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2018-04124	Why can't our teeth heal like our skin and bones?	Essentially, it's because there is no mechanism to get resources and healing cells up to the crown of your teeth. The roots are surrounded by blood vessels that can deliver healing resources, but there is no blood going to the top of your teeth. Your saliva can provide a limited amount of healing to the enamel because of the calcium in contains, but it's very minor, and more of a maintenance process, rather than true healing.	[ "BULLET::::- In her role as resident pessimist, lacking vision, Sabina says, \"That's all we do—always beginning again! Over and over again. Always beginning again.\" After each disaster, they just rebuild the world again. She also says: \"Don't forget that a few years ago we came through the depression by the skin of our teeth! One more tight squeeze like that and where will we be?\" And later she says...\"My nerves can't stand it. But if you have any ideas about improving this crazy old world, I'm really with you. I really am.\"\n", "Enamel is the hardest substance in the human body and contains the highest percentage of minerals (at 96%), with water and organic material composing the rest. The primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate. Enamel is formed on the tooth while the tooth develops within the jaw bone before it erupts into the mouth. Once fully formed, enamel does not contain blood vessels or nerves. Remineralisation of teeth can repair damage to the tooth to a certain degree but damage beyond that cannot be repaired by the body. The maintenance and repair of human tooth enamel is one of the primary concerns of dentistry.\n", "As a person ages, their permanent teeth have been exposed to normal mechanical forces, such as chewing, and also more abnormal mechanical forces, such as bruxism (grinding) and traumatic injury. Permanent teeth may also be affected by oral disease. There are many ways in which a person may protect his or her permanent teeth from loss.\n", "BULLET::::- Challenges are associated with root canal treatment of teeth affected by DI due to pulp chamber and root canal obliteration, or narrowing of such spaces.\n\nBULLET::::- If root canal treatment is indicated, it should be done in a similar way like with any other tooth. Further consideration is given for restoring the root-treated tooth as it has weaker dentine which may not withstand the restoration.\n", "At some point before the tooth erupts into the mouth, but after the maturation stage, the ameloblasts are broken down. Consequently, enamel, unlike many other tissues of the body, has no way to regenerate itself. After destruction of enamel from decay or injury, neither the body nor a dentist can restore the enamel tissue. Enamel can be affected further by non-pathologic processes.\n\nEnamel is covered by various structures in relation to the development of tooth:\n\nProgress of enamel formation for primary teeth\n\nSection::::Enamel loss.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nResearchers in Japan have successfully regrown fully functional teeth in mice. Epithelial and mesenchymal cells were extracted from the mice, cultured to produce a tooth \"germ\", and the germ was then implanted into the bone at the space of a missing tooth. A tooth of the correct external and internal structure, hardness, strength, and sensitivity later erupted in the space, eventually meeting the opposing tooth in a manner similar to an original natural tooth. This technique may be a possible future treatment for replacement of missing teeth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Teeth cleaning\n\nBULLET::::- Tooth brushing\n\nBULLET::::- Flossing\n", "Enamel is the hardest substance in the human body and contains the highest percentage of minerals, 96%, with water and organic material composing the rest. The primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate. Enamel is formed on the tooth while the tooth is developing within the gum, before it erupts into the mouth. Once fully formed, it does not contain blood vessels or nerves. Remineralisation of teeth can repair damage to the tooth to a certain degree but damage beyond that cannot be repaired by the body. The maintenance and repair of human tooth enamel is one of the primary concerns of dentistry.\n", "Dentin hypersensitivity may affect individuals' quality of life. Over time, the dentin-pulp complex may adapt to the decreased insulation by laying down tertiary dentin, thereby increasing the thickness between the pulp and the exposed dentin surface and lessening the symptoms of hypersensitivity. Similar process such as formation of a smear layer (e.g. from toothbrushing) and dentin sclerosis. These physiologic repair mechanisms are likely to occur with or without any form of treatment, but they take time.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "According to hydrodynamic theory, fluids within dentinal tubules are believed to be the mechanism by which pain receptors are triggered within the pulp of the tooth. Since sclerotic dentin prevents the passage of such fluids, pain that would otherwise serve as a warning of the invading bacteria may not develop at first. Consequently, dental caries may progress for a long period of time without any sensitivity of the tooth, allowing for greater loss of tooth structure.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Dentin.:Tertiary dentin.\n", "Wear on the surface of a tooth can lead to the exposure of the underlying dentine. When wear is severe tertiary dentine may form to help protect the pulp chamber. Frequency of tertiary dentin in different species of primate suggests teeth 'heal' at different rates in different species. Gorillas have a high rate of tertiary dentin formation, with over 90% of worn teeth showing tertiary dentine. Hominins have a much lower rate of tertiary dentin formation, with around 15% of teeth that have dentin exposed through wear showing tertiary dentin formation. Chimpanzees have rates in between gorillas and humans, with 47% of worn teeth showing ‘healing’.\n", "HBSS also has been shown to be capable of replacing lost cell metabolites. Since a cell that has been cut off from its blood supply depletes its stored metabolites after fifteen minutes, a tooth that has been extra-oral for one hour has less vital cells to reconnect with the bone ligament cells.\n", "It is thought that following the union of bone and tooth and the obliteration of the PDL, the protective regulators released by the PDL to protect the root from resorption are no longer present. This results in the tooth tissue being resorbed by osteoclasts and replaced with bone like it was part of the continuous homeostatic process of bone turnover.\n\nSection::::Classifications.:Transient inflammatory resorption.\n\nAlso known as external surface resorption. It is a self-limiting process and is often and incidental radiographic finding. Transient inflammatory resorption undergoes healing and should be monitored only.\n", "Section::::Tooth loss.\n\nPeople can become entirely edentulous (without teeth) for many reasons, the most prevalent being removal due to dental disease, which typically relates to oral flora control, i.e., periodontal disease and tooth decay. Other reasons include pregnancy, tooth developmental defects caused by severe malnutrition, genetic defects such as dentinogenesis imperfecta, trauma, or drug use.\n", "Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose. The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.\n", "Research has shown that the critical factor for reduction of the death of the tooth root cells and the subsequent root replacement resorption following reimplantation of knocked-out teeth is maintenance of normal cell physiology and metabolism of the cells left on the tooth root while the tooth is out of the socket. In order to maintain this normalcy, the environment in which the teeth are stored must supply the optimum internal cell pressure, cell nutrients and pH.\n\nSection::::Management.:Storage media.\n", "Maximum preservation and protection of natural teeth is best for eating and chewing; however, there are three basic ways to replace a missing tooth or teeth, including a fixed dental bridge, dentures, and dental implants. Each alternative has its own benefits and drawbacks. It is important to consider a patient's medical, financial, and emotional situation. It is recommended that a patient experiencing tooth loss visits a dentist to discuss which replacement method is best suited for his or her situation. It has been shown that a non-removable replacement, such as a bridge or implant appears to provide patients with the best sense of security and well-being.\n", "Every tooth is connected to its surrounding bone by the periodontal ligament. The tooth receives its nourishment through this ligament. When a tooth is knocked-out, this ligament is stretched and splits in half; half stays on the tooth root and half stays on the socket wall. If these two halves can be kept alive, the tooth can be replanted and the halves of the ligament will reattach and the tooth will remain vital. The half that stays on the socket wall, since it remains connected to the bone blood supply, is naturally kept alive. However, the ligament cells that remain on the tooth root lose their blood and nutrition supply and must be artificially maintained. They must be protected from two potentially destructive processes: cell crushing and loss of normal cell metabolism. All treatment between the time of the accident and the ultimate replantation must be focused on preventing these two possibilities.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Dentin.\n\nUnlike enamel, the dentin reacts to the progression of dental caries. After tooth formation, the ameloblasts, which produce enamel, are destroyed once enamel formation is complete and thus cannot later regenerate enamel after its destruction. On the other hand, dentin is produced continuously throughout life by odontoblasts, which reside at the border between the pulp and dentin. Since odontoblasts are present, a stimulus, such as caries, can trigger a biologic response. These defense mechanisms include the formation of sclerotic and tertiary dentin.\n", "Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel. This process, known as \"demineralisation\", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH, typically considered to be 5.5. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.\n", "The damage to teeth and gums comes from the immune system as it attempts to destroy the microbes that are disrupting the normal symbiosis between the oral tissues and the oral microbe community. As in other tissues, Langerhans cells in the epithelium take up antigens from the microbes, and present them to the immune system, leading to movement of white blood cells into the affected tissues. This process in turn activates osteoclasts which begin to destroy bone, and it activates matrix metalloproteinases that destroy ligaments. So, in summary, it is bacteria which initiates the disease, but key destructive events are brought about by the exaggerated response from the host's immune system.\n", "BULLET::::- The incidence of cemental caries increases in older adults as gingival decline occurs from either trauma or periodontal illness. It is a chronic condition that forms a large, shallow lesion and slowly invades first the root's cementum and then dentin to cause a chronic infection of the pulp. Because dental pain is a late finding, many lesions are not detected early, resulting in restorative obstacles and increased tooth loss.\n", "BULLET::::- Dentin Characteristics: Dentine of pulpless teeth is stiffer and more susceptible to fracture\n\nBULLET::::- Corrosion: Corrosion of pins and posts can contribute\n\nBULLET::::- Use of a spreader: The wedging effect of the spreader during lateral condensation can lead to it.\n\nSection::::Vertical root fracture.:Treatment.\n\nA clinician should remember that whilst a root fracture remains, bone around the tooth is continuing to be lost, compromising the success of any future potential implants. \n\nAnterior teeth with a vertical root fracture have a very poor prognosis and treatment is mainly extraction. \n", "Osteoclasts are active during bone regulation, there is constant equilibrium of bone resorption and deposition. Damage to the PDL can lead to RANKL release activating osteoclasts. Osteoclasts in close proximity to the root surface will resorb the root surface cementum and underlying root dentin. This can vary in severity from evidence of microscopic pits in the root surface to complete devastation of the root surface.\n", "The incidence of cemental caries increases in older adults as gingival recession occurs from either trauma or periodontal disease. It is a chronic condition that forms a large, shallow lesion and slowly invades first the root’s cementum and then dentin to cause a chronic infection of the pulp (see further discussion under classification by affected hard tissue). Because dental pain is a late finding, many lesions are not detected early, resulting in restorative challenges and increased tooth loss.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Management & Treatment.\n\nThe most basic treatment for teeth with pulpal necrosis is root canal treatment. This involves the use of biologically accepted mechanical and chemical treatment of the root system, followed by the placement of a root filling, allowing healing of the periradicular tissues to occur.\n\nPulpal regeneration can be considered if the following criteria are met:\n\nBULLET::::1. Incomplete root development and incomplete apex closure\n\nBULLET::::2. Apexogenesis is not applicable as there is apical closure\n" ]	[ "If the skin and bones of humans are able to heal, then teeth should also be able to heal. " ]	[ "The body is unable to provide the teeth with the resources that it needs to heal the damaged teeth." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If the skin and bones of humans are able to heal, then teeth should also be able to heal. ", "If the skin and bones of humans are able to heal, then teeth should also be able to heal. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The body is unable to provide the teeth with the resources that it needs to heal the damaged teeth.", "The body is unable to provide the teeth with the resources that it needs to heal the damaged teeth." ]
2018-01032	why do cough lozenges work on sore throat when our saliva goes into the food pipe whereas our vocal chords are inside the windpipe?	Most sore throats hurt at the back of your mouth, right at the "top" of the throat. So swallowing the melted lozenge with its numbing ingredient (usually menthol or pectin) repeatedly coats the inflamed area and reduces pain for a little while.	[ "Section::::History.:Search for new material.\n", "Section::::History.:First study.\n", "The vocal cords consist of five layers of cells:\n\nBULLET::::- Squamous epithelium\n\nBULLET::::- Superficial lamina propria (Reinke's space)\n\nBULLET::::- Intermediate lamina propria\n\nBULLET::::- Deep lamina propria\n\nBULLET::::- Vocalis muscle\n", "Section::::History.:Prototype.\n", "In severe cases of bacterial laryngitis, such as supraglottitis or epiglottitis, there is a higher risk of the airway becoming blocked. An urgent referral should be made to manage the airway. Treatment may involve humidification, corticosteroids, intravenous antibiotics, and nebulised adrenaline.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Fungal.\n\nFungal laryngitis can be treated with oral antifungal tablets and antifungal solutions. These are typically used for up to three weeks and treatment may need to be repeated if the fungal infection returns.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Trauma.\n\nLaryngitis caused by excessive use or misuse of the voice can be managed though vocal hygiene measures.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chronic laryngitis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chronic laryngitis.:Reflux.\n", "Lepsius typically characterized ejective consonants as tenuis, as they are completely unaspirated, and wrote them with the Greek \"spiritus lenis\" (\"p’\", \"t’\", etc.), which may be the source of the modern convention for ejectives in the IPA. However, when his sources made it clear that there was some activity in the throat, he transcribed them as emphatics. \n", "Throat lozenge\n\nA throat lozenge (also known as a cough drop, troche, cachou, or cough sweet) is a small, typically medicated tablet intended to be dissolved slowly in the mouth to temporarily stop coughs and lubricate and soothe irritated tissues of the throat (usually due to a sore throat), possibly from the common cold or influenza. Cough tablets have taken the name lozenge, based on their original shape, a diamond.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n", "The most important role of the larynx is its protecting function; the prevention of foreign objects from entering the lungs by coughing and other reflexive actions. A cough is initiated by a deep inhalation through the vocal folds, followed by the elevation of the larynx and the tight adduction (closing) of the vocal folds. The forced expiration that follows, assisted by tissue recoil and the muscles of expiration, blows the vocal folds apart, and the high pressure expels the irritating object out of the throat. Throat clearing is less violent than coughing, but is a similar increased respiratory effort countered by the tightening of the laryngeal musculature. Both coughing and throat clearing are predictable and necessary actions because they clear the respiratory passageway, but both place the vocal folds under significant strain.\n", "The eugenol in clove smoke causes a numbing of the throat which can diminish the gag reflex in users, leading researchers to recommend caution for individuals with respiratory infections. There have also been a few cases of aspiration pneumonia in individuals with normal respiratory tracts possibly because of the diminished gag reflex.\n\nSection::::Legal status in the United States.\n\nIn the United States, cigarettes were the subject of legal restrictions and political debate, including a proposed 2009 US Senate bill that would have prohibited cigarettes from having a \"characterizing flavor\" of certain ingredients other than tobacco and menthol.\n", "A confirmatory diagnosis of laryngeal papillomatosis can only be obtained through a biopsy, involving microscopic examination and HPV testing of a sample of the growth. Biopsy samples are collected under general anesthesia, either through direct laryngoscopy or fiberoptic bronchoscopy.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "The laryngeals get their name because they were believed by Hermann Möller and Albert Cuny to have had a pharyngeal, epiglottal, or glottal place of articulation, involving a constriction near the larynx. While this is still possible, many linguists now think of \"laryngeals\", or some of them, as having been velar or uvular.\n", "The papillomas can travel past the larynx and infect extralaryngeal sites. In more aggressive cases, infection of the lungs can occur with progressive airway obstruction. Although rare (less than 1% of people with laryngeal papillomatosis), transformation from a benign form to a malignant form is also observed. Death can result from these complications (morbidity rate is around 1-2%).\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Laryngeal saccules\n\nLaryngeal saccules or laryngeal ventricles are soft tissue masses located between the vocal folds and the lateral wall of the larynx in canines. Their function is not well understood, but in brachycephalic breeds the saccules can become everted and protrude into the laryngeal opening, causing symptoms such as snoring, noisy breathing, coughing, nasal congestion, and shortness of breath in affected dogs.\n\nSection::::Role in airway disease.\n", "In pharyngeal aspiration, the substance is placed in the pharynx, which is higher in the respiratory tract, avoiding the major source of technical difficulty and trauma to the animal. The deposition pattern of pharyngeal aspiration is also more dispersed than that of intratracheal instillation, making it more similar to inhalation, and the lung responses are qualitatively similar. Nevertheless, pharyngeal aspiration still leads to more particle agglomeration than inhalation, making its effects less potent.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n", "Differentiating a viral and a bacterial cause of a sore throat based on symptoms alone is difficult. Thus, a throat swab often is done to rule out a bacterial cause.\n\nThe modified Centor criteria may be used to determine the management of people with pharyngitis. Based on five clinical criteria, it indicates the probability of a streptococcal infection.\n\nOne point is given for each of the criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Absence of a cough\n\nBULLET::::- Swollen and tender cervical lymph nodes\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature more than\n\nBULLET::::- Tonsillar exudate or swelling\n", "Based on the results of the laryngoscopy, Reinke's edema can be classified using a standardized system set in place by Yonekawa. This system characterizes the disease based disease severity.\n\nYonekawa Classification:\n\nBULLET::::- Grade I – Lesions contact the anterior third of the vocal fold\n\nBULLET::::- Grade II – Lesions contact the anterior two-thirds of the vocal fold\n\nBULLET::::- Grade III – Lesions contact the entirety of the vocal fold\n", "Sato et al. carried out a histopathologic investigation of unphonated human VF. Vocal fold mucosae, which were unphonated since birth, of three young adults (17, 24, and 28 years old) were looked at using light and electron microscopy. The results show that the vocal fold mucosae were hypoplastic, and rudimentary, and like newborns, did not have any vocal ligament, Reinke's space, or layered structure. Like newborns, the lamina propria appeared as a uniform structure. Some stellate cells were present in the macula flava, but started to show some signs of degeneration. The stellate cells synthesized fewer ECM molecules, and the cytoplasmic processes were shown to be short and shrinking, suggesting a decreased activity. Those results confirm the hypothesis that phonation stimulates stellate cells into producing more ECM.\n", "Should food or liquid enter the airway due to the epiglottis failing to close properly, the cough reflex may occur to protect the respiratory system and expel material from the airway. Where there is impairment in laryngeal vestibule sensation, silent aspiration (entry of material to the airway that does not result in a cough reflex) may occur.\n\nSection::::Function.:Speech sounds.\n\nIn some languages, the epiglottis is used to produce epiglottal consonant speech sounds, though this sound-type is rather rare.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Inflammation.\n", "Section::::History.:First commercial laryngeal mask.\n", "Vocal cord dysfunction co-occurs with asthma approximately 40% of the time. This frequently results in a misdiagnosis of asthma alone. Even young children can tell the difference between an asthma attack (primarily difficulty exhaling) and a VCD attack (primarily difficulty inhaling). Knowing the difference between the two will help those who have both know when to use the rescue inhaler prescribed or when to use the breathing recovery exercises trained by a speech-language pathologist.\n", "A key aspect of preventing vocal fold cysts is good vocal hygiene. Good vocal hygiene promotes the healthy use of the vocal apparatus and the avoidance of phonotrauma. Good vocal hygiene practices involve the avoidance of:\n\nBULLET::::- Shouting\n\nBULLET::::- Whispering loudly or for long periods of time\n\nBULLET::::- Large quantities of talking over loud background noise\n\nBULLET::::- Talking while yawning\n\nBULLET::::- Continual clearing of the throat\n\nBULLET::::- Speaking in an unnatural voice (i.e. too high or low)\n\nBULLET::::- Talking with a cold or laryngitis\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking tobacco or marijuana\n\nBULLET::::- The consumption of alcohol and coffee\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- spirometry: A change in the measure following the administration of a bronchodilator is suggestive of asthma rather than VCD\n\nBULLET::::- chest radiography: The presence of hyperinflation and peribronchial thickening are indicative of asthma, as patients with VCD will show normal results.\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n\nOnce a diagnosis of VCD has been confirmed by a medical professional, a specific treatment plan can be implemented. If vocal cord dysfunction is secondary to an underlying condition, such as asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), or postnasal drip, it is important to treat the primary condition as this will help control VCD symptoms.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21187	Is there any special significance behind Katy Perry's music video 'Chained To The Rhythm'?	It’s really about her spiritual journey from a teen pop icon to a full grown adult woman artist.	[ "On February 18, 2017, Perry released a preview of the music video on her alter ego Kathy Beth Terry's Twitter account. On February 21, 2017, she released the official music video on Vevo, with Mathew Cullen as director. The video was mostly shot at the Six Flags Magic Mountain theme park in Valencia, Santa Clarita, California, where Perry rides a stylised version of the Full Throttle roller coaster.\n", "The video is set in a futuristic theme park called \"Oblivia.\" BBC's Mark Savage noted the theme is a metaphor for the infinite distractions of modern society. \"Billboard\" writer Gil Kaufman wrote that the video has \"a number of not-so-subtle hints at Perry's feelings about the current political climate in the nation.\" The video opens with Perry walking through the gates of the theme park, where she stares at her surroundings in fascination. In the video, the guests are all taking selfies, eating sticks of candy floss in the shape of a nuclear mushroom cloud and crowding around a sign for \"the greatest ride in the universe.\" Perry is awestruck until she pricks her finger on a rose stem made of barbed wire. The atomium, which is the Belgian national symbol, can be seen in the first two seconds of the music video. Some of the attractions contain references to the Brighton Palace Pier in the United Kingdom. The giant concrete dome in the park is supposedly a reference to the San Onofre nuclear power plant located on the Pacific coast.\n", "The music video on YouTube has more than 580 million views as of May 2019.\n\nSection::::Live performances and covers.\n\nPerry first sang the track live at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards on February 12, 2017, where she finished by standing in front of the United States Constitution alongside Skip Marley and closed with the message \"No hate\". Ralsa Bruner from \"Time\" felt she made \"a bold political statement\" with her performance. \"Billboard\" editor Jenna Romaine also observed political elements, writing that \"it was impossible not to notice its heavily symbolic nature\".\n", "The video has been noted for its cultural references to hippie era and artistic similarities to New Age symbolism. Suzy Byrne of Yahoo! noted the video's spiritual themes and called Perry a \"New Age goddess\". She praised the concept and claimed that it was a \"well-choreographed video\".\n\nSection::::Credits and personnel.\n\nCredits adapted from Tidal.\n\nBULLET::::- Katy Perry – vocals, songwriter\n\nBULLET::::- Dagny Sandvik – songwriter, credit song \"Love You Like That\"\n\nBULLET::::- Michelle Buzz – songwriter\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Gill – songwriter\n\nBULLET::::- Gino Barletta – backing vocals, songwriter\n\nBULLET::::- Hayley Warner – backing vocals, songwriter\n", "Section::::Music video.:Synopsis.\n\nSparks hosts a house party at her place with fellow cast members of Sparkle in attendance. Throughout the video, Footage from Sparkle, mainly focusing on Houston, is spliced in throughout the clip. Houston's scenes in the music video show the late singer in her acting prime as she smiles in many of the clips then cries in another. The final shot of the music video is an image of Houston from the film. “Celebrate” is dedicated to Houston's memory.\n\nSection::::Music video.:Reception.\n", "The next scene is a gas station, where men in sailor costumes whisk Perry off her feet. The scene shows people drinking large beakers of flaming \"Inferno HO,\" a bright blue, tainted liquid that makes patrons belch. Then a hamster wheel attraction appears, with signs guiding guests to it. Near the end, as she watches a 3D movie, Perry notices a disturbing homogeneity among the guests. Perry finds herself in a giant dance number after Skip Marley emerges from a 3D movie for his cameo. Afterward, Perry sings a panicked final chorus, trapped in the middle of a mindless dance routine. This leads to the final shot of the video, where Perry's worried face stares into the camera. At the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards, \"Chained to the Rhythm\" was nominated for \"Best Pop\", \"Best Direction\", and \"Best Visual Effects\".\n", "It then eventually featured Minogue on a carousel that apparently \"hadn't been oiled since Kylie was born\". She was wearing a skin-tight red T-shirt dress with a pin bearing the work \"amour\". Additionally, Four different edits were made, combining shots of Kylie on a merry-go-round, in an artist's studio and dancing in a coffee-house, which is the official video.\n\nSection::::Chart performance.\n", "Finally, it was released in the rest of the world (including the USA) on 29 August 2011.\n\nVictory Tischler-Blue produced the official music video for Suzi Quatro's \"Strict Machine\", a track from the album. This track is a cover of Goldfrapp's \"Strict Machine\", but Quatro's version of the song contains two extra lines from her own number one hit \"Can the Can\" (in order to show the similarity of the two songs' tunes).\n", "The music video for \"She's like a Star\" was filmed in Spain. It features an appearance from the actress Roxanne McKee, known for her role as Louise in the British television soap opera \"Hollyoaks\", in which she plays Cruz's love interest. Cruz, who is friends with McKee, explained how the collaboration came about, saying:\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n\nOn September 5, 2010, Perry performed the song live for the first time along with \"Teenage Dream\", \"Firework\" and \"Not Like the Movies\" in the show's launch of the \"Teenage Dream\" in Berlin. Though the song has never been performed live as part of a televised performance, the song is featured on the set lists of the Teenage Dream Tour, California Dreams Tour, Prismatic World Tour and . The first televised performance was during her presentation at Rock In Rio, which was broadcast live by the Multishow. During this song, photos of fans are displayed on the screens.\n", "Waterfalls (20th Anniversary Edition) Digital Single\n\nBULLET::::1. Waterfalls (20th Anniversary Edition) featuring Namie Amuro– 4:35\n\nSection::::Stooshe version.\n", "Section::::Music video.:Concept and reception.\n", "Houston's music video was filmed at Harlem's Apollo Theater in New York City. In the video, she is a successful singer who is about to perform in front of an audience. She reminisces about the time when she was a child performing in a talent competition and receiving encouragement from her mother. The video features Houston's mother Cissy Houston playing herself, supporting a young Whitney, as well as hugging present Whitney at the end of the video. It was directed by Peter Israelson, filmed with James Contner as DP and Steadicam operator Robin Buerki shooting 35mm film. \n", "Garbi performed her past song \"Ierosylia\" in a new version at 10th Mad Video Music Awards in 2013, alongside singer Nikiforos and musical group Rec.\n", "Section::::Music videos.:International video.\n", "BULLET::::- Lady Gaga\n\nBULLET::::- Britney Spears\n\nBULLET::::- Carly Rae Jepsen\n\nBULLET::::- Rebecca Black\n\nBULLET::::- Russell Brand (uncredited)\n\nBULLET::::- Whoopi Goldberg (uncredited)\n\nBULLET::::- Justin Bieber (uncredited)\n\nBULLET::::- Jessie J (uncredited)\n\nBULLET::::- Bella Thorne (uncredited)\n\nBULLET::::- The Matrix (archive footage)\n\nSection::::Background and promotion.\n", "In Australia, the song reached number four on the ARIA Charts, and certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 140,000 units. It also reached number three in France and number eight in New Zealand.\n\nIn Russia, \"Chained to the Rhythm\" debuted at number 4 on Top Hit Weekly General. It peaked at number two with overall 955,608 plays, became Perry's only second song to reach it.\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "Mathew Cullen directed the song's music video, which was released February 21, 2017. It features Perry in an amusement park called \"Oblivia\". It was nominated for three awards at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards. Perry and Marley promoted the song with live performances at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards, the 2017 Brit Awards, and the 2017 iHeartRadio Music Awards.\n\nSection::::Production and release.\n", "On August 15, 2009, Adam Lambert made a post on Twitter.com to his followers “My friend Cassidy just shot this great video...” that included a link to Haley's video for “Whiskey in Churches.” The video was produced over several months, with Haley playing multiple characters using green screen technology. Following this tweet \"Little Boys and Dinosaurs\" was the third most downloaded electronic record on the iTunes chart on Monday, August 17, 2009, without having had a music label or PR campaign.\n", "Directed by Sophie Muller, the music video features Minogue dancing and singing in several backdrops that were inspired by the Country and Western culture, such as the work of Dolly Parton, and used motifs and imagery revolving around death. To promote the single, Minogue performed the song on her Kylie Presents Golden tour, and at several gigs and shows including \"Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway\", \"Sport Relief\", the Echo Music Prize in Germany, and when she headlined Radio 2 Live in Hyde Park.\n\nSection::::Background and composition.\n", "Section::::Music video.\n\nSection::::Music video.:Background and concept.\n", "On 10 June 2016, Kylie Minogue released her version of \"This Wheel’s on Fire\" for \"Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie\", prior to the film's release in July 2016.\n\nSection::::Other countries.\n", "The most controversial video to have been extensively edited by the network was \"Dirrty\" by Christina Aguilera. In the part where Aguilera is in a boxing ring with her dancers at the beginning, a Thai poster is situated at the background while the dance is shown. Depicted in Thai language in the poster were the words \"Thai Sex Tourism\" and \"Young Underage Girls.\" The video was banned in Thailand but in other parts of Asia, the dance sequence in the beginning were shortened. A live version of the video was mostly played. Regardless of the video's limited release, the song still topped the charts.\n", "Section::::Music video.:Reception.\n", "Katy Perry's \"Teenage Dream\" (2010)—to produce a minimum of four number ones.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00261	Why are broths and soups commonly consumed when someone has a cold?	because when you have a cold your throat usually gets a rash from all your infected cells killing themselves, and swallowing solid food is like scrubbing that rash with some steel wool, so sane people stick to liquids. Also heat soothes the rash, so warm soups feel good to swallow (like putting a warm cloth against a rash). These days the consumption of soups and broths for sick people has become more or less habitual, so it's just a thing you do whether or not you get the sore throat.	[ "Consumption of pea soup in Sweden and Finland dates back to at least the 13th century, and is traditionally served on Thursdays. This is said to originate in the pre-Reformation era, as preparation for fasting on Fridays. The tradition of Thursday pea soup is common in restaurants, schools, military messes and field kitchens, as well as in homes, and it forms an unpretentious but well-liked part of social life.\n\nThe Swedish king Eric XIV (1533–1577) is said to have died after eating arsenic-poisoned pea soup.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Nordic countries.:Denmark.\n", "In Norway pea soup is traditionally served at springtime and easter, and is complemented with potatoes, carrots and vegetables.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Poland.\n", "I have also heard that noblemen, when in the 'great sorrow' [mourning a parent's death], or when they take \"[wu-]shih-san\", have several meals [to get the drug to circulate in the body]. People drink great amounts of wine as if one's life depended upon it. When their illness has reached the crisis stage, they cannot endure the wind and the cold [from the fever]. … \"It gets to the point where they become very drunk. They say, 'This is the custom in the capital, Loyang.' Is this not a sad thing? (tr. Sailey 1978:159–160) \n", "Section::::Bean soup.\n\nAccording to custom, bean soup is available on the Senate dining room menu every day. This tradition, which dates back to the early twentieth century, is variously attributed to a request by Senator Fred Dubois of Idaho, or, in another version of the story, to Senator Knute Nelson of Minnesota. The Dubois includes mashed potatoes and yields five gallons of soup.\n\nThere are two Senate soup recipes:\n\nSection::::Federal appointee customs.\n", "Soup beans\n\nSoup beans is a term common in the Southern United States, particularly the regions around the Appalachian Mountains. Soup beans are usually served with cornbread, greens (such as boiled cabbage, cauliflower, or sauerkraut and sausage), and potatoes (stewed or fried) and may be topped with raw chopped onions or ramps (\"Allium tricoccum\"). Soup beans are considered a main course, but also serve as a side dish. In rural areas, where food was scarce during the winter, these dried beans were a staple food.\n\nSection::::Types of soup beans.\n", "The existence of portable soups (called \"bouillons en tablettes\" in French) is mentioned, in 1690, in Antoine Furetière's \"Dictionnaire universel\", under the article \"Tablette\": \"On a vue des consommés reduits en tablettes, ou des bouillons à porter en poche.\" (\"We have seen consommés reduced into tablets, or broth to carry in your pocket.\")\n", "The Cold Food Festival is generally ignored in modern China, except to the extent that it has influenced some of the activities and traditional foods for the Tomb-Sweeping Festival. In the city of Jiexiu in Shanxi Province, near where Jie died, locals still commemorate the festival, but even there the tradition of eating cold food is no longer practiced.\n\nSection::::Observance.:South Korea.\n", "Section::::Legend.\n\nThe usual story for the origin of the Cold Food and Tomb-Sweeping Festivals concerns the 7th-century- Jin nobleman Jie Zhitui, a model of self-sacrificing loyalty.\n", "Commercially prepared liquid broths are available, typically for \"chicken broth\", \"beef broth\", \"fish broth\", and \"vegetable broth\". In North America, dehydrated meat stock in the form of tablets is called a bouillon cube. Industrially produced bouillon cubes were commercialized under the brand name Maggi in 1908, and by Oxo in 1910. Using commercially prepared broths saves home and professional cooks time in the kitchen.\n\nBy 2013, broth labeled as \"bone broth\" became popularized as a health food trend or fad in certain parts of the United States.\n\nSection::::Stock versus broth.\n", "In the twelfth century, Moses Maimonides wrote, \"Chicken soup ... is recommended as an excellent food as well as\n\nmedication.\"\n\nSince then, there have been numerous reports in the United States that chicken soup alleviates the symptoms of the common cold. Even usually staid medical journals have published tongue-in-cheek articles on the alleged medicinal properties of chicken soup.\n\nSection::::\"Pelargonium sidoides\" extract.\n\nA 2013 Cochrane review found tentative evidence of benefit with \"Pelargonium sidoides\" for the symptoms of the common cold; however, the quality of the evidence was very poor.\n\nSection::::Steam inhalation.\n", "Cold and warm fruit soups are common in Scandinavian, Baltic, Eastern European, Central Europe and Nordic cuisines (e.g. nyponsoppa, blåbärssoppa, kissel, hideg meggyleves and krentjebrij). Hot fruit soups appear in Middle Eastern, Central Asian and Chinese cuisines. Some fruit soups in these latter regions may also be served cold, and some may be prepared using meat as an ingredient.\n\nSection::::By region and country.:China.\n\nChilled mango soup and almond-fruit soup are dishes in Chinese cuisine. Almond-fruit soup may be served as a dessert.\n\nSection::::By region and country.:Europe.\n\nConsumption of cold fruit soups is a tradition in the cuisine of Eastern Europe.\n", "In Sweden, traditionally, Thursday has been \"soup day\" because the maids had half the day off and soup was easy to prepare in advance. One of the most traditional Swedish soups, \"ärtsoppa\" is still served in many restaurants and households every Thursday, a tradition since the middle ages. \"Ärtsoppa\" is a yellow pea soup, commonly served with pancakes as dessert. This is a simple meal, a very thick soup, basically consisting of boiled yellow peas, a little onion, salt and small pieces of pork. It is often served with mustard and followed by a dessert of thin pancakes (see \"pannkakor\"). The Swedish Armed Forces also serve their conscripts pea soup and pancakes every Thursday.\n", "Soups, often featuring egg noodles, are characteristic of the Pennsylvania Dutch. The Pennsylvanian Dutch homes have traditionally had many broths on hand (vegetable, fish, poultry, and meat) from the saving of any extra liquids available: \"The Pennsylvania Dutch developed soup making to such a high art that complete cookbooks could be written about their soups alone; there was an appropriate soup for every day of the year, including a variety of hot and cold fruit soups.\" Soups were traditionally divided into different categories, including \"Sippli\" or \"little soup\" (a light broth), \"Koppsupper\" or \"cup soups\", \"Suppe\" (thick, chowder soups, often served as a meal with bread), and \"G'schmorte\" (a soup with no broth, often like a \"Brieh\" (Brei) or gravy).\n", "In Nova Scotia, there is a dish that is widely eaten in the Annapolis Valley known as Hodge Podge or Hodegy Podegy. This dish is a stew or soup containing fresh vegetables such as small baby potatoes or new potatoes, fresh peas, green beans and wax beans as well as carrots. These vegetables are cooked in a milk broth that contains butter, pepper and salt. Commonly, this dish is accompanied by corned beef either from a can or prepared separately from the dish. Hodge Podge is generally consumed during the months of July and August when these vegetables are in season.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Netherlands.\n\n, also called , is the Dutch version of pea soup. It is a thick stew of green split peas, different cuts of pork, celeriac or stalk celery, onions, leeks, carrots, and often potato. Slices of (smoked sausage) are added before serving. The soup, which is traditionally eaten during the winter, is emblematic of Dutch cuisine.\n", "According to legend, a man from Sybaris, a city in southern Italy infamous for its luxury and gluttony (which gave rise to the word \"sybarite\"), after tasting the Spartans' black soup remarked with disgust, \"Now I know why the Spartans do not fear death\". In another story, it is said that Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, bought a slave who had been a Spartan cook and ordered him to prepare the broth for him, sparing no expense. When the king tasted it, he spat it out in disgust, whereupon the cook said, \"Your Majesty, it is necessary to have exercised in the Spartan manner, and to have bathed in the Eurotas, in order to relish this broth.\"\n", "Souperist practices, reported at the time, included serving meat soups on Fridays – which Catholics were forbidden by their faith from consuming, and by the fact that they could not afford meat in the first place.\n\nSoupers were frequently ostracised by their own community, and were strongly denounced from the pulpit by the Catholic priesthood. On occasion, soupers had to be protected by British soldiers from other Catholics.\n\nSection::::Use of the term after the famine.\n", "Turtle soup and swan were on the menu for the May Day civic dinner in 1723. The Guildhall did not have its own kitchens until Tudor times, so food would be brought in ready cooked, possibly from the kitchens of the next door friary. It was hot, hard work in the kitchens – considered too arduous for women or children – where one of the worst jobs was hand turning the roasting spit, or \"broche\". Meals were meat based – roasted, boiled, fried and stewed – and diners certainly did not get their five a day. In Georgian times vegetables only appeared on the plate as a garnish.\n", "Pea soup is a common dish throughout Germany. It often contains meat such as bacon, sausage or (cured and smoked pork) depending on regional preferences. Very often, several sausages will accompany a serving of pea soup as well as some dark bread. Ready-made soup in cans is sometimes used to prepare the dish.\n", "Section::::By region and country.:Europe.:Nordic countries.\n\nFruit soups are popular in Nordic countries.\n\nFruit soups have been described as traditional in Scandinavian countries. and are popular as a breakfast soup in this region during the winter. Swedish fruit soup is a food staple in Scandinavian countries, and has been prepared from dried fruit during winter months. Consumption of cold fruit soups is also a tradition in the cuisine of Scandinavia.\n\nSection::::By region and country.:Middle East.\n\nFruit soups have been described as traditional in the Middle East.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of cold soups\n\nBULLET::::- List of soups\n\nBULLET::::- Melon soup\n", "One example of souperism was the Reverend Edward Nangle, who instituted 34 schools where religious instruction and meals were provided. However, souperism was rarely that simple, and not all non-Catholics made being subject to proselytisation a condition of food aid. Several Anglicans, including the Anglican Archbishop of Dublin, Richard Whately, decried the practice; many Anglicans set up soup kitchens that did no proselytising; and the Quakers, whose soup kitchens were concerned solely with charitable work, were never associated with the practice (which causes them to be held in high regard in Ireland even today, with many Irish remembering the Quakers with the remark \"They fed us in the famine.\").\n", "Swedish fruit soup is a staple food in Scandinavian countries. Consumption of cold fruit soups is also a tradition in the cuisine of Scandinavia. Swedish fruit soup is also a traditional soup served during the Christmas holiday season. The dish is also sometimes served as part of a smörgåsbord. It may be served with cake, such as coffee cake.\n\nSection::::Ingredients and preparation.\n", "Beef, pork, goat, lamb, chicken, smoked turkey, tripe, dried snails, and fried fish are common sources of protein in Ghanaian soups and stews, sometimes mixing different types of meat and occasionally fish into one soup. Soups are served as a main course rather than a starter. It is also common to find smoked meat, fish and seafood in Ghanaian soups and stews.\n", "Social historian Karl Polanyi wrote that before markets became the world's dominant form of economic organisation in the 19th century, most human societies would generally either starve all together or not at all; because, communities would naturally share their food. As markets began to replace the older forms of resource allocation such as redistribution, reciprocity, and autarky, society's overall level of food security would typically rise. But food insecurity could become worse for the poorest section of society, and the need arose for more formal methods for providing them with food. Christian churches traditionally provided food for the hungry since Late Antiquity, with the nourishment mainly provided in the form of soup.\n", "Culture retention/Remembrance:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14289	why is it most top 40 radio stations only play ~5 songs on repeat?	The answer is that one company owns almost all those stations, and has broadcast licenses for a limited set of music. They used to be called Clear Channel and rebranded themselves as iHeart Media, Inc. a number of years back. They buy up all the independent stations and turn them into part of the borg.	[ "BULLET::::- Top 80 (over 2 weeks): 1970, 1972\n\nBULLET::::- Top 100 (over 2 weeks): 1974-78, 1980–83, 1992, 1998, 2000–09\n\nBULLET::::- Top 100 (over 1 week): 1984-91, 1993\n\nDuring the show's original run, the 2-week Top 100 programs came with special instructions for editing the show into one 8-hour block. Conversely, the 1-week Top 100 programs came with instructions to split the show into two 4-hour blocks.\n", "BULLET::::- Hot 100 Singles Recurrents\n\nBULLET::::- Hot 100 Recurrent Airplay\n\nBULLET::::- Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Recurrents\n\nBULLET::::- Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Recurrent Airplay\n\nBULLET::::- Top 40 Adult Recurrents\n\nBULLET::::- Hot Adult Contemporary Recurrents\n\nBULLET::::- Hot Country Recurrents\n\nSongs that survive in recurrent rotation typically form the basis of radio formats as years advance. A hit song that is left out of recurrent rotation will eventually become known as a \"forgotten 45\", a name derived from the fact that singles used to be released on 45 RPM records.\n", "By the early 1990s, many singles, mostly of the rap, heavy metal or grunge genres, reached the chart based on strong sales despite low airplay; several were very long, others were too controversial or risqué for mainstream airplay (for instance, the sexually explicit \"Me So Horny\" by 2 Live Crew made it to #26 on the Hot 100 in 1989). These songs would generally only be aired in brief snippets during the show.\n", "BULLET::::- When \"American Top 40\" expanded from three to four hours in October 1978, the #1 song was \"Kiss You All Over\" by Exile.\n\nBULLET::::- The very first \"Long-Distance Dedication\" ever played in 1978 was Neil Diamond's \"Desirée\".\n\nBULLET::::- The Moody Blues appeared on the very first AT40 in 1970 (with \"Question\", which ranked at #27), and Casey Kasem's last episode of the original AT40 on August 6, 1988 (\"I Know You're Out There Somewhere\", which ranked at #30).\n", "BULLET::::- Songs That Topped The Chart Last Week: Kasem's standard practice of recounting the top three songs from the week before.\n\nBULLET::::- Chart Extras: To fill out the three hours, past chart hits from the 1970s onward would be played at various intervals. The ones dubbed Extras would have a story behind them, as Kasem was known to do.\n", "During the mid-to-late-1990s, the \"Mix\" format—a loosely defined mixture of Top-40 and classic rock with something of an emphasis on adult contemporary music—began to appear across the country. While the format has no particular standard identity, most \"mix\" stations have rotations consisting largely of pop and rock music from the 1980s and 1990s (and often the 1970s), with some current material mixed in. In addition, stations devoted to the pop music of the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s on their own have developed as the audiences that grew up with that music grew older and nostalgic for the sounds of their youth. The continued play of such songs on such stations has also exposed the music to younger generations that can take a renewed interest in the music, prolonging its shelf life beyond what conventional wisdom in the industry may suggest.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Most Played in Jukeboxes\" ranked the most played songs in jukeboxes across the United States (20 positions). This was one of the main outlets of measuring song popularity with the younger generation of music listeners, as many radio stations resisted adding rock and roll music to their playlists for many years.\n", "Songs on the chart are ranked by the total number of spins detected per week. Songs which gain plays or remain flat from the previous week will receive a bullet. A song will also receive a bullet if its percentage loss in plays does not exceed the percentage of monitored station downtime for the format. If two songs are tied in total plays, the song with the larger increase in plays is placed first.\n", "The songs that finished the year atop the charts are as follows:\n\nSection::::Conflict, departure, and cancellation.\n", "BULLET::::- Chart trivia: \"AT40\" also featured several letters in each show where a listener wrote to ask a chart trivia question. Sometimes these letters led to an extra song being played, though this became less common as songs increased in length in the 1980s.\n\nBULLET::::- Long Distance Dedication: This feature evolved from a spoken-word 45 single that Kasem had recorded in 1964, \"Letter from Elaina\", in which a girl wrote to Kasem about her encounter with The Beatles.\n", "In a recent survey of how much new music is added to Top 40 stations each week, Billboard/Airplay Monitor discovered that smaller groups and individually owned stations add and play more new songs each week. But there are also some prominent exceptions and a wide variance within certain groups. In general, the trend is towards more conservative, less aggressive releases of new material.\n\nSection::::Effects.:National advertising model.\n", "In late 2013 Westwood One informed \"Top 10\" affiliates that it was ceasing distribution of the feature. The last Top 10 list for radio aired Friday, January 3, 2014. No other radio network picked up the feature for the rest of the TV show's run.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Dexter Holland is said to have written this song while flying solo around the world. Speaking about its inclusion on \"Greatest Hits\", he said 'the way the world works now, if you really want people to hear about a greatest hits record, you need that new song'.\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Le Freak\" by Chic scored the biggest upward movement of the show on November 25, 1978, rising 31 spots from #37 to #6.\n", "Another article in The Age noted that \"\"In a pattern repeated across the country, figures jumped from about 5 per cent audience share to about 11 per cent during the two-hour program, when it aired from 11am. They fell back to near 6 per cent when the station returned to music.\"\"\n", "Until February 9, 2010, Sirius XM Hits 1 and Top 20 on 20 was heard on DirecTV channel 816 until DirecTV has stopped carrying Sirius XM programming and replaced it with another music service called Sonic Tap by DMX.\n", "Radio stations today generally run their advertising in clusters or sets, scattered throughout the broadcasting hour. Studies show that the first or second commercial to air during a commercial break has higher recall than those airing later in the set.\n", "In 1979, 1999, and 2009, the show aired special countdowns of the decade's biggest hits. In 1979 and 1999, the annual year-end countdown show was cut to one week (4 hours) to accommodate the special countdown, though in 2009, they aired a third special week after their usual two-week Top 100. The decade-end shows counted down the Top 50 of the 1970s, and the Top 40s of the 1990s and 2000s. There was no decade-end countdown for the 1980s.\n\nSection::::Substitute hosts.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder, \"Ebony and Ivory\" (1982)\n\nBULLET::::- Elaine Paige and Barbara Dickson, \"I Know Him So Well\" (1985)\n\nBULLET::::- David Bowie and Mick Jagger, \"Dancing in the Street\" (1985)\n", "BULLET::::- Ten Singles in Alphabetical Order. After host David Wisdom alphabetized his mammoth 7\" vinyl 45 rpm singles collection by artist, he set aside time each weekend to play one single each by ten consecutive alphabetized artists, starting at \"A\" and continuing until he reached the end of his collection in the \"Z\"s (approximately nine years later).\n", "Section::::Use in media.\n\nThe Hot 100 served for many years as the data source for the weekly radio countdown show \"American Top 40\". This relationship ended on November 30, 1991, as \"American Top 40\" started using the airplay-only side of the Hot 100 (then called Top 40 Radio Monitor). The ongoing splintering of Top 40 radio in the early 1990s led stations to lean into specific formats, meaning that practically no station would play the wide array of genres that typically composed each weekly Hot 100 chart.\n\nSection::::Similar charts.\n", "BULLET::::- There have been two exceptions for this, though: In October 1994, Pet Shop Boys's \"Yesterday, When I Was Mad\" stayed in the charts for only 1 week due to an error in the compilation, and in late September 2007, Kus's \"4 meiden\" just didn't sell enough to stay in the charts for 2 weeks.\n", "BULLET::::- \"To Love Somebody\" – The Bee Gees\n\nBULLET::::- \"Can't Help Falling in Love\" – Elvis Presley\n\nBULLET::::- \"She's Always a Woman\" – Billy Joel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Summer Rain\" – Johnny Rivers\n\nSection::::Sample Hour of Programming (Timeless era).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Please Baby Don't\" – Sérgio Mendes with John Legend\n\nBULLET::::- \"Only the Lonely\" – Roy Orbison\n\nBULLET::::- \"We've Only Just Begun\" – The Carpenters\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Hear a Symphony\" – The Supremes\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hello It's Me\" – Todd Rundgren\n\nBULLET::::- \"Suspicious Minds\" – Elvis Presley\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bridge over Troubled Water\" – Simon & Garfunkel\n", "Recurrent rotation refers to a group of songs still frequently aired on a contemporary hit radio station several months or even years after the initial debut. It is also used to describe core songs in other radio formats as well. Most charts have special rules to determine when a song has become recurrent, at which point they are removed from current charts (such as the \"Billboard\" Hot 100) and placed on special \"recurrent charts\". Recurrent charts tend to be more static, with fewer week-to-week changes in popularity than current charts.\n\nThe \"Billboard\" charts include these lists:\n", "In 2005, New York AC station WLTW added \"AT10\" to its weekend schedule. In a move done strictly for the station, Premiere Networks distributed a heavily edited version of the show that removed the Extras and Spotlight, which reduced the show's length to one hour.\n\nSection::::Special programming.\n\nSection::::Special programming.:Year-end countdowns.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09340	How did they do math before Arabic numerals?	[Abacuses]( URL_0 ) were in use long before the invention of the Arabic writing system, and are still used today by students who can not do math with Arabic Numbers (like the blind). It's a frame with bars, each bar with a number of beads on them. And they can be used to great effect for most simple mathematical calculations.	[ "In the course of the 11th century, Islam's scientific knowledge began to reach Western Europe, via Islamic Spain. The works of Euclid and Archimedes, lost in the West, were translated from Arabic to Latin in Spain. The modern Hindu-Arabic numeral system, including a notation for zero, were developed by Hindu mathematicians in the 5th and 6th centuries. Muslim mathematicians learned of it in the 7th century and added a notation for decimal fractions in the 9th and 10th centuries. Around 1000, Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) made an abacus with counters engraved with Arabic numerals. A treatise by Al-Khwārizmī on how to perform calculations with these numerals was translated into Latin in Spain in the 12th century.\n", "BULLET::::- 920 Mathematics: al-Uqlidisi. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Hitherto, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier.\n", "The modern positional Arabic numeral system was developed by mathematicians in India, and passed on to Muslim mathematicians, along with astronomical tables brought to Baghdad by an Indian ambassador around 773.\n", "Throughout their time in power, the Arabs used a fully rhetorical algebra, where often even the numbers were spelled out in words. The Arabs would eventually replace spelled out numbers (e.g. twenty-two) with Arabic numerals (e.g. 22), but the Arabs did not adopt or develop a syncopated or symbolic algebra until the work of Ibn al-Banna in the 13th century and Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī in the 15th century.\n\nSection::::Medieval Middle East.:\"Al-jabr wa'l muqabalah\".\n", "BULLET::::- By this century, three systems of counting are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the sexagesimal system, a remnant originating with the Babylonians, with numerals denoted by letters of the arabic alphabet and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the Indian numeral system, which was used with various sets of symbols. Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because \"the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded.\"\n", "Some popular myths have argued that the original forms of these symbols indicated their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but no evidence exists of any such origin.\n\nSection::::History.:Adoption in Europe.\n\nIn 825 Al-Khwārizmī wrote a treatise in Arabic, \"On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals\", which survives only as the 12th-century Latin translation, \"Algoritmi de numero Indorum\". \"Algoritmi\", the translator's rendition of the author's name, gave rise to the word \"algorithm\".\n\nThe first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the \"Codex Vigilanus\" of 976.\n", "Despite their name, Arabic numerals have roots in India. The reason for this misnomer is Europeans saw the numerals used in an Arabic book, \"Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning\", by Mohommed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi. Al-Khwārizmī wrote several important books on the Hindu–Arabic numerals and on methods for solving equations. His book \"On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals\", written about 825, along with the work of Al-Kindi, were instrumental in spreading Indian mathematics and Indian numerals to the West. Al-Khwarizmi did not claim the numerals as Arabic, but over several Latin translations, the fact that the numerals were Indian in origin was lost. The word \"algorithm\" is derived from the Latinization of Al-Khwārizmī's name, Algoritmi, and the word \"algebra\" from the title of one of his works, \"Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala\" (\"The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing\").\n", "BULLET::::- 953 — The arithmetic of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because “the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded.” Al-Uqlidisi modified these methods for pen and paper use. Eventually the advances enabled by the decimal system led to its standard use throughout the region and the world.\n\nSection::::Before 2000 BC.:1000–1500.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1000 — Pope Sylvester II introduces the abacus using the Hindu-Arabic numeral system to Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- 940 Mathematics: Born Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani. Wrote several treatises using the finger-counting system of arithmetic, and was also an expert on the Indian numerals system. About the Indian system he wrote: \"[it] did not find application in business circles and among the population of the Eastern Caliphate for a long time.\" Using the Indian numeral system, abu'l Wafa was able to extract roots.\n\nBULLET::::- 957 Chemistry: Abul Hasan Ali Al-Masudi, wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj (vitriol) water giving sulfuric acid.\n", "Historians trace modern numerals in most languages to the Brahmi numerals, which were in use around the middle of the 3rd century BC. The place value system, however, developed later. The Brahmi numerals have been found in inscriptions in caves and on coins in regions near Pune, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh in India. These numerals (with slight variations) were in use up to the 4th century. \n", "The numeral system came to be known to the court of Baghdad, where mathematicians such as the Persian Al-Khwarizmi, whose book \"On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals\" was written about 825 in Arabic, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes, \"On the Use of the Indian Numerals\" (\"Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi\") about 830, propagated it in the Arab world. Their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West.\n", "In the 7th century, Brahmagupta identified the Brahmagupta theorem, Brahmagupta's identity and Brahmagupta's formula, and for the first time, in \"Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta\", he lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and decimal digit, and explained the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. It was from a translation of this Indian text on mathematics (c. 770) that Islamic mathematicians were introduced to this numeral system, which they adapted as Arabic numerals. Islamic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to Europe by the 12th century, and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world. Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, all of which evolved from the Brahmi numerals. Each of the roughly dozen major scripts of India has its own numeral glyphs. In the 10th century, Halayudha's commentary on Pingala's work contains a study of the Fibonacci sequence and Pascal's triangle, and describes the formation of a matrix.\n", "BULLET::::- c. 300 BC — Indian mathematician Pingala writes the “Chhandah-shastra”, which contains the first Indian use of zero as a digit (indicated by a dot) and also presents a description of a binary numeral system, along with the first use of Fibonacci numbers and Pascal's triangle.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 250 BC — late Olmecs had already begun to use a true zero (a shell glyph) several centuries before Ptolemy in the New World. See 0 (number).\n", "Between 967 and 969, Gerbert of Aurillac discovered and studied Arab science in the Catalan abbeys. Later he obtained from these places the book \" (\"On multiplication and division\"). After becoming Pope Sylvester II in the year 999, he introduced a new model of abacus, the so-called Abacus of Gerbert, by adopting tokens representing Hindu-Arab numerals, from one to nine.\n", "The modern Arabic numeral symbols used around the world first appeared in Islamic North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called \"ghubar\" numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.\n", "\"Arithmetica\" was originally written in thirteen books, but the Greek manuscripts that survived to the present contain no more than six books. In 1968, Fuat Sezgin found four previously unknown books of \"Arithmetica\" at the shrine of Imam Rezā in the holy Islamic city of Mashhad in northeastern Iran. The four books are thought to have been translated from Greek to Arabic by Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912). Norbert Schappacher has written:\n", "In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from \"al-jabr\", the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.\n", "BULLET::::- Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities. By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem. Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots. By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator. A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed. The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected. The '=' sign for equality did not exist. Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.\n", "There can be no doubt that most early peoples which have left records knew something of numeration and mechanics, and that a few were also acquainted with the elements of land-surveying. In particular, the Egyptians paid attention to geometry and numbers, and the Phoenicians to practical arithmetic, book-keeping, navigation, and land-surveying. The results attained by these people seem to have been accessible, under certain conditions, to travelers. It is probable that the knowledge of the Egyptians and Phoenicians was largely the result of observation and measurement, and represented the accumulated experience of many ages.\n\nSection::::Rhetorical stage.:Beginning of notation.\n", "Calculations were originally performed using a dust board (\"takht\", Latin: \"tabula\") which involved writing symbols with a stylus and erasing them as part of calculations. Al-Uqlidisi then invented a system of calculations with ink and paper \"without board and erasing\" (\"bi-ghayr takht wa-lā maḥw bal bi-dawāt wa-qirṭās\"). The use of the dust board appears to have introduced a divergence in terminology as well: whereas the Hindu reckoning was called \"ḥisāb al-hindī\" in the east, it was called \"ḥisāb al-ghubār\" in the west (literally, \"calculation with dust\"). The numerals themselves were referred to in the west as \"ashkāl al‐ghubār\" (dust figures, in Ibn al-Yāsamin) or \"qalam al-ghubår\" (dust letters).\n", "BULLET::::- c. 400 — the Bakhshali manuscript is written by Jaina mathematicians, which describes a theory of the infinite containing different levels of infinity, shows an understanding of indices, as well as logarithms to base 2, and computes square roots of numbers as large as a million correct to at least 11 decimal places.\n\nBULLET::::- 550 — Hindu mathematicians give zero a numeral representation in the positional notation Indian numeral system.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nWritten evidence of the use of mathematics dates back to at least 3000 BC with the ivory labels found in Tomb U-j at Abydos. These labels appear to have been used as tags for grave goods and some are inscribed with numbers. Further evidence of the use of the base 10 number system can be found on the Narmer Macehead which depicts offerings of 400,000 oxen, 1,422,000 goats and 120,000 prisoners.\n", "Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his \"Aryabhatiya\" (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the \"founder of mathematical analysis\".\n", "A system called \"bhūta-sankhya\" (\"object numbers\" or \"concrete numbers\") was employed for representing numerals in Sanskrit verses, by using a concept representing a digit to stand for the digit itself. The Jain text entitled the \"Lokavibhaga\", dated 458 CE, mentions the objectified numeral\n", "The earliest written records indicate the Egyptians and Babylonians used all the elementary arithmetic operations as early as 2000 BC. These artifacts do not always reveal the specific process used for solving problems, but the characteristics of the particular numeral system strongly influence the complexity of the methods. The hieroglyphic system for Egyptian numerals, like the later Roman numerals, descended from tally marks used for counting. In both cases, this origin resulted in values that used a decimal base but did not include positional notation. Complex calculations with Roman numerals required the assistance of a counting board or the Roman abacus to obtain the results.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04208	Why does an aircraft carrier store all the planes on deck? What happens if they need to scramble jets?	The aircraft are “stacked”, or parked in such a way that they can be quickly manned and in the air. None of them would be in the way of launching. If they were all below, in the hanger bay, it would take hours to get them flying. In states of readiness, most of the aircraft on deck are manned with crews, ready to be in the air in five minutes or less. It’s called ‘Ready 5’.	[ "As well, the movement of weapons from storage and assembly to the aircraft on the flight deck has been streamlined and accelerated. Ordnance will be lifted to the centralized rearming location via higher-capacity weapons elevators that use linear motors. These elevators are located so that ordnance need not cross any areas of aircraft movement, thereby reducing traffic problems in the hangars and on the flight deck. In 2008, Rear Admiral Dennis M. Dwyer said these changes will make it hypothetically possible to rearm the airplanes in \"minutes instead of hours\".\n\nSection::::Development.:Power generation.\n", "Aircraft are often launched from the carrier in a somewhat random order based on their deck positioning prior to launch. Therefore, aircraft working together on the same mission must rendezvous airborne. This is accomplished at a predetermined location, usually at the in-flight refueling tanker, overhead the carrier, or at an en route location. Properly equipped F/A-18E/F Super Hornets provide \"organic\" refueling, or U.S. Air Force (or other nations') tankers provide \"nonorganic\" tanking. After rendezvous/tanking, aircraft proceed on mission.\n\nSection::::Recovery operations.\n", "Due to the busy nature of the flight deck, only 20 or so aircraft may be on it at any one time. A hangar storage several decks below the flight deck is where most aircraft are kept, and aircraft are taken from the lower storage decks to the flight deck through the use of an elevator. The hangar is usually quite large and can take up several decks of vertical space.\n", "The carrier carries up to eight Manta (Multirole Aircraft for Nautical Tactical Assault) remote-controlled aircraft and up to eight Walrus (Water And Land Roving Utility Shuttle) remote-controlled amphibious vehicles, although only four of each may be operational at any one time. The remote control of the Mantas and the Walruses has to be linked through the carrier, so if they go too far from the carrier the cockpit screen of them will become ghosted. If they venture even further away from the carrier, they will lose all contact with the carrier and be destroyed; the Mantas will just simply fall out of the sky.\n", "If too many (more than six) aircraft are in the landing pattern when a flight arrives at the ship, the flight leader initiates a \"spin\", climbing up slightly and executing a tight 360° turn within of the ship.\n", "The attack on Pearl Harbor demonstrated the effectiveness of an offensive strike in two waves. Aircraft stored on the flight deck (less any fighters retained as CAP) formed a first attack wave. Launch of a second wave commenced when all aircraft stored on the hangar deck had been positioned on the flight deck. CAP might be refueled following launch of the second wave. With CAP prepared to intercept any enemy aircraft following the strike back to the carriers, the carriers would typically recover the first wave, move those aircraft into the hangar, and then recover the second wave.\n", "\"Events\" are typically made up of about 12–20 aircraft and are sequentially numbered throughout the 24-hour fly day. Prior to flight operations, the aircraft on the flight deck are arranged (\"spotted\") so that Event 1 aircraft can easily be taxied to the catapults once they have been started and inspected. Once the Event 1 aircraft are launched (which takes generally about 15 minutes), Event 2 aircraft are readied for launch about an hour later (based on the cycle time in use). The launching of all these aircraft makes room on the flight deck to then land aircraft. Once Event 2 aircraft are launched, Event 1 aircraft are recovered, fueled, rearmed, respotted, and readied to be used for Event 3. Event 3 aircraft are launched, followed by the recovery of Event 2 aircraft (and so on throughout the fly day). After the last recovery of the day, all of the aircraft are generally stored on the bow (because the landing area aft needs to be kept clear until the last aircraft lands). They are then respotted about the flight deck for the next morning's first launch.\n", "On 15 June 2010, \"Forrestal\" departed Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island, where she had been stored since 1998, under tow for the inactive ship storage facility in Philadelphia and tied up at Pier 4, next to ex-.\n", "Some STOL aircraft, such as the North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco, have been operated from aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships in this manner more recently, but this is not common practice.\n\nEven very large aircraft such as the Lockheed C-130 Hercules have been successfully landed and launched from large aircraft carriers, but was done with no cargo and little fuel on board the aircraft.\n\nSection::::Modern carrier-based aircraft in service.\n\nSection::::Modern carrier-based aircraft in service.:In service.\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing EA-18G Growler\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet\n\nBULLET::::- Dassault Rafale M\n\nBULLET::::- Grumman C-2 Greyhound\n\nBULLET::::- Lockheed Martin F-35B/C Lightning II\n", "The aircraft director then directs the aircraft to clear the landing area in preparation for the next landing. Remaining ordnance is disarmed, wings are folded, and aircraft are taxied to parking spots and shut down. Immediately upon shutdown (or sometimes prior to that), the aircraft are refueled, rearmed, and inspected; minor maintenance is performed; and often respotted prior to the next launch cycle.\n\nSection::::Carrier qualifications.\n", "BULLET::::- In Case III launches, a minimum launch interval of 30 seconds is used between aircraft, which climb straight ahead. At , they turn to fly the 10-nmi arc until intercepting their assigned departure radial.\n", "In another incident, during the early-mid 1960s, \"Hassayampa\" had an incident during a midnight replenishment operation. The following is a narrative from Robert Werner, Communications Officer of , as obtained from :\n", "On 17 May 1987 USS \"Camden\" was redirected to assist after it was attacked by unfriendly fire. USS \"Camden\"s job was to unload all of the weapons on board \"Stark\" in case of further attack.\n", "Section::::Classification of departure and recovery operations.\n\nDeparture and recovery operations are classified according to meteorological conditions into Case I, Case II, or Case III. \n\nBULLET::::- Case I occurs when flights are anticipated to not encounter instrument conditions (instrument meteorological conditions) during daytime departures/recoveries, and the ceiling and visibility around the carrier are no lower than and , respectively. Maintaining radio silence, or \"zip lip\", during case-I launches and recoveries is the norm, breaking radio silence only for safety-of-flight issues.\n", "This method of designing workflow also resulted in improvements to weapon handling procedures and an increase in potential sorties-per-day. Weapons-handling paths on \"Nimitz\"-class ships were designed for the potential nuclear missions of the Cold War. The current flow of weapons from storage areas in the interior of the \"Nimitz\"-class ship to loading on aircraft involves several horizontal and vertical movements to various staging and build-up locations within the ship. These movements around the ship are time-consuming and manpower-intensive and typically involve sailors manually moving weapons loaded on carts. Also, the current locations of some of the \"Nimitz\"-class weapons elevators conflict with the flow of aircraft on the flight deck, slowing down the generation of sorties or making some elevators unusable during flight operations.