintain a homeostatic temperature. Instead, the southern bluefin tuna seems to implement a system that regulates how actively the rete mirable system heats the tissues. Experiments involving the southern bluefin tuna have led researchers to believe that this species of tuna has developed a shunting system. When the southern bluefin tuna experiences cold temperatures, more blood is directed to the rete vascular system, heating muscle tissue, while in warm temperatures, blood is shunted to the venous and arterial systems, reducing the heat in the muscle tissues.\n", "Section::::Diet and body size.\n\nAll icefish are believed to be piscivorous but can also feed on krill. Icefish are typically ambush predators; thus, they can survive long periods between feeding and often consume fish up to 50% of their own body length. Maximum body lengths of have been recorded in these species.\n\nSection::::Respiratory and circulatory system.\n\nSection::::Respiratory and circulatory system.:Hemoglobin.\n", "Another important feature of the respiratory rhythm is that it is modulated to adapt to the oxygen consumption of the body. As observed in mammals, fish \"breathe\" faster and heavier when they do physical exercise. The mechanisms by which these changes occur have been strongly debated over more than 100 years between scientists. The authors can be classified in 2 schools:\n\nBULLET::::1. Those who think that the major part of the respiratory changes are pre-programmed in the brain, which would imply that neurons from locomotion centers of the brain connect to respiratory centers in anticipation of movements.\n", "\"Thunnus\", or tuna, long baffled conventional biologists with its incredible abilities to accelerate quickly and attain great speeds. A biological examination of the tuna shows it is simply not capable of such feats. However, an answer can be found when taking the tuna's embodied state into account. The bluefin tuna is able to take advantage of and exploit its local environment by finding naturally occurring currents to increase its speed. The tuna also uses its own physical body for this end as well, by utilizing its tailfin to create the necessary vortices and pressure so it can accelerate and maintain high speeds. Thus, the bluefin tuna is actively using its local environment for its own ends through the attributes of its physical body.\n", "Most sharks are \"cold-blooded\" or, more precisely, poikilothermic, meaning that their internal body temperature matches that of their ambient environment. Members of the family Lamnidae (such as the shortfin mako shark and the great white shark) are homeothermic and maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water. In these sharks, a strip of aerobic red muscle located near the center of the body generates the heat, which the body retains via a countercurrent exchange mechanism by a system of blood vessels called the rete mirabile (\"miraculous net\"). The common thresher shark has a similar mechanism for maintaining an elevated body temperature, which is thought to have evolved independently.\n", "Section::::Thermoregulation and metabolism.:Adaptations involved in temperature regulation.\n", "Fish are normally cold-blooded, with body temperatures the same as the surrounding water. However, some oceanic predatory fish, such as swordfish and some shark and tuna species, can warm parts of their body when they hunt for prey in deep and cold water. The highly visual swordfish uses a heating system involving its muscles which raises the temperature in its eyes and brain by up to 15 °C. The warming of the retina improves the rate at which the eyes respond to changes in rapid motion made by its prey by as much as ten times.\n", "Due to the southern bluefin tuna’s high metabolic need, ions must be taken up relatively quickly to ensure sufficient concentrations for cellular function. Tuna are able to drink the seawater as they constantly swim in order to ensure sufficient ion concentrations. The seawater is specifically high in sodium and chloride ions which together make up approximately 80% of the ions in the water. The intake of sodium and chloride, along with lower relative concentrations of potassium and calcium ions in the seawater allow southern bluefin tuna to generate the action potentials required for muscle contraction.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.:Primary osmoregulatory system and features.\n", "Each criterion has exceptions. Tuna, swordfish, and some species of sharks show some warm-blooded adaptations – they can heat their bodies significantly above ambient water temperature. Streamlining and swimming performance varies from fish such as tuna, salmon, and jacks that can cover 10–20 body-lengths per second to species such as eels and rays that swim no more than 0.5 body-lengths per second. Many groups of freshwater fish extract oxygen from the air as well as from the water using a variety of different structures. Lungfish have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods, gouramis have a structure called the labyrinth organ that performs a similar function, while many catfish, such as \"Corydoras\" extract oxygen via the intestine or stomach. Body shape and the arrangement of the fins is highly variable, covering such seemingly un-fishlike forms as seahorses, pufferfish, anglerfish, and gulpers. Similarly, the surface of the skin may be naked (as in moray eels), or covered with scales of a variety of different types usually defined as placoid (typical of sharks and rays), cosmoid (fossil lungfish and coelacanths), ganoid (various fossil fish but also living gars and bichirs), cycloid, and ctenoid (these last two are found on most bony fish). There are even fish that live mostly on land or lay their eggs on land near water. Mudskippers feed and interact with one another on mudflats and go underwater to hide in their burrows. A single, undescribed species of \"Phreatobius\", has been called a true \"land fish\" as this worm-like catfish strictly lives among waterlogged leaf litter. Many species live in underground lakes, underground rivers or aquifers and are popularly known as cavefish.\n", "The rete mirabile allows for an increase in muscle temperature in regions where this network of vein and arteries is found. The fish is able to thermoregulate certain areas of their body. Additionally, this increase in temperature leads to an increase in basal metabolic temperature. The fish is now able to split ATP at a higher rate and ultimately can swim faster.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04410	Plastic, glass, or can? What is the most eco-friendly material to sell drinks in?	Can. Metal is the most easily recyclable material. Plastics degrade over time and can only be recycled a limited number of times, as well as mixing types can weaken products or produce unwanted qualities Glass is more easily recycled, but mixed colored glass can be a challenge Metals, especially aluminum, can be easily sorted and melted down without much processing	[ "BULLET::::- All gifts and prizes are in keeping with the \"green\" theme - practical gift certificates, durable items made from recycled materials, donations to environmental organizations, unbleached cotton T-shirts or shopping bags, books etc..\n\nSection::::General office practices.:Checklist of food and beverages.\n\nBULLET::::- All tableware is reusable, including coffee mugs, water glasses, cutlery, dishes and cloth napkins and tablecloths;\n\nBULLET::::- Water and juice are served in pitchers. Soft drinks are served in returnable bottles. Straws are not provided;\n", "Most large companies serve their beverages in printed cans, where designs are printed on the aluminum and then crafted into a can. Alternatively, cans can be wrapped with a plastic design, mimicking the printed can but allowing for more flexibility than printed cans. A modern day trend in craft alcohol is to design stickers to put on cans, allowing for smaller batches and quick changes for new flavors.\n\nSection::::Collecting.\n", "Another variation on the drink can is to have a resealable lid. A version patented by Cogito Can in France has been used by Groupe Casino, the French grocery chain for its private label energy drink.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "SABMiller runs a number of sustainable development initiatives across its companies and in the countries in which it operates. They use new lightweight bottles that use 30 percent less glass. The lightweight bottles are designed to not only reduce the amount of waste materials but also cut down on energy used in production and distribution reducing the company's carbon emissions. SABMiller submits to a number of third party annual reports that review the company's environmental record. The corporation provides links to such reports on their own website.\n", "Cup drink\n\nA cup drink is a type of beverage most notable for its type of container, a formed plastic cup with a film lid. Each cup drink comes with a thin straw designed for piercing the lids; however, cup drinks can also be drunk in other ways. Cup drinks are usually sold in packs of 12 or 24.\n\nSection::::Contents.\n\nThe contained beverage is a juice drink in a variety of fruity flavours - usually orange, raspberry, strawberry, or blackcurrant. Most brands contain no artificial colours or flavouring, are pasteurized, and are often sugar free.\n\nSection::::Brands.\n", "The SuperEnd from Crown Holdings launched in 2000 was designed to use 10% less metal in production than standard beverage ends.\n\nSection::::Opening mechanisms.:Press button can.\n", "In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer Kotkamills launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stream, biodegraded, or even composted in small quantities.\n\nThe manufacture of paper usually requires inorganic chemicals and creates water effluents. Paper cups may consume more non-renewable resources than cups made of polystyrene foam (whose only significant effluent is pentane).\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Paper vs plastic.\n", "The plastic is strain oriented in the stretch blow molding manufacturing process. Plastic bottles are typically used to store liquids such as water, soft drinks, motor oil, cooking oil, medicine, shampoo, milk, and ink. The size ranges from very small sample bottles to very large carboys. The main advantage that plastic bottles have over glass is their superior resistance to breakage, in both production and transportation, as well as their low cost of production; however, their contribution towards plastic pollution is considerable.\n\nSection::::Types of bottle.:Aluminium bottles.\n", "Social drinking changed with the counter-culture movement of the 1970s and the arrival of new bottled and canned beverages in the 1980s, and soda water has declined in popularity. Soda siphons are still bought by the more traditional bar trade and are available at the bar in many upmarket establishments, but in the UK there are now only two wholesalers of soda-water in traditional glass siphons, and an estimated market of around 120,000 siphons per year (2009). Worldwide, preferences are for beverages in recyclable plastic containers.\n", "McDonald's switched from foam cups to paper cups in 2014, and is moving to recycle paper cups in the UK, as of 2016, in partnership with Simply Cups and James Cropper.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.\n\nSeveral coffee chains offer a discount if the customer brings along their own cup.\n\nAt festivals such as the Bavarian Oktoberfest, costs due to theft or breakage are avoided without using disposables: The customer pays an upfront fee for a drinking glass or mug and receives a rebate at its return.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Disposable cutlery\n\nBULLET::::- Disposable food packaging\n\nBULLET::::- Throw-away society\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nAmerican inventions\n\n[www.partydesires.com]\n", "Disposable cups are intended to be used only once. They are often used by fast-food restaurants and coffee shops to serve beverages. Institutions that provide drinking water, such as offices and hospitals, may also use disposable cups for sanitary reasons.\n\nBULLET::::- Paper cup\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic cup\n\nBULLET::::- Glass cup\n\nBULLET::::- Foam cup\n\nSection::::Types.:Cups for alcoholic beverages.\n", "BULLET::::- The registration package is distributed at the event rather than mailed out. The program and other registration material are informative but concise. Tourist information is available on request;\n\nBULLET::::- The registration package is provided in a reusable holder - perhaps a durable binder or folder made from recycled plastic or paper, or a reusable cotton shopping bag; and\n\nBULLET::::- Reusable plastic name cardholders with paper inserts are used and participants are asked to return them at the end of the sessions. Receptacles are provided at convenient spots such as hotel check-out, registration desk or outside the final meeting room.\n", "Some drink coasters can be recycled, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency lists the following as benefits of recycling:\n\nBULLET::::- Conserves natural resources such as timber, water and minerals\n\nBULLET::::- Increases economic security by tapping a domestic source of materials\n\nBULLET::::- Saves energy\n\nSection::::Coaster imprints.\n\nBeermats are usually adorned with a customized image—usually mentioning or advertising a brand of beer, although they can also be used to promote a drinking establishment, sports franchise, businesses or special events.\n\nSection::::Tegestology.\n", "To meet hygiene requirements, paper cups are generally manufactured from virgin (non-recycled) materials. The one exception to this is when the paper cup features an extra insulating layer for heat retention, which never comes into contact with the beverage, such as a corrugated layer wrapped around a single-wall cup.\n\nSection::::Manufacture.:Waterproofing.\n", "This is a list of bottle types, brands and companies. A bottle is a rigid container with a neck that is narrower than the body, and a \"mouth\". Bottles are often made of glass, clay, plastic, aluminum or other impervious materials, and are typically used to store liquids. The bottle has developed over millennia of use, with some of the earliest examples appearing in China, Phoenicia, Rome and Crete. Bottles are often recycled according to the SPI recycling code for the material. Some regions have a container deposit which is refunded after returning the bottle to the retailer.\n\nSection::::A.\n", "Disposable cup\n\nA disposable cup is a type of tableware and disposable food packaging. Disposable cup types include paper cups, plastic cups and foam cups. Expanded polystyrene is used to manufacture foam cups, and polypropylene is used to manufacture plastic cups.\n\nAs they are produced for single use, disposable cups and other similar disposable products constitute a major source of consumer and household waste, such as paper waste and plastic waste. It has been estimated that the average household discards around 70 disposable cups every year.\n", "One of the solutions for using all the unrecycled glass was to “turn trash to treasures” and make drinking glasses, ashtrays, lampshades and earrings out of the empty bottles.\n\nAfter a few weeks of research, volunteer Isa set up the glass upcycling workshop on Gili T using locally available tools and a local worker, Zul, was trained to create products out of discarded bottles.\n", "Section::::Pollution.\n\nThe manufacturing of paper cups contributes to water pollution when chemicals such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide and reduced sulfides enter waterways. The manufacturing of foam cups contributes to air pollution when pentane is released into the air. The plastic content in plastic-coated paper cups contributes to the plastic pollution problem, when cups are disposed as litter.\n\nSection::::Recycling and other environmental measures.\n\nThe curbside recycling of polypropylene containers has slowly increased in some developed countries, but is still rather limited.\n", "BULLET::::6. reducing the use of chromium for metal surface treatment;\n\nBULLET::::7. limiting the use of substances such as cadmium, lead, PCB, PCP, and Azo pigments;\n\nBULLET::::8. using wood from responsibly managed forests that replant and maintain biological diversity;\n\nBULLET::::9. using only recyclable materials for flat packaging and \"pure\" (non-mixed) materials for packaging to assist in recycling.\n\nBULLET::::10. introducing rental bicycles with trailers for customers in Denmark.\n", "According to a 2006 article, the functional beverage market's consumer group is characterized as well-educated females aged 35–55, belonging to the upper middle, middle, and lower middle classes. This is thought to result from this group's perceptions that functional drinks produce positive health beliefs, as well as their relatively high disposable income. A 2002 article stated that within the energy and stimulant drink sector, young adults aged 18 to 34 are considered to be the main target market, as evidenced by high consumption rates. However, due to constant changes in attitudes about different types of functional beverages, these target markets could change.\n", "Section::::Characteristics and advantages.\n\nThe aluminium bottlecan is made of 100 percent recyclable aluminium similar to that of an aluminium beverage can. However, it is shaped similar to a traditional beverage bottle, with many designs including resealable lids. A broad range of aluminium beverage bottle profiles, styles, and configurations, are available for commercial production, including “traditional”, “oval”, and “sport shapes”.\n", "Beer bottle\n\nA beer bottle is a bottle designed as a container for beer. Such designs vary greatly in size and shape, but the glass commonly is brown or green to reduce spoilage from light, especially ultraviolet.\n\nThe most widely established alternatives to glass containers for beer in retail sales are beverage cans and aluminum bottles; for larger volumes kegs are in common use.\n\nSection::::Bottling lines.\n\nBottling lines are production lines that fill beer into bottles on a large scale.\n", "BULLET::::3. In Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA, Jo Stodgel is encouraging his community to stuff eco-bricks with creative workshops for youth, river cleanup projects, and design / build projects. He is also innovating solutions to make the practice much more accessible and easy, such as using milk cartons instead of bottles.\n\nBULLET::::4. In Serbia a math professor Tomislav Radovanovic spent five years turning 13,500 plastic bottles into his dream home. The teacher's former students helped him.\n", "Plastic cups are often used for gatherings where it would be inconvenient to wash dishes afterward, due to factors such as location or number of guests. Plastic cups can be used for storing most liquids, but hot liquids may melt or warp the material.\n\nSection::::Environmental issues.\n\nMost plastic cups are designed for single uses and then disposal or recycling. A life cycle inventory of a comparison of paper and plastic shows environmental effects of both with no clear winner.\n\nProduction of of plastic cup emits of green house gases.\n", "Drink can\n\nA drink can (or beverage can) is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Drink cans are made of aluminium (75% of worldwide production) or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all drink cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year worldwide.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13673	why are there words in the English language containing silence letter(s), what is the purpose of these silence letter (s)?	A lot of them represent the way we used to say things. Spoken language and pronunciation has evolved but spelling hasn't.	[ "There are two silences. One when no word is spoken. The other when perhaps a torrent of language is being employed. This speech is speaking of a language locked beneath it. That is its continual reference. The speech we hear is an indication of that which we don't hear. It is a necessary avoidance, a violent, sly, anguished or mocking smoke screen which keeps the other in its place. When true silence falls we are still left with echo but are nearer nakedness. One way of looking at speech is to say that it is a constant stratagem to cover nakedness.\n", "Although speech is morally neutral \"per se\", the Epistle of James (3:1-12) and writers of the monastic tradition see silence as the only effective means of neutralizing our tendency towards sins of the tongue. There is an ongoing dialogue between Benedictine and Cistercian which speaks of a \"monastic archetype\" characterized by peace and silence.\n\nSection::::Christian contemplative traditions.:Trappist.\n", "Words ending in can be somewhat tricky to learners: \n\nFor example, the final is pronounced in the words \"Akazie, \"Aktie, \"Aktinie, \"Begonie, \"Familie, \"Folie, \"Geranie, \"Grazie, \"Hortensie, \"Hostie, \"Immobilie, \"Kastanie, \"Komödie, \"Kurie, \"Lilie, \"Linie, \"Orgie, \"Pinie, \"Serie, \"Studie, \"Tragödie\", \n", "Silent is also used in forms of the verb \"avere\" ('have') – \"ho\", \"hai\" and \"hanno\" – to distinguish these from their homophones \"o\" ('or'), \"ai\" ('to the') and \"anno\" ('year'). The letter is also silent at the beginning of words borrowed from other languages, such as \"hotel\".\n\nSection::::Romance languages.:Spanish.\n\nDespite being rather phonemic, Spanish orthography retains some silent letters:\n\nBULLET::::- is silent outside of the digraph and loanwords such as \"hámster\" or \"hachís\".\n\nBULLET::::- The digraph , used to represent before the front vowels and , has a silent\n", "Some words contain silent letters, which do not represent any sound in modern English pronunciation. Examples include the in \"doubt\", \"debt\", \"dumb\", etc., the in \"psychology\" and \"pneumatic\", as mentioned above in numerous words such as \"though\", \"daughter\", \"night\", \"brought\", and the commonly encountered silent (discussed further below).\n\nSection::::Function of the letters.:Word origin.\n", "Final consonants that might be silent in other contexts (finally or before another consonant) may seem to reappear in pronunciation in liaison: \"ils ont\" \"they have\", as opposed to \"ils sont\" \"they are\"; liaison is the retention (between words in certain syntactic relationships) of a historical sound otherwise lost, and often has grammatical or lexical significance.\n\nSection::::Romance languages.:Italian.\n", ""S" Is for Silence\n\n\"S\" Is for Silence is the 19th novel in Sue Grafton's \"Alphabet\" series of mystery novels and features Kinsey Millhone, a private eye based in Santa Teresa, California. \n\nIn a departure from the series format, this novel is set in alternating chapters both in the \"past\" of 1953 and the \"present\" of 1987.\n\nShortly after publication, this novel topped \"The New York Times\" best-seller list for hardcover fiction.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n", "Silence\n\nSilence is the absence of ambient audible sound, the emission of sounds of such low intensity that they do not draw attention to themselves, or the state of having ceased to produce sounds; this latter sense can be extended to apply to the cessation or absence of any form of communication, whether through speech or other medium. \n\nSometimes speakers fall silent when they hesitate in searching for a word, or interrupt themselves before correcting themselves. Discourse analysis shows that people use brief silences to mark the boundaries of prosodic units, in turn-taking, or as\n", "The letter most often marks a / as hard (velar), as in \"spaghetti\", where it would otherwise be soft (palatal), as in \"cello\", because of a following front vowel ( or ). Conversely, a silent marks a / as soft where it would otherwise be hard because of a following back vowel (, , or ), as in \"ciao\", \"Perugia\". \n", "Silence (Doctor Who)\n\nThe Silence are a religious order in the British science fiction television programme \"Doctor Who\", represented by humanoids with alien-like physical characteristics. Executive producer Steven Moffat created the Silence, intending them to be scarier than past villains in \"Doctor Who\". Though the phrase \"Silence will fall\" recurred throughout the 2010 series of \"Doctor Who\", the Silence were not seen until the 2011 series' opener \"The Impossible Astronaut\". Their origins are eventually revealed in the 2013 special \"The Time of the Doctor\".\n", "Section::::Production.:Writing.\n", "BULLET::::- The Unspeakable (ἄῤῥητος)\n\nBULLET::::- Silence (σειγή)\n\nBULLET::::- Father (πατήρ)\n\nBULLET::::- Truth (ἀλήθεια)\n\nFollowed by those of the second tetrad:\n\nBULLET::::- Word (λόγος)\n\nBULLET::::- Life (ζωή)\n\nBULLET::::- Man (ἄνθρωπος)\n\nBULLET::::- Church (ἐκκλησία)\n\nThese form the Ogdoad. Again, the Greek alphabet consists of nine mutes, eight semivowels, and seven vowels. The mutes belong to Father and Truth (The Unspeakable, and Silence, of course, do not count); these being mute reveal nothing to man. The semivowels belong to Word and Life, but the vowels to Man and Church, since it was a voice coming through Man which gave power to all.\n", "In German, silent letters are extremely rare and occur rather in loanwords than in German words.\n\nThe long sound is sometimes written , with a silent , as in \"Wien\" ('Vienna') or in the verb ending (e.g. \"appellieren, organisieren\").\n\nIn some words of foreign origin, the after is pronounced, e.g. \"Ambiente, \"Bakterien\" (plural of \"Bakterium\"), Hygiene, Klient\", \"Spermien\" (plural of \"Spermium\"), but is silent in e.g. \"Kurier, Papier, Turnier\" and all the \"-ieren\" verbs already mentioned. In \"Zeremonie\", the final usually is silent, but is always pronounced in its plural form \"Zeremonien\".\n", "Instead of being called Silentius, Silence was called by a genderless name as if waiting for the day he would turn back into a woman. It also let Silence maintain a sense of self. During a short period of time, he wanted to be a woman again, but changed his mind. The genderless name helped him lean towards his identity as a female, but also helped him maintain his external identity as a male. The significance of the name and usage of speech by men and women reflected how integral language was to identity and gender.\n", "Silent letters are common in French, including the last letter of most words. Ignoring auxiliary letters that create digraphs (such as , , , , , , and , and and as signals for nasalized vowels), they include almost every possible letter except , , , , , and .\n\nSection::::Romance languages.:French.:Vowels.\n", "Inheriting elision, approximants and allophones from Tamil, in Malayalam, except for Sanskrit words, words ending in the vowel \" () become silent at the end and if not compounded with words succeeding them, replace the \" vowel by the schwa . However, it is considered disrespectful to change this pronunciation in the simple present verbs, when using imperatives and using what can be termed as Imperative-Active voice in Malayalam, where the second person is respectfully addressed with his or her name instead of നീ (, you) or നിങ്ങൽ (, yourselves). For example, in the sentence, രാകേശ് പണി തീർക്കു (, Rakesh, finish your work), the use of the second personal pronoun is avoided with the name രാകേശ് (, Rakesh), but this sentence sounds less respectful if the \" in തീർക്കു (, finish} is replaced by the schwa or , as in \"തീർക്കു!\" (, Finish!) which sounds like an order. Notice the at the end of the name Rakesh which is pronounced after being added to the Sanskritic name.\n", "The nasal consonants and when final or preceding a consonant ordinarily nasalize a preceding vowel but are not themselves pronounced (\"faim\", \"tomber\", \"vin\", \"vendre\"). Initial and intervocalic and , even before a final silent , are pronounced: \"aimer\", \"jaune\".\n", "In Ancient Greek, the term for stop was (\"áphōnon\"), which means \"unpronounceable\", \"voiceless\", or \"silent\", because stops could not be pronounced without a vowel. This term was calqued into Latin as , and from there borrowed into English as \"mute\". \"Mute\" was sometimes used instead for voiceless consonants, whether stops or fricatives, a usage that was later replaced with \"surd\", from Latin \"deaf\" or \"silent\", a term still occasionally seen in the literature. For more information on the Ancient Greek terms, see .\n\nSection::::Common stops.\n", "Section::::Semitic languages.\n\nIn Hebrew language, almost all cases of silent letters are silent aleph – א. Many words that have a silent aleph in Hebrew, have an equivalent word in Arabic language, that is written with a mater lectionis alif –ا ; a letter that indicates the long vowel \"aa\". Examples:\n\nBULLET::::- The Hebrew word for \"no\" is לֹא (sounds like \"lo\", spelled like \"loa\") and the Arabic word for \"no\" is لاَ (sounds and spelled like \"laa\").\n", "The letter is not pronounced in almost all instances. It is rendered in orthography for historical reasons (e.g. 'father' , cf. Old Norse ). In some cases, however, the letter is pronounced , as in 'the weather' .\n", "In Maltese għ can be silent e.g. għar - meaning cave - and pronounced \"ahr\", or a voiced HH if it is followed by the or if it is at the end of a word e.g. qlugħ (q-glottal stop: qluh).\n\nSection::::Uralic languages.\n\nThe Estonian and Finnish languages use double letters for long vowels and geminate consonants.\n\nSection::::Turkish.\n\nIn the Turkish language, is often nearly silent.\n\nSection::::Indic languages.\n\nUnconventional to Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European root languages, some Indic languages have silent letters. Among Dravidian languages, Tamil and Malayalam have certain distinct styles of keeping few of their letters silent.\n\nSection::::Indic languages.:Tamil.\n", "In some words, Arbëresh has preserved the consonant clusters and . In Standard Albanian these have mostly become the palatal stops \"gj\" and \"q\". E.g. \"glet\" not ('s/he looks like ... '), \"klumësht\" not ('milk'), and \"klisha\" instead of ('church').\n\nH, HJ\n", "Final-obstruent devoicing\n\nFinal-obstruent devoicing or terminal devoicing is a systematic phonological process occurring in languages such as Catalan, German, Dutch, Breton, Russian, Turkish, and Wolof. In such languages, voiced obstruents become voiceless before voiceless consonants and in pausa. The process can be written as *C C/__#.\n\nSection::::Languages with final-obstruent devoicing.\n\nSection::::Languages with final-obstruent devoicing.:Germanic languages.\n\nMost modern continental West Germanic languages developed final devoicing, the earliest evidence appearing in Old Dutch around the 9th or 10th century. However, Yiddish notably does not alter final voiced sounds; this appears to be a later reversal.\n\nBULLET::::- Afrikaans\n", "In most dialects of English, the first stop of a cluster has no audible release, as in \"apt\" , \"doctor\" , or \"logged on\" . Although such sounds are frequently described as \"unreleased\", the reality is that since the two consonants overlap, the release of the former takes place during the hold of the latter, masking the former's release and making it inaudible. That can lead to cross-articulations that seem very much like deletions or complete assimilation.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nOne very common example of a surface filter is final-obstruent devoicing in which a voiced obstruent at the end of a word is automatically converted to their unvoiced counterpart. If that were a regular sound change, the devoicing would occur only at a particular point in time, and any new words that entered the language later might end in voiced obstruents. However, new words are automatically \"passed through the filter\" like earlier words, and their final obstruents are devoiced automatically.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14949	Why does your ear ache when your tooth/teeth are in pain?	The body isn't like super well designed, so the nerve fibres that sense pain from your teeth will travel up towards your brain and connect with nerve fibres that come from your ear. Sometimes when you get tooth pain, the pain is 'referred' to the ear, meaning the brain gets tricked into thinking that the pain also comes from the ear, so it radiates there.	[ "Many different nerves provide sensation to the various parts of the ear, including cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus), and the great auricular nerve (cervical nerves C2-C3). These nerves also supply other parts of the body, from the mouth to the chest and abdomen. Irritation of these nerves in another part of the body has the potential to produce pain in the ear. This is called referred pain. Irritation of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) is the most common cause of referred ear pain.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic.\n", "A variety of conditions can cause irritation of one of the nerves that provides sensation to the ear.\n\nConditions causing irritation the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V):\n\nBULLET::::- Temporomandibular joint syndrome: inflammation or abnormal movements of the joint between the jaw and skull. These disorders are most common in women of childbearing age, and are uncommon in children younger than 10 years old.\n\nBULLET::::- Myofascial pain syndrome: pain in the muscles involved in chewing. There may be certain parts of the muscles or tendons (connective tissue connecting the muscles to bones) that are especially painful when pressed\n", "Complications of otitis media include hearing loss, facial nerve paralysis, or extension of infection to surrounding anatomic structures, including: \n\nBULLET::::- Mastoiditis: infection of the air cells in the mastoid process, the area of the skull located right behind the ear\n\nBULLET::::- Petrositis: infection of the petrous portion of the temporal bone\n\nBULLET::::- Labyrinthitis\n\nBULLET::::- Meningitis\n\nBULLET::::- Subdural abscess\n\nBULLET::::- Brain abscess\n\nSection::::Causes.:Middle and inner ear.:Trauma.\n", "BULLET::::- Carcinoma of the oropharynx (base of tongue, soft palate, pharyngeal wall, tonsils)\n\nConditions causing irritation of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X):\n\nBULLET::::- GERD\n\nBULLET::::- Myocardial ischemia (inadequate oxygen supply to the heart muscle)\n\nConditions causing irritation of cervical nerves C2-C3:\n\nBULLET::::- Cervical spine trauma, arthritis (joint inflammation), or tumor\n\nBULLET::::- Temporal arteritis: an autoimmune disorder leading to inflammation of the temporal artery, a large artery in the head. This condition tends to occur in adults older than 50.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Primary ear pain.\n", "BULLET::::- Uncomplicated acute bacterial otitis externa (AOE). For symptoms that are not responsive to treatment within 10 days, a physician should evaluate for necrotizing external otitis.\n\nBULLET::::- Acute otitis media (AOM) self-resolves within 24–48 hours in 80% of cases. If it does not self-resolve, AOM thought to be caused by bacteria is treated with systemic antibiotics. If symptoms do not respond to a week of treatment, a physician should evaluate for mastoiditis.\n\nBULLET::::- Acute folliculitis.\n\nBULLET::::- Auricular cellulitis.\n\nBULLET::::- Suppurative otitis media. There is also a risk for tympanic membrane rupture.\n", "Section::::Causes.:External ear.:Mechanical obstruction.\n\nBULLET::::- Earwax impaction: results in 12 million medical visits annually in the United States. Cerumen impaction may cause ear pain, but it can also prevent thorough examination of the ear and identification of an alternate source of pain.\n\nBULLET::::- Foreign body: commonly include insects or small objects like beads\n\nSection::::Causes.:External ear.:Less common.\n\nBULLET::::- Herpes zoster: varicella zoster virus can reactivate in an area that includes the ear. Reactivation can produce pain and visible vesicles within the ear canal and, when combined with facial paralysis due to facial nerve involvement, is called Ramsay Hunt syndrome.\n", "Primary ear pain is most commonly caused by infection or injury to one of the parts of the ear.\n\nSection::::Causes.:External ear.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Pain.:Referred TMD pain.\n\nSometimes TMD pain can radiate or be referred from its cause (i.e. the TMJ or the muscles of mastication) and be felt as headaches, earache or toothache.\n", "BULLET::::- Tumors: the most common ear canal tumor is squamous cell carcinoma. Symptoms can resemble those of otitis externa, and cancer should be considered if the symptoms are not improving on appropriate treatment.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Middle and inner ear.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Middle and inner ear.:Acute otitis media.\n", "BULLET::::- Trigeminal neuralgia: attacks of shooting pain down the face that may be triggered by touching the face or temperature changes\n\nBULLET::::- Dental pain from cavities or an abscess\n\nBULLET::::- Oral cavity carcinoma\n\nConditions causing irritation of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) or glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX):\n\nBULLET::::- Tonsillitis: infection/inflammation of the tonsils\n\nBULLET::::- Post-tonsillectomy: pain following surgical removal of the tonsils\n\nBULLET::::- Pharyngitis: infection/inflammation of the throat\n\nBULLET::::- Sinusitis\n\nBULLET::::- Parotitis: inflammation of the parotid gland, the salivary gland right in front of the ear\n", "There are various visible ear abnormalities:\n\nBULLET::::- traumatic injury\n\nBULLET::::- infection\n\nBULLET::::- wart, mole, birthmark\n\nBULLET::::- scars, including keloids\n\nBULLET::::- cyst\n\nBULLET::::- skin tag\n\nBULLET::::- sunburn, frostbite\n\nBULLET::::- pressure ulcer, often from a poorly fitting hearing aid\n\nBULLET::::- anotia, absent pinna\n\nBULLET::::- microtia, underdeveloped pinna\n\nBULLET::::- cryptotia, a pinna covered beneath the skin of the scalp\n\nBULLET::::- Stahl’s deformity, pointed pinna due to an extra fold of cartilage\n\nBULLET::::- cupped or constricted ear deformity, a hooded superior helix\n\nBULLET::::- preauricular pit\n\nBULLET::::- preauricular tag\n\nBULLET::::- Darwin's tubercle, protuberance on the anterior helix\n", "Ear pain is the predominant complaint and the only symptom directly related to the severity of acute external otitis. Unlike other forms of ear infections, the pain of acute external otitis is worsened when the outer ear is touched or pulled gently. Pushing the tragus, the tablike portion of the auricle that projects out just in front of the ear canal opening, also typically causes pain in this condition as to be diagnostic of external otitis on physical examination. People may also experience ear discharge and itchiness. When enough swelling and discharge in the ear canal is present to block the opening, external otitis may cause temporary conductive hearing loss.\n", "Acute causes may be further distinguished by the presence of fever (indicating an underlying infection) or the absence of fever (suggesting a structural problem, such as such as trauma or other injury to the ear). Etiologies leading to chronic pain may be broken down by the presence or absence of worrisome clinical features, also known as red flags.\n", "Ear pain\n\nEar pain, also known as earache, is pain in the ear. Primary ear pain is pain that originates from the ear. Secondary ear pain is a type of referred pain, meaning that the source of the pain differs from the location where the pain is felt.\n\nMost causes of ear pain are non-life threatening. Primary ear pain is more common than secondary ear pain, and it is often due to infection or injury. The conditions that cause secondary (referred) ear pain are broad and range from temporomandibular joint syndrome to inflammation of the throat.\n", "Ear pain due to an infection is the most common in children and can occur in babies. Adults may need further evaluation if they have hearing loss, dizziness or ringing in the ear. Additional red flags include diabetes, a weakened immune system, swelling seen on the outer ear, or swelling along the jaw.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- Perichondritis. An otorhinolaryngologist should also evaluate it and if a foreign body is present in the cartilage, this foreign body should be removed. If there is cartilage involvement, then more advance care with hospitalization is needed.\n\nBULLET::::- Sinusitis can cause secondary ear pain. Treating the underlying sinusitis will treat the ear pain. (See sinusitis.)\n\nSome bacterial infections may require a more advanced treatment with evaluation by otorhinolaryngology, IV antibiotics, and hospital admission.\n\nBULLET::::- Necrotizing external otitis is potentially fatal and should be evaluated by an otorhinolaryngologist with admission to the hospital and IV antibiotics.(See otitis externa.)\n", "The ear can be anatomically divided into the external ear, the external auditory canal, the middle ear, and the inner ear. These three are indistinguishable in terms of the pain experienced.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Secondary ear pain.\n", "While some disorders may require specific imaging or testing, most etiologies of ear pain are diagnosed clinically. Because the differential for ear pain is so broad, there is no consensus on the best diagnostic framework to use. One approach is to differentiate by time course, as primary causes of ear pain are typically more acute in nature, while secondary causes of ear pain are more chronic.\n", "Chronic otitis media usually presents in an ear with chronic discharge (otorrhea), or hearing loss, with or without ear pain (otalgia). Once suspected, there should be immediate surgical exploration to determine if a cholesteatoma has formed as this must be removed if present. Inflammation from the middle ear can spread to the canalis facialis of the temporal bone - through this canal travels the facial nerve together with the statoacoustisus nerve. In the case of inflammation the nerve is exposed to edema and subsequent high pressure, resulting in a periferic type palsy.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Trauma.\n", "BULLET::::- Dull, aching, throbbing pain in the area of the socket, which is moderate to severe and may radiate to other parts of the head such as the ear, eye, temple and neck. The pain normally starts on the second to fourth day after the extraction, and may last 10–40 days. The pain may be so strong that even strong analgesics do not relieve it.\n\nBULLET::::- Intraoral halitosis (oral malodor).\n\nBULLET::::- Bad taste in the mouth.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "If there are no red flags, other sources of referred ear pain become more likely and are reasonable to pursue.\n\n*Indicates a \"Can't Miss\" diagnosis or a red flag.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nManagement of ear pain depends on the underlying cause.\n\nSection::::Management.:Antibiotics.\n", "Malignant otitis externa is a rare and potentially life-threatening complication of otitis externa in which the infection spreads from the ear canal into the surrounding skull base, hence becoming an osteomyelitis. It occurs largely in diabetic patients. It is very rare in children, though can be seen in immunocompromised children and adults. \"Pseudomonas\" is the most common causative organism. The pain tends to be more severe than in uncomplicated otitis externa, and laboratory studies often reveal elevated inflammatory markers (ESR and/or CRP). The infection may extend to cranial nerves, or rarely to the meninges or brain. Examination of the ear canal may reveal granulation tissue in the inferior canal. It is treated with several weeks of IV and oral antibiotics, usually fluoroquinolones.\n", "BULLET::::- Temporomandibular joint dysfunction can lead to secondary ear pain and can be initially treated with a soft food diet, NSAIDs, application of a heat pack, massage of local area, and a referral to a dentist.\n\nBULLET::::- Myofascial pain syndromes are initially treated with NSAIDs and physical therapy. Local anesthetic injection into the muscle trigger point can be considered in severe cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is treated with carbamazepine.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\n2/3 of people presenting with ear pain were diagnosed with some sort of primary otalgia and 1/3 were diagnosed with some sort secondary otalgia.\n", "Ear pain has a variety of causes, the majority of which are not life-threatening. Ear pain can originate from a part of the ear itself, known as primary ear pain, or from an anatomic structure outside the ear that is perceived as pain within the ear, known as secondary ear pain. Secondary ear pain is a type of referred pain, meaning that the source of the pain differs from the location where the pain is felt. Primary ear pain is more common in children, whereas secondary (referred) pain is more common in adults.\n", "Many conditions involving the external ear will be visible to the naked eye. Because the external ear is the most exposed portion of the ear, it is vulnerable to trauma or environmental exposures. Blunt trauma, such as a blow to the ear, can result in a hematoma, or collection of blood between the cartilage and perichondrium of the ear. This type of injury is particularly common in contact sports such as wrestling and boxing. Environmental injuries include sunburn, frostbite, or contact dermatitis.\n\nLess common causes of external ear pain include:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04254	Why do certain high end products require you to call them for pricing?	Because if you saw the price you’d be turned off to it. If you call they can sell you on it and make you feel good about spending lots of money on something you probably don’t need.	[ "Value-based pricing have many effects on the business and consumer of the product. Value-based pricing is a fundamental business activity and is the process of developing product strategies and pricing them properly to establish the product within the market. This is a key concept for a relatively new product within the market, because without the correct price, there would be no sale. Having an overly high price for an average product would have negative effects on the business as the consumer would not buy the product. Having a low price on a luxury product would also have a negative impact on the business as in the long run the business would not be profitable. This can be seen as a positive for the consumer as they are not needing to pay extreme prices for the luxury product.\n", "High–low pricing\n\nHigh–low pricing (or hi–low pricing) is a type of pricing strategy adopted by companies, usually small and medium-sized retail firms, where a firm initially charges a high price for a product and later, when it has become less desirable, sells it at a discount or through clearance sales. \n\nProspective customers may be unaware of a product's typical market price, or have a strong belief that \"discount\" is synonymous with \"low price\", or have strong loyalty to the product, brand or retailer.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "As the Internet is continuously being developed and the online marketplaces are becoming increasingly more popular, consumers have more choices in terms of product pricing. Popularised by the reverse auction pioneer, Priceline.com, such pricing strategy asks consumers to 'name their own price' for various products and services like air tickets, hotels, rental cars, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Prices may fluctuate frequently (e.g. gas), leading to a price given in a publication to go quickly out of date.\n\nBULLET::::- A product may be highly customised, in which case it will be impractical to give a fixed price\n\nBULLET::::- Some online listing systems internally sort POA items as being either very cheap or very expensive meaning they will appear at the start of a price-sorted list. This might lead users of such listing systems to intentionally enter their item as POA (even if they could give a price) in order to stand out.\n\nSection::::Rationale.:Real estate and classified advertisement.\n", "Some sellers wish to have the opportunity to size up potential buyers and find out how keen they are and how much they are able to afford. POA gives these sellers the freedom to come up with a customised price for each potential buyer. For example a well-dressed businessman who comes from abroad to view the property will be told a higher price than a known local farmer.\n\nSection::::Rationale.:Jewellers.\n\nOften, high-end jewelers do not have price tags so that sales representatives can pitch items before the customer finds out the price.\n", "The \"price/quality relationship\" comprises consumers' perceptions of value. High prices are often taken as a sign of quality, especially when the product or service lacks search qualities that can be inspected prior to purchase. Understanding consumers’ perceptions of the price/quality relationship is most important in the case of complex products that are hard to test, and experiential products that cannot be tested until used (such as most services). The greater the uncertainty surrounding a product, the more consumers depend on the price/quality signal and the greater premium they may be prepared to pay.\n", "Even though it is suggested that high prices seem to make certain products more desirable, consumers that fall in this category have their own perception of quality and make decisions based upon their own judgement. They may also use the premium price as an indicator of the product's level of quality.\n\nSection::::Theoretical considerations in pricing.:Price sensitivity and consumer psychology.\n", "BULLET::::- They believe the high price is an indication of good quality\n\nBULLET::::- They believe it to be a sign of self-worth - \"They are worth it;\" it authenticates the buyer's success and status; it is a signal to others that the owner is a member of an exclusive group\n\nBULLET::::- They require flawless performance in this application - The cost of product malfunction is too high to buy anything but the best - for example, a heart pacemaker.\n", "Section::::United States.:Automobiles.\n\nA common use for MSRP can be seen in automobile sales in the United States. Prior to the spread of manufacturer's suggested retail pricing, there were no defined prices on vehicles, and car dealers were able to impose arbitrary markups, often with prices adjusted to what the salesperson thought the prospective purchaser would be willing to pay for a particular vehicle.\n", "Section::::Pricing tactics.:Penetration pricing.\n\nPenetration pricing is an approach that can be considered at the time of market entry. In this approach, the price of a product is initially set low in an effort to penetrate the market quickly. Low prices and low margins also act as a deterrent, preventing potential rivals from entering the market since they would have to undercut the low margins to gain a foothold.\n\nSection::::Pricing tactics.:Prestige pricing.\n", "BULLET::::- When items are listed in a way that is segregated into price bands (such as an online real estate search), price ending is used to keep an item in a lower band, to be seen by more potential purchasers.\n", "BULLET::::- It can result in fast diffusion and adoption, which can achieve high market penetration rates quickly and take the competitors by surprise, not giving them time to react.\n\nBULLET::::- It can create goodwill among the early adopters segment and can create more trade through word of mouth.\n\nBULLET::::- It creates cost control and cost reduction pressures from the start, leading to greater efficiency.\n\nBULLET::::- It discourages the entry of competitors. Low prices act as a barrier to entry (see Porter's 5-forces analysis).\n", "BULLET::::- Difficult comparison effect Buyers are less sensitive to the price of a known / more reputable product when they have difficulty comparing it to potential alternatives.\n\nBULLET::::- Switching costs effect: The higher the product-specific investment a buyer must make to switch suppliers, the less price sensitive that buyer is when choosing between alternatives.\n\nBULLET::::- Price-quality effect: Buyers are less sensitive to price the more that higher prices signal higher quality. Products for which this effect is particularly relevant include: image products, exclusive products, and products with minimal cues for quality.\n", "Section::::Market size.\n", "A firm that uses a penetration pricing strategy prices a product or a service at a smaller amount than its usual, long range market price in order to increase more rapid market recognition or to increase their existing market share. This strategy can sometimes discourage new competitors from entering a market position if they incorrectly observe the penetration price as a long range price.\n", "Further reasons for sellers implementing PWYW pricing includes price discrimination and market penetration. Price discrimination occurs as a result of buyers with higher valuations of the product choosing to pay a higher price. Thus, price discrimination could result in higher revenues for the seller if costs are sufficiently low. PWYW is also an effective tool for penetrating a new market, perhaps to introduce a new brand, as even consumers with a very low valuation can pay small amounts for the same product.\n", "Originally, Name-your-own-price sales are considered \"opaque\" by marketers because buyers \"don't know the name of the supplier (airline, hotel or car rental company) or the schedule (with air tickets) until after\" they make a nonrefundable purchase. Suppliers benefit because they can sell to the most price-conscious buyers/travelers without publicly disclosing those low rates.\n\nSection::::Priceline.com.\n\nFounded in 1998, Priceline is an \"online travel company that offers its customers hotel room reservations at over 295,000 hotels worldwide through the Booking.com, priceline.com and Agoda brands.\" \n", "Under earlier US state Fair Trade statutes, the manufacturer was able to impose a fixed price for items. The fixed prices could offer some price protection to small merchants in competition against larger retail organizations. These were determined to be in restraint of trade. Many manufacturers have adopted MSRP, a price at which the manufacturer suggests the item be priced by a retailer. The term \"suggested\" can be misleading because in many cases, the MSRP is extremely high compared to the actual wholesale cost, opening the market to \"deep discounters\", who are able to sell products substantially below the MSRP but still make a profit. The discount stores benefit from exorbitant MSRPs because the discount offered increases the perceived value to customers.\n", "A minimum advertised price or MAP is the practice of a manufacturer providing marketing funds to a retailer contingent on the retailer advertising an end customer price at or above a specified level. Such agreements can be illegal in some countries when members and terms in the agreement match predefined legal criteria.\n\nFixed pricing established between a distributor and seller or between two or more sellers may violate antitrust laws in the United States.\n", "When shopping online, it can be more difficult to negotiate price given that you are not directly interacting with a sales person. Some consumers use price comparison services to locate the best price and/or to make a decision about who or where to buy from to save money.\n\nSection::::Pricing and negotiation.:\"Window shopping\".\n", "Value-based pricing in its literal sense implies basing pricing on the product benefits perceived by the customer instead of on the exact cost of developing the product. For example, a painting may be priced as much more than the price of canvas and paints: the price in fact depends a lot on who the painter is. Painting prices also reflect factors such as age, cultural significance, and, most importantly, how much benefit the buyer is deriving. Owning an original Dalí or Picasso painting elevates the self-esteem of the buyer and hence elevates the perceived benefits of ownership.\n", "To this end, PriceSCAN set itself up as an \"unbiased\" price comparison engine. The website's FAQ stated \"At PriceSCAN, we believe that consumers should have access to unbiased reporting on products and prices. It seems obvious to us that if a price guide restricts its listings to those vendors who have paid to be included, then its database more accurately reflects the source of its revenue, not necessarily the best products at the lowest price.\"\n", "The pricing technique used by most retailers is \"cost-plus pricing\". This involves adding a markup amount (or percentage) to the retailers' cost. Another common technique is \"manufacturers suggested list\" pricing. This simply involves charging the amount suggested by the manufacturer and usually printed on the product by the manufacturer.\n", "A discounted price offered to friends of the salesperson, an attitude which is parodied in the stereotype of a salesman saying \"It costs [such-and such], but for you...\" In Australia, New Zealand, and the UK, discounts to friends are known as \"mates' rates.\" In French this discount is known as \"prix d'ami\". In Spain this is known as \"precio de amigo\" in Spanish, or \"preu d'amic\" in Catalan. In German the term \"Freundschaftspreis\" is commonly used.\n\nSection::::Types.:Dealing with customer characteristics.:Special prices offered to local residents.\n", "However, cheaper products may draw attention and demand away from a brands upward product line extension. A way to combat this is to increase the quality of the brands luxury goods, as well as targeting aspects of the consumer market that are able and prepared to pay more for the higher quality product.\n\nSection::::Two-Way Stretch.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18918	What is the difference between City Court, High Court, and Supreme Court, and how is it decided which trials are held where?	There are different courts that hold jurisdiction over different cases. City Court holds jurisdiction over anything within the city limits. A county magistrate would hold jurisdiction over misdemeanors within that county. A general sessions court (in assuming that's what you mean by high Court) handles felonies within that county. The Supreme Court of the state you are in is the highest appellate court in that state. Appellate courts do not hear criminal cases in the manner that other courts do. They best appeals from lower courts and trial courts and rule on whether or not the lower court or trial ruled correctly in the case in question as it pertains to matters of law. Edit: the names of the courts will vary depending on the state but that is the basic structure for the US.	[ "The Supreme Court of the State of New York is radically different from similarly named courts in nearly all other states. It is the trial court of general jurisdiction, not the highest court in the state. In New York City, there are five venues for Supreme Court, one in each of New York City's five counties, which hear felony cases and major civil cases. Lesser criminal and civil cases are heard in the Criminal Court and Civil Court, respectively.\n\nSection::::Courts.:Surrogate's Court.\n", "Section::::Jurisdiction.:Original jurisdiction.:Original civil jurisdiction.:Civil trials.\n", "Section::::Jurisdiction.:Appellate jurisdiction.:Appellate criminal jurisdiction.\n\nThe High Court hears appeals from criminal cases originating in the District Courts and Magistrates' Courts. These inferior courts can also reserve points of law arising in criminal cases to be decided by the High Court.\n\nIn general, a person convicted by a District Court or Magistrate's Court may appeal against his or her conviction, sentence or both. However, if he or she has pleaded guilty, the appeal may only be as to the extent or legality of the sentence. The Public Prosecutor is entitled to appeal against a person's acquittal.\n", "The highest court of appeal in the Unified Court System is the Court of Appeals whereas the primary felony trial court is the County Court (or the Supreme Court in New York City). The Supreme Court also acts as the intermediate appellate court for many cases, and the local courts handle a variety of other matters including small claims, traffic ticket cases, and local zoning matters, and are the starting point for all criminal cases. The New York City courts make up the largest local court system.\n", "BULLET::::- City courts handle the arraignment of felonies, try misdemeanors and lesser offenses, and try civil lawsuits involving claims of up to $15,000. The New York City Criminal Court and the New York City Civil Court are the local courts in the 5 boroughs of New York City. Some city courts have small claims parts for the informal disposition of matters involving claims of up to $5,000 and/or housing parts to handle landlord-tenant matters and housing violations.\n", "Section::::Jurisdiction.:Original jurisdiction.:Powers.\n\nThe High Court exercises powers that are vested in it by written law. For example, it has the power to:\n\nBULLET::::- order that evidence be preserved by seizure, detention, inspection, photographing, the taking of samples, the conduct of experiments or in any manner, both before and after proceedings are commenced;\n\nBULLET::::- transfer any proceedings to any other court, or to or from any subordinate court; and\n", "A change of venue may be reflected in the formal language used in a trial. For example, when a bailiff or marshal calls the court to order part of the cry will take the form \"in and for the County of San Francisco\"; when there is a change of venue the cry will be, \"in the County of Alameda for the County of San Francisco.\"\n", "Once a judge is appointed by the Mayor to the Criminal Court, they can be transferred from one court to another by the Office of Court Administration, and after two years' service in the lower courts, they may be designated by the Chief Administrator of the Courts as an Acting Supreme Court Justice with the same jurisdiction as a Supreme Court Justice upon consultation and agreement with the presiding justice of the appropriate Appellate Division. The mayor may appoint 107 Criminal Court judges, but only about 73 to 74 currently work in Criminal Court: 46 of these are mayorally appointed Criminal Court judges, and the remaining 27 are Civil Court judges (some elected and some mayorally appointed) assigned to Criminal Court; the other approximately 60 mayorally appointed Criminal Court judges have been designated Acting Supreme Court judges to sit in Supreme Court hearing felony cases.\n", "High Court justices (usually from the Queen's Bench Division) also sit in the Crown Court, which try the more significant criminal cases, but High Court Judges only hear the most serious and important cases, with Circuit Judges and Recorders hearing the majority.\n\nSection::::Circuits and district registries.\n", "Appeals are to the Appellate Terms of the New York Supreme Court, established separately in the First Department (Manhattan and the Bronx) and Second Department (Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island) of the Appellate Division.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThere are several specialized parts of the Criminal Court which handle specific subject areas.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Arraignment parts.\n\nDefendants arraigned on felony or misdemeanor complaints are initially arraigned in the arraignment part of the Criminal Court.\n\nSection::::Structure.:All-purpose parts.\n", "The Criminal Court of the City of New York handles misdemeanors (generally, crimes punishable by fine or imprisonment of up to one year) and lesser offenses, and also conducts arraignments (initial court appearances following arrest) and preliminary hearings in felony cases (generally, more serious offenses punishable by imprisonment of more than one year).\n\nSection::::Courts.:Civil Court.\n", "Trial Parts in the Criminal Court handle most of the trials, although some trials are conducted in the AP parts.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Problem-solving courts.\n", "In the United States, most states have two levels of trial courts, and two levels of appellate courts. The jurisdiction of the lower trial court in such jurisdictions is typically restricted to hearing minor claims and trying minor offenses, while the higher court may hear claims without an upper limit on the amount in controversy, and may try all crimes. The higher trial court may also have some power of appellate review over the lower. In Virginia, for example, the lowest level of court is the Virginia General District Court, which can hear claims of up to US$25,000, and can try misdemeanors. Above that court is a second level of trial courts, the Virginia Circuit Court, which may hear claims in excess of US$4,500 and may try certain types of felony cases. The General District Courts do not have jury trials at all, but appeals may be taken from a General District Court to the circuit court of that jurisdiction, and the appellant may receive a new trial with a jury.\n", "The High Courts are courts of first instance with general jurisdiction; they can hear all cases except those where exclusive jurisdiction is granted by law to another court. Most cases are, however, tried in the magistrates' courts or other lower courts, and appeals from these courts are heard by the High Court.\n", "Mayor's and City of London Court\n\nThe Mayor's and City of London Court is a sitting of the County Court in the City of London. It is located at Guildhall Buildings, Basinghall Street. \n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe current court is the successor to courts pre-dating the County Courts Act 1846, which introduced the modern system of county courts. The 1846 Act deliberately did not extend to the City of London, where the prior constituted courts continued to exercise jurisdiction:\n\nThe Palace Court also exercised jurisdiction within the City in certain cases before its abolition in 1849.\n", "The two courts were combined with effect from 1 January 1921 by the Mayor's and City of London Court Act 1920. High Court procedure was declared to apply to matters formerly dealt with by the Mayor's Court, while county court procedure applied to matters falling under the City of London Court.\n\nSection::::1971 reform.\n", "The opposite elevation, which faces Main Street, is similar, but has an additional lower story due to the slope of the site, and three entry bays rather than five. This elevation bears the seals of five additional federal departments: , , , , and .\n", "In criminal proceedings, if a question of law arises as to the interpretation or effect of any provision of the Constitution, a party may apply to the trial court for a case to be stated on the legal question to a \"relevant court\" for its decision. Where the trial court is a subordinate court the relevant court is the High Court; and where the trial court is the High Court the relevant court is the Court of Appeal. The Public Prosecutor has a right to be heard at the hearing of the case stated. As there are no corresponding statutory provisions for civil proceedings, when constitutional issues arise in the course of such matters in a subordinate court, they will be dealt with by that court and may then be appealed to the High Court and possibly to the Court of Appeal in the usual manner. Alternatively, a party to the civil proceedings can start a separate action in the High Court for the constitutional issue to be determined.\n", "Criminal Court has preliminary jurisdiction over felony cases filed in New York City, and retains jurisdiction of the felony cases until a grand jury hears the case and indicts the defendant. Defendants charged with felonies are arraigned in the Criminal Court arraignment parts and cases are then usually sent to a felony waiver part to await grand jury action. Felony waiver parts are staffed by Criminal Court judges designated as Acting Supreme Court Justices. Felony waiver parts also hear motions, bail applications, and extradition matters.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Trial parts.\n", "Written laws also specify that some criminal matters should be tried in the Subordinate Courts rather than in the High Court. A District Court, for instance, has jurisdiction to try all offences with a maximum term of imprisonment not exceeding ten years or punishable with a fine only, so trials of such offences are generally not held in before the High Court. The Court exercises its appellate jurisdiction when it hears appeals from trials originating in the Subordinate Courts.\n\nThe Court also exercises supervisory and revisionary jurisdiction over subordinate courts.\n\nSection::::Jurisdiction.:Original jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::Jurisdiction.:Original jurisdiction.:Original civil jurisdiction.\n", "Any non-criminal judgment or order of the High Court sitting as a court of first instance may be appealed to the Supreme Court save as provided for by statute.\n\nThe High Court also hears civil and family law appeals from the Circuit Court and when hearing such an appeal its decision is final and there is no right of further appeal. The High Court sits outside of Dublin to hear appeals from trials from circuits other than the Dublin Circuit and is known as the \"High Court on Circuit\".\n", "Section::::Jurisdiction.:Supervisory and revisionary jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::Jurisdiction.:Supervisory and revisionary jurisdiction.:Supervisory jurisdiction.\n", "In 1807-1808 these were replaced by justices' courts and assistants justices' courts. In 1819, the justices' courts were replaced by the marine court of the city of New York, and in 1883 was renamed as the City Court of the City of New York. In 1852, the assistant justices' courts were renamed as the District Courts in the City of New York, and by the city charter in 1897 the district courts of New York City and justices' courts of Brooklyn and Long Island City were consolidated into the Municipal Court of the City of New York. In 1962, the City Court of the City of New York and the Municipal Court of the City of New York were consolidated and replaced by the current Civil Court.\n", "The New York City Criminal Court was established on 1 September 1962 by the New York City Criminal Court Act, replacing the city magistrates' courts and the Court of Special Sessions. (The work and personnel of the New York County Court of General Sessions, and the County Court in Bronx, Kings, Queens, and Richmond counties, were transferred to the Supreme Court.)\n", "New York City courts\n\nThe New York City court system consists of the several citywide and state courts.\n\nSection::::Courts.\n\nThere are two city courts, the Criminal Court and the Civil Court, and several state courts, the Supreme Court, Surrogate's Court, and Family Court. Unlike the rest of New York, counties within New York City do not have a typical County Court.\n\nSection::::Courts.:Criminal Court.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11320	Why do digital copies of books or games cost the same as physical copies when we're helping them avoid the cost of production / shipping / warehousing?	Because the cost isn't an indication of how much it costs to produce. It's dictated by how much you're willing to pay based on how much entertainment it brings you.	[ "Within the electronic book path, the publishing house's role remains almost identical. The process of preparing a book for e-book publication is exactly the same as print publication, with only minor variations in the process to account for the different mediums of publishing. While some costs, such as the discount given to retailers (normally around 45%) are eliminated, additional costs connected to ebooks apply (especially in the conversion process), raising the production costs to a similar level.\n", "Printed books use three times more raw materials and 78 times more water to produce when compared to e-books. While an e-reader costs more than most individual books, e-books may have a lower cost than paper books. E-books may be printed for less than the price of traditional books using on-demand book printers. Moreover, numerous e-books are available online free of charge on sites such as Project Gutenberg. For example, all books printed before 1923 are in the public domain in the United States, which enables websites to host ebook versions of such titles for free.\n", "Tor Books, a major publisher of science fiction and fantasy books, started to sell e-books DRM-free by July 2012. One year later the publisher stated that they will keep this model as removing DRM was not hurting their digital distribution ebook business. Smaller e-book publishers such as O'Reilly Media, Carina Press and Baen Books had already forgone DRM previously.\n\nSection::::Impact on traditional retail.:Video games.\n\nOnline distribution is changing the structure of the video game industry. Gabe Newell, creator of the digital distribution service Steam, formulated the advantages over physical retail distribution as such:\n", "BULLET::::- High fixed costs. There is high cost before introduction of a new artwork or cultural product. Making a movie can cost millions of dollars; however the marginal cost of making an additional copy of the DVD may cost less than a dollar.\n\nSection::::Cultural industries.:Market structure.\n", "In the EU media products (among other things paper books) have often a tax reduction. Therefore, the VAT for conventional books is often lower than for e-books. In legal terms, ebooks are considered a service (buying an ebook is regarded as a temporary lease of the product). On the other hand, conventional books are considered a product. Therefore, ebook prices are often similar to paper book prices, even if the production of ebooks has a lower cost.\n\nThere are many concerned about lost they freedom with e-readers and about e-reader's secretive aspect.\n\nSection::::Positive aspects.\n", "ReDigi expands the socio-economic reach of digital media. For example, eBooks that might not be readily affordable to many consumers due to their high prices become more affordable in a secondary market place where there is competition. Fact: the cost of a used book is often less than new and the actual Cost to Read (CTR) is minimal within a resale marketplace, for example an ebook purchased at $10.00 and sold for $8.00 only cost the reader $2.00 to read, not $10.00. See congressional testimony. \n", "The lower value ascribed to digital than physical goods is not due to their lower marginal cost of production, lower market prices, differences in consumption utility or perceived permanence. Rather a lack of perceived control over digital goods leads consumers to feel that they never truly own digital goods to the extent that they do comparable physical goods. As a result of this lack of psychological ownership, digital goods do not enjoy the same value-enhancing endowment effect that is observed for physical goods that consumers own. This psychological mechanism also predicts when consumers value digital goods as much as comparable physical goods. For instance, consumers who did not expect to own a good (e.g., students who would rent a textbook and return it at the end of the semester) in their experiments valued physical and digital-file-based goods equally.\n", "I don't know what the manufacturing costs are, I don't know what the shipping costs are. I have no concept of that. I do know that for the amount of stuff we're putting in here, it is certainly not a bad deal. There are literally thousands of hours of content in this game. It doesn't seem like a crazy price to me. But again, I have no idea what the proper margins are. If someone is saying 'What am I going to buy this month?' in November, I hope that our game is the one they pick out, because we're offering something that nothing else on the market is. But if they don't, I totally understand. There's a lot of really cool stuff. What I'm hoping is that as time goes on ... These things are still going to be on the shelf, it's not like we're taking it away. Maybe they don't buy it day one, but maybe they buy it in February? Maybe they buy it in March? We're not going away, and obviously people want to play things the day they come out, if they possibly can, but sometimes they can't.\n", "BULLET::::- When publishing for game consoles, game publishers take on the burden of a great deal of inventory risk. All significant console manufacturers since Nintendo with its NES (1985) have monopolized the manufacture of every game made for their console, and have required all publishers to pay a royalty for every game so manufactured. This royalty must be paid at the time of manufacturing, as opposed to royalty payments in almost all other industries, where royalties are paid upon actual sales of the product—and, importantly, are payable for games that did not sell to a consumer. So, if a game publisher orders one million copies of its game, but half of them do not sell, the publisher has already paid the full console manufacturer royalty on one million copies of the game, and has to absorb that cost.\n", "The Brazilian e-book market is only emerging. Brazilians are technology savvy, and that attitude is shared by the government. In 2013, around 2.5% of all trade titles sold were in digital format. This was a 400% growth over 2012 when only 0.5% of trade titles were digital. In 2014, the growth was slower, and Brazil had 3.5% of its trade titles being sold as e-books.\n\nSection::::Market share.:China.\n\nThe Wischenbart Report 2015 estimates the e-book market share to be around 1%.\n\nSection::::Public domain books.\n", "Since 2012, DC Comics has offered to sell its comics through all three major E-book stores: Amazon Kindle Store, iBookstore and Nook Store, as well as through the site www.readdcentertainment.com and through comiXology. DC Comics was the first to offer readers multiple formats to download and digital issues releases on the same day as their printed counterparts. The company stated that it sees the future in digital comics, but its digital sales also help the printed books.\n", "Profits from print-on-demand publishing are on a per-sale basis, and royalties vary depending on the method by which the item is sold. Greatest profits are usually generated from sales direct from a print-on-demand service's website or by the author buying copies from the service at a discount, as the publisher, and then selling them personally. Lesser royalties come from traditional bookshops and online retailers both of which buy at high discount, although some POD companies allow the publisher or author to set their own discount level. Unless the publisher or author has fixed their discount rate, the greater the volume sold the less the royalty becomes, as the retailer is able to buy at greater discount.\n", "Depending on possible digital rights management, e-books (unlike physical books) can be backed up and recovered in the case of loss or damage to the device on which they are stored, a new copy can be downloaded without incurring an additional cost from the distributor, as well as being able to synchronize the reading location, highlights and bookmarks across several devices.\n\nSection::::Comparison to printed books.:Disadvantages.\n", "BULLET::::- Five major US e-book publishers, as part of their settlement of a price-fixing suit, are ordered to refund about $3 for every electronic copy of a New York Times best-seller that they sold from April 2010 to May 2012. This could equal $160 million in settlement charges.\n\nBULLET::::- Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Glowlight, which has a 6-inch touchscreen using E Ink Pearl and Regal, with built-in front LED lights.\n", "Digital distribution also offers new structural possibilities for the whole video game industry, which, prior to the emergence of digital media as a relevant means of distribution, was usually built around the relationship of the video game developer, who produced the game, and the video game publisher, who financed and organized the distribution and sale. The heightened production costs in the early 2000s made many video game publishers avoid risks and led to the rejection of many smaller-scale game development projects. Gabe Newell, co-founder of Valve, the developer and intellectual property rights owner of Steam, described the disadvantages of physical retail distribution for smaller game developers as such:\n", "Section::::Monetization.\n\nDownloadable content is sometimes offered for a price. Since Facebook games popularized the business model of microtransactions, some have criticized downloadable content as being overpriced and an incentive for developers to leave items out of the initial release.\n", "Digital distribution is one of the important elements in sustaining the Oddworld/Just Add Water partnership in the video game industry because of the vast savings in cost associated with moving games from developer to consumer digitally instead of physically. According to Lanning, when \"Abe's Oddysee\" was completed and distributed to the consumer, 20% of royalties went towards his team of developers. They then needed the game to make back approximately four million dollars in earnings using just their 20% in royalties to break even on the funds provided by their publisher, GT Interactive. Once that had been achieved, under the model that assumed the cost of \"Abe's Oddysee\" remained at US$59.99, his team of developers would receive just US$7 for every unit sold. The rest would go towards paying all the associated costs that go with publishing, marketing and distributing the game, such as disc manufacturing, licensing fees, fuel for transporting the game to retailers, retail staff and more. Gilray revealed that in 2013–2014, if Oddworld Inhabitants and Just Add Water chose to distribute a game on disc at retail for the Xbox 360, they would have to pay for a minimum of 50,000 discs per territory, at a cost of $600,000, just for manufacturing the discs, before factoring in marketing and development costs, hence the reason for higher costs at the retail shelf. And on top of everything else, their physical disc would have to compete with countless other games for selection on the retailer shelf.\n", "“As an artist my goal is to inspire…entertain…motivate…and most importantly INNOVATE. And as lovers of art we should base our purchase on the artist's ability to do so. That being said, if my presence in the game has had any of those effects on you, $100.00 is your way of saying don’t change. It ISN’T the price of the plastic case and polyurethane disc…it’s the price of Revolution! The price of Rebellion against an industry that has tricked us all into making products that have no soul for fear of not being heard if we don’t.” \n", "Print-on-demand services that offer printing and distributing services to publishing companies (instead of directly to self-publishing authors) are also growing in popularity within the industry. Many major publishers print-on-demand as a way to save money. It can become costly to print a book regularly that is going to sit on a bookshelf for more than a year before being purchased. \n", "In late 2007, new releases and \"New York Times\" best sellers were being offered for approximately $11 at the store, with first chapters of many books offered as free samples. Many titles, including some classics, are offered free of charge or at a low price, which has been stated to relate to the cost of adapting the book to the Kindle format. Magazines, newspapers and blogs via RSS are provided for a monthly subscription fee or during a free trial period. Newspaper subscriptions cost from $1.99 to $27.99 per month; magazines charge between $1.25 and $10.99 per month, and blogs charge from $0.99 to $1.99 per month. Amazon e-book sales overtook print for one day for the first time on Christmas Day 2009. International users may pay different prices for e-books depending on the country listed as their home address.\n", "In 2015, the Author Earnings Report estimated that Amazon held a 74% market share of the e-books sold in the U.S. By the end of 2016, that year's Report estimated that Amazon held 80% of the e-book market share in the U.S.\n\nSection::::Market share.:Spain.\n\nIn 2013, Carrenho estimates that e-books would have a 15% market share in Spain in 2015.\n\nSection::::Market share.:UK.\n", "Video games sold at retail are typically subject to the first-sale doctrine, giving the consumer the right to sell the game at any price and without the publisher/distributor seeing any part of that price. On the other hand, digital games are generally sold as a license to the game; players generally cannot transfer that license by resale, though some digital storefronts like Steam enable the user to transfer that license into a closed-system currency; publishers/distributors do not see any return from that. For these reasons, publishers and distributors have been wary of resale systems in video game marketplaces since they do not see any further revenue after the point of first sale, and have had to turn to means to monetize video games from post-sale activities.\n", "BULLET::::- February – The US version of Kindle Unlimited comprises more than 1.5 million titles, including over 290,000 foreign language titles.\n\nBULLET::::- March – \"The Guardian\" reports that sales of physical books are outperforming digital titles in the UK, since it can be cheaper to buy the physical version of a book when compared to the digital version due to Amazon's deal with publishers that allows agency pricing.\n\nBULLET::::- April – The \"Los Angeles Times\" reports that, in 2016, sales of hardcover books were higher than e-books for the first time in five years.\n", "of packaging supplements with a textbook to sell as one unit limits the opportunity students have to purchase less expensive used books...If publishers continue to increase these investments, particularly in technology, the cost to produce a textbook is likely to continue to increase in the future.\n", "The works published by Printed Matter are editioned and are conceived by artists as artworks. However, due to mass-producing they can be sold at affordable princes (currently around $5-$50), as they are meant to spread the accessibility of art.\n" ]	[ "Digital copies of content should be cheaper than physical copies because there is no production and shipping involved.", "Digital copies of content should be cheaper than physical copies because there is no production and shipping involved." ]	[ "The value of content is set by the content creator and can be influenced by how much they think the consumer will pay.", "The value of content is set by the content creator and can be influenced by how much they think the consumer will pay." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Digital copies of content should be cheaper than physical copies because there is no production and shipping involved.", "Digital copies of content should be cheaper than physical copies because there is no production and shipping involved.", "Digital copies of content should be cheaper than physical copies because there is no production and shipping involved." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The value of content is set by the content creator and can be influenced by how much they think the consumer will pay.", "The value of content is set by the content creator and can be influenced by how much they think the consumer will pay.", "The value of content is set by the content creator and can be influenced by how much they think the consumer will pay." ]