\n", "Cyclic operations refers to the launch and recovery cycle for aircraft in groups or \"cycles\". Launching and recovering aircraft aboard aircraft carriers is best accomplished nonconcurrently, and cyclic operations are the norm for U.S. aircraft carriers. Cycles are generally about one and a half hours long, although cycles as short as an hour or as long as an hour and 45 minutes are not uncommon. The shorter the cycle, the fewer aircraft can be launched/recovered; the longer the cycle, the more critical fuel becomes for airborne aircraft.\n", "Section::::Specifications.\n\nTo carry out her primary mission, \"Wasp\" has an assault support system that synchronizes the simultaneous horizontal and vertical flow of troops, cargo and vehicles throughout the ship. Two aircraft elevators service the hangar bay and flight deck. Six cargo elevators, each , are used to transport material and supplies from the cargo holds throughout the ship to staging areas on the flight deck, hangar bay and vehicle storage area. Cargo is transferred to waiting landing craft docked within the ship's , well dock. Helicopters in the hangar bay or on the flight deck are cargo-loaded by forklift.\n", "She was deployed as part of Exercise COUGAR 13 during the autumn of 2013 along with , , and six RFA vessels. She was diverted away from the COUGAR 13 task group in December 2013 to assist in Typhoon Haiyan disaster relief efforts in the Philippines and eventually returned to Portsmouth on 10 January 2014.\n", "Section::::Service history.:Accidents and incidents.\n", "Section::::Description.:Carrier air wing.\n", "After the dawn launch had been recovered, those planes might be refueled in preparation to either repeat the search and patrol mission or augment the offensive force. If no enemy fleet was discovered, this cycle would be repeated through the daylight hours, although there would be no launch prior to recovering the last search and patrol mission of the day during the fading hours of daylight.\n\nSection::::Wartime.\n", "With this conversion, \"Betelgeuse\" could now transport fourteen (14) missiles in Number Three hold, five (5) missiles (in containers), in Number Four hold, and four (4) missiles (in containers) on the main deck, one on each side of both Number Four and Five hatch, for a total capacity of twenty-three (23) missiles.\n\nSection::::USS \"Betelgeuse\".:1960s.:1962 operations.\n", "The first layer of antimissile defense by a modern, fully equipped aircraft carrier task force is always the long-range missile-carrying fighter planes of the aircraft carrier itself. Several fighters are kept on combat air patrol (CAP) 24 hours a day, seven days a week when at sea, and many more are put aloft when the situation warrants, such as during wartime or when a threat to the task force is detected.\n", "Section::::Design and description.:Flight deck and hangars.\n", "Catapult No. 4 on the \"Nimitz\" class cannot launch fully loaded aircraft because of a deficiency of wing clearance along the edge of the flight deck. CVN-78 will have no catapult-specific restrictions on launching aircraft, but still retains four catapults, two bow and two waist. The number of aircraft lifts from hangar deck to flight deck level was reduced from four to three.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03089	Why do governments and companies keep building luxury apartment skyscrapers in cities where the majority of the population can't even afford the rent?	It's because the demand is still much, much higher than the supply. Part of this is because real estate in American cities is a pretty good place to store a lot of wealth if you live overseas. It can't be confiscated easily by whatever your local government is, and you can be pretty sure the value will stay high. Add those types to the massive number of people who want to live in big cities and will find a way to make it pay, and there's enough demand to keep costs high.	[ "The \"wow factor\" has also been taken up by Spanish architecture critics such as \"New York Times\" architecture critics Herbert Mushamp and Nicolai Ouroussof, in their arguments that the city needs to be \"radically\" reshaped by new towers. Discussing Spanish starchitect Santiago Calatrava's new skyscraper at 80 South Street near the foot of the Brooklyn Bridge, Ouroussof mentions how Calatrava's apartments are conceived as self-contained urban refuges, $30,000,000 prestige objects for the global elites: \"If they differ in spirit from the Vanderbilt mansions of the past, it is only in that they promise to be more conspicuous. They are paradises for aesthetes.\"\n", "The government confirmed in July 2006 this plan which has to be carried out around 2015. It is justified by the strong estate pressure, which plays in favour of building new skyscrapers near Paris. Those constructions have also the advantage to be more economical than little buildings. But it will have to overcome some difficulties: French economy faces a short-term slowdown; the government tries to balance tertiary sector employment in the whole region again, because La Défense today concentrates a major part of those jobs; and traffic is already saturated in the district, while it would need huge investments to extend transport infrastructures.\n", "Sarah Williams Goldhagen (2012) celebrated the work of innovative architecture firms such as WOHA (based in Singapore), Mass Studies (based in Seoul), Amateur Architecture Studio (based in Hangzhou, China), and the New York City-based Steven Holl in the transformation of residential towers into \"vertical communities\" or \"vertical cities in the sky\" providing aesthetic, unusually designed silhouettes on the skyline, comfortable private spaces and attractive public spaces. None of these \"functional, handsome, and humane high-rise residential buildings\" are affordable housing.\n\nSection::::Modern development.:Asia.:China.\n", "In Western Europe, there are fewer high-rise buildings because of the historic city centers. In the 1960s, people started demolishing a few old buildings to replace them with modern high buildings. \n\nIn Brussels, the capital of Europe, there are numerous modern high-rise buildings in the Northern Quarter business district. The government of Belgium wants to recreate Washington, D.C. on a small scale. \n\nFrankfurt is currently the best known \"high-rise building city\" of Europe. Big skyscrapers dominate the city.\n\nIn London, you can find them in Canary Wharf. \n", "In Hong Kong, developers are embracing the micro-living trend, renting microapartments at sky-high prices. The \"Wall Street Journal\" compares the 180-square-feet flat in High Place, Sai Ying Pun to the size of a U.S. parking spot (160 square feet) in a video, highlighting the soaring property prices in Hong Kong (one of the apartments in High Place was sold for more than US$500,000 in June 2015).\n\nSection::::Countries.:United States.\n", "A tendency in contemporary residential architecture, particularly in the rebuilding of older neighborhoods in large cities, is the luxury condominium tower, with very expensive apartments for sale designed by \"starchitects\", that is, internationally famous architects. These buildings frequently have little relationship with the architecture of their neighborhood, but stand like signature works of their architects.\n", "In January 2013, New York City got its first microapartment building, with 55 units that are as small as and ceilings from . Common's Williamsburg in Brooklyn rents single rooms where tenants share a kitchen for $2,050 per month; \"The Guardian\" states that \"[s]ingle room occupancy housing is obviously not a new concept, however, the genius of late capitalism is that it has made it desirable\" to high-income renters.\n\nIn 2017, California passed a law which encourages development of \"efficiency units\" of at least 150 sq ft by disallowing localities from limiting their numbers near public universities and public transportation.\n", "In Paris, the counterpart of Canary Wharf is La Défense. \n\nSection::::Modern development.:Europe.:Western Europe.:Great Britain.\n\nTower blocks were first built in the United Kingdom after the Second World War, and were seen as a cheap way to replace 19th-century urban slums and war-damaged buildings. They were originally seen as desirable, but quickly fell out of favour as tower blocks attracted rising crime and social disorder, particularly after the collapse of Ronan Point in 1968.\n", "Section::::Modern development.:North America.\n\nSection::::Modern development.:North America.:Canada.\n", "In contrast to their public housing cousins, commercially developed high-rise apartment buildings continue to flourish in cities around the country largely due to high land prices and the housing boom of the 2000s. The Upper East Side in New York City, featuring high-rise apartments, is the wealthiest urban neighborhood in the United States.\n\nCurrently, the tallest residential building in the world is 432 Park Avenue located in Midtown Manhattan, having a height of 1,396 feet with the highest occupied floor at 1,287 feet.\n\nSection::::Modern development.:Oceania.\n", "In general, much of the philosophy comes from a theory that apartment buildings are not healthy spaces for human habitation. Only with substantial wealth can an apartment building maintain the characteristics of security, social networking, and urban integration that the designers feel is necessary for a healthy community. Instead, the lower-rise, urban feel with a sense of safety in the built environment satisfies that need.\n", "Today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is expensive, as in the centers of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area of land.\n\nOne problem with skyscrapers is car parking. In the largest cities most people commute via public transport, but for smaller cities a lot of parking spaces are needed. Multi-storey car parks are impractical to build very tall, so a lot of land area is needed.\n\nThere may be a correlation between skyscraper construction and great income inequality but this has not been conclusively proven.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.\n", "A survey in 2016, by Ipsos Mori, found that many Londoners, particularly those who live in the most affected areas, think the trend towards ever taller, bolder skyscrapers has gone too far. More than 400 buildings of more than 20 floors in 2016 were tentatively proposed by developers in London. Among respondants, six out of ten backed a limit on the height of new skyscrapers, with the same proportion backing restrictions on the number of buildings with more than 50 floors.\n\nSection::::Designated area.\n", "The property bubble has resulted in poor quality design and construction, ending up in buildings often unfinished and/or unoccupied. Developers and contractors often cut corners to pocket money, while there is often a shortage of skilled labor, and projects often have short time constraints. Austin Williams wrote that this trend was consistent with capitalism where “Its early stages usually involve building shit, making a profit, and moving on to the next deal – even if the building falls down soon after.” In addition, long-lasting buildings are less profitable that those buildings shoddily built and rebuilt during the same time span; indeed repeated demolition and construction counts toward GDP economic growth.\n", "Skyscrapers are usually situated in city centers where the price of land is high. Constructing a skyscraper becomes justified if the price of land is so high that it makes economic sense to build upward as to minimize the cost of the land per the total floor area of a building. Thus the construction of skyscrapers is dictated by economics and results in skyscrapers in a certain part of a large city unless a building code restricts the height of buildings.\n", "A 2009 report on the Technium initiative by DTZ showed that since the first Technium was opened, 151 tenant companies had been accommodated. Eighty-two were still in residence, 38 had moved to other locations and 22 had failed. The \"Western Mail\" argued that the scheme's performance had been \"mixed at best... the tenants have created nearly 1,000 jobs, but surely they would have been created anyway and found suitable accommodation from private sector landlords.\"\n", "Bent Flyvbjerg argues that policymakers are attracted to megaprojects for four reasons:\n\nBULLET::::- Technological sublime: the rapture that engineers and technologists get from building large and innovative projects, pushing the boundaries for what technology can do.\n\nBULLET::::- Political sublime: the rapture politicians get from building monuments to themselves and for their causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Economic sublime: the delight business people and trade unions get from making lots of money and jobs from megaprojects.\n\nBULLET::::- Aesthetic sublime: the pleasure designers and people who appreciate good design get from building, using, and looking at something very large that is also iconically beautiful.\n\nSection::::Economics.\n", "High-rise living in Australia was limited to small pockets of bohemian inner Sydney until the 1960s, where a short-lived fashion saw public housing tenants located in new high-rise developments, especially in Sydney and Melbourne. The buildings pictured along with four other 16-story blocks were constructed on behalf of the Royal Australian Navy and were available to sailors and their families for accommodation. Due to social problems within these blocks the Navy left and the Department of Housing took charge and flats were let to low income and immigrant families. During the 1980s many people escaping communism in Eastern bloc countries were housed in these buildings. Developers have enthusiastically adopted the term \"apartment\" for these new high-rise blocks, perhaps to avoid the stigma still attached to housing commission flats.\n", "In 2006, renewed criticism regarding current Premier Jean Charest′s limited use of the apartment led to another proposal for a proper official residence. Charest, who heads a family of five and lives in Montreal, saw little reason to move them across the province. These proposals were not taken further, and Charest′s successor, Pauline Marois, made regular use of the apartment.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Marine Building: a contemporaneous (October 7, 1930), similarly sized 22-floor skyscraper built in Vancouver.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Edifice Price at Emporis\n\nBULLET::::- Édifice Price at SkyscraperPage\n", "In Seoul, approximately 80% of its residents live in apartment complexes which comprise 98% of recent residential construction. Seoul proper is noted for its population density, eight times greater than Rome, though less than Manhattan and Paris. Its metropolitan area is the densest in the OECD.\n\nSection::::Modern development.:Europe.\n\nSection::::Modern development.:Europe.:Central and Eastern Europe.\n\nAlthough some Central and Eastern European countries during the interwar period, such as the Second Polish Republic, already started building housing estates that were considered to be of a very high standard for their time, many of these structures perished during the Second World War.\n", "Section::::Current examples.:Australia.\n", "In San Francisco, Starcity is converting unused parking garages, commercial spaces and offices into single room residential units, where tenants (tech professionals are the typical renter) get a furnished bedroom and access to wifi, janitor servies and common kitchens and lounges for $1,400 to $2,400 per month, an approach that has been called \"dorm living for grown ups\".\n", "Section::::Research work.:Quality and value in use of apartments and apartment buildings.\n", "In coming years we may see a different village which would be occupied by the higher buildings. Far in the land pooling policy is 400% acc. To which the buildings will be up to 38 to 40 floors. \n", "More than 80% of all 3Q projects are housed in the existing SOHO properties. The main kinds of property are shopping malls, office towers, and mix-use buildings. SOHO China choses to refurbish shopping malls, office towers, foodcourts, and underground leftovers into the coworking spaces, . \n\nThe key pillars for creating the coworking spaces are splashes of color, open spacious areas, automation of the design processes and comfortable lighting for work.\n" ]	[ "There is not much of a point for the government and companies to build luxury apartments when majority of the population can't even afford rent. " ]	[ "While many in the area can't afford rent, the demand for luxury apartments such as this still outweighs the demand, giving the governement a reason to continue creating apartments like this. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is not much of a point for the government and companies to build luxury apartments when majority of the population can't even afford rent. ", "There is not much of a point for the government and companies to build luxury apartments when majority of the population can't even afford rent. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "While many in the area can't afford rent, the demand for luxury apartments such as this still outweighs the demand, giving the governement a reason to continue creating apartments like this. ", "While many in the area can't afford rent, the demand for luxury apartments such as this still outweighs the demand, giving the governement a reason to continue creating apartments like this. " ]
2018-04483	Hiw does velcro works and why its so loud when you rip it off?	The correct name defines it better “hook and loop” the hard part is the hook which grabs the fluffy fabric which is the loop and it makes the sound due to the plastic being expanded and going back into place.	[ "Swiss electrical engineer George de Mestral invented his first touch fastener when, in 1941, he went for a walk in the woods and wondered why burdock seeds clung to his coat and dog. He discovered it could be turned into something useful. He patented it in 1955, and subsequently refined and developed its practical manufacture until its commercial introduction in the late 1950s.\n", "The fastener consisted of two components: a lineal fabric strip with tiny hooks that could \"mate\" with another fabric strip with smaller loops, attaching temporarily, until pulled apart. Initially made of cotton, which proved impractical, the fastener was eventually constructed with nylon and polyester.\n\nDe Mestral gave the name \"Velcro\", a portmanteau of the French words \"velour\" (\"velvet\") and \"crochet\" (\"hook\"), to his invention as well as his company, which continues to manufacture and market the fastening system.\n\nSection::::Company leadership.\n", "BULLET::::- ASTM D5170-98 (2010) Standard Test Method for Peel Strength (\"T\" Method) of Hook and Loop Touch Fasteners\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM D2050-11 Standard Terminology Relating to Fasteners and Closures Used with Textiles\n\nSection::::Jumping.\n\nVelcro jumping is a game where people wearing hook-covered suits take a running jump and hurl themselves as high as possible at a loop-covered wall. The wall is inflated, and looks similar to other inflatable structures. It is not necessarily completely covered in the material—often there will be vertical strips of hooks. Sometimes, instead of a running jump, people use a small trampoline.\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 - David Letterman wears a suit made of hook-and-loop and jumps from a trampoline into a wall covered in the product during an interview with Velcro Companies' USA director of industrial sales.\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 - In the John Frankenheimer film \"The Island of Dr. Moreau,\" Moreau's assistant jokingly claims that the doctor won his Nobel Prize for inventing Velcro.\n", "Hook-and-loop fasteners, hook-and-pile fasteners or touch fasteners (often referred to by the genericized trademark velcro, despite the objections of the Velcro Brand), consist of two components: typically, two lineal fabric strips (or, alternatively, round \"dots\" or squares) which are attached (sewn or otherwise adhered) to the opposing surfaces to be fastened. The first component features tiny hooks, the second features smaller loops. When the two are pressed together the hooks catch in the loops and the two pieces fasten or bind temporarily. When separated, by pulling or peeling the two surfaces apart, the strips make a distinctive \"ripping\" sound.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- The character of Jerry on the 1990s sitcom \"Parker Lewis Can't Lose\" wears a trenchcoat from which he can get any needed item, always with the sound of a velcro attachment ripping free.\n", "Velcro\n\nVelcro BVBA is a privately held company that produces fasteners and other products. It is known for being the original patentor of the hook-and-loop fastener, to which it has (over its objections) lent the generic name \"velcro\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 - The fastener has become part of a recurring joke in various media in which it is claimed that modern humans would be unable to invent it, and that it is in fact a form of advanced technology. For example, K claims in \"Men in Black\" that Velcro was originally alien technology,\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 - The \"\" episode \"\" portrays Velcro as being introduced to human society by Vulcans in 1957. One of the Vulcans in the episode is named \"Mestral\", after the fastener's actual inventor and founder of the brand.\n", "Today plastic purfling is commonplace in mass-produced instruments. One common example of plastic purfling is a sandwich of three alternating strips in black and white, measuring about . However, many distinctive variations are used.\n", "Neoprene rubber and resin-coated fabric surrounds are longer-lasting. \n", "Touch fasteners are easy to use, safe, and maintenance free. There is only a minimal decline in effectiveness even after many fastenings and unfastenings. The tearing noise it makes can also be useful against pickpockets. This loud noise can also prove to be a liability, in particular on military attire such as the Army Combat Uniform, where it can attract unwanted attention in a battlefield environment.\n", "Section::::Process and equipment.\n\nBristle blasting tools are fabricated from high-carbon steel wires that protrude through a flexible circular belt. The belt, in turn, is attached to a rotating hub, which is powered by an electric or pneumatically driven spindle. The tool is lightweight, portable, and easily implemented by workers without the need for elaborate set-up or sophisticated safety apparatus.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Squeaky toy\n\nA squeaky toy, squeak toy, squeaker toy, or squeeze toy, is a soft, hollow toy made from flexible materials such as rubber or vinyl, and usually equipped with a small device known as a \"squeaker.\"\n\nSection::::How it works.\n", "De Mestral gave the name Velcro, a portmanteau of the French words velours (\"velvet\"), and crochet (\"hook\"), to his invention as well as his company, which continues to manufacture and market the fastening system.\n", "Section::::Tape-less devices.:Myskinclamp.\n\nIt is made of stainless steel pusher cone with spring which pushes the other steel cone which can slide on the pusher shaft and a plastic cone to hold the foreskin in place. It also has an option for a strap by which it is tied with the leg or can be used as a tugger.\n\nSection::::Tape-less devices.:CAT II Q.\n", "A Velcro hair roller is made of a strip of hook and loop fasteners that is wrapped around cylinders. They are available in different sizes and can be used on dry or wet hair. The rollers are self-holding because they do not need pins or clips to be held in place and do not need heat to be applied to create the curls. Typically kept in the hair for about fifteen minutes. To clean Velcro hair rollers hair should be removed from them and then soaked in shampoo and water mixture followed by a vinegar solution to remove any excess oil or dirt.\n", "“I brought it back to the lab, and I thought it might possibly make a good mid-range if I coated it,” Hecht recalls. “So I coated it with a thin rubber coating and put noise through it with a signal generator. To my absolute surprise, it went beyond 12K; that was quite a shock.” \n", "The first squeaky toys were simple rubber balls which produced a high pitched noise when air was squeezed through a hole, without a special noise maker. Later examples contained a metal noisemaker known as a \"whistle disk.\" Brightly colored rubber squeaky toys molded in various shapes became common during the 1940s. Later examples were molded from durable vinyl, and plastic squeakers replaced metal whistles.\n\nSqueaky toys may be modeled after popular cartoon characters, or used as promotional advertising. There are squeaky toy collectors, and published guides with typical selling prices.\n\nSection::::Nature's squeaky toys.\n", "Television show host David Letterman immortalized this during the February 28, 1984 episode of Late Night with David Letterman on NBC. Letterman proved that with enough of the material a man could be hurled against a wall and stick, by performing this feat during the television broadcast.\n", "After taking his dog for a walk one day in the late 1940s (1948), George de Mestral, a Swiss inventor, became curious about the seeds of the burdock plant that had attached themselves to his clothes and to the dog's fur. Under a microscope, he looked closely at the hook system that the seeds use to hitchhike on passing animals aiding seed dispersal, and he realized that the same approach could be used to join other things together. His work led to the development of the hook and loop fastener, which was initially sold under the Velcro brand name.\n", "Featured in the group show, \"Nostalgia Machines\" (2011) at David Winton Bell Gallery, \"150 prepared dc-motors, filler wire 1.0 mm.\" (2011), consists of small motors hanging at the ends of wires attached to the wall, causing the motors to bang against the wall and, according to Cate McQuaid of the \"Boston Globe\", make the sound of a “drenching rainstorm - a trigger for associations of threat and cozy shelter.” \n", "In technical application such as actuators, an Acme thread is used, although it has higher friction, because it is easy to manufacture, wear can be compensated for, it is stronger than a comparably sized square thread and it makes for smoother engagement.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Foam.\n", "A Montreal firm, Velek, Ltd., acquired the exclusive right to market the product in North and South America, as well as in Japan, with American Velcro, Inc. of New Hampshire, and Velcro Sales of New York, marketing the \"zipperless zipper\" in the United States.\n", "Section::::Differences from conventional rotary brushes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01303	Why is Somalia current state still bad?	Why would the state of Somalia improve? It is a very fragile country without a government capable of providing the services citizens expect of their country. It's been improving very slowly over the last 7 years, and is now only the second-most unstable country according to the UN. Without a government, it's not a very desirable place for business to invest or provide jobs for people.	[ "According to a study by the libertarian think tank the Independent Institute:\n\nIn 2005, Somalia ranked in the top 50 percent in six of our 13 measures, and ranked near the bottom in only three: infant mortality, immunization rates, and access to improved water sources. This compares favorably with circumstances in 1990, when Somalia last had a government and was ranked in the bottom 50 percent for all seven of the measures for which we had that year's data: death rate, infant mortality, life expectancy, main telephone lines, tuberculosis, and immunization for measles and DTP.\"\n", "We were skeptical, but everyone we have spoken to since– doctors, teachers, journalists, shopkeepers– has talked of a city transformed. Gone are the ubiquitous checkpoints where the warlords’ militias killed, extorted and stole. Gone are their technicals, Jeeps with heavy machine guns mounted on the back. The infamous Bakaro arms markets has been closed. The only guns and technicals now are those of the Sharia courts enforcers, and the reports of violence in the papers were of the Ipswich murders.\n", "According to the World Bank, Somalia's economy has suffered as a result of the state failure that accompanied the country's civil war. Some economists, including libertarian Peter T. Leeson, have argued instead that state collapse has actually helped improve economic welfare, because the previous Somali state was predatory.\n\nSection::::Economic indicators.\n\nAccording to the African Development Bank, Somalia is \"characterized by a severe lack of basic economic and social statistics\". This situation has been exacerbated by the civil war and institutional collapse, although even prior to Somalia's state failure, data was often unreliable.\n", "Section::::Transitional Federal Government.\n", "Ghedi's decree for disarmament also applied to non-government troops in the autonomous state of Puntland, where it was seen as questionably enforceable.\n\nSection::::Recent efforts.:January 2007.\n\nSection::::Recent efforts.:January 2007.:Announcement of weapons collections and amnesty.\n\nOn January 1, 2007, Somali Prime Minister Ali Mohammed Ghedi announced \"The warlord era in Mogadishu is now over.\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 Kusow, Abdi M. \"Power Struggles and Continued Human Suffering in Somalia,\" Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Disaster and World Politics, Institute for African Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 1993.\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 Muktar, M. and Abdi Kusow, \"The Boonka Conference and Beyond: An Investigation of the Bottom Up Grass-roots Reconciliation Process of the Clan Elders of Southern Somalia,\" Life and Peace Institute, Uppsala, Sweden, 1993.\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 Mohamud, S. Abdinur, and Abdi M. Kusow. \"Why Somalia Continues to Remains a Failed State.\" African Renaissance 3: 13-23\n", "Benjamin Powell argued that statelessness led to more order and less chaos than had the previous state, and economist Alex Tabarrok claimed that Somalia in its stateless period provided a \"unique test of the theory of anarchy\", in some aspects near of that espoused by anarcho-capitalists David D. Friedman and Murray Rothbard, although this is disputed by various anarchists, of both the capitalist and anti-capitalist varieties, who contend it is not anarchy, but merely chaos, perhaps resulting from unequal distribution of power and meddling by neighbors and developed nations like the United States. The Somali experience since the collapse of the state, and especially the failure of international intervention, has offered a clear challenge to elements of conventional economic, political and social order theory and the very premises under which Western diplomacy and development agencies operate, and in particular, in the words of anthropologist Peter D. Little, \"assumptions about the role of states in maintaining order and services\".\n", "Appealing that is to everyone except the fraction leaders, who exemplified criminal despotism, and by May 2006 the UIC was in an all out street war with the fraction leaders, who had banded together and secured US financial backing in order to defeat them. It was not enough however, and the UIC achieved total victory on June 6, 2006. The UIC swept out of Mogadishu and linked up with independent courts throughout central Somalia, forging an administration that rapidly eclipsed all other states in Somalia by August 16, 2006.\n\nSection::::Galmudug.\n", "The Federal Government of Somalia, the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war, was later established in August 2012. By 2014, Somalia was no longer at the top of the fragile states index, dropping to second place behind South Sudan. UN Special Representative to Somalia Nicholas Kay, European Union High Representative Catherine Ashton and other international stakeholders and analysts have also begun to describe Somalia as a \"fragile state\" that is making some progress towards stability. In August 2014, the Somali government-led Operation Indian Ocean was launched against insurgent-held pockets in the countryside.\n", "An International Monetary Fund mission to Somalia reports estimated GDP growth of 3.7% in 2014 and CPI inflation of -71.10%, and projected growth of 2.7% and inflation of 4% in 2015. The report notes that provided that Somalia's security situation continues to improve modestly and there is no drought, economic growth in the medium term should average 5%, but that \"growth will remain inadequate to redress poverty and gender disparities\".\n\nSection::::State failure and economic welfare.\n", "According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Somalia, the country had some of the lowest development indicators in the world, and a \"strikingly low\" Human Development Index (HDI) value of 0.285. This would rank amongst the lowest in the world if comparable data were available, and when adjusted for the significant inequality that exists in Somalia, its HDI is even lower. The UNDP notes that \"inequalities across different social groups, a major driver of conflict, have been widening\".\n", "Section::::Social organization.:Communications.\n", "2004 in Somalia\n\nThe following lists events that happened during 2004 in Somalia.\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nBULLET::::- Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, President, 14 October 2004–29 December 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Muhammad Abdi Yusuf, Prime Minister, 8 December 2003-3 November 2004\n\nBULLET::::- Ali Mohammed Ghedi, Prime Minister, 3 November 2004-29 October 2007\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- Attempts at reconciliation in Somalia (1991–2004)\n", "BULLET::::- International Crisis Group, Somalia’s South West State: A New President Installed, a Crisis Inflamed, 24 December 2018. \"Against all sensible advice, the Federal Government of Somalia muscled in on a local election to shove aside an Islamist conservative candidate. It scored a tactical victory but created significant additional risk for the country already wracked by conflict and divided along regional and clan lines.\"\n", "Section::::History.:Rise in power and Qandala campaign.\n", "Section::::Union of Islamic Courts.\n", "Section::::Jubaland.\n", "BULLET::::- 2002–2004: Yusuf Hassan Ibrahim\n\nBULLET::::- 2004–2006: Abdullahi Sheikh Ismail\n\nBULLET::::- 2006–2007: Ismail Mahmud Hurre\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Hussein Elabe Fahiye\n\nBULLET::::- 2007–2008: Muhammad Ali Hamoud\n\nBULLET::::- 2008–2009: Ali Ahmed Jama Jangali\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar\n\nBULLET::::- 2009–2010: Ali Ahmed Jama Jangali\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Yusuf Hassan Ibrahim\n\nBULLET::::- 2010–2011: Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar\n\nBULLET::::- 2011–2012: Mohamed Mohamud Ibrahim\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Abdullahi Haji Hassan Mohamed Nuur\n\nBULLET::::- 2012–2014: Fowsiyo Yusuf Haji Adan\n\nBULLET::::- 2014–2015: Abdirahman Duale Beyle\n\nBULLET::::- 2015–2017: Abdisalam Omer\n\nBULLET::::- 2017–2018: Yusuf Garaad Omar\n\nBULLET::::- 2018-present: Ahmed Isse Awad\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Diplomatic missions of Somalia\n", "For me, it seemed to me the most respected I've seen in Somalia and this shows how the locals enjoy and fix what happened and \n\nI have been living in the courtroom where the district governs the understanding of Islam. receives training in the public.\n\nSecurity: -\n\nThe most secure areas in the country are said to have never been warlossed, no one has insufficient security, and no weapons.\n\nEducation: -\n\nThe third time I went to my first visit to the 8th May 2017\n", "Two decades ago, one of Gudoomiye Iris's lasting legacies was the creation of boarding school on the outskirts of the city of Garbahare. Iris was the governor of Gedo much of the 1980s. Many public works projects were in the pipeline when the civil war erupted in Somalia in early 1991.\n\nAll previous governors and those who came after governor Iris, have left for the city or for the region with little or no progress to show.\n", "BULLET::::- Abdullahi Dalas, a well-known militant Al Shabaab officer in the Juba region, surrenders himself to the Afmadow District authorities in Lower Juba.\n", "In a 2007 study of the state of education in Somalia since the collapse of central authority in 1991, Abdullahi Sheikh Abdinoor found that \"the Somali people have adapted rather well, under the circumstances, to the absence of the state, despite continuing insecurity and lawlessness prevailing in the country.\" Following the destruction of educational systems and infrastructure during the civil war, many new educational institutions were opened by community members, private enterprises and Islamic NGOs.\n", "Although it states that no reliable statistics are available for the period in question, the United Nations claims that Somalia, already one of the poorest countries in the world, has become even poorer as a result of civil war. However, the CIA Factbook maintains that gains were made during the early 2000s; \"despite the seeming anarchy, Somalia's service sector has managed to survive and grow. Mogadishu's main market offers a variety of goods from food to the newest electronic gadgets. Hotels continue to operate, and militias provide security.\"\n", "In the early 1990s, due to the protracted lack of a permanent central authority, Somalia began to be characterized as a \"failed state\". Political scientist Ken Menkhaus argues that evidence suggested that the nation had already attained failed state status by the mid-1980s, while Robert I. Rotberg similarly posits that the state failure had preceded the ouster of the Barre administration. Hoehne (2009), Branwen (2009) and Verhoeven (2009) also used Somalia during this period as a case study to critique various aspects of the \"state failure\" discourse.\n", "Section::::Maakhir.\n" ]	[ "The state of Somalia should have improved by now." ]	[ "Somalia is a fragile country that doesn't have anything going for it that would cause improvement. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The state of Somalia should have improved by now.", "The state of Somalia should have improved by now." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Somalia is a fragile country that doesn't have anything going for it that would cause improvement. ", "Somalia is a fragile country that doesn't have anything going for it that would cause improvement. " ]
2018-04567	How come upcoming sony phones have 1080p 960fps recording when even high-end dlsr can't do 120fps?	DSLR cameras are typically pushed for still photography, adding the feature would cost more time & money while not necessarily getting people to run out and get the DSLR. Meanwhile on a cell phone the more 'fun' bells and whistles like that DO influence decisions to buy. DSLRs are also pushed towards more serious and more high-end camera buyers, and as someone who's worked in that industry... they prefer 'dedicated' gadgets, not multitaskers like mobile phones. If they want to really do a project with high FPS, they're going to go get a movie camera designed specifically (and solely) for shooting moving video.	[ "BULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia mini\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia Mini Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia neo\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia neo V\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia Play\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia ray\n\nSection::::Sony.\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia A SO-04E\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia acro S\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia E\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia E dual C1605\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia E1\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Go (ST27i)\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia i1 HSPA+ C6902\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia i1 LTE\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia ion\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia J\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia L\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia M\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia M2\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia M2 Dual\n", "BULLET::::- Sony Xperia M35t (VoLTE)\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia miro\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia P\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia S\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Sola\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia SP\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia T\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Tipo\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Tipo Dual\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia U\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia V\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia XA\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia ZL\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia ZR\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z1\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z1S (T Mobile US only)\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Xz2\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Xz-f8331\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z1 Compact LTE-A\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z2 LTE-A D6543/D6503\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z3\n", "Sony debuted in the Xperia XZs and the XZ Premium the world's first \"3-layer stacked image sensor with DRAM\" for smartphones. Known internally as Sony IMX400, the new ExmorRS sensor features a RAM chip sandwiched in between the sensor and control circuitry layers which serves as a large and fast buffer to where the sensor can temporarily offload a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the phone's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera to record super slow-motion videos at 960 fps, at a steady 720p resolution. Recording at super slow motion is limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer, due to limitations.\n", "Sony debuted in the Xperia XZs and the XZ Premium the world's first \"3-layer stacked image sensor with DRAM for smartphones\". Known internally as the IMX400, the new Exmor RS for mobile sensor features a DRAM chip sandwiched in-between the sensor array and control circuitry layers, serving as a large and fast memory buffer to the sensor, where it can temporarily store a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the device's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera sensor to record the highlight \"super slow-motion\" videos at a frame rate of 960 fps practically unheard of in a smartphone before. Recording at super slow motion is only limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer (about a blink of an eye) and at 720p HD resolution though, due to limitations. This specific limitation also requires a very bright light source directly on to the subject, or a well-lit scene or surrounding for a more noise-less and much brighter video capture.\n", "Sony debuted in the Xperia XZs and the XZ Premium the world's first three-layer stacked image sensor with DRAM for smartphones. Known as the Sony IMX400, the sensor features a RAM chip sandwiched in between the sensor and control circuitry layers which serves as a large and fast buffer to where the sensor can temporarily offload a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the phone's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera to record super slow-motion videos at 960 fps, at a steady 720p resolution. Recording at super slow motion is limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer though, due to limitations.\n", "Sony debuted in the Xperia XZs and the XZ Premium the world's first three-layer stacked image sensor with DRAM for smartphones. Known as the Sony IMX400, the sensor features a RAM chip sandwiched in between the sensor and control circuitry layers which serves as a large and fast buffer to where the sensor can temporarily offload a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the phone's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera to record super slow-motion videos at 960 fps, at a steady 720p resolution. Recording at super slow motion is limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer though, due to limitations.\n", "BULLET::::- Google Pixel 2 / Pixel 2 XL\n\nBULLET::::- Google Pixel 3 / Pixel 3 XL\n\nBULLET::::- HTC One M9\n\nBULLET::::- HTC 10\n\nBULLET::::- Lenovo Vibe Z2 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- LG G Flex\n\nBULLET::::- LG G Flex 2\n\nBULLET::::- LG G Pro 2\n\nBULLET::::- LG G7 ThinQ\n\nBULLET::::- LG V10\n\nBULLET::::- LG V20\n\nBULLET::::- LG V30 - 4K HDR (8-bit Log from 10-bit signal, can't record in 10 bit at all.)\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 930\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia Icon\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 1520\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Lumia 950\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Lumia 950 XL\n\nBULLET::::- Meizu MX4 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Meizu MX4\n", "BULLET::::- Sony XPeria XZ2 and XZ2 Compact – World's first \"4K HDR\" recording on a phone. Can be unabled, too. Also is the first smartphone to shoot 1080p up to 960fps.\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Mi 3 (using unofficial/modded software)\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Mi 4\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Mi A1\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Redmi Note 3 (Snapdragon model)\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Poco F1 Huawei Mate 9, Mate 9 Pro and Mate 9 Porsche Design edition\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei P10 and P10 Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei P20 and P20 Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 10, Mate 10 Pro and Mate 10 Porsche Design edition\n", "BULLET::::- Samsung Omnia 7\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Omnia Pro B7350\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung S5610\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Wave 3\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Trend Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Grand Prime\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy On5\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy C7\n\nSamsung U365\n\nSection::::Sonim Technologies.\n\nBULLET::::- Sonim XP5\n\nBULLET::::- Sonim XP7\n\nSection::::Sony Ericsson.\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Elm\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Hazel\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Live with Walkman\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia X8\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia X10 Mini\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia X10 mini pro\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia acro\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia active\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Ericsson Xperia arc S\n", "Sony debuted in the Xperia XZs and the XZ Premium the world's first three-layer stacked image sensor with DRAM for smartphones. Known as the Sony IMX400, the sensor features a RAM chip sandwiched in between the sensor and control circuitry layers which serves as a large and fast buffer to where the sensor can temporarily offload a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the phone's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera to record super slow-motion videos at 960 fps, at a steady 720p resolution. Recording at super slow motion is limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer though, due to limitations.\n", "In 2008 Sony released its own models capable of native progressive recording: the HVR-S270, the HVR-Z7 and the HVR-Z5. Sony stressed out that the models handle the signal entirely in progressive mode all the way from capture to encoding to recording on tape to output. Sony has designed \"Native Progressive Recording\" logo for the devices that are capable of native progressive recording and playback.\n", "BULLET::::- Motorola Moto X (2nd generation)\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Moto X Style\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid Turbo\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Nexus 6\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus One - the first mobile device to record at 4096 × 2160@24fps (DCi-4K or Full4K) and 3840 × 2160@30fps\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 2\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3T\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 5\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 5T\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 6\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 6T\n\nBULLET::::- Oppo Find 7/7a\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Note 3 (Snapdragon model)\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S5 (Snapdragon model)\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Alpha\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Note 4\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S6 / Galaxy S6 Edge / Galaxy S6 Edge+\n", "BULLET::::- Nokia 6720 classic\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia 6760 slide\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia 6790 slide\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia 7230\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Asha 300\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Asha 301\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Asha 302\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Asha 303\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Asha 311\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia C2-01\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia C3-01 Touch and Type\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia C5-03\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia C5-04\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia C6-00\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia C6-01\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia C7-00\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E5-00\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E52\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E55\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E6-00\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E63\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E7-00\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E71x\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E72\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia E73 Mode\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 510\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 520\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 520.2\n", "BULLET::::- XBRX930C (2015) - 4K, Android TV with Google Cast built-in, X1 Processor, Triluminos, Voice control remote, Motionflow XR1440, X-Tended Dynamic Range (edge-lit with local dimming), High Dynamic Range (HDR) support, half-wedge design with side-mounted magnetic fluid speakers, Active 3D. 65\".\n\nBULLET::::- XBRX940C (2015) - 4K, Android TV with Google Cast built-in, X1 Processor, Triluminos, Voice control remote, Motionflow XR1440, X-Tended Dynamic Range Pro (FUll-array LED backlight with local dimming), High Dynamic Range (HDR) support, half-wedge design with side-mounted magnetic fluid speakers, Active 3D. 75\".\n", "Many action cameras of the 2010s take video at High-Motion frame rates. GoPro, Sony and other action camera competitors record video at 1080p and 2.7k at 120fps, 720p and 1080p at 240fps, and 4k at 60fps. Although the video formats were designed for slowing down in post-production, the cameras generally record very high frame rates in high definition with generally clear audio. \n", "BULLET::::- Sony Ericsson phones support various AAC formats in MP4 container. AAC-LC is supported in all phones beginning with K700, phones beginning with W550 have support of HE-AAC. The latest devices such as the P990, K610, W890i and later support HE-AAC v2.\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia XpressMusic and other new generation Nokia multimedia phones like N- and E-Series also support AAC format in LC, HE, M4A and HEv2 profiles. These also supports playing LTP-encoded AAC audio.\n\nBULLET::::- BlackBerry phones running the BlackBerry 10 operating system support AAC playback natively. Select previous generation BlackBerry OS devices also support AAC.\n\nBULLET::::- bada OS\n", "BULLET::::- Adding an equalizer to the receiving cell\n\nBULLET::::- Improved clock and data recovery (CDR) circuitry with low jitter/phase noise\n\nEach of these fixes may possibly cause other problems. This type of issue must be addressed as part of design flows and design closure.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Power integrity\n\nBULLET::::- Electromagnetic interference\n\nBULLET::::- Electromagnetic compatibility\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced-level reference text for experienced digital designers who want to press their designs to the upper limits of speed and distance.\n\nBULLET::::- From the backcover: Draws from author's industrial experience and his work teaching more than five thousand engineers.\n", "BULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z5 Compact\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z5\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia Z5 Premium\n\nSection::::TechFaith.\n\nBULLET::::- TechFaith Wildfire 80\n\nSection::::Xiaomi.\n\nBULLET::::- Mi3\n\nBULLET::::- Mi4/i/s/c\n\nBULLET::::- Mi5/s/plus\n\nBULLET::::- Mi6\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi 1S\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi 2\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi 2 Enhanced\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi Note\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi Note 2\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi Note 4\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi Note 3\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi Note 3 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi 4\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi 4A\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi Note 5\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi Note 5 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Redmi 5 Plus\n\nSection::::ZTE.\n\nBULLET::::- ZTE Blade A452\n\nBULLET::::- ZTE Blade V880\n\nBULLET::::- ZTE Crescent (San Francisco 2 on Orange)\n\nBULLET::::- ZTE Era\n", "BULLET::::- Motions gaming\n\nBULLET::::- Video streaming\n\nBULLET::::- 3D games\n\nBULLET::::- Audio playback, supported formats: MP3, 3GPP, MP4, SMF, WAV, OTA, Ogg vorbis\n\nBULLET::::- Audio recording, supported formats: 3GPP, MP4, AMR\n\nBULLET::::- FM Radio with RDS\n\nBULLET::::- \"Movies\" application\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Connectivity and communication.\n\nBULLET::::- 3.5 mm audio jack (CTIA)\n\nBULLET::::- aGPS\n\nBULLET::::- Bluetooth 4.0 wireless technology\n\nBULLET::::- DLNA Certified\n\nBULLET::::- Media Go\n\nBULLET::::- Media Transfer Protocol support\n\nBULLET::::- Micro USB support (Micro-B receptacle)\n\nBULLET::::- OTG (using non OTG standard cable)\n\nBULLET::::- USB Host support\n\nBULLET::::- USB Device support (MTP, mass storage, USB tethering, battery charge)\n\nBULLET::::- NFC\n\nBULLET::::- Screen mirroring\n\nBULLET::::- Xperia Link\n", "BULLET::::- Motion estimation (ME) search strategy can also cause different visual quality for the same PSNR. So-called \"true motion\" search commonly will not reach minimum sum of absolute differences (SAD) values in codec ME, but may result in better visual quality. Such methods also require more compression time.\n\nBULLET::::- Rate control strategy. VBR commonly cause better visual quality marks than CBR for the same average PSNR values for sequences.\n", "BULLET::::- Sony α6300 - APS-C camera with internal 4K recording up to 100 Mbit/s. The camera uses a 20 MP (6K) region of the sensor to offer 2.4× oversampled 4K video with full pixel readout, and no pixel binning.\n\nBULLET::::- Sony α6500\n\nBULLET::::- Sony α7 III\n\nBULLET::::- Sony α7R II - Full Frame 42 Megapixel Sensor, but only 100 Mbit/s in H.264 and the APS-C crop mode is better for 4K than the full frame mode\n\nBULLET::::- Sony α7R III\n", "The Xperia 1 is capable of capturing 4K HDR video, and the two sensors (primary and telephoto) are optically-stabilized, a first for an Xperia device, dubbed \"Optical SteadyShot\". It has an Intelligent Active Mode where it works alongside the standard electronic SteadyShot (5-axis EIS + OIS) for better video stabilization. Exclusive for the Xperia 1 is the \"BIONZ X for mobile\" image-processing engine, borrowed from Sony's Alpha professional cameras. This brings pro camera Alpha technologies to the Xperia line for a more professional approach to mobile photography.\n", "BULLET::::- Nokia T7 is the first smartphone offered in the Tseries line, featuring a Nokia N8 shell with less specifications. Instead of a 12-megapixel shooter, the camera was modified to only 8 megapixels, but still offers high quality picture-taking and HD video recording. It is notable that the HDMI is now gone, and the network that the phone supports are TD-SCDMA and GSM.\n", "Sony products Media Manager PRO for PSP, Media Manager PRO for Walkman, and Mobile Media Manager PRO are all capable of converting M2TS format to MP4 files.\n", "BULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 929 LTE-A (Cat 4)\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 930\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 1020\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 1320\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia Lumia 1520\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N8\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N86 8MP\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N9\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N97\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N97 mini\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia X3-02\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia X5\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia X6-00\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia X7-00\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia 8 (TA-1012)\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia 7 Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia 8 Sirocco\n\nSection::::OnePlus.\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus One\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 2\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus X\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3T\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 5\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 6\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 6T\n\nSection::::Samsung.\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Avant (VoLTE)\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Star\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11574	Why is women’s handwriting generally better than men’s?	This has been asked many times before (don't use reddit's search to check for previous answers, google seach on reddit ... works much better). While there are some physical explanations, like development of motor skills happening earlier for girls... There are also social reasons, like girls being encouraged more to care about looks and boys to be fast and rough. Whichever is more important we can argue about but I doubt we will be able to reach a conclusion. Personally I'd argue for the social part because there is too much variation in the development and age of children in the same class, so by that logic the boys born early should be able to learn to write as nice as girls born late in the year (or vice versa). Personally I can write as nice as a girl if I want to take my time to do so but most of the time I write fast and rough because used to be a little boy many years ago.. I'd really like to be able to write nice AND fast though, but I have not mastered that yet. .	[ "The number of students with dysgraphia may increase from 4 percent of students in primary grades, due to the overall difficulty of handwriting, and up to 20 percent in middle school because written compositions become more complex. With this in mind, there are no exact numbers of how many individuals have dysgraphia due to its difficulty to diagnose. There are slight gender differences in association with written disabilities; overall it is found that males are more likely to be impaired with handwriting, composing, spelling, and orthographic abilities than females.\n", "\"Handwriting is a psychomotor skill taught by instruction\". Handwriting instruction is a student's primary means of communicating academic progress to teachers, and that is doubly true for cursive handwriting instruction. There are many important aspects of handwriting instruction, the most important items are; age of handwriting instruction, handwriting style, methods of handwriting instruction, handwriting equipment, evaluation, and handwriting difficulties. Legibility is the main determinant in handwriting evaluations, especially cursive handwriting. It is very important that handwriting instruction is taught properly; it is a skill that is very difficult to restore if it is gained incorrectly.\n\nSection::::Current Events.\n", "Section::::Distinctions.:Coding.\n\nThe stylistic differences between the syntax and lexicon of men and women extends even beyond written communication. In other applications of communication the same rift exists. In computer programming and coding, women are believed to write code that is more user-friendly, containing comments that explain how to use it, and easy to understand variables, while code written by men tends to be cryptic and obscure. Emma McGrattan, a programmer located in Silicon Valley, says she can accurately determine whether code was written by a man or a woman just by looking at it.\n", "Section::::Release and reception.\n", "Like spatial ability, sex differences in verbal abilities have been widely established in literature. There is a clear higher female performance on a number of verbal tasks prominently a higher level of performance in speech production which reaches a deviation of 0.33 and also a higher performance in writing Studies have also found greater female performance in phonological processing, identifying alphabetical sequences, and word fluency tasks. Studies have also females outperforming males in verbal learning especially on tests such as \"Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test\" and \"Verbal Paired Associates\". and A 2010 study published in the \"Journal of Advanced Prosthodentics\" found women showed significantly higher speech intelligibility scores than men and differences in acoustic (sound) parameters. Meanwhile, in another studies, a female advantage in generating synonyms and solving anagrams have also been found. Furthermore, a 2009 study published in the \"Archive of Clinical Neuropsychology\" found better female performance in writing that reached about 8 points in a sample of 22–80 year old adults, in relation to better male performance in math which reached about 4 points. It has also been found that the hormone estrogen increases ability of speech production and phonological processing in women, which could be tied to their advantages in these areas. Overall better female performance have also been found in verbal fluency which include a trivial advantage in vocabulary and reading comprehension while a significantly higher performance in speech production and essay writing. This manifests in higher female international PISA scores in reading and higher female Grade 12 scores in national reading, writing and study skills. Researchers Joseph M. Andreano and Larry Cahill have also found that the female verbal advantage extends into numerous tasks, including tests of spatial and autobiographical abilities. Another 2008 study published in the journal \"Act Psychologica\" found no sex differences in remembering phonologically-unfamiliar novel words but higher female ability to remember phonologically-familiar novel words. Meanwhile, higher depth of processing in semantic analysis among females compared to males have also been found in brain imaging studies, while greater female performance in many verbal abilities might be linked to their higher verbal memory. A 2013 study published in the \"International Journal of Psychology\" also found an adult female advantage in time for performing a verbal lexical task and temperament scale of social-verbal tempo.\n", "Section::::Legal considerations.:In the United States.:Gender and handwriting.\n\nThere have been a number of studies on gender and handwriting.\n\nUniformly the research indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level. The published studies on ethnicity, race, age, nationality, gender orientation, weight, and their relationship to handwriting have had mixed results.\n\nSection::::Legal considerations.:In the United States.:Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.\n", "Section::::Dyson's Research.:\"The Brothers and Sisters Learn to Write\".\n", "Handwriting is historically considered the widest taught motor skill. It is also one of the first, and often the only motor skill that children will learn at elementary school. It takes years of practice and maturing before a person has mastered the adult handwriting skill. Handwriting is not considered only as a movement that leaves a visible trace of ink on paper (product) but it can also be considered as a movement (process). Understanding of the handwriting product will not be complete until the handwriting process is understood. Therefore, handwriting movement has been researched since measurement techniques became available.\n", "Section::::Career.:\"Just Tell Me What You Want!\".\n\n\"Male characters are easier to write. They're simpler. I think women are generally more psychologically complicated. You have to put a little more effort into writing a woman.\" – Jay Presson Allen.\n", "Section::::Handwriting movement analysis software.:ComPET.\n\nAt the University of Haifa, Dr. Sara Rosenblum and Patricia L (Tamar) Weiss and colleagues developed a computerized handwriting evaluation system called POET: Penmanship Objective Evaluation Tool using MATLAB. It was used to administer visual stimuli and to record and analyze handwriting movements. They researched the Air Phenomenon: Pen movements above the paper (air strokes). The oldest mention of POET is in Rosenblum, Parush, Epstain, and Weiss (2003).\n", "BULLET::::- In spreadsheet problem-solving tasks, female end users were significantly slower to try out unfamiliar features. Females significantly more often agreed with the statement, \"I was afraid I would take too long to learn the [untaught feature].\" Even if they tried it once, females were significantly less likely to adopt new features for repeated use. For females, unlike for males, self-efficacy predicted the amount of effective feature usage. There was no significant difference in the success of the two genders or in learning how the features worked, implying that females’ low self-efficacy about their usage of new features was not an accurate assessment of their problem-solving potential, but rather became a self-fulfilling prophecy.\n", "On average, females excel relative to males on tests that measure recollection. They have an advantage on processing speed involving letters, digits and rapid naming tasks. Females tend to have better object location memory and verbal memory. They also perform better at verbal learning. Females have better performance at matching items and precision tasks, such as placing pegs into designated holes. In maze and path completion tasks, males learn the goal route in fewer trials than females, but females remember more of the landmarks presented. This shows that females use landmarks in everyday situations to orient themselves more than males. Females are better at remembering whether objects had switched places or not.\n", "Section::::Motor control.\n\nHandwriting requires the motor coordination of multiple joints in the hand, wrist, elbow, and shoulder to form letters and to arrange them on the page. Holding the pen and guiding it across paper depends mostly upon sensory information from skin, joints and muscles of the hand and this adjusts movement to changes in the friction between pen and paper. With practice and familiarity, handwriting becomes highly automated using motor programs stored in motor memory. Compared to other complex motor skills handwriting is far less dependent on a moment-to-moment visual guidance.\n", "Modern Styles include more than 200 published textbook curricula including: D'Nealian Script (a derivative of the Palmer Method which uses a slanted, serifed manuscript form followed by an entirely joined and looped cursive), Modern Zaner-Bloser which accounts for the majority of handwriting textbook sales in the US, A Beka, Schaffer, Peterson, Loops and Groups, McDougal, Steck Vaughn, and many others.\n\nItalic Styles include Getty-Dubay (slightly slanted), Eager, Portland, Barchowsky, Queensland, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- For spreadsheet problem-solving tasks, (1) female end users had significantly lower self-efficacy than males and (2) women with low self-efficacy were significantly less likely to work effectively with problem-solving features available in the software. In contrast, males’ self-efficacy did not impact their effectiveness with these features.\n\nBULLET::::- In a study of the computer attitudes and self-efficacy of 147 college students, gender differences existed in self-efficacy for complex tasks (such as word processing and spreadsheet software), but not simpler tasks. Also, male students had more experience working with computers and reported more encouragement from parents and friends.\n", "In addition, the article \"Gender Differences in EFL Writing\" states that \"research on gender differences in writing have mostly been conducted among children. Punter and Burchell’s study (1996) on the GCSE English language exam in the UK primary school discovered that girls scored better in imaginative, reflective, and empathetic writing while boys scored better in argumentative and factual writing\", which provides evidence for the stance that there is an ingrained difference in the writing of men and women, one that starts very early on in life. This, however, is not the case for everybody, as shown by Alice Sheldon's \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In,\" which was believed to be written by a man based on the type of language used. Further evidence for the difference between written word of boys and girls is provided in Written Communication. Analysis of the assignments of eighth graders shows that the girls consistently scored higher on their assignments than the boys, even when the boys showed an increased or above average proclivity towards writing. The article even states that the writing behaviors of girls are \"more desirable\" in the public school setting. The studies show that when all factors are the same, including learning behavior and attitude, girls are still more successful in writing classes.\n", "Other copybook styles that are unique and do not fall into any previous categories are Smithhand, Handwriting without Tears, Ausgangsschrift, Bob Jones, etc. these may differ greatly from each other in a variety of ways.\n\nThe first made video for correcting messy handwriting especially for people with ADHD and or dysgraphia was \" Anyone Can Improve Their Own Handwriting\" by learning specialist Jason Mark Alster MS.c.\n\nSection::::Teaching methods and history.:Schools in East Asia.\n", "Research shows that students using the Saxon Phonics and Spelling program showed improvement over a school year in phonics, reading, and spelling. Research has also shown that this program works just as well with males as with females and with special education and non-special education students.\n", "In a 1998 interview, she commented of her career, \"I never thought it was shameful. I felt normal. It's just that it was much better than pounding a typewriter eight hours a day, which gets monotonous.\"\n", "Hormones are an additional factor that contributes to gender differences in motor skill. For instance, women perform better on manual dexterity tasks during times of high estradiol and progesterone levels, as opposed to when these hormones are low such as during menstruation.\n", "Sometimes children need some assistance when developing their fine motor skills. This requires one to find strategies to assist children with their development. Occupational therapists are experts in the field of fine motor and handwriting development. More exposure to physical activity is known to be the most efficient method for developing any skill. Girls at the age of four tend to use their fine motor skills more effectively than boys at the same age. Similarly, boys tend to have better control of gross motor skills.\n", "In academic writing, there are marked differences between them in syntax and structure between women's writing and men's writing. Studying the differences between masters’ theses of men and women shows that their sentences often contain more components, meaning that they form more complicated ideas. By studying the number of T-units- the shortest phrase that can still be split into different components (often a sentence) - in comparison to the number of clauses, one can see that women use almost twice as many clauses as sentences.\n", "Mina P. Shaughnessy is arguably the most prominent name in the field of BW. She helped create the atmosphere of academic respectability BW needed to become recognized as a legitimate scholarly field. Her 1977 book, Errors and Expectations, set the tone for much (if not all) of the BW scholarship that followed. BW scholars, whether they agree with Shaughnessy or not, are still responding to her.\n\nThe ‘‘‘Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Basic Writing’’’ includes this annotation for Errors and Expectations:\n", "Men, on the other hand, only have a ratio of about .70 clauses per sentence, suggesting that they present just one idea per sentence. Similarly, women used about 21% more cohesive devices in their writing than men did, indicating that they carried ideas into multiple sentences or phrases more often, presenting a more complicated argument. Women also tended to use paraphrasing rather than direct quotation when integrating information from outside sources.\n\nSection::::Distinctions.:Children.\n", "BULLET::::- Her next work was her dissertation titled \"Control Process in Modified Handwriting: An Experimental Study\". In this article she studied the relationship between handwriting and temperament or personality.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heavenly Dykes\" published in 1904\n\nBULLET::::- \"Imaginal Reaction to Poetry\" published in 1911\n\nBULLET::::- \"Graphology and the Psychology of Handwriting\" published in 1919\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plots and Personalities\" published in 1922 Publisher The Century Company described this book as \"the queerest book they have ever published.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Will-temperament and its Testing\" published in 1923\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Kingdom of the Mind\" published in 1927\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00428	How do our bodies generate heat and maintain warmth internally?	Chemical reactions within the body, such as oxidation / reduction reactions done during cellular metabolism, generate heat as a byproduct. That heat is used to maintain warmth. In the event that the body is cold, the body will increase its metabolism in order to generate more heat to compensate (homeostasis). Interesting point - the part of the brain that regulates body temperature is the hypothalamus.	[ "Section::::Controls of variables.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Core temperature.\n\nMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.\n", "Another commonly considered model is the heat pump or refrigerator. Again there are four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A single cycle starts with the working body colder than the cold reservoir, and then energy is taken in as heat by the working body from the cold reservoir. Then the work reservoir does work on the working body, adding more to its internal energy, making it hotter than the hot reservoir. The hot working body passes heat to the hot reservoir, but still remains hotter than the cold reservoir. Then, by allowing it to expand without doing work on another body and without passing heat to another body, the working body is made colder than the cold reservoir. It can now accept heat transfer from the cold reservoir to start another cycle.\n", "Section::::Energy usage in the human body.\n\nThe human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.\n", "Section::::Control system.\n\nThe core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus. As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).\n\nSection::::In hot conditions.\n", "The CNS can be divided into the brain and spinal cord. The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories. Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS. The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to homeostasis by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli. The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain. The brain is responsible for integrating most sensory information and coordinating body function, both consciously and unconsciously.\n", "Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Endotherms control body temperature by internal homeostatic mechanisms. In mammals, two separate homeostatic mechanisms are involved in thermoregulation—one mechanism increases body temperature, while the other decreases it. The presence of two separate mechanisms provides a very high degree of control. This is important because the core temperature of mammals can be controlled to be as close as possible to the optimum temperature for enzyme activity.\n", "In mammals, temperature receptors innervate various tissues including the skin (as cutaneous receptors), cornea and urinary bladder. Neurons from the pre-optic and hypothalamic regions of the brain that respond to small changes in temperature have also been described, providing information on core temperature. The hypothalamus is involved in thermoregulation, the thermoreceptors allowing feed-forward responses to a predicted change in core body temperature in response to changing environmental conditions.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThermoreceptors have been classically described as having 'free' non-specialized endings; the mechanism of activation in response to temperature changes is not completely understood.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "The resting human body generates about two-thirds of its heat through metabolism in internal organs in the thorax and abdomen, as well as in the brain. The brain generates about 16% of the total heat produced by the body.