2018-02991	How does acid stay in a person’s stomach after death and not begin to immediately eat away at the body?	Technically it does start eating away at the body when you die. It always does, which is why our stomach lining is constantly replenishing itself. However, stomach acid and bile aren't so potent that they'd burn a hole right through you, so our thick stomach walls get eaten away slowly in time with normal anaerobic decay and such.	[ "If these operations are performed in order, isolation is maintained, although T must wait. Consider what happens if T fails halfway through. The database eliminates T's effects, and T sees only valid data.\n\nBy interleaving the transactions, the actual order of actions might be:\n\nBULLET::::1. T subtracts 10 from A.\n\nBULLET::::2. T subtracts 20 from B.\n\nBULLET::::3. T adds 20 to A.\n\nBULLET::::4. T adds 10 to B.\n", "At a pH of 7, the enzymes that were present from the stomach are no longer active. This then leads into the further breakdown of the nutrients still present by anaerobic bacteria, which at the same time help to package the remains. These bacteria also help synthesize vitamin B and vitamin K, which will be absorbed along with other nutrients.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n", "BULLET::::- Mucin: The stomach has a priority to destroy the bacteria and viruses using its highly acidic environment but also has a duty to protect its own lining from its acid. The way that the stomach achieves this is by secreting mucin and bicarbonate via its mucous cells, and also by having a rapid cell turn-over.\n", "Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.\n", "When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the human stomach. The few surviving bacteria conserve their energy and stored nutrients during the passage through the stomach by shutting down protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine, they must propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to reach the intestinal walls where they can attach and thrive.\n", "Sources of acid loss include:\n\nBULLET::::1. Use of hydrogen ions in the metabolism of various organic anions\n\nBULLET::::2. Loss of acid in the vomitus or urine\n\nBULLET::::3. Gastric aspiration in hospital\n\nBULLET::::4. Severe diarrhea\n\nBULLET::::5. Carbon dioxide loss through hyperventilation\n\nSection::::Compensation.\n", "The terminal stage of anaerobic digestion is the biological process of methanogenesis. Here, methanogens use the intermediate products of the preceding stages and convert them into methane, carbon dioxide, and water. These components make up the majority of the biogas emitted from the system. Methanogenesis is sensitive to both high and low pHs and occurs between pH 6.5 and pH 8. The remaining, indigestible material the microbes cannot use and any dead bacterial remains constitute the digestate.\n\nSection::::Process.:Configuration.\n", "Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.\n", "The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8, but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.\n\nThere is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq/hour.\n\nThere are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:\n", "The fast and efficient protein and DNA repair systems show promise for human medical uses, particularly with regard to cancer and ageing. However further research is required to determine whether these systems really are qualitatively different, and how that can be applied from microorganisms to humans.\n", "Studies of proteins adapted to low pH have revealed a few general mechanisms by which proteins can achieve acid stability. In most acid stable proteins (such as pepsin and the soxF protein from \"Sulfolobus acidocaldarius\"), there is an overabundance of acidic residues which minimizes low pH destabilization induced by a buildup of positive charge. Other mechanisms include minimization of solvent accessibility of acidic residues or binding of metal cofactors. In a specialized case of acid stability, the NAPase protein from \"Nocardiopsis alba\" was shown to have relocated acid-sensitive salt bridges away from regions that play an important role in the unfolding process. In this case of kinetic acid stability, protein longevity is accomplished across a wide range of pH, both acidic and basic.\n", "It is possible that the family Ferroplasmaceae may in fact be more important in AMD than the current paradigm, Acidithiobacillaceae. From a practical viewpoint this changes little, as despite the myriad physiological differences between archaea and bacteria, treatments would remain the same; if pH is kept high, and water and oxygen are prohibited from the pyrite, the reaction will be negligible.\n", "The article continues in the explanation of these facts: \"Prof. Élie Metchnikoff gave to the world the result of his investigation on the subject of longevity in which he held that the chief enemy to long life in the human species the large intestine, or colon. This organ by becoming the breeding place for poisonous microbes, the fertile cause for the debility that comes with old age, and the death that cuts off many a career of normal course is not nearly run.\" \"Acids are the best antiseptics; they have been used from time immemorial as preservatives; pickles are persevered with vinegar, acidic acid, and when milk is allowed to sour under proper conditions, the germs of putrefaction are destroyed or their activity inhibited, and it keeps a considerable time. How can acids be applied so as to control the bacterial flora of the large intestine? Not in the ordinary way because, when administered through the mouth, they are used up long before they can penetrate the colon. The brilliant idea occurred to Prof. Metchnikoff of the administering acid-producing germs which might work their way through the digestive system, and, reaching the large intestine, produce the acid required. After much experimenting, the bacillus of Massol, Bacillus Bulgaricus was adopted as the most suitable.\"\n", "Alternatively bacteria can use H containing vesicles to avoid cytoplasmic acidity (see Figure), but most require that any H taken in must be extruded after use in the electron transport chain (ETC).\n\nOn the subject of the ETC, an adaptation to living in the mine environment is in the use of different ETC electron acceptors to neutralophiles; sulfur, arsenic, selenium, uranium, iron, and manganese in solid form rather than O (most commonly Fe in dissimilatory iron reduction, frequent in AMD).\n\nSection::::Physiology and biochemistry.:Genomic adaptations.\n", "Section::::Chemical properties.\n\nThe stability of the Keggin structure allows the metals in the anion to be readily reduced. Depending on the solvent, acidity of the solution and the charge on the α-Keggin anion, it can be reversibly reduced in one- or multiple-electron steps. For example, silicotungstate anion can be reduced to 20th state. Some anions such as silicotungstic acid are strong enough as an acid as sulfuric acid and can be used in its place as an acid catalyst.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "The body is very sensitive to its pH. Outside the range of pH that is compatible with life, proteins are denatured and digested, enzymes lose their ability to function, and the body is unable to sustain itself. The kidneys maintain acid-base homeostasis by regulating the pH of the blood plasma. Gains and losses of acid and base must be balanced. Acids are divided into \"volatile acids\" and \"nonvolatile acids\". See also titratable acid.\n", "PPIs have a half-life in human blood plasma of only 60–90 minutes, but because they covalently bind to the pump, the half-life of their inhibition of gastric acid secretion lasts an estimated 24 hours. Dissociation of the inhibitory complex is probably due to the effect of the endogenous antioxidant glutathione which leads to the release of omeprazole sulfide and reactivation of the enzyme.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nMedically used proton pump inhibitors:\n\nBULLET::::- Omeprazole (Over-the-counter drug (OTC) in the USA)\n\nBULLET::::- Lansoprazole (OTC in the USA)\n\nBULLET::::- Dexlansoprazole\n\nBULLET::::- Esomeprazole (OTC in the USA)\n\nBULLET::::- Pantoprazole\n\nBULLET::::- Rabeprazole\n\nBULLET::::- Ilaprazole (not FDA-approved )\n", "Even though consumption of food stimulates acid secretion and acid secretion activates PPIs, PPIs cannot inhibit all pumps. About 70% of pump enzyme is inhibited, as PPIs have a short half-life and not all pump enzymes are activated. It takes about 3 days to reach steady-state inhibition of acid secretion, as a balance is struck between covalent inhibition of active pumps, subsequent stimulation of inactive pumps after the drug has been eliminated from the blood, and \"de novo\" synthesis of new pumps.\n\nSection::::Clinical pharmacology.\n", "The last part of the small intestine is the ileum. This also contains villi and vitamin B12; bile acids and any residue nutrients are absorbed here. When the chyme is exhausted of its nutrients the remaining waste material changes into the semi-solids called feces, which pass to the large intestine, where bacteria in the gut flora further break down residual proteins and starches.\n\nSection::::Components.:Lower gastrointestinal tract.:Cecum.\n", "In one case study, it was reported that the sv-LAAO (isolated from \"C. durissus cascavella\" venom) caused the rupture of bacteria membranes while promoting extravasation, or leakage, of plasmatic contents out of the cellular structure. They argued that the amount of hydrogen peroxide generated was sufficient to inhibit bacterial growth, and that the ability of the enzyme to bind to bacterial membranes is not important in its antibacterial activity.\n\nSection::::Disease Relevance.\n\nSection::::Disease Relevance.:Cardiovascular Disease.\n", "BULLET::::- Once freed from glycerol, the free fatty acids enter the blood, which transports them, attached to plasma albumin, throughout the body.\n", "Section::::Cellular metabolism.\n\nSection::::Cellular metabolism.:Metabolic intermediate.\n\nSuccinate is produced and concentrated in the mitochondria and its primary biological function is that of a metabolic intermediate. All metabolic pathways that are interlinked with the TCA cycle, including the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, cholesterol, and heme, rely on the temporary formation of succinate. The intermediate is made available for biosynthetic processes through multiple pathways, including the reductive branch of the TCA cycle or the glyoxylate cycle, which are able to drive net production of succinate. In rodents, mitochondrial concentrations are approximately ~0.5 mM while plasma concentration are only 2–20 μM.\n", "by the sebaceous gland and when mixed with sweat becomes the acid mantle. The pH of the skin is between 4.5 and 6.2, slightly acidic. Since blood is slightly alkaline (7.4), pathogenic bacteria that become adapted to the pH of the skin and are able to reach internal tissues will encounter an environment to which they are less well adapted. This combination of acidic exterior and alkaline interior is one of the body's non-specific host defenses against bacterial pathogens.\n", "The PPIs are given in an inactive form, which is neutrally charged (lipophilic) and readily crosses cell membranes into intracellular compartments (like the parietal cell canaliculus) with acidic environments. In an acid environment, the inactive drug is protonated and rearranges into its active form. As described above, the active form will covalently and irreversibly bind to the gastric proton pump, deactivating it.\n\nSection::::Pharmacokinetics.\n", "This reaction is used for carbon fixation in CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) and organisms, as well as to regulate flux through the citric acid cycle (also known as Krebs or TCA cycle) in bacteria and plants. The enzyme structure and its two step catalytic, irreversible mechanism have been well studied. PEP carboxylase is highly regulated, both by phosphorylation and allostery.\n\nSection::::Enzyme structure.\n" ]	[ "Acid stays in the stomach." ]	[ "It actually begins to eat away at your body. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Acid stays in the stomach." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It actually begins to eat away at your body. " ]
2018-18584	Why are tires filled with air instead of being solid rubber?	Pneumatic tires come with several benefits. The first is cost. The materials are more expensive than the manufacture. Weight. It is incredibly fuel inefficient to get wheels that heavy - as solid rubber tires, rotating. It's even harder to get that much weight to stop. And the steel wheel would have to be thicker, the breaks larger, or we'd have to go back to drum brakes on cars, which are themselves more expensive and dissipate heat less. All that weight puts additional strain on the drivetrain and breaking system. Traction. Since the tire is solid rubber, the face can't deflect - flatten out to increase surface area contact. This reduces traction. Wear. Such large and heavy masses, rotating at high speed, I'm not sure the tire could even hold itself together. Even if it can, what do you do once you wear off the tread? Do you put new tread on top? Do you cut new tread into the existing rubber, and wear the thing down to a nub like an eraser? Do you replace the whole wheel and recycle the materials? & #x200B; Pneumatic tires are also part of the suspension, since they act like a spring. The whole point of the suspension is to keep the rubber on the road, and make the ride comfortable. A solid rubber wheel, you would feel every rock, every crack, every \leaf\. And pneumatic tires can deflect around small surface imperfections.	[ "The problem can be partially solved by replacing Cb with silica, because it enables the production of \"green\" tires that display both improved wet grip properties as well as a smaller rolling resistance.\n", "Section::::Hazards.:Loss of traction.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Melting rubber\"—As tire rubber compounds heat, owing to the friction of stopping, cornering or accelerating, they may begin to melt, lubricate the tire-road contact area, and become deposited on the pavement.This effect is stronger with increased ambient temperature.\n", "Inflation is key to proper wear and rolling resistance of pneumatic tires. Many vehicles have monitoring systems to assure proper inflation. \n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nTires may be classified according to the type of vehicle they serve. They may be distinguished by the load they carry and by their application, e.g. to a motor vehicle, aircraft or bicycle.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Automotive.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Automotive.:Light–medium duty.\n", "Section::::Molecular-level models.\n", "Section::::Primary cause.\n\nThe primary cause of pneumatic tire rolling resistance is hysteresis:\n\nA characteristic of a deformable material such that the energy of deformation is greater than the energy of recovery. The rubber compound in a tire exhibits hysteresis. As the tire rotates under the weight of the vehicle, it experiences repeated cycles of deformation and recovery, and it dissipates the hysteresis energy loss as heat. Hysteresis is the main cause of energy loss associated with rolling resistance and is attributed to the viscoelastic characteristics of the rubber.\n", "BULLET::::- Tires: Air pressure in tires should decrease as slowly as possible. A good tire is one that allows the least amount of gas to escape. Permeation will occur over time with the tires, so it is best to know the permeability of the material that will make up the tire with the desired gas to make the most efficient tires.\n\nBULLET::::- Insulating material: Water vapour permeation of insulating material is important as well as for submarine cables to protect the conductor from corrosion.\n", "The most common form of airless tire is simply the solid tire. Besides solid rubber, solid tires made of polyurethane or microcellular foam are also offered for 100% flat prevention. Much of the desirable suspension quality of the pneumatic tire is lost, however, and ride quality suffers.\n\nMany bicycle-sharing systems use these tires to reduce maintenance, and examples of solid tires include those available from Greentyre, Puncture Proof Tyres Ltd, KIK-Reifen, Tannus, Hutchinson, and Specialized.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "The most common type of filler particles utilized by the tire industry had traditionally been Carbon black (Cb), produced from the incomplete combustion of coal tar and ethylene. The main reason is that the addition of Cb to rubbers enables the manufacturing of tires of a smaller rolling resistance which accounts for about 4% of the worldwide CO emissions from fossil fuels. A decrease in the rolling resistance of the car tires produced worldwide is anticipated to decrease the overall fuel consumption of cars due to the fact that a vehicle with tires of a smaller rolling resistance requires less energy to thrust forward. However, a smaller rolling resistance also leads to a lower wet grip performance, which poses concerns of the passenger’s safety.\n", "Section::::Molecular-level models.:The Molecular Kink Paradigm for rubber elasticity.:Network morphology.\n", "Section::::Relationship between the secondary phase properties and toughening effect.:Rubber particle size.\n", "Section::::Performance characteristics.\n\nThe interactions of a tire with the pavement are a complex. Many of the details are modeled in Pacejka's Magic Formula. Some are explained below, alphabetically, by section.\n\nSection::::Performance characteristics.:Dynamics.\n", "Section::::Parameters.:Inflation pressure.:Effect of atmospheric pressure.\n", "Section::::Scientific career.:Development of guayule as a rubber alternative.\n", "Section::::Performance characteristics.:Wear.\n", "Also worth mentioning is the fact that tires simply lose air over time. A brand new tire, properly inflated, will lose air even with no punctures present. This is mainly due to the design of the valve stem, among other reasons. Given enough time, a tire can fully deflate with no outside intervention.\n\nSection::::Flat tire repair.:Bicycles.\n", "Because pneumatic tires are flexible, the contact patch can be different when the vehicle is in motion than when it is static. Because it is so much easier to make observations of the contact patch without the tire in motion, it is more common to conduct studies of the static contact patch.\n\nStatically, the size, shape, and pressure distribution are functions of many things, the most important of which are the load on the tire and the inflation pressure:\n\nBULLET::::- The larger the load on the tire, the larger the contact patch.\n", "An airless tire is a non-pneumatic tire that is not supported by air pressure. They are most commonly used on small vehicles, such as golf carts, and on utility vehicles in situations where the risk of puncture is high, such as on construction equipment. Many tires used in industrial and commercial applications are non-pneumatic, and are manufactured from solid rubber and plastic compounds via molding operations. Solid tires include those used for lawn mowers, skateboards, golf carts, scooters, and many types of light industrial vehicles, carts, and trailers. One of the most common applications for solid tires is for material handling equipment (forklifts). Such tires are installed by means of a hydraulic tire press.\n", "Section::::End of use.:Environmental issues.\n", "Section::::Molecular-level models.:The Molecular Kink Paradigm for rubber elasticity.:Numerical network simulation model.\n", "PMMA’s high optical transparency, low cost, and compressibility make it a viable option for practical applications in architecture and car manufacturing as a substitute for glass when high transparency is necessary. Incorporating a rubber filler phase increases the toughness. Such fillers need to form strong interfacial bonds with the PMMA matrix. In applications where optical transparency is important, measures must be taken to limit light scattering.\n", "Associated components of a tires, includes the wheel on which it is mounted, the valve stem through which air is introduced, and, for some tires, an inner tube that provides the airtight means for maintaining tire pressure.\n", "Aircraft tires are usually inflated with nitrogen to minimize expansion and contraction from extreme changes in ambient temperature and pressure experienced during flight. Dry nitrogen expands at the same rate as other dry atmospheric gases (normal air is about 80% nitrogen), but common compressed air sources may contain moisture, which increases the expansion rate with temperature.\n", "It is common in toughening PMMA, and in other composites, to synthesize core-shell particles via atom-transfer radical-polymerization that have an outer polymer layer that has properties similar to those of the primary phase that increases the particle’s adhesion to the matrix. Developing PMMA compatible core-shell particles with low glass transition temperature while maintaining optical transparency is of interest to architects and car companies.\n\nFor optimal transparency the disperse rubber phase needs the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Small average particle radius\n\nBULLET::::- Narrow particle size distribution\n\nBULLET::::- Refractive index matching that of matrix across range of temperatures and wavelengths\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Self-sealing.\n\nThese tires contain an extra lining within the tire that self-seals in the event of a small hole due to a nail or screw. In this way, the loss of air is prevented from the outset such that the tire is either permanently self-repairing or at least loses air very slowly. \n" ]	[ "All tires are filled with air instead of being solid rubber." ]	[ "Some tires, called pneumatic tires, are made of solid rubber." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All tires are filled with air instead of being solid rubber.", "All tires are filled with air instead of being solid rubber." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Some tires, called pneumatic tires, are made of solid rubber.", "Some tires, called pneumatic tires, are made of solid rubber." ]
2018-05087	How do fruits continue to ripen after they are harvested?	Because the fruit is still alive. Cells continue to grow, and the fruit responds to hormones and releases enzymes. In particular many fruits release ethylene which promotes ripening, and we can artificially add ethylene to ripen fruit on schedule	[ "This is an incomplete list of fruits that are ripening and non-ripening after picking.\n\nSection::::Ripening regulation.\n", "Section::::Factors influencing when ripeness occurs.\n", "Ripening\n\nRipening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable. In general, fruit becomes sweeter, less green (typically \"redder\"), and softer as it ripens. Even though the acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio.\n\nSection::::Ripening agents.\n\nRipening agents speed up the ripening process.\n", "Covered fruit ripening bowls are commercially available. The manufacturers claim the bowls increase the amount of ethylene and carbon dioxide gases around the fruit, which promotes ripening.\n\nClimacteric fruits are able to continue ripening after being picked, a process accelerated by ethylene gas. Non-climacteric fruits can ripen only on the plant and thus have a short shelf life if harvested when they are ripe.\n\nSome fruits can be ripened by placing them in a plastic bag with a ripe banana, as the banana will release ethylene.\n\nSection::::Ripening indicators.\n", "They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful, since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being gassed with ethylene.\n", "If ripening is broadly defined as the development of wine grapes, then it could be said that ripening is happening throughout the continuous annual cycle of the grapevine. More narrowly defined, ripening begins at the inception of \"veraison\". At this point (which is normally 40–60 days after fruit set though it may be longer in cooler climates), the grapes are hard and green with low sugar levels and very high levels of mostly malic acids. During \"veraison\", which may last from 30–70 days depending on the climate and other factors, the grapes go through several changes which impact their sugar, acid, tannin and mineral composition. The concentration of phenolic compounds in the skin, most notably anthocyanins for red wine grapes, replace the green color of chlorophyll as the grape berries themselves change color.\n", "Section::::What happens to a grape as it ripens.\n", "Section::::In sugarcane.:Why a ratoon crop ripens earlier than its corresponding plant crop.\n\nA ratoon crop ripens earlier, in general, by at least one to one and a half months or so due to: early development of shoots, maintenance of relatively lesser N content in index tissues and rapid run-out of N during grand growth phase and relatively higher inorganic non-sugars in its juice.\n\nSection::::In sugarcane.:Poor ratoon crops due to low temperature harvest.\n", "Section::::Evaluating ripeness.:Must weight.\n", "It takes longer than a year for fruits to reach maturity. The fruit first shows signs of ripening by its bottommost scales becoming yellowed. As it ripens, the starch that was stored in the green fruit is converted to sugar, giving it its sweet flavor. This mechanism is comparable to how banana fruits ripen. The strong odor the fruit produces becomes noticeable when it is half-ripe. As time passes and the fruit continues to ripen, the odor becomes stronger. After it becomes fully ripe, however, the scent deteriorates quickly.\n", "Section::::Evaluating ripeness.:Physiological ripeness.\n", "Enzymatic breakdown and hydrolysis of storage polysaccharides occurs during ripening. The main storage polysaccharides include starch. These are broken down into shorter, water-soluble molecules such as fructose, glucose and sucrose. During fruit ripening, gluconeogenesis also increases.\n\nAcids are broken down in ripening fruits and this contributes to the sweeter rather than sharp tastes associated with unripe fruits. In some fruits such as guava, there is a steady decrease in vitamin C as the fruit ripens. This is mainly as a result of the general decrease in acid content that occurs when a fruit ripens.\n", "Ripeness in viticulture\n\nIn viticulture, ripeness is the completion of the ripening process of wine grapes on the vine which signals the beginning of harvest. What exactly constitutes ripeness will vary depending on what style of wine is being produced (sparkling, still, fortified, \"rosé\", dessert wine, etc.) and what the winemaker and viticulturist personally believe constitutes ripeness. Once the grapes are harvested, the physical and chemical components of the grape which will influence a wine's quality are essentially set so determining the optimal moment of ripeness may be considered the most crucial decision in winemaking.\n", "Ripe medlars, for example, are taken from the tree, placed somewhere cool, and allowed to further ripen for several weeks. In \"Trees and Shrubs\", horticulturist F. A. Bush wrote about medlars that \"if the fruit is wanted it should be left on the tree until late October and stored until it appears in the first stages of decay; then it is ready for eating. More often the fruit is used for making jelly.\" Ideally, the fruit should be harvested from the tree immediately following a hard frost, which starts the bletting process by breaking down cell walls and speeding softening.\n", "Section::::Evaluating ripeness.:Acid level.:pH level.\n", "Ripening occurs when a fruit is mature. Ripeness is followed by senescence and breakdown of the fruit. The category “fruit” refers also to products such as aubergine, sweet pepper and tomato. Non-climacteric fruit only ripen while still attached to the parent plant. Their eating quality suffers if they are harvested before fully ripe as their sugar and acid content does not increase further. Examples are citrus, grapes and pineapple. Early harvesting is often carried out for export shipments to minimise loss during transport, but a consequence of this is that the flavour suffers. Climacteric fruit are those that can be harvested when mature but before ripening has begun. These include banana, melon, papaya, and tomato. In commercial fruit marketing the rate of ripening is controlled artificially, thus enabling transport and distribution to be carefully planned. Ethylene gas is produced in most plant tissues and is important in starting off the ripening process. It can be used commercially for the ripening of climacteric fruits. However, natural ethylene produced by fruits can lead to in- storage losses. For example, ethylene destroys the green colour of plants. Leafy vegetables will be damaged if stored with ripening fruit. Ethylene production is increased when fruits are injured or decaying and this can cause early ripening of climacteric fruit during transport.\n", "Section::::What happens to a grape as it ripens.:Varying ripeness levels for different wines.\n", "Section::::Evaluating ripeness.:Acid level.:Balancing sugar, acidity and pH.\n", "The long-term storage of vegetables and fruit involves inhibiting the ripening and ageing processes, thus retaining flavor and quality. Ripening is delayed by reducing the level of oxygen and increasing that of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in the cool cell so that the respiration is reduced. Normal atmosphere consists of roughly 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.3 carbon dioxide and a couple of other gasses. In CA the oxygen is reduced to 1.5-2 percent roughly, depending on variety. This is replaced mostly with nitrogen and a little bit of carbon dioxide the apple produces. Under controlled atmosphere conditions the quality and the freshness of fruit and vegetables are retained, and many products can be stored for 2 to 4 times longer than usual.\n", "Even if climate and vineyard management has been ideal, other factors may prevent full and even ripeness. Among the clusters of a grapevine, individual berries may not all ripen at the same pace. This problem, commonly known as millerandage, could occur because of poor weather during the flowering period of the grape but can also be caused by soil deficient in various nutrients such as boron, an attack of various grapevine ailments such as the grapevine fanleaf virus or a number of other factors that may contribute to incomplete plant fertilization.\n\nSection::::Evaluating ripeness.\n", "Section::::Evaluating ripeness.:Acid level.\n", "Section::::Ripening stages.\n", "Climacteric fruits undergo a number of changes during fruit ripening. The major changes include fruit softening, sweetening, decreased bitterness, and colour change. These changes begin in an inner part of the fruit, the locule, which is the gel-like tissue surrounding the seeds. Ripening-related changes initiate in this region once seeds are viable enough for the process to continue, at which point ripening-related changes occur in the next successive tissue of the fruit called the pericarp. As this ripening process occurs, working its way from the inside towards outer most tissue of the fruit, the observable changes of softening tissue, and changes in color and carotenoid content occur. Specifically, this process activates ethylene production and the expression of ethylene-response genes affiliated with the phenotypic changes seen during ripening. \n", "What constitutes \"ripeness\" will vary according to what style of wine is being produced as well as the particular views of winemakers and viticulturists on what optimal ripeness is. The style of wine is usually dictated by the balance between sugars and acids. What may be considered \"ripe\" for one winemaker could be considered under ripe to another winemaker or even overripe to yet a third winemaker. Climate and the particular grape variety will also play a role in determining ripeness and date of harvest. In very hot climates, such as certain areas in California and Australia, ripeness is usually achieved around 30 days after \"veraison\" starts while in much cooler climates, like the Loire Valley and parts of Germany, this may not occur until 70 days after \"veraison\". The ripening periods for each individual grape variety will vary with grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon taking much longer to ripen compared to early ripening varieties such as Chardonnay and Pinot noir.\n", "The role that climate plays in influencing the ripening process cannot be overstated, but it is not the only factor. Vineyard management such as pruning and canopy management can also play a significant role as it not only influences the physiological processes of the grapevine but also how the vine responds in sharing its limited resources of energy and nutrients. The leaves of a grapevine produce energy via the process of photosynthesis. A certain amount of foliage is needed to ensure that the grapevine can produce enough energy to support all its physiological functions, but too much leaf cover will shade the grape clusters, limiting the direct exposure of sunlight and warmth needed for some chemical components of the grapes to develop. An excessive amount of foliage and shading may also promote the development of various vine diseases and ailments such as bunch rot and powdery mildew which can hamper the ripening process. A very vigorous vine with many clusters and vine shoots will have several parties competing for the same resources, with the overall development of an individual clusters thus slowed. Through the process of canopy management, viticulturists try to balance not only the amount of clusters and vine shoots on the vine but also try to achieve an optimal balance of needed foliage for photosynthesis without excessive shading that could hamper the ripening process.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03248	How do book authors know for sure that the story for the book they're writing hasn't already been written?	They don't. Typically, a particular writer's idea for a story is going to be unique simply because of all of the variables involved and that writer's own imagination. There are many stories that share similar themes, plots, or character names, but not usually all of those things at once, and even if they are surprisingly similar, the writing styles of the authors in question might still make the books feel completely different.	[ "Screenwriter and game designer Antoine Bauza states: \"\"While it can’t replace the reading of the sacrosanct tome \"Writing Drama\", Constructing a Story is a gold mine in its own right (and an excellent complement) for writers. It gave me precious advice as well as a solid dose of motivation.\"\"\n\nFor film agent Julian Friedmann, \"Constructing a Story\" manages to get underneath the skin of the story.\n", "BULLET::::3. \"Blood and Bone\" (2018)\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Shifting Shadows\" (2019)\n\nSection::::Book development.\n\nThe four authors, have specific roles. First, Holmes, who acts as the editor sends in the preliminary script and outline to Cary, Baldry, or Sutherland, depending on who writes the book. Then, the author develops Holmes' ideas into a single book which is sent back to Holmes for one last check over and edit. After she finishes, the author fixes it up and gets ready to publish it.\n", "As far as The Buffalo Book Company and its efforts, \"The Skylark of Space\", by E.E. Smith, in collaboration with Lee Hawkins Garby, was plagued with the obvious signs of the beginning writer on the part of all concerned. Doc Smith later told how he collaborated with his neighbor's wife, Lee Hawkins Garby, for help writing scenes involving women. Later he would drop all reference to her help in subsequent reprints of this title.\n", "In many cases, the book is first conceived as a marketing concept, and a writer is then hired to write the book on a work for hire basis. In some cases, book packaging companies use a celebrity with a very marketable name as the credited author, while using a professional ghostwriter to do most of the writing, researching, and editing.\n", "Dodd normally begins her writing process with a 10-20 page outline of the story. Every morning, she revises the pages that she wrote the day before. After refamiliarizing herself with the storyline, she then continues writing. She will also usually lightly outline the next few chapters that she is intending to write. When she reaches the midpoint of the manuscript, she often does a larger-scale revision. By the time she reaches the conclusion of the story, it is ready to be sent to the editors.\n", "The couple have a structured system for their collaborations to minimize arguments. Evan Maxwell usually chooses the setting for the story. Together, the pair create the characters and then the plot. Once the plot has been fairly well established, Evan writes the first draft of the manuscript, consulting Ann if there are any major questions about the characters or plot changes that he would like to make. Ann then writes the second draft, with the freedom to make any changes that she thinks are necessary for \"clarity, pacing, dialogue, and characterization.\"\n\nSection::::Biography.:Career.:Romance.\n", "I was quite closely involved, actually, because the producer (Richard Callanan) was a very nice man and he wanted to get it as close to the book as possible. Both of us had to sit around the table and persuade the scriptwriter (Jenny McDade) to make it close to the book. When she started it couldn’t have been further from the book. It got closer and closer and closer and they got most of it in. They couldn’t get some of the stuff at the end in but they did a fairly good job — I think the scriptwriter actually didn’t enjoy herself at all. They asked me whether I’d like to write scripts but, so far, I haven’t found it appeals. It’s a very different way of thinking, of telling a story. I was talking to somebody who is, primarily, a scriptwriter but who’d also published his scripts as novels and he says he has to write the script first and then the novel from the script. I would have to do it the other way around, I think.\n", "According to TLC's new Director Aki Schilz, \"We're lucky enough to be both well-connected and well-regarded, and can also refer writers onwards to various trusted services for things like copy-editing, proofreading, and publishing services. Where we see manuscripts of a particularly high quality, we are often able to help writers onwards towards publication, usually via agents.\"\n\nSection::::Activities.\n", "Occasionally, a writing task is given to a committee of writers. The most famous example is the task of translating the Bible into English, sponsored by King James VI of England in 1604 and accomplished by six committees, some in Cambridge and some in Oxford, who were allocated different sections of the text. The resulting Authorized King James Version, published in 1611, has been described as an \"everlasting miracle\" because its writers (that is, its Translators) sought to \"hold themselves consciously poised between the claims of accessibility and beauty, plainness and richness, simplicity and majesty, the people and the king\", with the result that the language communicates itself \"in a way which is quite unaffected, neither literary nor academic, not historical, nor reconstructionist, but transmitting a nearly incredible immediacy from one end of human civilisation to another.\"\n", "In the meantime, Ann and Nathan together have discovered many blank pages in books of ancient prophecy. They seem to remember that the pages should not be blank but cannot remember what was originally written there. Zedd makes the same discovery independently.\n", "I've kept writer's workbooks since around 1972. They fill up a whole shelf in my study. Almost every day I'm recording a thought or image on the pages of my current workbook for future use. The workbooks, as I see them, are a memory aide. When I revise a story or novel, I go through all those workbooks to see if there is an image or idea that I might have had, say, thirty years ago that is useful for an in-progress fiction or essay. It takes me about eight hours (at least) to tramp through all those workbooks when I'm in the final stages of revision. I do the same with old drafts of novels. For one of the six novels I wrote between 1970 and 1972, I did research to describe a character using heroin. When writing \"Dreamer\", I dug up those old pages and used the details for my character Chaym Smith, the fictitious double for Martin Luther King Jr.\n", "Melanie and her husband have collaborated on several novels such as \"Daughters\" (2001), and \"The Man on the Ceiling\" (2008). On collaborating with her husband, Melanie stated, “Steve and I have been each other’s first editor for more than thirty-four years now. Nothing leaves the house until the other has read and commented on it”.\n\nSection::::Inspiration.\n", "A writer who posts a story on AO3 can record its word count on the story’s header, along with other information such as the story’s fandom, romantic pairings, and other tropes. Some fan works are 'crossovers' that draw on two or more universes or characters. Writers can also note if their story is finished or a work in progress (WIP).\n", "Fiction (especially fantasy, forecasting and science fiction) often features instances of prediction achieved by unconventional means.\n\nBULLET::::- In fantasy literature, predictions are often obtained through magic or prophecy, sometimes referring back to old traditions. For example, in J. R. R. Tolkien's \"The Lord of the Rings\", many of the characters possess an awareness of events extending into the future, sometimes as prophecies, sometimes as more-or-less vague 'feelings'. The character Galadriel, in addition, employs a water \"mirror\" to show images, sometimes of possible future events.\n", "Section::::Discussing information.\n\nAfter reading and observing, often writers need to discuss material. They might brainstorm with a group or topics or how to narrow a topic. Or, they might discuss events, ideas, and interpretations with just one other person. Oral storytelling might enter again, as the writer turns it into a narrative, or just tries out ways of using the new terminology. Sometimes writers draw or use information as basis for artwork as a way to understand the material better.\n\nSection::::Narrowing the topic.\n", "Dreams are a common way of including stories inside stories, and can sometimes go several levels deep. Both the book \"The Arabian Nightmare\" and the curse of \"eternal waking\" from the Neil Gaiman series \"The Sandman\" feature an endless series of waking from one dream into another dream. In Charles Maturin's novel \"Melmoth the Wanderer\", the use of vast stories-within-stories creates a sense of dream-like quality in the reader.\n\nSection::::Examples of nested stories by type.:Nested Books.:Religion and Philosophy.\n", "For the \"Survivors\" series, there is a different approach taken. The whole team creates a detailed story outline and develops the characters together, and then the actual writing gets done by a single author, who is allowed to change something significant about the plot or characters if they feel that a certain character would not act a specific way.\n\nSection::::Writing style.\n", "Fictional universes are sometimes shared by multiple prose authors, with each author's works in that universe being granted approximately equal canonical status. For example, Larry Niven's fictional universe Known Space has an approximately 135-year period in which Niven allows other authors to write stories about the Man-Kzin Wars. Other fictional universes, like the \"Ring of Fire\" series, actively court canonical stimulus from fans, but gate and control the changes through a formalized process and the final say of the editor and universe creator.\n", "In \"Plot It Yourself\", Stout draws on his lengthy experience with book publishers, with authors (via, for example, his presidency of the Authors Guild), and with the writing process itself. Apart from the series' continuing characters, all the players in the book are directly associated with the publishing industry. Stout adds as subtext his take on the peculiar relationship between book authors and book publishers — part symbiosis, part animosity. Stout himself experienced at least one instance of contentious relations with his publishers.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n", "One day, a manuscript for a book called \"Pause O Men for the Virgin\" arrives at the agency, together with a note from the author's solicitor, saying that the author wishes to remain anonymous and that the agency has \"carte blanche\" on how it deals with the book. The book turns out to deal with the love affair between an 80-year-old woman and a 17-year-old youth.\n", "Some writers follow a non-standard route to publication. For example, this may include bloggers who have attracted large readerships producing a book based on their websites, books based on Internet memes, instant \"celebrities\" such as Joe the Plumber, retiring sports figures and in general anyone a publisher feels could produce a marketable book. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter.\n", "They apply modern research to determine which elements of a story seem likely to endure and which seem ephemeral. Theory suggests that core story lines of the sagas will preserve oral elements long-term, whereas one can expect details – such as the names of secondary characters – to change over the centuries.\n", "That scenario, with minor variations, is repeated four times, with other authors and by other plagiarists. The latest complaint has been made only recently, and the target of the complaint wonders when a manuscript will show up somewhere that it wasn't the day before.\n", "Section::::Inspiration and writing.:Writing process.\n", "Prose discusses that, just as with sentence construction, the writer who is concerned about paragraph construction is stepping in the right direction. She states that the writer who reads widely will discover there are no general rules for building a well-constructed paragraph, but \"only individual examples to help point [the writer] in a direction in which [the writer] might want to go.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chapter Five: Narration\"\n" ]	[ "Authors are certain the story they are writing has not been written before." ]	[ "Authors are not sure of this, however their work will have their unique ideas that will still make the story different. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Authors are certain the story they are writing has not been written before." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Authors are not sure of this, however their work will have their unique ideas that will still make the story different. " ]