\n", "The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as body fat, triglycerides, or glycogen, transferred to cells and converted to chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP – a coenzyme) or related compounds, or dissipated as heat.\n\nSection::::Energy.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Intake.\n", "Only birds and mammals are extant universally endothermic groups of animals. Certain lamnid sharks, tuna and billfishes are also endothermic.\n\nIn common parlance, endotherms are characterized as \"warm-blooded\". The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy, although in general, there is no absolute or clear separation between the nature of endotherms and ectotherms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Generating and conserving heat.\n", "Body heat is generated by metabolism. This refers to the chemical reactions cells use to break down glucose into water and carbon dioxide and, in so doing, generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high-energy compound used to power other cellular processes. Muscle contraction is a type of metabolic process that generates heat energy, and heat is also generated through friction when blood flows through the circulatory system.\n", "The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be applied to the human body in order to determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body. The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced in order to keep the internal temperature at a healthy level.\n", "Endotherm\n\nAn endotherm (from Greek ἔνδον \"endon\" \"within\" and θέρμη \"thermē\" \"heat\") is an organism that maintains its body at a metabolically favorable temperature, largely by the use of heat set free by its internal bodily functions instead of relying almost purely on ambient heat. Such internally generated heat is mainly an incidental product of the animal's routine metabolism, but under conditions of excessive cold or low activity an endotherm might apply special mechanisms adapted specifically to heat production. Examples include special-function muscular exertion such as shivering, and uncoupled oxidative metabolism such as within brown adipose tissue.\n", "Origins of heat and cold adaptations can be explained by climatic adaptation. This can be traced back to the body’s responses to differing environments immediately after leaving Africa, such as extreme cold, humid heat, desert conditions, and high altitudes. Ambient air temperature affects how much energy investment the human body must make. The temperature that requires the least amount of energy investment is 21 °C (69.8 °F). The body controls its temperature through the hypothalamus. Thermoreceptors in the skin send signals to the hypothalamus, which indicate when vasodilation and vasoconstriction should occur.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Cold.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.\n\nWhen humans are exposed to certain climates for extended periods of time, physiological changes occur to help the individual adapt to hot or cold climates. This helps the body conserve energy.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Cold.\n", "Section::::Biology.\n\nMammals attempt to maintain a comfortable body temperature under various conditions by thermoregulation, part of mammalian homeostasis. The lowest normal temperature of a mammal, the basal body temperature, is achieved during sleep. In women, it is affected by ovulation, causing a biphasic pattern which may be used as a component of fertility awareness.\n\nIn humans, the hypothalamus regulates metabolism, and hence the basal metabolic rate. Amongst its functions is the regulation of body temperature. The core body temperature is also one of the classic phase markers for measuring the timing of an individual's Circadian rhythm.\n", "Section::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Warm-bloodedness.\n\n\"Warm-bloodedness\" is a complex and rather ambiguous term, because it includes some or all of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Endothermy, the ability to generate heat internally rather than via behaviors such as basking or muscular activity.\n\nBULLET::::- Homeothermy, maintaining a fairly constant body temperature. Most enzymes have an optimum operating temperature; efficiency drops rapidly outside the preferred range. A homeothermic organism needs only to possess enzymes that function well in a small range of temperatures.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Heat.\n\nThe only mechanism the human body has to cool itself is by sweat evaporation. Sweating occurs when the ambient air temperatures is above 28 °C (82 °F) and the body fails to return to the normal internal temperature. The evaporation of the sweat helps cool the blood beneath the skin. It is limited by the amount of water available in the body, which can cause dehydration.\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.:Levels of blood gases.\n\nChanges in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and plasma pH are sent to the respiratory center, in the brainstem where they are regulated.\n", "Although Carathéodory himself did not state such a definition, following his work it is customary in theoretical studies to define heat, , to the body from its surroundings, in the combined process of change to state from the state , as the change in internal energy, , minus the amount of work, , done by the body on its surrounds by the adiabatic process, so that .\n", "Acetylcholine stimulates muscle to raise metabolic rate.\n\nThe low demands of thermogenesis mean that free fatty acids draw, for the most part, on lipolysis as the method of energy production.\n\nA comprehensive list of human and mouse genes regulating cold-induced thermogenesis (CIT) in living animals (\"in vivo\") or tissue samples (\"ex vivo\") has been assembled and is available in CITGeneDB.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Key to maintaining homeostasis, individual thermoregulation is the ability to maintain internal body temperature in humans, the most recognizable eurytherm. In humans, deep-body temperature is regulated by cutaneous blood flow, which maintains this temperature despite changes in the external environment. \"Homo Sapiens\"' ability to survive in different ambient temperatures is a key factor in the species success, and one cited reason for why \"Homo sapiens\" eventually outcompeted Neanderthals (\"Homo neanderthalensis).\" Humans have two major forms of thermogenesis. The first is shivering, in which a warm-blooded creature produces involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle in order to produce heat. In addition, shivering also signals the body to produce irisin, a hormone that has been shown to convert white fat to brown fat, which is used in non-shivering thermogenesis, the second type of human thermogensis. Non-shivering thermogenesis occurs in the brown fat, which contains the uncoupling protein thermogenin. This protein decreases the proton gradient generated in oxidative phosphorylation during the synthesis of ATP, uncoupling the electron transport in the mitochondrion from the production of chemical energy (ATP). This creation of a gradient across the mitochondrial membrane causes energy to be lost as heat. On the other hand, humans have only one method of cooling themselves, biologically speaking: sweat evaporation. Cutaneous eccrine sweat glands produce sweat, which is made up of mostly water with a small amount of ions. Evaporation of this sweat helps to cool the blood beneath the skin, resulting in a cooling of deep-body temperature.\n", "The human body has two methods of thermogenesis, which produces heat to raise the core body temperature. The first is shivering, which occurs in an unclothed person when the ambient air temperature is under 25 °C (77 °F). It is limited by the amount of glycogen available in the body. The second is non-shivering, which occurs in brown adipose tissue.\n", "Section::::Foundations of modern biology.:Homeostasis.\n\nHomeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments that are controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04499	Why does the human eyes blink?	A big portion of blinking is lubricating the eyeball and clearing the surface of debris. If you keep your eyes open, dust is able to accumulate on the eye, causing irritation. When you blink, tears from the tear duct are spread across the eye and surface impurities, like dust are brushed aside. In that manner, your eyes are more protected from scratching than if you never blinked at all.	[ "Section::::Function and anatomy.:Central nervous system's control.\n\nThough one may think that the stimulus triggering blinking is dry or irritated eyes, it is most likely that it is controlled by a \"blinking center\" of the globus pallidus of the lenticular nucleus—a body of nerve cells between the base and outer surface of the brain. Nevertheless, external stimuli can contribute. The orbicularis oculi is a facial muscle; therefore its actions are translated by the facial nerve root. The levator palpebrae superioris’ action is sent through the oculomotor nerve. The duration of a blink is\n", "Some animals, such as tortoises and hamsters, blink their eyes independently of each other. Humans use winking, the blinking of only one eye, as a form of body language.\n\nSection::::Function and anatomy.\n\nBlinking provides moisture to the eye by irrigation using tears and a lubricant the eyes secrete. The eyelid provides suction across the eye from the tear duct to the entire eyeball to keep it from drying out.\n", "The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third concealed eyelid that sweeps horizontally across the eye like a windscreen wiper. The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds when they are under water. When sleeping, the lower eyelid rises to cover the eye in most birds, with the exception of the horned owls where the upper eyelid is mobile.\n", "Dr. David M. Maurice (1922-2002), an eye specialist and semi-retired adjunct professor at Columbia University, proposed that REM sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. Among the supportive evidences, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from iris had to reach cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. According to the theory, when the animal is awake, eye movement (or cool environmental temperature) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. When the animal is sleeping, REM provides the much-needed stir to aqueous humor. This theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses, as well as eye-sealed newborn animals, spend much time in REM sleep, and that during a normal sleep, a person's REM sleep episodes become progressively longer deeper into the night. However, owls have REM sleep, but do not move their head more than in non-REM sleep and is well known that owls' eyes are nearly immobile.\n", "The cornea has unmyelinated nerve endings sensitive to touch, temperature and chemicals; a touch of the cornea causes an involuntary reflex to close the eyelid. Because transparency is of prime importance, the healthy cornea does not have or need blood vessels within it. Instead, oxygen dissolves in tears and then diffuses throughout the cornea to keep it healthy. Similarly, nutrients are transported via diffusion from the tear fluid through the outside surface and the aqueous humour through the inside surface. Nutrients also come via neurotrophins supplied by the nerves of the cornea. In humans, the cornea has a diameter of about 11.5 mm and a thickness of 0.5–0.6 mm in the center and 0.6–0.8 mm at the periphery. Transparency, avascularity, the presence of immature resident immune cells, and immunologic privilege makes the cornea a very special tissue.\n", "There are multiple muscles that control reflexes of blinking. The main muscles, in the upper eyelid, that control the opening and closing are the orbicularis oculi and levator palpebrae superioris muscle. The orbicularis oculi closes the eye, while the contraction of the levator palpebrae muscle opens the eye. The Müller’s muscle, or the superior tarsal muscle, in the upper eyelid and the inferior palpebral muscle in the lower 3 eyelid are responsible for widening the eyes. These muscles are not only imperative in blinking, but they are also important in many other functions such as squinting and winking. The inferior palpebral muscle is coordinated with the inferior rectus to pull down the lower lid when one looks down.\n", "The precise adaptive significance behind the attentional blink is unknown, but it is thought to be a product of a two-stage visual processing system attempting to allocate episodic context to targets. In this two-stage system, all stimuli are processed to some extent by an initial parallel stage, and only salient ones are selected for in-depth processing, in order to make optimum use of limited resources at a late serial stage.\n", "Blinking also protects the eye from irritants. Eyelashes are hairs attached to the upper and lower eyelids that create a line of defense against dust and other elements to the eye. The eyelashes catch most of these irritants before they reach the eyeball.\n", "Blinking\n\nBlinking is a bodily function; it is a semi-autonomic rapid closing of the eyelid. A single blink is determined by the forceful closing of the eyelid or inactivation of the levator palpebrae superioris and the activation of the palpebral portion of the orbicularis oculi, not the full open and close. It is an essential function of the eye that helps spread tears across and remove irritants from the surface of the cornea and conjunctiva.\n", "Section::::Blinking in everyday life.:Adults.\n", "BULLET::::- The nervous tunic, also known as the \"tunica nervosa oculi\", is the inner sensory layer which includes the retina.\n", "Cats often sleep during the day so they can \"hunt\" at night. Unlike humans, cats do not need to blink their eyes on a regular basis to keep their eyes lubricated (with tears). Unblinking eyes are probably an advantage when hunting. Cats will, however, \"squint\" their eyes, usually as a form of communication expressing affection and ease around another cat or human.\n\nSection::::Hearing.\n", "Similar to the eyes of other mammals, the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin and entrainment of the body clock.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "The human eye is relatively rare for having an iris that is small enough for its position to be plainly visible against the sclera. This makes it easier for one individual to infer where another individual is looking, and the cooperative eye hypothesis suggests this has evolved as a method of nonverbal communication.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Evolution.\n", "A reflex blink occurs in response to an external stimulus, such as contact with the cornea or objects that appear rapidly in front of the eye. A reflex blink is not necessarily a conscious blink either; however it does happen faster than a spontaneous blink. Reflex blink may occur in response to tactile stimuli (e.g. corneal, eyelash, skin of eyelid, contact with eyebrow), optical stimuli (e.g. dazzle reflex, or menace reflex) or auditory stimuli (e.g., menace reflex)\n\nSection::::Types of blink.:Voluntary blink.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Dark Reign.\n\nWhen Hercules travels to the Underworld, Blink is among the dead characters seen in Erebus gambling for their resurrection. Unlike the others, Blink just stands there watching them gamble.\n\nSection::::Fictional character biography.:Necrosha.\n", "Section::::Function of the mammalian eye.:Accommodation.\n", "In the human eye, light enters the pupil and is focused on the retina by the lens. Light-sensitive nerve cells called rods (for brightness), cones (for color) and non-imaging ipRGC (intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells) react to the light. They interact with each other and send messages to the brain. The rods and cones enable vision. The ipRGCs enable entrainment to the Earth's 24-hour cycle, resizing of the pupil and acute suppression of the pineal hormone melatonin.\n\nSection::::Function of the mammalian eye.:Retina.\n", "In humans, the eyebrows redirect flowing substances (such as rainwater or sweat) away from the eye.\n\nSection::::Function of the mammalian eye.\n\nThe structure of the mammalian eye owes itself completely to the task of focusing light onto the retina. This light causes chemical changes in the photosensitive cells of the retina, the products of which trigger nerve impulses which travel to the brain.\n", "When a photon is absorbed by the chromophore, a chemical reaction causes the photon's energy to be transduced into electrical energy and relayed, in higher animals, to the nervous system. These photoreceptor cells form part of the retina, a thin layer of cells that relays visual information, including the light and day-length information needed by the circadian rhythm system, to the brain. However, some jellyfish, such as \"Cladonema\" (Cladonematidae), have elaborate eyes but no brain. Their eyes transmit a message directly to the muscles without the intermediate processing provided by a brain.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n", "BULLET::::1. The lattice arrangements of the collagen fibrils in the stroma. The light scatter by individual fibrils is cancelled by destructive interference from the scattered light from other individual fibrils.\n\nBULLET::::2. The spacing of the neighboring collagen fibrils in the stroma must be 200 nm for there to be transparency. (Goldman and Benedek)\n", "When AB is tested, most often the stimuli presented are inanimate objects. But research shows that not only do inanimate stimuli effect AB but human faces do as well. Despite the hypothesis that configural and featural information are processed by separate channels, thus avoiding AB, human faces in all different configurations, are still processed and affected by AB.\n", "Section::::Research and medical use.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21414	what is the difference between genuinely dark and edgy?	Intent. Being dark for the sake of being dark, or to be seen as being dark is edgy. Being dark for some other reason is genuine dark.	[ "Darkness in music\n\nCertain music is sometimes described as \"dark\" in a metaphorical sense. For example, \"dark pop\" is often indiscriminately applied to a wide range of disparate artists, but usually refers to popular music that incorporates synthesizers or a minor key. In Germany, the term \"schwarze szene\" (\"black scene\") has been \"used since the 1990s to describe all the so called dark alternative music styles swirling around Goth: industrial, darkwave, electro, metal, neofolk and medieval, including BDSM/fetish culture\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Microgenres\n\nGenres that begin with \"dark\"\n\nBULLET::::- Darkcore, a subgenre of jungle\n", "Section::::Artistic conventions.\n\nThe works of the Decadents and the Aesthetes contain the hallmarks typical of fin de siècle art. Holbrook Jackson's \"The Eighteen Nineties\" describes the characteristics of English decadence, which are: perversity, artificiality, egoism, and curiosity.\n", "Like romanticism itself, Dark Romanticism arguably began in Germany, with writers such as E. T. A. Hoffmann, Christian Heinrich Spiess, and Ludwig Tieck – though their emphasis on existential alienation, the demonic in sex, and the uncanny, was offset at the same time by the more homely cult of Biedermeier.\n", "Title of a \"connoisseur's guide\" by Gavin Baddeley (2002) to dark or Gothic culture. Among those associated with the \"goth look\" were the late 1970s punk band Siouxsie and the Banshees, American punk cabaret duo The Dresden Dolls, formed in 2000, and Betty Curse, described by \"The Times\" in 2006 as the \"princess of Goth pop\".\n\nSection::::Chics.:Heroin chic.\n", "According to the critic G. R. Thompson, \"the Dark Romantics adapted images of anthropomorphized evil in the form of Satan, devils, ghosts, werewolves, vampires, and ghouls\" as emblematic of human nature. Thompson sums up the characteristics of the subgenre, writing:\n\nSection::::18th- and 19th-century movements in different national literatures.\n\nElements of dark romanticism were a perennial possibility within the broader international movement of Romanticism, in both literature and art.\n", "Since the 1980s, the term has been used in Europe to describe the gloomy and melancholy variant of new wave and post-punk music. At that time, the term \"goth\" was inseparably connected with gothic rock, whereas \"dark wave\" acquired a broader meaning, including music artists that were associated with gothic rock and synthesizer-based new wave music, such as Bauhaus, Joy Division, The Cure, Siouxsie and the Banshees, The Sisters of Mercy, Anne Clark, Depeche Mode, Gary Numan, and The Chameleons.\n", "Romanticism's celebration of euphoria and sublimity has always been dogged by an equally intense fascination with melancholia, insanity, crime and shady atmosphere; with the options of ghosts and ghouls, the grotesque, and the irrational. The name \"Dark Romanticism\" was given to this form by the literary theorist Mario Praz in his lengthy study of the genre published in 1930, ‘’The Romantic Agony’’.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Section::::Emergence of the genre.\n", "British authors such as Lord Byron, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Mary Shelley, and John William Polidori, who are frequently linked to Gothic fiction, are also sometimes referred to as Dark Romantics. Dark Romanticism is characterized by stories of personal torment, social outcasts, and usually offers commentary on whether the nature of man will save or destroy him. Some Victorian authors of English horror fiction, such as Bram Stoker and Daphne du Maurier, follow in this lineage.\n", "One of the earliest bands to play mainly or exclusively in a style which might now be described as dark cabaret were the Tiger Lillies, formed in London in 1989. In the 1980s satirical cabaret had been revived and popularised by London-based bands such as Fascinating Aïda and Kit and The Widow but the Tiger Lillies incorporated themes of blasphemy, prostitution and bestiality in their songs, sung by Martyn Jacques in a menacing style with a falsetto voice. A collaboration between Rozz Williams and Gitane Demone - both former members of Christian Death, entitled \"Dream Home Heartache\" after a song by Roxy Music, was recorded in the Netherlands and released in the United States in 1995 and was described by reviewers as \"cabaret \"noir\"\" or \"glam cabaret\". Following her 1996 debut solo album \"Quintessentially Unreal\", San Francisco-based singer/pianist Jill Tracy released her second CD, \"Diabolical Streak\", in 1999. Canada's \"Shift\" magazine called the album one of the \"Top 10 Neo-Cabaret albums of all time.\"\n", "Dark fantasy is occasionally used to describe fantasy works by authors that the public primarily associates with the horror genre. Examples of this would be Stephen King's \"The Dark Tower\" series, Peter Straub's \"Shadowland\" and Clive Barker's \"Weaveworld\". Alternatively, dark fantasy is sometimes used for \"darker\" fiction written by authors best known for other styles of fantasy; Raymond Feist's \"Faerie Tale\" and Charles de Lint's novels written as Samuel M. Key would fit here.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- On Dark Fantasy — author Lucy Snyder's essay on the differences between \"pure\" horror and dark fantasy.\n", "Section::::Title.\n\nWhen discussing the title \"Dominae\", Macomber described it as \"a word that evokes a pleasure pain dichotomy. To my ear it’s very pleasant. Submission and power. It comes from a Latin title that was used in early Europe, I believe, for a female lord (a lady, I suppose, though we don’t have that kinda thing over here). The lady would naturally refer to herself in the third person in an edict like so: Dominae says no more lute playing on Tuesdays before dinner!\"\n\nSection::::Release and promotion.\n", "Section::::Dark cabaret as a style.\n", "BULLET::::15. Shades- one of the lowest caste of the Unseelie. Sentient but barely. They cannot bear direct light and hunt only at night. They steal life in the manner the Gray Man steals beauty, draining their victims with vampiric swiftness, leaving behind a pile of clothing and a husk of dehydrated human matter.\n\nBULLET::::16. Dark Zone- an area that has been taken over by the Shades. During the day it looks like your everyday abandoned, rundown neighborhood. Once night falls, its a death trap.\n\nBULLET::::17. Pri-Ya- a human addicted to Fae sex.\n", "BULLET::::- Stig: His nickname may come from the term \"stigma\", as he is marked an outsider for his notable lack of hygiene. Stig is the last member to be initiated into this generation of the Midnight Society. As such, he has only two stories in the series before the cast is changed. Due to the aversion people seem to have against him for his looks, both his stories seem to revolve around outsiders judged for their appearances and tastes.\n", "The term \"dark cabaret\" appears to have become popularized with the release of a 2005 compilation album entitled \"Projekt Presents: A Dark Cabaret\" by Projekt Records, a label chiefly associated with the dark wave genre. The album included \"Flowers\" from \"Dream Home Heartache\" sung by Rozz Williams together with, among others, \"Evil Night Together\" by Jill Tracy, \"Sometimes, Sunshine\" by Revue Noir, and \"Coin-Operated Boy\" by The Dresden Dolls. Formed by Amanda Palmer and Brian Viglione in 2000, The Dresden Dolls described their music as \"Brechtian punk cabaret\", a term coined by Amanda Palmer in early 2003 in part to preclude being labelled by the media as goths. Nevertheless, with their musical style and appearance in white face makeup and reduced period clothing, The Dresden Dolls and their fans quickly became the most readily identified with the newly evident dark cabaret genre, garnering the most mainstream attention. Subsequently, bands began categorising themselves and their performance as dark cabaret, such as San Diego's The Tragic Tantrum in the US, Katzenjammer Kabarett in France, or Ray Childish in Graz, Austria.\n", "Dark cabaret\n\nDark cabaret may be a simple description of the theme and mood of a cabaret performance, but more recently has come to define a particular musical genre which draws on the aesthetics of the decadent, risqué German Weimar-era cabarets, burlesque and vaudeville shows with the stylings of post-1970s goth and punk music.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "Section::::Production and composition.\n", "The scene is not to be understood as a musically or aesthetically closed and homogenous group. It is composed of many different currents, some of which may be diametrically opposed in their musical or fashion ideals. The lowest common denominator is the color black with all its associated symbolism. It is seen as an expression of seriousness, darkness and mysticism, but also of hopelessness and emptiness, melancholy, as well as its association with mourning and death. The dark scene is a community which defines itself through its internal symbols, the characteristic fashions of the different currents, as well as through its media and meeting places, especially events and dance clubs.\n", "Dark fantasy\n\nDark fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy literary, artistic, and cinematic works that incorporate darker and frightening themes of fantasy. It also often combines fantasy with elements of horror or has a gloomy, darker tone, or a sense of horror and dread.\n", "Their profile of their readers stated that 85.2% of their readers were single, were a median age of 33.7, and had a median income of . They were \"upscale\", with 75.8% holding managerial or professional positions, well-groomed—76.4% used cologne—and spent a year on clothing. Their readers were \"Travel Minded\": taking a median 3.5 vacations per year with 56.6% owning valid passports; and \"Bon Vivant\": 81.6% regularly drinking vodka, 81.3% scotch, 70.3% gin, 63.5% champagne.\n", "New sects of dark cabaret have emerged from the previous theatrical dark cabaret. With a more aggressive side and a punk or metal background, with some bands also closely associated with the punk cabaret subgenre, for example: Stolen Babies or Harlequin Jones.\n", "Dark romanticism\n\nDark Romanticism is a literary subgenre of Romanticism, reflecting popular fascination with the irrational, the demonic and the grotesque. Often conflated with Gothicism, it has shadowed the euphoric Romantic movement ever since its 18th-century beginnings. Edgar Allan Poe is often celebrated as one of the supreme exponents of the tradition.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n", "Additionally, other authors, critics, and publishers have adopted dark fantasy to describe various other works. However, these stories rarely share universal similarities beyond supernatural occurrences and a dark, often brooding, tone. As a result, dark fantasy cannot be solidly connected to a defining set of tropes. The term itself may refer collectively to tales that are either horror-based or fantasy-based.\n\nSome writers also use \"dark fantasy\" (or \"Gothic fantasy\") as an alternative description to \"horror\", because they feel the latter term is too lurid or vivid.\n\nSection::::Concept and history.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05042	TV broadcast cameras used tubes before the advent of digital photography to capture and transmit the images. How did those work?	I'm not sure if I can ELY5, but here it goes. Analog (tube) cameras had a photosensitive plate at the front, just behind the lens. Whatever the camera was pointed at would produce patches of black, white, and gray on that plate which was divided into pixels. The other end of that electronic camera tube emitted a beam of electrons from the anode of the tube. That beam of electrons scanned the photosensitive plate from left to right at about 13000 times per second, and at the same time scanned from top to bottom at 60 times per second. The movement of the beam was controlled by electromagnet surrounding the tube. When the beam scanned a particular pixel on the plate it would produce a voltage based on the level of gray (reflected light) it detected. That voltage is what was transmitted down the cable to the tv set which worked in the opposite manner. It projected an electron beam onto the front of its tube as it scanned the plate 13000 or so times per second left to right, and 60 times a second top to bottom. The inside of the tube was coated with a phosphorescent material that would light up at different levels depending on the voltage that was applied to each pixel and that would produce black, white, and gray pixels. The beam in the tv tube was emmited from the cathode, which is why they are called CRTs, or cathode ray tubes. TL; DR - analog cameras functioned like reverse cathode ray TVs. Edit: clarity.	[ "BULLET::::- The radio station Witzleben begins in Germany with the regular broadcasting of television test broadcasts, initially on long wave with 30 lines (= 1,200 pixels) at 12.5 image changes per second. It appear first blueprints for television receiver.\n\nBULLET::::- John Logie Baird starts in the UK on behalf of the BBC with regular experimental television broadcasts to the public.\n\nBULLET::::- Frederic Eugene Ives transmits a color television from New York to Washington.\n\nBULLET::::- 1930\n\nBULLET::::- Manfred von Ardenne invented and developed the flying-spot scanner, Europe's first fully electronic television camera tube.\n", "The electrical engineering department at the State University of Iowa (SUI) in Iowa City demonstrated television with an exhibit at the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines on August 28, 1931. J. L. Potter supervised the project. At the conclusion of the Iowa State Fair, the television experiment was set up in the communications laboratory of the electrical engineering building at the University of Iowa in Iowa City.\n", "Video camera tube\n\nVideo camera tubes were devices based on the cathode ray tube that were used to capture television images prior to the introduction of charge-coupled devices (CCDs) in the 1980s. Several different types of tubes were in use from the early 1930s to the 1980s.\n", "The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for an outside broadcast by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch in a television set how the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph. This was the first time that anyone could broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighbor buildings.\n", "The first digital image was produced in 1920, by the Bartlane cable picture transmission system. British inventors, Harry G. Bartholomew and Maynard D. McFarlane, developed this method. The process consisted of “a series of negatives on zinc plates that were exposed for varying lengths of time, thus producing varying densities,”. The Bartlane cable picture transmission system generated at both its transmitter and its receiver end a punched data card or tape that was recreated as an image.\n", "This signal reproduced an accurate still image of the target, so the monoscope was used to produce still images such as test patterns and station logo cards. For example, the classic Indian Head test card used by NBC, shown on the right was often produced using a monoscope.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Among the technological precursors to the videophone were telegraphic image transmitters created by several companies, such as the wirephoto used by Western Union, and the \"teleostereograph\" developed by AT&T's Bell Labs, which were forerunners of today's fax (facsimile) machines. Such early image transmitters were themselves based on previous work by Ernest Hummel and others in the 19th century. By 1927 AT&T had created its earliest electromechanical television-videophone called the \"ikonophone\" (from Greek: 'image-sound'), which operated at 18 frames per second and occupied half a room full of equipment cabinets. An early U.S. test in 1927 had their then-Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover address an audience in New York City from Washington, D.C.; although the audio portion was two-way, the video portion was one-way with only those in New York being able to see Hoover.\n", "The first color cameras (1950s in the US, early 1960s in Europe), notably the RCA TK-40/41 series, were much more complex with their three (and in some models four) pickup tubes, and their size and weight drastically increased. Handheld color cameras did not come into general use until the early 1970s - the first generation of cameras were split into a camera head unit (the body of the camera, containing the lens and pickup tubes, and held on the shoulder or a body brace in front of the operator) connected via a cable bundle to a backpack CCU. \n", "During the mid-1950s, its laboratory work had produced another early test prototype capable of transmitting still images every two seconds over regular analog PSTN telephone lines. The images were captured by the Picturephone's compact Vidicon camera and then transferred to a storage tube or magnetic drum for transmission over regular phone lines at two-second intervals to the receiving unit, which displayed them on a small cathode-ray television tube. AT&T had earlier promoted its experimental video for telephone service at the 1939 New York World's Fair.\n", "BULLET::::- 7572, 7575, 7702 – Dual-electron gun \"recording storage tube\", a realtime analog video frame freezer tube with simultaneous R/W, and storing capability. This was achieved by a CRT/camera tube combination; the CRT part writes the video signal onto a thin, dielectric target, which can hold the generated charge pattern for many hours; the camera part reads the charge pattern from the back side of this target, producing a video signal containing a static shot that resembles a still photograph\n\nBULLET::::- 7586 – First \"Nuvistor\" available on the market, medium-mu triode\n\nBULLET::::- 7587 – \"Nuvistor\" Sharp cutoff tetrode\n", "BULLET::::- \"TV Broadcasting\", by Harold E. Ennes, 1971, Chapter 5, pages 224–259\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Film island page and photo\n\nBULLET::::- TeleMation Inc. B&W New Hampshire video\n\nBULLET::::- RCA TK26 Tech-notes TV History\n\nBULLET::::- TMM-203 Patent Patent Storm\n\nBULLET::::- WATV history RCA Film Chain view of slide wheel\n\nBULLET::::- philotfarnsworth.com Early chain\n\nBULLET::::- Armed Forces Radio and TV, AFRN – AFRTS, KODK – WVCX/WVCQ Film Chain\n\nBULLET::::- GE PE-24\n\nBULLET::::- University of CambridgeSmall lowQ table top model\n\nBULLET::::- FEN Okinawa Equipment Broadcast Chain\n\nBULLET::::- Early Television Museum Hilliard, OH, Early RCA TK-20 Iconoscope Film Chain Camera\n", "On September 7, 1927, Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco. By September 3, 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration. In 1929, the system was further improved by elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts. That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma (\"Pem\") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).\n", "The Filmation studio was purchased by the TelePrompTer Corporation in 1969. Westinghouse Electric Corporation, through its Group W Productions division, acquired Filmation along with its purchase of TelePrompTer's cable and entertainment properties in 1981.\n", "Compared to Saticons, Plumbicons have much higher resistance to burn-in, and comet and trailing artifacts from bright lights in the shot. Saticons though, usually have slightly higher resolution. After 1980, and the introduction of the diode-gun Plumbicon tube, the resolution of both types was so high, compared to the maximum limits of the broadcasting standard, that the Saticon's resolution advantage became moot. While broadcast cameras migrated to solid-state charge-coupled devices, Plumbicon tubes remained a staple imaging device in the medical field.\n", "BULLET::::- At the same time, the research institute of the German Post (RPF) begins with development work for a color television methods, but which are later reinstated due to the Second World War.\n\nBULLET::::- 1936\n\nBULLET::::- Olympic Games in Berlin broadcast live.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Olympia suitcase\", battery-powered portable radio receiver, introduced.\n\nBULLET::::- The first mobile television camera (180 lines, all-electronic) is used for live television broadcasts of the Olympic Games.\n\nBULLET::::- Also in the UK are first regular television broadcasts - now for the perfect electronic EMI system, which soon replaced the mechanical part Baird system - broadcast.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe General Electric laboratories in Schenectady, New York experimented with making still and motion picture records of television images in 1931.\n", "Prior to the design and construction of the Galileo probe to Jupiter in the late 1970s to early 1980s, NASA used vidicon cameras on nearly all the unmanned deep space probes equipped with the remote sensing ability. Vidicon tubes were also used aboard the first three Landsat earth imaging satellites launched in 1972, as part of each spacecraft's Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) imaging system. The Uvicon, a UV-variant Vidicon was also used by NASA for UV duties.\n\nVidicon tubes were popular in 1970s and 1980s after which they were rendered obsolete by CCD and CMOS sensors.\n\nSection::::Vidicon.:Plumbicon.\n", "BULLET::::- August Karolus and the company Telefunken put on the \"fifth Great German Radio Exhibition Berlin 1928\" the prototype of a television receiver, with an image size of 8 cm × 10 cm and a resolution of about 10,000 pixels, a much better picture quality than previous devices.\n\nBULLET::::- In New York (USA) the first regular television broadcasts of the experiment station WGY, operated by the General Electric Company (GE). Sporadic television news and dramas radiate from these stations by 1928.\n\nBULLET::::- The first commercially produced television receiver of the Daven Corporation in Newark is offered for $75.\n", "Mechanical-scanning methods were used in the earliest experimental television systems in the 1920s and 1930s. One of the first experimental wireless television transmissions was by John Logie Baird on November 25, 1925, in London. By 1928 many radio stations were broadcasting experimental television programs using mechanical systems. However the technology never produced images of sufficient quality to become popular with the public. Mechanical-scan systems were largely superseded by electronic-scan technology in the mid-1930s, which was used in the first commercially successful television broadcasts which began in the late 1930s in Great Britain.\n", "BULLET::::- Electronic TV (343 lines) was under development and was publicly demonstrated during the Radio Exhibition in Warsaw in August 1939, regular operations planned to start at the beginning of 1940, work stopped because of the outbreak of World War II.\n\nSection::::Switzerland.\n\nBULLET::::- Switzerland 1932 (mechanical): 30 lines, 16.6 frame/s, 4:3 horizontal aspect ratio, ~40x30 pixels per frame, test movies and live images\n\nSection::::Italy.\n\nDuring the 1930s there were also experimental transmissions from the Vatican - but further details are unknown\n", "During the first manned space flights, NASA used two radio-frequency (UHF or VHF) video links, one in each direction. TV channels routinely use this type of videotelephony when reporting from distant locations. The news media were to become regular users of mobile links to satellites using specially equipped trucks, and much later via special satellite videophones in a briefcase.\n", "On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a one-month-long demonstration of high definition (240+ line) television in Los Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL, now KCBS-TV) with a 300-line image from motion picture film. By October, W6XAO was making daily television broadcasts of films. By 1934 RCA increased the definition to 343 interlaced lines and the frame rate to 30 per second. On July 7, 1936 RCA and its subsidiary NBC demonstrated in New York City a 343-line electronic television broadcast with live and film segments to its licensees, and made its first public demonstration to the press on November 6. Irregularly scheduled broadcasts continued through 1937 and 1938. Regularly scheduled electronic broadcasts began in April 1938 in New York (to the second week of June, and resuming in August) and Los Angeles. NBC officially began regularly scheduled television broadcasts in New York on April 30, 1939, with a broadcast of the opening of the 1939 New York World's Fair.\n", "On the other side of the Atlantic, the RCA team led by Albert Rose began working in 1937 on a low-velocity scanning beam device they dubbed the orthicon. Iams and Rose solved the problem of guiding the beam and keeping it in focus by installing specially designed deflection plates and deflection coils near the charge storage plate to provide a\n", "It soon became apparent that television reception was also possible well outside the original intended service area. In February 1938, engineers at the RCA Research Station, Riverhead, Long Island, New York, in the USA, were able to receive the BBC signal away, due to the signal being \"bounced\" back to earth from the ionosphere. A few minutes of programming were recorded on 16mm movie film. This is now considered to be the only surviving example of pre-war, live British television. The images recorded included two of the original three BBC announcers, Jasmine Bligh and (in a brief shot) Elizabeth Cowell, an excerpt from an unknown period costume drama, and the BBC's station identification transmitted at the beginning and end of the day's programmes.\n", "On 7 September 1927, American inventor Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco. By 3 September 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration. In 1929, the system was improved further by the elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts. That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma (\"Pem\") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12114	Why do flashing lights make epileptic people have seizures?	Not all people with epilepsy have seizures triggered by lights. It's a subtype of epilepsy called photosensitive epilepsy, and it effects about 1 in 20 of people with epilepsy. The exact mechanism isn't perfectly understood because for ethical reasons, it's obviously hard to do any sort of brain imaging while it's happening, but the basic idea idea is that the rapid flashing of lights triggers runaway nerve firings in the visual cortex of the brain. Seizures are basically neurons firing in an uncontrolled fashion. In people with photosensitive epilepsy, the visual cortex of the brain is unable to handle the rapid cycling of electrical impulses collected from the eyes.	[ "In some epileptics, flickering or flashing lights, such as strobe lights, can be responsible for the onset of a tonic clonic, absence, or myoclonic seizure. This condition is known as photosensitive epilepsy and, in some cases, the seizures can be triggered by activities that are harmless to others, such as watching television or playing video games, or by driving or riding during daylight along a road with spaced trees, thereby simulating the \"flashing light\" effect. Some people can suffer a seizure as a result of blinking one's own eyes. Contrary to popular belief, this form of epilepsy is relatively uncommon, accounting for just 3% of all cases.\n", "A routine part of the EEG test involves exposing the patient to flickering lights to attempt to induce a seizure, to determine if such lights may be triggering a seizure in the patient, and to be able to read the wavelengths when such a seizure occurs.\n\nIn rare cases seizures may be triggered by not focusing.\n\nSection::::Head injury.\n", "Photosensitive epilepsy is an abnormal sensitivity of the brain to visual stimuli and is the most common trigger in reflex seizures. Reflex seizures can be induced by both flickering or non-flicking light, television, video games, or other visual patterns. Most people who have photosensitive epilepsy are sensitive to specific patterns for visual stimuli. Visual stimuli of a particular frequency (15-25 flashes/second), wavelength (red light at 660-720 nm), and at high contrast have been shown to have a higher risk of inducing seizures in people who are photosensitive. In addition, emotional excitement, fatigue, or length of exposure can all effect the risk of seizures.\n", "The visual trigger for a seizure is generally cyclic, forming a regular pattern in time or space. Flashing lights or rapidly changing or alternating images (as in clubs, around emergency vehicles, near overhead fans, in action movies or television programs, etc.) are examples of patterns in time that can trigger seizures, and these are the most common triggers. Static spatial patterns such as stripes and squares may trigger seizures as well, even if they do not move. In some cases, the trigger must be both spatially and temporally cyclic, such as a certain moving pattern of bars.\n", "Those with photosensitive epilepsy can have seizures triggered by flashing lights. Other precipitants can trigger an epileptic seizure in patients who otherwise would be susceptible to spontaneous seizures. For example, children with childhood absence epilepsy may be susceptible to hyperventilation. In fact, flashing lights and hyperventilation are activating procedures used in clinical EEG to help trigger seizures to aid diagnosis. Finally, other precipitants can facilitate, rather than obligately trigger, seizures in susceptible individuals. Emotional stress, sleep deprivation, sleep itself, heat stress, alcohol and febrile illness are examples of precipitants cited by patients with epilepsy. Notably, the influence of various precipitants varies with the epilepsy syndrome. Likewise, the menstrual cycle in women with epilepsy can influence patterns of seizure recurrence. Catamenial epilepsy is the term denoting seizures linked to the menstrual cycle.\n", "Some people with PSE, especially children, may exhibit an uncontrollable fascination with television images that trigger seizures, to such an extent that it may be necessary to physically keep them away from television sets. Some people (particularly those with cognitive impairments, although most people with PSE have no such impairments) self-induce seizures by waving their fingers in front of their eyes in front of bright light or by other means.\n", "Later studies showed that 5–10% of the viewers had mild symptoms that did not need hospital treatment. 12,000 children reported mild symptoms of illness, but their symptoms more closely resembled mass hysteria than a grand mal seizure. A study following 103 patients over three years after the event found most of them had no further seizures. Scientists believe the flashing lights triggered photosensitive seizures in which visual stimuli like flashing lights can cause altered consciousness. Although about 1 in 4,000 people are susceptible to these types of seizures, the number of people affected by this \"Pokémon\" episode was unprecedented.\n", "Recent studies have shown that specific neurological findings have affected idiopathic occipital lobe epilepsies. Occipital lobe seizures are triggered by a flash, or a visual image that contains multiple colors. These are called flicker stimulation (usually through TV) these seizures are referred to as photo-sensitivity seizures. Patients having experienced occipital seizures described their seizures as featuring bright colors, and severely blurring their vision (vomiting was also apparent in some patients). Occipital seizures are triggered mainly during the day, through television, video games or any flicker stimulatory system. Occipital seizures originate from an epileptic focus confined within the occipital lobes. They may be spontaneous or triggered by external visual stimuli. Occipital lobe epilepsies are etiologically idiopathic, symptomatic, or cryptogenic. Symptomatic occipital seizures can start at any age, as well as any stage after or during the course of the underlying causative disorder. Idiopathic occipital epilepsy usually starts in childhood. Occipital epilepsies account for approximately 5% to 10% of all epilepsies.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Triggers.\n\nStimuli that cause reflex seizures can be categorized as either intrinsic or extrinsic. For a give person, the stimulus that triggers may be intrinsic, extrinsic, or a combination of both.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Triggers.:Extrinsic stimuli.\n\nExtrinsic stimuli are sensory stimuli that originate from the person's environment. Similar to intrinsic stimuli, extrinsic stimuli can be divided into two categories, either simple or complex. Examples of simple extrinsic stimuli include flashing lights or touch while complex extrinsic stimuli can include music, language, reading, or stimulation from eating. Some of the more common types of reflex epilepsy include light and music.\n", "About 6% of those with epilepsy have seizures that are often triggered by specific events, known as reflex seizures. A number of epilepsy syndromes, known as reflex epilepsies, have seizures that are only triggered by specific stimuli. Common triggers include: flashing lights and sudden noises.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nNormally brain electrical activity is non-synchronous. Its activity is regulated by various factors both within the neuron and the cellular environment. Factors within the neuron include the type, number and distribution of ion channels, changes to receptors and changes of gene expression. Factors around the neuron include ion concentrations, synaptic plasticity and regulation of transmitter breakdown by glial cells. Chronic inflammation also appears to play a role.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Epilepsy.\n", "In March 1997, the 25th episode of an anime series called \"YAT Anshin! Uchū Ryokō\" caused a similar incident, when a reported four children were taken to hospitals by ambulances after viewing a scene with red and white flashing colours.\n", "Later studies showed that 5–10% of the viewers had mild symptoms that did not need hospital treatment. Twelve thousand children who were not sent to hospital reported mild symptoms of illness; however, their symptoms more closely resembled mass hysteria than a grand mal seizure. A study following 103 patients over three years after the event found that most had no further seizures. Scientists believe that the flashing lights triggered photosensitive seizures in which visual stimuli such as flashing lights can cause altered consciousness. Although approximately 1 in 4,000 people are susceptible to these types of seizures, the number of people affected by the \"Pokémon\" episode was unprecedented.\n", "BULLET::::- Hemorrhagic stroke can occasionally present with seizures, embolic strokes generally do not (though epilepsy is a common later complication); cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, a rare type of stroke, is more likely to be accompanied by seizures than other types of stroke\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple sclerosis may cause seizures\n\nElectroconvulsive therapy (ECT) deliberately sets out to induce a seizure for the treatment of major depression.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Section::::Photosensitive epilepsy.\n\nPhotosensitive epilepsy affects approximately one in 4,000 people and is a form of epilepsy in which seizures are triggered by visual stimuli that form patterns in time or space, such as flashing lights, bold regular patterns, or regular moving patterns. In 1993, an advert for Pot Noodles induced seizures in three people in the United Kingdom, leading to the then regulator the ITC introducing these guidelines. \n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Seizures.\n\nThere is evidence that epileptic seizures are usually not a random event. Seizures are often brought on by factors such as stress, alcohol abuse, flickering light, or a lack of sleep, among others. The term seizure threshold is used to indicate the amount of stimulus necessary to bring about a seizure. Seizure threshold is lowered in epilepsy.\n", "Photosensitive reflex epilepsy is usually treated with both lifestyle changes and anti-epileptic medications. Some lifestyle modifications that may be recommended are limiting the amount of time one is exposed to television or screens, watching television in a bright well-lit room at a distance of at least 2 meters, and avoiding television or video games when tired. LCD TV screens or Televisions with higher refresh rates (100 Hz) cause less flickering and thus lower the likelihood of a seizure. In addition, special blue lens Z1 glasses have been shown to reduce seizures in many people with photosensitive reflex epilepsy.\n", "Triggers may include various stimuli with the most common (75 to 80%) being flickering lights resulting in photosensitive seizures. Reflex epilepsies are generally thought to be genetic in origin. The inheritance pattern is dependent on the type of reflex epilepsy with some types lacking a specific genetic inheritance patterns. For example, photogenic epilepsy is thought to follow an autosomal dominant pattern with incomplete penetrance, while seizures triggered by proprioceptive stimuli do not follow an observable inheritance pattern. The underlying mechanism involves the stimulation of existing network of neurons by the specific trigger.\n", "Television has traditionally been the most common source of seizures in PSE. For people with PSE, it is especially hazardous to view television in a dark room, at close range, or when the television is out of adjustment and is showing a rapidly flickering image (as when the horizontal hold is incorrectly adjusted). Modern digital television sets that cannot be maladjusted in this way and refresh the image on the screen at very high speed present less of a risk than older television sets.\n", "About 6% of those with epilepsy have seizures that are often triggered by specific events and are known as reflex seizures. Those with reflex epilepsy have seizures that are only triggered by specific stimuli. Common triggers include flashing lights and sudden noises. In certain types of epilepsy, seizures happen more often during sleep, and in other types they occur almost only when sleeping.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Post-ictal.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Web design.\n\nAs with video games, rapidly changing images or highly regular patterns such as flashing banner ads or irregular fonts can trigger seizures in people with photosensitive epilepsy. Two sets of guidelines exist to help web designers produce content that is safe for people with photosensitive epilepsy:\n", "The exact mechanism of epilepsy is unknown, but a little is known about its cellular and network mechanisms. However, it is unknown under which circumstances the brain shifts into the activity of a seizure with its excessive synchronization.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nThere are two syndromes and several related disorders.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Juvenile.\n\nJuvenile myoclonic epilepsy is responsible for 7% of cases of epilepsy. Seizures usually begin around puberty and usually have a genetic basis. Seizures can be stimulus-selective, with flashing lights being one of the most common triggers.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Progressive.\n\nProgressive myoclonus epilepsy is a disease associated with myoclonus, epileptic seizures, and other problems with walking or speaking. These symptoms often worsen over time and can be fatal.\n", "Rapidly flashing lights may be dangerous for people with photosensitive epilepsy or other nervous disorders. It is thought that one out of 10,000 adults will experience a seizure while viewing such a device; about twice as many children will have a similar ill effect.\n\nSection::::Other information.:Regulation.\n\nMind machine devices are legally available throughout the United States from many sources.\n", "In epilepsy, the resistance of excitatory neurons to fire during this period is decreased. This may occur due to changes in ion channels or inhibitory neurons not functioning properly. This then results in a specific area from which seizures may develop, known as a \"seizure focus\". Another mechanism of epilepsy may be the up-regulation of excitatory circuits or down-regulation of inhibitory circuits following an injury to the brain. These secondary epilepsies occur through processes known as epileptogenesis. Failure of the blood–brain barrier may also be a causal mechanism as it would allow substances in the blood to enter the brain.\n" ]	[ "Flashing lights cause seizures in epileptic people.", "Flashing lights make epileptic people sieze." ]	[ "Not all people with epilepsy have seizures triggered by lights.", "Flashing lights only affect photosensitive epileptics which is not very commmon. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Flashing lights cause seizures in epileptic people.", "Flashing lights make epileptic people sieze." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Not all people with epilepsy have seizures triggered by lights.", "Flashing lights only affect photosensitive epileptics which is not very commmon. " ]
2018-00287	With state after state legalizing recreational cannabis, is there a point where it would be more or less certain (i.e. 34+ states) it would become legal federally?	While what you say may be hypothetically true, that's not usually how the process works. There's no specific point where this happens semi-automatically.	[ "In 2016, legislation in the Wyoming House of Representatives to decriminalize possession of an ounce or less of marijuana (sponsored by State Representative James Byrd of Cheyenne) failed for the third year in a row.\n\nIn 2017, supporters sought 25,000 signatures to put the \"Peggy A. Kelley Wyoming Cannabis Act of 2016\" on the 2018 ballot as a public initiative, but failed to gather the required signatures by the February 14 deadline.\n\nSection::::Polling.\n", "In July 2015, a law took effect allowing the use of CBD oil to treat seizures. The law is narrow and does not provide for in-state access.\n\nSection::::Failed attempts to change legal status.\n\nIn 2015, the Wyoming chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) gathered signatures to place legal medical marijuana on the 2016 election ballot as a ballot initiative. Wyoming has some of the most stringent ballot initiative requirements in the country, due to which the state has not seen a public initiative reach the ballot since 1991.\n", "A University of Colorado law professor has indicated that an additional step would be required beyond the approval of the state legislature and the U.S. Congress as the Colorado Constitution defines the state’s boundaries, thus requiring a vote on a constitutional amendment.\n\nSection::::Potential state.:Background.\n", "States expected to be most likely to propose legislation to fully legalize include Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. Other possible full legalization states include Connecticut, Delaware, and Ohio; medical marijuana proposals were under way or expected in Oklahoma, Kentucky, South Dakota, and Utah.\n\nSection::::Federal.\n\nIn the House of Representatives, Democratic Representatives Barbara Lee of California and Representative Ro Khanna, of the same state, introduced the Marijuana Justice Act, the counterpart of a Senate Bill 1689 which was introduced in 2017 by Senator Cory Booker.\n\nA bipartisan bill, the Sensible Enforcement Of Cannabis Act, was introduced in February.\n", "On March 26, the Lieutenant Governor's office validated 117,000 signatures on the Utah Medical Cannabis Act initiative, enough for it to get on the November ballot.\n\nSection::::State.:Vermont.\n\nVermont legalized cannabis possession by an act of the state legislature, and signed by the governor, on January 22, 2018.\n\nSection::::Territory.\n\nThe CNMI Cannabis Act of 2018 was introduced to the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature in 2017, and was passed by the Senate in May, 2018.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of 2016 United States cannabis reform proposals\n\nBULLET::::- List of 2017 United States cannabis reform proposals\n", "After the collapse of the 2018-19 efforts to legalize marijuana through the legislature, legislative leaders announced plans to place a marijuana referendum on the 2020 ballot. In New Jersey, a referendum can be placed on the ballot when the legislature votes to do so by a simple majority in two consecutive years.\n\nSection::::Local restrictions.\n", "In April, the state Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional an earlier governor's veto of two hemp bills that had passed the legislature. It was reported that SB6, which passed 58-8 and 37-2 in the House and Senate respectively, would probably become the basis for state law. The state Department of Agriculture commenced rulemaking for a hemp research program at the end of April as authorized by SB6.\n\nSection::::State.:North Carolina.\n", "As of January, 2018 a group had submitted over 300,000 signatures for the 2018 Michigan Marijuana Legalization Initiative pending certification by the state for the 2018 general election ballot. The state certified the initiative on April 26. Proposal 1 was approved by voters on November 6, and the Secretary of State certified the election returns as of November 26, and as such, the proposal must become law in Michigan by no later than December 6.\n\nSection::::State.:Missouri.\n\nSB 547 and HB 2034 were introduced to legalize hemp farming. The senate bill passed on March 15.\n", "List of 2019 United States cannabis reform proposals\n\nIn 2019, twenty seven U.S. states proposed cannabis reform legislation for medical marijuana and non-medical adult use. State-level legalization remains at odds with cannabis' status as a Schedule I narcotic under the Controlled Substances Act at the Federal level.\n\nMajor publications predicted several state legislatures would propose legislation in 2019, or voters would do so directly via initiative. These included Connecticut, Hawaii, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island and Illinois. Ohio Marijuana Legalization Initiative (filed in 2018) may appear on the 2019 ballot.\n", "The Legal Marijuana Now Party placed a candidate, John “Sparky” Birrenbach, of Pine City on the ballot in the Minnesota State Senate District 11 Special Election, in February 2019.\n\nSection::::Nebraska history.\n", "BULLET::::- Delaware HB 110 legalization (approved by House Revenue & Finance Committee June 5)\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaii SB 686, proposed legalization\n\nBULLET::::- Idaho hemp and medical cannabis initiative (filed)\n\nBULLET::::- Idaho medical cannabis initiative filed with Secretary of State July 3\n\nBULLET::::- Louisiana House Bill 509, proposed legalization and regulation\n\nBULLET::::- Missouri HB 1095, proposed decriminalization\n\nBULLET::::- New Hampshire House Bill 481, proposed legalization (passed House of Representatives April 4)\n\nBULLET::::- New Jersey Cannabis Regulatory and Expungement Aid Modernization Act, proposed legalization and regulation, to become 2020 voter referendum\n\nBULLET::::- New Jersey A-5325, proposed decriminalization (passed appropriations committee on May 20)\n", "The \"Detroit Free Press\" reported that state Republicans planned to amend and attempt to pass the initiative in the state legislature. The amendment would involve an income tax cut offset by cannabis tax revenue, and regulation by the appointed board in charge of medical cannabis, not by the Department of Licensing and Regulatory Affairs (LARA). If passed by the legislature, it would not appear on the general ballot.\n\nBy June 5, the deadline for an \"adopt-and-amend\" act to go through the legislature expired, and the un-amended initiative would appear on ballots in November.\n\nSection::::Bill contents.\n", "In 2016, the \"Initiative to Regulate and Tax Marijuana\" (Question 2) was put before Nevada voters. The measure, which appeared on the November 8, 2016 ballot, sought to legalize possession of up to one ounce of cannabis for adults over the age of 21. The initiative did not include provisions for regulation beyond taxation, such as licensing retailers.\n", "The following year, a separate group of activists filed Initiative 502, which would have legalized the use of cannabis for adults over the age of 21. The bill also allowed the Washington State Liquor Control Board to regulate and tax cannabis production and sales, and set new limits on blood THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) levels for driving under the influence. In December 2011, the initiative received enough signatures to be sent to the state legislature. In April 2012, when the legislature adjourned without acting, the initiative advanced to the 2012 general ballot.\n", "The recreational use of cannabis is legalized in 11 states (Alaska, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington), the District of Columbia, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam. Another 15 states and the U.S. Virgin Islands have decriminalized. Commercial distribution of cannabis is allowed in all jurisdictions where cannabis has been legalized, except Vermont and the District of Columbia. Prior to January 2018, the Cole Memorandum provided some protection against the enforcement of federal law in states that have legalized, but it was rescinded by former Attorney General Jeff Sessions.\n", "Senate Bill 6, allowing industrial hemp farming, was passed unanimously by both chambers of the state legislature, with passage in the House occurring on February 19, 2018. It was signed into law by the governor on April 13.\n\nSection::::State.:Arizona.\n\nAn initiative to legalize hemp, defined as cannabis with less than 0.4% THC, was listed by the Secretary of State as a potential November, 2018 ballot measure.\n\nSection::::State.:Colorado.\n", "In mid-2015, South Dakotans Against Prohibition began circulating petitions to put decriminalization of marijuana on the November 2016 ballot, reclassifying possession of once ounce or less a civil, rather than criminal, infraction, and remove penalties for paraphernalia and consumption. However, SDAP failed to gather the 13,871 signatures necessary to place an initiated measure on the ballot and stated it would withdraw its petition.\n\nSection::::Reform.:2018 medical cannabis ballot initiative.\n", "New Mexico House Bill 356\n\nHouse Bill 356 titled \"CANNABIS REGULATION ACT\" was legislation to legalize cannabis in New Mexico.\n\nIt was advanced by the House Judiciary Committee for a vote by the full New Mexico House on February 22, 2019. It was the first time a legalization bill had been advanced to the New Mexico legislature for a vote. The bill passed in the House, 36-34, on March 7, 2019.\n", "State Question 788, a statutory initiative creating a legal medical cannabis program, was passed by voters during the June 26, 2018 primary.\n\nIn April, two other initiatives, SQ 796 and SQ 797, qualified for signature gathering in advance of the general election. The latter would legalize adult-use (recreational) cannabis in Oklahoma. Both are proposed constitutional amendments and could not be changed by the state legislature.\n\nSection::::State.:Tennessee.\n", "Several versions of \"Missouri Cannabis and Cannabis Hemp Legalization Initiative\" were proposed to amend the Missouri state constitution. Initiative 2018-134 would allow prescription of cannabis by veterinarians.\n\nOn May 1, the state House passed a bill to allow medical cannabis for conditions including cancer and PTSD.\n\nOn May 3, New Approach Missouri and Find the Cure submitted two initiatives to the state for the November ballot. Each would amend the state constitution to allow medical cannabis. Both groups claimed to have conducted independent verification of over 300,000 signatures against the required 160,000.\n\nSection::::State.:New Hampshire.\n", "Following $67.5 million in sales/excise tax revenue during the first full year of legal sales along with a change in the regulatory tax structure to a single 37% retail rate, the state's Economic and Revenue Forecast Council estimated in 2015 that annual marijuana tax revenues would rise several-fold, reaching $369 million by the 2019 fiscal year.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Law of Washington\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado Amendment 64\n\nBULLET::::- Decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Legal history of cannabis in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Washington Initiative 692 (1998)\n\nBULLET::::- Washington Initiative 1068 (2010)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Michigan Regulation and Taxation of Marihuana Act\n\nThe Michigan Regulation and Taxation of Marijuana Act was an initiative that appeared on the November 2018 ballot which legalized cannabis in the U.S. state of Michigan. The initiative allows adults 21 and older to possess up to of cannabis and to grow up to 12 plants at home.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn November 2017, supporters submitted 365,000 signatures to get legal recreational cannabis on the 2018 ballot. The state certified the initiative on April 26. \n", "The sheriff of Spokane County said he will not enforce the law, but accused other sheriffs who similarly stated they would not enforce it of \"grandstanding\".\n\nThe sheriffs of Lewis and Wahkiakum counties said they will apply the law in cases where they are aware it was transgressed, but would not take any steps to actively seek out or investigate violators. After warnings from the State Attorney General, two sheriffs who had initially said they would not enforce it, of Franklin, and Lincoln counties, said they would perform the background checks required by the law.\n", "Senate Joint Resolution No. 14 of the 76th Session creates an intermediate appellate court between the District Court level and the Nevada Supreme Court. After passing through the 76th Session in 2011 with a vote of 48 in favor, 13 against and two excused, and the 77th Session in 2013 with a vote of 61 in favor, none against and two excused, Senate Joint Resolution No. 14 will be placed on the 2014 General Election ballot for popular vote to amend the Constitution of Nevada.\n\nSection::::Ballot Initiatives.:The Education Initiative.\n", "BULLET::::- 2018: Kansas legalized CBD for any use.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: Oklahoma legalized medical cannabis through ballot measure.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: Michigan approved a ballot measure to legalize recreational cannabis. Missouri and Utah approved ballot measures to legalize medical cannabis.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: New Mexico decriminalized cannabis through state legislature.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: North Dakota decriminalized cannabis through state legislature.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: Illinois legalized recreational cannabis through state legislature. Though not the first state to legalize recreational this way, Illinois became the first state to legalize recreational commercial sale through state legislature.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: Hawaii decriminalized cannabis through state legislature.\n\nSection::::Municipal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "After a certain number of states approve cannabis it should be legal federally." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There is no semi automatic process that makes cannabis legal federally based on the status of state laws. " ]
2018-04155	Why are we not able to make artificial human blood for medical use, or why is it not feasible if we are?	[Artificial blood is a thing]( URL_0 ). As you can read on the wiki, the issue is that we don't have a good way of getting it to transport oxygen, which is obviously a pretty vital function of blood. Also, as you can read, clinical trials for that are on currently ongoing.	[ "Section::::Clinical relevance.:Artificial blood cell.\n\nSection::::Clinical relevance.:Artificial blood cell.:Oxygen carriers.\n\nNano sized oxygen carriers are used as a type of red blood cell substitutes, although they lack other components of red blood cells. They are composed of a synthetic polymersome or an artificial membrane surrounding purified animal, human or recombinant hemoglobin.\n\nOverall, hemoglobin delivery continues to be a challenge because it is highly toxic when delivered without any modifications. In some clinical trials, vasopressor effects have been observed.\n\nSection::::Clinical relevance.:Artificial blood cell.:Red blood cells.\n", "In 1992, the FDA approved Factor VIII produced using transgenic Chinese hamster ovary cells, the first such blood clotting factor produced using recombinant DNA technology to be approved.\n\nSection::::Transgenic farm animals.\n\nRecombinant DNA techniques have also been employed to create transgenic farm animals that can produce pharmaceutical products for use in humans. For instance, pigs that produce human hemoglobin have been created. While blood from such pigs could not be employed directly for transfusion to humans, the hemoglobin could be refined and employed to manufacture a blood substitute. \n\nSection::::Paclitaxel (Taxol).\n", "Scientists from the experimental arm of the United States Department of Defense began creating artificial blood for use in remote areas and transfuse blood to wounded soldiers more quickly in 2010. The blood is made from the hematopoietic stem cells removed from umbilical cord between the mother and fetus of humans after birth using a method called blood pharming. Pharming has been used in the past on animals and plants to create medical substances in large quantities. Each cord can produce approximately 20 units of blood. The blood is being produced for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency by Arteriocyte. The Food and Drug Administration has examined and approved the safety of this blood from previously submitted O-negative blood. Using this particular artificial blood will reduce the costs per unit of blood from $5,000 to equal or less than $1,000. This blood will also serve as a blood donor to all common blood types. Pharmed blood may be used in human trials in 2013.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nOne application is to engineer red blood cells into drug-delivery vehicles. Mature red cells carry no genetic material, potentially presenting fewer safety risks than other gene and cell therapies. Human red blood cells circulate for as long as four months, meaning they could potentially form the basis of long-term therapies. The cells move throughout body via the bloodstream and are unnoticed by the immune system.\n", "Research interest in the use of artificial cells for blood arose after the AIDS scare of the 1980s. Besides bypassing the potential for disease transmission, artificial red blood cells are desired because they eliminate drawbacks associated with allogenic blood transfusions such as blood typing, immune reactions and its short storage life of 42 days. A hemoglobin substitute may be stored at room temperature and not under refrigeration for more than a year. Attempts have been made to develop a complete working red blood cell which comprises carbonic not only an oxygen carrier but also the enzymes associated with the cell. The first attempt was made in 1957 by replacing the red blood cell membrane by an ultrathin polymeric membrane which was followed by encapsulation through a lipid membrane and more recently a biodegradable polymeric membrane.\n", "Similarly, Hemospan was developed by Sangart, and was a pegylated haemoglobin provided in a powdered form. While early trials were promising Sangart ran out of funding and closed down.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Stem cells.\n\nStem cells offer a possible means of producing transfusable blood. A study performed by Giarratana et al. describes a large-scale ex-vivo production of mature human blood cells using hematopoietic stem cells. The cultured cells possessed the same haemoglobin content and morphology as native red blood cells. The authors contend that the cells had a near-normal lifespan, when compared to natural red blood cells.\n", "BULLET::::- 2004: The first time use of adult stem cell in treatment of MI during CABG in Iran\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Production of insulin producing cells from human embryonic stem cells.\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Culture of Human Limbal Stem Cells on Chorionic Membrane and use them for corneal injuries\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Establishment of the first Private Cord Blood Bank in Iran (Royan Stem Cell Technology Co.)\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: The first IVM-IVF sheep born in Iran\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Iran's first cloned sheep, named Royana.\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: The first nuclear transferred, in vitro fertilized sheep born\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Culture and transplantation of fibroblasts\n", "Milk is presently the most mature system to produce recombinant proteins from transgenic organisms. Blood, egg white, seminal plasma, and urine are other theoretically possible systems, but all have drawbacks. Blood, for instance, as of 2012 cannot store high levels of stable recombinant proteins, and biologically active proteins in blood may alter the health of the animals. Expression in the milk of a mammal, such as a cow, sheep, or goat, is a common application, as milk production is plentiful and purification from milk is relatively easy. Hamsters and rabbits have also been used in preliminary studies because of their faster breeding.\n", "Despite measures that are in place in the developed world to ensure the safety of blood products for transfusion, a risk of disease transmission still exists. Consequently, the development of pathogen inactivation/reduction technologies for blood products has been an ongoing effort in the field of transfusion medicine. A new procedure for the treatment of individual units of single-donor (apheresis) or whole blood–derived, pooled, platelets has recently been introduced. This technology uses riboflavin and light for the treatment of platelets and plasma.\n\nSection::::Method.\n", "The first human blood clotting factor to be produced in significant quantities using recombinant DNA technology was Factor IX, which was produced using transgenic Chinese hamster ovary cells in 1986. Lacking a map of the human genome, researchers obtained a known sequence of the RNA for Factor IX by examining the amino acids in Factor IX:Microsequencing of highly purified... [Factor IX] yielded sufficient amino acid sequence to construct oligonucleotide probes.\n", "A number of blood substitutes have been explored (and still are), but thus far they all suffer from many challenges. Most attempts to find a suitable alternative to blood thus far have concentrated on cell-free hemoglobin solutions. Blood substitutes could make transfusions more readily available in emergency medicine and in pre-hospital EMS care. If successful, such a blood substitute could save many lives, particularly in trauma where massive blood loss results. Hemopure, a hemoglobin-based therapy, is approved for use in South Africa.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Blood substitutes.\n\nBiochemical and biotechnological development has allowed novel approaches to this issue, in the form of engineered O carriers, widely known as \"blood substitutes\". The blood substitutes currently available are chiefly polymerized haemoglobin solutions or haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).\n\nSection::::Methods.:Blood substitutes.:Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs).\n", "Aside from technology challenges, concerning the scalability of culture apparatus, a number of raw material supply risks have emerged in recent years, including the availability of GMP grade fetal bovine serum.\n", "Efforts to develop blood substitutes have been driven by a desire to replace blood transfusion in emergency situations, in places where infectious disease is endemic and the risk of contaminated blood products is high, where refrigeration to preserve blood may be lacking, and where it might not be possible or convenient to find blood type matches.\n\nSection::::Approaches.\n\nEfforts have focused on molecules that can carry oxygen, and most work has focused on recombinant hemoglobin, which normally carries oxygen, and perfluorocarbons (PFC), chemical compounds which can carry and release oxygen.\n", "Somatogen developed a genetically engineered and crosslinked tetramer it called Optro. It failed in a phase II trial that was published in 2014 and development was halted.\n\nA pyridoxylated Hb conjugated with polyoxyethylene was created by scientists at Ajinomoto and eventually developed by Apex Biosciences, a subsidiary of Curacyte AG; it was called \"PHP\" and failed in a Phase III trial published in 2014, due to increased mortality in the control arm, which led to Curacyte shutting down.\n", "In February 2011, Canadian researchers at the University of Calgary's Schulich School of Engineering announced a microchip for blood tests. Dubbed a microemulsion, a droplet of blood captured inside a layer of another substance. It can control the exact size and spacing of the droplets. The new test could improve the efficiency, accuracy and speed of laboratory tests while also doing it cheaply. The microchip costs $25, whereas the robotic dispensers currently in use cost around $10,000.\n\nSection::::Future alternatives.:SIMBAS.\n", "One potential approach to this technology is the creation of a transgenic mammal that can produce the biopharmaceutical in its milk, blood, or urine. Once an animal is produced, typically using the pronuclear microinjection method, it becomes efficacious to use cloning technology to create additional offspring that carry the favorable modified genome. The first such drug manufactured from the milk of a genetically modified goat was ATryn, but marketing permission was blocked by the European Medicines Agency in February 2006. This decision was reversed in June 2006 and approval was given August 2006.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n\nSection::::Regulation.:European Union.\n", "Artificial cell hemoperfusion has also been proposed for use in immunoadsorption through which antibodies can be removed from the body by attaching an immunoadsorbing material such as albumin on the surface of the artificial cells. This principle has been used to remove blood group antibodies from plasma for bone marrow transplantation and for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia through monoclonal antibodies to remove low-density lipoproteins. Hemoperfusion is especially useful in countries with a weak hemodialysis manufacturing industry as the devices tend to be cheaper there and used in kidney failure patients.\n\nSection::::Clinical relevance.:Encapsulated cells.\n", "Genetically engineered blood\n\nGenetically engineered blood is blood that has been modified for therapeutic or other purposes.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "HBOC's such as Polyheme and Hemepure have been discontinued due to severe adverse reactions including death. South Africa was the only country where they were legally authorized as standard treatment but they are no longer available.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "PolyHeme was developed over 20 years by Northfield Laboratories and began as a military project following the Vietnam War. It is human haemoglobin, extracted from red blood cells, then polymerized, then incorporated into an electrolyte solution. In April 2009, the FDA rejected Northfield's Biologic License Application and in June 2009, Northfield filed for bankruptcy.\n\nDextran-Haemoglobin was developed by Dextro-Sang Corp as a veterinary product, and was a conjugate of the polymer dextran with human haemoglobin.\n\nHemotech was developed by HemoBiotech and was a chemically modified haemoglobin.\n", "Section::::Transgene.\n\nThe transgene that was inserted in the donor somatic cells was designed to express the human clotting factor IX protein in the milk of sheep. This protein plays an essential role in blood coagulation, and deficiency leads to the disease haemophilia B of which treatment requires intravenous infusion of factor IX. The production of this protein in livestock milk, a process known as pharming, would provide a source of this therapeutic protein that would reduce the cost and also would be free of potential infectious risk associated with the current source of this protein (human blood).\n", "The Chinese hamster ovary cells that were stably transfected produced significant quantities of Factor IX, which was shown to have substantial coagulant properties, though of a lesser degree than Factor IX produced from human blood:The specific activity of the recombinant Factor IX was measured on the basis of direct measurement of the coagulant activity... The specific activity of recombinant Factor IX was 75 units/mg... compared to 150 units/mg measured for plasma-derived Factor IX...\n", "The main categories of 'oxygen-carrying' blood substitutes being pursued are hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOC) and perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers (PFBOC). Oxygen therapeutics are in clinical trials in the U.S. and Europe, and Hemopure is available in South Africa.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAfter William Harvey discovered blood pathways in 1616, many people tried to use fluids such as beer, urine, milk, and non-human animal blood as blood substitute. Sir Christopher Wren (17th century) suggested wine and opium as blood substitute.\n", "The first approved oxygen-carrying blood substitute was a perfluorocarbon-based product called Fluosol-DA-20, manufactured by Green Cross of Japan. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1989. Because of limited success, complexity of use and side effects, it was withdrawn in 1994. However, Fluosol-DA remains the only oxygen therapeutic ever fully approved by the FDA. As of 2017 no haemoglobin-based product had been approved.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Perfluorocarbon based.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19749	When a website asks you to prove you are not a robot by identifying storefronts/busses/streetlights/etc, how is it determining you are not a robot?	Those tasks are not easy to solve for computers without reasonable effort put into making robust algorithms that probably aren’t worth the time for spammers, etc. Without such obstacles, websites receive a lot of automated garbage and fluffed up web traffic	[ "When a site owner wishes to give instructions to web robots they place a text file called in the root of the web site hierarchy (e.g. ). This text file contains the instructions in a specific format (see examples below). Robots that \"choose\" to follow the instructions try to fetch this file and read the instructions before fetching any other file from the website. If this file doesn't exist, web robots assume that the web owner wishes to provide no specific instructions and crawl the entire site.\n", "Furthermore, \"...not all instructions are acceptable, because they may require the robot to have abilities beyond those that we consider reasonable.” He gives the example of a robot confronted with the question is “Henry VIII a King of England?” and to print 1 if yes and 0 if no, but the robot has not been previously provided with this information. And worse, if the robot is asked if Aristotle was a King of England and the robot only had been provided with five names, it would not know how to answer. Thus:\n", "Section::::Alternatives.\n\nMany robots also pass a special user-agent to the web server when fetching content. A web administrator could also configure the server to automatically return failure (or pass alternative content) when it detects a connection using one of the robots.\n\nSome sites, such as Google, host a codice_2 file that displays site contributor information. Some sites such as GitHub redirect to an about page. Previously Google also had a joke file hosted at codice_3.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "During this evaluation, three different automatic tests were given to the principal investigators without human intervention:\n\nBULLET::::1. The large gallery test, which served to baseline how algorithms performed against a database when it has not been properly tuned.\n\nBULLET::::2. The false-alarm test, which tested how well the algorithm monitored an airport for suspected terrorists.\n\nBULLET::::3. The rotation test, which measured how well the algorithm performed when the images of an individual in the gallery had different poses compared to those in the probe set.\n", "The X-Robots-Tag is only effective after the page has been requested and the server responds, and the robots meta tag is only effective after the page has loaded, whereas robots.txt is effective before the page is requested. Thus if a page is excluded by a robots.txt file, any robots meta tags or X-Robots-Tag headers are effectively ignored because the robot will not see them in the first place.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- codice_13, a standard for listing authorized ad sellers\n\nBULLET::::- codice_14, a file to describe the process for security researchers to follow in order to report security vulnerabilities\n", "Section::::SURENA II.\n", "The robots exclusion standard, also known as the robots exclusion protocol or simply robots.txt, is a standard used by websites to communicate with web crawlers and other web robots. The standard specifies how to inform the web robot about which areas of the website should not be processed or scanned. Robots are often used by search engines to categorize websites. Not all robots cooperate with the standard; email harvesters, spambots, malware and robots that scan for security vulnerabilities may even start with the portions of the website where they have been told to stay out. The standard can be used in conjunction with Sitemaps, a robot inclusion standard for websites.\n", "To generate reports in an alternate language requires a separate webalizer binary compiled specifically for that language.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n\nBULLET::::- Generated statistics do not differentiate between human visitors and robots. As a result, all reported metrics are higher than those due to people alone. Many webmasters claim that webalizer produces highly unrealistic figures of visits, which are sometimes 200 to 900% higher than the data produced by Javascript based web statistics such as Google Analytics or StatCounter.\n\nBULLET::::- Reported hits are too high for download managers with segmented downloads; each 206 \"Partial Content\" is reported as one hit.\n", "If the visitor arrived at the site by clicking on a link tagged with UTM parameters (Urchin Traffic Monitor) such as:\n\nthen the tag values are passed to the database too.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Limitations.\n", "Section::::SURENA III.\n", "Since August 18, 2017, the Robot Benchmark website has offered free access to a series of robotics benchmarks based on Webots simulations through the Webots web interface. Webots instances are running in the cloud and the 3D views are displayed in the user browser. From this web interface, users can program robots in Python and learn robot control in a step-by-step procedure.\n\nSection::::Controller programming example.\n", "\"When applied to the validation of human behavior models, the model is said to pass the Turing test and thus to be valid if expert observers cannot reliably distinguish between model-generated and human-generated behavior. Because the characteristic of the system-generated behavior being assessed is the degree to which it is indistinguishable from human-generated behavior, this test is clearly directly relevant to the assessment of the realism of algorithmically generated behavior, perhaps even more so than to intelligence as Turing originally proposed.\"\n\nSection::::Turing test.:Examples of Turing test.\n", "In 1997 CAPTCHA (\"Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart\") was invented. Test is used for detection that computer is operated by human operator ,preventing accessing protected resource by programs , spam robots.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Human sensing\n\nBULLET::::- Captcha\n\nBULLET::::- Security switch\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nRemote human presence detection system Tam, Daniel et al. Assignee:The United States of America, as Represented by the Secretary of the Navy .\n\nHuman presence detection Gear, Gavin et al ;MICROSOFT TECHNOLOGY .\n\nSecurity Switch Yoffe, Simon; Yoffe, David.\n\nHardware-based human presence detection Mualem, Avraham; Kupermann, Eli ;Intel Corporation .\n", "The third new aspect is the infrastructure. The infrastructure for FRGC will be provided by the Biometric Experimentation Environment (BEE), an XML based framework for describing and documenting computational experiments. The BEE will allow the description and distribution of experiments in a common format, recording of the raw results of an experiment in a common format, analysis and presentation of the raw results in a common format, and documentation of the experiment format in a common format. This is the first time that a computational-experimental environment has supported a challenge problem in face recognition or biometrics.\n\nSection::::The FRGC Data Set.\n", "BULLET::::- Cleverbot is an interesting example. Cleverbot is an application that interacts with people by responding to questions and learning from replies. Testing of Cleverbot is best completed by using a Turing test. Interacting with the Cleverbot allows the user to analyze whether or not they can distinguish between the fact that it is actually just code responding to them, or if they believe that it is another human.\n", "During 2015 and 2016 Botlab made available three open source solutions focused on detection and prevention of advertising fraud: \n\nBULLET::::- Denylist - a blacklist consisting of over 130 million data center IP addresses\n\nBULLET::::- Sitemind - a site research tool for researchers and media planners to counter ad fraud\n\nBULLET::::- Nameles - an entropy based detection and filtering solution to counter ad fraud\n\nSection::::Collaboration with Trade associations.\n", "BULLET::::- IP Address: As bots run similar scripts from the same server, any click fraud on mobile ads will indicate a high density of clicks coming from the same IP address or a range of similar IP addresses. Advertisers can also run check on IP addresses to verify their history with another fraud.\n", "Apart from exclusion, unanticipated uses may emerge from the end user relying on the software rather than their own knowledge. In one example, an unanticipated user group led to algorithmic bias in the UK, when the British National Act Program was created as a proof-of-concept by computer scientists and immigration lawyers to evaluate suitability for British citizenship. The designers had access to legal expertise beyond the end users in immigration offices, whose understanding of both software and immigration law would likely have been unsophisticated. The agents administering the questions relied entirely on the software, which excluded alternative pathways to citizenship, and used the software even after new case laws and legal interpretations led the algorithm to become outdated. As a result of designing an algorithm for users assumed to be legally savvy on immigration law, the software's algorithm indirectly led to bias in favor of applicants who fit a very narrow set of legal criteria set by the algorithm, rather than by the more broader criteria of UK immigration law.\n", "An experiment in 2002 by the local police department in Tampa, Florida, had similarly disappointing results.\n\nA system at Boston's Logan Airport was shut down in 2003 after failing to make any matches during a two-year test period.\n\nIn 2014, Facebook stated that in a standardized two-option facial recognition test, its online system scored 97.25% accuracy, compared to the human benchmark of 97.5%.\n", "Many software systems are untestable, or not immediately testable. For example, Google's ReCAPTCHA, without having any metadata about the images is not a testable system. Recaptcha, however, can be immediately tested if for each image shown, there is a tag stored elsewhere. Given this meta information, one can test the system.\n", "Some crawlers (Yandex) support a codice_11 directive, allowing websites with multiple mirrors to specify their preferred domain:\n\nThis is not supported by all crawlers.\n\nSection::::Nonstandard extensions.:Universal \"\" match.\n\nThe \"Robot Exclusion Standard\" does not mention the \"\" character in the codice_12 statement. Some crawlers like Googlebot recognize strings containing \"*\". \n\nSection::::Meta tags and headers.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:ECCE Robot.\n", "Programs are checked either by comparison to a known correct answer or by running a dedicated judging code, unique to each problem. This is increasingly necessary when there may be multiple answers in more complex problems. By using a computer, the marking is consistent, fair and can measure efficiency in real time, in comparison to human judging.\n", "In 2014, reCAPTCHA began implementing behavioral analysis of the browser's interactions with the CAPTCHA to predict whether the user was a human or a bot before displaying the CAPTCHA, and presenting a \"considerably more difficult\" captcha in cases where it had reason to think the user might be a bot. By end of 2014, this mechanism started to be rolled out to most of the public Google services. \n", "BULLET::::- An identity provider receives a codice_17 element from a service provider via the browser. How does the identity provider know the service provider is authentic and not some evil service provider trying to harvest personally identifiable information regarding the user? The identity provider consults its list of trusted service providers in metadata before issuing an authentication response.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18780	Why are DaVinci’s paintings considered great?	In general he had very good technique in terms of realism and detail, and was also considered above average at using "sfumato" (a kind of smokey, soft technique with blended rather than hard edges). He came from an era with a ton of very good painters where painting itself was undergoing a radical change so I certainly wouldn't say he was the greatest painter of his day or anything.	[ "There are many old and beautiful churches that contain various important works of art. The 15th-century frescoes in the Gothic church of Santa Margherita and the Florentine painter Giovanni Balducci's masterpiece (1560 until after 1644), a series of paintings that decorate the rich wooden ceiling in the church of the Annunziata and were painted in the first five years of the 17th century, are only two examples of a particularly rich artistic heritage that is a reminder of the importance and wealth of the ruling Carafa family at that time.\n", "When the German art historian Gustav Waagen visited Russell at Eagle House near Enfield, he found the walls \"so richly adorned with specimens of the 14th century, that the spectator feels as if transported to a chapel at Siena or Florence.\" He described Russell as \"one of the most enthusiastic admirers of the grandeur and high significance of the ecclesiastic art from the 13th to the 15th century that I met with in England\".\n", "Section::::Biography.:Rome.:Art trade.\n", "BULLET::::- , 15th to 18th century (especially of feasts, ceremonies and origins of the theatre); the collection, assembled in London and New York, resides now in the Getty Center of Los Angeles.\n", "The earliest physical evidence found to date of a purchase of Diego art work is two larger beautifully rendered paintings sold by the Schlossgalarie, in Zurich, Switzerland. Owner R. Buri considered these two paintings to be \"Antonio Voci\" masterworks. His wealthy clients often sought exceptional horse paintings. The 1962/3 \"Horses Racing\", was described by Mr. Buri as a \"Voci masterpiece with hints of a fine Edgar Degas.\"\n", "Agostino was also an important printmaker, reproducing the works of masters from the 16th century (mainly Correggio and Veronese) as examples to imitate for the numerous students of their school. Annibale was the most talented and the one who, following his trip to Rome in 1595 where the works would be exhibited until his death in 1609, exercised a decisive influence on the fate of Italian painting at the dawn of the 17th century.\n\nSection::::\"Accademia degli Incamminati\".\n", "In the United Kingdom, the following works are documented:\n\nBULLET::::- The Fitzwilliam Museum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holy Family with the Infant St John Baptist and Saint Catherine\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Virgin and Child with St Catherine, Mary Magdalene and St Barbara\"\n\nBULLET::::- Glasgow Museums\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine c.1540–1550\"\n\nBULLET::::- The Courtauld Gallery\n\nBULLET::::- \"Virgin and Child with Saint Catherine (?) and St Jerome in a Landscape\"\n\nBULLET::::- Blairs Museum\n\nBULLET::::- Virgin and Child with St Luke and a Kneeling Donor\" (Vision of Saint Stanislaus)\n\nBULLET::::- UK Government Art Collection (Circle of Polidoro)\n", "This \"canon\" remains prominent, as indicated by the selection present in art history textbooks, as well as the prices obtained in the art trade. But there have been considerable swings in what is valued. In the 19th century the Baroque fell into great disfavour, but it was revived from around the 1920s, by which time the art of the 18th and 19th century was largely disregarded. The High Renaissance, which Vasari regarded as the greatest period, has always retained its prestige, including works by Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, but the succeeding period of Mannerism has fallen in and out of favour.\n", "Another point of reference to was the work of Giovanni Andrea Gilio, author of two dialogues...on the errors of painters in 1564 in which it criticized the excesses of refinement, of allegories and the bizarre inventions of the Mannerist art. The stories and the characters rendered lifelike in imitation of nature had to then be ennobled by the exercise of the art and refined on the example of the great masters of the past such as Raphael Sanzio and Michelangelo Buonarroti, but also Tiziano, Veronese, Tintoretto, Correggio, and Parmigianino.\n", "A mark of the respect in which Gentile's work continued to be held, more than a century after his death, was the rapidity with which they appeared in print, from the Italian presses, beginning in the 1470s. \n", "Jean-Pierre Delarge commented how Pietropoli's \"taste for antiquity asserts large paintings\" and he \"finds the pallet and the Corot format for views of Rome or Venice, empty of any living being, which increases the desired distance from the ocher color blur, this time under a golden sky\".\n", "The eclecticism of their art, the respect for tradition and a language adapted to the public places frequented by the working classes satisfied the desires of the church of the Counter-Reformation that needed a new mode to express its primacy over the other religions and confirm that art could and had to be a vehicle towards faith.\n\nThe Carracci fit perfectly into the political and artistic moment of the epoch, they understand the need for an artistic tension that could reflect the new desires and that was free from the artifacts and the complexity of Mannerism.\n", "Consalvi was highly cultivated and a lifelong devotee of poetry, the arts and sciences, archaeology, and, in particular, music. He did much to embellish Rome and to make it an art-centre by designing public promenades along the Tiber, restoring the ancient monuments, and filling the museums with statues unearthed by excavations made under his direction. \n", "He replaced them in the Villa with other pieces from excavations on Borghese property (e.g. the Gladiator Mosaic, found in 1834) and paintings from his residences' stores and cellars, so that already by the 1830s these gaps seem to have been filled and despite the losses the collection was still reckoned as one of the world's finest. Camillo even bought Correggio's celebrated \"\" in Paris in 1827.\n", "After 1481, the documentary record of his works is quite long, although many have since been lost. The high amounts paid for these works is testimony to the high opinion in which they were held. His workshop, managed by his brother, was always busy and, in 1490, there is record of their agreement to split the profits.\n", "The frescoes' effect on Renaissance artists was instant and profound (it can be seen most obviously in Raphael's decoration for the loggias in the Vatican), and the white walls, delicate swags, and bands of frieze—framed reserves containing figures or landscapes—have returned at intervals ever since, notably in late 18th century Neoclassicism, making Famulus one of the most influential painters in the history of art.\n\nSection::::Rediscovery.:20th century to present.\n", "If the first editor of his works, Luigi Corvaglia, and historian Guido De Ruggiero, unjustly, considered his writings simply \"a \"centone\" devoid of originality and scientific seriousness\", the Jesuit priest François Garasse, far more worried about the consequences of the spread of his writings, judged them \"a work of such most pernicious atheism as was never released in the last hundred years\". The works of Vanini have been extensively reviewed and revalued by contemporary critics, revealing originality and insights (metaphysical, physical, biological) sometimes well ahead of their time.\n", "He was a hard-working artist, but his work has since been criticized by some for paintings are wanting in vivacity of feeling and purity of drawing, while, in his composition, it has been well said that \"intensity of color does duty for intensity of sentiment.\" He copied Leonardo's \"Last Supper\" repeatedly, and one of his best copies is in the possession of the Royal Academy of Arts.\n", "Section::::After World War II.\n\nWhen Buciunì reassembled his collection after World War II ended, he found that only one third of the works was saved. Others were destroyed or disappeared. Little is known about Il Moro's life after his trials and World War II. When Roger Peyrefitte visited Taormina in the 1940s, he mentioned Pancrazio Buciunì in his novel, telling that: \"His faithful Moro, today a simple fisherman, working at what many of his countrymen do (fishing)\". \n", "Section::::Works.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saint Agnes\" ca. 1635-40, Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain\n\nBULLET::::- \"David with the Head of Goliath\" ca. 1630, San Diego Museum of Art, San Diego, California, USA\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleopatra\" ca. 1630-40s Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Death of Cleopatra\" ca. 1630-1640s, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Assumption of the Virgin\" ca. 1630-1635, Kress Foundation-North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA\n\nBULLET::::- \"Judith with the Head of Holofernes\" ca.1640, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York, USA\n", "As stated at the start of his evaluation of de Unger's extensive collection of Islamic illuminated manuscripts, \"A series of magnificent exhibitions of Islamic manuscript art and calligraphy has recently shown splendid masterpieces from several regions of the Orient and revealed the stereotype of Islam's hostility towards illustration and the \"substitute art\" of calligraphy as nothing more than absurd.\" The collection of de Unger, although containing many examples of medieval calligraphy, particularly Korans, has an even larger number of illuminated figurative manuscripts.\n", "Section::::Art Theory.\n\nThe importance of their artistic and theoretical activity, recognized in all three painters, underlined by the studies of critics and historians of the arts such as André Chastel, Giulio Carlo Argan, and many others, has decisively contributed to the exit of the crisis of Mannerism, to the formation of the figurative Baroque, and to new pictorial solutions based on the recuperation of the classical and Renaissance tradition but renewed following the practice and the precepts of the study of the true and of the design.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Madonna and Child\" (1335), Orsanmichele, Florence\n\nBULLET::::- \"Four Musical Angels\", part of the altarpiece \"The Coronation of the Virgin\", Christ Church Picture Gallery, Oxford\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Coronation of the Virgin\" (ca. 1340–1345), National Gallery, London\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Marriage of the Virgin\" (1336–1340)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polyptych of S. Pancrazio\" (1336–1340)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Assumption of the Virgin\" (1337–1339)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Triptych with Madonna and Christ Child\", Minneapolis Institute of Art\n\nBULLET::::- \"Triptych: The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints\" (1338), Courtauld Institute of Art\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nativity and Annunciation to the Shepherds\", Museum of Fine Arts, Boston\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Tapestries and carpets\n\nBULLET::::- Bronzes and ancient weapons\n\nBULLET::::- Wooden sculptures\n\nBULLET::::- Wall painting\n\nBULLET::::- Drawings and prints\n\nBULLET::::- Stoneworks\n\nBULLET::::- Pietre dure mosaics\n\nBULLET::::- Jewelry\n\nBULLET::::- Easel paintings\n\nBULLET::::- Terracotta and potteries\n\nBULLET::::- Textiles\n\nSection::::Museum.\n", "Vasari's \"Vite\" has been described as \"by far the most influential single text for the history of Renaissance art\" and \"the most important work of Renaissance biography of artists\". Its influence is situated mainly in three domains: as an example for contemporary and later biographers and art historians, as a defining factor in the view on the Renaissance and the role of Florence and Rome in it, and as a major source of information on the lives and works of early Renaissance artists from Italy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01370	If the world is round and rotates, how do we appear to be standing upright at all times?	Because gravity pulls us toward the center of the planet. Just like if you take a plunger and stick it on a beach ball, it doesn't matter the orientation of the ball, the stick of the plunger sticks away from the center.	[ "which appears to rotate westward overhead; meanwhile, Earth underfoot seems to remain still. For purposes of spherical astronomy, which is concerned only with the directions to celestial objects, it makes no difference if this is actually the case or if it is Earth that is rotating while the celestial sphere is stationary.\n", "Section::::Effects and empirical evidence.:Observing the Sun.:Watching the Sun set twice.\n\nOn level ground, the difference in the distance to the horizon between lying down and standing up is large enough to watch the Sun set twice by quickly standing up immediately after seeing it set for the first time while lying down. This also can be done with a cherry picker or a tall building with a fast elevator. On a flat Earth, one would not be able to see the Sun again (unless standing near the edge closest to the Sun) due to a much faster-moving Sun shadow. \n", "The direction any intermediate spot on the Earth is facing can also be calculated by measuring the angles of the fixed stars and determining how much of the sky is visible. For example, New York City is about 40° north of the equator. The apparent motion of the Sun blots out slightly different parts of the sky from day to day, but over the course of the entire year it sees a dome of 280° (360° - 80°). So for example, both Orion and the Big Dipper are visible during at least part of the year.\n", "The fact that the stars visible from the north and south poles do not overlap must mean that the two observation spots are on opposite sides of the Earth, which is not possible if the Earth is a single-sided disc, but is possible for other shapes (like a sphere, but also any other convex shape like a donut or dumbbell).\n", "BULLET::::- All directions are south when viewed from the North Pole, and all directions are north when viewed from the South Pole, so the azimuth is undefined in both locations. When viewed from either pole, a star (or any object with fixed equatorial coordinates) has constant altitude and thus never rises or sets. The Sun, Moon, and planets can rise or set over the span of a year when viewed from the poles because their declinations are constantly changing.\n\nBULLET::::- When viewed from the Equator, objects on the celestial poles stay at fixed points on the horizon.\n", "To illustrate further, consider the question: \"Does our Universe rotate?\" To answer, we might attempt to explain the shape of the Milky Way galaxy using the laws of physics, although other observations might be more definitive, that is, provide larger discrepancies or less measurement uncertainty, like the anisotropy of the microwave background radiation or Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The flatness of the Milky Way depends on its rate of rotation in an inertial frame of reference. If we attribute its apparent rate of rotation entirely to rotation in an inertial frame, a different \"flatness\" is predicted than if we suppose part of this rotation actually is due to rotation of the universe and should not be included in the rotation of the galaxy itself. Based upon the laws of physics, a model is set up in which one parameter is the rate of rotation of the Universe. If the laws of physics agree more accurately with observations in a model with rotation than without it, we are inclined to select the best-fit value for rotation, subject to all other pertinent experimental observations. If no value of the rotation parameter is successful and theory is not within observational error, a modification of physical law is considered, for example, dark matter is invoked to explain the galactic rotation curve. So far, observations show any rotation of the universe is very slow, no faster than once every 60·10 years (10 rad/yr), and debate persists over whether there is \"any\" rotation. However, if rotation were found, interpretation of observations in a frame tied to the universe would have to be corrected for the fictitious forces inherent in such rotation in classical physics and special relativity, or interpreted as the curvature of spacetime and the motion of matter along the geodesics in general relativity.\n", "A terrestrial reference frame is the reference frame as one views from earth, or from the ground of another earth-like body. A terrestrial reference frame affects the way we perceive almost everything from day to day because as we live on the earth an earth point of view is the only type we can experience. The most noticeable result of the Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) is the way the sun appears to be rising and setting in the sky everyday, when in actuality it is the earth rotating on its axis. Our point of view is in essence distorted by the place in which we view it happening. Please see Frame of reference for information about what a Reference Frame is.\n", "The movement of the skies from east to west is the opposite of all the other motions of the heavenly bodies which are from west to east; making the Earth rotate brings it into line with all the others. Although Aristotle argues that circular motions are not contraries, they could still lead to collisions.\n", "Theoretically, light-time correction could also be calculated for more distant objects, such as stars, but in practice it is ignored. The movement of an object since the light left it is not needed because the mean position is the mean position of where it appears to be, not of where it once was. Unlike planets, these objects basically appear to move in straight lines, so for normal use no complicated calculation is needed to find their mean position.\n\nSection::::Astronomy.:Topocentric position.\n", "Section::::Variation in magnitude.:Latitude.\n\nThe surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth's gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0.3% at the Equator – and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects.\n", "BULLET::::- First, from anywhere on Earth, the Sun appears to revolve around Earth once per day. While the Moon and the planets have their own motions, they also appear to revolve around Earth about once per day. The stars appeared to be fixed on a celestial sphere rotating once each day about an axis through the geographic poles of Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- Second, Earth seems to be unmoving from the perspective of an earthbound observer; it feels solid, stable, and stationary.\n", "Apparent place\n\nThe apparent place of an object is its position in space as seen by an observer. Because of physical and geometrical effects it may differ from the \"true\" or \"geometric\" position.\n\nSection::::Astronomy.\n\nIn astronomy, a distinction is made between the \"mean position\", \"apparent position\" and \"topocentric position\" of an object.\n\nSection::::Astronomy.:Position of a star.\n", "The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.\n\nSection::::Periods.\n\nSection::::Periods.:True solar day.\n", "For example, most everyday experience suggests that the Earth is flat; actually, this view turns out to be a remarkably good approximation to the true state of affairs, which is that the Earth is a \"very big\" (relative to the day-to-day scale familiar to humans) oblate spheroid.\n\nFurthermore, prior to the Copernican revolution, heliocentrism, the belief that the Earth goes around the Sun, rather than \"vice versa\", was considered to be contrary to common sense.\n", "Section::::Context.\n", "Humans can sense head tilting and linear acceleration even in dark environments because of the orientation of two groups of hair cell bundles on either side of the striola. Hair cells on opposite sides move with mirror symmetry, so when one side is moved, the other is inhibited. The opposing effects caused by a tilt of the head cause differential sensory inputs from the hair cell bundles allow humans to tell which way the head is tilting, Sensory information is then sent to the brain, which can respond with appropriate corrective actions to the nervous and muscular systems to ensure that balance and awareness are maintained.\n", "BULLET::::- At the North Pole, one sees the heavenly dome above seems to revolve around one like a potter's wheel. The stars will not rise and set but move round and round in horizontal planes during the long night of six months. The Sun, when it is above the horizon for six months; would also appear to revolve in the same way but with some difference. The Northern celestial hemisphere will alone be visible spinning round and round and the Southern half remain invisible. The Sun going into the Northern hemisphere in his annual course will appear as coming up from the South. Living in the temperate and tropical zones, however, one sees all heavenly objects rise in the East and set in the West, some passing over the head, others traveling obliquely.\n", "The Flat Earth model gave way to an understanding of a Spherical Earth. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) provided observational arguments supporting the idea of a spherical Earth, namely that different stars are visible in different locations, travelers going south see southern constellations rise higher above the horizon, and the shadow of Earth on the Moon during a lunar eclipse is round, and spheres cast circular shadows while discs generally do not.\n", "Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have largely maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25,800 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now. In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substantial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on 25 December in Roman times would have been born with the Sun in the constellation Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date would have the Sun in Sagittarius due to the precession of the equinoxes.\n", "However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about Earth. This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought Earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated.\n", "Precession is a rotation of Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.\n\nSection::::Changes.:In rotational velocity.\n\nSection::::Changes.:In rotational velocity.:Tidal interactions.\n", "There is one supreme motion—that by which the Sun, Moon, planets and fixed stars appear to be moved from east to west in the space of 24 hours. This may as logically belong to the Earth alone as to the rest of the universe. Aristotle and Ptolemy, who understood this, do not argue against any other motion than this diurnal one.\n", "From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counterclockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.\n\nSection::::History of study.\n", "The 1937 popular song \"They All Laughed\" contains the couplet \"They all laughed at Christopher Columbus/When he said the world was round\". In the Warner Bros. \"Merrie Melodies\" cartoon \"Hare We Go\" (1951) Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand the Catholic quarrel about the shape of the Earth; the king states the Earth is flat. In Walt Disney's 1963 animation \"The Sword in the Stone\", wizard Merlin (who has traveled into the future) explains to a young Arthur that \"man will discover in centuries to come\" that the Earth is round, and rotates.\n\nSection::::Historiography of the flat Earth myth.\n", "The movement of daylight between the northern and southern hemispheres happens because of the axial tilt of the Earth. The imaginary line around which the Earth spins, which goes between the North Pole and South Pole, is tilted about 23° from the oval that describes its orbit around the Sun. The Earth always points in the same direction as it moves around the Sun, so for half the year (summer in the Northern Hemisphere), the North Pole is pointed slightly toward the Sun, keeping it in daylight all the time because the Sun lights up the half of the Earth that is facing it (and the North Pole is always in that half due to the tilt). For the other half of the orbit, the South Pole is tilted slightly toward the Sun, and it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere. This means that at the equator, the Sun is not directly overhead at noon, except around the autumnal equinox and vernal equinox, when one spot on the equator is pointed directly at the Sun.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07293	Why is it when we breathe a certain way it can change the temperature of our breath?	The high air pressure of a pursed pair of lips cools your breath down as it's leaving your mouth. A breath exhaled with a wider set mouth is simply coming out and will more closely match the internal temperature of your body. At least, I'm fairly sure	[ "Due to body heat and moisture there is almost always higher heat and humidity inside a clothing system. This creates a differential pressure forcing the heat and humidity toward the outside. The greater the difference between the heat and humidity inside the clothing system and the outside, the greater the Differential Pressure to push that heat and humidity out.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Upright Cup test.\n", "Exhaled air is almost fully at equilibrium with water vapor at the body temperature. In the cold air the exhaled vapor quickly condenses, thus showing up as a fog or mist of water droplets and as condensation or frost on surfaces. Forcibly condensing these water droplets from exhaled breath is the basis of exhaled breath condensate, an evolving medical diagnostic test.\n", "In acid–base homeostasis there are two mechanisms that can help regulate the pH. Respiratory compensation a mechanism of the respiratory center, adjusts the partial pressure of carbon dioxide by changing the rate and depth of breathing, to bring the pH back to normal. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide also determines the concentration of carbonic acid, and the bicarbonate buffer system can also come into play. Renal compensation can help the bicarbonate buffer system.\n", "Respiratory alkalosis\n\nRespiratory alkalosis is a medical condition in which increased respiration elevates the blood pH beyond the normal range (7.35–7.45) with a concurrent reduction in arterial levels of carbon dioxide. This condition is one of the four basic categories of disruption of acid–base homeostasis.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSigns and symptoms of respiratory alkalosis are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Palpitation\n\nBULLET::::- Tetany\n\nBULLET::::- Convulsion\n\nBULLET::::- Sweating\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nRespiratory alkalosis may be produced as a result of the following causes:\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "The plasma pH can be altered by respiratory changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide; or altered by metabolic changes in the carbonic acid to bicarbonate ion ratio. The bicarbonate buffer system regulates the ratio of carbonic acid to bicarbonate to be equal to 1:20, at which ratio the blood pH is 7.4 (as explained in the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation). A change in the plasma pH gives an acid–base imbalance.\n", "Understanding the influence of all this factors and their control is necessary for achieving an accurate standardization of breath sample collection and for the correct deduction of the corresponding blood concentration levels.\n\nThe simplest model relating breath gas concentration to blood concentrations was developed by Farhi\n\nwhere formula_2 denotes the alveolar concentration which is assumed to be equal to the measured concentration.\n\nIt expresses the fact that the concentration of an inert gas in the alveolar air depends on the mixed venous concentration formula_3, the substance-specific blood:air partition coefficient formula_4, and the ventilation-perfusion ratio formula_5.\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.:Levels of blood gases.\n\nChanges in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and plasma pH are sent to the respiratory center, in the brainstem where they are regulated.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nThermography, a method which produces pictures of the distribution of temperatures on an object, was used to investigate temperature variation across facial structures of the common vampire bat. The nasal structure has a temperature of 9 °C lower than the rest of the face. The thermal insulation of the nasal structure and maintained temperature difference may possibly prevent interference of self-emitted thermal radiation. Warm receptors located in the nose may then optimally detect outside sources of infrared radiation.\n", "The partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood is monitored by the peripheral chemoreceptors (PNS) in the carotid artery and aortic arch. A change in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is detected as altered pH in the cerebrospinal fluid by central chemoreceptors (CNS) in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. Information from these sets of sensors is sent to the respiratory center which activates the effector organs – the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. An increased level of carbon dioxide in the blood, or a decreased level of oxygen, will result in a deeper breathing pattern and increased respiratory rate to bring the blood gases back to equilibrium.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "In the lungs a temperature of 37 °C and 100% relative humidity (RH) is the ideal condition for the ciliary activity. If the conditions are too warm or cold, the cilia beat slower and at some point not at all. During normal nasal inspiration, air of 22 °C and 40% RH is conditioned into air of 32 °C and 99% RH at the level of the trachea.\n", "The system worked as follows. Heat is constantly lost from the body. Food products reach the heart and are processed into new blood, releasing fire during metabolism, which raises the blood temperature too high. That raises the heart temperature, causing lung volume to increase, in turn raising the airflow at the mouth. The cool air brought in through the mouth reduces the heart temperature, so the lung volume accordingly decreases, restoring the temperature to normal.\n", "Section::::Biological role.:Human physiology.:Regulation of respiration.\n\nCarbon dioxide is one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply. If its concentration is high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue.\n\nBicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.\n", "The primary purpose of breathing is to bring atmospheric air (in small doses) into the alveoli where gas exchange with the gases in the blood takes place. The equilibration of the partial pressures of the gases in the alveolar blood and the alveolar air occurs by diffusion. At the end of each exhalation, the adult human lungs still contain 2,500–3,000 mL of air, their functional residual capacity or FRC. With each breath (inhalation) only as little as about 350 mL of warm, moistened atmospherically is added, and well mixed, with the FRC. Consequently, the gas composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle. Since the pulmonary capillary blood equilibrates with this virtually unchanging mixture of air in the lungs (which has a substantially different composition from that of the ambient air), the partial pressures of the arterial blood gases also do not change with each breath. The tissues are therefore not exposed to swings in oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions in the blood during the breathing cycle, and the peripheral and central chemoreceptors do not need to \"choose\" the point in the breathing cycle at which the blood gases need to be measured, and responded to. Thus the homeostatic control of the breathing rate simply depends on the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This then also maintains the constancy of the pH of the blood.\n", "Blood flow is directly influenced by the thermodynamics of the body. Changes in temperature affect the viscosity and surface tension of the blood, altering the minimum blood flow rate. At high temperatures the minimum flow rate will decrease and the capillary will expand. This allows heat transfer through the increased surface area of the inner capillary lining and through increased blood flow. At low temperatures the minimum flow rate will increase and the capillary will constrict. This restricts blood flow and decreases the surface area of the capillary, reducing heat transfer.\n", "Oral temperatures are influenced by drinking, chewing, smoking, and breathing with the mouth open. Mouth breathing, cold drinks or food reduce oral temperatures; hot drinks, hot food, chewing, and smoking raise oral temperatures.\n\nEach measurement method also has different normal ranges depending on sex.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Variations due to outside factors.\n", "Section::::Thermodynamics.\n\nThe ambient temperature of the body directly affects blood flow through microvasculature. Changes in temperature affect the viscosity of blood and the surface tension. Surface tension decreases with increasing temperature, decreasing the minimum flow rate (see Surface Tension). The decrease in minimum flow rate by higher temperatures allows more blood to flow and dissipate heat throughout the body. Temperature greatly affects blood flow by influencing the diameter of flow. Decreases and increases in temperature trigger vasoconstriction and vasodilation respectively.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.:Vasoconstriction.\n", "Respiratory alkalosis (\"Pa\" CO < 35 mmHg) occurs when there is too little carbon dioxide in the blood. This may be due to hyperventilation or else excessive breaths given via a mechanical ventilator in a critical care setting. The action to be taken is to calm the person and try to reduce the number of breaths being taken to normalize the pH. The respiratory pathway tries to compensate for the change in pH in a matter of 2–4 hours. If this is not enough, the metabolic pathway takes place.\n\nUnder normal conditions, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation will give the blood pH\n", "The human nasal passages serve as a heat exchanger, with cool air being inhaled and warm air being exhaled. Its effectiveness can be demonstrated by putting the hand in front of the face and exhaling, first through the nose and then through the mouth. Air exhaled through the nose is substantially cooler. This effect can be enhanced with clothing, by, for example, wearing a scarf over the face while breathing in cold weather.\n", "The peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are located in the arterial aortic bodies and the carotid bodies. Central chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to changes in the pH in the blood, (resulting from changes in the levels of carbon dioxide) and they are located on the medulla oblongata near to the medullar respiratory groups of the respiratory center.\n", "Winters' formula\n\nWinters' formula, named for Dr. R.W. Winters, is a formula used to evaluate respiratory compensation when analyzing acid–base disorders and a metabolic acidosis is present. It can be given as\n\nformula_1,\n\nwhere HCO3 is given in units of mEq/L and pCO will be in units of mmHg.\n\nWinters' formula gives an expected value for the patient's P; the patient's actual (measured) P is then compared to this:\n\nBULLET::::- If the two values correspond, respiratory compensation is considered to be adequate.\n", "The normal range for pH is 7.35–7.45. As the pH decreases (< 7.35), it implies acidosis, while if the pH increases ( 7.45) it implies alkalosis. In the context of arterial blood gases, the most common occurrence will be that of respiratory acidosis. Carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood as carbonic acid, a weak acid; however, in large concentrations, it can affect the pH drastically. Whenever there is poor pulmonary ventilation, the carbon dioxide levels in the blood are expected to rise. This leads to a rise of carbonic acid, leading to a decrease in pH. The first buffer of pH will be the plasma proteins, since these can accept some H ions to try to maintain acid-base homeostasis. As carbon dioxide concentrations continue to increase (\"Pa\"CO 45 mmHg), a condition known as respiratory acidosis occurs. The body tries to maintain homeostasis by increasing the respiratory rate, a condition known as tachypnea. This allows much more carbon dioxide to escape the body through the lungs, thus increasing the pH by having less carbonic acid. If a person is in a critical setting and intubated, one must increase the number of breaths mechanically.\n", "Section::::Uses in neuroscience.:Somatosensory cortex studies.\n\nPart of the somatosensory cortex of rats is arranged in distinct sections called barrels that account for stimuli sensed by each whisker. Cooling the somatosensory cortex surface helps to dissociate the activity generated in different barrels, thus bringing to light some of the dynamics involved in cortical processing of sensory inputs.\n\nSection::::Uses in neuroscience.:Other.\n", "We use our nose and throat as a regenerative heat exchanger when we breathe. The cooler air coming in is warmed, so that it reaches the lungs as warm air. On the way back out, this warmed air deposits much of its heat back onto the sides of the nasal passages, so that these passages are then ready to warm the next batch of air coming in. Some animals, including humans, have curled sheets of bone inside the nose called nasal turbinates to increase the surface area for heat exchange.\n\nSection::::Types of regenerators.:Cryogenics.\n", "In humans, temperature sensation from thermoreceptors enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn. The axons of these second order neurons then decussate, joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus.\n\nA study in 2017 shows that the thermosensory information passes to the lateral parabrachial nucleus rather than to the thalamus and this drives thermoregulatory behaviour.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared sensing in snakes\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared sensing in vampire bats\n\nSection::::External links.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09496	How do warm-blooded animals actually produce body heat?	using "exothermic" chemistery $reactions that release heat$ and by muscle movement $which again uses up a lot of molecules in exothermic reactions as well as friction between the muscle cells during movement$ Energy is usually stored as fat. Fat gets converted back into glucose which your body can use to get "Adenintriphosphate" $short ATP$. Your body then can use that molecule for energy delivery by transforming the TRIphosphate into a DIphosphate $ADP$ which again is a very energy rich, exothermic reaction.	[ "A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called \"warm-blooded\", like birds and mammals, fit all three of these categories (i.e., they are endothermic, homeothermic, \"and\" tachymetabolic). However, over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology have revealed many species belonging to these two groups that do not fit all these criteria. For example, many bats and small birds are poikilothermic and bradymetabolic when they sleep for the night (or, in nocturnal species, for the day). For these creatures, the term heterothermy was coined.\n", "In general, warm-bloodedness refers to three separate categories of thermoregulation.\n\nBULLET::::- Endothermy is the ability of some creatures to control their body temperatures through internal means such as muscle shivering or increasing their metabolism (Greek: ἔνδον \"endon\" \"within\" θέρμη \"thermē\" \"heat\"). Some writers restrict the meaning of endothermy to mechanisms that directly raise the animal's metabolic rate to produce heat. The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy.\n", "Another commonly considered model is the heat pump or refrigerator. Again there are four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A single cycle starts with the working body colder than the cold reservoir, and then energy is taken in as heat by the working body from the cold reservoir. Then the work reservoir does work on the working body, adding more to its internal energy, making it hotter than the hot reservoir. The hot working body passes heat to the hot reservoir, but still remains hotter than the cold reservoir. Then, by allowing it to expand without doing work on another body and without passing heat to another body, the working body is made colder than the cold reservoir. It can now accept heat transfer from the cold reservoir to start another cycle.\n", "Body heat is generated by metabolism. This refers to the chemical reactions cells use to break down glucose into water and carbon dioxide and, in so doing, generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high-energy compound used to power other cellular processes. Muscle contraction is a type of metabolic process that generates heat energy, and heat is also generated through friction when blood flows through the circulatory system.\n", "Further studies on animals that were traditionally assumed to be cold-blooded have shown that most creatures incorporate different variations of the three terms defined above, along with their counterparts (ectothermy, poikilothermy, and bradymetabolism), thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types. Some fish have warm-blooded characteristics, such as the opah. Swordfish and some sharks have circulatory mechanisms that keep their brains and eyes above ambient temperatures and thus increase their ability to detect and react to prey. Tunas and some sharks have similar mechanisms in their muscles, improving their stamina when swimming at high speed.\n\nSection::::Heat generation.\n", "Only birds and mammals are extant universally endothermic groups of animals. Certain lamnid sharks, tuna and billfishes are also endothermic.\n\nIn common parlance, endotherms are characterized as \"warm-blooded\". The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy, although in general, there is no absolute or clear separation between the nature of endotherms and ectotherms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Generating and conserving heat.\n", "All organisms metabolize food and other inputs, but some make better use of the output than others. Like all energy conversions, metabolism is rather inefficient, and around 60% of the available energy is converted to heat rather than to ATP. In most organisms, this heat is simply lost to the environment. However, endothermic homeotherms (the animals generally characterized as \"warm-blooded\") both produce more heat and have better ways to retain and regulate it than other animals. They have a higher basal metabolic rate, and also a greater capacity to increase their metabolic rate when engaged in strenuous activity. They usually have well-developed insulation in order to retain body heat, fur and blubber in the case of mammals and feathers in birds. When this insulation is insufficient to maintain body temperature, they may resort to shivering—rapid muscle contractions that quickly use up ATP, thus stimulating cellular metabolism to replace it and consequently produce more heat. In general, in hot environments, they use evaporative cooling to shed excess heat, either by sweating (some mammals) or by panting (many mammals and all birds)—in general, mechanisms not present in poikilotherms.\n", "Section::::Metabolism.:The crocodilian puzzle and early archosaur metabolism.\n\nIt appears that the earliest dinosaurs had the features that form the basis for arguments for warm-blooded dinosaurs—especially erect limbs. This raises the question \"How did dinosaurs become warm-blooded?\" The most obvious possible answers are:\n", "Section::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Warm-bloodedness.\n\n\"Warm-bloodedness\" is a complex and rather ambiguous term, because it includes some or all of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Endothermy, the ability to generate heat internally rather than via behaviors such as basking or muscular activity.\n\nBULLET::::- Homeothermy, maintaining a fairly constant body temperature. Most enzymes have an optimum operating temperature; efficiency drops rapidly outside the preferred range. A homeothermic organism needs only to possess enzymes that function well in a small range of temperatures.\n", "Acetylcholine stimulates muscle to raise metabolic rate.\n\nThe low demands of thermogenesis mean that free fatty acids draw, for the most part, on lipolysis as the method of energy production.\n\nA comprehensive list of human and mouse genes regulating cold-induced thermogenesis (CIT) in living animals (\"in vivo\") or tissue samples (\"ex vivo\") has been assembled and is available in CITGeneDB.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Section::::Endothermy.\n\nTwo species of the thresher have been identified as having a modified circulatory system that acts as a counter-current heat exchanger, which allows them to retain metabolic heat. Mackerel sharks (family Lamnidae) have a similar homologous structure to this which is more extensively developed. This structure is a strip of red muscle along each of its flanks, which has a tight network of blood vessels that transfer metabolic heat inward towards the core of the shark, allowing it to maintain and regulate its body heat.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Heater cell\n\nHeater cells are specialized modified muscle cells located at the base of the brain in billfish, including swordfish. They act to maintain temperatures in the brain and eyes above ambient temperature. Producing heat and maintaining temperature requires high levels of metabolic activity, as such, the heater cells have the highest mitochondrial densities of any animal cell, ranging from 55% to 70% of the total cell volume.\n", "Non-shivering thermogenesis occurs in brown adipose tissue (brown fat) that is present in almost all eutherians (swine being the only exception currently known). Brown adipose tissue has a unique uncoupling protein (thermogenin, also known as uncoupling protein 1) that allows the uncoupling of protons (H) moving down their mitochondrial gradient from the synthesis of ATP, thus allowing the energy to be dissipated as heat.\n", "Warm-blooded\n\nWarm-blooded animal species can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment. In particular, homeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes. The only known living homeotherms are birds and mammals, though ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and non-avian dinosaurs are believed to have been homeotherms. Other species have various degrees of thermoregulation.\n\nAnimal body temperature control varies by species, so the terms \"warm-blooded\" and \"cold-blooded\" (though still in everyday use) suggest a false idea of there being only two categories of body temperature control, and are no longer used scientifically.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "The sensing of temperature in cells is known as thermoception and is primarily mediated by transient receptor potential channels. Additionally, animal cells contain a conserved mechanism to prevent high temperatures from causing cellular damage, the heat-shock response. Such response is triggered when high temperatures cause the dissociation of inactive HSF1 from complexes with heat shock proteins Hsp40/Hsp70 and Hsp90. With help from the ncRNA \"hsr1\", HSF1 then trimerizes, becoming active and upregulating the expression of its target genes. Many other thermosensory mechanisms exist in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.\n\nSection::::Stimuli.:Light.\n", "The first uncoupling protein discovered, UCP, was discovered in the brown adipose tissues of hibernators and small rodents, which provide non-shivering heat to these animals. These brown adipose tissues are essential to maintaining the body temperature of small rodents, and studies with (UCP)-knockout mice show that these tissues do not function correctly without functioning uncoupling proteins. In fact, these studies revealed that cold-acclimation is not possible for these knockout mice, indicating that UCP is an essential driver of heat production in these brown adipose tissues.\n", "Most sharks are \"cold-blooded\" or, more precisely, poikilothermic, meaning that their internal body temperature matches that of their ambient environment. Members of the family Lamnidae (such as the shortfin mako shark and the great white shark) are homeothermic and maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water. In these sharks, a strip of aerobic red muscle located near the center of the body generates the heat, which the body retains via a countercurrent exchange mechanism by a system of blood vessels called the rete mirabile (\"miraculous net\"). The common thresher shark has a similar mechanism for maintaining an elevated body temperature, which is thought to have evolved independently.\n", "Achieving elevated temperatures as stated above fall under the term physiological thermoregulation because heat is generated by a physiological process inside the insect. The other described way of thermoregulation is called behavioral thermoregulation because body temperature is controlled by behavioral means, such as basking in the sun. Butterflies are a good example of insects that are heliotherms (deriving heat almost exclusively from the sun).\n\nSection::::Other thermoregulatory examples.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Their immediate ancestors (archosaurs) were cold-blooded, and dinosaurs began developing warm-bloodedness very early in their evolution.\" This implies that dinosaurs developed a significant degree of warm-bloodedness in a very short time, possibly less than 20M years. But in mammals' ancestors the evolution of warm-bloodedness seems to have taken much longer, starting with the beginnings of a secondary palate around the beginning of the mid-Permian and going on possibly until the appearance of hair about 164M years ago in the mid Jurassic).\n", "Modern crocodilians are cold-blooded but can move with their limbs erect, and have several features normally associated with warm-bloodedness because they improve the animal's oxygen supply:\n", "As in all animals, reptilian muscle action produces heat. In large reptiles, like leatherback turtles, the low surface-to-volume ratio allows this metabolically produced heat to keep the animals warmer than their environment even though they do not have a warm-blooded metabolism. This form of homeothermy is called gigantothermy; it has been suggested as having been common in large dinosaurs and other extinct large-bodied reptiles.\n", "Section::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Warm-bloodedness.:Bony secondary palate.\n\nMammals have a secondary bony palate, which separates the respiratory passage from the mouth, allowing them to eat and breathe at the same time. Secondary bony palates have been found in the more advanced cynodonts and have been used as evidence of high metabolic rates. But some cold-blooded vertebrates have secondary bony palates (crocodilians and some lizards), while birds, which are warm-blooded, do not.\n\nSection::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Warm-bloodedness.:Diaphragm.\n", "Although most fish are exclusively ectothermic, there are exceptions. The only known bony fishes (infraclass Teleostei) that exhibit endothermy are in the suborder Scombroidei – which includes the billfishes, tunas, and the butterfly kingfish, a basal species of mackerel – and also the opah. The opah, a lampriform, was demonstrated in 2015 to utilize \"whole-body endothermy\", generating heat with its swimming muscles to warm its body while countercurrent exchange (as in respiration) minimizes heat loss. It is able to actively hunt prey such as squid and swim for long distances due to the ability to warm its entire body, including its heart, which is a trait typically found in only mammals and birds (in the form of homeothermy). In the cartilaginous fishes (class Chondrichthyes), sharks of the families Lamnidae (porbeagle, mackerel, salmon, and great white sharks) and Alopiidae (thresher sharks) exhibit endothermy. The degree of endothermy varies from the billfishes, which warm only their eyes and brain, to the bluefin tuna and the porbeagle shark, which maintain body temperatures in excess of above ambient water temperatures.\n", "Heat shock protein 90kDa alpha (cytosolic), member A1 has been shown to interact with:\n\nBULLET::::- AHSA1,\n\nBULLET::::- AKT1,\n\nBULLET::::- AR,\n\nBULLET::::- C-Raf,\n\nBULLET::::- CDC37,\n\nBULLET::::- DAP3,\n\nBULLET::::- EPRS,\n\nBULLET::::- ERN1,\n\nBULLET::::- ESR1\n\nBULLET::::- FKBP5,\n\nBULLET::::- GNA12,\n\nBULLET::::- GUCY1B3,\n\nBULLET::::- HER2/neu,\n\nBULLET::::- HSF1,\n\nBULLET::::- Hop,\n\nBULLET::::- NOS3,\n\nBULLET::::- NR3C1,\n\nBULLET::::- P53,\n\nBULLET::::- PIM1,\n\nBULLET::::- PPARA,\n\nBULLET::::- SMYD3,\n\nBULLET::::- STK11,\n\nBULLET::::- TGFBR1,\n\nBULLET::::- TGFBR2, and\n\nBULLET::::- TERT.\n\nSection::::Post-translational modifications.\n", "Section::::Energy usage in the human body.\n\nThe human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04121	How do some drugs/chemicals impact the body (nearly) immediately?	Media often exaggerates the rapidness of drug effects, but it is true that many drugs do act pretty rapidly. Largely, the speed at which a drug works depends on how quickly it can get to its target. When you take a pill, for example, the pill has to land in the stomach, dissolve, then get absorbed. This takes a bit of time. On the other hand, injecting it right into the blood means it often can start affecting the patient immediately. The other major factor is, essentially, what the drug's target is, and how it affects it. Sometimes the drug is binding to a receptor that triggers a response inherently in the body-- for example, epinephrine binds to receptors on cells that result in a very quick reaction. Cyanide is similar; it inhibits a key part of the cell's mitochondria, preventing it from transfering the electrons to the waiting oxygen molecule; because the system is 'jammed', the cell can't make ATP, and the result is cell death. Cells like neurons need a lot of ATP to survive, and without it, they start to die, leading the affects (the ATP supply in a cell is used up pretty quickly in general).	[ "Onset of action is the duration of time it takes for a drug's effects to come to prominence upon administration. With oral administration, it typically ranges anywhere from 20 minutes to over an hour, depending on the drug in question. Other methods of ingestion such as smoking or injection can take as little as seconds to minutes to take effect. The determination of the onset of action, however, is not completely dependent upon route of administration. There are several other factors that determine the onset of action for a specific drug, including drug formulation, dosage, and the patient receiving the drug.\n", "Section::::Components.:Distribution.\n\nThe compound needs to be carried to its effector site, most often via the bloodstream. From there, the compound may distribute into muscle and organs, usually to differing extents. After entry into the systemic circulation, either by intravascular injection or by absorption from any of the various extracellular sites, the drug is subjected to numerous distribution processes that tend to lower its plasma concentration.\n", "The route of administration is important as well. Whether a drug is ingested orally, injected into a muscle or vein, absorbed through a mucous membrane, or any of the other types of administration routes, affects how quickly the substance will be metabolized by the body and thus effects the concentration of the active ingredient(s). Dose-response curves may illustrate the relationship of these metabolic effects.\n\nSection::::Medicines.\n\nSection::::Medicines.:Over-the-counter medications.\n", "Once the receptors are activated, they either trigger a particular response directly on the body, or they trigger the release of hormones and/or other endogenous drugs in the body to stimulate a particular response.\n\nSection::::Short note on receptors.\n\nDrugs interact with receptors by bonding at specific binding sites. Most receptors are made up of proteins, and the drugs can therefore interact with the amino acids to change the conformation of the receptor proteins.\n\nThese interactions are very basic, just like that of other chemical bondings:\n\nSection::::Short note on receptors.:Ionic bonds.\n", "A drug's pharmacological effects can only occur once it has been fully solubilized and has entered the blood stream. For most drugs administered orally, the drug must be ingested, pass through the stomach, and into the small intestine, where the drug molecules enter the blood stream through the villi and microvilli. Gastric emptying time can vary from 0 to 3 hours, and therefore plays a major role in onset of action for orally administered drugs. For intravenous administration, the pathway is much shorter because the drug is administered (usually already in solution) directly to the bloodstream.\n", "In general, drugs are metabolized more slowly in fetal, neonatal and elderly humans and animals than in adults.\n\nGenetic variation (polymorphism) accounts for some of the variability in the effect of drugs.\n\nWith N-acetyltransferases (involved in \"Phase II\" reactions), individual variation creates a group of people who acetylate slowly (\"slow acetylators\") and those who acetylate quickly, split roughly 50:50 in the population of Canada.\n\nThis variation may have dramatic consequences, as the slow acetylators are more prone to dose-dependent toxicity.\n", "BULLET::::- Succinylcholine - This drug has rapid onset of action and fast duration. It dosages is between 1 and 2 mg/kg body weight with common dosages of 100 mg. The drug can only be kept under room temperature for 14 days. Therefore, for longer shelf life, it has to be kept under temperatures from to When the intravenous access is not obtainable, the 3 to 4 mg/kg of intramuscular doses can be given (usual doses of 300 mg). However, duration of onset will be delayed to 3 to 4 minutes. Repetitive dosages of succinylcholine is discouraged to prevent vagal stimulation which lead to bradycardia.\n", "BULLET::::- Phenylephrine - This drug is administered to those with hypotension post intubation as a result of lidocaine, midazolam, fentanyl, propofol, and ketamine. The dosages range from 50 to 200 μg in adults. It has quick onset and quick elimination. The common side effect is reflex bradycardia.