2018-03728	Why do hurricanes spin?	It's because of the [Coriolis force]( URL_0 ). "For an intuitive explanation of the origin of the Coriolis force, consider an object moving northward in the northern hemisphere. Viewed from outer space, the object does not appear to go due north, but has an eastward motion (it rotates around toward the right along with the surface of the Earth). The further north you go, the smaller the "horizontal diameter" of the Earth, and so the slower the eastward motion of its surface. As the object moves north, to higher latitudes, it has a tendency to maintain the eastward speed it started with (rather than slowing down to match the reduced eastward speed of local objects on the Earth's surface), so it veers east (i.e. to the right of its initial motion). Though not obvious from this example, which considers northward motion, the horizontal deflection occurs equally for objects moving east or west (or any other direction)." The center of a hurricane has very low pressure, so the high pressure air surrounding it is pushed toward it. But the air from the north is moving south, so it gets deflected west. The air from the south is moving north, so it gets deflected east. The air from the east is moving west, so it gets deflected north, and the air from the west is moving east, so it get deflected south. So it makes a spiral pattern.	[ "In the Gulf of Mexico, the deepest areas of warm water are associated with the Loop Current and the rings of current that have separated from the Loop Current are commonly called Loop Current eddies. The warm waters of the Loop Current and its associated eddies provide more energy to hurricanes and allow them to intensify.\n", "\"Slattery's Hurricane\" begins with: \"...This is a hurricane. Hurricanes are windstorms of great violence several hundred miles in diameter, with a dead calm at the center called the eye. Like whirlpools, they spin rapidly, hurling great destruction in their paths. They're spawned in the doldrums, their father the heat of the sun, their mother the moisture of the sea. From July to December every year, the Caribbean crawls with these evil offspring of the elements...\"\n", "Because surface ocean currents are driven by the movement of wind over the water's surface, the Coriolis force also affects the movement of ocean currents and cyclones as well. Many of the ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure areas called gyres. Though the circulation is not as significant as that in the air, the deflection caused by the Coriolis effect is what creates the spiraling pattern in these gyres. The spiraling wind pattern helps the hurricane form. The stronger the force from the Coriolis effect, the faster the wind spins and picks up additional energy, increasing the strength of the hurricane.\n", "BULLET::::- Vortices in the Earth's atmosphere are important phenomena for meteorology. They include mesocyclones on the scale of a few miles, tornados, waterspouts, and hurricanes. These vortices are often driven by temperature and humidity variations with altitude. The sense of rotation of hurricanes is influenced by the Earth's rotation. Another example is the Polar vortex, a persistent, large-scale cyclone centered near the Earth's poles, in the middle and upper troposphere and the stratosphere.\n", "Edgar Allan Poe, in his 1841 story, \"A Descent into the Maelström\", has the main character describe how \"the most terrible hurricane that ever came out of the heavens\" forced the boat manned by himself and his brothers into a gigantic whirlpool. The trauma of surviving the storm and the whirlpool (and seeing the death of his brothers) is asserted to have a profound effect on the character, causing his hair to turn white. However, since the story is asserted to occur off the coast of Norway, it is unlikely that the event described could have fallen within the formal definition of a hurricane, as such storms form almost exclusively in the Maritime Tropical air masses of tropical regions of the globe.\n", "Also of note: tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes gain strength from, but are not steered by, the temperature of the water. They are steered by the atmosphere, and the atmospheric level involved in steering a hurricane is different at different intensities (i.e., it relates to the minimum pressure of the hurricane).\n\nSection::::Effect on tropical cyclones.:Process.:Sea level and sea temperature.\n", "Section::::Systems.:Hurricane Greta.\n", "Section::::Tropical cyclones.\n\nTropical cyclones can form when smaller circulations within the Intertropical Convergence Zone merge. The effect is often mentioned in relation to the motion of tropical cyclones, although the final merging of the two storms is uncommon. The effect becomes noticeable when they approach within of each other. Rotation rates within binary pairs accelerate when tropical cyclones close within of each other. Merger of the two systems (or shearing out of one of the pair) becomes realized when they are within of one another.\n\nSection::::Tropical cyclones.:Examples.\n\nSection::::Tropical cyclones.:Examples.:North Atlantic.\n", "Section::::Systems.:Hurricane Gracie.\n", "Section::::Basics.:Fujiwhara effect.\n\nWhen two or more tropical cyclones are in proximity to one another, they begin to rotate cyclonically around the midpoint between their circulation centers. In the northern hemisphere, this is in a counterclockwise direction, and in the southern hemisphere, a clockwise direction. Usually, the tropical cyclones need to be within of each other for this effect to take place. It is a more common phenomenon in the northern Pacific Ocean than elsewhere, due to the higher frequency of tropical cyclone activity which occurs in that region.\n\nSection::::Basics.:Trochoidal motions.\n", "BULLET::::- (Unnamed): In the 1948 film, \"Key Largo\", gangsters who have taken over a small hotel in the title locale are delayed in their planned getaway by a hurricane. In one exchange, a gang member asks another, \"what all happens in a hurricane?\" to which the other replies, \"The wind blows so hard the ocean gets up on its hind legs and walks right across the land.\" Later, the leader of the gang is shaken by the presence of the storm, leading Frank McCloud, the protagonist of the film, to say, \"You don't like it, do you Rocco, the storm? Show it your gun, why don't you? If it doesn't stop, shoot it.\"\n", "The three-dimensional wind field in a tropical cyclone can be separated into two components: a \"primary circulation\" and a \"secondary circulation\". The primary circulation is the rotational part of the flow; it is purely circular. The secondary circulation is the overturning (in-up-out-down) part of the flow; it is in the radial and vertical directions. The primary circulation is larger in magnitude, dominating the surface wind field, and is responsible for the majority of the damage a storm causes, while the secondary circulation is slower but governs the energetics of the storm.\n\nSection::::Physics and energetics.:Secondary circulation: a Carnot heat engine.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n", "Although extratropical cyclones are almost always classified as baroclinic since they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient, they can sometimes become barotropic late in their life cycle when the temperature distribution around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform along the radius from the center of low pressure. An extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone, if it dwells over warm waters and develops central convection, which warms its core and causes temperature and dewpoint gradients near their centers to fade.\n\nSection::::Interaction with tropical cyclones.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n", "Section::::Cyclone evolution.:Shapiro-Keyser model.\n\nA second competing theory for extratropical cyclone development over the oceans is the Shapiro-Keyser model, developed in 1990. Its main differences with the Norwegian Cyclone Model are the fracture of the cold front, treating warm-type occlusions and warm fronts as the same, and allowing the cold front to progress through the warm sector perpendicular to the warm front. This model was based on oceanic cyclones and their frontal structure, as seen in surface observations and in previous projects which used aircraft to determine the vertical structure of fronts across the northwest Atlantic.\n\nSection::::Cyclone evolution.:Shapiro-Keyser model.:Warm seclusion.\n", "In 2008, Hurricane Gustav transited the Loop Current, but due to the current's temperature (then only in the high 80's-degrees-F) and truncated size (extending only halfway from Cuba to Louisiana, with cooler water in-between its tip and the Louisiana coast) the storm remained a category 3 hurricane instead of increasing strength as it passed over the current.\n\nHurricane Ivan rode the Loop Current twice in 2004.\n\nSection::::Effect on tropical cyclones.:Process.\n", "The movement of air in the Walker circulation affects the loops on either side. Under normal circumstances, the weather behaves as expected. But every few years, the winters become unusually warm or unusually cold, or the frequency of hurricanes increases or decreases, and the pattern sets in for an indeterminate period. \n", "Physically, the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and equatorial west of center. Because air must conserve its angular momentum, this flow configuration induces a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center and an anticyclonic gyre poleward and eastward of the storm center. The combined flow of these gyres acts to advect the storm slowly poleward and westward. This effect occurs even if there is zero environmental flow.\n\nSection::::Movement.:Multiple storm interaction.\n", "By controlling the position of the Azores high, the NAO also influences the direction of general storm paths for major North Atlantic tropical cyclones: a position of the Azores high farther to the south tends to force storms into the Gulf of Mexico, whereas a northern position allows them to track up the North American Atlantic Coast.\n", "Section::::Systems.:Hurricane Frieda.\n", "Hurricanes are powerful storms that form in tropical waters and have historically cost thousands of lives and caused billions of dollars in damage. The sinking of Francisco de Bobadilla's Spanish fleet in 1502 was the first recorded instance of a destructive hurricane. These storms have in the past caused a number of incidents related to the Triangle.\n", "Although most storms are found within tropical latitudes, occasionally storms will form further north and east from disturbances other than tropical waves such as cold fronts and upper-level lows. These are known as baroclinically induced tropical cyclones. There is a strong correlation between Atlantic hurricane activity in the tropics and the presence of an El Niño or La Niña in the Pacific Ocean. El Niño events increase the wind shear over the Atlantic, producing a less-favorable environment for formation and decreasing tropical activity in the Atlantic basin. Conversely, La Niña causes an increase in activity due to a decrease in wind shear.\n", "Section::::Systems.:Hurricane Ione.\n", "Section::::Systems.:Hurricane Fifi.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13463	Why can men (traditionally) grow beards but females can’t? What is it’s function?	I'm pretty sure that beards and male pattern baldness are linked to high testosterone. If that's the case, the "function" would be signifying this to mates.	[ "A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. It is usually the result of a fairly common condition: polycystic ovary syndrome, which causes excess testosterone, and also an over-sensitivity to testosterone, and thus (to a greater or lesser extent) results in male pattern hair growth, among other symptoms. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. In some cases a woman’s ability to grow a beard can be due to hereditary reasons without anything medically being wrong.\n", "Historically, masculine attributes such as beard growth have been seen as signs of virility and leadership (for example in ancient Egypt and Greece).\n\nSection::::Male virility.\n\nEvidence shows that increased male age is associated with a decline in semen volume, sperm motility, and sperm morphology. In studies that controlled for female age, comparisons between men under 30 and men over 50 found relative decreases in pregnancy rates between 23% and 38%.\n", "Beard\n\nA beard is the unshaven hair that grows on the chin, upper lip, cheeks and neck of humans and some non-human animals. In humans, usually only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. Some women with hirsutism, a hormonal condition of excessive hairiness, may develop a beard.\n", "Facial hair is hair grown on the face, usually on the chin, cheeks, and upper lip region. It is typically a secondary sex characteristic of human males. Men typically start developing facial hair in the later years of puberty or adolescence, between seventeen and twenty years of age, and most do not finish developing a full adult beard until their early twenties or later. This varies, as boys may first develop facial hair between fourteen and sixteen years of age, and boys as young as eleven have been known to develop facial hair. Women are also capable of developing facial hair, especially after menopause, though typically significantly less than men. Men may style their facial hair into beards, moustaches, goatees or sideburns; others completely shave their facial hair. The term \"whiskers\", when used to refer to human facial hair, indicates the hair on the chin and cheeks.\n", "One stratum of American society where facial hair was long rare is in government and politics. The last President of the United States to wear any type of facial hair was William Howard Taft, who was in office from 1909-1913. The last Vice President of the United States to wear any facial hair was Charles Curtis, who was in office from 1929-1933. Both of whom wore moustaches, but the last President of the United States to wear a beard was Benjamin Harrison; who was in office from 1889-1893. The last member of the United States Supreme Court with a full beard was Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, who served on the Court until 1941. Since 2015 a growing number of male political figures have work beards in office, including Speaker of the House Paul Ryan, and Senators Ted Cruz and Tom Cotton.\n", "Women typically have little hair on the face, apart from eyebrows and the vellus hair that covers most of the body. However, in some cases, women have noticeable facial hair growth, most commonly after menopause. Excessive hairiness (especially facially) is known as hirsutism and is usually an indication of atypical hormonal variation. Many women depilate facial hair that appears, as considerable social stigma is associated with facial hair on women, and freak shows and circuses have historically displayed bearded women. Many women globally choose to totally remove their facial hair by professional laser treatment.\n\nSection::::In great apes.\n", "Following the 2014 European elections, Bearder was elected as quaestor of the European Parliament for two and a half years. In this capacity, she was also a member of the High-level Group on Gender Equality and Diversity and chairwoman of the Artistic Committee. Her role as quaestor made her part of the Parliament’s leadership under President Martin Schulz. In addition to her committee assignments, Bearder was a member of the European Parliament Intergroup on SMEs.\n", "Since the mid-twentieth century, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has encouraged men to be clean-shaven, particularly those that serve in ecclesiastical leadership positions. The church's encouragement of men's shaving has no theological basis, but stems from the general waning of facial hair's popularity in Western society during the twentieth century and its association with the hippie and drug culture aspects of the counterculture of the 1960s, and has not been a permanent rule.\n", "Section::::Developing ideas and changing tactics.:Archives.\n", "Human female sexual selection can be examined by looking at ways in which males and females are sexually dimorphic, especially in traits that serve little other evolutionary purpose. For example, male traits such as the presence of beards, overall lower voice pitch, and average greater height are thought to be sexually selected traits as they confer benefits to either the women selecting for them, or to their offspring. Experimentally, women have reported a preference for men with beards and lower voices.\n", "Section::::Russia.:Beard token.\n", "Throughout the course of history, societal attitudes toward male beards have varied widely depending on factors such as prevailing cultural-religious traditions and the current era's fashion trends. Some religions (such as Islam, Traditional Christianity, Orthdox Judaism and Sikhism) have considered a full beard to be absolutely essential for all males able to grow one and mandate it as part of their official dogma. Other cultures, even while not officially mandating it, view a beard as central to a man's virility, exemplifying such virtues as wisdom, strength, sexual prowess and high social status. In cultures where facial hair is uncommon (or currently out of fashion), beards may be associated with poor hygiene or an uncivilized, dangerous demeanor. In countries with colder climates, beards help protect the wearer's face from the elements.\n", "Section::::Developing ideas and changing tactics.\n", "Biologists characterize beards as a secondary sexual characteristic because they are unique to one sex, yet do not play a direct role in reproduction. Charles Darwin first suggested a possible evolutionary explanation of beards in his work \"The Descent of Man\", which hypothesized that the process of sexual selection may have led to beards. Modern biologists have reaffirmed the role of sexual selection in the evolution of beards, concluding that there is evidence that a majority of women find men with beards more attractive than men without beards.\n", "Healthy hair indicates health and youth (important in evolutionary biology). Hair color and texture can be a sign of ethnic ancestry. Facial hair is a sign of puberty in men. White hair is a sign of age or genetics, which may be concealed with hair dye (not easily for some), although many prefer to assume it (especially if it is a poliosis characteristic of the person since childhood). Male pattern baldness is a sign of age, which may be concealed with a toupee, hats, or religious and cultural adornments. Although drugs and medical procedures exist for the treatment of baldness, many balding men simply shave their heads. In early modern China, the queue was a male hairstyle worn by the Manchus from central Manchuria and the Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty; hair on the front of the head was shaved off above the temples every ten days, mimicking male-pattern baldness, and the rest of the hair braided into a long pigtail.\n", "Bearded lady\n\nA bearded lady or bearded woman is a woman who has the ability to grow a visible beard. These women have long been a phenomenon of legend, curiosity, or ridicule.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Section::::Evolution of the bliaut.\n\nSection::::Evolution of the bliaut.:Women's bliaut.\n", "Hormones have been declared as the \"key to the sexual universe\" because they are present in all animals and are the driving force in two critical developmental stages: sex-determinism in the fetus, and puberty in the teenage individual. Playing a critical role in the development of the brain and behavior, testosterone and estrogen have been labeled the \"male-hormone\" and \"female-hormone\" respectively as a result of the impact they have on masculinizing or feminizing the brain and behavior human. For example, testosterone is responsible for dominant, aggressive, and sexual behavior. Moreover, features such as a beard and a low voice (which also develop due to testosterone production) probably appeared for more successful competitive behavior among men, since men with a beard and low voice seem more dominant, aggressive, and look more high-status compared to clean shaven male faces and high voices, which means they are more likely to get a high status and increase their reproductive success. Studies have also found higher pre-natal testosterone or lower digit ratio to be correlated with higher aggression in males.\n", "It is common for many women to develop a few facial hairs under or around the chin, along the sides of the face (in the area of sideburns), or on the upper lip. These may appear at any age after puberty but are often seen in women after menopause due to decreased levels of estrogen. A darkening of the vellus hair of the upper lip in women is not considered true facial hair, though it is often referred to as a \"moustache\"; the appearance of these dark vellus hairs may be lessened by bleaching. A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. Sometimes it is caused by use of anabolic steroids. Cultural pressure leads most women to remove facial hair, as it may be viewed as a social stigma.\n", "Dwarves average four feet in height, with stout, broad bodies. Male dwarves grow thick facial hair. The female dwarves in \"The Lord of the Rings\" novels, which greatly inspired \"D&D\", were able to grow beards as well. Some authors, such as R. A. Salvatore, have followed suit in their writing, though the game rules' official position is that females do not grow beards—the fourth edition of Dungeons and Dragons portrayed female dwarves as \"beardless and even attractive\". In specific campaign settings, the potential for female dwarven facial hair sees much variation: In the \"World of Greyhawk\" some females can grow beards but those generally shave, in the \"Forgotten Realms\" they can grow full beards but also usually shave, and in \"Eberron\" they do not grow facial hair at all. In older editions of the game, female dwarves did grow beards in various campaign settings.\n", "5α-Reductase inhibitors like finasteride and dutasteride can be used to slow or prevent scalp hair loss and excessive body hair growth in transgender men taking testosterone. However, they may also slow or reduce certain aspects of masculinization, such as facial hair growth and normal male-pattern body hair growth. A potential solution is to start taking a 5α-reductase inhibitor after these desired aspects of masculinization have been well-established.\n\nSection::::Medications.:Others.:Progestogens.\n", "Section::::History.:Ancient and classical world.:Mesopotamia.\n\nMesopotamian civilizations (Sumerian, Assyrians, Babylonians, Chaldeans and Medians) devoted great care to oiling and dressing their beards, using tongs and curling irons to create elaborate ringlets and tiered patterns.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient and classical world.:Egypt.\n", "From 1682 to 1801 there was a strict \"man–woman\" sequence on the Russian throne: Peter I the Great, Catherine I, Peter II, Anna, Ivan VI, Elizabeth, Peter III, Catherine II the Great, Paul. Emperor Paul changed the rules of succession to the throne so that only men could rule the country, and the \"man–woman\" interchange was terminated. If Tsarina Sophia (a sister of Peter I and Ivan V and a powerful regent during their minority), is counted as a \"de facto\" ruler, then the sequence could be traced from 1676, when another of Sophia's brothers, Feodor III, succeeded to the throne.\n", "Section::::Biology.\n\nThe beard develops during puberty. Beard growth is linked to stimulation of hair follicles in the area by dihydrotestosterone, which continues to affect beard growth after puberty. Dihydrotestostorone also promotes balding. Dihydrotestosterone is produced from testosterone, the levels of which vary with season. Beard growth rate is also genetic.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Evolution.\n", "Beard tax\n\nA beard tax is one of several taxes introduced throughout history on men who wear beards.\n\nSection::::England.\n\nIn 1535, King Henry VIII of England, who wore a beard himself, introduced a tax on beards. The tax was a graduated tax, varying with the wearer's social position. His daughter, Elizabeth I of England, reintroduced the beard tax, taxing every beard of more than two weeks' growth, although it was poorly enforced. Contemporary documentation of the Tudor beard tax, however, is lacking, and The National Archives has no record of such a tax having been instituted.\n\nSection::::Russia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11954	What determines how loud a human can yell?	Either the size of the needle or the size of the vocal cords😉 The more pressure you apply on the vocal cords, the more they vibrate. The bigger the vocal cords are, the louder the yell will be.	[ "Sound is generated in the larynx, and that is where pitch and volume are manipulated. The strength of expiration from the lungs also contributes to loudness.\n", "Section::::Intelligibility with different types of speech.:Lombard speech.\n\nThe human brain automatically changes speech made in noise through a process called the Lombard effect. Such speech has increased intelligibility compared to normal speech. It is not only louder but the frequencies of its phonetic fundamental are increased and the durations of its vowels are prolonged. People also tend to make more noticeable facial movements.\n\nSection::::Intelligibility with different types of speech.:Screaming.\n\nShouted speech is less intelligible than Lombard speech because increased vocal energy produces decreased phonetic information. However, \"infinite peak clipping of shouted speech makes it almost as intelligible as normal speech.\"\n", "Section::::Other aspects.:Military.\n\nDrill instructors frequently shout orders at trainees to train recruits into the military culture whilst fostering obedience and expedience.\n\nSection::::Other aspects.:Audio level.\n\nThe volume levels of outcries may be very high, and this has become an issue in the sport of tennis, particularly with regards to Maria Sharapova's loud tennis grunts which have been measured as high as 101.2 decibels. The loudest verified scream emitted by a human measured 129 dBA, a record set by teaching assistant Jill Drake in 2000.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Battle cry\n\nBULLET::::- Death growl\n\nBULLET::::- Rebel yell\n\nBULLET::::- Tarzan yell\n", "In contrast, though other species have low larynges, their tongues remain anchored in their mouths and their vocal tracts cannot produce the range of speech sounds of humans. The ability to lower the larynx transiently in some species extends the length of their vocal tract, which as Fitch showed creates the acoustic illusion that they are larger. Research at Haskins Laboratories in the 1960s showed that speech allows humans to achieve a vocal communication rate that exceeds the fusion frequency of the auditory system by fusing sounds together into syllables and words. The additional speech sounds that the human tongue enables us to produce, particularly [i], allow humans to unconsciously infer the length of the vocal tract of the person who is talking, a critical element in recovering the phonemes that make up a word.\n", "Cricoid Cartilage Control: This figure demonstrates control of the position of the cricoid cartilage. In Estill Voice training it is proposed that specific positioning of the cricoid cartilage is a typical part of the vocal set-up for shouting and other high-intensity voice productions employing higher subglottic pressure.\n\nLarynx Control: This figure trains raising and lowering of the larynx influencing resonance. This figure was formerly known as the larynx height figure.\n", "During speech, the respiratory cycle is modified to accommodate both linguistic and biological needs. Exhalation, usually about 60 percent of the respiratory cycle at rest, is increased to about 90 percent of the respiratory cycle. Because metabolic needs are relatively stable, the total volume of air moved in most cases of speech remains about the same as quiet tidal breathing. Increases in speech intensity of 18 dB (a loud conversation) has relatively little impact on the volume of air moved. Because their respiratory systems are not as developed as adults, children tend to use a larger proportion of their vital capacity compared to adults, with more deep inhales.\n", "The growl is emitted from the larynx, also known as the voice box, which is located at the top of the throat. It is made up of both cartilage and soft tissue, with an opening in the center to allow the passage of air. Similar to how humans learn to speak, animals learn to growl through vibration of their vocal cords that occurs when air enters the larynx and passes over them. Organisms such as Dogs tend to have a lower frequency when growling in proportion to the length of their neck, a longer neck will cause a lower frequency.\n", "Chronic, excessive vocalization may be due to improper socialization or training, stress, boredom, fear, or frustration. Up to 35% of dog owners report problems with barking, which can cause disputes and legal problems. The behavior is more common among some breeds of dog, such as the Shetland Sheepdog, which are known as loud barkers, due to the nature of the environment in which the breed was developed.\n\nSection::::Less invasive interventions.\n", "As in all other tetrapods, mammals have a larynx that can quickly open and close to produce sounds, and a supralaryngeal vocal tract which filters this sound. The lungs and surrounding musculature provide the air stream and pressure required to phonate. The larynx controls the pitch and volume of sound, but the strength the lungs exert to exhale also contributes to volume. More primitive mammals, such as the echidna, can only hiss, as sound is achieved solely through exhaling through a partially closed larynx. Other mammals phonate using vocal folds, as opposed to the vocal cords seen in birds and reptiles. The movement or tenseness of the vocal folds can result in many sounds such as purring and screaming. Mammals can change the position of the larynx, allowing them to breathe through the nose while swallowing through the mouth, and to form both oral and nasal sounds; nasal sounds, such as a dog whine, are generally soft sounds, and oral sounds, such as a dog bark, are generally loud.\n", "Acoustic communication is often used by animals to express dominance. Acoustic sounds can vary substantially in amplitude, duration, and frequency structure which can influence how the signal is received. Vocalizations can be effective for a species as it may decrease physical interaction, which may decrease injury costs. Northern elephant seals (\"Mirounga angustirostris\"), for example, have a polygynous breeding system in which adult males establish dominance hierarchies that facilitates copulation with females. Acoustic signalling is detrimental in resolving competition between males for mates. Elephant seals express unique acoustic signals that allow males to remember the violations of past rivals and recall which seals are dominant.\n", "While a distinct reason for the difference is unknown, a strong hypothesis is that the vocal communication of dogs developed due to their domestication. As evidenced by the farm-fox experiment, the process of domestication alters a breed in more ways than just tameness. Domesticated breeds show vast physical differences from their wild counterparts, notably an evolution that suggests neoteny, or the retention of juvenile characteristics in adults. Adult dogs have, for example, large heads, floppy ears, and shortened snouts – all characteristics seen in wolf puppies. The behavior, too, of adult dogs shows puppy-like characteristics: dogs are submissive, they whine, and they frequently bark. The experiment illustrates how selecting for one trait (in this case, tameness) can create profound by-products, both physical and behavioral.\n", "BULLET::::- Eklund, Robert, Gustav Peters, Gopal Ananthakrishnan & Evans Mabiza. 2011. An acoustic analysis of lion roars. I: Data collection and spectrogram and waveform analyses. In: Quarterly Progress and Status Report TMH-QPSR, Volume 51, 2011. Proceedings from Fonetik 2011. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 8–10 June 2010, pp. 1–4. Download PDF from http://roberteklund.info.\n", "Section::::Production of sound.:Mysticete whales.:Sound levels.\n\nThe frequency of baleen whale sounds ranges from 10 Hz to 31 kHz. A list of typical levels is shown in the table below.\n\nSection::::Purpose of whale-created sounds.\n", "The ability to roar has an anatomical basis, often involving modifications to the larynx and hyoid bone and enlarged internal air spaces for low-frequency acoustic resonance. While roaring, animals may stretch out their necks and elevate their heads to increase the space for resonance. Though usually airborne, some roars are emitted underwater, as in the case of the male harbor seal.\n\nSection::::Roaring anatomy.\n", "There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the vocal folds is initiated: the myoelastic theory and the aerodynamic theory. These two theories are not in contention with one another and it is quite possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the neurochronaxic theory, was in considerable vogue in the 1950s, but has since been largely discredited.\n\nSection::::Voicing.:Myoelastic and aerodynamic theory.\n", "The acoustic level of the source is commonly expressed in terms of Sound Pressure Level or SPL. SPL is a logarithmic measure of the rms sound pressure of a sound relative to a reference value. It is measured in decibels (dB) above a standard reference level. For reference, at a distance of 1 meter, a normal talking voice is approximately 50 dB and a jet engine at 30 meters is 150 dB.\n\nSection::::Characteristics and measurements.:Clarity.\n", "In 2009, researchers found that blue whale song has been deepening in its tonal frequency since the 1960s. While noise pollution has increased ambient ocean noise by over 12 decibels since the mid-20th century, researcher Mark McDonald indicated that higher pitches would be expected if the whales were straining to be heard.\n", "Generally speaking, the mechanism for generating the human voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds within the larynx (voice box), and the articulators. The lung, the \"pump\" must produce adequate airflow and air pressure to vibrate vocal folds. The vocal folds (vocal cords) then vibrate to use airflow from the lungs to create audible pulses that form the laryngeal sound source. The muscles of the larynx adjust the length and tension of the vocal folds to ‘fine-tune’ pitch and tone. The articulators (the parts of the vocal tract above the larynx consisting of tongue, palate, cheek, lips, etc.) articulate and filter the sound emanating from the larynx and to some degree can interact with the laryngeal airflow to strengthen it or weaken it as a sound source.\n", "Section::::As a phenomenon.:As focus of power.\n\nGregory Whitehead, founder of the \"Institute for Screamscape Studies\", believes that the voice is used to focus the power: “scream used to be a psychological weapon both for you and against your opponent, it raises confidence to the person using it. Creating power with yell is having to affect someone without touching them”. In this case screaming is a protective weapon, as also often used by animals, who scream as an expression of power or during fights with another animals.\n\nSection::::As a phenomenon.:Pleasure.\n", "BULLET::::1. Hockett suggests that the importance of a vocal-auditory channel lies in the fact that the animal can communicate while also performing other tasks, such as eating, or using tools.\n\nBULLET::::2. Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: An auditory\|audible human language signal is sent out in all directions but is perceived in a limited direction. For example, humans are more proficient in determining the location of a sound source when the sound is projecting directly in front of them, as opposed to a sound source projected directly behind them.\n", "Section::::Factors affecting sound transmission class.:Sound absorption.\n\nSound absorption entails turning acoustical energy into some other form of energy, usually heat.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting sound transmission class.:Sound absorption.:Mass.\n", "Section::::Places of articulation.:Articulation.\n\nArticulation, often associated with speech production, is how people physically produce speech sounds. For people who speak fluently, articulation is automatic and allows 15 speech sounds to be produced per second.\n\nAn effective articulation of speech include the following elements – fluency, complexity, accuracy, and comprehensibility.\n", "The larynx or voice box is an organ in the neck housing the vocal folds, which are responsible for phonation. In humans, the larynx is \"descended,\" it is positioned lower than in other primates.This is because the evolution of humans to an upright position shifted the head directly above the spinal cord, forcing everything else downward. The repositioning of the larynx resulted in a longer cavity called the pharynx, which is responsible for increasing the range and clarity of the sound being produced. Other primates have almost no pharynx; therefore, their vocal power is significantly lower. Our species is not unique in this respect: goats, dogs, pigs and tamarins lower the larynx temporarily, to emit loud calls. Several deer species have a permanently lowered larynx, which may be lowered still further by males during their roaring displays. Lions, jaguars, cheetahs and domestic cats also do this. However, laryngeal descent in nonhumans (according to Philip Lieberman) is not accompanied by descent of the hyoid; hence the tongue remains horizontal in the oral cavity, preventing it from acting as a pharyngeal articulator.\n", "BULLET::::- \"air humidity\" - dry air is thought to increase the stress experienced in the vocal folds, however, this has not been proven\n\nBULLET::::- \"hydration\" - dehydration may increase effects of stress inflicted on the vocal folds\n\nBULLET::::- \"background noise\" - people tend to speak louder when background noise is present, even when it isn't necessary. Increasing speaking volume increases stress inflicted on the vocal folds\n\nBULLET::::- \"pitch\" - Using a higher or lower pitch than normal will also increase laryngeal stress.\n", "Not all sounds are normally audible to all animals. Each species has a range of normal hearing for both amplitude and frequency. Many animals use sound to communicate with each other, and hearing in these species is particularly important for survival and reproduction. In species that use sound as a primary means of communication, hearing is typically most acute for the range of pitches produced in calls and speech.