\n\nSection::::Common medications.:Paralytics.\n", "Another factor is the duration of exposure. Some drugs or supplements have a slow-release feature in which portions of the medication are metabolized at different times, which changes the impacts the active ingredients have on the body. Some substances are meant to be taken in small doses over large periods of time to maintain a constant level in the body, while others are meant to have a large impact once and be expelled from the body after its work is done. It's entirely dependent on the function of the drug or supplement.\n", "BULLET::::- Cardiac symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, chest palpitations, light headedness, and syncope due to a rare drug-induced reaction, eosinophilic myocarditis\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSome classes of medications have a higher rate of drug reactions than others. These include antiepileptics, antibiotics, antiretrovirals, NSAIDs, and general and local anesthetics.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Atropine — The process of intubation can cause massive stimulation to vagus nerve, causing bradycardia (low heart rate). The people who are at increased risk of bradycardia are neonates and children. This does not happen in adults because sympathetic stimulation overpowers the vagal response. However, for those adults who have received drugs such as beta blocker, calcium channel blocker, and digoxin has an increased risk of developing bradycardia. Atropine is a muscarinic receptor antagonist, thus blocking the vagal response. The dose is 0.01 mg/kg. It has quick onset of action, and common side effects are: increased heart rate, dry mouth, flushing, and urinary retention.\n", "There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous (into the blood through a vein) and oral administration (through the mouth).\n\nThey can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously. Frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as \"every 8 hours\" reading Q8H from \"Quaque VIII Hora\".\n\nSection::::Drug discovery.\n\nIn the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered.\n", "BULLET::::- Hepatic or renal diseases: The blood concentrations of drugs that are metabolized in the liver and/or eliminated by the kidneys may be altered if either of these organs is not functioning correctly. If this is the case an increase in blood concentration is normally seen.\n\nBULLET::::- Serious diseases that could worsen if the dose of the medicine is reduced.\n\nBULLET::::- Drug dependent factors:\n\nBULLET::::- Narrow therapeutic index: Where the difference between the effective dose and the toxic dose is small. The drug digoxin is an example of this type of drug.\n", "The amount of time required for absorption varies dependent upon many factors including drug solubility, gastrointestinal motility and pH. If a medication is administered orally the amount of food in the stomach may also affect the rate of absorption. Once absorbed medications must be distributed throughout the body, or usually with the case of psychiatric medication, past the blood–brain barrier to the brain. With all of these factors affecting the rapidity of effect, the time until the effects are evident varies. Generally, though, the timing with medications is relatively fast and can occur within several minutes. As an example, physicians usually expect to see a remission of symptoms thirty minutes after haloperidol, an antipsychotic, is administered intramuscularly. Antipsychotics, especially Haloperidol, as well as assorted benzodiazepines are the most frequently used drugs in emergency psychiatry, especially agitation.\n", "Risk factors for drug allergies can be attributed to the drug itself or the characteristics of the patient. Drug-specific risk factors include the dose, route of administration, duration of treatment, repetitive exposure to the drug, and concurrent illnesses. Host risk factors include age, sex, atopy, specific genetic polymorphisms, and inherent predisposition to react to multiple unrelated drugs (multiple drug allergy syndrome).\n\nA drug allergy is more likely to develop with large doses and extended exposure.\n", "BULLET::::- Steep dose-response curve: Small changes in the dosage of a drug produce large changes in the drug's concentration in the patient's blood plasma.\n\nBULLET::::- Saturable hepatic metabolism: In addition to dose effects the capacity to metabolize the drug is greatly decreased\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nAmong US adults older than 55, 4% are taking medication and or supplements that put them at risk of a major drug interaction. Potential drug-drug interactions have increased over time and are more common in the low educated elderly even after controlling for age, sex, place of residence, and comorbidity.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Deprescribing\n\nBULLET::::- Cytochrome P450\n", "At sufficient concentrations, blood agents can quickly saturate the blood and cause death in a matter of minutes or seconds. They cause powerful gasping for breath, violent convulsions and a painful death that can take several minutes. The immediate cause of death is usually respiratory failure.\n", "BULLET::::- Induction or enzymatic inhibition: Some drugs have the capacity to inhibit or stimulate their own metabolism, in negative or positive feedback reactions. As occurs with fluvoxamine, fluoxetine and phenytoin. As larger doses of these pharmaceuticals are administered the plasma concentrations of the unmetabolized drug increases and the elimination half-life increases. It is therefore necessary to adjust the dose or other treatment parameters when a high dosage is required.\n\nBULLET::::- The kidneys can also establish active elimination mechanisms for some drugs, independent of plasma concentrations.\n", "Prescription drug dosage is based typically on body weight. Drugs come with a recommended dose in milligrams or micrograms per kilogram of body weight, and that is used in conjunction with the patient's body weight to determine a safe dosage. In single dosage scenarios, the patient's body weight and the drug's recommended dose per kilogram are used to determine a safe one-time dose. In drugs where multiple doses of treatment are needed in a day, the physician must take into account information regarding the total amount of the drug which is safe to use in one day, and how that should be broken up into intervals for the most effective treatment for the patient. Medication underdosing occurs commonly when physicians write prescriptions for a dosage that is correct for a certain time, but fails to increase the dosage as the patient needs (i.e. weight based dosing in children, or increasing dosages of chemotherapy drugs if a patient's condition worsens).\n", "Some pharmaceuticals can initiate allergic reactions, as in the case of penicillins. In some people, administration of penicillin can induce production of specific antibodies and initiate an immune response. Activation of this response when unwarranted can cause severe health concerns and prevent proper immune system functioning. Immune responses to pharmaceutical exposure can be very common in accidental contamination events. Tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, has been shown to alter the humoral adaptive immune response in gilthead seabream. In this case, pharmaceuticals can produce adverse effects not only in humans, but also in organisms that are unintentionally exposed.\n", "BULLET::::- Many drugs follow the multi-compartment model. In other words, a drug may have a preference for a particular body compartment which will result in the majority of that drug to ultimately settle in that particular compartment.\n\nBULLET::::- For highly polar drugs very little will be in the tissues of the body\n\nBULLET::::- For highly lipophilic drugs majority of drug will be located in body tissues\n", "A drug allergy is different from an intolerance. A drug intolerance, which is often a milder, non-immune-mediated reaction, does not depend on prior exposure. \n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSymptoms of drug hypersensitivity reactions can be similar to non-allergic adverse effects. Common symptoms include:\n\nBULLET::::- Hives\n\nBULLET::::- Itching\n\nBULLET::::- Rash\n\nBULLET::::- Fever\n\nBULLET::::- Facial swelling\n\nBULLET::::- Shortness of breath due to the short-term constriction of lung airways or longer-term damage to lung tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Anaphylaxis, a life-threatening drug reaction (produces most of these symptoms as well as low blood pressure)\n", "BULLET::::- Irritants. These are chemicals that cause an inflammatory effect on living tissue by chemical action at the site of contact. The resulting effect of irritants is an increase in the volume of cells due to a change in size (hypertrophy) or an increase in the number of cells (hyperplasia). Examples of irritants are benzaldehyde, acrolein, zinc sulphate and chlorine.\n\nBULLET::::- Central nervous system (CNS) seizure agents. CNS seizure agents inhibit cellular signaling by acting as receptor antagonists. They result in the inhibition of biological responses. Examples of CNS seizure agents are organochlorine pesticides.\n", "Drug reactions have characteristic timing. The typical amount of time it takes for a rash to appear after exposure to a drug can help categorize the type of reaction. For example, Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis usually occurs within 4 days of starting the culprit drug. Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms usually occurs between 15 and 40 days after exposure. Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome typically occur 7–21 days after exposure. Anaphylaxis occurs within minutes. Simple exanthematous eruptions occur between 4 and 14 days after exposure.\n", "BULLET::::- Old age: factors relating to how human physiology changes with age may affect the interaction of drugs. For example, liver metabolism, kidney function, nerve transmission or the functioning of bone marrow all decrease with age. In addition, in old age there is a sensory decrease that increases the chances of errors being made in the administration of drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- Polypharmacy: The use of multiple drugs by a single patient, to treat one or more ailments. The more drugs a patient takes the more likely it will be that some of them will interact.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04856	ELIf: What exactly happens when a company liquidates their assets	Yes, basically anything the company owns is sold. From my experience, it was a company decision to exit a country, so the office stuff we had bought was sold. We either shipped machines and IT stuff back to HQ, or found some company locally to give us a price for everything. We basically had one company come in and buy all the electrical stuff like printers, monitors, TVs and another came in to take furniture.	[ "The acquired company records in its books the elimination of its net assets and the receipt of cash, receivables or investment in the acquiring company (if what was received from the transfer included common stock from the purchasing company). If the acquired company is liquidated then the company needs an additional entry to distribute the remaining assets to its shareholders.\n\nSection::::Accounting treatment (US GAAP).:Purchase of Common Stock.\n\nTreatment to the purchasing company:\n", "It is unusual in a CVL for the company to have sufficient assets to repay all of its creditors. The liquidator realises the value of the company's assets and applies the proceeds in repayment of the company's creditors in order of their preference. Certain creditors have preferential status (e.g. secured creditors, tax creditors, & employees) and must be repaid in full to the extent that the company's assets permit them to be. The balance available, if any, after the preferential creditors are repaid is available to repay the non-preferential creditors. The balance available, if any, after the non-preferential creditors are repaid is distributed amongst the company's shareholders.\n", "Liquidation in Ireland\n\nLiquidation is the process by which companies are wound-up, bringing their life to an end. The liquidator is the person appointed to supervise and implement the company's winding up.\n\nThe liquidation process in Ireland is governed by the Companies Acts.\n\nThe Companies Acts provide for three different types of liquidation, details of which are below:\n\nSection::::Members Voluntary Liquidation (MVL).\n\nAn MVL is the process of winding up a company that has sufficient assets to repay all of its creditors within one year of the liquidator's appointment.\n", "After the removal of all assets which are subject to retention of title arrangements, fixed security, or are otherwise subject to proprietary claims of others, the liquidator will pay the claims against the company's assets. Generally, the priority of claims on the company's assets will be determined in the following order:\n\nBULLET::::1. Liquidators costs\n\nBULLET::::2. Creditors with fixed charge over assets\n\nBULLET::::3. Costs incurred by an administrator\n\nBULLET::::4. Amounts owing to employees for wages/superannuation\n\nBULLET::::5. Payments owing in respect of workers's injuries\n\nBULLET::::6. Amounts owing to employees for leave\n\nBULLET::::7. Retrenchment payments owing to employees\n", "\"The capital of £80,000 was divided into 320,000 shares of 5s each. The consideration for the sale was the undertaking by the new company to satisfy the liablilities of the old company amounting to £38,000 and to pay the costs of liquidation of the old company and of forming the new company and to issue to the liquidator of the old company or his nominee 252, 966 shares of 5s each with 3s credited as paid. Only 136,562 of those shares were applied for but the remaining 116,404 were taken up in consideration of a payment of £2,500 by the liquidator of the old company. \n", "BULLET::::3. all powers of dealing with the company's assets are exercisable by the liquidator for the benefit of those persons only who are entitled to share in the proceeds of realisation of the assets under the statutory scheme. The company itself can never be entitled to any part of those proceeds, and after the completion of the winding-up it is dissolved (section 274).\n", "Section::::Compulsory / Official Liquidation.\n\nA compulsory / official liquidation occurs when the High Court orders that a company be wound up, which most frequently occurs following a petition by one of the company's creditors. Where a liquidator is appointed by the court he is known as the \"Official Liquidator\". The Official Liquidator reports to an official of the High Court known as the Examiner, and may be required to account directly to the court for his actions.\n\nAn Official Liquidator deals with the company's assets in the same way as a liquidator appointed in a CVL.\n", "BULLET::::8. Creditors with floating charge over assets\n\nBULLET::::9. Creditors without security over assets\n\nBULLET::::10. Shareholders (Liquidating distribution)\n\nUnclaimed assets will usually vest in the state as \"bona vacantia\".\n\nSection::::Dissolution.\n\nHaving wound-up the company's affairs, the liquidator must call a final meeting of the members (if it is a members' voluntary winding-up), creditors (if it is a compulsory winding-up) or both (if it is a creditors' voluntary winding-up). The liquidator is then usually required to send final accounts to the Registrar and to notify the court. The company is then dissolved.\n", "In a CVL the liquidator is appointed by the company's creditors at a meeting convened by the company's directors for that purpose. The liquidator must call periodic meetings of creditors whilst the liquidation is ongoing and is accountable to the creditors.\n", "If an organization has debts that cannot be paid, it may be necessary to perform a liquidation of its assets. If there is anything left after the assets are converted to cash, in the case of a for-profit organization, the remainder is distributed to the stockholders; in the case of a non-profit, by law any remaining assets must be distributed to another non-profit.\n", "The liquidator must determine the company's title to property in its possession. Property which is in the possession of the company, but which was supplied under a valid retention of title clause will generally have to be returned to the supplier. Property which is held by the company on trust for third parties will not form part of the company's assets available to pay creditors.\n", "Section::::Reasons for Liquidation.\n", "However, in such cases the company may be restored to the register if it is just and equitable so to do (for example, if the rights of any creditors or members have been prejudiced).\n\nIn the event the company does not file an annual return or annual accounts, and the company's file remains inactive, in due course, the registrar will strike the company off the register.\n\nSection::::Provisional liquidation.\n", "A creditors’ voluntary liquidation (CVL) is a process designed to allow an insolvent company to close voluntarily. The decision to liquidate is made by a board resolution, but instigated by the director(s). 75 percent of the company's shareholders must agree to liquidate for liquidation proceedings to advance. If a limited company’s liabilities outweigh its assets, or the company cannot pay its bills when they fall due, the company becomes insolvent.\n", "If non-cash assets are sold for less than their book value, a loss on the sale is recognized. The loss is allocated to the partners' capital accounts according to the partnership agreement.\n\nAs the assets are sold, the cash is applied first to the claims of creditors. Once all liabilities are paid, the remaining cash and other assets are distributed to the partners according to their ownership interests as indicated by their capital accounts.\n\nSection::::US tax forms.\n\nSection::::US tax forms.:Schedule M-1.\n\nSection::::US tax forms.:Schedule M-1.:Purpose of Schedule M-1.\n", "Section::::Cases.\n\nA dividend may be referred to as liquidating dividend when a company:\n\nBULLET::::1. Goes out of business and the net assets of the company (after all liabilities have been paid) are distributed to shareholders, or\n\nBULLET::::2. Sells a portion of its business for cash and the proceeds are distributed to shareholders.\n\nLiquidating distributions can be viewed as a form of return of capital, in that the capital invested in the corporation by its owners is returned to them, rather than only the earnings.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dividend tax\n\nBULLET::::- Liquidation\n\nBULLET::::- Shareholders' equity\n\nBULLET::::- Special dividend\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The liquidator may also have to determine whether any payments made by the company or transactions entered into may be voidable as a transaction at an undervalue or an unfair preference.\n\nSection::::Priority of claims.\n\nThe main purpose of a liquidation where the company is insolvent is to collect its assets, determine the outstanding claims against the company, and satisfy those claims in the manner and order prescribed by law.\n", "Claimants with non-monetary claims against the company may be able to enforce their rights against the company. For example, a party who had a valid contract for the purchase of land against the company may be able to obtain an order for specific performance, and compel the liquidator to transfer title to the land to them, upon tender of the purchase price.\n", "A creditor meeting, at the New York Hilton, held by the United States Trustee Program, was scheduled for June 3, 2009.\n\nBy Dec 2013, the US government sold the last of its GM stock. By Feb 2015, the Ontario government sold the last of its 4% stake in GM, and by April 2015, the Canadian federal government sold the last of its own 8% GM stake.\n\nSection::::History.:Hummer collapse.\n", "BULLET::::- The disposing company would be entitled to at least 10% of the other company's assets on a liquidation.\n\nBULLET::::- The disposing company must be a trading company or a member of a trading group. This requirement does not apply for disposals on or after 1 April 2017\n\nBULLET::::- The target company (or the company whose shares are being disposed of) must be a trading company or the holding company of a trading group.\n\nThe last two conditions must be met:\n\nBULLET::::- throughout the period:\n", "There are several reasons why companies will sell, or liquidate, used Information Technology (I.T.) equipment: bankruptcy, downsizing and expanding, or technological advancement. Technological advancement is the most common reason, as the equipment is no longer performing the tasks required of it, usually because it has been rendered obsolete by more advanced technology coming on to the market. This used or obsolete technology is often referred to as electronic waste. Equipment designated as outdated for one company is still viable for another company, whose operations may not require advanced solutions. Often, an information technology audit will be performed to help a company decide if their equipment needs updating, and if so, what the requirements are.\n", "If the court makes the order then a provisional liquidator is appointed over the company, and the control of all assets of the company, and the conduct of any business and other affairs of the company are transferred to the provisional liquidator. The directors cease to have any authority. In almost all jurisdictions, the provisional liquidator will normally have to be a licensed insolvency practitioner. \n", "GM's assets were sold in a section 363 sale. Because the price that these assets were expected to sell for was very high, there was expected to be only one bidder in the auction, a new company NGMCO Inc. This company had been formed by the United States government with a 60% stake, the federal government of Canada and provincial government of Ontario with a 12% stake, the United Auto Workers and Canadian Auto Workers unions with a 17.5% stake, and the unsecured bondholders of General Motors with a 10% stake. \"Old GM\" was renamed Motors Liquidation Company.\n", "A liquidating distribution (or liquidating dividend) is a type of nondividend distribution made by a corporation or a partnership to its shareholders during its partial or complete liquidation. Liquidating distributions are not paid solely out of the profits of the corporation. Instead, the entire amount of shareholders' equity is distributed. When a company has more liabilities than assets, equity is negative and no liquidating distribution is made at all. This is usually the case in bankruptcy liquidations. Creditors are always senior to shareholders in receiving the corporation's assets upon winding up. However, in case all debts to creditors have been fully satisfied, there is a surplus left to divide among equity-holders. This mainly occurs during voluntary liquidations of solvent corporations.\n", "In February 2009, the Board of Directors authorized additional repurchases of the company’s shares in the total amount of US$1.2 million pursuant to the 2008 repurchase plan. As of December 31, 2009, the Company had purchased an aggregate amount of 3,165,092 shares at a total purchase price of US$2.8 million.\n\nIn November 2009, the Board of Directors authorized a new plan for the repurchase of the company’s shares, in an amount in cash of up to US$1.8 million. As of December 31, 2011, no repurchases had been made under this new plan and it became non-active.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00817	How do artillery gunners shoot things they can't see?	They can't. Which is why they employ the use of spotters and observers who will relay the necessary information back to the gunners so they can aim their guns appropriately.	[ "They can also calculate \"defensive fire\" tasks. These are pre‑planned missions, typically just in front of or upon one's own positions, designed with the intention of either suppressing potential attacks (where fire is dropped just in front of a friendly position), or in dropping fire on a recently abandoned or overrun position to prevent the enemy from consolidating there. Because the calculations have already been done, the fire can be called down very quickly when it is needed.\n\nSection::::Field artillery team.:Reconnaissance and advance party.\n", "The \"targeting\" process is the key aspect of tactical fire control. Depending on the circumstances and national procedures it may all be undertaken in one place or may be distributed. In armies practicing control from the front, most of the process may be undertaken by a forward observer or other target acquirer. This is particularly the case for a smaller target requiring only a few fire units. The extent to which the process is formal or informal and makes use of computer based systems, documented norms or experience and judgement also varies widely armies and other circumstances.\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "Enemy artillery can be detected in two ways, either by direct observation of the guns from the air or by ground observers (including specialist reconnaissance), or from their firing signatures. This includes radars tracking the shells in flight to determine their place of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing and resecting their position from pairs of microphones or cross-observation of gun flashes using observation by human observers or opto-electronic devices, although the widespread adoption of 'flashless' propellant limited the effectiveness of the latter.\n", "Section::::Direct fire exceptions to usual mission of artillery indirect fire.\n", "The FO and the battery iteratively \"walk\" the fire onto the target. The Fire Direction Center (FDC) signals the FO that they have fired and the FO knows to observe fall of shot. He then signals corrections. These are normally of the form of left/right of the bearing line and distance along it, for example \"right 50 add 100\" (distance in meters). When the fire is good enough the FO signals \"target on, fire for effect\".\n\nIf the mission requires a walking barrage, he may continue sending correction orders.\n", "Section::::Field artillery team.:Forward observer.\n\nBecause artillery is an indirect fire weapon, the forward observer (FO) must take up a position where he can observe the target using tools such as binoculars and laser rangefinders and call back fire missions on his radio or telephone.\n", "Most field artillery situations require indirect fire due to weather, terrain, night-time conditions, distance, or other obstacles. These gunners can also rely upon a trained artillery observer, also called a forward observer, who sees the target and relays the coordinates of the target to their fire direction center, which in turn translates those coordinates into: a left-right aiming direction; an elevation angle; a calculated number of bags of propellant; and finally a fuze with a determined waiting time before exploding (if necessary) to be set, which is then mated to the artillery projectile now ready to be fired.\n", "Section::::Counter-battery fire.\n\nFire aimed at disabling or destroying enemy guns is known as counter-battery fire.\n\nRemoving the threat posed by enemy artillery is an important objective on the battlefield. Most of the time enemy batteries are too far away for the infantry to engage, so it falls to artillery to do this job.\n", "Artillery firing is often calibrated with spotting rounds and a process of adjustment of fire. Once calibrated upon the desired target or bracketed area, a call for \"fire for effect\" is made - requesting several batteries or the battalion to fire one or more rounds, with the goal of saturating the target area with shell fragments.\n", "The cannon barrel is about 3 feet long, mounted on wheels and towed. It is muzzle loaded. Explosive powder such as ammonium nitrate is first dropped into the muzzle and tamped with a wooden stick.\n", "Fire may be directed by an artillery observer or other observer, including manned and unmanned aircraft pilots, or called onto map coordinates.\n\nMilitary doctrine has played a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late-19th-century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery.\n", "Because artillery is an indirect fire weapon system, the guns are rarely in line-of-sight of their target, often located miles away. The observer serves as the eyes of the guns, by sending target locations and if necessary corrections to the fall of shot, usually by radio.\n\nMore recently a mission controller for an Army Unmanned Air System (UAS) may also perform this function, and some armies use special artillery patrols behind the enemy's forward elements. \n", "Section::::History.:Precision-guided artillery.\n", "BULLET::::- at a distance, the sound of a gun is not a sharp crack but more of a rumble (this makes it difficult to accurately measure the exact arrival time of the wavefront at different sensors)\n\nBULLET::::- guns cannot be located until they fire\n\nBULLET::::- can also be triggered by friendly artillery firing\n\nBULLET::::- artillery is often fired in large numbers, which makes it difficult to determine which wavefront is associated with which artillery piece\n\nBULLET::::- every microphone has to be placed and very accurately surveyed to find its coordinates, which takes time\n", "BULLET::::- Rocket artillery typically has a very large fire signature, leaving a clear smoke trail showing exactly where the barrage came from. Since the barrage does not take much time to execute, however, the rocket artillery can move away quickly.\n\nBULLET::::- Gun artillery can use a forward observer to correct fire, thus achieving further accuracy. This is usually not practical with rocket artillery.\n\nBULLET::::- Gun artillery shells are typically cheaper and less bulky than rockets, so they can deliver a larger amount of explosives at the enemy positions per fired weight of ammunition or per money spent.\n", "Modern artillery batteries shoot at targets measured in distances of kilometers and miles, a hundredfold increase in range over 18th century guns. This dramatic range increase has been driven by the ongoing development of rifled cannons, improvements in propellants, better communications, and technical improvements in gunnery computational abilities. Since a modern enemy is engaged at such great distances, in most field artillery situations, because of weather, terrain, night-time conditions, distance or other obstacles, the soldiers manning the guns cannot see the target that they are firing upon. The term indirect fire is therefore used to describe firing at targets that gunners cannot see, as opposed to observed direct fire. In most cases, the target is either over the horizon or on the other side of some physical obstruction, such as a hill, mountain or valley. Since the target is not visible, these gunners have to rely on a trained artillery observer, also called a forward observer, who sees the target and relays its coordinates to their fire direction center. The fire direction center, in turn, uses these coordinates to calculate a left-right aiming direction, an elevation angle, a number of bags of propellant, and a time before exploding (if necessary) for the fuse. The fuse is then mated to the artillery projectile.\n", "The battery uses a variety of techniques to calculate the position of the enemy battery, then can lay fire upon it. If possible, a FO can access a position to call fire on enemy guns directly; either on the ground or in the air, or a battery can be located using counter-battery radar, which can be used to observe the fall of enemy shells and thus calculate their trajectory. A correctly calculated trajectory will reveal the location from which the shell was fired, which information can then be passed on to a friendly battery command post as a fire mission.\n", "Predicted fire\n\nPredicted fire (originally called \"map shooting\") is a tactical technique for the use of artillery, enabling it to fire for effect without alerting the enemy with ranging shots or a lengthy preliminary bombardment. The guns are laid using detailed calculations and surveys to achieve accurate fire from the first round.\n\nSection::::Field artillery.\n", "Section::::Motivation.\n", "Other parts of the field artillery team include meteorological analysis to determine the temperature, humidity and pressure of the air and wind direction and speed at different altitudes. Also radar is used both for determining the location of enemy artillery and mortar batteries and to determine the precise actual strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing that location with what was expected to compute a registration allowing future rounds to be fired with much greater accuracy.\n\nSection::::Modern operations.:Time on Target.\n", "Section::::Modern operations.:MRSI.\n", "BULLET::::- Next, in the 1970s Hughes Aircraft developed the US Firefinder RADAR system and created the algorithms that could extrapolate a gun's position from a segment of an elliptic trajectory. It's likely the Soviet Union created similar algorithms.\n\nBULLET::::- Non-communications ELINT, which can detect and locate radars, including those used by artillery is an often overlooked source.\n\nBULLET::::- A few armies established artillery observation patrol units to operate in likely artillery deployment areas behind the enemy's forward units.\n", "In the US System the observer sends a request for fire, usually to his battalion or battery Fire Direction Center (FDC). The FDC then decides how much fire to permit and may request additional fire from a higher artillery headquarters. FDC(s) convert the observer's target information into firing data for the battery's weapons. \n", "Section::::Counter-battery fire.:Defenses against counter-battery fire.\n\nTo defend against counter battery fire there are two points of attack: either remove the enemy's ability to observe or make his observations irrelevant/obsolete.\n\nTo remove the ability to observe one must attack the observation assets. Because most counter-battery radar is active, the location can be determined electronically from listening to the beams. If one suspects one's position is being observed by a covert FO then a mission, either artillery or infantry, will be raised to deal with this threat.\n" ]	[ "artillery gunners shoot things they can't see" ]	[ "artillery gunners cannot shoot things they can't see." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "artillery gunners shoot things they can't see" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "artillery gunners cannot shoot things they can't see." ]
2018-18460	How can big companies like Twitter, Snapchat, and Spotify have large negative profits for so long without shutting down?	Because they have plenty of funding from investors that are allowing them to run at a loss, so that they can buy up market share. They're not actually losing money though, as Uber is perhaps the most famous case of. They may be running at an operational loss, and if you look at the total amount of money they've borrowed, it may seem very large, but the rate of growth of the company itself means that its value is much higher than its debt even though it doesn't make a profit.	[ "Multiply closed their operations on May 31, 2013 and is expected to continue its business with their new mobile app, delivering 217 million accounts, 210 million photos and 237,000 videos from the old Multiply from it's launch in March 2004 to March 15, 2013.\n\nGUESS? closed 60 stores in 2017 and is expected to close more than 100 stores in 2018, leaving roughly half from its high of 400 stores.\n", "Years after growth and expansion, a November 2012 report suggested strong momentum for the company. In 2011, it reported a near US$60 million net loss from revenue of $244 million, while it was expected to generate a net loss of $40 million from revenue of $500 million in 2012.\n\nAnother source of income was music purchases from within the app. This service was removed in January 2013.\n", "However, a firm will not choose to incur losses indefinitely. In the long run, the firm will have to decide whether to continue in business or to leave the industry and pursue profits elsewhere. Exit is a long-term decision. A firm that has exited an industry has avoided all commitments and freed all capital for use in more profitable enterprises. A firm that exits an industry earns no revenue but it incurs no costs, fixed or variable. \n", "With the release of Fido's new Pulse plans, FidoDOLLARS are no longer accumulated but existing FidoDOLLARS will remain on your account. However, if you are not on a Pulse plan you will continue to accumulate FidoDOLLARS as normal. To make up for the lack of FidoDOLLARS, Spotify Premium and Daily Vice are offered free of charge for 2 years ($239 value) in all new Pulse plans.\n\nIn January 2016, Fido announced a winddown and termination of the FidoDOLLARS program. See the next section for more details.\n\nSection::::Services.:Perks.\n", "For the fiscal year 2017, Twitter reported losses of US$108 million, with an annual revenue of $2.443 billion, a decrease of 3.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Twitter's shares traded at over $17 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$25.6 billion in October 2018.\n\nSection::::Finances.:Funding.\n", "Section::::Financial status.:Growing concern warnings.\n\ne.Digital's accountants, Singer Lewak Greenbaum & Goldstein, LLP of Santa Ana, California, state the following in their opinion letter dated June 15, 2009 attached to the company's 10-K annual report for FY 2009: - \n\nAs discussed in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements, the Company has historically suffered recurring losses from operations and has a substantial accumulated deficit. This raises substantial doubt about the Company's ability to continue as a going concern.\n", "The digitization, digitalization and underlying technologies of streaming have created these streaming services which essentially caused this disruption. With the rise of streaming firms in the film industry, the sales of physical DVDs vanished completely. An important difference between the music and film industry is that within the film industry, streaming services such as iTunes and Netflix are ‘destroying’ revenue (Sullivan, 2009). Because of this less films are produced and consequently there are less jobs in this industry. On contrary, cinemas are still important in the film industry, but the share of movies and series that are streamed by customers is rising very fast. It replaced the DVD, changed the performance metrics of the incumbents and can thus be seen as disruptive.\n", "As of 2017, the platform recorded 80 million app downloads and more than 180 million active products from over four million entrepreneurs. In Q4 2017, it also reported a gross merchandise value (GMV) of US$1.6 billion, up 206 per cent from a year earlier. However, losses in the parent group, Sea are also widening. The group recorded an adjusted net loss of US$252 million in Q4 2017, up 306 percent from Q4 2016's US$62 million net loss.\n", "Another impacted industry is the Music Streaming industry. In 2017, streaming accounted for 43% of revenues in the music industry, and this was the third year of consecutive growth. New music streaming services such as Spotify and Apple Music challenges the traditional label companies, which are now risking to be outcompeted by new business models. Before the rapid adaption of streaming, in 2000 the music industry was 2000 experiencing what turned out to be a 15 year-long continued stagnation in revenue, which was due to the high CD prices needed to cover the costs of record labels. In 2015, the streaming technology overtook the market by allowing revenues to increase by saving costs on labels, and artists to have a more steady income by making money on streams, rather than being reliant on a full album or CD to do well after being published.\n", "Event-driven investing \"lost on average 1.4 percent in 2015\" making them the poorest performers in 2015 despite a record year of mergers and acquisitions partially because funds over purchased only the largest corporate deals.\n\nSection::::History.:Healthcare sector.\n", "In April 2013 the Associated Press' Twitter account was briefly hacked into, sending out a message that US president Barack Obama had been injured in an attack on the White House. Stocks lost $134 billion in value almost instantly, before recovering in value when it was discovered the report was false.\n\nSection::::In entertainment news reporting.\n", "In the summer of 2014 they made decisions that cost their investors to lose their investment value. In July 2014 they issued new shares to grow their balance sheet, but set these shares at a new price and that, after fees, diluted the wealth of existing shareholders. In August 2014 Fifth Street Floating Rate Corp a business development company, managed by the same manager as Fifth Street Finance Corp. issued millions of new shares at a price of $12.14, a 20% discount to the previously reported net asset value per share of $15.13. This led to shareholders losing millions of dollars. \n", "Meanwhile, the number of active players dwindles. In response to this fact, as well as the weak cash flow generated by the game, the investor decides to take time to make the investment decision. Unfortunately, the cash flow from the game is not improving, since the remaining user base purchased the content they were interested in and new content is delayed, since most of the developers have been reassigned to solving the online component woes. In response to this, the investor sees the ever-flattening sales and dwindling user base and decides not to invest further resources into the company. A few weeks later, the company runs out of funds and declares bankruptcy.\n", "In the short run, if the total revenue (TR) that a firm can earn from operating will not exceed the variable costs (VC) of operation, the firm should be shut down.\n\nBULLET::::- If TR VC, shut down.\n\nIn the long run, a similar rule also can be applied when a firm needs to decide whether it should enter or exit a market. Here physical capital costs are relevant, and together with variable costs they give total long-run costs (TC):\n\nBULLET::::- If TR TC, exit the market.\n\nThe rules are opposite for entering a market:\n", "Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has recently focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses. Keen cites a 2013 Institute for Local Self-Reliance report saying brick-and-mortar retailers employ 47 people for every $10 million in sales while Amazon employs only 14. Similarly, the 700-employee room rental start-up Airbnb was valued at $10 billion in 2014, about half as much as Hilton Worldwide, which employs 152,000 people. At that time, transportation network company Uber employed 1,000 full-time employees and was valued at $18.2 billion, about the same valuation as Avis Rent a Car and The Hertz Corporation combined, which together employed almost 60,000 people.\n", "Generally, a firm must have revenue formula_1, total costs, in order to avoid losses. However, in the short run, all fixed costs are sunk costs. Netting out fixed costs, a firm then faces the requirement that formula_2 (total revenue equals or exceeds variable costs), in order to continue operating. Thus, a firm will find it profitable in the short run to operate so long as the market price equals or exceeds average variable cost (\"p ≥ AVC\"). Conventionally stated, the shutdown rule is: \"in the short run a firm should continue to operate if price equals or exceeds average variable costs.\" Restated, the rule is that to produce in the short run a firm must earn sufficient revenue to cover its variable costs. The rationale for the rule is straightforward. By shutting down, a firm avoids all variable costs. However, the firm must still pay fixed costs. Because fixed costs must be paid regardless of whether a firm operates they should not be considered in deciding whether to produce or shut down.\n", "Commentators have linked the cyclical peak in U.S. corporate profit margins, with the enhanced after-tax profitability of the biggest U.S. technology firms.\n", "In May 2013, the company voluntarily filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. However, Burke Capital Corporation receiver has clarified that Bebo remains \"healthy\" and \"operating,\" and that the company was using its May 9 Chapter 11 filing in Los Angeles to \"restructure some operational inefficiencies and other arrangements that are burdensome.\" Many analysts have questioned the value proposition that Bebo could offer users and do not fault CCP.\n", "In May 2018, a WSJ analyst concluded that if taxcut effects are removed from the figures, real US corporate profits were not growing anymore, notwithstanding a surge in profits on S&P listed shares. Another WSJ analyst commented, at the same date, that \"With the profits data, it could take several quarters for clear trends to emerge from the tax-associated noise.\" From September 2018 onward, as the economic and political news worsened, the bloated US stockmarkets began to deflate, while the VIX index trebled. In November 2018, Michael Wursthorn reported that “The postcrisis boom in U.S. corporate profits may be near its peak.” CNBC reported a similar story. At the end of 2018, the record gains for the year by the 500 richest people listed on the daily Bloomberg Billionaires Index had been wiped out – together, they had lost more than half a trillion dollars of net wealth.\n", "Thus in determining whether to shut down a firm should compare total revenue to total variable costs (VC) rather than total costs (FC (fixed costs) + VC). If the revenue the firm is receiving is greater than its variable cost (R VC) then the firm is covering all variable cost plus there is additional revenue which partially or entirely offsets fixed costs. (The size of the fixed costs is irrelevant as it is a sunk cost. The same consideration is used whether fixed costs are one dollar or one million dollars.) On the other hand if VC R then the firm is not even covering its short-run production costs and it should immediately shut down. The rule is conventionally stated in terms of price (average revenue) and average variable costs. The rules are equivalent—if one divides both sides of inequality TR VC (total revenue exceeds variable costs) by the output quantity Q one obtains P AVC (price exceeds average variable cost). If the firm decides to operate it will produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs because these conditions insure profit maximization (or equivalently, when profit is negative, loss minimization).\n", "As the internet becomes more and more prevalent, more companies are beginning to distribute content through internet only means. With the loss of viewers, there is a loss of revenue but not as bad as what would be expected. Cisco Inc released its latest forecast and the numbers are all trending to internet news to continue to grow at a rate where it will be quadruple by 2018.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Copyright challenges.\n", "In May 2008, \"The Industry Standard\" remarked that Twitter's long-term viability is limited by a lack of revenue. Twitter board member Todd Chaffee forecast that the company could profit from e-commerce, noting that users may want to buy items directly from Twitter since it already provides product recommendations and promotions.\n\nBy March 2009 communications consultant Bill Douglass predicted in an interview that Twitter would be worth $1 billion within six months, which came to pass when the company closed a financing round valuing it at $1 billion in September of that year.\n", "In January 2014, the company announced the layoff of 314 workers, about 15% of its total workforce. In April 2014, founder & former CEO Pincus stepped down from his role as chief product officer. He remained as chairman of the board.\n\nFirst quarter results for 2014 showed that daily active user numbers fell from 53 million to 28 million year-over-year. In April 2014 the company announced its new hire of Alex Garden, co-founder of Relic Entertainment and former Microsoft Game Studios executive.\n", "These higher burn rates leading to lower profitability will decrease investors' gains in the next 5 to 10 years. The negative impact on venture capital firms will leave investors less inclined to further invest and invest in new companies. This decline is already manifesting itself in the number of startups with unicorn status and the total valuation of unicorns.\n\nSection::::Growth in recent years.\n", "In July 2015, during their Q2 earnings call, Facebook revealed that it achieved $2.9B in mobile revenue, amounting to over 76% of its overall quarterly revenue. A large portion of this revenue was from app install ads, of which developers buy on a Cost per Install basis.\n" ]	[ "Negative profits for a company should mean the company shuts down.", "If companies operate for a prolonged period of time at a loss, they should not be able to sustain their companies. " ]	[ "Company's value may be much higher than its debt, even though it doesn't make a profit.", "The companies that are operating at a loss, are receiving multiple large investments from investors which allows them to remain in business. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Negative profits for a company should mean the company shuts down.", "If companies operate for a prolonged period of time at a loss, they should not be able to sustain their companies. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Company's value may be much higher than its debt, even though it doesn't make a profit.", "The companies that are operating at a loss, are receiving multiple large investments from investors which allows them to remain in business. " ]
2018-04566	Why is Starbucks coffee now required to have a cancer warning in California?	All Coffee is now required to have it. California has an extremely low bar for anything that has any kind of correlation (not even causal link) to potentially causing cancer. They also do not require it to be proven that they cause cancer but instead require the defense to prove that it does not cause cancer. As for why coffee? Studies have shown a specific compound produced when roasting may be connected to cancer. No actual causal links have been established, but the correlation is enough for California. This is why most of the country and the world completely ignore California cancer warning labels as being meaningless.	[ "In March 2018, a California judge ruled that Starbucks and other companies must provide warning labels on all coffee products, warning consumers of chemicals that may cause cancer, a requirement by California law which Starbucks was found in violation of. The chemical in question is acrylamide, a carcinogen byproduct of roasted coffee beans found in high levels throughout brewed coffee. Declining to comment, Starbucks instead referred to a statement by the National Coffee Association claiming that cancer warnings on products would be \"misleading\".\n", "In 2016, the UK Food Standards Agency launched a campaign called \"Go for Gold\", warning of the possible cancer risk associated with cooking potatoes and other starchy foods at high temperatures.\n\nIn 2018, a judge in California ruled that the coffee industry had not provided sufficient evidence that acrylamide contents in coffee were at safe enough levels to not require a Proposition 65 warning.\n\nSection::::Occurrence in cigarettes.\n\nCigarette smoking is a major acrylamide source. It has been shown in one study to cause an increase in blood acrylamide levels three-fold greater than any dietary factor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "As a result of Schultz's letter, supporters of President Trump's executive order supported a boycott of Starbucks, with some saying that Starbucks should give more help to American veterans.\n\nIn 2014, Starbucks established a program to support veterans and their families. Starbucks hired 8,000 veterans and military spouses since 2014. Starbucks operates 30 stores located near military bases that help provide assistance to military families. Organizations that offer free legal help and other services to military families hold meetings at Starbucks stores on Military Mondays.\n\nSection::::California cancer warning rule.\n", "Glyphosate was listed as \"known to the State of California to cause cancer\" in 2017. As part of an ongoing case, an injunction was issued prohibiting California from enforcing carcinogenicity labeling requirements for glyphosate stating that arguments by California \"[do] not change the fact that the overwhelming majority of agencies that that have examined glyphosate have determined it is not a cancer risk.\"\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Government and organization positions.:European Chemicals Agency.\n", "Under the Environmental Health Program, As You Sow's Toxic Enforcement Initiative seeks to reduce and remove carcinogenic exposures by pursuing compliance with California's Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act. As You Sow says that its Environmental Enforcement Program has reached settlements with hundreds of companies resulting in products being relabeled or reformulated to remove hazardous ingredients. Funds secured through these settlements are disbursed through grants to support other organizations throughout the state.\n\nSection::::Engagements with Corporations.\n", "Starbucks began drafting plans for corporate social responsibility in 1994. Since Starbucks has partnered with Conservation International (CI) to draft plans and audit its coffee and farmer equity (C.A.F.E.) program, Starbucks' C.A.F.E. practices are based on a rating system of 249 indicators. Farmers who earn high overall scores receive higher prices than those who achieve lower scores. Ratings categories include economic accountability, social responsibility, environmental leadership in coffee growing and processing. Indicators for social responsibility have evolved and now include 'zero tolerance' indicators that require workers to be paid in cash, check, or direct deposit, ensure that all workers are paid the established minimum wage, that workplaces are free of harassment and abuse, that workplaces are nondiscriminatory and do not employ persons under the age of 14, and several more.\n", "CBE collaborated with Liberty Hill Foundation and an academic research team from University of California, Santa Cruz, Brown University, and Occidental College to have Rule 1402 reviewed. Rule 1402, included in the South Coast Air Quality Management District was the state's goal in 1994 to reduce public health risk from cancerous and noncancerous emissions by large industries. The maximum individual cancer risk was initially set at 100 cancer risks per million, yet due to CBE's collaboration, it was reduced to 25 cancer risks per million 6 years later, representing a reduction in acceptable risk levels to 75%. This collaboration led to more efforts in the reduction of allowable risk level faced by various communities and encouraged the California Environmental Protection Agency to broaden their view on issues such as these, to put more emphasis on risk exposure when making new policies.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2001, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued CTCA a Warning Letter concerning three clinical trials that were conducted in violation of FDA requirements. The FDA currently has no warning letters published on its website for Cancer Treatment Centers of America.\n", "On the other side of the debate is the \"Medical Marijuana Industry Group\" (MMIG), a trade association that advocates for responsible medical marijuana regulation at the local, state, and national level, who actively pushed for the ad ban that passed, and says the ban is ultimately positive for the industry. Michael Elliott, the executive director of MMIG explained in a Huffington Post article why he and his group supported the article:\n", "BULLET::::- According to Dr. Daniel Haber, chief of Massachusetts General Hospital's cancer center, virtually unlimited metastatic cancer detection becomes possible using a screening method that can find cancer in the periphery. Further, the method appears to be a sound process for monitoring the progress of intervention, and thereby, modifying the treatment protocol.\n\nBULLET::::- Lawmakers in 14 states (Alabama, Arizona, Delaware, Idaho, Indiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas and Utah) announce plans to curtail application of parts of the 14th Amendment in their respective states.\n", "Starbucks has moved 90% of its coffee purchases to preferred C.A.F.E. certified providers, and the company is approaching its stated goal to purchase 100% of its coffee through C.A.F.E. or other 'ethically sourced' certification systems.\n", "An oncologist raised in the South Beaches developed cancer. She requested that water samples be measured in the area. In 2018 potable water distributed by the city of Melbourne measured up to 12 parts per trillion of PFBA (perfluorobutanoic acid). The EPA has established no standards for allowable levels of PFBA for drinking water. Minnesota has established a guideline of 7,000 parts per trillion. The measurements were well below this level. Critics thought that Minnesota standards were too low. There was no explanation of why the substance was in the water. Potable water furnished by the Cocoa water department found none of the contaminants. A cancer cluster of 175 cases including 50 people under 40 were reported on social media in Satellite Beach. Cancer clusters have been found before in the area.\n", "Section::::Achievements.\n\nSome achievements include:\n\nBULLET::::- A two-year awareness campaign raised funding that helped enact the California Safe Cosmetics Act of 2005, signed by California state governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. The group considers this is a considerable achievement for the environmental breast cancer movement because toxic chemicals in cosmetics can potentially be an environmental cause of breast cancer.\n", "In November 2008 the Hawaii County Council (county legislature) voted to ban the growth of GM taro (a Hawaiian staple) and coffee to prevent GM crop pollen from reaching other strains.\n\nIn 2013 a second bill banned the cultivation of any GM crop on the island, grandfathering in papaya and corn planted by a dairy to feed its cows. Field tests to study new GM crops were prohibited. Penalties were set at $1,000 per day.\n\nSection::::Local government action.:Maui.\n", "In 2010, the Brady Campaign proposed a boycott of Starbucks due to their gun policy. At that time, Starbucks released a statement saying \"We comply with local laws and statutes in all the communities we serve. That means we abide by the laws that permit open carry in 43 U.S. states. Where these laws don't exist, openly carrying weapons in our stores is prohibited. The political, policy and legal debates around these issues belong in the legislatures and courts, not in our stores.\"\n", "\"Bee Clean CNH!\" is a brand-new, 2-year long (2017-2019) Governor's Project that has been introduced this term. With the rise of \"Bee Clean CNH!\", clubs throughout the California-Nevada-Hawaii District are asked to dedicate at least one service event per month to improving our environment.\n\nSection::::District Cheers and Spirit.\n", "In \"Bogle v. McDonald's Restaurants Ltd.\" (2002), a similar lawsuit in England failed when the court rejected the claim that McDonald's could have avoided injury by serving coffee at a lower temperature.\n\nSince \"Liebeck\", major vendors of coffee, including Chick-Fil-A, Starbucks, Dunkin' Donuts, Wendy's, Burger King, hospitals, and McDonald's have been defendants in similar lawsuits over coffee-related burns.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Coffee temperature.\n", "On September 13, PG&E agreed to set aside a $100 million fund to the victims of the explosion. This does not preclude residents from taking any further action against PG&E. Parts of the exploded material were taken to Washington, D.C., a couple of days after the explosion for examination.\n\nSection::::History.:21st century.:YouTube headquarters.\n", "BULLET::::- Produce a complete and accurate safety information sheet on the two products that includes a Proposition 65 cancer warning; distribute this information to recent product purchasers who may still have product on hand; and distribute it with all future product shipments. The revised safety information sheet will be posted on the company's web site.\n\nBULLET::::- Affix \"CAUTION\" stickers to the bottles of the two products to inform stylists of the emission of formaldehyde gas and the need for precautionary measures, including adequate ventilation.\n", "After the first phase of the trial, Starbucks may be subject to civil proceeding penalties of fines up to $2,500 per consumer exposed over the last eight years.\n\nSection::::Philadelphia arrests.\n", "Over its 44-year history, CPIC published many well-known studies. In 2002, in partnership with the Marin Health Department, the organization reported on the elevated levels of breast cancer among women in Marin County. In 2011, California became the first state to ban minors from tanning beds influenced by CPIC's research that found an elevated level of melanoma among minors who used them. That same year, a CPIC study also found nail salon workers are exposed to an unhealthy amount of toxic chemicals. A CPIC study conducted with Stanford in 2014 found women with early-stage breast cancer treated with bilateral mastectomy did not have better survival than those treated with breast conserving therapy.\n", "In 2014, President Obama ordered a prohibition of advertisements for unhealthy foods on public school campuses during the school day. The Food and Drug Administration requires that students take milk as their beverage at lunch. In accordance with this law, any student requesting water in place of milk with their lunch must present a written request, signed by a doctor, documenting the need for water instead of milk.\n", "Pezzullo (2003) \"(Astra)Zeneca’s initial justification for NBCAM was one of basic accounting, not a critique of how women’s healthcare has been assessed or implemented nor a desire to prevent women from developing breast cancer; instead, it was cost-effective for a company to detect cancer in its employees during the disease’s earlier stages.\"\n\nCritics have said that \"the BCAM idea 'was conceived and paid for by a British chemical company that both profits from this epidemic and may be contributing to its cause...'\".\n", "On December 2, 2010, Mervis announced a new initiative to end cancer by the year 2020. This effort was the result of continued discussions, suggestions, and plans originally set forth in the Camp Good Days’ Cancer Summit, held in 2009. The first step, according to Mervis, is to collect 1.5 million email addresses. From there, further summits will be held in an effort to bring together the necessary professionals from the medical, research and legislation fields.\n", "The EPHIS must be conducted by a non-biased, professional consultant independent of GE industry ties overseen by the JFFG and completed within eighteen months of the publication of the study's final scope and design. The process includes a ninety-day public comment period with four public hearings, including one on Molokai. The study must address relevant information, data, comments and public concerns. The study may recommend actions for the County to address significant effects on the environment, Public Trust Resources and public health. The final results and all raw data must be published on the County's website.\n\nSection::::Local government action.:Maui.:Enforcement.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02079	What exactly causes the feeling of being "dizzy" when getting up quickly?	It's called orthostatic hypotension. It's just your blood following gravity and pooling in your body (and your legs in particular) thus reducing the flow to your brain, which in turn signals it by making you feel dizzy. You feel dizzy and eventually faint because by falling down you remove the gravity factor and it's easier for blood to reach the brain. It's a very common experience, particularly in the elderly. If it happens regularly, or you faint, you might want to get it checked.	[ "Normally, a series of cardiac, vascular, neurologic, muscular, and neurohumoral responses occur quickly so the blood pressure does not fall very much. One response is a vasoconstriction (baroreceptor reflex), pressing the blood up into the body again. (Often, this mechanism is exaggerated and is why diastolic blood pressure is a bit higher when a person is standing up, compared to a person in the horizontal position.) Therefore, some factor that inhibits one of these responses and causes a greater than normal fall in blood pressure is required. Such factors include low blood volume, diseases, and medications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Orthostatic hypertension\n\nOrthostatic hypertension, is a medical condition consisting of a sudden and abrupt increase in blood pressure when a person stands up. Orthostatic hypertension is diagnosed by a rise in systolic blood pressure of 20 mmHg or more when standing. \"Orthostatic diastolic hypertension\" is a condition in which the diastolic raises to 98 mmHg or over in response to standing; however, this definition currently lacks clear medical consensus and is thus subject to change. Orthostatic hypertension involving the systolic is known as \"systolic orthostatic hypertension\".\n", "Orthostatic hypotension happens when gravity causes blood to pool in the lower extremities, which in turn compromises venous return, resulting in decreased cardiac output and subsequent lowering of arterial pressure. For example, changing from a lying position to standing loses about 700 ml of blood from the thorax, with a decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressures. The overall effect is an insufficient blood perfusion in the upper part of the body.\n", "Other signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.\n", "\"I've fallen and I can't get up!\" was a catchphrase from a 1987 Life Alert Emergency Response television commercial. In this commercial an elderly actor is seen fallen and distraught, and uses the medical alert system to summon help. The unexpected humour in the commercial made it a frequent punchline for many comedic acts. The catchphrase is a registered trademark of Life Alert Emergency Response and is still used in all channels of their advertising.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Medical alert jewelry\n\nBULLET::::- Panic Alarm\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Facts for Consumers - Personal Emergency Response Systems U.S. Federal Trade Commission publication/a\n", "For many people, excessively low blood pressure can cause dizziness and fainting or indicate serious heart, endocrine or neurological disorders.\n\nTreatment of hypotension may include the use of intravenous fluids or vasopressors. When using vasopressors, trying to achieve a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of greater than 70 mm Hg does not appear to result in better outcomes than trying to achieve a MAP of greater than 65 mm Hg in adults.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe primary symptoms of hypotension are lightheadedness or dizziness.\n\nIf the blood pressure is sufficiently low, fainting may occur.\n", "Normally, the body compensates, but in the presence of other factors, e.g. hypovolemia, diseases and medications, this response may not be sufficient.\n\nThere are medications to treat hypotension. In addition, there are many lifestyle advices. Many of them, however, are specific for a certain cause of orthostatic hypotension, e.g. maintaining a proper fluid intake in dehydration.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypercoagulability.\n", "In adults the primary symptom is an increase in heart rate of more than 30 beats per minute within ten minutes of standing up. The resulting heart rate is typically more than 120 beats per minute. For people aged between 12 and 19, the minimum increase for diagnosis is 40 beats per minute. This symptom is known as orthostatic (upright) tachycardia (fast heart rate). It occurs without any coinciding drop in blood pressure, as that would indicate orthostatic hypotension. Certain medications to treat POTS may cause orthostatic hypotension. It is accompanied by other features of orthostatic intolerance—symptoms which develop in an upright position and are relieved by reclining. These orthostatic symptoms include palpitations, light-headedness, chest discomfort, shortness of breath, nausea, weakness or \"heaviness\" in the lower legs, blurred vision and cognitive difficulties. Symptoms may be exacerbated with prolonged sitting, prolonged standing, alcohol, heat, exercise, or eating a large meal.\n", "Apart from addressing the underlying cause, orthostatic hypotension may be treated with a recommendation to increase salt and water intake (to increase the blood volume), wearing compression stockings, and sometimes medication (fludrocortisone, midodrine or others). Salt loading (dramatic increases in salt intake) must be supervised by a doctor, as this can cause severe neurological problems if done too aggressively.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Hyperventilation syndrome is a remarkably common cause of dizziness complaints. About 25% of patients who complain about dizziness are diagnosed with HVS.\n\nA diagnostic Nijmegen Questionnaire provides an accurate diagnosis of Hyperventilation.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nThere is insufficient evidence for or against breathing exercises.\n", "Hypotension\n\nHypotension is low blood pressure, especially in the arteries of the left sided systemic circulation. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps out blood. A systolic blood pressure of less than 90 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) or diastolic of less than 60 mm Hg is generally considered to be hypotension. However, in practice, blood pressure is considered too low only if noticeable symptoms are present.\n", "Low blood pressure is sometimes associated with certain symptoms, many of which are related to causes rather than effects of hypotension:\n\nBULLET::::- chest pain\n\nBULLET::::- shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- irregular heartbeat\n\nBULLET::::- fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F)\n\nBULLET::::- headache\n\nBULLET::::- stiff neck\n\nBULLET::::- severe upper back pain\n\nBULLET::::- cough with sputum\n\nBULLET::::- Prolonged diarrhea or vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- dyspepsia (indigestion)\n\nBULLET::::- dysuria (painful urination)\n\nBULLET::::- acute, life-threatening allergic reaction\n\nBULLET::::- seizures\n\nBULLET::::- loss of consciousness\n\nBULLET::::- profound fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- temporary blurring or loss of vision\n\nBULLET::::- Black tarry stools\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "An increase in heart rate upon moving to an upright posture is known as orthostatic (upright) tachycardia (fast heart rate). It occurs without any coinciding drop in blood pressure, as that would indicate orthostatic hypotension. Certain medications to treat POTS may cause orthostatic hypotension. It is accompanied by other features of orthostatic intolerance—symptoms which develop in an upright position and are relieved by reclining. These orthostatic symptoms include palpitations, light-headedness, chest discomfort, shortness of breath, nausea, weakness or \"heaviness\" in the lower legs, blurred vision and cognitive difficulties. \n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnoses.\n", "Blood pressure that is too low is known as hypotension. This is a medical concern if it causes signs or symptoms, such as dizziness, fainting, or in extreme cases, circulatory shock.\n\nCauses of low arterial pressure include:\n\nBULLET::::- Sepsis\n\nBULLET::::- Hemorrhage – blood loss\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiogenic shock\n\nBULLET::::- Neurally mediated hypotension (or reflex syncope)\n\nBULLET::::- Toxins including toxic doses of blood pressure medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Hormonal abnormalities, such as Addison's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa and bulimia\n\nSection::::Disorders of blood pressure.:Low blood pressure.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n", "Although standing per se is not dangerous, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n\nOrthostatic hypotension is characterized by an unusually low blood pressure when the patient is standing up.\n\nIt can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, blurred or dimmed vision and fainting, because the brain does not get sufficient blood supply. This, in turn, is caused by gravity, pulling the blood into the lower part of the body.\n", "A hypertensive emergency is not based solely on an absolute level of blood pressure, but also on a patient's baseline blood pressure before the hypertensive crisis occurs. Individuals with a history of chronic hypertension may not tolerate a \"normal\" blood pressure, and can therefore present symptomatically with hypotension, including fatigue, light-headedness, nausea, vomiting, or syncope.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nSevere hypertension is a serious and potentially life-threatening medical condition. It is estimated that people who do not receive appropriate treatment only live an average of about three years after the event.\n", "Orthostatic hypotension, also called \"postural hypotension\", is a common form of low blood pressure. It occurs after a change in body position, typically when a person stands up from either a seated or lying position. It is usually transient and represents a delay in the normal compensatory ability of the autonomic nervous system. It is commonly seen in hypovolemia and as a result of various medications. In addition to blood pressure-lowering medications, many psychiatric medications, in particular antidepressants, can have this side effect. Simple blood pressure and heart rate measurements while lying, seated, and standing (with a two-minute delay in between each position change) can confirm the presence of orthostatic hypotension. Orthostatic hypotension is indicated if there is a drop in 20 mmHg of systolic pressure (and a 10 mmHg drop in diastolic pressure in some facilities) and a 20 beats per minute increase in heart rate.\n", "Delayed orthostatic hypotension is frequently characterized a sustained systolic blood pressure decrease of ≥20 mm Hg or a sustained diastolic blood pressure decrease ≥10 mm Hg beyond 3 minutes of standing or upright tilt table testing.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Lifestyle changes.\n\nApart from treating underlying reversible causes (e.g., stopping or reducing certain medications, treating autoimmune causes), there are a number of measures that can improve the symptoms of orthostatic hypotension and prevent episodes of syncope. Even small increases in the blood pressure may be sufficient to maintain blood flow to the brain on standing.\n", "Some causes of orthostatic hypotension include: neurodegenerative disorders, low blood volume (e.g. caused by dehydration, bleeding, or the use of diuretics), drugs that cause vasodilation, other types of drugs, discontinuation of vasoconstrictors, prolonged bed rest (immobility), significant recent weight loss, anemia, or recent bariatric surgery.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medication.\n", "Orthostatic hypotension, also known as postural hypotension, is a serious medical condition wherein a person's blood pressure falls when standing or sitting. The drop in blood pressure may be sudden (vasovagal orthostatic hypotension), within 3 minutes (classic orthostatic hypotension) or gradual (delayed orthostatic hypotension). It is defined as a fall in systolic blood pressure of at least 20 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure of at least 10 mm Hg when a person assumes a standing position. It occurs predominantly by delayed (or absent) constriction of the lower body blood vessels, which is normally required to maintain an adequate blood pressure when changing position to standing. As a result, blood pools in the blood vessels of the legs for a longer period and less is returned to the heart, thereby leading to a reduced cardiac output and inadequate blood flow to the brain.\n", "Section::::Other drug classes with observed first dose hypotension.\n\nThis effect is also observed after the administration of the first dose of drugs in the ACEi class (angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor). This may occur with the class's better known side effect of dry cough (due to decreased breakdown of bradykinin), though there is no clear relationship between the two side effects.\n\nThe first dose phenomenon in ACEi is reduced and made safer by avoiding diuretics for 24 hours prior to first dose, taking first dose at night (so avoiding falls, etc) and starting on low doses and titrating upwards.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Orthostatic syncope\n\nOrthostatic syncope refers to syncope resulting from a postural decrease in blood pressure termed as Orthostatic hypotension.\n\nOrthostatic hypotension occurs when there is a persistent reduction in blood pressure of at least 20mmHg systolic or 10mmHg diastolic within 3 minutes of standing or being upright to 60 degrees on the head-up tilt table. In people with initial orthostatic hypotension, the decrease in blood pressure occurs within 15 seconds, while in those with \"delayed\" orthostatic hypotension it occurs after over 3 minutes of assuming an upright position.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- Lowering refers to returning to the normal position of flat feet and \"soft\" i.e., lightly flexed knees.\n", "Besides the definitive threshold, an abrupt fall in systolic blood pressure around 30 mmHg from one's \"typical average systolic pressure\" can also be diagnosed with hypotension.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Very mild occasional orthostatic hypotension is common and can occur briefly in anyone, although it is prevalent in particular among the elderly and those with known low blood pressure. Severe drops in blood pressure can lead to fainting, with a possibility of injury. Moderate drops in blood pressure can cause confusion/inattention, delirium, and episodes of ataxia. Chronic orthostatic hypotension is a causal factor in dementia.\n\nThere are numerous possible causes for orthostatic hypotension, such as certain medications (e.g. alpha blockers), autonomic neuropathy, decreased blood volume, multiple system atrophy, and age-related blood vessel stiffness.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02978	why do smart phones shut off in cold weather before they’ve reached 0% battery?	I'll provide a brief answer. Phones today are powered by lithium-ion batteries. They rely on the flow of ions (something like electrons, except bigger, slower) through an oily-gel like material (makes them even slower!) across two 'plates' as they discharge to power the phone. When it gets cold, it gets harder to move (just as you'd find it harder to move in the cold) and after a certain threshold, the battery just seizes up and ions just don't move fast enough to provide enough current for the phone. The phone shuts down. This threshold temperature is rather cold, in the -30 ~ -40 C. but depending on the battery, conditions that you were out in, initial conditions and whatnot, you may see it shut off at relatively warmer (~ -20 C) temperatures as well.	[ "The Optimus 7 has a tendency to heat to a high temperature, while the handset is left to run an application for an extended period of time. This behavior has also been noted during charging. Due to the device's metal battery cover, the handset tends to retain any heat generated.\n\nIt has also been reported that after reaching high temperatures, the phone can reboot. Upon rebooting, the phone can hang on LG startup logo indefinitely, or until the user resets the device manually.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Quantum\n\nBULLET::::- Windows Phone\n\nSection::::Comparable Devices.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Quantum\n\nBULLET::::- HTC HD7\n", "When exposed to high temperatures, the lithium-ion batteries in smartphones are easily damaged and can fail faster than expected, in addition to letting the device run out of battery too often. Debris and other contaminants that enter through small cracks in the phone can also infringe on smartphone life expectancy. One of the most common factors that causes smartphones and other electronic devices to die quickly is physical impact and breakage, which can severely damage the internal pieces.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "A company spokesperson stated that it had received 35 reports of battery failure, which \"account for less than 0.1 percent of the entire volume sold\". Samsung stated that the hazard was limited to a small fraction of phones manufactured, and released a tool on its website on 19 September to identify affected units by their unique IMEI numbers.\n", "In December 2016, Apple revealed new details about the issue, stating that the affected devices contained a \"battery component that was exposed to controlled ambient air longer than it should have been before being assembled into battery packs\". The statement also said that customers \"outside of the affected range\" may also experience unexpected shutdowns, though clarifying that some shutdowns can occur under \"normal conditions\" because the iPhone tries to \"protect its electronics\". They provided a highly discounted battery replacement to customers for a year. Apple also said that an upcoming update to the iOS operating system would include additional diagnostic tools to help Apple find more information about different kinds of battery issues.\n", "Many users with the Exynos variant of the phone experienced subpar battery life. Analysts discovered that the four Samsung-designed cores had been poorly tuned, resulting in decreased battery life. This issue, however, has been addressed in part with the release of the August 2018 update.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Exynos 9810 performance.\n", "Users started reporting battery drain issues after the February security update. The battery drain become worse after the April security updates. Google is looking for a fix.\n\nUsers are reporting proximity sensor issues. Google is aware of the issue and looking for a fix.\n\nSome users are having issues making calls and receiving MMS messages. Google claims these issues are fixed but users are still complaining about them.\n", "Section::::Issues.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Battery faults.\n\nBattery defects (and some user error) caused many Note 7 units to overheat and combust or explode. On 10 October 2016, Samsung permanently discontinued the Galaxy Note 7 due to these repeated incidents.\n\nIn the original run of devices, the battery, produced by Samsung SDI, contained a design flaw that made electrodes on the top-right of the battery susceptible to bending. This weakened separation between positive and negative tabs of the battery, thus resulting in thermal runaway and short circuits.\n", "BULLET::::- 6 April: It has now been 30 days since Flight 370 presumably crashed in the southern Indian Ocean; the minimum battery life of the ULBs on Flight 370's flight recorders. The manufacturer of the ULBs predicts the maximum battery life is about 40 days.\n", "BULLET::::- In South Africa the code on a battery to indicate production date is part of the casing and cast into the bottom left of the cover. The code is Year and week number. (YYWW) e.g. 1336 is for week 36 in the year 2013.\n\nSection::::Use and maintenance.\n\nExcess heat is a main cause of battery failures, as when the electrolyte evaporates due to high temperatures, decreasing the effective surface area of the plates exposed to the electrolyte, and leading to sulfation. Grid corrosion rates increase with temperature. Also low temperatures can lead to battery failure. \n", "On 31 August 2016, it was reported that Samsung was delaying shipments of the Galaxy Note 7 in some regions to perform \"additional tests being conducted for product quality\"; this came alongside user reports of batteries exploding while charging. On 1 September 2016, South Korea's Yonhap News Agency reported that Samsung was preparing to recall the device worldwide due to these battery issues. On 2 September 2016, Samsung suspended sales of the Galaxy Note 7 and announced an informal recall, after it was found that a manufacturing defect in the phones' batteries had caused some of them to generate excessive heat, resulting in fires and explosions. A formal U.S. recall was announced on 15 September 2016. Samsung exchanged the affected phones for a new revision, which utilized batteries sourced from a different supplier. However, after reports emerged of incidents where these replacement phones also caught fire, Samsung recalled the Galaxy Note 7 worldwide on 10 October 2016, and permanently ceased production of the device on 11 October. Due to the recalls, Samsung has issued software updates in some markets that are intended to \"eliminate their ability to work as mobile devices\", including restricting battery capacity, and blocking their ability to connect to wireless networks.\n", "Fast Dormancy, or FD, is a mobile technology feature designed to reduce battery consumption and network utilization between mobile devices and their respective carrier networks during periods of data inactivity. It is currently implemented by monitoring the activity level of the mobile device and setting it to a control channel and power state appropriate for its level of activity. Each state results in different power consumption and network throughput while allowing a consistent data connection to be maintained. It is standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) and implemented by most mobile carriers as a standard feature. Fast Dormancy is required to be supported by both the device and the carrier network in order for it to function.\n", "On 2 August 2016, Samsung Electronics unveiled the Galaxy Note7 smartphone, which went on sale on 19 August 2016. However, in early September 2016, Samsung suspended sales of the phone and announced an informal recall. This occurred after some units of the phones had batteries with a defect that caused them to produce excessive heat, leading to fires and explosions. Samsung replaced the recalled units of the phones with a new version; however, it was later discovered that the new version of the Galaxy Note 7 also had the battery defect. Samsung recalled all Galaxy Note7 smartphones worldwide on 10 October 2016, and permanently ended production of the phone the following day. \n", "On 12 September 2016, the Galaxy Note 7 was officially recalled in the U.S. by the Consumer Product Safety Commission, who advised all owners to shut down and cease all usage of the device, and return them in exchange for a replacement. On 13 September 2016, Samsung announced in newspaper advertisements that it would release a software patch to the affected Galaxy Note 7 devices in South Korea, which prevents the device from being charged beyond 60% capacity to reduce the risk of combustion.\n", "BULLET::::- Sometimes, the display lights up for a few seconds and then goes out again. This happens when the phone battery depletes by one \"bar\", which may be seen as pointless as the lights coming on would increase drain on the battery. This was meant to be an early warning for low battery.\n\nBULLET::::- Sometimes, for no apparent reason, an image or video clip is copied.\n", "The top of the phone is also known to have some flex issues.\n\nBattery cover – \n\nIt has been stated in some official and unofficial reviews that the battery cover is very difficult to open. The User's Manual shows that you only have to \"push out\" the battery cover, yet this is very difficult to accomplish.\n", "The Xperia 1 also comes with Battery Care, Sony's proprietary charging algorithm that controls the charging process of the phone through machine learning. It recognizes the user's charging habits for a certain period and automatically adjusts itself to the pattern, for example an overnight charge, by stopping the initial charging to about 80-90 percent, and then continuing it until full from where it left off the next day. This effectively prevents the unnecessary damage to the battery's cells from excessive heat and current due to overcharging, further increasing the battery's life span.\n\nSection::::Audio and Connectivity.\n", "On 9 January 2017, Samsung released another update in South Korea, blocking the device from being charged beyond 15%.\n\nOn 24 March 2017, Samsung released yet another update for South Korea users, barring charging of the Galaxy Note 7.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "Section::::Lifetime.:Self-discharge.\n\nDisposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C). This is known as the \"self-discharge\" rate, and is due to non-current-producing \"side\" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.\n", "When a pack contains groups of cells in parallel there are differing wiring configurations which take into consideration the electrical \"balance\" of the circuit. Battery regulators are sometimes used to keep the voltage of each individual cell below its maximum value during charging so as to allow the weaker batteries to become fully charged, bringing the whole pack back into balance. Active balancing can also be performed by battery balancer devices which can shuttle energy from strong cells to weaker ones in real time for better balance. A well-balanced pack lasts longer and delivers better performance.\n", "The phone can also be used as a modem via Bluetooth or USB . According to the o2 website, the K770 has a talk time battery life of 16 hours and a standby time battery life of 384 hours.\n\nSection::::Date bug.\n\nOn some versions there is a bug in the internal clock, which does not recognise leap days from 2016 onwards. Attempting to set the date to 29 February 2016, for example, results in the time and date becoming corrupted, and it becomes impossible to reset the date, until the phone is shut down and restarted.\n", "BULLET::::- The battery draining issue of mobile operators can be eliminated by means of energy efficiency of the networks resulting in prolongation of the battery life of handsets\n\nBULLET::::- New applications and services can be created to enhance user experience or provide additional features:\n\nBULLET::::- In Connected car case the use of Femtocells has been proposed as a safety feature (c.f. patent application EP2647257B1 by Valentin A. Alexeev)\n\nFemtocells can be used to give coverage in rural areas.\n\nSection::::Standardised architectures.\n", "In November 2016, Apple announced that a \"very small number\" of iPhone 6S devices manufactured between September and October 2015 have faulty batteries that unexpectedly shut down. While Apple noted that the battery problems were \"not a safety issue\", it announced a battery replacement program for affected devices. Customers with affected devices, which span \"a limited serial number range\", were able to check their device's serial number on Apple's website, and, if affected, receive a battery replacement free of charge at Apple Stores or authorized Apple Service Providers.\n", "Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation (particularly aircraft) because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, leading to overheating and possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway. Most consumer lithium batteries have built-in thermal overload protection to prevent this type of incident, or are otherwise designed to limit short-circuit currents. Internal shorts from manufacturing defect or physical damage can lead to spontaneous thermal runaway.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by lithium production\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium as an investment\n", "BULLET::::- 27 January – A report from the EU's Joint Research Centre concludes that if global temperatures rise by 4 °C, the flood risk in countries representing more than 70% of the global population and of the global GDP will increase by more than 500%.\n\nBULLET::::- 30 January – News reports that a new safe battery has been invented. It is based on solid lithium, and is claimed to have twice the storage capacity of lithium-ion batteries. It is featured on a newly released PBS NOVA TV program entitled \"Search for the Super Battery\".\n\nSection::::Events.:February.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 February\n", "Both the F5 and F5 Youth come with battery capacities of 3200mAh, which remain unchanged from the F3. Despite not changing the battery size, users and critics have said that Oppo have successfully optimized the power consumption of the phones, as there has been a significant increase in screen-on time. Oppo has continued to keep the batteries on the series non-removable.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02848	Why does it take a bit for your foot to hurt when you hit shomething with it?	It shouldn't. When you hit something you get an instant sharp pain to let you know damage is occurring and afterwards an aching pain to remind you that you have been damaged.	[ "BULLET::::- The tendon of fibularis longus similarly passes behind the lateral malleolus into the sole.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n\nThe soles of the feet are extremely sensitive to touch due to a high concentration of nerve endings, with as many as 200,000 per sole. This makes them sensitive to surfaces that are walked on, ticklish and some people find them to be erogenous zones.\n\nMedically, the soles are the site of the plantar reflex, the testing of which can be painful due to the sole's sensitivity.\n", "The sciatic nerve supplies sensation to the skin of the foot, as well as the entire lower leg (except for its inner side). Sensation to skin to the sole of the foot is provided by the tibial nerve, and the lower leg and upper surface of the foot via the common fibular nerve.\n\nThe sciatic nerve also innervates muscles. In particular: \n\nBULLET::::- Via the tibial nerve, the muscles in the posterior compartment of the leg and sole of the foot (plantar aspect).\n", "3. During the stance phase, a high intensity SN stimulation is indicative of an obstacle that could potentially cause physical damage to the foot. In this case, the goal of the reflex would be to remove the foot completely away from the stimulus.\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased activity of the gastrocnemius will allow for a more complete dorsiflexion and inversion by the tibialis anterior pulling the foot both up and inward, preventing the foot from staying in contact with the potentially damaging surface.\n\nSection::::Functional role.:Superficial radial nerve (SR).\n", "A doctor who specializes in the treatment of the feet practices podiatry and is called a podiatrist. A pedorthist specializes in the use and modification of footwear to treat problems related to the lower limbs.\n\nFractures of the foot include:\n\nBULLET::::- Lisfranc fracture – in which one or all of the metatarsals are displaced from the tarsus\n\nBULLET::::- Jones fracture – a fracture of the fifth metatarsal\n\nBULLET::::- March fracture – a fracture of the distal third of one of the metatarsals occurring because of recurrent stress\n\nBULLET::::- Calcaneal fracture\n", "Section::::United States.\n", "BULLET::::2. Shear (usually twisting forces between the skin and footwear)\n\nBULLET::::3. Repetitive stresses (for example, from walking)\n\nBULLET::::4. Peripheral neuropathy (damage to the nerves in the feet).\n\nThese factors rarely cause problems in healthy people but the accompanying neuropathy means that the “pain feedback loop” that induces humans to limp or keep their weight off an injury no longer functions properly in diabetic patients. The result is that pressure and abrasion injuries, such as bruising and blisters caused by poor footwear, are not noticed and often ignored, and the continual use of the limb disrupts and damages the healing process.\n", "Nerve blocks are performed in a step-wise fashion, beginning at the most distal (lower) part of the limb and moving upward. This is due to the fact that blocking a nerve higher up will desensitize everything it innervates distal to the blocking location. For example, blocking the leg at the level of the fetlock will also block the entire foot, since the nerve fibers that innervate the foot are inhibited when they travel through the fetlock area. A positive result from this block will not be able to differentiate foot pain from pain in the pastern or fetlock region. More information may be gained from blocking the foot first, then the fetlock, since it allows for greater specificity in determining the cause of lameness.\n", "As the nerve endings under the soles of the feet do not adapt to recurring sensations or impacts, the pain reception does not alleviate through continuous beatings. On the contrary the perception of pain is further intensified over the course of additional impacts through the activation of nociceptors. Over a sequence of impacts applied with nearly constant force the perception of pain is therefore progressively intensifying until a maximum level of activation is reached. For that reason a facile impact can already cause an acute pain sensation after a certain number of preceding strokes.\n", "The deep fibular nerve from the common fibular nerve provides the sensory innervation of the skin between the first and second toes and the motor innervation of the muscles of the anterior compartment of the leg and dorsal foot. Damage to the deep fibular nerve can result in foot drop.\n\nThe plantar digital nerves from the medial plantar nerve provide sensory innervation to the skin of the plantar aspect of the toes, except the medial part of the big toe and the lateral part of the little toe and the motor innervation of the first lumbrical.\n", "Patients with painful disorders of sensation (dysesthesia) of the soles of the feet may have a similar gait but do not have foot drop. Because of the extreme pain evoked by even the slightest pressure on the feet, the patient walks as if walking barefoot on hot sand.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- effects on skin: skin – and the soft tissues immediately underneath the skin – undergo greater compression and shear loading than usual, thus explaining the onset of tissue damage so deeply correlated to traumatic ulceration processes. Besides this, skin of the diabetic foot suffers from loss of autonomic nervous control and consequently reduced hydration, making it less elastic and thus more vulnerable to the action of increased mechanical stress;\n", "The lateral side of the sole of the foot is rubbed with a blunt instrument or device so as not to cause pain, discomfort, or injury to the skin; the instrument is run from the heel along a curve to the toes (metatarsal pads). Many reflex hammers taper at the end of the handle to a point which was used for testing the plantar response in the past, however, due to the tightening of infection control regulation this is no longer recommended. Either a single use device or the thumb nail should be used.\n\nThere are three responses possible:\n", "The tendons in the foot are highly complex and intricate. Therefore, the healing process for a broken tendon is long and painful. Most people who do not receive medical attention within the first 48 hours of the injury will suffer from severe swelling, pain, and a burning sensation where the injury occurred.\n", "BULLET::::- effects on peripheral sensory system: impaired nerve conduction has a dramatic effect on the peripheral sensory system, since it leads to loss of protective sensation under the sole of the foot. This exposes the diabetic foot to thermal or mechanical trauma, and to the late detection of infection processes or tissue breakdown;\n", "The beatings usually aim at the tender longitudinal arch of the foot avoiding the bone structure of the ball and the heel. The vaults are particularly touch-sensitive and therefore susceptible to pain due to the tight clustering of nerve endings.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Corporal.\n", "The beatings are usually aimed at the vaults of the foot, not directly hitting the bone structure of the balls and the heels. The vaults are highly pain-sensitive due to the tight clustering of nerve tissue in that area.\n\nAs bastinado usually causes a high amount of suffering for the receiving person while physical evidence remains mostly undetectable after a certain time, it is often used for interrogation purposes in certain countries as well.\n\nSection::::Arts and entertainment.\n", "Diagnosis may be based on symptoms and the history of the event; typically people say it feels like being kicked or shot behind the ankle. Upon examination a gap may be felt just above the heel unless swelling has filled the gap and the Simmonds' test (aka Thompson test) will be positive; squeezing the calf muscles of the affected side while the person lies on their stomach, face down, with his feet hanging loose results in no movement (no passive plantarflexion) of the foot, while movement is expected with an intact Achilles tendon and should be observable upon manipulation of the uninvolved calf. Walking will usually be severely impaired, as the person will be unable to step off the ground using the injured leg. The person will also be unable to stand up on the toes of that leg, and pointing the foot downward (plantarflexion) will be impaired. Pain may be severe, and swelling is common.\n", "BULLET::::- Initial contact (IC): The point in the gait cycle when the foot initially makes contact with the ground; this represents the beginning of the stance phase. It is suggested that heel strike not be a term used in clinical gait analysis as in many circumstances initial contact is not made with the heel. Suggestion: Should use foot strike.\n", "When thin and flexible instruments are used the immediate experience of pain is described as acutely stinging and searing. The instant sensations are disproportionally intense compared to the applied force and reflexively radiate through the body. The subsequent pain sensations of a succession of strokes are often described as throbbing, piercing or burning and gradually ease off within a few hours. A slightly stinging or nagging sensation often remains perceptible for a couple of days, especially while walking.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nWhen visiting a doctor, the basic diagnosis procedure applies. This includes checking the patient's medical history and medical record for risk factors, a medical interview during which the doctor asks questions (such as about itching and scratching), and a physical examination. Athlete's foot can usually be diagnosed by visual inspection of the skin and by identifying less obvious symptoms such as itching of the affected area.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n", "BULLET::::- \"midfoot strike\" – heel and ball land simultaneously\n\nBULLET::::- \"heel strike\" – heel-toe: heel of foot lands, then plantar flexes to ball\n\nIn sprinting, gait typically features a forefoot strike, but the heel does not contact the ground.\n\nSome researchers classify foot strike by the initial center of pressure; this is mostly applicable to shod running (running while wearing shoes). In this classification:\n\nBULLET::::- a rearfoot strike (heel strike) has the initial center of pressure in the rear third of the shoe (rear 1/3 of shoe length);\n", "BULLET::::- The tibial nerve, which travels down the posterior compartment of the leg into the foot\n\nBULLET::::- The common peroneal nerve (also called the common fibular nerve), which travels down the anterior and lateral compartments of the leg into the foot\n\nThe sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "The saphenous nerve from the femoral nerve provides sensory innervation to the medial side of the foot as well as the medial side of the leg. Likewise, the sural nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin on the lateral side of the foot as well as the skin on the posterior aspect of the lower leg.\n", "Sural nerve (SN) stimulation results in a reflex that is both phase and intensity dependent. The sural nerve innervates the lateral (outside) portion of the foot and could be activated during either the swing or stance phase when encountering uneven terrain. The intensity dependent response is indicative of the level of activation and, therefore, the potential for harm.\n\n1. During the swing phase, SN stimulation indicates encountering an obstacle on the lateral side of the foot. The reaction is to move the foot inward and the leg up, out of the way. Observed EMG responses are:\n" ]	[ "Pain takes a minute to register.", "There is a delay before pain is received after one hits their foot. " ]	[ "Pain should be felt immediately when something damaging happens. ", "There should be no delay after hitting your foot, the pain should be felt immediately." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pain takes a minute to register.", "There is a delay before pain is received after one hits their foot. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pain should be felt immediately when something damaging happens. ", "There should be no delay after hitting your foot, the pain should be felt immediately." ]
2018-02457	How does a glass of water seem to immediately rehydrate you?	> I had some really dry eyes today, because I hadn't had enough water, and had too much salty food. I drank 2 cups and it seemed as if my eyes immediately rehydrated themselves. That may be simply your perception at work, but water is absorbed pretty quickly. It starts entering the bloodstream after 5 minutes and half of it can be absorbed in a little over 10 minutes. Having felt the sensation of drinking though might have just triggered you to feel better anyway. It isn't likely you were really so dehydrated that you couldn't produce tears in the first place.	[ "Section::::Active absorption.:Active non-osmotic water absorption.\n\nThis theory was given by Thimann (1951) and Kramer (1959). According to the theory, sometimes water is absorbed against a concentration gradient. This requires expenditure of metabolic energy released from respiration of root cells. There is no direct evidence, but some scientists suggest involvement of energy from respiration. In conclusion, it is said that, the evidences supporting active absorption of water are themselves poor.\n\nSection::::Passive absorption.\n", "BULLET::::- As the substances listed above (Na ions, amino acids and glucose) enter the wall of the PCT, so does 65–70% of the water in the glomerulus filtrate via osmosis. Water can move freely through the wall of the PCT (it does not require a transporter protein). Nearly all the rest of the water is reabsorbed into the blood in the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system.\n", "BULLET::::6. changes in the water retaining properties of the tissues themselves. Raised hydrostatic pressure often reflects retention of water and sodium by the kidneys.\n", "Under normal circumstances, accidentally consuming too much water is exceptionally rare. Nearly all deaths related to water intoxication in normal individuals have resulted either from water-drinking contests, in which individuals attempt to consume large amounts of water, or from long bouts of exercise during which excessive amounts of fluid were consumed. In addition, water cure, a method of torture in which the victim is forced to consume excessive amounts of water, can cause water intoxication.\n", "Section::::Detection.:Decreased volume.\n", "Section::::Remixes.\n", "The 'single effect' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to sodium chloride. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the collecting duct be opened by ADH.\n\nSection::::Other functions.:Blood pressure.\n", "The human kidneys will normally adjust to varying levels of water intake. The kidneys will require time to adjust to the new water intake level. This can cause someone who drinks a lot of water to become dehydrated more easily than someone who routinely drinks less.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Output.\n\nBULLET::::- The majority of fluid output occurs via the urine, approximately 1500 ml/day (approx 1.59 qt/day) in the normal adult resting state.\n", "Water memory\n\nWater memory is the purported ability of water to retain a memory of substances previously dissolved in it even after an arbitrary number of serial dilutions. It has been claimed to be a mechanism by which homeopathic remedies work, even when they are diluted to the point that no molecule of the original substance remains.\n", "BULLET::::- 1991, Andy Warhol: Five years after his death, Warhol's family publicly accused the hospital where he had his gallbladder removed of causing his death by water intoxication administered post-operatively. A claimed autopsy weight of , with his weight being when admitted, was cited as evidence that too much fluid had been given.\n\nBULLET::::- October 24, 1995: Anna Wood, a 15-year-old Australian schoolgirl, died from the effects of water intoxication secondary to use of MDMA (commonly known as Ecstasy).\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nAt its simplest, the kidney produces urine composed of solute and pure (solute-free) water. How rapidly the kidney clears the blood plasma of a substance (be it water or solute) is the renal clearance, which is related to the rate of urine production. The rate at which plasma is cleared of solute is the osmolal clearance; the rate at which plasma is cleared of solute-free water is the free water clearance.\n\nSection::::Calculation.\n", "Section::::Post-publication supervised experiments.:Aftermath.\n", "BULLET::::2. Increasing permeability of the inner medullary portion of the collecting duct to urea by regulating the cell surface expression of urea transporters, which facilitates its reabsorption into the medullary interstitium as it travels down the concentration gradient created by removing water from the connecting tubule, cortical collecting duct, and outer medullary collecting duct.\n\nBULLET::::3. Acute increase of sodium absorption across the ascending loop of Henle. This adds to the countercurrent multiplication which aids in proper water reabsorption later in the distal tubule and collecting duct.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Function.:Central nervous system.\n\nVasopressin released within the brain may have several actions:\n", "Section::::Where water retention occurs.\n", "is based on the natural and non-destructive phenomenon of osmosis across cell membranes. The driving force for the diffusion of water from the tissue into the solution is provided by the higher osmotic pressure of the hyper-tonic solution. The diffusion of water is accompanied by the simultaneous counter diffusion of solutes from the osmotic solution into the tissue. Since the cell membrane responsible for osmotic transport is not perfectly selective, solutes present in the cells (organic acids, reducing sugars, minerals, flavors and pigment compounds) can also be leaked into the osmotic solution, which affects the organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of the product.\n", "When an unconscious person is being fed intravenously (for example, total parenteral nutrition) or via a nasogastric tube, the fluids given must be carefully balanced in composition to match fluids and electrolytes lost. These fluids are typically hypertonic, and so water is often co-administered. If the electrolytes are not monitored (even in an ambulatory patient), either hypernatremia or hyponatremia may result.\n\nSome neurological/psychiatric medications (Oxcarbazepine, among others) have been found to cause hyponatremia in some patients. Patients with diabetes insipidus are particularly vulnerable due to rapid fluid processing.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Detection.:Decreased volume.:Renin-angiotensin system.\n", "According to preliminary research, quenching of thirst – the homeostatic mechanism to stop drinking – occurs via two neural phases: a \"preabsorptive\" phase which signals quenched thirst many minutes before fluid is absorbed from the stomach and distributed to the body via the circulation, and a \"postabsorptive\" phase which is regulated by brain structures sensing to terminate fluid ingestion. The preabsorptive phase relies on sensory inputs in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and upper gastrointestinal tract to anticipate the amount of fluid needed, providing rapid signals to the brain to terminate drinking when the assessed amount has been consumed. The postabsorptive phase occurs via blood monitoring for osmolality, fluid volume, and sodium balance, which are collectively sensed in brain circumventricular organs linked via neural networks to terminate thirst when fluid balance is established.\n", "Another illustration of dilutions used in common homeopathic preparations involves comparing a homeopathic dilution to dissolving the therapeutic substance in a swimming pool. There are on the order of 10 molecules of water in an Olympic-size swimming pool and if such a pool were filled with a 15C homeopathic preparation, to have a 63% chance of consuming at least one molecule of the original substance, one would need to swallow 1% of the volume of such a pool, or roughly 25 metric tons of water.\n\nSection::::Proposed explanations.\n", "A constant supply is needed to replenish the fluids lost through normal physiological activities, such as respiration, sweating and urination. Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake.\n\nIn the normal resting state, input of water through ingested fluids is approximately 1200 ml/day, from ingested foods 1000 ml/day and from aerobic respiration 300 ml/day, totaling 2500 ml/day.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Input.:Regulation of input.\n", "The second scenario that may lead to hyperchloremia is known as loss of hypotonic fluid which can be a direct result of loss of electrolyte fluid. Normally, water in the body is moving from an area of low ion concentration to an area of high ion concentration. In this case, the water is being excreted in there urine, therefore, less water is available to dilute these areas of high ion concentration. This can be due to diuretic use, diarrhea, vomiting, burns, renal disease, renal failure, and renal tubular acidosis . This may also lead to feeling of dehydration.\n", "Any activity or situation that promotes heavy sweating can lead to water intoxication when water is consumed to replace lost fluids. Persons working in extreme heat and/or humidity for long periods must take care to drink and eat in ways that help to maintain electrolyte balance. People using drugs such as MDMA (often referred to colloquially as \"Ecstasy\") may overexert themselves, perspire heavily, feel increased thirst, and then drink large amounts of water to rehydrate, leading to electrolyte imbalance and water intoxication – this is compounded by MDMA use increasing the levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), decreasing the amount of water lost through urination. Even people who are resting quietly in extreme heat or humidity may run the risk of water intoxication if they drink large amounts of water over short periods for rehydration.\n", "Urine osmolality\n\nUrine osmolality is a measure of urine concentration, in which large values indicate concentrated urine and small values indicate diluted urine. Consumption of water (including water contained in food) affects the osmolality of urine.\n\nIn healthy humans with restricted fluid intake, urine osmolality should be greater than 800 mOsm/kg, while a 24-hour urine osmolality should average between 500 and 800 mOsm/kg.\n", "Stool osmotic gap is calculated as 290 mOsm/kg − 2 × (stool Na + stool K). 290 mOsm/kg is the presumed stool osmolality, and the measured concentration of sodium and potassium cations is doubled to account for the corresponding anions which must be present.\n\nA normal gap is between 50 and 100 mOsm/kg, corresponding to the concentration of other solutes such as magnesium salts and sugars.\n", "BULLET::::- This book might take place after \"Tooth and Claw\". The Doctor tells Rose that humans are \"big bags of water\" and Rose replies by saying \"I remember you saying something like that.\" In \"Tooth and Claw\", he tells her \"You're 70% water and can still drown\" (in response to using the moonlight to stop the werewolf).\n" ]	[ "Water rehydrates a body immediately. " ]	[ "Water can be absorbed in a little over 10 minutes, but the sensation of drinking could trigger the immediate feeling of being rehydrated. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Water rehydrates a body immediately. ", "Water rehydrates a body immediately. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Water can be absorbed in a little over 10 minutes, but the sensation of drinking could trigger the immediate feeling of being rehydrated. ", "Water can be absorbed in a little over 10 minutes, but the sensation of drinking could trigger the immediate feeling of being rehydrated. " ]
2018-06003	When their is no reception and get "SOS Only", How come emergency services can be contacted but no one else?	Emergency service has special rules. It has reserved capacity on the towers, so you can use it even when you couldn't make a call otherwise. You can also use it even if you don't have balance, an active account, or a SIM card at all, and the call will be accepted by any tower capable of communicating with your phone. Provider restrictions don't apply for emergencies. If you have a normal, working phone and an active account, then the most likely reason is that you're outside your operator's area of coverage.	[ "GETS supports federal, state, local, and tribal government, industry, and non-governmental organization personnel during crisis or emergencies by providing emergency access and priority processing for local and long distance telephone calls on the public switched telephone network. GETS is intended to be used in an emergency or crisis situation when the public switched telephone network is congested and the probability of completing a call over normal or other alternate telecommunication means is reduced.\n", "On June 26, 2007, an EAN was accidentally activated for the state of Illinois, when new satellite delivery equipment for the EAS was accidentally left connected to a live network during what was meant to be a closed-circuit test.\n", "Larger towns/regions may have several remote switching units which required “backdoor trunking” to connect all remote units during ESA within the same town/community. Special translations can be implemented to allow 911 to be redirected to a local number such as the local police station or fire hall that resides within that same community/town.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Once an EAN is received by an EAS participant from a PEP station (or any other participant) the message then \"daisy chains'\" through the network of participants. \"Daisy chains\" form when one station receives a message from multiple other stations and the station then forwards that message to multiple other stations. This process creates many redundant paths through which the message may flow increasing the likelihood that the message will be received by all participants and adding to the survivability of the system.\n\nEach EAS participant is required to monitor at least two other participants.\n\nSection::::Technical concept.:EAS header.\n", "Section::::Canada.\n", "Section::::United States.:Distant signal regulation; conflicts.\n", "Emergency telephones are commonly found alongside major roads throughout the world. In the United Kingdom, orange \"SOS\" call boxes are spaced every on all motorways as well as some major \"A\" roads, with roadside markers indicating the nearer phone. Emergency telephones were installed every on all limited-access highways (\"Freeways\") throughout Southern California in the United States as far back as the 1970s. In Melbourne, Australia, emergency telephones were introduced on metropolitan freeways in 1976, originally on the Tullamarine, South Eastern and Lower Yarra (West Gate) Freeways. On Italian \"Autostrade\" (\"Motorways\"), \"SOS\" emergency phones, generally coloured in yellow, are found spaced every .\n", "Emergency Stand Alone\n\nEmergency Stand Alone (ESA) is a term used by the vendors of telephone equipment such as Nortel DMS-100, Lucent 5ESS or GTD-5.\n\nTypically, small towns or communities have telephone services provided from a \"remote switching unit\" which is controlled by the more powerful host switching complex. ESA occurs when the host/remote links are severed, thus leaving the region in “community isolation”. While in the ESA mode, the town/community is limited to only receiving or placing calls within that community/town.\n", "Section::::United States.:Distant signal regulation; conflicts.:Conflicts with professional sports leagues.\n", "Stations are required by federal law to relay Emergency Action Notification (EAN) messages immediately (47 CFR Part 11.54). Stations traditionally have been allowed to opt out of relaying other alerts such as severe weather, and child abduction emergencies (AMBER Alerts) if they so choose.\n\nSection::::System tests.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Commercial.\n", "Section::::Transmitters requiring no call signs.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Viewers.\n", "BULLET::::- The Traffic Box scene where Spec's O'Keefe drives through Towanda, PA was filmed in Stoneham, Massachusetts\n\nBULLET::::- Doyle's Cafe - Jamaica Plain\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "The emergency telephone number is a special case in the country's telephone number plan. In the past, calls to the emergency telephone number were often routed over special dedicated circuits. Though with the advent of electronic exchanges these calls are now often mixed with ordinary telephone traffic, they still may be able to access circuits that other traffic cannot. Often the system is set up so that once a call is made to an emergency telephone number, it must be answered. Should the caller abandon the call, the line may still be held until the emergency service answers and releases the call.\n", "The majority of mobile phones also dial the emergency services, even if the phone keyboard is locked, or if the phone has an expired or missing SIM card, although the provision of this service varies by country and network.\n\nSection::::Agencies involved in dealing with emergencies.:Civil emergency services.\n", "They are normally disconnected by the operator repeating \"Emergency. Which service?\", then if no response is given, the operator will say \"Do you need police, fire or ambulance?\". If there is still no response, the operator will sometimes ask the caller to press the keypad or make a noise if they need assistance. If no response is given, they will confirm they are clearing the line.\n", "The system is location-specific, meaning a message is sent by designating an area where mobile phones within it shall receive the emergency alert. In contrast, the SMS-based emergency alert broadcast system is sent to devices through their mobile phone numbers which meant that the NDDRMC had to send emergency alert messages through telecommunications service providers. The process of the SMS-based system could take hours.\n", "In the United States, the FCC requires networks to route every mobile-phone and payphone 911 call to an emergency service call center, including phones that have never had service, or whose service has lapsed. As a result, there are programs that provide donated used mobile phones to victims of domestic violence and others especially likely to need emergency services.\n", "At the VoIP level, a phone or gateway may identify itself with a Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) registrar by its account credentials. In such cases, the Internet telephony service provider (ITSP) knows only that a particular user's equipment is active. Service providers often provide emergency response services by agreement with the user who registers a physical location and agrees that emergency services are provided to that address only if an emergency number is called from the IP device.\n", "Some systems experience seasonal peaks. For example, a trunked system in an agricultural area used by crop harvesting crews may overload and experience busy signals during peaks in harvesting. A system used by a ski resort may overload on a holiday weekend. Disaster planning experts like to say that trunked system users are likely to hear busy signals for the first time when a disaster occurs. A major flood or earthquake is likely to generate a level of call traffic that loads the system to capacity.\n", "Most stations use mains electricity, but they also have standby generators or solar energy panels in case of failure.\n\nSection::::Grounding.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17580	Why is Quebec the only Canadian province with CEGEP instead of grade 12?	You cannot go from high school to university without EITHER a cégep diploma, or being 25 while having recognized work experience. The great majority of university attendees indeed have a cégep diploma. I’ve never seen an explanation for the removal of the 12th grade because it became law quite long ago, but my personal take is that you do not need that extra year in order to be able to perform non-specialized jobs In cégep, there are two tracks, the first one is to become a technician, mostly three year diplomas, followed by going on the job market. I think it’s called associate degrees in the US. (Civil engineer, lab tech, nursing) The second track is preparatory to going to university, it generally lasts two years. You get a diploma, but couldn’t really find a job with it. Think like pre-med, but also choices not in the science field. (Human sciences I believe is the term) [edit]. Adding details about the two tracks	[ "Quebec students complete one fewer grade than all other Canadian provinces in total before attending CEGEP, by ending high school in grade 11 instead of grade 12. CEGEPs then prepare students for university or to enter a technical profession. It is also possible to attend a university with a 3-year technical CEGEP diploma.\n", "BULLET::::- Holy Rosary Catholic Elementary School\n\nBULLET::::- Our Lady of Lourdes School (opened 1948)\n\nBULLET::::- St. Agnes Catholic Elementary School (opened 1956)\n\nBULLET::::- St. Luke Elementary School (opened 2001)\n\nBULLET::::- St. Matthew Catholic Elementary School (opened 1995)\n\nBULLET::::- St. Nicholas Catholic School (opened 2001)\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Edgar Bauer Elementary School (opened 1970)\n\npreviously called Separate School\n\nPublic French\n\nBULLET::::- École élémentaire L'Harmonie\n\nCatholic French\n\nBULLET::::- École élémentaire catholique Mère-Élisabeth-Bruyère\n\nPrivate\n\nBULLET::::- Kitchener-Waterloo Bilingual School (opened 1965)\n\nBULLET::::- The K-W Montessori School Inc.\n\nBULLET::::- Maison Montessori Bilingual School\n\nBULLET::::- Scholars' Hall - JK to Grade 12\n", "BULLET::::- Eastwood Collegiate Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Forest Heights Collegiate Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Grand River Collegiate Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Huron Heights Secondary School\n\nBULLET::::- Kitchener-Waterloo Collegiate and Vocational School (KCI)\n\nCatholic\n\nBULLET::::- Resurrection Catholic Secondary School\n\nBULLET::::- St. Mary's High School\n\nBULLET::::- St. Louis Adult & Continuing Education\n\nPrivate\n\nBULLET::::- Rockway Mennonite Collegiate\n\nBULLET::::- SMS School - Toddler to Grade 8\n\nBULLET::::- Scholars' Hall - JK to Grade 12\n\nBULLET::::- Carmel New Church Secondary School Grades 9-10\n\nBULLET::::- St. Jude's Special Education School - Grades 3 to 11\n\nBULLET::::- Christ Lutheran School\n\nBULLET::::- Blyth Academy Waterloo - Grades 8 to 12\n", "BULLET::::- Kenora Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Lambton Kent District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Lakehead District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Niagara Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Northwest Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Ottawa Catholic School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Ottawa-Carleton District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Peel District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Rainy River District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Rocky View Schools\n\nBULLET::::- St. Clair Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Thames Valley District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Thunder Bay Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Toronto Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Toronto District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Upper Canada District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Waterloo Region District School Board\n", "Currently, four school boards operate in Waterloo Region. Public schools with instruction in English are operated by the Waterloo Region District School Board and public schools with instruction in French are operated by the Conseil scolaire de district du Centre-Sud-Ouest. Catholic schools with instruction in English are operated by the Waterloo Catholic District School Board and those with instruction in French are operated by the Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre-Sud.\n", "The new board began operations on July 1, 1998. The English sectors of the Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal (PSBGM), the Montreal Catholic School Commission (CECM), the \"Commission scolaire Jérôme-Le Royer\" and the \"Commission scolaire Sainte-Croix\" were amalgamated to form the EMSB.\n", "BULLET::::- Calgary Board of Education\n\nBULLET::::- Calgary Catholic School District\n\nBULLET::::- Conseil scolaire de district des écoles catholiques du Sud-Ouest\n\nBULLET::::- Conseil scolaire Viamonde\n\nBULLET::::- District School Board of Niagara\n\nBULLET::::- Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Durham District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Edmonton Catholic School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Edmonton Public School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Elk Island Public School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Greater Essex County District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Halton Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Halton District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Hamilton Wentworth Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Huron-Superior Catholic District School Board\n\nBULLET::::- Keewatin-Patricia District School Board\n", "A product of the Quiet Revolution, the CEGEP system was started in 1967 by the Quebec provincial government and originally consisted of 12 CEGEPs. Today, 48 CEGEPs operate in Quebec, of which five are in the English language. There are also College Centres (), small public post-secondary education colleges very similar to CEGEPs, often secondary stand alone campuses of CÉGEPs, like the \"Centre d'études collégiales à Chibougamau\", part of the Cégep de Saint-Félicien.\n\nSection::::Education path.\n", "BULLET::::- AIM Learning Community - Grades K to 6\n\nSection::::Secondary schools.:Waterloo.\n\nPublic\n\nBULLET::::- Bluevale Collegiate Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Sir John A. Macdonald Secondary School\n\nBULLET::::- Waterloo Collegiate Institute (WCI)\n\nCatholic\n\nBULLET::::- St. David Catholic Secondary School\n\nPrivate\n\nBULLET::::- St. Jude's School for Bright, Learning Disabled Students - Grades 3 to 11\n\nSection::::Elementary schools.\n\nPublic elementary schools can be junior (K-6 or K-5, marked ), senior (6-8 or 7-8, marked †), or comprehensive (K-8, marked ‡). All Catholic elementary schools are comprehensive.\n\nSection::::Elementary schools.:Ayr.\n\nPublic\n\nBULLET::::- Ayr Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Cedar Creek Public School‡\n\nCatholic \n\nBULLET::::- St. Brigid Catholic Elementary School\n", "The board was created January 1, 1998, when the Government of Ontario decided to create 12 French school boards across Ontario. The CEPEO is a member of the \"Association des conseils des écoles publique de l'Ontario\" (ACÉPO).\n\nFormerly, the \"Conseil des écoles publiques de l'Est de l'Ontario\" was officially known as the \"Conseil de district des écoles publiques de langue française no 59\".\n\nSection::::Schools list.\n\nBULLET::::- École élémentaire publique Carrefour Jeunesse (Rockland)\n\nBULLET::::- École élémentaire publique Charlotte-Lemieux (Ottawa)\n\nBULLET::::- École élémentaire publique Cité-Jeunesse (Trenton)\n\nBULLET::::- École élémentaire publique De la Rivière-Castor (Embrun)\n\nBULLET::::- École élémentaire publique des Sentiers (Orléans)\n", "In 1967, cegeps were established in the province of Quebec, following the criticism brought by the \"Rapport Parent\". Indeed, before the law 60 was adopted, the costs to access to higher education were too expensive, the level of education was too poor and the admission to superior school was too strenuous. This legislation led to the construction of twelve cegeps in Quebec, including the Cégep de Sainte-Foy.\n", "BULLET::::- Eastwood Collegiate Institute, Kitchener\n\nBULLET::::- Elmira District Secondary School, Elmira\n\nBULLET::::- Forest Heights Collegiate Institute, Kitchener\n\nBULLET::::- Galt Collegiate Institute and Vocational School, Cambridge\n\nBULLET::::- Glenview Park Secondary School, Cambridge\n\nBULLET::::- Grand River Collegiate Institute, Kitchener\n\nBULLET::::- Huron Heights Secondary School, Kitchener\n\nBULLET::::- Jacob Hespeler Secondary School, Cambridge\n\nBULLET::::- Kitchener-Waterloo Collegiate and Vocational School, Kitchener\n\nBULLET::::- Preston High School, Cambridge\n\nBULLET::::- Sir John A. Macdonald Secondary School, Waterloo\n\nBULLET::::- Southwood Secondary School, Cambridge\n\nBULLET::::- Waterloo Collegiate Institute, Waterloo\n\nBULLET::::- Waterloo-Oxford District Secondary School, Baden\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Waterloo Region, Ontario schools\n", "BULLET::::- Sir Guy Carleton Secondary School\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Wilfrid Laurier Secondary School\n\nBULLET::::- South Carleton High School\n\nBULLET::::- West Carleton Secondary School\n\nBULLET::::- Woodroffe High School\n\nSection::::Closed.\n\nBULLET::::- Kent Street (Central) Public School closed unknown\n\nBULLET::::- Wellington Street Public School closed unknown\n\nBULLET::::- TP Maxwell Public School closed unknown (now Carlington Community and Health Services)\n\nBULLET::::- Brewer Park Public School closed unknown (now Westboro Academy)\n\nBULLET::::- Parkway Park Public School closed unknown (Now Bishop Hamilton Montessori School)\n\nBULLET::::- Bayshore Middle School closed unknown\n", "Prior to the establishment of CÉFCUT, several English-language school boards in the Toronto area operated secular Francophone schools with a total of almost 1,700 students; they were the North York Board of Education, Scarborough Board of Education, and Toronto Board of Education. Seven Francophone schools existed in the Toronto area in 1980. The concept of CÉFCUT was developed by a committee assembled by Ontario Minister of Education Sean Conway. CÉFCUT was established on 1 December 1988, and it began operations in 1989.\n", "The new school board assumed control of Monseigneur-de-Charbonnel, which remained Toronto's only French first language separate secondary school until 2012, when the school board opened École secondaire catholique Saint-Frère-André in the western portion of Toronto. Prior to the opening of ESC Père-Philippe-Lamarche, the school board did not operate a secondary school in Scarborough, the easternmost district of Toronto.\n", "BULLET::::- École Saint-Joseph, (Granby)\n\nBULLET::::- École Saint-Joseph, (Notre-Dame-de-Stanbridge)\n\nBULLET::::- École Saint-Léon, (Cowansville)\n\nBULLET::::- École Saint-Romuald, (Farnham)\n\nBULLET::::- École Saint-Vincent-Ferrier, (Bromont)\n\nBULLET::::- École Sainte-Cécile, (Sainte-Cécile-de-Milton)\n\nBULLET::::- École Sainte-Famille, (Granby)\n\nBULLET::::- École Sainte-Thérèse, (Cowansville)\n\nBULLET::::- École Sutton, (Sutton)\n\nSection::::Schools.:High schools (7).\n\nBULLET::::- École de la Haute-Ville, (Granby)\n\nBULLET::::- École Jean-Jacques-Bertrand, (Farnham)\n\nBULLET::::- École Joseph-Hermas-Leclerc, (Granby)\n\nBULLET::::- École L'Envolée, (Granby)\n\nBULLET::::- École Massey-Vanier, (Cowansville)\n\nBULLET::::- École Mgr-Desranleau, (Bedford)\n\nBULLET::::- École Wilfrid-Léger, (Waterloo)\n\nBULLET::::- École Secondaire du Verbe Divin, (Granby)\n\nSection::::Schools.:School for adults (2).\n", "BULLET::::- Parkwood Hills Public School closed June 2010 (used a rental site)\n\nBULLET::::- Munster Public School closed June 2015 (Munster, Ontario)\n\nBULLET::::- Rideau High School closed June 2017\n\nBULLET::::- Century Public School closed June 2017 (moved Grades 7 and 8 to Merivale High School)\n\nBULLET::::- D. Aubrey Moodie Intermediate School closed June 2017 (moved to Bell High School for Grades 7 and 8)\n\nBULLET::::- Grant Alternative School closed June 2017 (moved to Christie Public School site in 2007, originally located on 2380 Richmond Road closed in 1987 and re-opened in 1991)\n", "PCHS began as an academic and vocational high school for both English and French speaking Catholic students to accommodate West Island population expansion at the beginning of the 1970s. Prior to its opening in 1971, established West Island schools such as Saint Thomas High School, located in Pointe-Claire, Quebec, were doubling their enrolments to accommodate Catholic students. Protestant students were already served by Riverdale High School, which opened in 1965. \n", "Section::::Student body.:High school.\n\nUnlike most other Ontario schools, TFS completes the elementary school program (Grades 1-8) in seven years and retains a five-year high school instead of the Ontario four-year Grade 9-12 model. In this way, TFS maintains the provincial norm of 12 years of schooling, but dedicates the last five of these years to preparing students for a strong OSSD and the completion of the challenging requirements of the International Brevet and the IB Diploma.\n", "BULLET::::- Conseil des écoles séparées catholiques de Foleyet, Foleyet - merged with CSDC des Grandes Rivières\n\nBULLET::::- Foleyet District School Area Board, Foleyet - merged with DSB Ontario North East\n\nBULLET::::- Foleyet Roman Catholic Separate School Board, Foleyet - merged with CSDC des Grandes Rivières\n\nBULLET::::- Gogama District School Area Board, Gogama - merged with DSB Ontario North East\n\nBULLET::::- Gogama Roman Catholic Separate School Board, Gogama\n\nBULLET::::- Hornepayne Roman Catholic Separate School Board, Hornepayne - merged with Huron-Superior DSB and CDSC du Nouvel-Ontario\n\nBULLET::::- Ignace Roman Catholic Separate School Board, Ignace- merged with CSDC des Aurores boréales\n", "Before 1970, School District 15 administered anglophone and francophone schools in the Moncton area and considered a bilingual high school system housed under the same complex in Moncton. This concept would have had accommodated over 5000 students with separate linguistic curriculum but integration for common areas. With the prevalence of francophone students being vulnerable to assimilation within this design, educators and concerned parents alike sternly condemned the unification proposition, which would be a backlash to the minority language and Acadian communities of the province. Hence, Mathieu Martin would be inaugurated as part of the expanded francophone administered School District 13 at its inception.\n", "In addition to the Toronto District School Board, three other public school boards also operate in the city. The Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB), is a public English separate school board; Conseil scolaire Viamonde is a secular French public school board; and the Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre-Sud is a French separate public school board. However, the French school boards do not operate a school in the Leaside neighbourhood.\n", "Students in Quebec who intend to pursue post-secondary education must attend a college (i.e. CEGEP) before enrolling in a Quebec university. Students who follow a general studies program in Quebec complete six years of primary school (grades 1 through 6), followed by five years of secondary school (called \"grades 7 through 11\" or \"secondary 1 to secondary 5\" in English and \"1 secondaire au 5 secondaire\" in French). Quebec students complete one grade fewer in total than other North American students before beginning post-secondary studies, completing high school at grade 11 instead of grade 12. CEGEP programs are typically two years in length with the exception of certain technical programs that are three years in length; the latter programs are generally for those wishing to enter a technical profession. Following successful completion of CEGEP, most in-province undergraduate programs are three years in length for Quebec students; hence, the total number of years of study for Quebec students from primary school through a bachelor's degree is the same as for other students in North America. For example, a Quebec student who has completed a CEGEP diploma would begin a 3-year Quebec-based university program in Year 1 whereas an out-of-province student who has completed grade 12 would instead begin the same Quebec-based university program in Year 0. Contrarily, students who possess a CEGEP diploma may also generally attend out-of-province universities in which case diplomas are treated by universities in the same manner as the 2-year college diplomas (associate degree) or are awarded with one year of advanced standing. Some advanced courses at the CEGEP level may be assessed as equivalent to introductory courses at university.\n", "Ontario previously had Grade 13, which was briefly renamed Ontario Academic Credit (OAC), before being phased out, leaving Grade 12 as the final year. Grades 12 and 13 were similar to sixth form in England.\n\nQuebec is the only province that does not have Grade 12; their students finish secondary school at the equivalent of Grade 11, and then do two years of college before going to university. Thus, when a student is in Grade 12 in Ontario, for instance, the student in Quebec is in his first year of college.\n", "BULLET::::- Groh Public School (projected to open 2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Robertson Public School\n\nBULLET::::- J.F. Carmichael Public School\n\nBULLET::::- JW Gerth Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Jean Steckle Public School\n\nBULLET::::- John Darling Public School\n\nBULLET::::- King Edward Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Lackner Woods Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Laurentian Senior Public School†\n\nBULLET::::- Mackenzie King Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Margaret Avenue Senior Public School†\n\nBULLET::::- Meadowlane Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Pioneer Park Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Prueter Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Queen Elizabeth Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Queensmount Senior Public School†\n\nBULLET::::- Rockway Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Sandhills Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Sheppard Public School\n\nBULLET::::- Smithson Public School*\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15219	Why is it in the west HIV infections are still primarily related with homosexual activity and drug use but in Africa where the vast majority of worldwide cases is it primarily spread through heterosexual transmission?	Better access to contraceptives in the West. Less contraceptives are used in homosexual activities because no risk of pregnancy, drug use because sharing needles.	[ "The proportion of HIV cases that can be attributed to the result of homosexual relations varies according to geography. In Russia, among newly registered HIV cases in 2006 where the mode of transmission was known, about one half was due to heterosexual intercourse, and this proportion has been steadily increasing. Almost 60% of cases were attributed to unsafe sex between men. In the Caribbean, it is estimated that about 40% of reported HIV cases are the result of unsafe sex between men. About 53% of newly diagnosed HIV infections in the United States, in 2005, were among men who have sex with men. The largest proportion of new HIV infection in Canada, in 2002, was accounted for by unprotected sex between men, whereas in Western Europe the highest proportion was accounted for by heterosexual intercourse.\n", "With regard to unprotected heterosexual contacts, estimates of the risk of HIV transmission per sexual act appear to be four to ten times higher in low-income countries than in high-income countries. In low-income countries, the risk of female-to-male transmission is estimated as 0.38% per act, and of male-to-female transmission as 0.30% per act; the equivalent estimates for high-income countries are 0.04% per act for female-to-male transmission, and 0.08% per act for male-to-female transmission. The risk of transmission from anal intercourse is especially high, estimated as 1.41.7% per act in both heterosexual and homosexual contacts. While the risk of transmission from oral sex is relatively low, it is still present. The risk from receiving oral sex has been described as \"nearly nil\"; however, a few cases have been reported. The per-act risk is estimated at 00.04% for receptive oral intercourse. In settings involving prostitution in low income countries, risk of female-to-male transmission has been estimated as 2.4% per act and male-to-female transmission as 0.05% per act.\n", "In September 1984, Thailand reported its first case of AIDS. Unlike the common stigmatized association of AIDS with homosexual communities, HIV/AIDS in developing nations is also a heterosexual problem. In Thailand, individuals at risk for HIV/AIDS were exposed to the virus via their husbands, by continual sex partners, or by the sex trade industry. Thailand identified six main high-risk groups for contracting HIV/AID: homosexuals, injecting drug users (IUDs), sex workers, individuals receiving blood transfusions, other heterosexuals, and infants whose mothers are HIV carriers.\n", "Duesberg notes that diseases associated with AIDS differ between African and Western populations, concluding that the causes of immunodeficiency must be different. Tuberculosis is much more commonly diagnosed among AIDS patients in Africa than in Western countries, while PCP conforms to the opposite pattern. Tuberculosis, though, had higher prevalence in Africa than in the West before the spread of HIV. In Africa and the United States, HIV has spurred a similar percentage increase in tuberculosis cases. PCP may be underestimated in Africa: since machinery \"required for accurate testing is relatively rare in many resource-poor areas, including large parts of Africa, PCP is likely to be underdiagnosed in Africa. Consistent with this hypothesis, studies that report the highest rates of PCP in Africa are those that use the most advanced diagnostic methods\" Duesberg also claims that Kaposi's Sarcoma is \"exclusively diagnosed in male homosexual risk groups using nitrite inhalants and other psychoactive drugs as aphrodisiacs\", but the cancer is fairly common among heterosexuals in some parts of Africa, and is found in heterosexuals in the United States as well.\n", "In Egypt, HIV is most prevalent in high risk groups including street children, female sex workers (FSWs), men who have sex with men (MSM), and injecting drug users (IDUs). Globally, the average percentage of HIV infections through blood transfusions/products is only 5 percent. However, in Egypt, about 24 percent of all its known HIV cases are from infected blood products. There's also been five outbreaks in renal dialysis because of unsterile equipment. While the MOHP established an infection control program in 2003, controlling these infections is still challenging due to lack of training, proper equipment, and the fragile Egyptian health care system. In regards to intravenous drug use, between 16 percent and 41 percent of recreational drug users in Egypt use injected drugs, and about half of those have shared or reused syringes. One study explored sexual relations within the Egyptian population to determine prominence of HIV transmission and found that of the 74 percent in the study that were sexually active, 15 percent had more than three partners in the last month and 58 percent had never used a condom. About 26 percent of all HIV cases in Egypt occur in MSM and studies conducted by the NAP revealed very low rates of condom usage, along with multiple sexual partners among the MSM population. Additionally, many of the transmission cases are due to disease and to foreigners visiting or citizens living outside of the country, fueling some people's beliefs that HIV is a western disease. Although HIV prevention is not as comprehensive in Egypt as other parts of the world, the conservative religious beliefs in the country, both of the Muslim majority and the Coptic minority, provide their own form of protection. For instance, they frown upon promiscuity, homosexuality, and sex before marriage. These religious norms, along with widespread male circumcision, have resulted in decreased HIV transmission rates. However, over-reliance on the protection created by religious and cultural values has made HIV stigma and denial a problem. The protection that these values provide is counterbalanced by the stigma and discrimination that accompany those who defy these boundaries, leading to less HIV testing and treatment. Thus, the overall net impact on prevention is modest.\n", "Because reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world include a larger proportion of people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, Duesberg writes on his website that \"There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals.\" However, many studies have addressed the issue of risk groups in Africa and concluded that the risk of AIDS is not equally distributed. In addition, AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults.\n", "In a 2004 survey of the latter group, the Global Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS found that at least one prosecution had occurred in about half of these countries, and that in Finland, Sweden and Slovakia, about 0.5% to 1% of all people reported to be living with HIV/AIDS had been prosecuted for alleged intentional or \"negligent\" transmission of HIV. In many developing countries such as Thailand where the HIV/AIDS pandemic has been much more serious, laws regarding criminalisation of intentional transmission have been either weak or non-existent.\n", "A minority of scientists claim that as many as 40 percent of HIV infections in African adults may be caused by unsafe medical practices rather than by sexual activity. The World Health Organization states that about 2.5 percent of HIV infections in Sub-Saharan Africa are caused by unsafe medical injection practices and the \"overwhelming majority\" by unprotected sex.\n\nSection::::Regional prevalence.\n", "Despite efforts in numerous countries, awareness and prevention programs have not been effective enough to reduce the numbers of new HIV cases in many parts of the world, where it is associated with high mobility of men, poverty and sexual mores among certain populations. Uganda has had an effective program, however. Even in countries where the epidemic has a very high impact, such as Swaziland and South Africa, a large proportion of the population do not believe they are at risk of becoming infected. Even in countries such as the UK, there is no significant decline in certain at-risk communities. 2014 saw the greatest number of new diagnoses in gay men, the equivalent of nine being diagnosed a day.\n", "In this area, the routes of transmission of HIV is diverse, including paid sex, injecting drug use, mother to child, male with male sex and heterosexual sex. However, many new infections in this region occur through contact with HIV-infected individuals from other regions. The adult (15–49) prevalence in this region is 0.3% with between 570,000 and 890,000 people currently infected with HIV. Due to the availability of antiretroviral therapy, AIDS deaths have stayed low since the lows of the late 1990s. However, in some countries, a large share of HIV infections remain undiagnosed and there is worrying evidence of antiretroviral drug resistance among some newly HIV-infected individuals in this region.\n", "Because HIV is a sexually spread infectious that can infect individuals who rely on daily work to support themselves and their families, HIV/AIDS impacts much more than just a human's immune system. The impact of the epidemic is not uniformly distributed either. In 2005, HIV infection among adults aged 15 to 49 was estimated at 16.1 percent, and the primary mode of transmission was through heterosexual contact, with women at much greater risk for HIV infection than men. Young women aged 15 to 24 have an estimated HIV rate of 10.7 percent, compared to 3.6 percent among young men in the same age group. Nevertheless, factors such as personal knowledge of HIV and its effects, family support, and clinical confidentiality play large roles in the frequency by which HIV-positive individuals are linked to care.\n", "The distribution of AIDS cases, whether in the United States or elsewhere in the world, invariably mirrors the prevalence of HIV in a population. In the United States, HIV first appeared in populations of injection-drug users (a majority of whom are male) and gay men. HIV is spread primarily through unprotected sex, the exchange of HIV-contaminated needles, or cross-contamination of the drug solution and infected blood during intravenous drug use. Because these behaviors show a gender skew—Western men are more likely to take illegal drugs intravenously than Western women, and men are more likely to report higher levels of the riskiest sexual behaviors, such as unprotected anal intercourse—it is not surprising that a majority of U.S. AIDS cases have occurred in men.\n", "The Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) published a paper in 2005 offering specific policy solutions for alleviating the spread of the HIV virus in the MSM population for specific regions around the world. They pointed to “a profound lack of knowledge” and stigma about sexual identity as worldwide barriers to preventing transmission and encouraging those infected to seek treatment. The UNAIDS program has recommended that the South African government implement “sex positive” policies to reduce societal stigma around homosexuality and promote the use of water-based lubricants. Particularly in Morocco, the program has advocated distributing condoms in prisons. In recent years, the Chinese government has begun to acknowledge the sexuality of its constituents. According to UNAIDS, the “Government has made significant progress in recognizing the issue of male-to-male sexual health and HIV.” In Latin America, outreach to rural areas is critical to ensuring care to all individuals. The United Nations also emphasizes a focus on LGBT populations that are most vulnerable in Latin American nations. In Jamaica, as in many countries across the globe, homosexuality is outlawed so there are unique challenges to HIV prevention in the MSM community. The UN is trying to implement community-based strategies in Jamaica while still ensuring the anonymity of the people served. In Norway, UNAIDS has observed an increasing number of MSM who have untreated sexually transmitted infections, and their emphasis is on promoting condom use within the gay community. Despite Canada’s “liberal and progressive” reputation on the world stage, HIV-related stigma is still related to the gay community. The United Nations believes the United States needs to recognize sexual education as a fundamental human right. Additionally, better research on MSM in the U.S. would positively affect funding for HIV prevention and treatment programs.\n", "In South and Southeast Asia, the HIV epidemic remains largely concentrated in injecting drug users, men who have sex with men, sex workers, and clients of sex workers and their immediate sexual partners. In the Philippines, in particular, sexual contact between males comprise the majority of new infections. An HIV surveillance study conducted by Dr. Louie Mar Gangcuangco and colleagues from the University of the Philippines-Philippine General Hospital showed that out of 406 MSM tested for HIV in Metro Manila, HIV prevalence was 11.8% (95% confidence interval: 8.7- 15.0).\n", "(430,000–810,000) if Pakistan and Afghanistan are included. In 2015, only 37% of people infected with HIV were actually aware of their status.\n\nDespite the low prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the MENA region, there are epidemics among vulnerable groups with an evidence of substantial proportion of local spread within the region. As of 2012, the prevalence of HIV among men who have sex with men in Egypt is estimated to be 5.0%–9.9%.\n\nSection::::By region.:South and South-East Asia.\n\nThe geographical size and human diversity of South and South-East Asia have resulted in HIV epidemics differing across the region.\n", "The most frequent mode of transmission of HIV is through sexual contact with an infected person. However, an HIV-positive person who has an undetectable viral load as a result of long-term treatment has effectively no risk of transmitting HIV sexually. Globally, the most common mode of HIV transmission is via sexual contacts between people of the opposite sex; however, the pattern of transmission varies among countries. , most HIV transmission in the United States occurred among men who had sex with men (83% of new HIV diagnoses among males aged 13 and older and 67% of total new diagnoses). In the US, gay and bisexual men aged 13 to 24 accounted for an estimated 92% of new HIV diagnoses among all men in their age group and 27% of new diagnoses among all gay and bisexual men. About 15% of gay and bisexual men have HIV while 28% of transgender women test positive in the US.\n", "Though evidence is still being gathered for making program decisions, some populations thought to be at risk include sex workers, transport workers, prisoners, sexual partners of people living with HIV/AIDS, and men who have sex with men and their female sexual partners. HIV prevalence among uniformed services is not fully established.\n", "Risk of transmission increases in the presence of many sexually transmitted infections and genital ulcers. Genital ulcers appear to increase the risk approximately fivefold. Other sexually transmitted infections, such as gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, and bacterial vaginosis, are associated with somewhat smaller increases in risk of transmission.\n", "Section::::New infection statistics.\n\nIn the general population, 80% of new infections occur in people in monogamous relationships. According to Senegal's AIDS authority, among the newly infected, three-quarters of people engage in some high risk behavior. About one quarter of the newly infected engage in high risk behaviors themselves and about half of the newly infected have a partner who engages in high risk activities. Because homosexuality is illegal in Senegal, many MSMs have long term female partners as well as male partners, so many women unknowingly have a partner who is in a high risk group.\n", "Inadequate information becomes a risk factor for the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. The mischaracterization of HIV/AIDS as a homosexual disease has led higher status heterosexuals that participate in risky sexual behaviour to continue without considering the risk of infection. Education is important in the growth of adolescent reasoning, as having less prior knowledge shows a compulsion to construct reality based on recent experiences.\n", "Some countries have been struck harder by the HIV epidemic than others. Kenya, in particular, has been hit the hardest, not just in the region but globally. This is in part to drug use among sex workers. These workers would inject drugs during or before intercourse, most commonly through contaminated needles. Due to lack of financial means, these workers could not afford clean needles, and combined with lack of knowledge about the disease itself, have to lead to a spike in HIV rates among sex workers which in turn has lead to a proliferation of the disease across the country.\n", "In Africa, subtype C of HIV-1 is very common, whereas it is rare in America or Europe. People with subtype C progress to AIDS faster than those with subtype A, the predominant subtype in America and Europe (see HIV disease progression rates#HIV subtype variation and effect on progression rates).\n\nSection::::Causes and spread.:Religious factors.\n\nPressure from some religious leaders has resulted in the banning of a number of safe-sex campaigns, including condom promoting advertisements being banned in Kenya.\n\nSection::::Health Care delivery.\n", "Section::::The East African drug trade and HIV.\n\nThe increase in injecting drugs with needles is also credited with the rise of HIV in East African countries. In particular, in the countries of Mozambique, Tanzania, Madagascar, and Kenya, those who partake in drugs are more likely to have HIV, and account for 2% of new HIV infections as of 2014. Those in East Africa who do drugs are also much more likely to catch HIV before the age of 25 compared to the general population, and general statistics point towards a higher rate of HIV compared to the general population.\n", "The main driver of infection in the region is commercial sex. In the Ghanaian capital of Accra, for example, 80 percent of HIV infections in young men had been acquired from women who sell sex. In Niger in 2011, the national HIV prevalence rate for ages 15–49 was 0.8 percent while for sex workers it was 36 percent.\n\nSection::::Regional prevalence.:Southern Africa.\n", "The most frequent mode of transmission of HIV continues to be through male homosexual sexual relations. In general, recent studies have shown that 1 in 5 gay and bisexual men were infected with HIV. As of 2014, in the United States, 83% of new HIV diagnoses among all males aged 13 and older and 67% of the total estimated new diagnoses were among homosexual and bisexual men. Those aged 13 to 24 also accounted for an estimated 92% of new HIV diagnoses among all men in their age group.\n" ]	[ "HIV infections should be spread via heterosexuals in the West" ]	[ "The West has better access to contraceptives." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "HIV infections should be spread via heterosexuals in the West", "HIV infections should be spread via heterosexuals in the West" ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The West has better access to contraceptives.", "The West has better access to contraceptives." ]