\n\nSection::::In vertebrates.:Frequency range.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02855	How does a calculator compute the square root of a number?	You start with a guess as to what the square root actually is, and then you check. Then you improve your guess over time. So let's say the number is 55, and I guess 10. 55 / 10 is 5.5, which isn't equal to 10. The answer has to be between 5.5 and 10. My next guess will be the average between them: (5.5 + 10) / 2 = 7.75. Let's plug that in. 55 / 7.75 is 7.096 and change, so again, the true answer is somewhere in between. Our next guess is 7.423. Repeat that same thing again, and we get 7.416. 55 / 7.416 is...well, it's about .00039 off from 7.416, but we're only looking at the first three digits after the decimal place, so that's good enough. If we needed more accuracy, we could repeat this process as much as we want. Each time around, we get about twice as many correct digits.	[ "Most pocket calculators have a square root key. Computer spreadsheets and other software are also frequently used to calculate square roots. Pocket calculators typically implement efficient routines, such as the Newton's method (frequently with an initial guess of 1), to compute the square root of a positive real number. When computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide rules, one can exploit the identities\n\nwhere and are the natural and base-10 logarithms.\n", "Faster algorithms, in binary and decimal or any other base, can be realized by using lookup tables—in effect trading more storage space for reduced run time.\n\nSection::::Exponential identity.\n\nPocket calculators typically implement good routines to compute the exponential function and the natural logarithm, and then compute the square root of \"S\" using the identity found using the properties of logarithms (formula_143) and exponentials (formula_144):\n", "If working in base 2, the choice of digit is simplified to that between 0 (the \"small candidate\") and 1 (the \"large candidate\"), and digit manipulations can be expressed in terms of binary shift operations. With codice_1 being multiplication, codice_2 being left shift, and codice_3 being logical right shift, a recursive algorithm to find the integer square root of any natural number is:\n\nOr, iteratively instead of recursively:\n", "A completely different method for computing the square root is based on the CORDIC algorithm, which uses only very simple operations (addition, subtraction, with bitshift and table lookup to implement multiplication). The square root of \"S\" may be obtained as the output formula_214 using the hyperbolic coordinate system in vectoring mode, with the following initialization:\n\nSection::::Continued fraction expansion.\n", "Section::::Computation algorithms.\n\nThere are a number of algorithms for approximating , which in expressions as a ratio of integers or as a decimal can only be approximated. The most common algorithm for this, one used as a basis in many computers and calculators, is the Babylonian method of computing square roots, which is one of many methods of computing square roots. It goes as follows:\n\nFirst, pick a guess, ; the value of the guess affects only how many iterations are required to reach an approximation of a certain accuracy. Then, using that guess, iterate through the following recursive computation:\n", "In other words, to calculate the duplex of a number, double the product of each pair of equidistant digits plus the square of the center digit (of the digits to the right of the colon).\n\nIn a square root calculation the quotient digit set increases incrementally for each step.\n\nSection::::Vedic duplex method for extracting a square root.:Example.\n\nConsider the perfect square 2809 = 53. Use the duplex method to find the square root of 2,809.\n\nBULLET::::- Set down the number in groups of two digits.\n\nBULLET::::- Define a divisor, a dividend and a quotient to find the root.\n", "This method was developed around 1950 by M. V. Wilkes, D. J. Wheeler and S. Gill for use on EDSAC, one of the first electronic computers. The method was later generalized, allowing the computation of non-square roots.\n\nSection::::Iterative methods for reciprocal square roots.\n", "The denominator in the fraction corresponds to the \"n\"th root. In the case above the denominator is 2, hence the equation specifies that the square root is to be found. The same identity is used when computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide rules.\n\nSection::::Vedic duplex method for extracting a square root.\n", "The most common iterative method of square root calculation by hand is known as the \"Babylonian method\" or \"Heron's method\" after the first-century Greek philosopher Heron of Alexandria, who first described it.\n\nThe method uses the same iterative scheme as the Newton–Raphson method yields when applied to the function y = \"f\"(\"x\") = \"x\" − \"a\", using the fact that its slope at any point is \"dy\"/\"dx\" = \"\"(\"x\") = 2\"x\", but predates it by many centuries.\n", "Let \"x\" = \"N\" be an integer which is the nearest perfect square to \"S\". Also, let the difference \"d\" = \"S\" - \"N\", then the first iteration can be written as:\n\nThis gives a rational approximation to the square root.\n\nSection::::Bakhshali method.:Example.\n\nUsing the same example as given in Babylonian method, let formula_67 Then, the first iterations gives\n\nLikewise the second iteration gives\n\nSection::::Digit-by-digit calculation.\n\nThis is a method to find each digit of the square root in a sequence. It is slower than the Babylonian method, but it has several advantages:\n", "Section::::Digit-by-digit calculation.:Decimal (base 10).\n\nWrite the original number in decimal form. The numbers are written similar to the long division algorithm, and, as in long division, the root will be written on the line above. Now separate the digits into pairs, starting from the decimal point and going both left and right. The decimal point of the root will be above the decimal point of the square. One digit of the root will appear above each pair of digits of the square.\n\nBeginning with the left-most pair of digits, do the following procedure for each pair:\n", "The solutions (the roots) of this equation are exactly determined by the quadratic formula:\n\nWhen one of these roots is very large compared to the other, that is, when the square root is close to the value \"b\", the evaluation of the root corresponding to subtraction of the two terms becomes very inaccurate due to round-off.\n\nIt is possible to determine the round-off error by using the Taylor series formula for the square root:\n\nConsequently, \n\nindicating that, as \"b\" becomes larger, the first surviving term, say ε:\n", "In other words, the square of a number is the square of its difference from one hundred added to the product of one hundred and the difference of one hundred and the product of two and the difference of one hundred and the number. For example, to square 93, we have:\n\nAnother way to look at it would be like this:\n\nAnother example:\n\nSection::::Methods and techniques.:Finding roots.\n\nSection::::Methods and techniques.:Finding roots.:Approximating square roots.\n\nAn easy way to approximate the square root of a number is to use the following equation:\n", "Section::::Vedic duplex method for extracting a square root.:Basic principle.\n\nWe proceed as with the digit-by-digit calculation by assuming that we want to express a number \"N\" as a square of the sum of \"n\" positive numbers as\n\nDefine divisor as formula_148 and the duplex for a sequence of \"m\" numbers as \n\nThus, we can re-express the above identity in terms of the divisor and the duplexes as \n\nNow the computation can proceed by recursively guessing the values of formula_82 so that\n", "The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650 BC of an earlier Berlin Papyrus and other textspossibly the Kahun Papyrusthat shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots by an inverse proportion method.\n", "BULLET::::4. If the remainder is zero and there are no more digits to bring down, then the algorithm has terminated. Otherwise go back to step 1 for another iteration.\n\nSection::::Computing principal roots.:Digit-by-digit calculation of principal roots of decimal (base 10) numbers.:Examples.\n\nFind the square root of 152.2756.\n\nFind the cube root of 4192 to the nearest hundredth.\n\nSection::::Computing principal roots.:Logarithmic calculation.\n", "For formula_12, the estimate is formula_13.\n\nWhen working in the binary numeral system (as computers do internally), by expressing formula_5 as formula_15 where formula_16, the square root formula_17 can be estimated as formula_18, since the geometric mean of the lowest and highest possible values is formula_19.\n\nFor formula_20 the binary approximation gives formula_21\n\nThese approximations are useful to find better seeds for iterative algorithms, which results in faster convergence.\n\nSection::::Babylonian method.\n", "This method for finding an approximation to a square root was described in an ancient Indian mathematical manuscript called the Bakhshali manuscript. It is equivalent to two iterations of the Babylonian method beginning with \"x\". Thus, the algorithm is quartically convergent, which means that the number of correct digits of the approximation roughly quadruples with each iteration. The original presentation, using modern notation, is as follows: To calculate formula_1, let \"x\" be the initial approximation to \"S\". Then, successively iterate as:\n\nWritten explicitly, it becomes \n", "Methods of computing square roots\n\nIn numerical analysis, a branch of mathematics, there are several square root algorithms or methods of computing the principal square root of a non-negative real number. For the square roots of a negative or complex number, see below.\n\nFinding formula_1 is the same as solving the equation formula_2 for a positive formula_3. Therefore, any general numerical root-finding algorithm can be used. Newton's method, for example, reduces in this case to the so-called Babylonian method:\n\nThese methods generally yield approximate results, but can be made arbitrarily precise by increasing the number of calculation steps.\n\nSection::::Rough estimation.\n", "BULLET::::- Given 2809. Consider the first group, 28.\n\nBULLET::::- Find the nearest perfect square below that group.\n\nBULLET::::- The root of that perfect square is the first digit of our root.\n\nBULLET::::- Since 28 25 and 25 = 5, take 5 as the first digit in the square root.\n\nBULLET::::- For the divisor take double this first digit (2 · 5), which is 10.\n\nBULLET::::- Next, set up a division framework with a colon.\n", "In 1977, at Southern Methodist University, she gave the 23rd root of a 201-digit number in 50 seconds. Her answer—546,372,891—was confirmed by calculations done at the US Bureau of Standards by the UNIVAC 1101 computer, for which a special program had to be written to perform such a large calculation.\n", "For avoiding these problems, methods have been elaborated, which compute all roots simultaneously, to any desired accuracy. Presently the most efficient method is Aberth method. A free implementation is available under the name of MPSolve. This is a reference implementation, which can find routinely the roots of polynomials of degree larger than 1,000, with more than 1,000 significant decimal digits.\n", "With this in mind, HP built the HP 9100 desktop scientific calculator. This was a full-featured calculator that included not only standard \"adding machine\" functions but also powerful capabilities to handle floating-point numbers, trigonometric functions, logarithms, exponentiation, and square roots.\n", "such that formula_84 for all formula_154, with initialization formula_155 When formula_156 the algorithm terminates and the sum of formula_78s give the square root. The method is more similar to long division where formula_98 is the dividend and formula_159 is the remainder.\n\nFor the case of decimal numbers, if \n", "added counters from the number in the margin until the number is either too large to be subtracted or there is no \n\nspace left on the board. You should be left with a large square of counters (perhaps with blank rows and columns \n\nbetween them) on the board.\n\nMove one of the counters in each row of the square to the margin and the positions of these marginal counters \n\nwill yield the square root of the number.\n\nNapier provides an example of determining the square root of 1238.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01005	Why does black text on printer paper fade into red and green?	When wet? - A water droplet (or moisture) can absorb the ink in the paper. It then soaks into the paper (through capillary action) and as it travels the heavier larger in colors absorbed in the water get left behind and the smaller ink molecules make it further down the paper filter. This is called paper chromatography. Each color mixed into the black ink is a different size molecule. When in sunlight - On an office inkjet printer, black ink is made by combining a bunch of colors together. Certain colors require absorbing more energy from a photon - who h leads to them breaking down first. The remaining colors are what you might see.	[ "Most printers overlap the black dots slightly so there is not an exact one-to-one relationship to dot frequency (in dots per unit area) and lightness. Tone scale linearization may be applied to the source image to get the printed image to look correct.\n\nSection::::Algorithm description.:Edge enhancement versus lightness preservation.\n\nWhen an image has a transition from light to dark the error diffusion algorithm tends to \n\nmake the next generated pixel be black. Dark to light transitions tend to result in the next\n\ngenerated pixel being white. This causes an edge enhancement effect at the expense of gray level\n", "With current ink technology, the total CMYK ink in the shadows refuses to stick after it reaches the dark shadows (usually above a 250% total CMYK coverage), and begins to peel off. To prevent this, printers developed UCR, in which neutral shadows – which would have normally been produced by overprinting the four inks \"Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black\" on top of each other (high ink coverage) – are replaced with the single layer of \"Black\". UCR removes the color inks \"under\" the Black, resulting in a single layer of ink which sticks to the sheet better, and saves on the consumption of ink.\n", "Color bleeding (printing)\n\nIn printing and graphic arts, mixing of two dissimilar colors in two adjacent printed dots before they dry and absorb in substrate is referred to as color bleeding. Unless it is done for effect, color bleeding reduces print quality.\n\nPrior art applied this term to the phenomenon of single color ink following the fibers of the paper.\n", "BULLET::::- Dithered patterns, notably a finely dithered background “COPY ALERT” message, which on original is largely indistinguishable from the rest of the background (due to having same overall density), but when copied becomes visible, due to either the scanner or the printer not being able to reproduce the required resolution (effectively a high frequency signal that is smeared out by copying).\n\nBULLET::::- Thermochromatic ink that fade when rubbed.\n\nBULLET::::- Microprinting\n\nBULLET::::- Phosphorescent fibres in the paper that can only be seen in UV-light, or fibres visible in daylight.\n\nBULLET::::- Metallised threads.\n", "The Portable document format (PDF) also includes a spot color called All, with the same restrictions, starting with PDF 1.2. Note that a PDF spot color must also include a \"tint transform\" which translates spot values into a different color space for viewing on screen, or printing to printers without spot color support. There is no special rule for the name \"All\", so PDF creators must include a tint transform that converts to black in some color space, in order to maintain the same appearance as the final printed piece.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Printing registration\n\nBULLET::::- Rich black\n", "There is no universal rule for UCR. The amount required will depend on the printing press, paper, and ink in use. \n", "The subtractive color concept is also used in offset or digital print and is present in bitmap or vectorial software in CMYK or other color spaces.\n\nSection::::Registration.\n", "Dot gain\n\nDot gain, or tonal value increase, is a phenomenon in offset lithography and some other forms of printing which causes printed material to look darker than intended. It is caused by halftone dots growing in area between the original printing film and the final printed result. In practice, this means that an image that has not been adjusted to account for dot gain will appear too dark when it is printed. Dot gain calculations are often an important part of a CMYK color model.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "For some inkjet printers, monochrome ink sets are available either from the printer manufacturer or from third-party suppliers. These allow the inkjet printer to compete with the silver-based photographic papers traditionally used in black-and-white photography, and provide the same range of tones: neutral, \"warm\" or \"cold\". When switching between full-color and monochrome ink sets, it is necessary to flush out the old ink from the print head with a cleaning cartridge. Special software or at least a modified device driver are usually required, to deal with the different color mapping.\n", "Section::::Invisible ink types.:Inks which alter the surface of paper.\n\nThis includes virtually all invisible inks, but pure distilled water can also be used in this way. Application of any fluid will alter the paper surface fibers or sizing.\n\nFumes created from heating iodine crystals will develop the writing, which will appear brown because the iodine sticks preferentially to the altered areas of the paper. Exposing the paper to strong sunlight will return the writing to its invisible state, as will using a bleach solution.\n", "For a given size and resolution specification the PenTile screen can appear grainy, pixelated, speckled, with blurred text on some saturated colors and backgrounds when compared to RGB stripe color. This effect is understood to be caused by the restriction of the number of subpixels that may participate in the image reconstruction when colors are highly saturated to primaries. In the RGBW case, this is caused as the W subpixel will not be available in order to maintain the saturated color. In the RGBG case, this effect will occur when the color boundary is primarily red or blue, as the fully populated (one green per pixel) sub-pixel cannot contribute. For all other cases, text and especially full color images are effectively reconstructed. \n", "Variants of TIFF can be used within document imaging and content/document management systems using CCITT Group IV 2D compression which supports black-and-white (bitonal, monochrome) images, among other compression technologies that support color. When storage capacity and network bandwidth was a greater issue than commonly seen in today's server environments, high-volume storage scanning, documents were scanned in black and white (not in color or in grayscale) to conserve storage capacity.\n", "Standard office paper has traditionally been designed for use with typewriters and copy machines, where the paper usually does not get wet. With these papers, moisture tends to wick through the fibers and away from the point of contact. For inkjet printing, this dulls edges of lines and graphic boundaries, and lessens pigment intensity.\n", "As an example, suppose one wants to print an area at 50% reflectance, assuming no ink is 100% reflective and saturated black ink is 0% (which of course they aren't). The 50% could be approximated using digital halftoning by applying a dot of ink at every other dot target area, and staggering the lines in a brick-like fashion. In a perfect world, this would cover exactly half of the page with ink and make the page appear to have 50% reflectivity. However, because the ink will bleed into its neighboring target locations, greater than 50% of the page will be dark. To compensate for this darkening, a TRC is applied and the digital image's reflectance value is reduced to something less than 50% dot coverage. When digital halftoning is performed, we will no longer have the uniform on-off-on-off pattern, but we will have another pattern that will target less than 50% of the area with ink. If the correct TRC was chosen, the area will have an average 50% reflectance after the ink has bled.\n", "The ghosting effects of the now-obsolete green screens have become an eye-catching visual shorthand for computer-generated text, frequently in \"futuristic\" settings. The opening titles of the first \"Ghost in the Shell\" film and the Matrix source code of the Matrix trilogy science fiction films prominently feature computer displays with ghosting green text. Green text is also featured in 's computer in \"Lost\" series.\n\nSection::::Phosphor limitations.\n\nMonochrome monitors are particularly susceptible to screen burn (hence the advent, and name, of the screensaver), because the phosphors used are of very high intensity.\n", "In this example, the image has been split into two component images. Each component image has a \"pair\" of pixels for every pixel in the original image. These pixel pairs are shaded black or white according to the following rule: if the original image pixel was black, the pixel pairs in the component images must be complementary; randomly shade one ■□, and the other □■. When these complementary pairs are overlapped, they will appear dark gray. On the other hand, if the original image pixel was white, the pixel pairs in the component images must match: both ■□ or both □■. When these matching pairs are overlapped, they will appear light gray.\n", "Chemical: a modern textile printing method, commonly achieved using two different classes of fiber reactive dyes, one of which must be of the vinyl sulfone type. A chemical-resisting agent is combined with dye Type A, and printed using the screenprint method and allowed to dry. A second dye, Type B, is then printed overtop. The resist agent in Type A chemically prevents Type B from reacting with the fabric, resulting in a crisp pattern/ground relationship.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "UCR is generally not recommended for use in printing, due to its tendency to produce dull-looking images and artwork. (The problem of \"looking dull\" can often be obviated on coated paper by use of an aqueous coating or UV coating applied on the press or as post-press. A press-applied coating can also eliminate the \"ink sticking\" problem.) The main exception to this rule is that where working in newsprint, UCR is the best way to avoid the associated ink limit and registration issues. UCR is also recommended for some specific paper stocks, depending on the coloration and texture of the paper.\n", "Another limit is that a shadow of an image may be visible after refreshing parts of the screen. Such shadows are termed \"ghost images\", and the effect is termed \"ghosting\". This effect is reminiscent of screen burn-in but, unlike screen burn-in, is solved after the screen is refreshed several times. Turning every pixel white, then black, then white, helps normalize the contrast of the pixels. This is why several devices with this technology \"flash\" the entire screen white and black when loading a new image.\n", "Black ink is the most common color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, as it provides the highest contrast with white paper and thus the easiest color to read. Similarly, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens. \n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "The exception to this rule is dye-sublimation printers, which can apply a much more variable amount of dye—close to or exceeding the number of the 256 levels per channel available on a typical monitor—to each \"pixel\" on the page without dithering, but with other limitations:\n\nBULLET::::- lower spatial resolution (typically 200 to 300 dpi), which can make text and lines look somewhat rough\n\nBULLET::::- lower output speed (a single page requiring three or four complete passes, one for each dye color, each of which may take more than fifteen seconds—generally quicker, however, than most inkjet printers' \"photo\" modes)\n", "BULLET::::2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates the original document, and the white areas of the original document reflect the light onto the surface of the photoconductive drum. The areas of the drum that are exposed to light become conductive and therefore discharge to the ground. The area of the drum not exposed to light (those areas that correspond to black portions of the original document) remains negatively charged.\n", "When mixing the printing inks the lightfastness of the ink being weaker by its lightfastness defines the lightfastness of the whole color. The fading of one of the pigments leads to tone shift towards to component with better lightfastness. If it is required that there will be something visible from the printing even though its dominant pigment would fade, small amount of pigment with excellent lightfastness can be mixed with it.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Wool Scale – a measure of dye permanence\n\nBULLET::::- Color fastness – resistance to fading of textile colors\n", "Fluorescent dyes react with fluorescence under ultraviolet light or other unusual lighting. These show up as words, patterns or pictures and may be visible or invisible under normal lighting. This feature is also incorporated into many banknotes and other documents - e.g. Northern Ireland NHS prescriptions show a picture of local '8th wonder' the Giant's Causeway in UV light. Some producers include multi-frequency fluorescence, such that different elements fluoresce under specific frequencies of light. Phosphorescence may accompany fluorescence and shows an after-glow when the UV light is switched off.\n\nSection::::Registration of features on both sides.\n", "Section::::Reverse and partial line feeds.\n\n, (U+008D REVERSE LINE FEED, ISO/IEC 6429 8D, decimal 141) is used to move the printing position back one line (by reverse feeding the paper, or by moving a display cursor up one line) so that other characters may be printed over existing text. This may be done to make them bolder, or to add underlines, strike-throughs or other characters such as diacritics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-24519	Why does British words have ‘u’ in it like colours, flavour, etc while American English don’t?	The British-English language has always been that way. When the Americans declared independence they wanted to distance themselves from British rule and so decided that simplifying the English language was a good way to go about it, making many words spelt how they sounded rather than the standard of spelling already in place by the British.	[ "American usage, in most cases, keeps the \"u\" in the word \"glamour\", which comes from Scots, not Latin or French. ' is sometimes used in imitation of the spelling reform of other \"-our\" words to \"-or\". Nevertheless, the adjective \"glamorous\" often drops the first \"u\". ' is a somewhat common variant of ' in the US. The British spelling is very common for ' (and \"\") in the formal language of wedding invitations in the US. The name of the has a \"u\" in it as the spacecraft was named after Captain James Cook's ship, . The special car on Amtrak's \"Coast Starlight\" train is known as the Pacific Parlour car, not \"Pacific Parlor\". Proper names such as \"Pearl Harbor\" or \"Sydney Harbour\" are usually spelled according to their native-variety spelling vocabulary.\n", "Words ending in unstressed \"-ile\" derived from Latin adjectives ending \"-ilis\" are mostly pronounced with a full vowel in BrE but a reduced vowel or syllabic L in AmE (e.g. \"fertile\" rhymes with \"fur tile\" in BrE but with \"furtle\" in AmE).\n\nAmE will (unlike BrE, except when indicated with) have a reduced last vowel:\n\nBULLET::::- generally in \"facile\", \"(in)fertile\", \"fissile\", \"fragile\", \"missile\", \"stabile\" (adjective), \"sterile\", \"tensile\", \"versatile\", \"virile\", \"volatile\"\n\nBULLET::::- usually in \"agile\", \"decile\", \"ductile\", \"futile\", \"hostile\", \"juvenile\", \"(im)mobile\" (adjective & phone), \"puerile\", \"tactile\"\n\nBULLET::::- rarely in \"domicile\", \"erectile\", \"infantile\", \"nubile\", \"pensile\", \"percentile\", \"projectile\", \"reptile\", \"senile\", \"servile\", \"textile\", \"utile\"\n", "BULLET::::- Some British English words come from French roots, while American English finds its words from other places, e.g. AmE \"eggplant\" and \"zucchini\" are \"aubergine\" and \"courgette\" in BrE.\n", "American English is different from British English in terms of spelling (one example being the dropped \"u\" in words such as color/colour), grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and slang usage. The differences are not usually a barrier to effective communication between an American English and a British English speaker.\n", "U and non-U English usage, with \"U\" standing for \"upper class\", and \"non-U\" representing the aspiring middle classes, was part of the terminology of popular discourse of social dialects (sociolects) in Britain in the 1950s. The different vocabularies can often appear quite counter-intuitive: the middle classes prefer \"fancy\" or fashionable words, even neologisms and often euphemisms, in attempts to make themselves sound more refined (\"posher than posh\"), while the upper classes in many cases stick to the same plain and traditional words that the working classes also use, as, confident in the security of their social position, they have no need to seek to display refinement.\n", "BULLET::::- Generally AmE has a tendency to drop inflectional suffixes, thus preferring clipped forms: compare \"cookbook\" v. \"cookery book\"; \"Smith, age 40\" v. \"Smith, aged 40\"; \"skim milk\" v. \"skimmed milk\"; \"dollhouse\" v. \"dolls' house\"; \"barber shop\" v. \"barber's shop\".\n", "BULLET::::- Similarly, American English has occasionally replaced more traditional English words with their Spanish counterparts. This is especially common in regions historically affected by Spanish settlement (such as the American Southwest and Florida) as well as other areas that have since experienced strong Hispanic migration (such as urban centers). Examples of these include grocery markets' preference in the U.S. for Spanish names such as cilantro and manzanilla over coriander and camomile respectively.\n\nSection::::Vocabulary.\n", "Section::::Latin-derived spellings (often through Romance).:\"-our\", \"-or\".:Derivatives and inflected forms.\n\nIn derivatives and inflected forms of the \"-our/or\" words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used. The \"u\" is kept before English suffixes that are freely attachable to English words (for example in ) and suffixes of Greek or Latin origin that have been adopted into English (for example in ). However, before Latin suffixes that are not freely attachable to English words, the \"u\":\n\nBULLET::::- may be dropped, for example in \"honorary\", \"honorific\", \"humorist\", \"vigorous\", \"humorous\", \"laborious\", and \"invigorate\";\n", "Similarly, in AmE the word \"pants\" is the common word for the BrE \"trousers\" and \"knickers\" refers to a variety of half-length trousers (though most AmE users would use the term \"shorts\" rather than knickers), while the majority of BrE speakers would understand \"pants\" to mean \"underpants\" and \"knickers\" to mean \"female underpants\".\n", "As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as \"centre\" and \"colour\"; on the other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like \"center\" and the Latinate \"color\". The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that exists today. However, these differences are extremely minor. Spelling is but a small part of the differences between dialects of English, and may not even reflect dialect differences at all (except in phonetically spelled dialogue). International English refers to much more than an agreed spelling pattern.\n", "BULLET::::- may be either dropped or kept, for example in \"colo(u)ration\" and \"colo(u)rize \"or\" colourise\"; or\n\nBULLET::::- may be kept, for example in \"\".\n\nIn American usage, derivatives and inflected forms are built by simply adding the suffix in all cases (for example, ', ' etc.) since the \"u\" is absent to begin with.\n\nSection::::Latin-derived spellings (often through Romance).:\"-our\", \"-or\".:Exceptions.\n", "Section::::Latin-derived spellings (often through Romance).:\"-re\", \"-er\".\n\nIn British English, some words from French, Latin or Greek end with a consonant followed by an unstressed \"-re\" (pronounced ). In American English, most of these words have the ending \"-er\". The difference is most common for words ending \"-bre\" or \"-tre\": British spellings all have \"-er\" in American spelling.\n", "Section::::Latin-derived spellings (often through Romance).\n\nSection::::Latin-derived spellings (often through Romance).:\"-our\", \"-or\".\n\nMost words ending in an unstressed \"-our\" in British English (e.g., ) end in \"-or\" in American English (). Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation, e.g., \"contour\", \"velour\", \"paramour\" and \"troubadour\" the spelling is consistent everywhere.\n", "The familiarity of speakers with words and phrases from different regions varies, and the difficulty of discerning an unfamiliar definition also depends on the context and the term. As expressions spread with the globalization of telecommunication, they are often but not always recognized as foreign to the speaker's dialect, and words from other dialects may carry connotations (deserved or not) with regard to register, social status, origin, and intelligence.\n\nSection::::Vocabulary.:Words and phrases with different meanings.\n", "American and British English spelling differences\n\nMany of the differences between American and British English date back to a time when spelling standards had not yet developed. For instance, some spellings seen as \"American\" today were once commonly used in Britain and some spellings seen as \"British\" were once commonly used in the United States. A \"British standard\" began to emerge following the 1755 publication of Samuel Johnson's \"A Dictionary of the English Language\", and an \"American standard\" started following the work of Noah Webster and in particular his \"An American Dictionary of the English Language\", first published in 1828.\n", "Similarly, the word \"hockey\" in BrE refers to field hockey and in AmE, \"hockey\" means ice hockey.\n\nWords with completely different meanings are relatively few; most of the time there are either (1) words with one or more shared meanings and one or more meanings unique to one variety (for example, bathroom and toilet) or (2) words the meanings of which are actually common to both BrE and AmE but that show differences in frequency, connotation or denotation (for example, \"smart\", \"clever\", \"mad\").\n", "Although spoken American and British English are generally mutually intelligible, there are occasional differences which might cause embarrassment—for example, in American English a \"rubber\" is usually interpreted as a \"condom\" rather than an \"eraser\"; and a British \"fanny\" refers to the female pubic area, while the American \"fanny\" refers to an \"ass\" (US) or an \"arse\" (UK).\n\nSection::::Word derivation and compounds.\n", "BrE , AmE (1) : \"carbine\", \"Florentine\", \"internecine\", \"philistine\", \"pristine\", \"saline\", \"serpentine\".\n\nBrE , AmE (1) (2) : \"adamantine\".\n\nBrE , AmE : \"uterine\".\n\nBrE , AmE (1) (2) (3) : \"crystalline\", \"labyrinthine\".\n\nBrE (1) , AmE (1) (2) : \"strychnine\".\n\nSection::::Affixes.:Effects of the weak vowel merger.\n", "Some differences in usage and/or meaning can cause confusion or embarrassment. For example, the word \"fanny\" is a slang word for vulva in BrE but means buttocks in AmE—the AmE phrase \"fanny pack\" is \"bum bag\" in BrE. In AmE the word \"pissed\" means being annoyed whereas in BrE it is a coarse word for being drunk (in both varieties, \"pissed off\" means irritated).\n", "Speakers of BrE are likely to understand most common AmE terms, examples such as \"sidewalk (pavement)\", \"gas (gasoline/petrol)\", \"counterclockwise (anticlockwise)\" or \"elevator (lift)\", without any problem, thanks in part to considerable exposure to American popular culture and literature. Certain terms that are heard less frequently, especially those likely to be absent or rare in American popular culture, e.g., \"copacetic (satisfactory)\", are unlikely to be understood by most BrE speakers.\n\nOther examples:\n", "Section::::Greek-derived spellings (often through Latin and Romance).\n\nSection::::Greek-derived spellings (often through Latin and Romance).:\"-ise\", \"-ize\" (\"-isation\", \"-ization\").\n\nSection::::Greek-derived spellings (often through Latin and Romance).:\"-ise\", \"-ize\" (\"-isation\", \"-ization\").:Origin and recommendations.\n", "Many words, especially medical words, that are written with \"ae/æ\" or \"oe/œ\" in British English are written with just an \"e\" in American English. The sounds in question are or (or, unstressed, , or ). Examples (with non-American letter in bold): \"aeon\", \"anaemia\", \"anaesthesia\", \"caecum\", \"caesium\", \"coeliac\", \"diarrhoea\", \"encyclopaedia\", \"faeces\", \"foetal\", \"gynaecology\", \"haemoglobin\", \"haemophilia\", \"leukaemia\", \"oesophagus\", \"oestrogen\", \"orthopaedic\", \"palaeontology\", \"paediatric\", \"paedophile\". \"Oenology\" is acceptable in American English but is deemed a minor variant of \"enology\", whereas although \"archeology\" and \"ameba\" exist in American English, the British versions \"archaeology\" and \"amoeba\" are more common. The chemical \"haem\" (named as a shortening of \"haemoglobin\") is spelled \"heme\" in American English, to avoid confusion with \"hem\".\n", "BULLET::::- A significant number of words (the group) have in General American, but in RP. The pronunciation varies between and in Australia, with speakers from South Australia using more extensively than speakers from other regions.\n", "The word armour was once somewhat common in American usage but has disappeared except in some brand names such as Under Armour.\n\nThe numbers \"four\" and \"fourteen\", when written as words, always keep the \"u\", while \"forty\" always drops it.\n\nSection::::Latin-derived spellings (often through Romance).:\"-our\", \"-or\".:Commonwealth usage.\n", "Webster's 1828 dictionary had only \"-or\" and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. By contrast, Johnson's 1755 (pre-U.S. independence and establishment) dictionary used \"-our\" for all words still so spelled in Britain (like \"colour\"), but also for words where the \"u\" has since been dropped: \"ambassadour\", \"emperour\", \"governour\", \"perturbatour\", \"inferiour\", \"superiour\"; \"errour\", \"horrour\", \"mirrour\", \"tenour\", \"terrour\", \"tremour\". Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform, but chose the spelling best derived, as he saw it, from among the variations in his sources. He preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, \"the French generally supplied us\". English speakers who moved to America took these preferences with them, and H. L. Mencken notes that \"' appears in the 1776 Declaration of Independence, but it seems to have got there rather by accident than by design. In Jefferson's original draft it is spelled \"honour\". In Britain, examples of rarely appear in Old Bailey court records from the 17th and 18th centuries, whereas there are thousands of examples of their \"-our\" counterparts. One notable exception is '. ' and ' were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century; \"honor\" still is, in the UK, the usual spelling as a person's name and appears in \"Honor Oak\", a district of London.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02830	how do radio stations know how many people are listening in on them?	Same way it works for broadcast TV. A small number of people are chosen to be the statistical sample and those people are given special receivers to record their listening habits.	[ "The numbers can show who is listening to a particular station, the most popular times of day for listeners in that group, and the percentage of the total listening audience that can be reached with a particular schedule of advertisements. The numbers also show exactly how many people are listening at each hour of the day. This allows an advertiser to select the strongest stations in the market with specificity and tells them what times of day will be the best times to run their ads.\n", "During the 1980s, the Arbitron Company was developing the \"Portable People Meter\", or \"PPM\", technology to replace its self-administered, seven-day radio diary method to collect radio listening data from Arbitron survey participants. The radio diary had been the most generally accepted method of measuring radio listening since 1964. Rantel became an early evangelist for the new PPM method, because Rantel researchers had performed many audits of Arbitron radio diaries during its early years and were keenly aware of the weaknesses of the seven-day radio diary method.\n", "A common contest practice is for a multi-multi station to contact a rare station and then ask that station to change to another frequency band to contact the other multi-multi operator on that new, different band. For example, XW1UD is contacted on the 20 meter band by TT5XYZ. TT5XYZ then asks XW1UD to change to a different band (15 meters) and frequency and there contact the other operator of TT5XYZ on the 15 meter band. In contests with repeat contacts on different bands counting, scores can be raised significantly by \"leap froging\" a rare station into the log of TT5XYZ on two or more bands from the direction given from the initial contact. This practice is not disallowed by most contest rules.\n", "In 2005, ACNielsen initiated their MVP (Media Voice Panel) program. Panel members carry an electronic monitor that detects the digital station and program identification codes hidden within the TV and radio broadcasts they are exposed to. At night, members place the monitor in a cradle that sends the collected data through the home's electrical wiring to a relay device that transmits it by phone, making it one of the first practical uses of electrical wiring as a home network. With an approximately one week notice to members, the MVP program ended on March 17, 2008.\n", "Besides the basic numbers, most radio stations have access to other data, such as Scarborough Research, that details more about the listening audience than just what age group they fall into. For example, some data will provide the types of activities listeners participate in, their ethnicity, what type of employment they do, their income levels, what kinds of cars they drive, and even whether or not they have been to a particular entertainment venue.