2018-13258	What are the cultural and social reasons to throw a sexual bachelor/bachelorette party?	Bachelor parties date back to ancient Sparta, where where men would eat and drink the night before a friend's wedding. That was all about celebrating the union, saying goodbye to the 'carefree' days before a man took on the responsibility of a family, and swearing allegiance to one another for battle and stuff. I think the same thing still stands today, minus the battle thing, and people celebrate in the same spirit in a lot of different cultures across the world. For most people I think it's about having a good time with friends and celebrating the past before you take a big step into another chapter of your life. Looking back through history, I kind of think it makes sense for bachelor parties to be sexual. For example in the 1800's (I'm generalising here) people often didn't marry for love, but rather for status/power, or because of social pressure. Marriage wasn't always a fun thing for people to do, it was sometimes pretty business-like, and it often meant the couple would take on the responsibility of children, more money with their combined finances, and more influence in their community (even if they did marry for love, that's still a lot of new responsibility). All that in mind, it makes sense that bachelor parties have a history of being rowdy and wild. I you're going into a loveless marriage to a woman who's expected to act a certain way, or if you're marrying someone you love but you'll have to uphold a certain social standard, you'd want to have fun before you did so. Again, I guess the same train of thought could be applied today in some cases.	[ "Other pre-wedding celebrations, such as bridesmaids luncheons, are often held instead of bachelorette parties due to the latter's association with licentiousness in some countries since the 1980s.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The first references to Western Stag Nights in the Oxford English Dictionary date to the 19th century. Traditionally, Stag Nights involved a black tie banquet hosted by the father of the groom that included a toast in honour of the groom and bride. Since the 1980s, bachelor parties in the United States have involved vacationing to a foreign destination, or have featured female company such as strippers or topless waitresses.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The bachelorette party is consciously modeled after the centuries-old bachelor's party, which is itself historically a black tie dinner given by the bridegroom, or sometimes his father, shortly before his wedding.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern adaptations.\n\nThe practice of giving a party to honour the bride-to-be goes back for centuries. However, certain American bachelorette party customs involving licentiousness among some social groups may have begun during the sexual revolution of the 1960s. It was uncommon until at least the mid-1980s, and the first book on planning bachelorette parties was published only in 1998.\n", "The bachelor party dates back as early as the 5th century B.C. The ancient Spartans celebrated the groom's last night as a single man in which they held a dinner and made toasts on his behalf.\n", "In the 21st century, many companies sell products aimed at the organizers of bachelorette parties, including packs of themed games, pre-printed invitations, decorations, novelties, and sex toys. A common theme of parties is male nudity. In North America, it is common in some social circles to hire a male stripper or attend a male strip club.\n", "Those uncomfortable with these modern customs of debauchery often celebrate the night before their wedding with a combined stag and doe party, a custom that has become increasingly popular.\n\nAuthor Beth Montemurro has tied the cultural significance of a bachelorette party to concepts of gender equality. The phrase \"hen party\" mirrors the male \"stag party\" in referencing social stereotypes of each gender at the party.\n", "A more traditional alternative is the \"bridesmaids luncheon\", hosted by friends of the bride's mother or mothers of the bridesmaids, usually given the day before the wedding. Attendees include the bridesmaids, their mothers and close female friends and relatives; the event is often multi-generational including mothers and even grandmothers of the bride and groom. At a bridesmaids luncheon, the bride often presents a small gift to each bridesmaid. The purpose of the luncheon is for the bride to thank her attendants and includes presenting them with bridesmaid gifts. This is also the time when the bridesmaids' gift, if any, is customarily given to the bride. If there is a cake, it may contain symbolic good luck charms.\n", "When held in a private venue, such as the hostess's home, the party may take any form that pleases the hostesses and honors the bride-to-be. Dinners and cocktail parties, which provide comfortable opportunities for participants to talk or to give intimate advice to the bride-to-be, are common. Other hostesses choose a themed party, such as a \"pamper party,\" with guests indulging in spa treatments, or a cooking class. While proposing a toast to the bride-to-be is common at most bachelorette parties, some center on drinking games.\n", "Bachelor parties in the US stereotypically entail the mass consumption of alcohol, hiring a stripper, and general rowdiness toward which the bride might not have a positive reaction; in fact, the defining feature of the bachelor party is that the fiancée is not present. Increasingly, bachelor parties have come to symbolize the last time when the groom is free of the influence of his new wife/partner. Pop out cakes are sometimes associated.\n\nCanadian bachelor parties generally consist of a group of bachelors celebrating their singleness.\n\nSection::::Variations.:India.\n", "Many different kinds of entertainment are selected, depending on what the organizers think will best please their guest of honor. While notions of a bachelorette party as a night of drunken debauchery have persist in some social circles since the 1980s, it is becoming widely seen in America as an opportunity for female bonding. According to etiquette expert Peggy Post, \"Whatever entertainment is planned, it should not embarrass, humiliate, or endanger the honoree or any of the guests.\"\n", "Since the 1980s, many parties in honor of the bride-to-be that were labeled as bachelorette parties often involved displays of sexual freedom philosophy, such as trading intimate secrets, getting drunk, and watching male strippers. Parties that honored the bride-to-be without them avoided that label. Now, however, the term is used for a wide variety of parties. \n\nBachelorette parties became especially popular around the turn of the 21st century and frequently appeared in the news.\n\nSection::::Entertainment.\n", "However, sober bachelorette parties are not unusual. Many brides and guests are staying sober in recovery from alcoholism or are not drinking alcoholic beverages due to pregnancy or health issues, for religious reasons, or because they do not want to drink alcohol. Sober parties focus on building relationships and activities beyond hanging out at a place that serves alcohol.\n\nSection::::Location.\n", "In the United Kingdom, it is now common for the party to last for more than one evening, hence the increasing prevalence of the phrase \"stag weekend\", or \"stag do\". A spin-off has been the growth of the stag weekend industry in the UK with various companies taking over the preparation of the event.\n", "Section::::Modern-day changes.\n\nIn developed countries, as people live longer and become more affluent, there has been a shift in the practices of life cycle rituals. Newly conceptualized stages have emerged, such as “bridal shower”, “baby shower”, “bachelor/bachelorette party”, “mid-life” and “empty nest”. These celebrations are derived from evolving stages in a life and signify progression and change. They can be culminated and categorized under traditional classifications of the life cycle rituals, and represent the dynamic growth of society and culture in today’s modern and technologically advanced world.\n", "Bachelorette party\n\nA Hen Night or Bachelorette Party (United States of America) is a party held for a woman who is about to get married. The Hen Party is modelled after the Stag Night, which is itself historically a dinner given by the bridegroom to his friends shortly before his wedding. Despite its reputation as \"a sodden farewell to maiden days\" or \"an evening of debauchery\", these events can simply be parties given in honor of the bride-to-be, in the style that is common to that social circle.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Participating in a bachelorette party is always optional, and many brides decline these parties altogether. Neither bridesmaids nor other friends can be required either to attend or to pay for any part of this party.\n\nSince it is derived from a formal dinner, a bachelorette party is properly held in the evening, usually about a week (or at least a few days) before the wedding, and usually includes dinner, although alternative approaches are not uncommon.\n\nSection::::Role of alcohol.\n\nIn the early 21st century, some bachelorette parties rivaled the drunkenness seen in Hollywood portrayals of bachelor parties. \n", "Bachelor party\n\nA Stag Night, also known as a Stag Weekend, Stag Do or Stag Party (in the United Kingdom, Commonwealth countries, and Ireland), a buck's night (in Australia) or Bachelor Party (in United States) is a party held for the man who is to shortly enter marriage.\n\nA Stag Night is usually planned by the groomsman, occasionally with the assistance of a bachelor party planning company. \n", "Bachelor parties in India are not different. Here, the groom gets party from his friends.\n\nSection::::Variations.:South Africa.\n\nBachelor parties in South Africa are expected to be a surprise, which is a unique regional variant. The party is planned without the groom’s knowledge and is typically a couple days before the wedding. It often includes a traditional braai.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bachelorette party\n\nBULLET::::- Bridal shower\n\nBULLET::::- \"STAG: A Test of Love\", a reality television show about bachelor parties\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bachelor Party\", a 1984 film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Very Bad Things\", a 1998 film\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Hangover\", a 2009 film\n", "They are usually held at a hotel or other large function room. The debs usually, though not always, is a formal dinner, followed by music consisting of pop, dance, rock music and even traditional Irish music. Alcohol is almost always served. Traditionally there is a photographer present, who will take individual shots of each couple, several throughout the night, the dancing and whatever speeches occur. It is not uncommon for the event to last all night, hence attendees do not to return home until the following morning, often going for breakfast together. Sometimes the hotel will provide this.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "In the UK, a naked butler has become a common theme and a popular hen party idea. The naked butler is often dressed in just a collar, dickie bow, cuffs and a short apron or trunks. He will wait on the hen and her party including serving drinks and food as well as hosting or taking part in hen party games and entertainment. An extension of this concept that has also become popular in the UK is the hiring of a naked chef to cater for the guests often accompanied by a naked butler to serve the food and drinks. Life drawing parties featuring a nude male model might also be held.\n", "Section::::Alternatives.\n", "Section::::Organization.\n\nParticipants are often all women. Bridesmaids (if any) are typically invited, but any of the bride's close friends may be included.\n", "The term \"bachelor\", originally meaning \"a young knight-in-training\", was firstly mentioned in the 14th century to refer to an unmarried man in Geoffrey Chaucer's \"The Canterbury Tales\". In 1922, the term \"bachelor party\" was published in William Chambers's \"Journal of Literature, Science and Arts\" and was described as a \"jolly old\" party.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nThe equivalent event for the bride-to-be is known as a bachelorette party or hen night.\n", "If a significant aspect of the party is presenting small gifts to the bride-to-be, then the event is properly called a bridal shower. For the convenience of the bride-to-be, bridal showers are usually held earlier than a bachelorette party.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Canada.\n", "Some also choose instead to hold a \"stag and doe\" party in the US, or a \"hag party\" or \"hag do\" in the UK (\"hag\" being a combination of the words \"hen\" and \"stag\"), in which both the bride and groom attend.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Germany.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06808	Why does the US send aid to other countries when there are people in need here?	They so spend money domestically, more than they do on foreign aid. Its a strangely common fallacy that something as large as a national government can only address one problem at a time. They sound the same on paper (people going hungry), but the US has a distribution and wealth problem, not a supply problem. They can send excess supplies to other nations in need without jeopardizing their own capacity to survive. Its kind of like asking why someone would lend someone else a pen for an essay when they are struggling to write their own essay. The other person doesn’t have enough ink, but thats not what is stopping the first person from writing their essay.	[ "President Obama announced to the UN Millennium Development Goals summit in September 2010 that the United States was changing its policy towards foreign aid. The President said the country would focus more on effectiveness, and make sure donated food, medicine, and money help countries get to the point where they no longer require such aid. Infrastructure set up for the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief would be used to build capacity in local health care systems to improve maternal and child health, and also fight tropical diseases. The new policy would increase the profile and participation of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which would coordinate more directly with the National Security Council and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. Some observers criticized the link with national security and foreign policy as unhelpful for the impoverished, and others lamented the attempted streamlining as only adding more bureaucracy. Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting government-funded foreign aid much more than conservatives do, who tend to prefer to provide foreign aid privately.\n", "Humanitarian aid is argued to often not reach those who are intended to receive it. For example, a report composed by the World Bank in 2006 stated that an estimated half of the funds donated towards health programs in sub-Saharan Africa did not reach the clinics and hospitals. Money is paid out to fake accounts, prices are increased for transport or warehousing, and drugs are sold to the black market. Another example is in Ghana, where approximately 80% of donations do not go towards their intended purposes. This type of corruption only adds to the criticism of aid, as it is not helping those who need it, and may be adding to the problem. Only about one fifth of U.S. aid goes to countries classified by the OECD as ‘least developed.’ This \"pro-rich\" trend is not unique to the United States. According to Collier, \"the middle income countries get aid because they are of much more commercial and political interest than the tiny markets and powerlessness of the bottom billion.\" What this means is that, at the most basic level, aid is not targeting the most extreme poverty.\n", "The World Food Program (WFP), the biggest non-governmental distributor of food, announced that it will begin distributing cash and vouchers instead of food in some areas, which Josette Sheeran, the WFP's executive director, described as a \"revolution\" in food aid.\n\nSection::::Improving aid effectiveness.:Coordination.\n\nWhile the number of Non-governmental Organization have increased dramatically over the past few decades, fragmentation in aid policy is an issue. Because of such fragmentation, health workers in several African countries, for example, say they are so busy meeting western delegates that they can only do their proper jobs in the evening.\n", "In practice, many USAID missions find that their counterparts appreciate having both forms of aid: an assistance package that includes some financial assistance for things that can simply be bought and some technical assistance to confront problems and issues whose solutions are not so clear.\n\nSection::::Controversies and criticism.:Cost of delivering assistance.\n", "Monetization of U.S. in-kind food aid\n\nMonetization of U.S. in-kind food aid is the sale of food commodities purchased in and shipped from the United States and sold for local currency in a recipient country by \"cooperating sponsors\", which are typically U.S.-based non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or recipient governments.\n", "In 2008, two missions were implemented by PIN in Burma (relief and recovery operations after cyclone Nargis) and the DR Congo (support for victims of rape and sexual violence). One year later in 2009 the organization was involved in providing assistance after the devastating floods in the Czech Republic.\n", "In collaboration with the Project Handclasp Foundation, Inc., U.S. embassies, American\n\ncharities and foreign organizations, the U.S. Navy provides free transportation and storage of donated materials from various American charities to countries that have asked for assistance. U.S. embassies, or U.S. country teams, coordinate with the host country about the relief work and materials to be provided ensuring that\n", "Ecuador – Mt. Cotopaxi (2015): The President of Ecuador declared a state of emergency in 2015 because of the increasing signs of activity coming from the Cotopaxi volcano. Since 2010, Direct Relief has provided six Ecuadorian health care partners with aid totaling $2,122,650.\n\nSection::::Emergency preparedness and response.:Relief efforts.:Disease outbreaks.\n\nH1N1 Outbreak (2009): During the H1N1 surge, Direct Relief provided 478 clinics in 49 states with H1N1 protective items to keep clinic workers healthy throughout flu season.\n", "As part of their development projects, assistance has been provided in more than 50 countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. Including, DR Congo, Ethiopia, Angola, Mongolia, Cambodia and Romania. They address long-term problems such as the unavailability of quality education, health care or environmental degradation. Focusing on securing basic living needs (water, health, education, nutrition) and promoting social programs, local business development, and supporting civil society and good governance. In Afghanistan, the organization began operating in 2001 after the fall of the Taliban, focusing on addressing long-term problems of livelihood, education and local community development.\n\nSection::::Programs and projects.:Social integration programs.\n", "Section::::Potential effects.\n\nPositive\n\nBULLET::::- Increases the quality and quantity of food available in the recipient country\n\nBULLET::::- Generates income for development projects and food distribution\n\nBULLET::::- Develops markets and stabilize local food prices\n\nNegative\n\nBULLET::::- Displaces imports\n\nBULLET::::- Disrupts local markets\n\nBULLET::::- Leads to dependency on aid in recipient countries\n\nBULLET::::- Creates inefficiency in monetary provision of aid\n", "Some of the U.S. Government's earliest foreign aid programs provided relief in crises created by war. In 1915, USG assistance through the Commission for Relief of Belgium headed by Herbert Hoover prevented starvation in Belgium after the German invasion. After 1945, the European Recovery Program championed by Secretary of State George Marshall (the \"Marshall Plan\") helped rebuild war-torn Western Europe.\n\nUSAID manages relief efforts after wars and natural disasters through its Office of U.S Foreign Disaster Assistance in Washington D.C. Privately funded U.S. NGOs and the U.S. military also play major roles in disaster relief overseas.\n\nSection::::Goals.:Poverty relief.\n", "Due to the size of the US federal budget, the 0.7 percent put towards foreign aid comprises a significant proportion of all foreign aid flows including other donors. Most US foreign aid does not go to other governments due to skepticism about corruption in other countries. There is a fear among the American people that foreign aid is funneled and used to increase the personal wealth of corrupt government leaders of foreign countries. However, about 85 percent of foreign aid goes to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and US-government contractors, meaning that most of foreign aid is not being given directly to foreign governments.\n", "On July 21, 2004, in a statement on the fiftieth anniversary of the Food for Peace program, Bush hailed the United States for feeding the hungry. Noting that \"Millions are facing great affliction...,\" he stated that \"America has a special calling to come to their aid...\" After the 2004 election, however, the Bush administration told several private charities that it would not be honoring previous funding commitments. The shortfall, estimated at $100 million, forced the charities to suspend or eliminate programs that had already been approved to improve farming, education and health in order to promote self-sufficiency in poor countries.\n", "One of the central tenets in Easterly's approach is a more bottom up philosophy of aid. This applies not only to the identification of problems, but to the actual distribution of capital to the areas in need. In effect, Easterly would have countries go to the area which needed aid, collect information about the problem, find out what the population wanted, and then work from there. In keeping with this, funds would also be distributed from the bottom up, rather than being given to a specific government.\n", "Laurie Garret, author of the article \"The Challenge of Global Health\" points out that the current aid and resources are being targeted at very specific, high-profile diseases, rather than at general public health. Aid is \"stovepiped\" towards narrow, short-term goals relating to particular programs or diseases such as increasing the number of people receiving anti-retroviral treatment, and increasing distribution of bed nets. These are band aid solutions to larger problems, as it takes healthcare systems and infrastructure to create significant change. Donors lack the understanding that effort should be focused on broader measures that affect general well being of the population, and substantial change will take generations to achieve. Aid often does not provide maximum benefit to the recipient, and reflects the interests of the donor.\n", "From 1985 - 2009, $327.6 million in cash and $884.6 million in commodities of aid was given throughout 178 countries.\n\nSection::::In Africa.\n", "Section::::Synopsis.:The actual state of foreign aid today.\n", "In absolute dollar terms, the United States government is the largest international aid donor ($23 billion in 2014). The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) manages the bulk of bilateral economic assistance; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid. In addition many private agencies, churches and philanthropies provide aid.\n", "Because the US public is perceptive to information regarding public aid, Steven Kull, Director of the Program on International Policy Attitudes, laid out steps to preserve or create a positive outlook on US foreign aid.\n\nBULLET::::1. Understand the attacks on foreign aid.\n\nBULLET::::2. Do not frame questions about public opinion in terms of priorities because people are likely to prioritize domestic issues.\n\nBULLET::::3. Emphasize that only 1 percent of the federal budget goes towards foreign aid, as the Clinton administration did in the 1990s.\n", "A few days after President Trump's inauguration in January 2017, the State Department conducted a formal review of the United States' economic support fund. The review was specifically centered around the Obama Administration's flurry of foreign aid contributions and initiatives made during the final two months of his term. In his first State of the Union address, President Trump iterated a theme of \"America First,\" proclaiming his dislike of programs like democracy promotion and generic humanitarian aid aimed largely at countries in Latin America. President Trump insists that Congress pass laws to ensure that \"American foreign-assistance dollars always serve American interests, and only go to \"America’s friends.\" However, only about one percent of the United States federal budget goes to foreign aid — 40% considered security assistance, rather than economic or humanitarian aid.\n", "After the emergency delegation to Haiti, the organization changed its course of action to focus on reducing poverty and providing assistance in Israel only. \n\nSection::::Organization's purpose.\n", "One of the problems in foreign aid allocation is the marginalization of the fragile state. The fragile state, with its high volatility, and risk of failure scares away donors. The people of those states feel harm and are marginalized as a result. Additionally, the fate of neighboring states is important, as economies of the directly adjacent states to those impoverished, volatile \"fragile states\" can be negatively impacted by as much as 1.6% of their GDP per year. This is no small figure. McGillivray advocates for the reduced volatility of aid flows, which can only be attained through analysis and coordination.\n", "The scale of humanitarian aid to the poor and unstable regions of the world grows, but it is highly vulnerable to corruption, with food aid, construction and other highly valued assistance as the most at risk. Food aid can be directly and physically diverted from its intended destination, or indirectly through the manipulation of assessments, targeting, registration and distributions to favor certain groups or individuals.\n", "Aid is funded by donations from individuals, corporations, governments and other organizations. The funding and delivery of humanitarian aid is increasingly international, making it much faster, more responsive, and more effective in coping to major emergencies affecting large numbers of people (e.g. see Central Emergency Response Fund). The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) coordinates the international humanitarian response to a crisis or emergency pursuant to Resolution 46/182 of the United Nations General Assembly. The need for aid is ever-increasing and has long outstripped the financial resources available.\n\nSection::::Delivery of humanitarian aid.\n", "Section::::Improving aid effectiveness.:Cash aid versus in-kind aid.\n\nA report by a High Level Panel on Humanitarian Cash Transfers found that only 6% of aid is delivered in the form of cash or vouchers. But there is a growing realization among aid groups that, for locally available goods, giving cash or cash vouchers instead of imported goods is a cheaper, faster, and more efficient way to deliver aid.\n" ]	[ "The US is not aiding people in need in this country.", "When the US gives foreign aid, it reduces resources for US citizens." ]	[ "The US aids people in this country and sends excess to other countries.", "The US doesn't have a resource problem, it has a distribution and wealth problem." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The US is not aiding people in need in this country.", "When the US gives foreign aid, it reduces resources for US citizens." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The US aids people in this country and sends excess to other countries.", "The US doesn't have a resource problem, it has a distribution and wealth problem." ]
2018-00886	If moon is tidal tidally-locked to Earth, causing its' same face to always face us, why is the same not true for Earth with the sun?	We're actually on the course to being tidally locked with respect to the Moon sooner than with respect to the Sun. The Moon's gravity causes the world's oceans to bulge out towards it, but the Earth is also rotating on it's axis. This shifts that bulge a little ahead instead of directly under the moon. The gravity of this bulge both speeds the Moon's orbit up to catch up with it, and slows the Earth's rotation down due to friction. If this process goes on uninterrupted, eventually the Moon will forever be over one location on the Earth. That side of the Earth will forever face the moon. I forget the predicted time scale for this. Maybe someone else could post it? I vaguely remember reading that this scenario is moot due to the Sun being set to go nova long before it has time to happen. Edit: To get back to your actual question though, there is a tidal bulge produced by the Sun's gravity too, and it too is slowing down the Earth's rotation as it tries to follow the Sun. If left spinning in our current state for enough time, it'll alter the Earth's rotation to the point that one full rotation of the Earth takes a whole year. Then we'd be like the planet the Starwars Twi'lek race are from. As u/Nejfelt points out though, the Red Giant phase of our Sun would happen sooner than this process, so it's a moot thought. Edit edit: After some thought, I think I have a more five year old friendly way of explaining this. Lets say there is a small planet spinning in space. With no air friction to slow it down. It'll keeps spinning like this at the same speed forever. Lets say that a man in a spaceship is orbiting this planet. He tosses down a rock on a very long rope that lands on the planet. The rock moves with the planet's rotation until the rope grows taunt and tugs it along. Due to the friction of the rock being dragged along the planet, the planet's spin slows down. Given enough time, eventually one side of the planet always faces the spaceship. In this analogy, the rope is the Sun's gravity, and the rock is everything that is pulled towards that gravity. This is most noticeable with the ocean's tide, but also includes the air and more solid objects. Even a planet entirely composed of dirt will be warped into having a slight bulge towards a star. That bulge will then move with the rotation of the planet, and the extra gravity of that bulge would in turn tug toward the star to slow the rotation down.	[ "Atomic clocks also show that Earth's day lengthens by about 15 microseconds every year, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds.\n\nLeft to run its course, this tidal drag would continue until the spin of Earth and the orbital period of the Moon matched, creating mutual tidal locking between the two. As a result, the Moon would be suspended in the sky over one meridian, as is already currently the case with Pluto and its moon Charon. However, the Sun will become a red giant engulfing the Earth-Moon system long before this occurrence.\n", "The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator.\n", "For bodies of similar size the effect may be of comparable size for both, and both may become tidally locked to each other on a much shorter timescale. An example is the dwarf planet Pluto and its satellite Charon. They have already reached a state where Charon is visible from only one hemisphere of Pluto and vice versa.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Eccentric orbits.\n", "The Moon's rotation and orbital periods are tidally locked with each other, so no matter when the Moon is observed from Earth the same hemisphere of the Moon is always seen. The far side of the Moon was not seen until 1959, when photographs of most of the far side were transmitted from the Soviet spacecraft Luna 3.\n\nWhen the Earth is observed from the moon, the Earth does not appear to translate across the sky but appears to remain in the same place, rotating on its own axis.\n", "The Earth and its Moon are one example of this configuration. Today, the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth; one of its revolutions around the Earth (currently about 29 days) is equal to one of its rotations about its axis, so it always shows one face to the Earth. The Moon will continue to recede from Earth, and Earth's spin will continue to slow gradually. Other examples are the Galilean moons of Jupiter (as well as many of Jupiter's smaller moons) and most of the larger moons of Saturn.\n", "One of the challenges for NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite was to find a stable orbit in cislunar space, a region from outside the Earth's atmosphere to just beyond the Moon's orbit. The orbit in which the satellite was originally set could only be reliably predicted for about 3 years. Within cislunar space small changes in initial conditions could lead to very different trajectories years later. Because IBEX's original orbit was often closer to the Moon than the Earth, it was regularly performing gravity assists. The uncertainties in the initial orbit conditions would cause nearly identical trajectory predictions to eventually experience different gravity assist geometries, and the slightest change in that geometry during the encounter would cause huge differences in the subsequent satellite trajectory. Some predictions would hit the Earth and others would escape the Earth–Moon system. The new orbit keeps the apogee away from the Moon, reducing its sensitivity to gravity assists. IBEX can now predict this trajectory well beyond 11 years, allowing the satellite to easily observe the Sun's full solar cycle.\n", "If other effects were ignored, tidal acceleration would continue until the rotational period of Earth matched the orbital period of the Moon. At that time, the Moon would always be overhead of a single fixed place on Earth. Such a situation already exists in the Pluto–Charon system. However, the slowdown of Earth's rotation is not occurring fast enough for the rotation to lengthen to a month before other effects make this irrelevant: About 1 to 1.5 billion years from now, the continual increase of the Sun's radiation will likely cause Earth's oceans to vaporize, removing the bulk of the tidal friction and acceleration. Even without this, the slowdown to a month-long day would still not have been completed by 4.5 billion years from now when the Sun will probably evolve into a red giant and likely destroy both Earth and the Moon.\n", "The tidal locking effect is also experienced by the larger body A, but at a slower rate because B's gravitational effect is weaker due to B's smaller mass. For example, Earth's rotation is gradually being slowed by the Moon, by an amount that becomes noticeable over geological time as revealed in the fossil record. Current estimations are that this (together with the tidal influence of the Sun) has helped lengthen the Earth day from about 6 hours to the current 24 hours (over ≈ ⁠4½ billion years). Currently, atomic clocks show that Earth's day lengthens, on average, by about 15 microseconds every year. Given enough time, this would create a mutual tidal locking between Earth and the Moon. The length of the Earth's day would increase and the length of a lunar month would also increase. The Earth's sidereal day would eventually have the same length as the Moon's orbital period, about 47 times the length of the Earth's day at present. However, Earth is not expected to become tidally locked to the Moon before the Sun becomes a red giant and engulfs Earth and the Moon.\n", "Asimov lists tug-of-war ratio for 32 satellites (then known in 1963) of the Solar System. The list below shows one example from each planet.\n\nSection::::The special case of the Moon.\n\nUnlike other satellites of the solar system, the solar attraction on the Moon is more than that of its primary. According to Asimov, the Moon is a planet moving around the Sun in careful step with the Earth.\n", "Not every case of tidal locking involves synchronous rotation. With Mercury, for example, this tidally locked planet completes three rotations for every two revolutions around the Sun, a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance. In the special case where an orbit is nearly circular and the body's rotation axis is not significantly tilted, such as the Moon, tidal locking results in the same hemisphere of the revolving object constantly facing its partner.\n", "For the locking of a primary body to its satellite as in the case of Pluto, the satellite and primary body parameters can be swapped.\n", "Whereas the gravitational force subjected by a celestial body on Earth varies inversely as the square of its distance to the Earth, the maximal tidal force varies inversely as, approximately, the cube of this distance. If the tidal force caused by each body were instead equal to its full gravitational force (which is not the case due to the free fall of the whole Earth, not only the oceans, towards these bodies) a different pattern of tidal forces would be observed, e.g. with a much stronger influence from the Sun than from the Moon: The solar gravitational force on the Earth is on average 179 times stronger than the lunar, but because the Sun is on average 389 times farther from the Earth, its field gradient is weaker. The solar tidal force is 46% as large as the lunar. More precisely, the lunar tidal acceleration (along the Moon–Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 1.1 × 10 \"g\", while the solar tidal acceleration (along the Sun–Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 0.52 × 10 \"g\", where \"g\" is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface. Venus has the largest effect of the other planets, at 0.000113 times the solar effect. The system of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun is an example of a three-body problem, and there is no exact mathematical closed-form expression of their interdependence.\n", "It is predicted that the lunar distance will continue to increase until (in theory) the Earth and Moon become tidally locked. This would occur when the duration of the lunar orbital period equals the rotational period of Earth. The two bodies would then be at equilibrium, and no further rotational energy would be exchanged. However, models predict that 50 billion years would be required to achieve this configuration, which is significantly longer than the expected lifetime of the solar system.\n\nSection::::Variation.:Orbital history.\n", "Despite the Moon's rotational and orbital periods being exactly locked, about 59% of the Moon's total surface may be seen with repeated observations from Earth due to the phenomena of libration and parallax. Librations are primarily caused by the Moon's varying orbital speed due to the eccentricity of its orbit: this allows up to about 6° more along its perimeter to be seen from Earth. Parallax is a geometric effect: at the surface of Earth we are offset from the line through the centers of Earth and Moon, and because of this we can observe a bit (about 1°) more around the side of the Moon when it is on our local horizon.\n", "Section::::Occurrence.:Planets.\n\nIt was thought for some time that Mercury was in synchronous rotation with the Sun. This was because whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, the same side faced inward. Radar observations in 1965 demonstrated instead that Mercury has a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun, which results in the same positioning at those observation points. Modeling has demonstrated that Mercury was captured into the 3:2 spin–orbit state very early in its history, within 20 (and more likely even 10) million years after its formation.\n", "Over millions of years, Earth's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to formula_1, where formula_2 is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with Earth.\n", "Considering the Earth–Moon system as a binary planet, its centre of gravity is within Earth, about or 72.6% of the Earth's radius from the centre of the Earth. This centre of gravity remains on the line between the centres of the Earth and Moon as the Earth completes its diurnal rotation. The path of the Earth–Moon system in its solar orbit is defined as the movement of this mutual centre of gravity around the Sun. Consequently, Earth's centre veers inside and outside the solar orbital path during each synodic month as the Moon moves in its orbit around the common centre of gravity.\n", "Asimov calculated tug-of-war values for several satellites of the planets. He showed that even the largest gas giant, Jupiter, had only a slightly better hold than the Sun on its outer captured satellites, some with tug-of-war values not much higher than one. In nearly every one of Asimov's calculations the tug-of-war value was found to be greater than one, so in those cases the Sun loses the tug-of-war with the planets. The one exception was Earth's Moon, where the Sun wins the tug-of-war with a value of 0.46, which means that Earth's hold on the Moon is less than half that of the Sun's. Asimov included this with his other arguments that Earth and the Moon should be considered a binary planet.\n", "In Philolaus' system, Earth did not rotate and its inhabited surface faced away from the Central Fire—possibly because it (the Earth) was flat. The revolution of the Earth around the Central Fire was not yearly but daily, while the Moon's revolution was monthly, and the sun's yearly. It was the Earth's speedy travel past the slower moving Sun that resulted in the appearance on Earth of the Sun rising and setting. Further from the Central Fire, the Planets' movement was slower still, and the outermost \"sky\" (i.e. stars) probably fixed.\n\nSection::::Greek Pythagorean universe.:Counter-Earth.\n", "Tidal locking (also called gravitational locking or captured rotation), in the most well-known case, occurs when an orbiting astronomical body always has the same face toward the object it is orbiting. This is known as synchronous rotation: the tidally locked body takes just as long to rotate around its own axis as it does to revolve around its partner. For example, the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth, although there is some variability because the Moon's orbit is not perfectly circular. Usually, only the satellite is tidally locked to the larger body. However, if both the difference in mass between the two bodies and the distance between them are relatively small, each may be tidally locked to the other; this is the case for Pluto and Charon.\n", "Being tidally locked to a giant planet or sub-brown dwarf would allow for more moderate climates on a moon than there would be if the moon were a similar-sized planet orbiting in locked rotation in the habitable zone of the star. This is especially true of red dwarf systems, where comparatively high gravitational forces and low luminosities leave the habitable zone in an area where tidal locking would occur. If tidally locked, one rotation about the axis may take a long time relative to a planet (for example, ignoring the slight axial tilt of Earth's moon and topographical shadowing, any given point on it has two weeks – in Earth time – of sunshine and two weeks of night in its lunar day) but these long periods of light and darkness are not as challenging for habitability as the eternal days and eternal nights on a planet tidally locked to its star.\n", "The Moon is gradually receding from Earth into a higher orbit, and calculations suggest that this would continue for about 50 billion years. By that time, Earth and the Moon would be in a mutual spin–orbit resonance or tidal locking, in which the Moon will orbit Earth in about 47 days (currently 27 days), and both the Moon and Earth would rotate around their axes in the same time, always facing each other with the same side. This has already happened to the Moon—the same side always faces Earth—and is also slowly happening to the Earth. However, the slowdown of Earth's rotation is not occurring fast enough for the rotation to lengthen to a month before other effects change the situation: approximately 2.3 billion years from now, the increase of the Sun's radiation will have caused Earth's oceans to evaporate, removing the bulk of the tidal friction and acceleration.\n", "The Moon's rotation is tidally locked by Earth's gravity; therefore, most of the same lunar side always faces Earth. This near side is variously sunlit, depending on the position of the Moon in its orbit. Thus, the sunlit portion of this face can vary from 0% (at new moon) to 100% (at full moon). The lunar terminator is the boundary between the illuminated and darkened hemispheres.\n", "Pluto and Charon are an extreme example of a tidal lock. Charon is a relatively large moon in comparison to its primary and also has a very close orbit. This results in Pluto and Charon being mutually tidally locked. Pluto's other moons are not tidally locked; Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra all rotate chaotically due to the influence of Charon.\n\nThe tidal locking situation for asteroid moons is largely unknown, but closely orbiting binaries are expected to be tidally locked, as well as contact binaries.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Moons.:The Moon.\n", "BULLET::::- Giant-impact hypothesis\n\nBULLET::::- History of Earth\n\nBULLET::::- History of geodesy, Space techniques\n\nBULLET::::- Inner core super-rotation\n\nBULLET::::- List of important publications in geology\n\nBULLET::::- Newcomb's \"Tables of the Sun\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nychthemeron\n\nBULLET::::- Spherical Earth\n\nBULLET::::- World Geodetic System\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- USNO Earth Orientation new site, being populated\n\nBULLET::::- USNO IERS old site, to be abandoned\n\nBULLET::::- IERS Earth Orientation Center: Earth rotation data and interactive analysis\n\nBULLET::::- International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)\n\nBULLET::::- If the Earth's rotation period is less than 24 hours, why don't our clocks fall out of sync with the Sun?\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The sun's gravity does not slow down the Earth's rotation." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The sun's gravity is slowing down the Earth's rotation." ]
2018-09954	Why does it feel cold to enter the pool, but then once you're adjusted, it's fine, but then it feels cold to get out?	It feels cold getting in because a) the water is colder than you are and b) the water is really quite effective at taking heat away from your body. When it comes to getting out the coldness is mostly going to be from evaporative cooling - it's the same principle as why sweating cools you down. Your skin is covered in water and as the water evaporates it takes energy away from your skin to do so, cooling you down.	[ "BULLET::::- In lakes exposed to geothermal activity, the temperature of the deeper water may be warmer than the surface water. This will usually lead to convection currents.\n\nBULLET::::- Water at near-freezing temperatures is less dense than slightly warmer water - maximum density of water is at about 4°C - so when near freezing, water may be slightly warmer at depth than at the surface.\n", "Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n", "Section::::Variants of temperature play.:Cold and Heat exposure.\n\nExposure to heat and cold conditions is often employed. These are usually extremes of either of these not usually experienced on an everyday basis.\n", "In humans, the diving reflex is not induced when limbs are introduced to cold water. Mild bradycardia is caused by subjects holding their breath without submerging the face in water. When breathing with the face submerged, the diving response increases proportionally to decreasing water temperature. However, the greatest bradycardia effect is induced when the subject is holding his breath with his face wetted. Apnea with nostril and facial cooling are triggers of this reflex.\n", "A similar effect occurs with the second stage. Air which has already expanded and cooled through the first stage expands again and cools further at the demand valve of the second stage. This cools the components of the second stage and water in contact with them may freeze. Metal components around the moving parts of the valve mechanism allow heat transfer from the surrounding slightly warmer water, and from exhaled air from the diver, which is considerably warmer than the surroundings.\n", "Bradycardia is the response to facial contact with cold water: the human heart rate slows down ten to twenty-five percent. Seals experience changes that are even more dramatic, going from about 125 beats per minute to as low as 10 on an extended dive. During breath-holding, humans also display reduced left ventricular contractility and diminished cardiac output, effects that may be more severe during submersion due to hydrostatic pressure.\n", "The hunting reaction is one out of four possible responses to immersion of the finger in cold water. The other responses observed in the fingers after immersion in cold water are a continuous state of vasoconstriction, slow steady and continuous rewarming and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of the vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water can be classified as the hunting reaction.\n", "Blood flow to the muscles is lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion.\n", "BULLET::::- Gay-Lussac's second law – as temperature increases the pressure in a diving cylinder increases (originally described by Guillaume Amontons). This is why a diver who enters cold water with a warm diving cylinder, for instance after a recent quick fill, finds the gas pressure of the cylinder drops by an unexpectedly large amount during the early part of the dive as the gas in the cylinder cools.\n", "BULLET::::- Thermoclines, or sudden changes in temperature. Where the air temperature is higher than the water temperature, shallow water may be warmed by the air and the sunlight but deeper water remains cold resulting in a lowering of temperature as the diver descends. This temperature change may be concentrated over a small vertical interval, when it is called a thermocline.\n\nBULLET::::- Where cold, fresh water enters a warmer sea the fresh water may float over the denser saline water, so the temperature rises as the diver descends.\n", "The unprotected human body responds to cold water immersion in a progression from a stress situation to hypothermia and death, at a rate depending on time and water temperature. Hypothermia is not the major problem in the early stages of exposure as other stresses are more immediately life-threatening.\n", "BULLET::::- Thermal conductivity of water is higher than that of air. As water conducts heat 20 times more than air, divers in cold water must insulate their bodies with diving suits to avoid hypothermia. Gases used in diving have very different thermal conductivity; trimix conducts heat more than air and argon conducts less heat than air hence the reason many trimix divers inflate their drysuits with argon.\n", "The main criticism of Drownproofing is that, with the body almost totally immersed, heat loss will be greater than with vigorous swimming or treading water, with the consequent earlier onset of hypothermia. But other sources suggest that heat loss is increased by vigorous action, because it displaces relatively warmer water that is trapped by the subject's clothing. In any cold water situation, the main objective should be to get out of the water and find shelter and dry clothing. In any case, Drownproofing should never be regarded as a substitute for the normal safety precautions recommended for any water activity.\n", "Care should be taken when winter swimming in swimming pools and seas near the polar regions. The chlorine added to water in swimming pools and the salt in seawater allow the water to remain liquid at sub-zero temperatures. Swimming in such water is significantly more challenging and dangerous. The experienced winter swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh swam near the North Pole in water and suffered a frostbite injury in his fingers. It took him four months to regain sensation in his hands.\n\nSection::::Health benefits.\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "When air expands during pressure reduction in a regulator, the temperature drops and heat is absorbed from the surroundings.\n\nThere are two possible ways for a regulator to freeze and free-flow.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Regulator freezing.:First stage freeze.\n", "After Conger returned to the United States, he apologized in a formal statement. He admitted the team had urinated on an alleyway wall, and that Lochte removed a poster from a wall. Fellow swimmer Gunnar Bentz stated the swimmers had returned to the taxi but were ordered out by two armed security men who pointed their guns at them, commanding them to sit on the pavement before an interpreter arrived. Both Conger and Bentz's statements maintained that Lochte ripped a poster and approached the guards, but denied witnessing any damage caused to the bathroom.\n\nSection::::Swimming career.:Post Rio.\n", "In these ways, winter swimmers can survive both the initial shock and prolonged exposure. Nevertheless, the human organism is not suited to freezing water: the struggle to maintain blood temperature (by swimming or conditioned metabolic response) produces great fatigue after thirty minutes or less.\n\nSection::::Cold shock response in bacteria.\n", "Blood flow to skin and fat are affected by skin and core temperature, and resting muscle perfusion is controlled by the temperature of the muscle itself. During exercise increased flow to the working muscles is often balanced by reduced flow to other tissues, such as kidneys spleen and liver. Blood flow to the muscles is also lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion. Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present. Inert gas exchange is least favourable for the diver who is warm and exercises at depth during the ingassing phase, and rests and is cold during decompression.\n", "BULLET::::- Sun Yang did not swim the final, and he did not tell anyone that he had no intention of swimming. The next man on the list who would have taken his place in the final, was Pál Joensen from the Faroe Islands, but he did not get any message that he could swim in the final, and therefore lane 3 was empty during the final. Sun Yang said after the event that he had felt chest pain after winning the 800 m freestyle. He felt it again shortly before the final of 1500 m free, but he could not say at what time it was.\n", "Afterdrop is attributed to the return of cold blood from the extremities to the core due to peripheral vasodilatation, thus causing a further decrease of deep body temperature. However a second theory explains afterdrop as a side effect of conductive heat transfer. \"The hypothermic patient cools from the outside in. Consequently, a heat gradient is established from the relatively warm core to the cool periphery. This heat gradient does not reverse immediately upon initiation of rewarming. Until the gradient is reversed, further heat transfer occurs from the warmer core to cooler peripheral tissues.\" \n", "Some athletes use a technique known as contrast water therapy or contrast bath therapy, in which cold water and warmer water are alternated. One method of doing this was to have two tubs––one cold (10–15 degrees Celsius) and another hot (37–40 degrees Celsius) ––and to do one minute in the cold tub followed by two minutes in a hot tub, and to repeat this procedure three times.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Temperature and timing.\n", "Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs. Hypothermia is a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries. Body heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air, so water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in inadequately protected divers, although it is not often the direct clinical cause of death.\n\nSection::::Breathhold limitations.\n", "Plasma fluid losses due to immersion diuresis occur within a short period of immersion.\n", "BULLET::::- Advocates point out that liquid in the hose (where it is all within 3/16 inch (5 mm) of the air) warms or cools relatively rapidly toward the ambient temperature, and value the reduction of this when nearly all the liquid is in the bladder. There it is as much as several inches (10 cm) from the bladder surface, and it may be still further insulated by a pack and its other contents. When the air temperature is below freezing if the hose isn't cleared it can rapidly freeze blocking the hose. This often occurs skiing where high wind speed and low temperatures are combined.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22184	How noise cancelling headphones work, and why some headphones cancel noise when extremely similar ones don’t.	Identical sound waves cancel each other out. Noise cancelling headphones have microphones that pick up outside noise and feed it back on itself so it's cancelled out and you only hear the different waves coming from your player inside the headphones.	[ "Noise-cancelling headphones\n\nNoise-cancelling headphones, or noise-canceling headphones, are headphones that reduce unwanted ambient sounds using active noise control. This is distinct from passive headphones which, if they reduce ambient sounds at all, use techniques such as soundproofing.\n", "To cancel the lower-frequency portions of the noise, noise-cancelling headphones use active noise control. They incorporate a microphone that measures ambient sound, generate a waveform that is the exact negative of the ambient sound, and mix it with any audio signal the listener desires.\n\nMost noise-cancelling headsets in the consumer market generate the noise-cancelling waveform in real-time with analogue technology. In contrast, other active noise and vibration control products use soft real-time digital processing.\n", "In a reciprocal LFI network, each player can hear, and be heard by, the same people. For example, in the following chart we can see each player's headphone-mates:\n", "Section::::Interference reduction.\n\nBalanced audio connections use a number of techniques to reduce noise. \n", "Bose headphones\n\nBose has sold aviation headsets since 1989 and consumer headphones since 2000. The current range of headphones/headsets consists of over-ear, in-ear, aviation and military models.\n\nSection::::Over-ear headphones.\n\nDevelopment of the company's noise-cancelling headphones (and first over-ear headphones) began in 1978 when the chairman, Amar Bose, tried a set of airline-supplied headphones during a flight and found that engine noise from the aircraft prevented the music from being enjoyed.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nApplications can be \"1-dimensional\" or 3-dimensional, depending on the type of zone to protect. Periodic sounds, even complex ones, are easier to cancel than random sounds due to the repetition in the wave form.\n", "Complementary JFET duals are also noted for their low equivalent noise voltage, high operating voltage, thermal tracking characteristics, low offset voltage, low pinch-off voltages, low input bias currents, and very high input impedance. All of these characteristics make these devices ideal for use in high performance audio, sensor and measurement applications.\n\nSection::::Future.\n", "Section::::Consumer models.:Crossfeed and other audio processing.\n", "In a non-reciprocal LFI network, each player \"cannot\" be heard by any players whom she can hear. For example, in the following chart we can see each player's headphone-mates:\n\nThis type of LFI Matrix usually results in a more chaotic, multi-layered piece of music.\n\nSection::::Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical.\n\nAn LFI matrix's is symmetrical when each participant hears the same number of other players. If LFI matrix participants have differing numbers of 'headphone-mates,' those matrices are asymmetrical. The first example is a seven-person, non-reciprocal symmetrical LFI Matrix:\n", "CASA attempts to recreate sound source separation in the same manner as human hearing, but in machines. Using the principles of CASA, Audience’s earSmart processors act like a human cochlea and group different sounds, based on a diverse list of cues such as pitch, onset/offset time, spatial location and harmonicity. These simultaneous sounds are evaluated and grouped by source. In doing this, the microphones of a mobile device, together with Audience's proprietary \"Fast Cochlea Transform\" technology, can identify and group sounds which are classified as noise, remove or at least reduce them, and leave the remaining clear voice signal intact.\n", "To prevent higher-frequency noise from reaching the ear, most noise-cancelling headphones depend on soundproofing. Higher-frequency sound has a shorter wavelength, and cancelling this sound would require locating devices to detect and counteract it closer to the listener's eardrum than is currently technically feasible or would require digital algorithms that would complicate the headphone's electronics.\n\nNoise-cancelling headphones specify the amount of noise they can cancel in terms of decibels. This number may be useful for comparing products but does not tell the whole story, as it does not specify noise reduction at various frequencies.\n\nSection::::In aviation.\n", "Section::::Alternative technologies.\n", "The \"QuietComfort 20\" (QC20) and QC20i in-ear headphones were released in 2015 and are the company's first in-ear noise cancelling headphones. The QC20 model is for Android, Windows and Blackberry devices, while the QC20i is designed for Apple devices and includes volume controls on the remote.\n\nThe noise-cancelling hardware and rechargable battery is contained with a box located near the headphone jack, similar to the . The earbuds are similar to the IE2 headphones. A button on the remote labelled \"Aware Mode\" reduces noise-cancellation to let in ambient noise.\n\nSection::::Industrial headphones.\n\nSection::::Industrial headphones.:A20 Aviation Headset.\n", "The \"QuietComfort 25\" (QC25) over-ear headphones were released in 2015 as the replacement for the . Unlike its predecessors, the QC25s can be used (without the noise-cancelling function) while the battery is flat. Another change is the elimination of the Hi/Low switch which increased the input gain for low-output sources like MP3 players.\n\nIn 2014, the QC25s won the \"What Hi-Fi?\" Sound and Vision annual award for \"Best Noise Cancelling Headphones\".\n\nSection::::Over-ear headphones.:QuietComfort 35 II.\n", "Most audio products (recording, public address, etc.) provide differential balanced inputs and outputs, typically via XLR or TRS phone connectors. However, in most cases, a differential balanced input signal is internally converted to a single-ended signal via transformer or electronic amplifier. After internal processing, the single-ended signal is converted back to a differential balanced signal and fed to an output.\n", "BULLET::::- ML-750M -32 WPC triode mode, 65 Wpc in ultralinear mode 4KT88 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MS-6V6 - 12.5 WPC 46V6 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MS-6CA7 - 45 WPC 46CA7 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MS-34C - 10.5 WPC logarithmic loudness, headphone output 2EL34 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MS-10S - 52 WPC (export version of MC-13S with 12AU7 tube pre stage and remote control made for DestinY Audio in Germany only (EL34 plus RC)) 4EL34 tubes - discontinued\n\nBULLET::::- MS-20L - 50 WPC 4EL34 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MS-34D - 42 WPC 4EL34 tubes\n", "BULLET::::- Electronic noise control: Electronics, sensors, and computers are also employed to cancel noise by using phase cancellation which matches the sound amplitude with a wave of the opposite polarity. This method employs the use of an active sound generating device, such as a loudspeaker to counteract ambient noise in an area. See noise-canceling headphone. Workers in noisy environments may favor this method over ear plugs.\n", "BULLET::::- MC-10L - 52 WPC replaced MC-10K model, 4EL34 tubes/6N1P pre-tubes or ECC88 can be used. Now discontinued.\n\nBULLET::::- MC-10T - 40 WPC replaced MC-10L 4EL34 tubes (uses pre-amp board from the 13s so 12 series tubes are used)\n\nBULLET::::- MC-13S - 40 WPC 4EL34 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MC-50L - 60 WPC 4KT88 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MC-100B - 30 WPC triode mode, 60 Wpc in ultralinear mode 4KT88 tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MC-350B -9 WPC simplified 300B SE amplifier with three inputs, headphone output, no remote 2300B tubes\n\nBULLET::::- MC-550B - 18 WPC 4300B tubes\n", "Dolby Headphone is incorporated into the audio decoders packaged with surround headphones including:\n\nBULLET::::- Razer Thresher 7.1\n\nBULLET::::- Razer Thresher Ultimate\n\nBULLET::::- HyperX Cloud Revolver S\n\nBULLET::::- Astro Gaming A40 System\n\nBULLET::::- Astro Gaming A50 System\n\nBULLET::::- Logitech G430\n\nBULLET::::- Logitech G35\n\nBULLET::::- Logitech G930\n\nBULLET::::- Logitech G933\n\nBULLET::::- Logitech G633\n\nBULLET::::- Plantronics GameCom Commander\n\nBULLET::::- Plantronics Gamecom 777\n\nBULLET::::- Plantronics Gamecom 780\n\nBULLET::::- Plantronics GameCom 788\n\nBULLET::::- Plantronics RIG 500E\n\nBULLET::::- Turtle Beach Systems Ear Force DXL1\n\nBULLET::::- Turtle Beach Systems Ear Force X41\n\nBULLET::::- Turtle Beach Systems Ear Force X42\n\nBULLET::::- Turtle Beach Systems Ear Force Recon 320\n", "In 2014, Master & Dynamic announced that they had teamed with Neuehouse, a multi-disciplinary coworking collective, to develop a noise-isolating microphone for use in open offices and other environments. Working directly with the collective's membership, Master & Dynamic released the final product, a boom mic, in January 2015. They have partnered with Zero Halliburton on an audio toolkit, and the New York-based fashion house Proenza Schouler on a collection of 3 limited-edition headphones. Two hundred of each design were produced.\n", "Various manufacturers use different driver mounting arrangements to create a specific type of sound field in the space for which they are designed. The resulting radiation patterns may be intended to more closely simulate the way sound is produced by real instruments, or simply create a controlled energy distribution from the input signal (some using this approach are called monitors, as they are useful in checking the signal just recorded in a studio). An example of the first is a room corner system with many small drivers on the surface of a 1/8 sphere. A system design of this type was patented and produced commercially by Professor Amar Bose—the 2201. Later Bose models have deliberately emphasized production of both direct and reflected sound by the loudspeaker itself, regardless of its environment. The designs are controversial in high fidelity circles, but have proven commercially successful. Several other manufacturers' designs follow similar principles.\n", "A growing number of portable media players are including audio processing chips that allow digital effects like 3D audio effects, dynamic range compression and equalisation of the frequency response. Some devices adjust loudness based on Fletcher–Munson curves. Some media players are used with Noise-cancelling headphones that use Active noise reduction to remove background noise.\n\nSection::::Digital signal processing.:De-noise mode.\n", "Section::::History.:Design principles.:Isolation.\n\nThere has been a trickle-down of research from flagship models, particularly since the launch of the 5-Series. Subtle mechanical and electronic changes introduced in lower-rung products — as a result of research at the flagship product level — have contributed to build and sound quality: control of internal heat dissipation, wiring, radio-frequency interference and mechanical vibration through more efficient materials, compliant mounting and decoupling.\n", "BULLET::::- Digilog\n\nBULLET::::- B1 series\n\nBULLET::::- MC loudspeaker series\n\nBULLET::::- Reference loudspeaker series\n\nSection::::Product range timeline.:1990s.\n\nBULLET::::- A1000\n\nBULLET::::- F series\n\nBULLET::::- Elektra series\n\nBULLET::::- X series\n\nBULLET::::- XA series\n\nBULLET::::- NuVista series\n\nBULLET::::- Michaelson Audio series\n\nSection::::Product range timeline.:2000s.\n\nBULLET::::- A3 series\n\nBULLET::::- A5 series\n\nBULLET::::- A308 series\n\nBULLET::::- kW series\n\nBULLET::::- TriVista series\n\nBULLET::::- Kelly Transducers\n\nBULLET::::- M1 turntable\n\nBULLET::::- V series\n\nBULLET::::- Titan\n\nSection::::Product range timeline.:2010s.\n\nBULLET::::- M1 series\n\nBULLET::::- M3 series\n\nBULLET::::- M5 series\n\nBULLET::::- M6 series\n\nBULLET::::- Quarkie headphones\n\nBULLET::::- Musical Fidelity EB and MF headphone series\n\nBULLET::::- Merlin\n\nBULLET::::- Round Table turntable\n", "BULLET::::- Digital four-pole resonant low-pass filters, variable key tracking\n\nBULLET::::- Three multi-segment envelope generators\n\nSection::::Public Reception.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12385	Why do people put gold on food, other than the purpose of showing off how rich they are?	Flaunting wealth is often one reason. However, if you consider food to be an art form, putting gold on the plate could be completely a creative expression of the chef. We eat first with our eyes, gorgeous plating goes a long way towards creating a multisensual dining experience.	[ "This tradition dates back to the late 1700 to early 1800's when runaway slaves had encounters with the Indians. The Natives helped the slaves escape and they celebrated freedom this gave birth to the Mardi Gras Indian. Many Slaves intermarried with Native Americans who wore gold teeth. It became a tradition for African-Americans who are of French Creole, African and Native American descent to have more than one gold tooth, in homage of their Native ancestors. This tradition was strongly carried out by families in New Orleans for centuries. \n", "BULLET::::- Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient. Gold flake was used by the nobility in medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks, in the form of leaf, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host's wealth or in the belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial for one's health.\n", "Edible gold and silver have been used for centuries to garnish foods and drinks. The precious metals come in sprinkles, small flakes and leaves and are available at specialty stores and online.\n\nHowever this usage is controversial. According to \"The Washington Post\", a U.S. Food and Drug Administration staff expert said that edible gold and silver had not gone through pre-market safety evaluations at the FDA \"because no one has sought pre-market approval.\"\n", "Section::::History.:United States.\n\nGold teeth were first present in America during the Jim Crow era. Originally it had become a tradition in Louisiana and around the Mississippi Delta after the slave trade. During Jim Crow it was believed that many African Americans who were former slaves began getting the gold caps to replace their rotting teeth. It later became a symbol of wealth and freedom for the slaves that once worked on the plantations fields in south Louisiana. African Americans who had money would get gold caps as flaunted by Jack Johnson, the first black heavyweight boxing champion.\n", "A gold party is similar to a Tupperware party in that a small group gathers at a host's home to sell their gold jewelry to a gold buyer. They are becoming increasingly popular as people look for ways to raise money during the current recession. The buyer, generally, weighs and tests jewelry and other items for party guests. The testing includes a variety of means, including acid tests, magnet tests, and other methods to determine gold content. If a guest decides to sell the items, the buyer pays her at the party, and the item is sent to a refinery to be melted down. The host receives a commission for each sale, usually around 10%.\n", "Section::::Positive Effects.:Making food taste better.\n\nAccording to a study mentioned on Bit of News, taking photos of pleasurable food, such as cakes, before eating it can increase the savoring — \"the increased anticipation built up from taking photos of the food made it taste better.\" If people don't take a photo, they may even feel something is missing from the savoring experience.\n\nSection::::Negative Effects.\n\nSection::::Negative Effects.:Possibly aiding infringement of chefs' intellectual property.\n", "Section::::Europe.:Greece.\n\nNew Year's Eve in Greece has many traditions. During the day, children sing the New Year's carols to be given money or treats. Then, it is time to have family lunch or dinner. In the evening, people cook a pie named \"King's pie (Vassilopita locally)\", which is a cake flavored with almonds. Following tradition, they put a coin wrapped in aluminium foil inside the pie.\n\nDuring the family dinner, the hostess puts some of her jewelry in a plate and serves it in the side of the table, as a symbol of the coming year's prosperity.\n", "The \"Washington Post\" article also reported the expert (who reportedly spoke only on the condition of anonymity) as saying he had not taken a position on edible metals, that they pass right through the body, and are \"an expensive way to throw away gold.\"\n\nTobias Freccia, founder of an edible gold retail website, was also quoted in the article saying a \"book of 500 gold leaves may cost $495, but a 100 mg shaker of the precious metals sells for $19.95.\"\n", "ITC launched the brand Gold Flake in India in the 1960s. The source of the positioning of Gold Flake can be traced back to its early days. In the seventies, Indian people aspired to be honourable and genteel. The lifestyle of the upper class was what the customers aspired for.\n", "He went about all covered with powdered gold, as casually as if it were powdered salt. For it seemed to him that to wear any other finery was less beautiful, and that to put on ornaments or arms made of gold worked by hammering, stamping, or by other means, was a vulgar and common thing.\n", "At the engagement, the groom's family brings live animals to the woman's family home. The animals are slaughtered, hung on three sticks, and each part is offered to the bride's family. Other items like bags of sugar or flour are only offered in quantities of two or four to indicate that there will always be abundance of food. This process is also celebrated in reverse at the man's family home. White flags are mounted on both families' houses which may not be taken off but wither or are blown off by the wind one day.\n", "Although the prices of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas More in his treatise \"Utopia\". On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware, and lavatory seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party.\n", "This beneficent household demon may also be propitiated by food which they expect to see converted into gold; but he must not boast of such supernatural gifts, else they vanish as they come. It is believed that treasure suffices for the requirements of those who received it.\n\nSection::::Possible explanation.\n", "According to Christopher Columbus, those who had something of gold were in possession of something of great value on Earth and a substance to even help souls to paradise.\n\nWedding rings are typically made of gold. It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows before God and the perfection the marriage signifies. In Orthodox Christian wedding ceremonies, the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown (though some opt for wreaths, instead) during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Throws were first introduced in Mobile during an 1837 \"Cowbellion de Rakin Society\" parade. They initially consisted of sugar plumbs, kisses, and oranges. Currently, throws may be trinkets, candy, cookies, peanuts, women's panties, artificial roses, stuffed animals, doubloons, cups, hats, can coolers, Frisbees, medallion necklaces, bead necklaces of every variety, and the iconic Moon Pies.\n", "Pohulpohul often becomes a souvenir for the family who came to visit in order to talk customary, for example, talk about marriage plans son and daughter both sides.\n\nOf course this only pohulpohul souvenirs companion of mere souvenirs principal, in the form of food 'weight' of goldfish.\n", "The batea, Spanish for \"gold pan\", is a particular variant of gold pan. Traditionally made of a solid piece of wood, it may also be made of metal. Bateas are used in areas where there is less water available for use than with traditional gold pans, such as Mexico and South America, where it was introduced by the Spanish. Bateas are larger than other gold pans, being closer to half a meter (20 inches) in diameter.\n\nSection::::Pans.:Yuri-ita.\n", "In the late 1980's they were popularized in New York by Brooklyn native Mike Tyson, who got gold caps in mimicking his idol Jack Johnson. Rappers such as Rakim and Slick Rick began to sport gold grills instead of permanent gold teeth. This trend lasted in New York for over ten years.\n\nSection::::History.:South Africa.\n\nGold teeth in South Africa has become part of the South African fashion culture. Gold teeth are very popular in the country with people getting permanent gold teeth from as young as 12 years old. \n", "Many historians believe that the choice of gold was to distinguish the more “sacred” or “holy” pieces from others. The commonality of gold has much to do with the Incan religion surrounding the sun. Because of the beautiful reflection that gold casts, it gave the appearance of containing the sun, making the precious metal even more valued in a sun-obsessed society. Gold was reserved for the highest class of Incan society which consisted of priests, lords and of course the Sapa Inca or emperor.\n\nSection::::Politics.\n", "Section::::Dinner.\n\nDinner starts when the first star appears in the sky. (This tradition is no longer common). Waiting for the star to appear in the sky symbolizes the Star of Bethlehem leading the shepherds to Bethlehem. Instead of a town, the star leads the members of the family to the table for dinner. If it is a cloudy night, the evening meal begins when the head of the house announces it is time to eat. Either way it is determined, the meal usually begins between six and seven o’clock.\n\nSection::::Dinner.:Apples.\n", "BULLET::::- When out with friends, co-workers or relatives, it is common but not compulsory for people to take turns buying rounds of drinks. This is referred to as a 'shout', e.g. \"It's my shout.\"\n\nBULLET::::- A person who takes the last item of food from a common plate, without first offering it to the others at the table may be seen as greedy or inconsiderate. If someone does want more food in this situation and the remaining portion can be split, proposing to halve it is common.\n", "BULLET::::- Thursday Dinners – meetings of artists, intellectuals, architects, politicians and statesmen held by the last King of Poland, Stanisław II August in the era of Enlightenment in Poland\n\nBULLET::::- Trefa Banquet\n\nBULLET::::- Wild onion dinner – social gatherings held in the spring by various Native American tribes in Oklahoma, especially southeastern tribes. The meals focus on the spring appearance of wild onion, a food that was familiar to most of the tribes east of the Mississippi.\n\nSection::::Dinners.:The White House.\n", "Section::::Business.:Rolled gold ornaments.\n", "Outside chemistry, gold is mentioned in a variety of expressions, most often associated with intrinsic worth. Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the form of gold medals, gold trophies and other decorations. Winners of athletic events and other graded competitions are usually awarded a gold medal. Many awards such as the Nobel Prize are made from gold as well. Other award statues and prizes are depicted in gold or are gold plated (such as the Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards, the Emmy Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards).\n", "Gold played a role in western culture, as a cause for desire and of corruption, as told in children's fables such as Rumpelstiltskin—where Rumpelstiltskin turns hay into gold for the peasant's daughter in return for her child when she becomes a princess—and the stealing of the hen that lays golden eggs in Jack and the Beanstalk.\n\nThe top prize at the Olympic Games and many other sports competitions is the gold medal.\n" ]	[ "The only reason to put gold on food is to show wealth. " ]	[ "Gold can be put on food for artistic reasons and for flaunting wealth. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The only reason to put gold on food is to show wealth. ", "The only reason to put gold on food is to show wealth. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Gold can be put on food for artistic reasons and for flaunting wealth. ", "Gold can be put on food for artistic reasons and for flaunting wealth. " ]