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Thus, advertising rates will vary depending on time of year, time of day, how well the station does in the particular demographic an advertiser is trying to reach, how well a station does compared to other stations, and demand on station inventory. The busier the time of year for the station, the more an advertiser can expect to spend. And, the higher ranked a station is in the market, according to the ratings data, the more an advertiser can expect to get charged to run on that station.\n", "Section::::Current Channels.:Metro Info (FM 99.7).:Hit awards.\n", "Tallies of the number of requests (for specific items) are frequently kept as that is an indicator of what is popular or a set period of time. Many radio stations have published weekly surveys and based entire components of their programming on the statistics of the requests they receive. Since 2012, \"Billboard\" magazine has kept track of On-Demand Songs as one of three components of the \"Billboard\" Hot 100.\n", "Most serious competitive stations log their contest contacts using contest logging software, although some continue to use paper and pencil. There are many different software logging programs written specifically for radio contesting. Computer logging programs can handle many additional duties besides simply recording the log data; they can keep a running score based upon the formula of the contest, track which available multipliers have been \"worked\" and which have not, and provide the operator with visual clues about how many contacts are being made on which bands. Some contest software even provide a means to control the station equipment via computer, retrieve data from the radio and send pre-recorded Morse code, voice or digital messages. After the conclusion of a contest, each station must submit its operational log to the contest sponsor. Many sponsors accept logs by e-mail, by upload on web sites, or even by postal mail.\n", "Contacts between stations in a contest are often brief. A typical exchange between two stations on voice — in this case between a station in England and one in New Zealand in the CQ World Wide DX Contest — might proceed as follows:\n", "1996 in radio\n\nThe year 1996 in radio involved some significant events.\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- President Clinton signed the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which greatly increased the number of stations one could own per market, into law.\n", "Section::::Notable promotions and competitions.:Elope to Las Vegas.\n\nThis competition was run in August 2000 and August 2011. A couple already intending on getting married was given the opportunity to have a secret wedding in Las Vegas. Various couples entered and the listeners chose the couple they wanted to see married, names were changed and voices disguised so no one had any idea who was getting married. After the wedding the winning couple had to then call the family and inform them they are in Vegas and have just been married.\n\nSection::::Notable promotions and competitions.:Bank It, Or Burn It.\n", "Police, fire, and military communications on the VHF bands are also DX'ed to some extent on multi-band radio scanners, though they are mainly listened to strictly on a local basis. One difficulty is in identifying the exact origins of communications of this nature, as opposed to commercial broadcasters which must identify themselves at the top of each hour, and can often be identified through mentions of sponsors, slogans, etc. throughout their programming.\n\nSection::::Types of DXing.:Amateur radio DX.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nChildren's Broadcasting Corp. was founded by Christopher Dahl in 1990 with the idea for a children's radio network, Radio AAHS. That year a company of Dahl's purchased WWTC 1280 AM in Minneapolis. Dahl ran the Radio AAHS format on that station as a test run for two years. With Arbitron not tracking kids under 12, Dahl had commissioned such a survey from Arbitron to determine its weekly listeners in 1993, which the survey indicated 90,000.\n", "BULLET::::- List of radio stations in Alabama\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Arkansas\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in California\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Colorado\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Connecticut\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Delaware\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Florida\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Georgia (U.S. state)\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Hawaii\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Idaho\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- List of radio stations in Indiana\n", "Section::::On Air.\n", "BULLET::::- 2002 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Best Major Market Newscast\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Editorial or Commentary\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Best Major Market Newscast\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Best Major Market Newscast\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Editorial or Commentary\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Specialty Reporting\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Best Major Market Newscast\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 Press Club of Dallas Katie award for Best Major Documentary\n", "BULLET::::- EON (enhanced other networks information): Informs the receiver about other networks or stations, linked to the one being listened to, for dynamically changing data such as the TA flag turning on for a particular station of the network in a particular moment due to a traffic programme being broadcast, and automatically and temporarily allows the radio to tune into that station.\n", "In 2008, Punk Radio Cast introduced adPanel, a new proprietary technology which improved and simplified the process of measuring how many webcast listeners had been exposed to an advertisement on the service.\n\nSection::::PRC Compilation CD.\n", "Until the development of portable people meters, Arbitron (Nielsen's predecessor in the radio measurement business) did not have the capability to measure individual airings of a program the way Nielsen Ratings can for television, and as such, it only measures in three-month moving averages each month. Portable people meters are currently only available in the largest markets Arbitron serves. Thus, it is impossible under current survey techniques to determine the listenership of an individual event such as the Super Bowl.\n", "1986 saw the creation of an audience measurement mechanism for the radio based on a telephone survey in mainland France. Back then, it was called the “55,000” in reference to the size of the sample interviewed in one year (excluding the summer).\n\nIn the 1990s, the “55,000” became the “75,000 +”, before evolving into the “126,000” in 2005, as the sample size was expanded. For each year in radio between September and June, there are four waves of results covering 126,000 people. These individuals are asked about their listening habits in a landline or mobile telephone interview.\n\nSection::::History.:Internet.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Portable People Meter.\n\nResponding to requests from its customers — radio broadcasters, ad agencies and advertisers — that expressed their interest in the collection of more accurate ratings data, Arbitron introduced the Portable People Meter (PPM) service in 2007.\n", "BULLET::::- FMLIST is a non-commercial worldwide database of FM stations, including a bandscan and logbook tool (FMINFO/myFM)\n\nBULLET::::- Mixture.fr AM/FM/DAB database for France\n\nBULLET::::- MeteorComm Meteor Burst Technology used for Data Communication\n\nBULLET::::- FMSCAN reception prediction of FM, TV, MW, SW stations (also use the expert options for better results)\n\nBULLET::::- Herman Wijnants' FMDX pages\n\nBULLET::::- TV/FM Skip Log\n\nBULLET::::- qth.net Mailing Lists for Radio, Television, Amateur and other related information for Enthusiasts.\n\nBULLET::::- VHF DXing – From Fort Walton Beach, Florida\n\nBULLET::::- Radio-info.com DX and Reception\n\nBULLET::::- FM DX RDS LogBook Software\n", "Peter Kerridge, the first Station Director, is now Chief Executive of Christian radio station Premier. On Peter's departure from ten 17, Russ Lewell, one of the original founders and presenter became Station Director. \n\nSection::::History.:1993 to 1999 - The Essex Radio Group.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09698	How does crude oil price affect the world economy so much?	It is one of the primary sources of energy for humans. It is part of the cost of manufacturing and transporting just about everything, so the price of oil affects the cost to manufacture and transport things.	[ "The tight oil (shale oil) boom in the USA starting in the early 2000s through 2010s (as well as increased production capacity in many other countries) greatly limited OPEC's ability to control oil prices. Consequently, due to a drastic fall in Nymex crude oil price to as low as $35.35 dollars per barrel in 2015, many oil-exporting countries have had severe problems in balancing their budget.\n\nBy 2016, many oil exporting countries had been adversely affected by low oil prices including Russia, Saudi Arabia, Azerbaijan, Venezuela and Nigeria.\n\nSection::::Currencies used to trade oil.:Venezuela.\n", "China’s slowing economy led to many other economies slowing or falling into recession, and the end of QE in the United States also contributes. Many developing nations heavily borrowed in foreign currencies, which has fueled worries over a balance of payments crisis or debt defaults.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Geopolitical rivalries.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Cuba.\n\nImmediately after the death of Hugo Chavez, Castro sought a new benefactor as the oil that was shipped from Venezuela to Cuba began to slow. With Cuba needing new support, relations between the United States and Cuba began to be reestablished in 2014 during United States–Cuban Thaw.\n", "It has also been argued that the collapse in oil prices in 2015 should be very beneficial for developed western economies, who are generally oil importers and aren't over exposed to declining demand from China. In the Asia-Pacific region, exports and economic growth were at significant risk across economies reliant on commodity exports as an engine of growth. The most vulnerable economies were those with a high dependence on fuel and mineral exports to China, such as: Korea DPR, Mongolia and Turkmenistan – where primary commodity exports account for 59–99% of total exports and more than 50% of total exports are destined to China. The decline in China’s demand for commodities also adversely affected the growth of exports and GDP of large commodity-exporting economies such as Australia (minerals) and the Russian Federation (fuel). On the other hand, lower commodity prices led to an improvement in the trade balance – through lower the cost of raw materials and fuels – across commodity importing economies, particularly Cambodia, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal and other remote island nations (Kiribati, Maldives, Micronesia (F.S), Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu) which are highly dependent on fuel and agricultural imports \n", "At the 5th annual World Pensions Forum in 2015, Jeffrey Sachs advised institutional investors to divest from carbon-reliant oil industry firms in their pension fund's portfolio.\n\nSection::::Hedging as risk management.:2015–16 prices: The lows of January 2016.\n", "The oil importing economies like EU, Japan, China or India would benefit, however the oil producing countries would lose. A Bloomberg article presents results of an analysis by Oxford Economics on the GDP growth of countries as a result of a drop from $84 to $40. It shows the GDP increase between 0.5% to 1.0% for India, USA and China, and a decline of greater than 3.5% from Saudi Arabia and Russia. A stable price of $60 would add 0.5 percentage point to global gross domestic product.\n", "An article in \"The Economist\" said that rising oil prices have a negative impact on oil-importing countries in terms of international trade. Import prices rise in relation to their exports. The importing country’s current account deficits widen because \"their exports pay for fewer imports\".\n\nAs of January 10, 2019, the price of the OPEC Reference Basket (ORB) of 14 crudes was $59.48 a barrel.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2007–2008 world food price crisis\n\nBULLET::::- Asymmetric price transmission\n\nBULLET::::- World oil market chronology from 2003\n\nBULLET::::- Chronology of world oil market events (1970–2005)\n\nBULLET::::- Cost competitiveness of fuel sources\n", "In May 2013 the International Energy Agency in its \"Medium-Term Oil Market Report\" (MTOMR) said that the North American oil production surge led by unconventional oils - US light tight oil (LTO) and Canadian oil sands - had produced a global supply shock that would reshape the way oil is transported, stored, refined and marketed.\n\nSection::::Inventory and examples.\n", "BULLET::::- Demand for hydrocarbons keeps on growing, reaching new historic highs. Whereas dependence on imports maintains in many key consuming regions;\n\nBULLET::::- Global economic growth shows an upward path, however some slowdown can be seen in certain countries (For information: the global largest economies experience an upward trend of the GDP, exceptions are Russia and Brazil. The growth of GDP in the PRC has been exceeding 7% for already 24 years. This is an unparalleled achievement. Moreover, some decrease in the growth of GDP in the PRC does not affect oil consumption growth).\n", "Research shows that declining oil prices make oil-rich states less bellicose. Low oil prices could also make oil-rich states engage more in international cooperation, as they become more dependent on foreign investments. The influence of the United States reportedly increases as oil prices decline, at least judging by the fact that \"both oil importers and exporters vote more often with the United States in the United Nations General Assembly\" during oil slumps.\n", "Rising oil prices cause rising food prices in three ways. First, increased equipment fuel costs drive higher prices. Second, transportation costs increase retail prices. Third, higher oil prices are causing farmers to switch from producing food crops to producing biofuel crops.\n\nSection::::Replacement.\n", "By the end of November the price of Brent had dropped rapidly to $58.71, more than 30% from its peak, the biggest 30-day drop since 2008. Increased oil production in Russia, some OPEC countries and the United States, which deepened global over supply, were factors in the crash. President Trump said that the lower price of oil was like a \"big Tax Cut for America and the World\".\n", "BULLET::::- Increasing cost of oil for importing countries ultimately reduces those countries' purchase of non-oil goods abroad. The Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco discusses oil and the US balance of trade:\n\nUS indications of economic volatility have manifested themselves in the largest increase in inflation rates in 15 years (Sept. 2005), due mostly to higher energy costs.\n", "On 6 April 2014, writing in a Saudi Arabian journal, World Pensions Forum economist Nicolas J. Firzli warned that the escalating oversupply situation could have durably negative economic consequences for all Gulf Cooperation Council member states:\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:North American oil production increases.\n", "2010s oil glut\n\nThe 2010s oil glut is a considerable surplus of crude oil that started in 2014–2015 and accelerated in 2016, with multiple causes. They include general oversupply as US and Canadian tight oil (shale oil) production reached critical volumes, geopolitical rivalries amongst oil-producing nations, falling demand across commodities markets due to the deceleration of the Chinese economy, and possible restraint of long-term demand as environmental policy promotes fuel efficiency and steers an increasing share of energy consumption away from fossil fuels.\n", "The North Sea oil and gas industry was financially stressed by the reduced oil prices, and called for government support in May 2016.\n\nSection::::Hedging as risk management.\n", "Thanks to the historic oil price increases of 2003–2008, OPEC revenues approximated an unprecedented US$1 trillion per year in 2008 and 2011–2014. Beyond the OPEC countries, substantial surpluses also accrued to Russia and Norway, and sovereign wealth funds worldwide amassed US$7 trillion by 2014–2015. Some oil exporters were unable to reap the full benefits, as the national economies of Iran, Iraq, Libya, Nigeria and Venezuela all suffered from multi-year political obstacles associated with what economists call the \"resource curse\". Most of the other large exporters accumulated enough financial reserves to cushion the shock when oil prices and petrodollar surpluses fell sharply again from an oil supply glut in 2014–2017.\n", "There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil—Western Canadian Select— delivered at Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a discounted Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk.\n\nSection::::Industry.\n", "During the last week of 2017, WTI went over $60 for the first time since June 2015 before falling back to $59.69, while Brent crude passed $67 for the first time since May 2015 before falling to $66.50. Pipeline problems in Libya and the North Sea added to production cuts by OPEC and Russia.\n\nSection::::2018.\n", "The 2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence slowed the growth of the economy in China, restraining its demand for oil and other industrial commodities. China’s fast rising debt pile, especially since 2008, has also led to concerns about a Chinese financial crisis and/or Chinese recession, which led to significant volatility and loss of asset value in other world markets.\n", "The report stated that as a result of the imbalance and low price elasticity, very large price increases occurred as the market attempted to balance scarce supply against growing demand, particularly in the last three years. The report forecast that this imbalance would persist in the future, leading to continued upward pressure on oil prices, and that large or rapid movements in oil prices are likely to occur even in the absence of activity by speculators. The task force continues to analyze commodity markets and intends to issue further findings later in the year.\n\nSection::::Oil-storage trade (contango).\n", "Canadian economist Jeff Rubin has stated that high oil prices are likely to result in increased consumption in developed countries through partial manufacturing de-globalisation of trade. Manufacturing production would move closer to the end consumer to minimise transportation network costs, and therefore a demand decoupling from gross domestic product would occur. Higher oil prices would lead to increased freighting costs and consequently, the manufacturing industry would move back to the developed countries since freight costs would outweigh the current economic wage advantage of developing countries. Economic research carried out by the International Monetary Fund puts overall price elasticity of demand for oil at −0.025 short-term and −0.093 long term.\n", "Rather counterintuitively, the world economy has had to deal with the unforeseen consequences of the 2015-2016 oil glut also known as 2010s oil glut, a major energy crisis that took many experts by surprise. This oversupply crisis started with a considerable time-lag, more than six years after the beginning of the Great Recession: \"\"the price of oil\" [had] \"stabilized at a relatively high level (around $100 a barrel) unlike all previous recessionary cycles since 1980 (start of First Persian Gulf War). But nothing guarantee[d] such price levels in perpetuity\"\".\n\nSection::::Social and economic effects.\n", "The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries has been seriously affected by the 2014 collapse in prices. Shale production robbed OPEC of a large portion of its market power, forcing OPEC to cooperate with other producers to keep prices up after Saudi Arabia effectively declared defeat in the price war in 2016. \n", "The perceived increase in oil price differs internationally according to currency market fluctuations and the purchasing power of currencies. For example, excluding changes in relative purchasing power of various currencies, from 1 January 2002 to 1 January 2008:\n\nBULLET::::- In US$, oil price rose from $20.37 to nearly $100, about \"4.91\" times more expensive;\n\nBULLET::::- In the same period, the Taiwanese dollar gained value over the U.S. dollar to make oil in Taiwan \"4.53\" times more expensive;\n\nBULLET::::- In the same period, the Japanese Yen gained value over the U.S. dollar to make oil in Japan \"4.10\" times more expensive;\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00567	Why do humans smile to convey happiness?	I can't tell you why they happen, but I can tell you where they come from. Smiling and laughing are actually deeply evolutionary. Smiling comes from the silent bared-teeth display, which is this thing that primates do to symbolize submission and affiliation. Laughter comes from the play face, which is this face that many primates make when they're...playing. It's kind of like laughing, but without any sound. Laughter is so evolutionary, in fact, that you can tickle different apes and they'll make a play face with some "laughing" sounds. It turns out that you can record these laughs and make a sort of phylogetic tree.	[ "Primatologist Signe Preuschoft traces the smile back over 30 million years of evolution to a \"fear grin\" stemming from monkeys and apes who often used barely clenched teeth to portray to predators that they were harmless, or to signal submission to more dominant group members. The smile may have evolved differently among species and especially among humans. Apart from Biology as an academic discipline that interprets the smile, those who study kinesics and psychology such as Freitas-Magalhaes view the smile as an affect display that can communicate feelings such as love, happiness, glee, pride, contempt, and embarrassment. Also, other types of primates can express this gesture as a symbol of happiness and fun.\n", "Smile\n\nA smile is formed primarily by flexing the muscles at the sides of the mouth. Some smiles include a contraction of the muscles at the corner of the eyes, an action known as a Duchenne smile.\n\nAmong humans, smiling is an expression denoting pleasure, sociability, happiness, joy or amusement. It is distinct from a similar but usually involuntary expression of anxiety known as a grimace. Although cross-cultural studies have shown that smiling is a means of communication throughout the world, there are large differences among different cultures, with some using smiles to convey confusion or embarrassment.\n\nSection::::Historical background.\n", "Section::::Social effects.\n\nA smile seems to have a favorable influence upon others and makes one likable and more approachable. In the social context, smiling and laughter have different functions in the order of sequence in social situations:\n\nBULLET::::- Smiling is sometimes a pre-laughing device and is a common pattern for paving the way to laughter;\n\nBULLET::::- Smiling can be used as a response to laughter in the previous turn.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Facial expressions are produced to express a reaction to a situation or event or to evoke a response from another individual or individuals. They are signals of emotion and social intent. People make faces in response to \"direct audience effects\" when they are watching sports, discussing politics, eating or smelling, in pain, and see or hear something humorous. While one may have the same emotional reaction to a particular situation, he or she is more likely to express this emotion via a facial expression if they are in a social situation. Smiles, in particular, are \"evolved signaling displays [that] are the result of selective pressures for conspicuous, stereotyped, and redundant communication\". Smiling is a visual signal that requires eye contact from the recipient to the one smiling and is intended to communicate a feeling of happiness and joy. In an experiment by Alan Fridlund, smiling occurred least when one was watching a video alone, then more often when a person was alone watching the video but believed a friend was performing another task, even more often when that person believed a friend was simultaneously watching the video somewhere else, and most often when one was watching a movie with a friend physically present. This evidence shows that even if someone has the same internal reaction to a stimulus (like a movie), they are more likely to externalize these feelings when surrounded by peers or under the assumption that peers are engaged in the same activity.\n", "In 1979, Dr. Kraut and his Cornell psychology colleague Robert E. Johnston published an article studying smiling behavior among bowlers, hockey fans, and pedestrians. Their findings suggested that smiling emerges in response to social motivations rather than emotional experience and serves an important role in nonverbal communication. Although it substantiated theories in the emerging field of evolutionary psychology, Wisconsin Senator William Proxmire identified this federally sponsored research as an instance of wasteful government spending and highlighted it in March 1980 with a \"Golden Fleece Award\".\n\nSection::::Research.:Coordination in groups.\n", "While smiling is perceived as a positive emotion most of the time, there are many cultures that perceive smiling as a negative expression and consider it unwelcoming. Too much smiling can be viewed as a sign of shallowness or dishonesty. In some parts of Asia, people may smile when they are embarrassed or in emotional pain. Some people may smile at others to indicate a friendly greeting. A smile may be reserved for close friends and family members. Many people in the former Soviet Union area consider smiling at strangers in public to be unusual and even suspicious behavior.\n", "A non-Duchenne smile involves only the zygomatic major muscle. \"Research with adults initially indicated that joy was indexed by generic smiling, any smiling involving the raising of the lip corners by the zygomatic major [...]. More recent research suggests that smiling in which the muscle around the eye contracts, raising the cheeks high (Duchenne smiling), is uniquely associated with positive emotion.\"\n", "There are alternative views to the archaic smile being \"flat and quite unnatural looking\". This is how John Fowles describes the archaic smile in his novel \"The Magus\" (Chapter 23): \"...full of the purest metaphysical good humour [...] timelessly intelligent and timelessly amused. [...] Because a star explodes and a thousand worlds like ours die, we know this world is. That is the smile: that what might not be, is [...] When I die, I shall have this by my bedside. It is the last human face I want to see.\" To viewers habituated to realism, it could be seen as a movement towards naturalism.\n", "Smiling is a signaling system that evolved from a need to communicate information of many different forms. One of these is advertisement of sexual interest. Female smiles are appealing to heterosexual males, increasing physical attractiveness and enhancing sex appeal. However, recent research indicates a man's smile may or may not be most effective in attracting heterosexual women, and that facial expressions such as pride or even shame might be more effective. The researchers ignored the role of smiles in other sexual preferences.\n\nSection::::Social effects.:As reinforcement and manipulation.\n", "Research studies have indicated that voluntary facial expressions, such as smiling, can produce effects on the body that are similar to those that result from the actual emotion, such as happiness. Paul Ekman and his colleagues have studied facial expressions of emotions and have linked specific emotions to the movement of specific facial muscles. Each basic emotion is associated with a distinctive facial expression. Sensory feedback from the expression contributes to the emotional feeling. Example: Smiling if you want to feel happy. Facial expressions have a large effect on self-reported anger and happiness which then affects your mood. Ekman has found that these expressions of emotion are universal and recognizable across widely divergent cultures.\n", "Section::::Subsequent activity.\n", "In animals, the baring of teeth is often used as a threat or warning display—known as a snarl—or a sign of submission. For chimpanzees, it can also be a sign of fear. However, not all animal displays of teeth convey negative acts or emotions. For example, Barbary macaques demonstrate an open mouth display as a sign of playfulness, which likely has similar roots and purposes as the human smile.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Emotion\n\nBULLET::::- Facial Action Coding System\n\nBULLET::::- Facial expression\n\nBULLET::::- Frown\n\nBULLET::::- Laughter\n\nBULLET::::- Negative punishment\n\nBULLET::::- Praise\n\nBULLET::::- Smiley\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior was started in 1872 with the publication of Charles Darwin's book \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\". In the book, Darwin argued that all mammals, both humans and animals, showed emotion through facial expressions. He posed questions such as: \"Why do our facial expressions of emotions take the particular forms they do?\" and \"Why do we wrinkle our nose when we are disgusted and bare our teeth when we are enraged?\" Darwin attributed these facial expressions to serviceable associated habits, which are behaviors that earlier in our evolutionary history had specific and direct functions. For example, a species that attacked by biting, baring the teeth was a necessary act before an assault and wrinkling the nose reduced the inhalation of foul odors. In response to the question asking why facial expressions persist even when they no longer serve their original purposes, Darwin's predecessors have developed a highly valued explanation. According to Darwin, humans continue to make facial expressions because they have acquired communicative value throughout evolutionary history. In other words, humans utilize facial expressions as external evidence of their internal state. Although \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\" was not one of Darwin's most successful books in terms of its quality and overall impact in the field, his initial ideas started the abundance of research on the types, effects, and expressions of nonverbal communication and behavior.\n", "The significance of the convention is not known, although it is often assumed that for the Greeks this kind of smile reflected a state of ideal health and well-being. It is best anthropological practice to assume expertise in execution of craft and to look for formal/stylistic reasons why cultural artifacts appear as they do.\n", "BULLET::::- The eyes, sitting in the orbit and protected by eyelids and eyelashes\n\nBULLET::::- The distinctive human nose shape, nostrils, and nasal septum\n\nBULLET::::- The cheeks, covering the maxilla and mandibula (or jaw), the extremity of which is the chin\n\nBULLET::::- The mouth, with the upper lip divided by the philtrum, sometimes revealing the teeth\n\nFacial appearance is vital for human recognition and communication. Facial muscles in humans allow expression of emotions.\n", "Section::::Uses on Television.\n", "Section::::Universality hypothesis.\n", "The influence of smiling on others is not necessarily benign. It may take the form of positive reinforcement, possibly for an underhand manipulative and abusive purpose. See also superficial smile.\n\nSection::::Cultural differences.\n", "Facial expressions, more than anything, serve as a practical means of communication. With all the various muscles that precisely control mouth, lips, eyes, nose, forehead, and jaw, human faces are estimated to be capable of more than ten thousand different expressions. This versatility makes non-verbals of the face extremely efficient and honest, unless deliberately manipulated. In addition, many of these emotions, including happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, shame, anguish and interest are universally recognized.\n", "Section::::Universality hypothesis.:Support.\n\nEkman's work on facial expressions had its starting point in the work of psychologist Silvan Tomkins. Ekman showed that facial expressions of emotion are not culturally determined, but universal across human cultures.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Conceived by the planetary scientist Carolyn Porco, who was the imaging team leader for \"Cassini\", the concept called for the people of the world to reflect on their place in the cosmos, to marvel at life on Earth, and, at the time the pictures were taken, to look up and smile in celebration.\n", "Section::::Advantages.\n", "Despite the Darwin’s theory, in 1950 the prevailing belief was that facial expressions were determined by cultural background and learning process.\n\nIn 1960s, Paul Ekman an American psychologist, set out to visit people from different nations (including an isolated indigenous tribe in Papua New Guinea) to study non-verbal behavior across cultures. His research showed that Darwin was right and that facial expressions and emotions are universal as people from diverse cultural background interpreted expressions in photos in similar way. Ekman’s work indicated existence of 7 basic emotions that are universally present: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, sadness and neutral.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14215	if you make something float over a magnet you hold, do you feel its weight?	You do! Since the magnet is pushing upwards on the object above it, then that means the object is also pushing down on the magnet (via gravity) Since the magnet isnt moving (you are holding it) that means that you have to hold up the magnet with enough force so that the force of the object pushing down is equal to you pushing it upwards to hold it in place. Imagine the magnetic feild holding the object up as invisible pillars.	[ "If we subtract the force measured on the empty bottle from this (or tare the balance before making the water measurement) we obtain.\n\nwhere the subscript n indicated that this force is net of the force of the empty bottle. The bottle is now emptied, thoroughly dried and refilled with the sample. The force, net of the empty bottle, is now:\n\nwhere \"ρ\" is the density of the sample. The ratio of the sample and water forces is:\n", "Weight is a measurement of the force on an object at rest in a relatively strong gravitational field (such as on the surface of the Earth). These weight-sensations originate from contact with supporting floors, seats, beds, scales, and the like. A sensation of weight is also produced, even when the gravitational field is zero, when contact forces act upon and overcome a body's inertia by mechanical, non-gravitational forces- such as in a centrifuge, a rotating space station, or within an accelerating vehicle.\n", "The findings of research into sensory augmentation (as well as sensory substitution in general) that investigate the emergence of perceptual experience (qualia) from the activity of neurons have implications for the understanding of consciousness.\n\nSection::::Sensory augmentation.:Magnetic perception.\n\nIn 2005, the feelSpace group conducted a study of sensory augmentation with a vibrotactile magnetic compass belt worn around the waist. In this study, the participants were provided with the direction of magnetic north as a vibration on their waist.\n", "In many real world situations the act of weighing may produce a result that differs from the ideal value provided by the definition used. This is usually referred to as the apparent weight of the object. A common example of this is the effect of buoyancy, when an object is immersed in a fluid the displacement of the fluid will cause an upward force on the object, making it appear lighter when weighed on a scale. The apparent weight may be similarly affected by levitation and mechanical suspension. When the gravitational definition of weight is used, the operational weight measured by an accelerating scale is often also referred to as the apparent weight.\n", "In use, a long, cylindrical sample to be tested is suspended from a balance, partially entering between the poles of a magnet. The sample can be in solid or liquid form, and is often placed in a cylindrical container such as a test tube. Solid compounds are generally ground into a fine powder to allow for uniformity amongst the sample. The sample is suspended between the magnetic poles through an attached thread or string. \n", "One way of determining the weight of an unknown yarn is to use the wrapping method. This convenient method is also used to calculate the amount of yarn needed for a project. By this method it is possible to check yarn for sale with a simple pencil and ruler without unwinding the skein, simply slipping the pencil under approximately an inch of the threads and holding a ruler against them.\n", "Electronic analytical scales measure the force needed to counter the mass being measured rather than using actual masses. As such they must have calibration adjustments made to compensate for gravitational differences. They use an electromagnet to generate a force to counter the sample being measured and outputs the result by measuring the force needed to achieve balance. Such measurement device is called electromagnetic force restoration sensor.\n\nSection::::Balance scales.:Electronic devices.:Pendulum balance scales.\n", "BULLET::::- Swimming Ducklings – Mother duck with two baby ducklings, all magnetized, bowl of food, and pond. the ducks could be made to move in the pond by a magnetized wand. There is also a swan version.\n", "The sensation of weight is caused by the force exerted by fluids in the vestibular system, a three-dimensional set of tubes in the inner ear. It is actually the sensation of g-force, regardless of whether this is due to being stationary in the presence of gravity, or, if the person is in motion, the result of any other forces acting on the body such as in the case of acceleration or deceleration of a lift, or centrifugal forces when turning sharply.\n\nSection::::Measuring.\n", "One device for measuring weight or mass is called a weighing scale or, often, simply a \"scale\". A spring scale measures force but not mass, a balance compares weight, both require a gravitational field to operate. Some of the most accurate instruments for measuring weight or mass are based on load cells with a digital read-out, but require a gravitational field to function and would not work in free fall.\n\nSection::::Units and systems.:Economics.\n", "The apparent weight can also differ from weight when an object is \"partially or completely immersed in a fluid\", where there is an \"upthrust\" from the fluid that is working against the force of gravity. Another example is the weight of an object or person riding in an elevator. When the elevator begins rising, the object begins exerting a force in the downward direction. If a scale was used, it would be seen that the weight of the object is becoming heavier because of the downward force, changing the apparent weight.\n", "The induction model would only apply to marine animals because as a surrounding medium with high conductivity only salt water is feasible. evidence for this model has been lacking.\n", "Whatever \"A\" and \"B\" are, so long as neither of them is tuned to zero, the sponetaneous magnetization will grow as the square root of ε. This argument can only fail if the free energy β\"F\" is either non-analytic or non-generic at the exact β where the transition occurs.\n\nBut the spontaneous magnetization in magnetic systems and the density in gasses near the critical point are measured very accurately. The density and the magnetization in three dimensions have the same power-law dependence on the temperature near the critical point, but the behavior from experiments is:\n", "For permanent magnets this is usually only a small change, but if you have an electromagnet that consists of a wire wound round an iron core, and you bring a permanent magnet near to that core, then the magnetization of that core can change drastically (for example, if there is no current in the wire, the electromagnet would not be magnetic, but when the permanent magnet is brought near, the core of the electromagnet becomes magnetic).\n", "When a pycnometer is filled to a specific, but not necessarily accurately known volume, \"V\" and is placed upon a balance, it will exert a force\n", "Before the electropermanent magnet was invented, applications needing a controllable magnetic field required electromagnets, which consume large amounts of power when operating. Electropermanent magnets require no power source to maintain the magnetic field. Electropermanent magnets made with powerful rare-earth magnets are used as industrial lifting (tractive) magnets to lift heavy ferrous metal objects; when the object reaches its destination the magnet can be switched off, releasing the object. Programmable magnets are also being researched as a means of creating self-building structures.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Barkeepers often do not talk about density, but call fluids 'lighter' and 'heavier' or refer to 'specific gravity', which means the same. If two identical volumes of fluids are compared, the denser one weighs more than the lighter one.\n\nSection::::Floating Liqueurs in practice.\n", "where \"m\" is the mass of the bottle and \"g\" the gravitational acceleration at the location at which the measurements are being made. \"ρ\" is the density of the air at the ambient pressure and \"ρ\" is the density of the material of which the bottle is made (usually glass) so that the second term is the mass of air displaced by the glass of the bottle whose weight, by Archimedes Principle must be subtracted. The bottle is, of course, filled with air but as that air displaces an equal amount of air the weight of that air is canceled by the weight of the air displaced. Now we fill the bottle with the reference fluid e.g. pure water. The force exerted on the pan of the balance becomes:\n", "where \"k\" is the elastic constant of the rubber, h(x) is the upward displacement of the sheet (assumed to be small), \"g\" is the strength of the gravitational field, and ρ(x) is the mass density of the sheet. The mass density may be viewed as intrinsic to the sheet or as belonging to objects resting on top of the sheet.\n\nThis equilibrium condition is identical in form to the gravitational Poisson equation\n", "For each substance, the density, \"ρ\", is given by\n\nWhen these densities are divided, references to the spring constant, gravity and cross-sectional area simply cancel, leaving\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Hydrostatic weighing.\n\nRelative density is more easily and perhaps more accurately measured without measuring volume. Using a spring scale, the sample is weighed first in air and then in water. Relative density (with respect to water) can then be calculated using the following formula:\n\nwhere\n", "The magnetic moments of objects are typically measured with devices called magnetometers. Not all magnetometers measure magnetic moment though. Some are configured to measure magnetic field instead. If the magnetic field surrounding an object is known well enough, though, then the magnetic moment can be calculated from that magnetic field.\n\nSection::::Relation to magnetization.\n", "Industrial MHD problems can be modeled using the open-source software EOF-Library. Two simulation examples are 3D MHD with a free surface for electromagnetic levitation melting, and liquid metal stirring by rotating permanent magnets.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Magnetic drug targeting.\n", "The general scaling law that relates the measured force to the unknown velocity can be derived with reference to the simplified situation shown in Fig. 2. Here a small permanent magnet with dipole moment formula_13 is located at a distance formula_14 above a semi-infinite fluid moving with uniform velocity formula_4 parallel to its free surface.\n\nThe analysis that leads to the scaling relation can be made quantitative by assuming that the magnet is a point dipole with dipole moment formula_16 whose magnetic field is given by\n", "Arthur Rosinger of Newark, New Jersey, U.S. obtained US Patent 2,350,534, titled Magnetic Stirrer on 6 June 1944, having filed an application therefore on 5 October 1942. Mr. Rosinger's patent includes a description of a coated bar magnet placed in a vessel, which is driven by a rotating magnet in a base below the vessel. Mr. Rosinger also explains in his patent that coating the magnet in plastic or covering it with glass or porcelain makes it chemically inert.\n", "Objects on the surface of the Earth have weight, although sometimes this weight is difficult to measure. An example is a small object floating in water, which does not appear to have weight since it is buoyed by the water; but it is found to have its usual weight when it is added to water in a container which is entirely supported by and weighed on a scale. Thus, the \"weightless object\" floating in water actually transfers its weight to the bottom of the container (where the pressure increases). Similarly, a balloon has mass but may appear to have no weight or even negative weight, due to buoyancy in air. However the weight of the balloon and the gas inside it has merely been transferred to a large area of the Earth's surface, making the weight difficult to measure. The weight of a flying airplane is similarly distributed to the ground, but does not disappear. If the airplane is in level flight, the same weight-force is distributed to the surface of the Earth as when the plane was on the runway, but spread over a larger area.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03451	Why are the tropics home to so many weird and gruesome diseases compared to more temperate climates?	Firstly, there are just a greater variety of diseases in the tropics because of the increased biodiversity. There are more nasty diseases and more harmless diseases. Secondly, population density is greater in the tropics, which allows for dangerous diseases to spread before killing their host. If some highly deadly disease appeared in a sparsely populated area, very few people would be infected and the disease will die with the victims. Thirdly, economic factors affect the country’s ability to combat disease. Tropical areas tend to have less access to sanitation. Cholera is a terrible disease which is virtually extinct in the developed world thanks to proper sanitation.	[ "The so-called \"exotic\" diseases in the tropics have long been noted both by travelers, explorers, etc., as well as by physicians. One obvious reason is that the hot climate present during all the year and the larger volume of rains directly affect the formation of breeding grounds, the larger number and variety of natural reservoirs and animal diseases that can be transmitted to humans (zoonosis), the largest number of possible insect vectors of diseases. It is possible also that higher temperatures may favor the replication of pathogenic agents both inside and outside biological organisms. Socio-economic factors may be also in operation, since most of the poorest nations of the world are in the tropics. Tropical countries like Brazil, which have improved their socio-economic situation and invested in hygiene, public health and the combat of transmissible diseases have achieved dramatic results in relation to the elimination or decrease of many endemic tropical diseases in their territory.\n", "Freezing, heating above , drying or exposing \"A. caninum\" to sunlight all give reduced survival of the free-living stage, with rates of infection rising with temperature provided 37°C is not exceeded. \"A. caninum\" is, therefore, largely restricted to warm, moist climates, though infections are seen in the United States and southern Canada where the temperature is suboptimal. Specific niches are also able to satisfy the environmental requirements of \"A. caninum\", despite not necessarily being in the tropics, such as mines.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.:Transmission via the environment.\n", "More than an estimated 30% of the world population is colonized by \"Staphylococcus aureus\", a microorganism capable of causing skin infections, nosocomial infections, and food poisoning due to its tropism for human skin and soft tissue. The \"S. aureus\" clonal complex CC121 is known to exhibit multi-host tropism for both humans and rabbits. This is thought to be due to a single nucleotide mutation that evolved the CC121 complex into ST121 clonal complex, the clone capable of infecting rabbits.\n\nSection::::Bacterial Tropism.:\"Escherichia coli\".\n", "Many immunological inflammatory diseases, such as allergies, diabetes and inflammatory bowel diseases, have become increasingly common in countries of high standard of living and high level of hygiene. One reason is presumably that along with degradation and fragmentation of habitats and urbanization, people encounter less microbes of natural environment. Here, microbes of natural environment are referred as all microbes, especially those which are not pathogens nor parasites (parasites still have essential role in regulation of immune response).\n", "The temperature affects the malaria parasites in the mosquitoes and its ability to incubate as well as how likely the mosquitoes are to blood feed. Mosquitoes thrive in the transmission of parasites where temperatures do not exceed 25 degrees Celsius. Excessive rain, which is becoming more frequent amongst many countries, acts as the perfect breeding site for the aquatic beginning of a mosquito's life. Malaria is a vector- borne disease that is extremely prevalent in Africa. The disease puts billions of people at risk of contracting the virus. Due to a lack of sufficient healthcare where the disease is most concentrated, many people die. The environment is a huge contributor to the success malaria has in transmitting the disease.\n", "Section::::Human aspects.\n\nSection::::Human aspects.:Demography, fauna and flora.\n\nThe vast majority of the world's human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The biggest described number in temperate region in the world is found in southern Africa, where some 24,000 taxa (species and infraspecific taxa) have been described, but the native fauna and flora of this region does not have much cultural importance for the majority of the human population of the world that lives in Temperate Zones and that live in the Northern Hemisphere, only environmental importance.\n\nSection::::Human aspects.:Agriculture.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThis pathogen has a wide geographical distribution. Strains of the pathogen are present throughout various climates worldwide. Temperature can affect how symptoms appear on the host. Optimal temperature for growth of \"C. acutatum\" is 25 degrees Celsius. For instance, in weather with high humidity, orange colored spores appear on the hosts’ lesions. Specifically in strawberries, this disease appears to be more harmful in warm climates. \" \"Transference of disease occurs when conidia are spread by water, specifically rain or irrigation water. Another way of contamination is from infected equipment or wind. \n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Cultural Control.\n", "Section::::Public health and prevention strategies/vaccines.\n\nGiven that infective \"Oesophagostomum\" larvae are most likely transmitted via oral-fecal routes, sufficiently cleaning and cooking meat and vegetables, as well as boiling all consumed water or only using potable water would help to complement a mass treatment program. Factors like religion, family size and wealth do not suffice in explaining the unique epidemiology of \"Oesophagostomum\"; geographic and geological factors must be explored in more detail.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThe optimum temperature for the disease development has been reported to be 15-20 °C, the first symptom seen after 6 hours of leaf wetness, with the lesion development decreasing with increasing periods of dryness. At temperatures between 9-25 °C, lesion development increases with increasing temperature and leaf wetness. Based on studies conducted in controlled environments, sporulation on dead leaves has been found to occur with an increase in temperature until 30 °C and leaf wetness.\n\nSection::::Disease Control.\n", "\"[E]nvironmental variables revealed a significant association between the genetic distances among locations and the distance of each location from the equator. Further characterization of the enormous diversity revealed here in the human salivary microbiome will aid in elucidating the role it plays in human health and disease, and in the identification of potentially informative species for studies of human population history.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Climate and living area. Rainfall (number of rainy days being more important than total precipitation), mean of sunshine daily hours, latitude, altitude are characteristic agents to take in account when assessing the possibility of spread of any airborne infection. Furthermore, some infrequent or exceptional extreme events also influence the dissemination of airborne diseases, as tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, or monsoons. Climate conditions determine temperature, winds and relative humidity in any territory, either all year around or at isolated moments (days or weeks). Those are the main factors affecting the spread, duration and infectiousness of droplets containing infectious particles. For instance, influenza virus, is spread easily in northern countries (north hemisphere), because of climate conditions which favour the infectiousness of the virus but on the other hand, in those countries, lots of bacterial infections cannot spread outdoor most of the year, keeping in a latent stage.\n", "Temperature and moisture are the two most important environmental conditions for the development of \"L. maculans\" spores. A temperature of 5-20 degrees Celsius is the optimal temperature range for pseudothecia to mature. A wet humid environment increases the severity of the disease due to the dispersal of conidia by rain splash. As well as rain, hail storms also increase the severity of the disease.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "\"S. schenckii\" has a worldwide distribution but certain areas of the world including Peru, have a higher incidence of disease. Based on sequence analysis it has been found that \"S. schenckii\" isolates can be placed in phylogenetic groups that reflect the region from which they were isolated. \"S. schenckii\" is often isolated from plants and associated packing material. Gardeners, landscapers, and foresters are at high risk of infection. \"Sporothrix\" infection can also be transmitted by cat bites or scratches. This mode of transmission has been responsible for epidemics of sporotrichosis. Immunocompromised individuals are at increased risk of infection and such patients often exhibit more severe forms of disease.\n", "2. Temperature and humidity - Another factor affecting disease development for \"Cochliobolus miyabeanus\" is temperature and humidity. Infection efficiency is influenced by humidity level of the leaves, and lowered minimum temperature for crop cultivation favors its epidemics. \"Cochliobolus miyabeanus\" grows well at lower temperatures during its developmental stages compared to the grown up stage, so if high temperature is maintained in the area it is likely that the farmers can restrict growth of the pathogen. The optimal temperature for the pathogen is 28 degree Celsius.\n", "Lead author Deborah Springer said, \"Just as people who travel to South America are told to be careful about drinking the water, people who visit other areas like California, the Pacific Northwest, and Oregon need to be aware that they are at risk for developing a fungal infection, especially if their immune system is compromised.\"\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nThe highest incidences of \"C. gattii\" infections occur in Papua New Guinea and Northern Australia. Cases have also been reported in other regions, indicating its spread to India, Brazil, Vancouver Island in Canada, and Washington, and Oregon in the United States.\n", "Examples of local adaptation abound in the natural world. For instance, many plant populations exhibit local adaptation. This has been established by reciprocally transplanting plants from one population into another population. The transplanted plants often do worse in the novel environment than the native plants that are locally adapted. Many examples of local adaptation exist in host-parasite systems as well. For instance, a host may be resistant to a locally-abundant pathogen or parasite, but conspecific hosts from elsewhere where that pathogen is not abundant may have no evolved no such adaptation. \n", "The effects of temperature and humidity on life stages have been most thoroughly studied. Temperatures around and humidity levels around 29-33% are optimal for development, though studies in Kansas have shown normal larval development at temperatures as high as . Average temperatures higher than have been shown to be lethal for larva. Lower temperatures at , however, resulted in only part of the life cycle being completed. At temperatures below , even short exposures kill larva and adults.\n", "Infection is favored by frost, hail, and wind as well as other ways that create wounds to the plant. Infection occurs at a moderate temperature between 14 and 28 °C. Optimum temperature for growth of pathogen is higher at a range of 20-25 °C. A high relative humidity favors production of conidia and further infection.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "Section::::Distinct patterns.\n\nSection::::Distinct patterns.:Reversed latitudinal diversity gradient.\n\nLarger organisms tend to exhibit latitudinal gradients in species diversity, with larger biodiversity existing in the tropics and decreasing toward more temperate polar regions. In contrast, a study on indoor fungal communities found microbial biodiversity to be significantly higher in temperate zones than in the tropics. The same study found that drastically different buildings exhibited the same indoor fungal composition in any given location, where similarity increased with proximity. Thus despite human efforts to control indoor climates, outside environments appear to be the strongest determinant of indoor fungal composition.\n\nSection::::Distinct patterns.:Bipolar latitude distributions.\n", "\"Retortamonas\" has a worldwide geographical distribution though presence of infection are commonly found in warmer environments, particularly in \"Retortamonas intestinalis\", suggesting that this is the favourable climate for the genus. The rate of infection of \"Retortamonas\" was found to be higher during the summer months in one study conducted in Spain, supporting this idea. In another parasitological study spanning across multiple areas, \"Retortamonas\" did not show any significant variation in prevalence when tested in rural and urban areas, thus indicating it has no preference between the two environments. However, the study did show overcrowded areas and regions of poorer sanitation act as environmental factors that play a key role in the prevalence of the parasite A lack of sanitation practices often results in a higher probability of exposure to contaminated feces or other objects likely to carry infection, and paired with high-density populations, this can allow for more rapid transmission between individuals.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\n\"Didymella bryoniae\" is common in the Southern U.S. and other subtropical or tropical locations . Most infections occur during rainy/wet seasons, in which the humid is greater than 90% and the temperature is roughly 20-24 °C . Humidity seems to be a larger factor than temperature when it comes to infection success . \"D. bryoniae\" can also be found in temperate regions, especially where winter squash and pumpkins are grown . This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown .\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThe main factors that contribute to the release of the ascospores are moisture and temperature. For the most part, as long as temperatures are above freezing spores can be released, but they are most likely to be released at moderate temperatures of . In the case of moisture, humidity alone is not enough to make the perithecia release the spores, as the perithecia themselves need to be wet. The temperate climates of North America and Europe are most conducive for Eutypella canker development.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "BULLET::::- Socioeconomics and living conditions. They have a minor role in airborne diseases transmission, but they also have to be taken in consideration. Dwelling is an important aspect. In cities the spread of diseases are faster than in rural areas and outskirts. Normally, cities enclose quarters of buildings, in which the transmission of the viral and bacterial diseases among the neighborhoods are uncomplicated. However, suburban areas are generally more favorable for higher airborne fungal spores\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Paederus fuscipes\" is probably the major agent that causes linear dermatitis in northern Iran. Whereas this disease is a rural difficulty in the south, mainly in villages or small towns, it is an urban problem in northern provinces along the Caspian Sea shore.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paederus australis\" is responsible for outbreaks of dermatitis in Queensland and the Northern Territory, and \"Paederus cruenticollis\" for outbreaks in southern New South Wales.\n\nBULLET::::- Nairobi fly: \"Paederus crebrepunctatus\" and \"Paederus sabaeus\" both cause dermatitis in Central and East Africa.\n", "Warm and moist conditions are important to allow survival of \"A. caninum\" during the free-living stages of its lifecycle, so it is largely restricted to temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions. In parts of the world where these climatic requirements are met such as Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Malaysia, \"A. caninum\" is the main cause of hookworm disease in canines.\n\nSection::::Morphology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11466	How come hangovers become worse when you get older?	As you get older your body gets slower to repair damage to it, damage like from consuming alcohol.	[ "BULLET::::- Age: some people experience hangovers as getting worse as one ages. This is thought to be caused by declining supplies of alcohol dehydrogenase, the enzyme involved in metabolizing alcohol. Although it is actually unknown whether hangover symptoms and severity change with age, research shows that drinking patterns change across ages, and heavy drinking episodes that may result in hangover are much less often experienced as age increases.\n", "The rise of blood pressure is correlated to ageing. The arterial compliance - the amount of tension produced per stretch of arteries, decreases with age, and the stiffness of arteries increases with age. The structural change in blood vessels causes the elderly to be more susceptible to hypertension, which leads to complications in arteries, the heart and even the brain.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Obesity.\n", "Mortality is lowest among young abstainers and highest among young heavy drinkers.\n\nAccording to a 2018 study people who had more than seven and up to 14 standard drinks per week, were likely to have their life expectancy shortened by around 6 months. Those who consumed over 14 drinks and up to 25 per week were likely to have 1–2 years taken off their lifespan, and a consumption of over 25 standard drinks per week correlated with 4–5 fewer years.\n", "A smaller volume of consumed alcohol has a greater impact on the older adult than it does on a younger individual. As a result, the American Geriatrics Society recommends for an older adult with no known risk factors less than one drink a day or fewer than two drinks per occasion regardless of gender.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Violence.\n", "Section::::Cardiovascular system.\n", "A study found that moderate consumption of alcohol had a protective effect against intermittent claudication. The lowest risk was seen in men who drank 1 to 2 drinks per day and in women who drank half to 1 drink per day.\n\nSection::::Cardiovascular system.:Heart attack and stroke.\n", "Several studies have been conducted to discover if there is a link between binge drinking in adolescent years and becoming a chronic alcohol consumer when they transition into adulthood. A particular study conducted by the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth found that harmful drinking during adolescent years was significantly associated with the continuance of dangerous levels of alcohol consumption into adulthood years.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Central nervous system.\n", "The impact of alcohol on aging is multifaceted. Evidence shows that alcoholism or chronic alcohol consumption can cause both accelerated (or premature) aging – in which symptoms of aging appear earlier than normal – and exaggerated aging, in which the symptoms appear at the appropriate time but in a more exaggerated form. The effects of alcohol abuse/misuse on the aging process include hypertension, cardiac dysrhythmia, cancers, gastrointestinal disorders, neurocognitive deficits, bone loss, and emotional disturbances especially depression. On the other hand, research also shows that drinking moderate amounts of alcohol may protect healthy adults from developing coronary heart disease. The American Heart Association cautions people not to start drinking, if you are not already drinking. \n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "Section::::Digestive system and weight gain.:Gallbladder effects.\n", "Section::::Coping and well-being.:Religion.\n\nReligion is an important factor used by the elderly in coping with the demands of later life and appears .more often than other forms of coping later in life. Religiosity is a multidimensional variable; while participation in religious activities in the sense of participation in formal and organised rituals may decline, it may become a more informal, but still important aspect of life such as through personal or private prayer.\n\nSection::::Coping and well-being.:Self-rated health.\n", "Section::::Brain.\n", "BULLET::::- Bone and joint. Old bones are marked by \"thinning and shrinkage\". This might result in a loss of height (about two inches (5 cm) by age 80), a stooping posture in many people, and a greater susceptibility to bone and joint diseases such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis.\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic diseases. Some older persons have at least one chronic condition and many have multiple conditions. In 2007–2009, the most frequently occurring conditions among older persons in the United States were uncontrolled hypertension (34%), diagnosed arthritis (50%), and heart disease (32%).\n", "Section::::Nervous system.:Strokes.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Adolescence and young adulthood.\n", "makes the decision to consume alcohol because they are influenced by various\n\nfactors. \"These factors include normal maturational changes that all\n\nadolescents experience; genetic, psychological and social factors specific to\n\neach adolescent and the various social and cultural environments that surround\n\nadolescent, including their families, schools and communities\". It is also\n\nshown that early onset of alcohol intake can lead to high levels of alcohol use\n\nin adulthood. \n\nAlcoholism throughout adolescents is increasing yearly for a number of different reasons. These reasons include: \n\nBULLET::::- Availability of alcohol\n\nBULLET::::- Peer pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Role model\n\nBULLET::::- Television\n\nBULLET::::- Anxiety or stress\n", "It is believed that the impact of alcohol on aging can be partly explained by alcohol's activation of the HPA axis, which stimulates glucocorticoid secretion, long-term exposure to which produces symptoms of aging.\n\nSection::::Biomarkers of aging.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Media coverage.\n", "Multiple explanations are proposed to explain why age increases the risk of cardiovascular/heart diseases. One of them relates to serum cholesterol level. In most populations, the serum total cholesterol level increases as age increases. In men, this increase levels off around age 45 to 50 years. In women, the increase continues sharply until age 60 to 65 years.\n\nAging is also associated with changes in the mechanical and structural properties of the vascular wall, which leads to the loss of arterial elasticity and reduced arterial compliance and may subsequently lead to coronary artery disease.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Sex.\n", "Research has found that drinking reduces the risk of developing gallstones. Compared with alcohol abstainers, the relative risk of gallstone disease, controlling for age, sex, education, smoking, and body mass index, is 0.83 for occasional and regular moderate drinkers ( 25 ml of ethanol per day), 0.67 for intermediate drinkers (25-50 ml per day), and 0.58 for heavy drinkers. This inverse association was consistent across strata of age, sex, and body mass index.\" Frequency of drinking also appears to be a factor. \"An increase in frequency of alcohol consumption also was related to decreased risk. Combining the reports of quantity and frequency of alcohol intake, a consumption pattern that reflected frequent intake (5–7 days/week) of any given amount of alcohol was associated with a decreased risk, as compared with nondrinkers. In contrast, infrequent alcohol intake (1–2 days/week) showed no significant association with risk.\"\n", "A number of characteristic ageing symptoms are experienced by a majority or by a significant proportion of humans during their lifetimes.\n\nBULLET::::- Teenagers lose the young child's ability to hear high-frequency sounds above 20 kHz.\n\nBULLET::::- In the mid-20s, cognitive decline begins.\n\nBULLET::::- Wrinkles develop mainly due to photoageing, particularly affecting sun-exposed areas (face).\n\nBULLET::::- After peaking in the mid-20s, female fertility declines.\n\nBULLET::::- After age 30 the mass of human body is decreased until 70 years and then shows damping oscillations.\n", "BULLET::::- Thinking the speed limit is too high\n\nBULLET::::- Others not feeling comfortable riding in a vehicle with the driver\n\nAgeing individuals should consider the following questions:\n\nBULLET::::- When you are driving, do objects such as parked cars or pedestrians catch you by surprise?\n\nBULLET::::- Do you have difficulty seeing other cars before the driver honks? Do other drivers honk at you for reasons you don't understand?\n\nBULLET::::- Do you have limited neck rotation?\n\nBULLET::::- Are your reflexes slower and reaction time longer than they used to be?\n\nBULLET::::- Do you ever feel momentarily confused, nervous, or uncomfortable while driving?\n", "A propensity to consume an entire bottle of spirits developed and led to an instant increase in the number of youths under 18 being admitted to A&E hospitals. The price of alcohol at supermarkets and liquor stores had also gone down, and the number of outlets had mushroomed as well. Alcohol remains cheap, and sweet, spirit-based ready to drink beverages (similar to alcopops) remain popular among young people.\n", "Binge drinking in Russia (\"\"Zapoy\"\" (\"\"Запой\"\") in Russian), often takes the form of two or more days of continuous drunkenness. Sometimes it can even last up to a week. One study found that among men ages 25–54, about 10% had at least one episode of \"zapoy\" in the past year, which can be taken as a sign that one has a drinking problem.\n", "BULLET::::- Quantity of alcohol taken: Consumption of 60–80g per day (14g is considered one standard drink in the US, i.e., 1.5 fl oz hard liquor, 5 fl oz wine, 12 fl oz beer; drinking a six-pack of beer daily would be in the middle of the range) for 20 years or more in men, or 20g/day for women significantly increases the risk of hepatitis and fibrosis by 7% to 47%,\n\nBULLET::::- Pattern of drinking: Drinking outside of meal times increases up to 3 times the risk of alcoholic liver disease.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04139	How to compare living cost between city/country?	Simple, add up all the factors that make up, cost of living. You have your food (not big macs, cmon dude...) housing. taxes healthcare transportation luxuries. If you look at all these individual factors you get a general picture. For more specific information you need to go a bit deeper into cultural differences. E.g. Japan has quite expensive housing so people live in much smaler houses. I'm no expert, but this is just my 2cents	[ "The most recent survey was published in March 2017. Singapore remains the most expensive city in the world for the fourth year running, in a rare occurrence where the entire top five most expensive cities were unchanged from the year prior. Sydney and Melbourne have both cemented their positions as top-ten staples, with Sydney becoming the fifth most expensive, and Melbourne becoming the sixth. Asia is home to more than five most expensive cities in the top twenty but also home to eight cheapest cities of the cheapest ten.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n", "Cost of living\n\nCost of living is the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living. Changes in the cost of living over time are often operationalized in a cost-of-living index. Cost of living calculations are also used to compare the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living in different geographic areas. Differences in cost of living between locations can also be measured in terms of purchasing power parity rates.\n\nSection::::Cost-of-living adjustment (COLA).\n", "The EIU also publishes a Worldwide Cost of Living Survey that compares the cost of living in a range of global cities.\n\nSection::::Mercer's Quality of Living Ranking.\n", "Similar results are obtained by García and Molina for Spain with data from 1994\n\nPereira and Galego analysed wage differentials in Portugal using dynamics. They also found similar results to García and Molina and to Reilly.\n\nSection::::Geographical Wage Differentials.:Empirical results.:Area characteristics.\n\nPart of the attractiveness of areas is the cost-of-living. An area with a lower cost-of-living should be more attractive than areas with an expensive cost-of-living. Unfortunately, it is difficult to measure within countries cost-of-living. \n", "Estimation of purchasing power parity is complicated by the fact that countries do not simply differ in a uniform price level; rather, the difference in food prices may be greater than the difference in housing prices, while also less than the difference in entertainment prices. People in different countries typically consume different baskets of goods. It is necessary to compare the cost of baskets of goods and services using a price index. This is a difficult task because purchasing patterns and even the goods available to purchase differ across countries.\n", "The survey itself is an internet tool designed to calculate cost-of-living allowances and build compensation packages for corporate executives maintaining a western lifestyle. The survey incorporates easy-to-understand comparative cost of living indices between cities. The survey allows city-to-city comparisons, but for the purpose of this report all cities are compared to a base city of New York City, which has an index set at 100. The survey has been carried out for more than 30 years.\n", "An individual’s or a socioeconomic class’s standard of living is the level of wealth, comfort, material goods, and necessities available to them in a certain geographic area, usually a country. The standard of living includes factors such as income, quality and availability of employment, class disparity, poverty rate, quality and affordability of housing, hours of work required to purchase necessities, gross domestic product, inflation rate, amount of leisure time every year, affordable (or free) access to quality healthcare, quality and availability of education, life expectancy, incidence of disease, cost of goods and services, infrastructure, national economic growth, economic and political stability,freedom, environmental quality, climate and safety. The standard of living is closely related to quality of life.\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n\nStandard of living is generally measured by standards such as real (i.e. inflation adjusted) income per person and poverty rate. Other measures such as access and quality of health care, income growth inequality, and educational standards are also used. Examples are access to certain goods (such as number of refrigerators per 1000 people), or measures of health such as life expectancy. It is the ease by which people living in a time or place are able to satisfy their needs and/or wants.\n", "BULLET::::- International comparisons can be distorted by cost of living differences not reflected in exchange rates. Where the objective is to compare living standards between countries, adjusting for differences in purchasing power parity will more accurately reflect what people are actually able to buy with their money.\n", "Figure 5 shows that people in the Netherlands (and probably in the other EC countries as well) spend relatively more money on cars and holidays when they have more money available. Other studies show that people tend to have intercontinental holidays at the moment they can afford it. This shift in consumer spending will become a big problem in the near future, since the EVR of e.g. housing and health care is much lower than the EVR of transport and (inter)continental holidays by plane. \n", "The main idea of a 'standard' may be contrasted with the quality of life, which takes into account not only the material standard of living, but also other more intangible aspects that make up human life, such as leisure, safety, cultural resources, social life, physical health, environmental quality issues, etc. More complex means of measuring well-being must be employed to make such judgements, and these are very often political, thus controversial. Even between two nations or societies that have similar material standards of living, quality of life factors may in fact make one of these places more attractive to a given individual or group.\n", "Section::::United States.:City of San Diego.\n", "Employment contracts and pension benefits can be tied to a cost-of-living index, typically to the consumer price index (CPI). A COLA adjusts salaries based on changes in a cost-of-living index. Salaries are typically adjusted annually. They may also be tied to a cost-of-living index that varies by geographic location if the employee moves. In this later case, the expatriate employee will likely see only the discretionary income part of their salary indexed by a differential CPI between the new and old employment locations, leaving the non-discretionary part of the salary (e.g., mortgage payments, insurance, car payments) unmodified.\n", "Based on the \"Economist\" Intelligence Unit's (EIU) annual Global Liveability Ranking, comparing 140 cities worldwide for urban quality of life based on assessments of stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education and infrastructure. For a number of years, Canada's cities—Calgary—#4 in 2018, #5 in 2017, Vancouver—#1 from 2002 to 2010, #3 in 2017 Toronto #4 in 2017, Montreal, and Ottawa—have ranked among the top 10 livable cities in the world.\n", "BULLET::::- Location cost index (or factor) - the ratio of the cost in one location to that in another location. These may include or exclude currency exchange rates. Example: 223 in Boston / 187 in Austin = 1.19. The location cost factor is used to adjust the cost from one location to another. To adjust a known cost in Austin to that in Boston, multiply the Austin cost by 1.19. See also City cost index.\n\nBULLET::::- Lump sum – \"the complete in-place cost of a system, a subsystem, a particular item, or an entire project.\"\n\nSection::::M.\n", "The figures presented here do not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country's currency. Such fluctuations change a country's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference to the standard of living of its population.\n\nTherefore, these figures should be used with caution. GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a country's standard of living; although this is problematic because GDP per capita .\n", "The most common approach to measure the affordability of housing has been to consider the percentage of income that a household spends on housing expenditures. Another method of studying affordability looks at the regular hourly wage of full-time workers who are paid only the minimum wage (as set by their local, regional, or national government). The hope is that full-time workers will be able to afford at least a small apartment in the area where they work. Some countries look at those living in relative poverty, which is usually defined as making less than 60% of the median household income. In their policy reports, they consider the presence or absence of housing for people making 60% of the median income.\n", "Since \"u\" can be defined as the utility received from a set of goods measured in quantity, \"q\", \"u\" can be replaced with \"f\"(\"q\") to produce a version of the true cost of living index that is based on price and quantities like most other price indices:\n\nIn simpler terms, the true cost-of-living index is the cost of achieving a certain level of utility (or standard of living) in one year relative to the cost of achieving the same level the next year.\n", "List of metropolitan economies in the United Kingdom\n\nThis list of metropolitan economies in the United Kingdom is compiled by the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C. and based upon the UK metropolitan areas defined by the ESPON project of the European Union. This is the most accurate metropolitan area data currently available for Europe, and the most consistent with United States definitions of metropolitan areas.\n", "A cost-of-living allowance is frequently given to members of the U.S. military stationed at overseas bases if the area to which a service member is assigned has a higher cost of living than the average area in the United States. For example, service members stationed in Japan receive a cost of living allowance of between $300 and $700 per month (depending on pay grade, years of service, and number of dependents), in addition to their base pay. This additional pay is non-taxable.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- ACCRA Cost of Living Index\n\nBULLET::::- United States Consumer Price Index\n\nBULLET::::- Consumer Price Index\n", "BULLET::::- ECA International: Cost of Living Survey 2016, Kuala Lumpur ranked 197th out of 262 global cities\n\nBULLET::::- ECA International: Cost of Living Survey 2017, Kuala Lumpur, George Town and Johor Bahru ranked 212th, 245th and 250th out of 262 global cities respectively\n\nBULLET::::- ECA International: Cost of Living Survey 2018, Kuala Lumpur ranked 182nd out of 475 global cities\n\nBULLET::::- ECA International: Global Liveability Index 2015, George Town, Kuala Lumpur and Johor Bahru ranked 118th, 118th and 126th out of 269 global cities respectively\n", "The disparity is explained by what is known as the imputed rental value of a home. A homeowner could choose to rent the home to others in exchange for money but instead chooses to live in the home to the exclusion of all possible renters. Therefore, the homeowner is also consuming housing by not permitting renters to pay for and occupy the home. The amount of money that the homeowner could receive in rent is the imputed rental value of the home.\n", "Two main factors determine a city’s ranking in Mercer’s survey – the relative strength of the relevant currency against the US dollar over the prior 12 months and price movements over the prior 12 months compared to those in New York City as the base.\n\nSection::::ECA International.\n", "BULLET::::- MasterCard: Global Destination Cities Index 2017, Kuala Lumpur ranked 8th in the world\n\nBULLET::::- MasterCard: Global Destination Cities Index 2018, Kuala Lumpur ranked 7th in the world\n\nBULLET::::- Mercer: Cost of Living Rankings 2016, Kuala Lumpur ranked 151st out of 209 global cities\n\nBULLET::::- Mercer: Cost of Living Rankings 2018, Kuala Lumpur ranked 145th out of 209 global cities\n\nBULLET::::- Mercer: Cost of Living Rankings 2019, Kuala Lumpur ranked 141st out of 209 global cities\n\nBULLET::::- Mercer: Quality of Living Rankings 2016, Kuala Lumpur ranked 86th out of 230 global cities\n", "Section::::United States.:New York City.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23613	why do you start feeling lightheaded when you start breathing in and out too fast?	That would be the effect of oversaturating your blood with oxygen. The first person to create chemically pure O2 gas noticed the same effect when he accidentally inhaled some of it. It's useful if you're doing something where you won't be able to breathe for a bit, as it will give you a few extra seconds before you need to breathe again. That said, it isn't actually "better" for you. Oxygen is, surprise surprise, an oxidizer, and oxidizers actually don't play very well with complex biological machinery. There was a period on Earth called the Great Oxygen Catastrophe, where plant-like organisms had covered the planet and no oxygen-consuming animal-like organisms existed yet. It would have wiped out all life if oxygen-consumers hadn't evolved. Along the same lines, too much oxygen in your body can actually cause damage to a ton of systems, including the nervous system and the DNA of individual cells. In fact, in strokes and cardiac arrests, EMS is instructed to get the patient's O2 sat to about 93% these days, rather than trying to get it to the 97-100% it usually sits at, because too much oxygen will accelerate the neurological damage and kill the patient faster. Don't be afraid of hyperventilating, though. If you could really die that way, we wouldn't be able to do it.	[ "BULLET::::- A decreased respiratory drive can also be the result of metabolic alkalosis, a state of decreased carbon dioxide in the blood\n\nBULLET::::- Central sleep apnea. During sleep, the breathing centers of the brain can pause their activity, leading to prolonged periods of apnea with potentially serious consequences.\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperventilation followed by prolonged breath-holding. This hyperventilation, attempted by some swimmers, reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the lungs. This reduces the urge to breathe. However, it also means that falling blood oxygen levels are not sensed, and can result in hypoxemia.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Ventilation.:Physical states.\n", "The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial pressure of 40 mm Hg. With intentional hyperventilation, the content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mm Hg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Arterial blood gas\n\nBULLET::::- Bosch reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Bottled gas\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon dioxide sensor\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon sequestration\n", "The drop in blood pressure seen in sepsis can cause lightheadedness and is part of the criteria for septic shock.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::3. Breath retention: When strong urges to breathe occur, take a full deep breath in. Hold the breath for around 15 - 20 seconds and let it go. The body may experience a normal head-rush sensation.\n\nThese three phases may be repeated for three consecutive rounds.\n\nSection::::Scientific investigations.\n\nSection::::Scientific investigations.:Resistance to cold.\n", "Note that the urge to breathe is triggered by rising carbon dioxide levels in the blood and not by the reduction of oxygen. The body can actually detect low levels of oxygen but this is not normally perceptible prior to blackout. Persistently elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the blood, hypercapnia (the opposite to hypocapnia), tend to desensitise the body to carbon dioxide, in which case the body may come to rely on the oxygen level in the blood to maintain respiratory drive. This is illustrated in the scenario of type II respiratory failure. However, in a normal healthy person there is no subjective awareness of low oxygen levels.\n", "BULLET::::- Congestive heart failure which is due to the heart's inability to pump the blood out of the pulmonary circulation at a sufficient rate resulting in elevation in wedge pressure and pulmonary edema – this may be due to left ventricular failure, arrhythmias, or fluid overload, e.g., from kidney failure or intravenous therapy.\n\nBULLET::::- Hypertensive crisis can cause pulmonary edema as the elevation in blood pressure and increased afterload on the left ventricle hinders forward flow and causes the elevation in wedge pressure and subsequent pulmonary edema.\n\nSection::::Types.:Non-cardiogenic.\n", "BULLET::::1. Controlled hyperventilation: The first phase involves 30 cycles of breathing. Each cycle goes as follows: take a powerful breath in, fully filling the lungs. Breathe out by passively releasing the breath, but not actively exhaling. Repeat this cycle at a steady pace thirty times. Hof says that this form of hyperventilation may lead to tingling sensations or light-headedness.\n\nBULLET::::2. Exhalation: After completion of the 30 cycles of controlled hyperventilation, take another deep breath in, and let it out completely. Hold the breath for as long as possible.\n", "The breathing reflex in the human body is weakly related to the amount of oxygen in the blood but strongly related to the amount of carbon dioxide (see Hypercapnia). During apnea, the oxygen in the body is used by the cells, and excreted as carbon dioxide. Thus, the level of oxygen in the blood decreases, and the level of carbon dioxide increases. Increasing carbon dioxide levels lead to a stronger and stronger breathing reflex, up to the \"breath-hold breakpoint\", at which the person can no longer voluntarily hold his or her breath. This typically occurs at an arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 55 mm Hg, but may differ significantly between people.\n", "Lightheadedness\n\nLightheadedness is a common and typically unpleasant sensation of dizziness or a feeling that one may faint. The sensation of lightheadedness can be short-lived, prolonged, or, rarely, recurring. In addition to dizziness, the individual may feel as though his or her head is weightless. The individual may also feel as though the room is \"spinning\" or moving (vertigo) associated with lightheadedness. Most causes of lightheadedness are not serious and either cure themselves quickly, or are easily treated.\n", "The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial CO pressure of 40 mm Hg. With intentional hyperventilation, the CO content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mm Hg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.\n\nSection::::Nitric oxide.\n", "Respiratory alkalosis (\"Pa\" CO < 35 mmHg) occurs when there is too little carbon dioxide in the blood. This may be due to hyperventilation or else excessive breaths given via a mechanical ventilator in a critical care setting. The action to be taken is to calm the person and try to reduce the number of breaths being taken to normalize the pH. The respiratory pathway tries to compensate for the change in pH in a matter of 2–4 hours. If this is not enough, the metabolic pathway takes place.\n\nUnder normal conditions, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation will give the blood pH\n", "Many people, especially as they age, experience lightheadedness if they arise too quickly from a lying or seated position. Lightheadedness often accompanies the flu, hypoglycaemia, common cold, or allergies.\n\nDizziness could be provoked by the use of antihistamine drugs, like levocetirizine or by some antibiotics or SSRIs. Nicotine or tobacco products can cause lightheadedness for inexperienced users. Narcotic drugs, such as codeine can also cause lightheadedness.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Physiological shunts, occur due to the effect of gravity. The highest concentration of blood in the pulmonary circulation occurs in the bases of the pulmonary tree compared to the highest pressure of gas in the apexes of the lungs. Alveoli may not be ventilated in shallow breathing.\n\nShunting may also occur in disease states:\n\nBULLET::::- Acute lung injury and adult respiratory distress syndrome, which may cause alveolar collapse. This will increase the amount of physiological shunting, and unlike many forms of shunting, can be managed by administering 100% Oxygen.\n", "Self-induced hypocapnia through hyperventilation is the basis for the dangerous schoolyard fainting game. Deliberate hyperventilation has been used by underwater breath-hold divers for the purpose of extending dive time as it effectively reduces respiratory drive due to low levels allowing one to break one's standard limit of breath holding at the risk of shallow water blackout (which is a significant cause of drowning) as while air hunger is reduced the oxygen levels are not increased, in fact hypocapnia reduces the oxygen levels available to the brain due to the elevated affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin (Bohr effect) hence highly increasing the chances of blackout.\n", "BULLET::::- The density of the breathing gas is higher at depth, so the effort required to fully inhale and exhale has increased, making breathing more difficult and less efficient (high work of breathing). The higher gas density also causes gas mixing within the lung to be less efficient, thus increasing the dead space .\n\nBULLET::::- The diver is deliberately hypoventilating, known as \"skip breathing\".\n\nSection::::During diving.:Carbon dioxide retention.:Skip breathing.\n", "The initial management of pulmonary edema, irrespective of the type or cause, is supporting vital functions. Therefore, if the level of consciousness is decreased it may be required to proceed to tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation to prevent airway compromise. Hypoxia (abnormally low oxygen levels) may require supplementary oxygen, but if this is insufficient then again mechanical ventilation may be required to prevent complications. Treatment of the underlying cause is the next priority; pulmonary edema secondary to infection, for instance, would require the administration of appropriate antibiotics.\n\nSection::::Management.:Cardiogenic pulmonary edema.\n", "People with HVS may feel that they cannot get enough air. In reality, they have about the same oxygenation in the arterial blood (normal values are about 98% for hemoglobin saturation) and too little carbon dioxide (hypocapnia) in their blood and other tissues. While oxygen is abundant in the bloodstream, HVS reduces effective delivery of that oxygen to vital organs due to low--induced vasoconstriction and the suppressed Bohr effect.\n", "Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease\n\nIn some individuals, the effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is to cause increased carbon dioxide retention, which may cause drowsiness, headaches, and in severe cases lack of respiration, which may lead to death. People with lung ailments or with central respiratory depression, who receive supplemental oxygen, require careful monitoring.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "One common symptom of respiratory arrest is cyanosis, a bluish discoloration of the skin resulting from an inadequate amount of oxygen in the blood. If respiratory arrest remains without any treatment, cardiac arrest will occur within minutes of hypoxemia, hypercapnia or both. At this point, patients will be unconscious or about to become unconscious.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduced capillary transit time occurs due to an increased blood flow within the pulmonary capillary. Capillary transit time (tc), at rest is around 0.8s, allowing plenty of time for the diffusion of oxygen into the circulation and the diffusion of CO out of the circulation. After training, the capillary volume is still the same however cardiac output is increased, resulting in a decreased capillary transit time, reducing to around 0.16s in trained individuals at maximal work rates. This does not give sufficient time for gas diffusion and results in a hypoxaemia.\n", "Irregular respirations occur when injury to parts of the brain interfere with the respiratory drive. Biot's respiration, in which breathing is rapid for a period and then absent for a period, occurs because of injury to the cerebral hemispheres or diencephalon. Hyperventilation can occur when the brain stem or tegmentum is damaged.\n", "BULLET::::- On application of expiratory force, pressure rises inside the chest forcing blood out of the pulmonary circulation into the left atrium. This causes a mild rise in stroke volume during the first few seconds of the maneuver.\n\nBULLET::::2. Reduced venous return and compensation\n", "Central nervous system oxygen toxicity manifests as symptoms such as visual changes (especially tunnel vision), ringing in the ears (tinnitus), nausea, twitching (especially of the face), behavioural changes (irritability, anxiety, confusion), and dizziness. This may be followed by a tonic–clonic seizure consisting of two phases: intense muscle contraction occurs for several seconds (tonic phase); followed by rapid spasms of alternate muscle relaxation and contraction producing convulsive jerking (clonic phase). The seizure ends with a period of unconsciousness (the postictal state). The onset of seizure depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas and exposure duration. However, exposure time before onset is unpredictable, as tests have shown a wide variation, both amongst individuals, and in the same individual from day to day. In addition, many external factors, such as underwater immersion, exposure to cold, and exercise will decrease the time to onset of central nervous system symptoms. Decrease of tolerance is closely linked to retention of carbon dioxide. Other factors, such as darkness and caffeine, increase tolerance in test animals, but these effects have not been proven in humans.\n", "BULLET::::- Two recruits of the sixth infantry: Also guarding the mail- robber, these were drunk. They were aroused when they heard the shifting in the cart after W--- bolted out, and they confused Mr. Lackobreath for W---. Seeing him standing upright, they believed he was in the middle of an escape attempt, knocked him down, and proceeded to lead him to the gallows.\n\nSection::::Plot Summary.\n", "BULLET::::- The diver is exhaling into a vessel that does not allow all the CO to escape to the environment, such as a long snorkel, full-face diving mask, or diving helmet, and the diver then reinhales from that vessel, causing increased dead space.\n\nBULLET::::- The carbon dioxide scrubber in the diver's rebreather is failing to remove sufficient carbon dioxide from the loop (higher inspired CO).\n\nBULLET::::- The diver is overexercising, producing excess carbon dioxide due to elevated metabolic activity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15142	Can anyone explain the Navient lawsuit and how it can affect borrowers?	Can't figure out too much yet - [here's a Forbes story with a basic summary]( URL_0 ). Essentially they are being accused of making it more difficult to understand what your payments are, made it far more difficult than it should have to make changes to your account, didn't handle payments correctly, and in the process of all of the above made borrowers pay more. I can tell you how this affected me personally. My loan rate went down by a full point for continually making payments on time for five years in a row. After a year of lower rates, they very quietly change my interest rate back to the higher rate. I didn't notice it for a few months because my payment was the same, just more went to interest and less to principle. When I called they claimed I was late on a payment (due on the 5th, late on the 10th) even though all of my records showed on time payments. I finally gave up calling afterdozens of calls trying to talk to a higher up with literally many hours on the phone. They never provided any proof that my payments were late, just claimed their records showed it. Basically they're stealing from us, hopefully this suit will make them fix it.	[ "On January 18, 2017 the CFPB, along with the Attorneys General of Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Washington, filed a complaint against Navient in the United States District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania alleging violations of the Fair Credit Reporting Act and Fair Debt Collection Act. It alleged that Navient \"systematically and illegally [failed] borrowers at every stage of repayment\" with \"abusive interest charges, hurting disabled military veterans by making inaccurate reports to credit companies about them and making repayments harder than necessary.\" According to the court filing, \n", "Navient was also sued by the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) for allegedly failing to divert teachers into public forgiveness plans.\n\nFormer Attorney General of Louisiana Charles C. Foti, Jr. and the law firm of Kahn Swick & Foti announced that they had started investigating Navient. The investigation is focusing on whether Navient’s officers and/or directors breached their fiduciary duties to Navient’s shareholders or otherwise violated state or federal laws.\n\nIn 2019, Navient's lending practices were the subject of an episode of Michael Lewis's \"Against the Rules\" podcast.\n\nSection::::Subsidiaries.\n\nBULLET::::- Pioneer Credit Recovery Inc.\n\nSection::::Student loan resistance groups.\n", "In the lower court it dealt with a follow-on aspect of finding — instead — a valid contribution: the question of whether, in a repossession scenario the pre-purchase home improver who is not the borrower nor the legal owner (in this case it was the spouse/partner of the borrower) is in \"actual occupation\". If so that would override and outrank the lender's interests in the property. That court's panel found (2-1) that Rosset's renovation works during the school day, including on the date of making of the mortgage/secured overdraft, did amount to actual occupation.\n\nSection::::Facts.\n", "In connection with the complaint, The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Mortgagee Review Board informed the company, that it has uncovered numerous violations of the Federal Housing Administration's (FHA) origination and underwriting requirements, including submitting false certifications and failing to document the borrower's income and creditworthiness. A court judgment was issued on March 3, 2010, permanently banning Lend America from the FHA and from doing business in the industry. It ended a five-month process that began when the Department of Housing and Urban Development's (HUD) Mortgagee Review Board declared that its parent company, Ideal Mortgage Bankers, committed 12 FHA violations, including origination and underwriting requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Navient also misreported information to consumer reporting agencies about thousands of borrowers who were totally and permanently disabled, including veterans whose total and permanent disability was connected to their military service, by making it appear as if those borrowers had defaulted on their student loans when they had not, damaging their credit; misrepresented one of its requirements for borrowers to release their cosigner from their private student loan, thereby denying or delaying access to an important feature on many cosigned private loans that relieves a cosigner of responsibility for the loan once the borrower meets certain eligibility criteria; and repeated the same errors in processing federal and private student loan borrowers’ payments month after month, even after borrowers complained to Navient about those errors.\"\n", "The company released a public statement and fact sheet denying the allegations and calling them politically motivated and harmful to borrowers.\n\nSince at least 2011, up to 2017, \"tens of thousands\" of complaints were filed against Navient. In 2017, 6,708 federal complaints were filed about the company, in addition to 4,185 private complaints – more than any other student loan lender.\n\nIn 2018, it was revealed that Navient had attempted to collect loans from co-signers after a student's accidental death.\n", "On May 28, 2015 three defendants—Navient Solutions Inc. (formerly known as Sallie Mae, Inc.), and Navient DE Corporation (formerly known as SLM DE Corporation), and Sallie Mae Bank—were charged with violating the Service members Civil Relief Act(SCRA) from 2005 through 2015 by \"failing to provide members of the military the 6 percent interest rate cap to which they were entitled for loans that were incurred before the military service began\". The defendants had to pay $60 million in compensation to the nearly 78,000 military service members \"who were forced to pay more for their student loans than is required under the SCRA\". Navient was fined $55,000 a civil penalty payable to the United States. Navient had to \"request that all three major credit bureaus delete negative credit history entries caused by the interest rate overcharges and improper default judgments\".\n", "In August 2015, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, which has been investigating the company for nearly two years, sent Navient a letter telling its executives that the agency's enforcement staff had found enough evidence to indicate the company violated consumer protection laws.\n\nOn May 28, 2015, the United States Department of Justice announced that nearly 78,000 military service members would begin receiving $60 million in compensation for being charged excess interest on their student loans by Navient.\n", "BULLET::::- \"For borrowers who did enroll in long-term repayment plans, Navient failed to disclose the annual deadline to renew those plans, misrepresented the consequences of non-renewal, and obscured its renewal notice to borrowers who were due for renewal. As a result, the affordable payment amount expired for hundreds of thousands of borrowers, resulting in an immediate increase in their monthly payment and other financial harm.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Navient systematically deterred numerous borrowers from obtaining access to some or all of the benefits and protections associated with these plans [plans limiting repayment based on income]. Despite assuring borrowers that it would help them find the right repayment option for their circumstances, Navient steered these borrowers experiencing financial hardship that was not short-term or temporary into costly payment relief designed for borrowers experiencing short-term financial problems, before or instead of affordable long-term repayment options that were more beneficial to them in light of their financial situation.\n", "On July 5, 2016, Guy Micciche filed a complaint against Navient in U.S. District Court alleging that the debt collector contacted the plaintiff, several times, on his cellular phone using an automated dialing system. In the complaints, the plaintiff alleged that he told Navient to stop calling him, but that the company persisted.\n", "On October 20, 2009, The United States Attorney General filed a civil complaint against Lend America, seeking a court-ordered injunction to prevent the company from making loans insured by the Federal Housing Administration (“FHA”) and also seeking relief against Lend America’s Executive Vice President and Chief Business Strategist, Michael Ashley. The complaint alleges that Lend America falsely certified to HUD that borrowers who received over $14 million in loans met HUD’s lending requirements when, in fact, the company knew they did not. In addition, the complaint documents some 40 borrower examples where Lend America made up incomes or otherwise submitted fraudulent loans to the FHA.\n", "In January 2014, the ACLU filed suit against the Sabine Parish School Board, Superintendent Sara Erarb, Principal Gene Wright and teacher Rita Roark of Negreet High School, alleging officials at one of its schools harassed a sixth-grader because of his Buddhist faith and that the district routinely pushes Christian beliefs upon their students. In March 2014, the U.S. District Court ruled against the school board.\n\nSection::::Climate.\n", "A 25 December 2017 Innoson press release stated that GTBank had never granted Innoson a ₦2.4 billion 2009 loan, but a ₦500 million loan in an offer letter dated 17 December 2009; their last loan transaction was in 2011. The principal terms and security for the loan were: legal/tripartite legal mortgage over Innoson’s properties, valued at ₦1.1 billion in 2010 by GTB-appointed appraisers; a 25-percent equity contribution by Innoson on each letter-of-credit (LC) transaction, and shipping documents worth ₦500 million could be released at any time to Innoson. On 13 June 2018, Innoson admitted distorting the Supreme Court directive in its case with GTBank and apologised for misleading the public with their false claim of a Supreme Court Order against Guaranty Trust Bank.\n", "On September 24, 2009, the U.S. District Court for the District of Arizona, in \"Cervantes v. Countrywide Home Loans, Inc., et al.\", dismissed all federal and state law claims made by three borrowers in a complaint filed against a group of defendants that included MERS. The court discussed whether MERS was a proper beneficiary but only in the context of whether its involvement constituted the tort of fraud on the borrowers. The court found the mere use of MERS was not common law fraud on the borrowers, finding that \"Plaintiffs have failed to allege what effect, if any, listing the MERS system as a 'sham' beneficiary on the deed of trust had upon their obligations as borrowers.\"\n", "An Australian businessman who owned 3 blocks of property with several business partners won a judgement against National Australia Bank in 2010, in which the Supreme Court of New South Wales found that the bank had incorrectly charged excess interest on the related mortgages on two separate occasions. During one period of time, the interest rate on the mortgage was to be fixed at 5.65%, but NAB incorrectly charged 5.85%. At another point during the servicing of the mortgage, National Australia Bank incorrectly charged a \"default\" interest rate of 20%, when it should have charged less than 6%, as the loan was not in default. Even if the Australian bank had a legitimate reason to charge such a default rate, that rate should have only been an additional 4%, not 14% according to Justice Stephen Rothman's judgement. The entire proceedings lasted six years.\n", "Borrowers had little or no ability to manipulate other key data points that were frequently falsified during the mortgage process. These included credit scores, home appraisals and loan-to-value ratios. These were all factors that were under the control of mortgage professionals. In 2012, for example, New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman reached a $7.8 million settlement of allegations that a leading appraisal management firm had helped inflate real estate appraisals on a wide scale basis in order to help a major lender push through more loan deals. The attorney general office's lawsuit alleged that eAppraiseIT, which did more than 260,000 appraisals nationally for Washington Mutual, caved to pressure from WaMu loan officers to select pliable appraisers who were willing to submit inflated property valuations.\n", "In the case of \"Anwar v. Fairfield Greenwich\" (SDNY) relating to fund administrator liability for failure to handle its NAV-related obligations properly, the defendants settled in 2016 by paying the \"Anwar\" plaintiffs $235 million. The court held in the case, prior to the settlement, that \"it is reasonable to infer from Plaintiffs' allegations that the Administrators were aware that Plaintiffs would—and did—rely on their statements of the Funds' NAVs that were sent to the investors... Accordingly, the Court finds that Plaintiffs allege a relationship between the investors and the Administrators that gives rise to a duty of care ...\"\n", "In 2013, Thomsons successfully acted for the Plaintiffs in the Maiden Civil Case in Australia under the Personal Property Securities Act 2009 (Cth) (PPSA). The case established that the nemo dat rule has been displaced in Australia where the PPSA applies, and businesses that lease personal property must declare their interests under the Personal Property Securities Register, to maintain a priority.\n", "In December 2012 an administrative error was uncovered in the wording of the loan agreements made by the bank in 2008 for around 152,000 customers; the error may cost an estimated £270 million. As a result of the error the affected customers, who were borrowing £25,000 or less, may be entitled to a repayment of interest. In December 2014, the High Court ruled that the compensation must be paid in a test case that NRAM brought against one of its employees. This was later reversed by the Court of Appeal in July 2015.\n", "Section::::Opinion of the Court.\n", "Activist lawyers were challenging this notion in lawsuits across the country, mostly in state courts, with different degrees of success at different levels. In Pennsylvania, Michael Donovan, Michael Malakoff and Ann Miller had filed one of their own, with the intent of taking it to the Supreme Court and forcing a resolution of the issue. Barbara Smiley was a California woman who had filed a class action against Citibank's South Dakota subsidiary in her state's courts in 1992 alleging that the $15 late fee she was charged for her Citibank Classic card violated California law. After reading about the Pennsylvania lawyers in \"Business Week\", she had contacted them to represent her.\n", "Michael later stated that Bonnen's Twitter post emerged from an earlier lawsuit by Bonnen that Horizon violated the Chicago Residential Landlord Tenant Ordinance, although Michael denied his suit was a strategic lawsuit against public participation. The exact cause of Bonnen's lawsuit was not discussed by Michael, but he acknowledged a leaky roof at the apartment complex caused by a contractor in March 2009. Court documents revealed that Bonnen originally sued Horizon for failing to pay interest on security deposits and failing to provide tenants with required porch safety disclosures.\n", "A United States Department of Education audit revealed that from 1993 to 2007, Nelnet had utilized a loophole in federal tax legislation that allowed the company to receive a higher interest rate on specified loans, generating $278 million from taxpayers. Nelnet disputed the findings of the audit through a letter written to the United States Department of Education letting them know of this loophole, and ultimately, U.S. Department of Education ruled that Nelnet would keep the $278 million.\n", "In November 2013 (\"Minnesota v. Does\"), Prenda apparent shell AF Holdings was directed to repay settlements obtained from four alleged downloaders, in a ruling that stated there was no evidence the claims made were truthful, the copyrights described were held, authentic, or legally assigned by correct signature, and that \"The copyright-assignment agreements [for] each complaint in each of these five cases are not what they purport to be. Alan Cooper denies signing either agreement and also denies giving anyone else the authority to sign them on his behalf. AF Holdings failed to produce any credible evidence that the assignments were authentic. The Court has been the victim of a fraud perpetrated by AF Holdings...\" The court, as in other cases, referred the issues of misconduct to \"federal and state law enforcement at the direction of the United States Attorney, the Minnesota Attorney General and the Boards of Professional Responsibility\", noting that \"The Court expressly disbelieves Steele's testimony\" in explaining their use of Cooper's signature. The repayment was reversed on appeal in March 2014, as the magistrate judge had exceeded the \"inherent authority of the court\" and the signatures had not been material to the outcome.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03958	Why when humans have a fever do they feel freezing cold	When we have a fever our internal thermostat runs a lot higher than normal to kill off the virus. Our brains try to help our bodies fight it off by becoming as warm as possible, so our minds get tricked into feeling cold or shivering to promote even more heat to the body.	[ "BULLET::::- HEAT repeat domain, a solenoid protein domain found in a number of cytoplasmic proteins\n\nBULLET::::- Heat vs. cold, the sensation of temperatures above and below body temperature in Thermoception\n\nSection::::Science.:Healthcare.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a body temperature above the normal range in response to internal physiological conditions, such as an infection\n\nBULLET::::- Heat illness or heat-related illness, a spectrum of mild to severe acute medical problems caused by environmental exposure to heat:\n", "With fever, the body's core temperature rises to a higher temperature through the action of the part of the brain that controls the body temperature; with hyperthermia, the body temperature is raised without the influence of the heat control centers.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hypothermia.\n\nIn hypothermia, body temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In humans, this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body's core temperature drops by below normal temperature.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Basal body temperature.\n", "Chills is a feeling of coldness occurring during a high fever, but sometimes is also a common symptom which occurs alone in specific people. It occurs during fever due to the release of cytokines and prostaglandins as part of the inflammatory response, which increases the set point for body temperature in the hypothalamus. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold or chills until the new set point is reached. Shivering also occurs along with chills because the patient's body produces heat during muscle contraction in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point. When it does not accompany a high fever, it is normally a light chill. Sometimes a chill of medium power and short duration may occur during a scare, especially in scares of fear, commonly interpreted like or confused by trembling.\n", "The normal human body temperature is often stated as . Hyperthermia and fever, are defined as a temperature of greater than .\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSigns and symptoms vary depending on the degree of hypothermia, and may be divided by the three stages of severity. Infants with hypothermia may feel cold when touched, with bright red skin and an unusual lack of energy.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Mild.\n", "BULLET::::- – (Classed as hyperthermia if not caused by a fever) – Feeling hot, sweating, feeling thirsty, feeling very uncomfortable, slightly hungry. If this is caused by fever, there may also be chills.\n\nSection::::Temperature variation.:Normal.\n\nBULLET::::- is a typically reported range for normal body temperature.\n\nSection::::Temperature variation.:Cold.\n\nBULLET::::- 36 °C (96.8 °F) – Feeling cold, mild to moderate shivering. Body temperature may drop this low during sleep. May be a normal body temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- – (Hypothermia is less than ) – Intense shivering, numbness and bluish/grayness of the skin. There is the possibility of heart irritability.\n", "BULLET::::- Arteriolar vasodilation occurs. The smooth muscle walls of the arterioles relax allowing increased blood flow through the artery. This redirects blood into the superficial capillaries in the skin increasing heat loss by convection and conduction.\n\nSection::::In hot and humid conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- Cooling was initiated immediately in the emergency department on hospital arrival with ice packs around groin, armpits and neck and infusion of up to 3 L of refrigerated saline\n\nBULLET::::- All patients were \"deeply sedated\"\n\nBULLET::::- No device-specific patient injuries were observed; skin injuries with the Arctic Sun or DVT with Coolgard\n\nBULLET::::- No differences in shivering: \"\n\nBULLET::::- Article quote: \"Skin temperature is known to influence thermoregulatory control, and it previously has been speculated that core cooling could result in less shivering.\n", "BULLET::::- 31 °C (87.8 °F) – Comatose, very rarely conscious. No or slight reflexes. Very shallow breathing and slow heart rate. Possibility of serious heart rhythm problems.\n\nBULLET::::- 28 °C (82.4 °F) – Severe heart rhythm disturbances are likely and breathing may stop at any time. Patient may appear to be dead.\n\nBULLET::::- 24–26 °C (75.2–78.8 °F) or less – Death usually occurs due to irregular heart beat or respiratory arrest; however, some patients have been known to survive with body temperatures as low as .\n\nSection::::Historical understanding.\n", "Rescuers who are trained in mountain survival techniques are taught to expect this; however, people who die from hypothermia in urban environments are sometimes incorrectly assumed to have been subjected to sexual assault.\n\nOne explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Terminal burrowing.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between . The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold. This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure. This is more common in young children. Fevers do not typically go higher than .\n", "Section::::In cold conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Heat is lost mainly through the hands and feet.\n\nBULLET::::- Sweat production is decreased.\n\nBULLET::::- The minute muscles under the surface of the skin called arrector pili muscles (attached to an individual hair follicle) contract (piloerection), lifting the hair follicle upright. This makes the hairs stand on end, which acts as an insulating layer, trapping heat. This is what also causes goose bumps since humans do not have very much hair and the contracted muscles can easily be seen.\n", "Section::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to fever.\n\nFever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.\n\nSection::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to biofeedback.\n\nSome monks are known to practice Tummo, biofeedback meditation techniques, that allow them to raise their body temperatures substantially.\n\nSection::::Low body temperature increases lifespan.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more. A raised temperature is not always a fever. For example, the temperature of a healthy person rises when he or she exercises, but this is not considered a fever, as the set point is normal. On the other hand, a \"normal\" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person. For example, medically frail elderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a \"normal\" temperature of may represent a clinically significant fever.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Types.\n", "Cold-sensitive thermoreceptors give rise to the sensations of cooling, cold and freshness.\n\nIn the cornea cold receptors are thought to respond with an increase in firing rate to cooling produced by evaporation of lacrimal fluid 'tears' and thereby to elicit a blink reflex.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n", "A fever occurs when the core temperature is set higher, through the action of the pre-optic region of the anterior hypothalamus. For example, in response to a bacterial or viral infection, certain white blood cells within the blood will release pyrogens which have a direct effect on the anterior hypothalamus, causing body temperature to rise, much like raising the temperature setting on a thermostat.\n\nIn contrast, hyperthermia occurs when the body temperature rises without a change in the heat control centers.\n", "BULLET::::- Steinar Gundersen (also known as \"Azarak\") – lead guitars\n\nBULLET::::- A.O. Grønbech (Obsidian Claw) – rhythm guitars\n\nBULLET::::- Lars K. Norberg – bass\n\nBULLET::::- Jonna Nikula – keyboards\n\nSection::::Credits.:Session.\n\nBULLET::::- Victor Brandt – bass (on \"My Skin is Cold\")\n\nBULLET::::- Snorre Ruch – additional guitars (on \"My Skin is Cold\")\n\nBULLET::::- Knut \"Euroboy\" Schreiner – guitar solo (on \"Existential Fear-Questions\")\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nBULLET::::- Engineered by Lars Klokkerhaug at Sonic Society, April 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Mixed by Lars Klokkerhaug and Satyr at Sonic Society, April 2008\n\nSection::::Trivia.\n", "In healthy adults, the range of normal, healthy temperatures for oral temperature is , for rectal it is , for tympanic membrane (the ear drum) it is , and for axillary (the armpit) it is . Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine defines a fever as a morning oral temperature of 37.2 °C (98.9 °F) or an afternoon oral temperature of 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) while the normal daily temperature variation is typically 0.5 °C (0.9 °F).\n", "The neural activation mechanisms involved in the regulation of body temperature are largely undefined. It is known that sympathetic pathways are involved in increasing heat production and reducing heat loss and are activated by neurons in the rostal medullary raphe (RMR). These neurons were identified as playing an important role in the elevation of body temperature during both cold exposure and induced fever by observation that hyperpolarization prior to exposure to these conditions inhibits the elevation of body temperature in response.\n\nSection::::Role in thermoregulation.:Febrile response.\n", "Another example is found in the legs of an Arctic fox treading on snow. The paws are necessarily cold, but blood can circulate to bring nutrients to the paws without losing much heat from the body. Proximity of arteries and veins in the leg results in heat exchange, so that as the blood flows down it becomes cooler, and doesn't lose much heat to the snow. As the (cold) blood flows back up from the paws through the veins, it picks up heat from the blood flowing in the opposite direction, so that it returns to the torso in a warm state, allowing the fox to maintain a comfortable temperature, without losing it to the snow. This system is so efficient that the Arctic fox does not begin to shiver until the temperature drops to .\n", "An organism at optimum temperature is considered \"afebrile\" or \"apyrexic\", meaning \"without fever\". If temperature is raised, but the setpoint is not raised, then the result is hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hyperthermia.\n", "BULLET::::- Brown adipocytes are also capable of producing heat via a process called non-shivering thermogenesis. In this process, triglycerides are burned into heat, thereby increasing body temperature.\n\nSection::::Uses of hypothermia.\n\nAdjusting the human body temperature downward has been used therapeutically, in particular, as a method of stabilizing a body following trauma. It has been suggested that adjusting the A1 receptor of the hypothalamus may allow humans to enter a hibernation-like state of reduced body temperature, which could be useful for applications such as long-duration space flight.\n\nSection::::Related diseases and syndromes.\n\nBULLET::::- Hypothermia\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperthermia\n\nBULLET::::- Heat stroke\n", "In many respects, the hypothalamus works like a thermostat. When the set point is raised, the body increases its temperature through both active generation of heat and retention of heat. Peripheral vasoconstriction both reduces heat loss through the skin and causes the person to feel cold. Norepinephrine increases thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and muscle contraction through shivering raises the metabolic rate. If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new set point in the hypothalamus, then shivering begins in order to use muscle movements to produce more heat. When the hypothalamic set point moves back to baseline either spontaneously or with medication, the reverse of these processes (vasodilation, end of shivering and nonshivering heat production) and sweating are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.\n", "A temperature \"setpoint\" is the level at which the body attempts to maintain its temperature. When the setpoint is raised, the result is a fever. Most fevers are caused by infectious disease and can be lowered, if desired, with antipyretic medications.\n\nAn early morning temperature higher than or a late afternoon temperature higher than is normally considered a fever, assuming that the temperature is elevated due to a change in the hypothalamus's setpoint. Lower thresholds are sometimes appropriate for elderly people. The normal daily temperature variation is typically , but can be greater among people recovering from a fever.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.