2018-09763	Why do HD movies go blurry when paused?	They don't always go blurry when paused. It depends on what that specific frame looks like. Often when movies are filmed they have blurry frames because that's what naturally happens when something on-screen is moving or when the camera is moving.	[ "In televised sports, where conventional cameras expose pictures 25 or 30 times per second, motion blur can be inconvenient because it obscures the exact position of a projectile or athlete in slow motion. For this reason special cameras are often used which eliminate motion blurring by taking rapid exposures on the order of 1 millisecond, and then transmitting them over the course of the next 30 to 40 milliseconds. Although this gives sharper slow motion replays it can look strange at normal speed because the eye expects to see motion blurring and is not provided with blurred images. \n", "The motion interpolation produced by Trimension is not entirely natural, but can be pleasing in many respects. The software has been criticized for artificial look and has been said to make film seem like video, and potentially to degrade the movie-watching experience. There is also a slight cropping of the video to allow for good edges of the smoothed picture.\n", "The defocus transition is a type of transition accomplished by rolling the lens focus until the scene becomes blurred. Passage of time within a scene can be suggested by refocusing the shot after alterations are made in the scene: change of costume, lighting, and other continuity elements. The defocus device has also been frequently employed in transitions to dream or fantasy sequences.\n\nSection::::Shot transitions.:Fade in/out.\n", "Beginning in 2009, when 3D films began to take a dominating force in the film market, DCM introduced reels produced in 'digital film', which were only used to precede films in 3D at the time. This eliminated such implications as 'cue dots' and graining that had become familiar on standard film. The 'fade to black' function after each advert was also removed, and thus the reel started the next advert immediately after the previous.\n", "BULLET::::- Lower camera shutter speeds common in Hollywood production films (blur in the content of the film), and common in miniaturized camera sensors that require more light.\n\nBULLET::::- Blur from eye tracking fast-moving objects on sample-and-hold LCD, plasma, or microdisplay.\n\nBULLET::::- Resolution resampling (blur due to resizing image to fit the native resolution of the HDTV); not a motion blur.\n\nBULLET::::- Deinterlacing by the display, and processing by studios. These processes can soften images, and/or introduce motion-speed irregularities.\n\nBULLET::::- Compression artifacts, present in digital video streams, can contribute additional blur during fast motion.\n", "The programme is then further processed by interlacing adjacent frames, which halves the running time back to the original twenty-five minutes. The final result is video with fifty fields per second, alternate fields being sourced from the original film frame or the new interpolated image respectively. This has the effect of restoring the \"video look\" to the production.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n", "Section::::Creation of effect.\n\nIn film, this effect is usually created with an optical printer by controlled double exposure from frame to frame. In linear video editing or a live television production, the same effect is created by interpolating voltages of the video signal. In non-linear video editing, a dissolve is done using software, by interpolating gradually between the RGB values of each pixel of the image. The audio track optionally cross-fades between the soundtracks.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "Many computer editing programs can de-interlace video to give it more of a film look. An interlaced frame is actually the combination of two fields, one providing the odd-numbered scan lines and the other the even-numbered. Interlacing results in a type of motion blur known as \"combing\", and also shows \"interline twitter\" where vertical details approach the resolution limit, neither of which occur in film. De-interlacing can remove or reduce these artifacts, resulting in an appearance closer to that of film.\n", "Assuming the player's optical pickup is in proper working order, crosstalk distortion normally does not occur during playback of CAV format LaserDiscs, as the rotational speed never varies. However, if the player calibration is out of order or if the CAV disc is faulty or damaged, other problems affecting tracking accuracy can occur. One such problem is \"laser lock\", where the player reads the same two fields for a given frame over and over, causing the picture to look frozen as if the movie were paused.\n", "Because the effect is caused by the relative motion between the camera, and the objects and scene, motion blur may be avoided by panning the camera to track those moving objects. In this case, even with long exposure times, the objects will appear sharper, and the background more blurred.\n\nSection::::Applications of motion blur.:Animation.\n\nIn computer animation this effect must be simulated as a virtual camera actually does capture a discrete moment in time. This simulated motion blur is typically applied when either the camera or objects in the scene move rapidly.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Interlaced video\n\nBULLET::::- Telecine judder\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Motion Blur Reduction Backlights\n\nBULLET::::- Pursuit camera photography of LCD motion blur\n\nBULLET::::- Article in HDTV Magazine that does a good job of covering motion blur on LCD panels\n\nBULLET::::- Link describing cause of motion blur from sample and hold techniques and reduction using LED backlighting\n\nBULLET::::- TestUFO.com: Motion test animations that also demonstrates display motion blur\n\nBULLET::::- Techmind.org: LCD technology and stationary test patterns\n\nBULLET::::- 1080p and framerates explained\n\nBULLET::::- Methods for 3:2 Pull Down\n", "A \"match cut\" (a.k.a. graphic match) may also be abrupt, but the viewer is meant to see the similarity between two scenes with disparate subjects rather than experience the discontinuity between the two shots.\n", " The second type of slow motion is achieved during post production. This is known as \"time-stretching\" or \"digital slow motion\". This type of slow motion is achieved by inserting new frames in between frames that have actually been photographed. The effect is similar to overcranking as the actual motion occurs over a longer time.\n", "Interlace introduces a potential problem called interline twitter, a form of moiré. This aliasing effect only shows up under certain circumstances—when the subject contains vertical detail that approaches the horizontal resolution of the video format. For instance, a finely striped jacket on a news anchor may produce a shimmering effect. This is \"twittering\". Television professionals avoid wearing clothing with fine striped patterns for this reason. Professional video cameras or computer-generated imagery systems apply a low-pass filter to the vertical resolution of the signal to prevent interline twitter.\n", "Since the necessary frames were never photographed, new frames must be fabricated. Sometimes the new frames are simply repeats of the preceding frames but more often they are created by interpolating between frames. (Often this interpolation is, effectively, a short dissolve between still frames). Many complicated algorithms exist that can track motion between frames and generate intermediate frames within that scene. It is similar to half-speed, and is not true slow-motion, but merely longer display of each frame.\n\nSection::::In action films.\n", "Dissolves are most common in classic cinema (see continuity editing), but are now less often used. The device began to fall into disuse as film makers fell under the influence of the French New Wave directors and their innovative use of the jump cut and as the absence of a linear narrative became more common. It is also sometimes held that the effect was best utilised in monochrome cinematography, where gradations of gray are mixed rather than possibly incompatible color tones. The impact of television news reporting may also have resulted in the device losing any pretense of having a contemporary feel.\n", "When a camera creates an image, that image does not represent a single instant of time. Because of technological constraints or artistic requirements, the image may represent the scene over a period of time. Most often this exposure time is brief enough that the image captured by the camera appears to capture an instantaneous moment, but this is not always so, and a fast moving object or a longer exposure time may result in blurring artifacts which make this apparent. As objects in a scene move, an image of that scene must represent an integration of all positions of those objects, as well as the camera's viewpoint, over the period of exposure determined by the shutter speed. In such an image, any object moving with respect to the camera will look blurred or smeared along the direction of relative motion. This smearing may occur on an object that is moving or on a static background if the camera is moving. In a film or television image, this looks natural because the human eye behaves in much the same way.\n", "Infinifilm\n\nInfinifilm, first introduced in 2001, is New Line Cinema's brand of specialized DVDs, containing a feature to notify viewers of special features on the disc applicable to the scene currently playing, such as interviews, behind-the-scenes footage or deleted scenes. If the user chooses to watch one of these special features, the movie will be paused and the special feature will then be played. After that the user will be returned to the point in the movie where they left off.\n", "Considering these principles, the audiovisual montage may refer to two aspects: the intrinsic one, which alludes to the aesthetic connection of a shot with the next one, thus obtaining different forms, such as the analogy, the contrast and others. The other aspect is the extrinsic montage, which is the method of association point between a shot and the next one and that may be, for example, by a cut or by the so-called dissolve effect or lap dissolve between a still image and the one after it.\n", "Many motion blur factors have existed for a long time in film and video (e.g. slow camera shutter speed). The emergence of digital video, and HDTV display technologies, introduced many additional factors that now contribute to motion blur. The following factors are generally the primary or secondary causes of perceived motion blur in video. In many cases, multiple factors can occur at the same time within the entire chain, from the original media or broadcast, all the way to the receiver end.\n\nBULLET::::- Pixel response time on LCD displays (motion blur caused by slow pixel response time)\n", "Section::::Shot transitions.:Washout.:Some applications.\n", "The inverse of this, if an image is captured at speeds above that at which they will be presented, the effect is to greatly slow down (slow motion) the image. If a cinematographer shoots a person diving into a pool at 96 frames per second, and that image is played back at 24 frames per second, the presentation will take 4 times as long as the actual event. Extreme slow motion, capturing many thousands of frames per second can present things normally invisible to the human eye, such as bullets in flight and shockwaves travelling through media, a potentially powerful cinematographical technique.\n", "The process of transferring 24frame/s video at 25frame/s rates is also the most common method for ingesting 24p film rushes into a non-linear editor. The resulting 25frame/s video can then be transferred into a non-linear editing system at 25 frame/s, maintaining the 1:1 frame correspondence between film frames and video frames. Once in the non-linear editing system, the editing system, knowing that the material actually originated 24frame/s rather than at 25frame/s, will replay it at the correct speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Gradual Transitions - In this kind of transitions the two shots are combined using chromatic, spatial or spatial-chromatic effects which gradually replace one shot by another. These are also often known as soft transitions and can be of various types, e.g., wipes, dissolves, fades...\n\n\"Detecting a cut\" means that the position of a cut is gained; more precisely a hard cut is gained as \"hard cut between frame i and frame i+1\", a soft cut as \"soft cut from frame i to frame j\".\n", "Shot A abruptly ends and Shot B abruptly begins.\n\nSection::::Shot transitions.:Cut.:Cutaway.\n" ]	[ "All HD movies go blurry when paused.", "HD movies go blurry when paused. " ]	[ "Some HD movies do not go blurry when paused; however HD movies which have blurry frames, such as when something is moving or the camera is moving, will go blurry when paused.", "HD movies do not always go blurry when paused. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All HD movies go blurry when paused.", "HD movies go blurry when paused. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some HD movies do not go blurry when paused; however HD movies which have blurry frames, such as when something is moving or the camera is moving, will go blurry when paused.", "HD movies do not always go blurry when paused. " ]
2018-10945	In osmosis: how water molecules know where is the place of higher solute concentration and move there?	In addition to the other answers given this may help you visualise it. Consider it like two tennis players either side of a new with hundreds of tennis balls around them, one tennis player though is hitting the balls more often than the other player as a result the tennis balls start to accumulate on the other side, until the player now has to spend longer finding a tennis ball to hit over the net.	[ "The mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute (resulting in lower concentration of water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore a diffusion of water along a concentration gradient) or by a solute's attraction to water (resulting in less free water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore net movement of water toward the solute). Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted.\n", "The osmotic gradient is the difference in concentration between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable membrane, and is used to tell the difference in percentages of the concentration of a specific particle dissolved in a solution.\n", "Penetrating solutes can diffuse through the cell membrane, causing momentary changes in cell volume as the solutes \"pull\" water molecules with them. Non-penetrating solutes cannot cross the cell membrane; therefore, the movement of water across the cell membrane (i.e., osmosis) must occur for the solutions to reach equilibrium.\n", "When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell. When the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane.\n", "An area of current research in FO involves direct removal of draw solutes, in this case by means of a magnetic field. Small (nanoscale) magnetic particles are suspended in solution creating osmotic pressures sufficient for the separation of water from a dilute feed. Once the draw solution containing these particles has been diluted by the FO water flux, they may be separated from that solution by use of a magnet (either against the side of a hydration bag, or around a pipe in-line in a steady state process).\n", "Section::::Secondary active transport.:Symporter.\n\nA symporter uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its concentration gradient). Both molecules are transported in the same direction.\n", "Osmosis occurs when two solutions, containing different concentration of solute, are separated by a selectively permeable membrane. Solvent molecules pass preferentially through the membrane from the low-concentration solution to the solution with higher solute concentration. The transfer of solvent molecules will continue until equilibrium is attained.\n\nSection::::Theory and measurement.\n\nJacobus van 't Hoff found a quantitative relationship between osmotic pressure and solute concentration, expressed in the following equation.\n", "BULLET::::- The macromolecules on one side of the membrane can bond preferentially to a certain component of the membrane or chemically modify it. In this way, although the concentration of the solute may actually be different on both sides of the membrane, the availability of the solute is reduced in one of the compartments to such an extent that, for practical purposes, no gradient exists to drive transport.\n\nBULLET::::- A membrane electrical potential can exist which can influence ion distribution. For example, for the transport of ions from the exterior to the interior, it is possible that:\n", "For charged solutes, the ionic distribution of salts near the membrane-solution interface plays an important role in determining the retention characteristic of a membrane. If the charge of the membrane and the composition and concentration of the solution to be filtered is known, the distribution of various salts can be found. This in turn can be combined with the known charge of the membrane and the Gibbs–Donnan effect to predict the retention characteristics for that membrane.\n", "The diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water. The \"bound water\" model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property—or how hydrophilic they are.\n", "Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. The net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a solution of high water potential to an area of low water potential. A cell with a less negative water potential will draw in water but this depends on other factors as well such as solute potential (pressure in the cell e.g. solute molecules) and pressure potential (external pressure e.g. cell wall). There are three types of Osmosis solutions: the isotonic solution, hypotonic solution, and hypertonic solution. Isotonic solution is when the extracellular solute concentration is balanced with the concentration inside the cell. In the Isotonic solution, the water molecules still moves between the solutions, but the rates are the same from both directions, thus the water movement is balanced between the inside of the cell as well as the outside of the cell. A hypotonic solution is when the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than the concentration inside the cell. In hypotonic solutions, the water moves into the cell, down its concentration gradient (from higher to lower water concentrations). That can cause the cell to swell. Cells that don't have a cell wall, such as animal cells, could burst in this solution. A hypertonic solution is when the solute concentration is higher (think of hyper - as high) than the concentration inside the cell. In hypertonic solution, the water will move out, causing the cell to shrink.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSome kinds of osmotic flow have been observed since ancient times, e.g., on the construction of Egyptian pyramids. Jean-Antoine Nollet first documented observation of osmosis in 1748. The word \"osmosis\" descends from the words \"endosmose\" and \"exosmose\", which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847) from the Greek words ἔνδον (\"éndon\" \"within\"), ἔξω (\"éxō\" \"outer, external\"), and ὠσμός (\"ōsmós\" \"push, impulsion\"). In 1867, Moritz Traube invented highly selective precipitation membranes, advancing the art and technique of measurement of osmotic flow.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Usually the osmotic gradient is used while comparing solutions that have a semipermeable membrane between them allowing water to diffuse between the two solutions, toward the hypertonic solution (the solution with the higher concentration). Eventually, the force of the column of water on the hypertonic side of the semipermeable membrane will equal the force of diffusion on the hypotonic (the side with a lesser concentration) side, creating equilibrium. When equilibrium is reached, water continues to flow, but it flows both ways in equal amounts as well as force, therefore stabilizing the solution.\n\nSection::::Variation.\n\nSection::::Variation.:Reverse osmosis.\n", "Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane toward a higher concentration of solute (lower concentration of solvent). In biological systems, the solvent is typically water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids, and even gases.\n", "BULLET::::- The second contribution, , describes convection (or advection). Imagine standing on the bank of a river, measuring the water's salinity (amount of salt) each second. Upstream, somebody dumps a bucket of salt into the river. A while later, you would see the salinity suddenly rise, then fall, as the zone of salty water passes by. Thus, the concentration \"at a given location\" can change because of the flow.\n", "BULLET::::- Loop of Henle Descending: The liquid passes from the thin descending limb to the thick ascending limb. Water is constantly released via osmosis. Gradually there is a buildup of osmotic concentration, until 1200 mOsm is reached at the loop tip, but the difference across the membrane is kept small and constant.\n", "Simple diffusion and osmosis are in some ways similar. Simple diffusion is the passive movement of solute from a high concentration to a lower concentration until the concentration of the solute is uniform throughout and reaches equilibrium. Osmosis is much like simple diffusion but it specifically describes the movement of water (not the solute) across a selectively permeable membrane until there is an equal concentration of water and solute on both sides of the membrane. Simple diffusion and osmosis are both forms of passive transport and require none of the cell's Adenosine triphosphate [ATP] energy.\n\nSection::::Facilitated diffusion.\n", "A similar example is the cocurrent concentration exchange. The system consists of two tubes, one with brine (concentrated saltwater), the other with freshwater (which has a low concentration of salt in it), and a semi permeable membrane which allows only water to pass between the two, in an osmotic process. Many of the water molecules pass from the freshwater flow in order to dilute the brine, while the concentration of salt in the freshwater constantly grows (since the salt is not leaving this flow, while water is). This will continue, until both flows reach a similar dilution, with a concentration somewhere close to midway between the two original dilutions. Once that happens, there will be no more flow between the two tubes, since both are at a similar dilution and there is no more osmotic pressure.\n", "In an antiporter two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one.\n", "The discovery of the existence of this type of transporter protein came from the study of the kinetics of cross-membrane molecule transport. For certain solutes it was noted that the transport velocity reached a plateau at a particular concentration above which there was no significant increase in uptake rate, indicating a log curve type response. This was interpreted as showing that transport was mediated by the formation of a substrate-transporter complex, which is conceptually the same as the enzyme-substrate complex of enzyme kinetics. Therefore, each transport protein has an affinity constant for a solute that is equal to the concentration of the solute when the transport velocity is half its maximum value. This is equivalent in the case of an enzyme to the Michaelis-Menten constant.\n", "In vascular plant biology, electro-osmosis is also used as an alternative or supplemental explanation for the movement of polar liquids via the phloem that differs from the cohesion-tension theory supplied in the mass flow hypothesis and others, such as cytoplasmic streaming. Companion cells are involved in the \"cyclic\" withdrawal of ions (K) from sieve tubes, and their secretion parallel to their position of withdrawal between sieve plates, resulting in polarisation of sieve plate elements alongside potential difference in pressure, and results in polar water molecules and other solutes present moved upward through the phloem.\n", "However, in many cases (e.g. passive drug transport) the driving force of passive transport can not be simplified to the concentration gradient. If there are different solutions at the two sides of the membrane with different equilibrium solubility of the drug, the difference in degree of saturation is the driving force of passive membrane transport. It is also true for supersaturated solutions which are more and more important owing to the spreading of the application of amorphous solid dispersions for drug bioavailability enhancement.\n", "BULLET::::- \"C\" is the molar concentration of the solute;\n\nBULLET::::- the index \"i\" represents the identity of a particular solute.\n\nOsmolarity can be measured using an osmometer which measures colligative properties, such as Freezing-point depression, Vapor pressure, or Boiling-point elevation.\n\nSection::::Osmolarity vs. tonicity.\n", "The simplest equation describing the relationship between osmotic and hydraulic pressures and water (solvent) flux is:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere formula_2 is water flux, A is the hydraulic permeability of the membrane, Δπ is the difference in osmotic pressures on the two sides of the membrane, and ΔP is the difference in hydrostatic pressure (negative values of formula_2 indicating reverse osmotic flow). The modeling of these relationships is in practice more complex than this equation indicates, with flux depending on the membrane, feed, and draw solution characteristics, as well as the fluid dynamics within the process itself.\n", "In FO processes we may have solute diffusion in both directions depending on the composition of the draw solution and the feed water. This does two things; the draw solution solutes may diffuse to the feed solution and the feed solution solutes may diffuse to the draw solution. Clearly these phenomena have consequences in terms of the selection of the draw solution for any particular FO process. For instance the loss of draw solution may affect the feed solution perhaps due to environmental issues or contamination of the feed stream, such as in osmotic membrane bioreactors.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03135	how does an object in space, like a satellite, stay on a smooth orbit trajectory?	If you're asking how an orbit works, [this]( URL_0 ) is a great way of visualizing what is happening. Essentially, an orbit is when something is going fast enough to miss hitting the ground because the ground curves away from it. Generally, the way orbits are portrayed (i.e. a smooth oval) is a very accurate approximation. In reality, there are perturbations from other bodies (i.e. a satellite in orbit around Earth would have be pulled on by the Moon) or uneven gravity fields from imperfectly shaped planets (the Earth has this, and it changes satellite orbits over time). Of course, for actual mission planning, these need to be accounted for, but ellipses are actually very accurate in most cases.	[ "BULLET::::- A line drawn from the planet to the satellite sweeps out \"equal areas in equal times\" no matter which portion of the orbit is measured.\n\nBULLET::::- The square of a satellite's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the planet.\n\nBULLET::::- Without applying force (such as firing a rocket engine), the period and shape of the satellite's orbit won't change.\n", "Eventually the satellite comes around to point D where Earth's gravity is now reducing the satellite's orbital velocity. This causes it to fall into a lower orbit, which actually increases the angular speed of the satellite around the Sun. This continues until point E where the satellite's orbit is now lower and faster than Earth's orbit, and it begins moving out ahead of Earth. Over the next few centuries it completes its journey back to point A.\n", "Section::::Planetary orbits.:Understanding orbits.\n\nThere are a few common ways of understanding orbits:\n\nBULLET::::- A force, such as gravity, pulls an object into a curved path as it attempts to fly off in a straight line.\n\nBULLET::::- As the object is pulled toward the massive body, it falls toward that body. However, if it has enough tangential velocity it will not fall into the body but will instead continue to follow the curved trajectory caused by that body indefinitely. The object is then said to be orbiting the body.\n", "where:\n\nBULLET::::- \"a\" is the orbit's semi-major axis in meters,\n\nBULLET::::- \"G\" is the gravitational constant,\n\nBULLET::::- \"M\" is the mass of the more massive body,\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is the orbital period in seconds.\n\nFor instance, for completing an orbit every 24 hours around a mass of 100 kg, a small body has to orbit at a distance of 1.08 meters from its center of mass.\n\nSection::::Orbital period as a function of central body's density.\n", "In typical free-fall, the acceleration of gravity acts along the direction of an object's velocity, linearly increasing its speed as it falls toward the Earth, or slowing it down if it is moving away from the Earth. In the case of an orbiting spacecraft, which has a velocity vector largely \"perpendicular\" to the force of gravity, gravitational acceleration does not produce a net change in the object's speed, but instead acts centripetally, to constantly \"turn\" the spacecraft's velocity as it moves around the Earth. Because the acceleration vector turns along with the velocity vector, they remain perpendicular to each other. Without this change in the direction of its velocity vector, the spacecraft would move in a straight line, leaving the Earth altogether.\n", "Stationary orbit\n\nIn celestial mechanics, the term stationary orbit refers to an orbit around a planet or moon where the orbiting satellite or spacecraft remains orbiting over the same spot on the surface. From the ground, the satellite would appear to be standing still, hovering above the surface in the same spot, day after day.\n", "BULLET::::3. For a given orbit, the ratio of the cube of its semi-major axis to the square of its period is constant.\n\nSection::::Newton's laws of motion.:Limitations of Newton's law of gravitation.\n", "BULLET::::- Mean anomaly at epoch (\"M\").\n\nIn principle once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backwards indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by other forces than simple gravity from an assumed point source (see the next section), and thus the orbital elements change over time.\n\nSection::::Orbital perturbations.\n", "To find the impulse required to change the spacecraft from its original orbit to the phasing orbit, the change of spacecraft velocity,\"∆V\", at POI must be calculated from the angular momentum formula:\n\nwhere\n", "BULLET::::1. With things moving around in orbits and nothing staying still, the question may be quite reasonably asked, stationary relative to what? The answer is for the energy to be zero (and in the absence of gravity which complicates the issue somewhat), the exhaust must stop relative to the \"initial\" motion of the rocket before the engines were switched on. It is possible to do calculations from other reference frames, but consideration for the kinetic energy of the exhaust and propellant needs to be given. In Newtonian mechanics the initial position of the rocket is the centre of mass frame for the rocket/propellant/exhaust, and has the minimum energy of any frame.\n", "A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.\n\nSection::::Other geosynchronous orbits.\n", "Section::::Newton's laws of motion.:Kepler's laws.\n\nBodies following closed orbits repeat their paths with a certain time called the period. This motion is described by the empirical laws of Kepler, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws. These can be\n\nformulated as follows:\n", "If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial speed, the trajectory of the ball curves downward and hits the ground (A). As the firing speed is increased, the cannonball hits the ground farther (B) away from the cannon, because while the ball is still falling towards the ground, the ground is increasingly curving away from it (see first point, above). All these motions are actually \"orbits\" in a technical sense – they are describing a portion of an elliptical path around the center of gravity – but the orbits are interrupted by striking the Earth.\n", "In celestial mechanics, when both orbiting bodies' masses have to be taken into account, the orbital period \"T\" can be calculated as follows:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- \"a\" is the sum of the semi-major axes of the ellipses in which the centers of the bodies move, or equivalently, the semi-major axis of the ellipse in which one body moves, in the frame of reference with the other body at the origin (which is equal to their constant separation for circular orbits),\n\nBULLET::::- \"M\" + \"M\" is the sum of the masses of the two bodies,\n\nBULLET::::- \"G\" is the gravitational constant.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Floating\" objects in a spacecraft in LEO are actually in independent orbits around the Earth. If two objects are placed side-by-side (relative to their direction of motion), they will be orbiting the Earth in different orbital planes. Since all orbital planes pass through the center of the Earth, any two orbital planes intersect along a line. Therefore, two objects placed side-by-side (at any distance apart) will come together after one quarter of a revolution. If they are placed so they miss each other, they will oscillate past each other, with the same period as the orbit. This corresponds to an inward acceleration of 0.128 μ\"g\" per meter horizontal distance from the center at 400 km altitude. If they are placed one ahead of the other in the same orbital plane, they will maintain their separation. If they are placed one above the other (at different radii from the center of the Earth), they will have different potential energies, so the size, eccentricity, and period of their orbits will be different, causing them to move in a complex looping pattern relative to each other.\n", "Orbital decay can occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting. The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along the satellite's motion. The near bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the Solar System are undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example, and is expected to either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years.\n", "A geostationary satellite is of special interest in this context. Unlike other objects in the sky which rise and set, an object in a geostationary orbit appears motionless in the sky, apparently defying gravity. In fact, it is in a circular equatorial orbit with a period of one day.\n\nSection::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:Relativity.\n", "BULLET::::- A satellite in a low orbit (or low part of an elliptical orbit) moves more quickly with respect to the surface of the planet than a satellite in a higher orbit (or a high part of an elliptical orbit), due to the stronger gravitational attraction closer to the planet.\n\nBULLET::::- If thrust is applied at only one point in the satellite's orbit, it will return to that same point on each subsequent orbit, though the rest of its path will change. Thus one cannot move from one circular orbit to another with only one brief application of thrust.\n", "When the satellite gets to point B, it is traveling at the same speed as Earth. Earth's gravity is still accelerating the satellite along the orbital path, and continues to pull the satellite into a higher orbit. Eventually, at Point C, the satellite reaches a high and slow enough orbit such that it starts to lag behind Earth. It then spends the next century or more appearing to drift 'backwards' around the orbit when viewed relative to the Earth. Its orbit around the Sun still takes only slightly more than one Earth year. Given enough time, the Earth and the satellite will be on opposite sides of the Sun.\n", "Starting at point A, on the inner ring between and Earth, the satellite is orbiting faster than the Earth and is on its way toward passing between the Earth and the Sun. But Earth's gravity exerts an outward accelerating force, pulling the satellite into a higher orbit which (per Kepler's third law) decreases its angular speed.\n", "Section::::Background and motivation.\n\nFor most spacecraft, changes to orbits are caused by the oblateness of the Earth, gravitational attraction from the sun and moon, solar radiation pressure, and air drag. These are called \"perturbing forces\". They must be counteracted by maneuvers to keep the spacecraft in the desired orbit. For a geostationary spacecraft, correction maneuvers on the order of 40–50 m/s per year are required to counteract the gravitational forces from the sun and moon which move the orbital plane away from the equatorial plane of the Earth.\n", "BULLET::::- Semi-synchronous orbit: An orbit with an orbital period equal to half of the average rotational period of the body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation as that body. For Earth this means a period of just under 12 hours at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,544.2 miles) if the orbit is circular.\n", "If the free-falling body completed a full orbit, it would begin at distance formula_2 from the point source mass formula_3, fall inward until it reached that point source, then turn around and journey back to its original position. In real systems, the point source mass isn't truly a point source and the infalling body eventually collides with some surface. Thus, it only completes half the orbit. But since the infalling part of the orbit is symmetric to the hypothetical outgoing portion of the orbit, we can simply divide the period of the full orbit by two to attain the free-fall time (the time along the infalling portion of the orbit).\n", "Transverse acceleration (perpendicular to velocity) causes change in direction. If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity, we get a circular motion. For this centripetal acceleration we have\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2 is orbital velocity of orbiting body,\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3 is radius of the circle\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4 is angular speed, measured in radians per unit time.\n", "BULLET::::1. In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.\n\nBULLET::::2. In an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma. (It is assumed here that the mass m is constant)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01055	What happens to electronic hardware when stressed constantly over a relatively long time	Silicon components develop a variety of defects when under use. ELI5 Explanation: Much like a river picks up sand and deposits it somewhere else, current moving through silicon tends to pick up material and deposit it elsewhere, this eventually causes the circuit to malfunction, heat can make this worse as hot substrate can become dislodged more easily. More detailed explanation: One such type of wear is electromigration, whereby metal is carried to where it shouldn't be URL_0 Another kind of wear is hot carrier injection, whereby charge carriers are embedded where they shouldn't be. URL_1 These effects eventually prevent the transistor from switching correctly, or as fast without increased voltages. Increased temperatures generally aren't responsible for mechanical failure perse, but increase the incidence of the above (And other) mechanisms of wear and tear on the substrate It's also worth mentioning that when sitting around and doing nothing, high energy particles, gamma rays, background radition, can also cause hot carrier injection, and other damage to the electronics. So the device will even degrade when sitting around and doing nothing. People living on high mountains will experience more degradation due to increased incidence of cosmic rays, people living near sources of natural radioactivity will also experience faster degradation.	[ "Workmanship shall meet the applicable standards including T.O. 00-25-234 and shall be free of obvious physical defects. A unit that exhibits any sign that a part is stressed beyond its design limit (cracked circuit boards, loose connectors and/or screws, bent clamps and/or screws, worn parts, etc.) is considered to have failed even if the UUT passes the Functional Testing.\n\nSection::::Functional Testing.\n\nSection::::Functional Testing.:Purpose.\n\nDone before, during, and after ESS testing to verify that the UUT is functioning within design tolerances.\n\nSection::::Functional Testing.:Method.\n\nApplying an input signal or stimulus and measuring the output.\n\nSection::::Functional Testing.:Pass/Fail Criteria.\n", "Electromigration, which means to physically move the atom to new locations (to physically alter the device itself) is another type of attack. It involves the relocation of metal atoms due to high current densities, a phenomenon in which atoms are carried along by an \"electron wind\" in the opposite direction to the conventional current, producing voids at the negative electrode and hillocks and whiskers at the positive electrode. Void formation leads to a local increase in current density and Joule heating (the interaction of electrons and metal ions to produce thermal energy), producing further electromigration effects. When the external stress is removed, the disturbed system tends to relax back to its original equilibrium state, resulting in a backflow which heals some of the electromigration damage. In the long term though, this can cause device failure, but in less extreme cases it simply serves to alter a device's operating characteristics in noticeable ways.\n", "Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a subclass of electrical overstress and may cause immediate device failure, permanent parameter shifts and latent damage causing increased degradation rate. It has at least one of three components, localized heat generation, high current density and high electric field gradient; prolonged presence of currents of several amperes transfer energy to the device structure to cause damage. ESD in real circuits causes a damped wave with rapidly alternating polarity, the junctions stressed in the same manner; it has four basic mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Oxide breakdown occurring at field strengths above 6–10 MV/cm.\n", "The term \"stress test\" as it relates to hardware (including electronics, physical devices, nuclear power plants, etc.) is likely to have different refined meanings in specific contexts. One example is in materials, \"see Fatigue (material)\". \n\nSection::::Hardware stress test.\n\nStress testing, in general, should put computer hardware under exaggerated levels of stress in order to ensure stability when used in a normal environment. These can include extremes of workload, type of task, memory use, thermal load (heat), clock speed, or voltages. Memory and CPU are two components that are commonly stress tested in this way.\n", "Section::::Long-term memory.\n\nLong-term memory (LTM) is the ability to store an unlimited amount of information over long periods of time, ranging from a few days to many years.\n\nLess is known about the effect of stress on LTM than is known about the effect of stress on STM. This could be due to the fact that LTM is not affected as severely as STM and WM are, and is also influenced by the effect of stress on STM and WM.\n", "Hardware stress testing and stability are subjective and may vary according to how the system will be used. A stress test for a system running 24/7 or that will perform error sensitive tasks such as distributed computing or \"folding\" projects may differ from one that needs to be able to run a single game with reasonably reliability. For example, a comprehensive guide on overclocking Sandy Bridge found that:\n", "Stress test (sometimes called a torture test) is a form of deliberately intense and thorough testing used to determine the stability of a given system or entity. It involves testing beyond normal operational capacity, often to a breaking point, in order to observe the results. Reasons can include: to determine breaking points and safe usage limits; to confirm that the intended specifications are being met; to determine modes of failure (how exactly a system may fail), and to test stable operation of a part or system outside standard usage. Reliability engineers often test items under expected stress or even under accelerated stress in order to determine the operating life of the item or to determine modes of failure.\n", "Stress testing, in general, should put computer hardware under exaggerated levels of stress in order to ensure stability when used in a normal environment. These can include extremes of workload, type of task, memory use, thermal load (heat), clock speed, or voltages. Memory and CPU are two components that are commonly stress tested in this way.\n", "Section::::Contact failures.\n\nElectrical contacts exhibit ubiquitous contact resistance, the magnitude of which is governed by surface structure and the composition of surface layers. Ideally contact resistance should be low and stable, however weak contact pressure, mechanical vibration, corrosion, and the formation of passivizing oxide layers and contacts can alter contact resistance significantly, leading to resistance heating and circuit failure.\n", "After fabrication of the BGA package, tiny balls of solder are glued to the pads on its underside; during assembly the balled package is placed on the PCB and heated to melt the solder and, all being well, to connect each pad on the device to its mate on the PCB without any extraneous solder bridging between adjacent pads. Bad connections produced during assembly can be detected and the assembly reworked (or scrapped). Imperfect connections of devices which are not themselves faulty, which work for a time and then fail, often triggered by thermal expansion and contraction at operating temperature, are not infrequent.\n", "Hardware stress testing and stability are subjective and may vary according to how the system will be used. A stress test for a system running 24/7 or that will perform error sensitive tasks such as distributed computing or \"folding\" projects may differ from one that needs to be able to run a single game with reasonably reliability. For example, a comprehensive guide on overclocking Sandy Bridge found that:\n\nAn engineer at ASUS advised in a 2012 article on overclocking an Intel X79 system, that it is important to choose testing software carefully in order to obtain useful results: \n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Semiconductor failures.:Electrical overstress.\n\nMost stress-related semiconductor failures are electrothermal in nature microscopically; locally increased temperatures can lead to immediate failure by melting or vaporising metallisation layers, melting the semiconductor or by changing structures. Diffusion and electromigration tend to be accelerated by high temperatures, shortening the lifetime of the device; damage to junctions not leading to immediate failure may manifest as altered current-voltage characteristics of the junctions. Electrical overstress failures can be classified as thermally-induced, electromigration-related and electric field-related failures; examples of such failures include:\n", "Section::::Soldering defects.:Electronics.\n\nVarious problems may arise in the soldering process which lead to joints which are nonfunctional either immediately or after a period of use.\n", "NFF can be attributed to oxidation, defective connections of electrical components, temporary shorts or opens in the circuits, software bugs, temporary environmental factors, but also to the operator error. A large number of devices that are reported as NFF during the first troubleshooting session often return to the failure analysis lab with the same NFF symptoms or a permanent mode of failure.\n\nThe term failure analysis also applies to other fields such as business management and military strategy.\n\nSection::::Failure analysis engineers.\n", "Assemblies which fail because of bad BGA connections can be repaired either by reflowing, or by removing the device and cleaning it of solder, reballing, and replacing. Devices can be recovered from scrapped assemblies for reuse in the same way.\n", "Nevertheless, there have been documented cases of product failures due to electromigration. In the late 1980s, one line of Western Digital's desktop drives suffered widespread, predictable failure 12–18 months after field usage. Using forensic analysis of the returned bad units, engineers identified improper design-rules in a third-party supplier's IC controller. By replacing the bad component with that of a different supplier, WD was able to correct the flaw, but not before significant damage to the company's reputation.\n", "Section::::Passive element failures.\n\nSection::::Passive element failures.:Resistors.\n\nResistors can fail open or short, alongside their value changing under environmental conditions and outside performance limits. Examples of resistor failures include:\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturing defects causing intermittent problems. For example, improperly crimped caps on carbon or metal resistors can loosen and lose contact, and the resistor-to-cap resistance can change the values of the resistor\n\nBULLET::::- Surface-mount resistors delaminating where dissimilar materials join, like between the ceramic substrate and the resistive layer.\n\nBULLET::::- Nichrome thin-film resistors in integrated circuits attacked by phosphorus from the passivation glass, corroding them and increasing their resistance.\n", "Section::::Commonly included diagnoses.:Adjustment disorder.\n", "Applications such as aerospace systems, life support systems, telecommunications, railway signals, and computers use great numbers of individual electronic components. Analysis of the statistical properties of failures can give guidance in designs to establish a given level of reliability. For example, power-handling ability of a resistor may be greatly derated when applied in high-altitude aircraft to obtain adequate service life.\n", "It is also possible that no data can be recovered from a data recorder. One situation where this might occur is a catastrophic loss of electrical power early in a collision event. In this situation, the power reserve in the restraint system control module capacitors may be completely spent by the deployment of the air bags, leaving insufficient power to write data to the EEPROM. There are other circumstances where a module may fail to record a data file as well.\n", "The aging process of an IC is relative to its standard use conditions. The tables below provide reference to various commonly used products and the conditions under which they are used.\n\nReliability engineers are tasked with verifying the adequate stress duration. For example, for an activation energy of 0.7eV, a stress temperature of 125 °C and a use temperature of 55 °C, an expected operational life of five years is represented by a 557-hour HTOL experiment.\n\nSection::::HTOL in various industries.:Automotive use.\n\nExample Automotive Use Conditions\n\nSection::::HTOL in various industries.:Telecommunication use.\n\nExample European Telecom use Conditions definition\n\nExample US Telecom use conditions definition\n", "The products currently in the manufacturing line are randomly picked every day with a predefined percentage or numbers and then put in an environmental chamber that provides the stress profile of thermal cycling, elevated temperature, or combined environmental stresses to induce fatigue damage. The profile should stimulate the precipitation of latent defects that may be introduced from the manufacturing process but not remove significant life from the product or introduce flaws to risk failure during its intended mission. highly accelerated stress test is a Ongoing Reliability Test that uses the empirical operational limits as the reference for the combined vibration, thermal cycling, and other stress applied to find latent defects.\n", "Section::::Printed circuit board failures.\n", "At the same time, we need to know at what point the IC stops responding, these data are important for calculating price reliability indices and for facilitating the FA. This is done by monitoring the device via one or more vital IC parameters signals communicated and logged by the HTOL machine and providing continuous indication about the IC's functionality throughout the HTOL run time. Examples of commonly used monitors include the BIST \"done\" flag signal, the SCAN output chain or the analog module output.\n\nThere are three types of monitoring: \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15328	How much time does it take for disposable plastic water bottles to become dangerous to refill/reuse?	Look at the bottom or the side of the water bottle. There should be a number with some arrows going in circles around it. That number is the type of plastic they used in said water bottle. There are at least 5 different types they used in water bottles, 2 sort of rare the other 3 are more common. Look up those numbers on Google to get you started. The MOST common one(like at grocery store) is actually pretty well off. It has a very low leech rate and usually does it if you expose the water bottle to high heat. Use glass or metal(types that passively kill bacteria) if you plan on using something to drink from long term.	[ "Arguments in favor of reusing bottles, or recycling them into other products, are compelling. It is estimated that in the U.S. alone, consumers use 1,500 plastic water bottles every single second. But only about 23% of PET plastic, which is the plastic used in disposable plastic water bottles, gets recycled. Thus, about 38 billion water bottles are thrown away annually, equating to roughly $1 billion worth of plastic. The average American spends $242 per year per person on disposable, single use plastic water bottles. The environmental and cost consequences associated with disposable plastic water bottles are a strong argument for reusing bottles.\n", "Section::::Alternatives to plastic bottles.\n\nSome alternatives to plastic bottles are already available and many more are to be designed. For example, a simple solution to this is to use a reusable bottle and fill it up at stations, water fountains, or food establishments.\n", "Bottled water is often stored as part of an emergency kit in case of natural disaster. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) says the \"safest\" and \"most reliable\" source of drinking water is store bought bottled water. Commonly, disaster management experts recommend storing of water per person, per day for at least three days. This amount is intended to include water for drinking and cooking as well as water for hand washing, washing dishes, and personal hygiene. Factory-containers of water have an indefinite shelf life, as long as they remain unopened and undamaged. The sell-by date is voluntarily and individually set by manufacturers to indicate the length of time that they believe the water will taste and smell fresh, rather than to indicate any issue of contamination or food safety.\n", "Bottle manufacturing relies on fossil fuels and natural resources. Some manufacturing processes release toxic chemicals into the air and water supply that can adversely affect nervous systems, blood, kidneys, immune systems, and can cause cancer and birth defects. Most disposable water bottles are made from petroleum derived polyethylene terephthalate (PET). While PET is considered less toxic than many other types of plastic, the Berkeley Ecology Center found that manufacturing PET generates toxic emissions in the form of nickel, ethylbenzene, ethylene oxide and benzene at levels 100 times higher than those created to make the same amount of glass.\n", "Chemicals used for making some types of bottles have been shown to be detrimental to the health of humans. Inhalation of chemicals used in the manufacture of plastics is a hazard for the factory workers who handle the material. In many developing countries, plastic waste is burned rather than recycled or deposited in landfills. Rural residents of developing countries who burn plastic as a disposal method are not protected from the chemical inhalation hazards associated with this practice. Inhalation of the pollutants produced from burning plastics have been shown to result in poor health outcomes. It is important to dispose of water that has been stored in PET bottles beyond the expiration date because harmful chemicals may leach from the plastic.\n", "Section::::Types of water bottles.:Single-use plastic water bottles.\n\nWater bottle sales have increased almost every single decade in the United States for more than a decade. In 2011, greater than $11 billion was spent on U.S. bottled water products. The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) states that Americans are increasingly relying on water bottles for convenience and portability.\n", "For the water supply, FEMA recommends commercially bottled water kept in a cool, dark place. As an alternative, FEMA recommends using disinfected food-grade water containers to store tap water and replacing the water every six months.\n\nSection::::Emergency preparedness.:Bottled water in emergency response.\n\nSection::::Emergency preparedness.:Bottled water in emergency response.:Hurricanes.\n", "Additional to environmental impacts, plastics are known to leave behind chemicals detrimental to human health such as the neurotoxin Bisphenol A (also known as BPA). Other chemicals in plastics have even been linked to cancer.\n\nFor these reasons some governments are interested in banning the use of single-use plastic water bottles in their regions to lower these impacts on the environment and promote sustainability within their boundaries.\n\nSection::::Sub-national bans by country.\n\nSection::::Sub-national bans by country.:Australia.\n", "Research is ongoing as to whether plastic water bottles can leach hazardous chemicals into the water, especially when heated.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Environment.\n\nWater bottles made of glass, aluminium and steel are the most readily recyclable. HDPE and LDPE bottles can be recycled as well.\n", "Many potential factors are involved in environmental comparisons of returnable vs non-returnable systems. Researchers have often used life cycle analysis methodologies to balance the many diverse considerations. Often the comparisons show benefits and problems with all alternatives.\n", "The most common packaging material for single-serve, non-carbonated bottled water in the United States and Europe is Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic. Marked in many countries with resin identification code number “1,” PET is 100% recyclable, though recycling rates vary by region. In 2014, approximately 1.8 billion pounds of post-consumer PET bottles were collected in the United States and 1.75 million metric tons (approximately 3.9 billion pounds) were collected in the European Union, making it the most recycled plastic in both the United States and Europe. In the United States, the recycling rate for PET packaging was 31.8% in 2014; in the European Union, the recycling rate for PET packaging for the same period was approximately 52%.\n", "Bottled water is bought for many different reasons including taste, convenience, poor tap water quality and safety concerns, health concerns and as a substitute for sugary drinks. The environmental impact, container safety, water origin, emergency supplies and role of the bottled water industry continue to be areas of concern for many people.\n", "Companies like Aquafina have also taken recycling into consideration. Previously when water bottles were bought in packs of 24, there was a plastic wrap around the bottles and there was a cardboard base. This packaging wasn't recyclable, but now some water companies have made the packaging totally recyclable, and also have eliminated the cardboard base. Just eliminating the cardboard base saves 20 million pounds of corrugated material annually. The plastic reduction in the bottles themselves saves 75 million pounds of plastic.\n\nSection::::Replacements for plastics.\n", "In recent years, the single-serve bottled water industry has responded to consumer concern about the environmental impact of disposable water bottles by significantly reducing the amount of plastic used in bottles. The reduced plastic content also results in a lower weight product that uses less energy to transport. Other bottle manufacturing companies are experimenting with alternative materials such as corn starch to make new bottles that are more readily biodegradable.\n", "Most bottled water containers are made from recyclable PET plastic, and some of these bottles end up in the waste stream in landfills. The financial and environmental costs of transportation of bottled water has been another concern because of the energy used and the consequent release of carbon dioxide and the potential impact on climate change.\n", "Globally, there is an intensifying environmental backlash against bottled water usage. As global consumption of bottled water soars, environmental groups such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Greenpeace have warned of the huge environmental footprint of the plastic in which the water is packaged.\n", "In Europe, more than one-third of recovered PET plastic is used to produce polyester fibers, and another quarter is used in the production of preformed plastic containers—such as egg cartons, fruit boxes, and other plastic beverage bottles.\n\nSection::::Water and Energy Usage.\n", "Because the manufacturing and transportation of disposable water bottles requires petroleum, a non-renewable resource, the single-serve bottled water industry has come under pressure from concerned consumers. The Pacific Institute calculates that it required about 17 million barrels of oil to make the disposable plastic bottles for single-serve water that Americans consumed in 2006. To sustain the consumptive use of products relying on plastic components and level of manufactured demand for plastic water bottles, the end result is shortages of fossil fuels. Furthermore, it means not only a shortage of the raw materials to make plastics, but also a shortage of the energy required to fuel their production.\n", "These gravity-powered systems have a device to dispense water in a controlled manner.\n\nThese machines come in different sizes and vary from table units, intended for occasional use to floor-mounted units intended for heavier use. Bottled water is normally delivered to households or businesses on a regular basis, where empty returnable polycarbonate bottles are exchanged for full ones. In developing markets, PET is often used for large bottles despite shrinkage and lower washing temperature will lead to making it a more challenging material to use.\n", "Low plastic water bottle\n\nLow plastic water bottles are bottles that use 50 percent or less plastic than a regular water bottle. The low plastic water bottle has seen a gigantic increase in production over the last few years. This is mainly because making low plastic bottles is more efficient, cost-effective, and more environmentally friendly than producing regular bottles. A large number of water companies now exclusively use a low plastic design for their 16.9 oz bottles, the most notable of these companies being Aquafina.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n", "Energy drinks\n\nConsideration for the Environment\n\nBULLET::::- Approximately 10% of all virgin (rejected) bottles before being filled are sterilized and re-injected into the line.\n\nBULLET::::- Re-use of the liners that come with the pallets of empty cans, for lining the sugar pallets, and the stacked finished product.\n\nBULLET::::- Collection of wasted water in special pipe lines to re-use for cooling equipment on the plant.\n\nBULLET::::- Since 2004 SMJ has been making PET bottles lighter in weight by using less material in its composition to create less post consumer waste.\n", "In 2001, a WWF study, \"Bottled water: understanding a social phenomenon\", warned that in many countries, bottled water may be no safer or healthier than tap water and it sold for up to 1,000 times the price. It said the booming market would put severe pressure on recycling plastics and could lead to landfill sites drowning in mountains of plastic bottles. Also, the study discovered that the production of bottled water uses more water than the consumer actually buys in the bottle itself.\n\nSection::::Concerns.:Pricing.\n", "About 50 billion single-use plastic water bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are produced in the United States each year, and most are discarded. According to the National Association for PET Container Resources, the recycling rate for PET has held steady at 31% since 2013. That equates to more than of unrecycled PET bottles in landfills, on roadsides and beaches, or in rivers and oceans. The properties that make PET useful as a packaging material (stability and durability) also make it resistant to breaking down after its useful life is over.\n", "Metal water bottles are growing in popularity. Made primarily from stainless steel or aluminum, they are durable and retain minimal odor or taste from previous contents. Aluminum bottles often contain a plastic resin or epoxy liner to protect contents from taste and odor transfer. Although most liners are now BPA-free, older and less expensive models can contain BPA.\n", "In 2008 the amount of post-consumer PET bottles collected for recycling and sold in the United States was approx. 1.45 billion pounds.\n\nIn 2012, 81% of the PET bottles sold in Switzerland were recycled.\n\nIncreasing energy prices may increase the volume of recycling PET bottles. In Europe, the EU Waste Framework Directive mandates that by 2020 there should be 50% recycling or reuse of plastics from household streams.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06237	why can you still whisper even though you have no voice?	Whispering is unvocalized. The difference between speech and whispers is that your vocal cords are not used in whispers. That's what is sore and unusable when you're hoarse.	[ "Section::::Composition.\n", "Section::::Recording and production.\n", "Section::::Promotion.\n", "Even though Whisper is considered to be a metahuman as the result of her mutation, she prefers to rely on her deceptive defenseless appearance and her mind control abilities to avoid any fight, having always around her a small number of expendable henchmen, or fleeing shortly before being discovered.\n\nSection::::In other media.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.\n", "In normal speech, the vocal folds alternate between states of voice and voicelessness. In whispering, only the voicing segments change, so that the vocal folds alternate between whisper and voicelessness (though the acoustic difference between the two states is minimal). Because of this, implementing speech recognition for whispered speech is more difficult, as the characteristic spectral range needed to detect syllables and words is not given through the total absence of tone. More advanced techniques such as neural networks may be used, however, as is done by Amazon Alexa.\n", "Thoroughly utilized by the band, DeLonge often discussed minor details and plans for accompanying films and other promotional matter, and his managers approached him having an \"intervention\" in which they disquietingly questioned his frame of mind. His ambitious beliefs were intensified by his addiction to Vicodin, a drug which he used due to his back problem and did not try out again when he was unable to obtain it for a week, hallucinating and deep in withdrawal.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::\"Your Voice\".\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "During development, DeLonge often took his daughter Ava to an ice cream shop in San Diego, and on one occasion they wandered into a next door toy store and DeLonge was enchanted by the sound of a pink toy piano, which he would eventually purchase. He placed the piano in his shower and recorded \"Start the Machine\", which attempts to illustrate the state of \"being on a boat as you're leaving a city in flames,\" only to find a tropical island and a more alluring place ahead. DeLonge considered it a reference to his time with Blink-182 and central to Angels & Airwaves' theme that \"something special [can come] out of destruction.\"\n", "Whisper is a shapeshifter who takes Ra's serum on a regular basis. Ra's serum spliced Whisper's genetics with a king cobra's DNA, granting her some of its abilities include secreting venomous poison, enhanced reflexes, and speed of this particular reptile. Though her routine usage with Ra's drugs has slowed her physical aging process thus prolonging her lifespan, Whisper is not an immortal despite her belief. Because of her engagement with Ra's serum, Whisper has developed a drug dependency to its addictive stimulus. \n", "\"It all began ten years ago when I was kicked in the throat while playing college football. After the bandages were removed I opened my mouth to speak and all that came out was this rattling hiss. After a bakers dozen of women fainted when I spoke to them and countless babies went into paraclisms of crying, I disappeared from my usual haunts and went to work for a group which I later discovered were known as the crime syndicate. I decided to stay with them and collect sufficient evidence to help destroy them. Then one day I met Dr. Lee and through a miracle of surgery he restored my voice enabling me to resume my real identity as Philip Gault, Lawyer. This dual identity makes life very interesting. For if the syndicate ever finds out that the Whisperer, who passes on their orders, is really Philip Gault, the man who has wrecked so many of their plans, there'll be slow walking and low moaning. But I won't be around to comment on it.\"\n", "Section::::Release and promotion.\n", "Whisper has the ability to create audio illusions.\n\nSection::::Transformers: Timelines.:Fun Publications.\n\nIn \"Shattered Glass\" by Fun Publications Whisper was among the heroic Decepticon troops who attacked the Ark launch site. Starscream, Divebomb and Whisper dropped Glass Gas bombs on the Ark launch platform to make it vulnerable to attack.\n", "Whisper resurfaces in \"52\" week 11, with the formal role of a manager for HSC International Banking, a company connected with Intergang, which is flooding Gotham with strange futuristic weaponry. Confronted by the Question and ex-police officer Renee Montoya, she is able to flee without giving away other details of her current mission. In Kahndaq, Whisper is revealed as the leader of the \"Cult of Cain.\" Using her powers, Whisper brainwashes kidnapped children into being Intergang operatives. Whisper is confronted by Montoya, the Question, Black Adam and Isis and flees.\n", "DeLonge had to assemble Angels & Airwaves after recording several demos in his home studio. Following Blink-182's disestablishment, he declined offers from highly prolific musicians to collaborate on their developing material and recruited longtime friend and Box Car Racer guitarist David Kennedy. Atom Willard and Ryan Sinn soon followed, but the latter dropped out and was reluctant to join another band soon after the collapse of his previous group, The Distillers. Kennedy found him in a similar situation with his band Hazen Street, and found the new environment refreshing. Uncertain on joining the band, DeLonge offered Sinn a job at Macbeth Footwear's warehouse, where he worked until he permanently committed to the band in August. The band members put forth several sayings and rules including \"Friends and family first; band second.\"\n", "There is no symbol in the IPA for whispered phonation, since it is not used phonemically in any language. However, a sub-dot under phonemically voiced segments is sometimes seen in the literature, as for whispered \"should.\"\n\nSection::::Social role.\n", "Along with great potential, deafness gives Maya Lopez great drawbacks. Her absolute reliance on visual cues renders her helpless in the dark, and her ability to communicate by reading lips prevents her from taking oral commands and communicating with people who are wearing masks or are not in direct visual contact; when she initially meets the Avengers, Captain America has to repeat all of Iron Man's questions for her. However, she has been incorrectly depicted as being able to hear and respond to voices despite not seeing the person's mouth due to standing away from them or the person talking right behind her. It has since been established that Echo actually can read lips from some distance or with the corner of her eye even if the talker is wearing a mask, if the mask is thin enough (as the rather simple fabric masks used by Clint Barton (as Ronin) and Spider-Man), and relay their conversation to closer individuals. She still retains her inability to communicate with people wearing sturdier or thicker masks, or fully covering their mouths.\n", "She has some form of mind control or mesmerization that apparently relies on eye contact, as Whisper is unable to control the faceless Question, but succeeds in forcing Renee to give her a name. Whisper has always been described as a seductress, so after establishing a first contact with the subject, she can rely on her charms and her voice to keep him (or her) under her thrall.\n", "Section::::Work.:United States.:Cecily McMillan.\n", "Inspired by personal crises and global events, \"We Don't Need to Whisper\" was conceptualized as DeLonge taught himself to play instruments and created his own home studio. He recruited his longtime friend and guitarist David Kennedy of Box Car Racer, as well as drummer Atom Willard and bassist Ryan Sinn to form Angels & Airwaves, who were primarily inspired by arena rock groups such as U2 and The Police. DeLonge's later public statements regarding the band's music prompted media interest and concern from his relatives and family.\n", "Gabriel, along with the dark spirits, was blocking The Light, because he was trying to make the dead stronger than the living. When Melinda, Jim Clancy, and Rick Payne break into Gabriel's house, they find out Gabriel's obsession with Melinda. He had been observing her moves for quite a long time. At the end of season two, both Gabriel and Melinda struggle against each other for the fate of living and dead.\n", "While the saxophonist appeared to be playing the part perfectly, Michael told him, \"No, it's still not right, you see...\" and he would lower his head to the talkback microphone and patiently hum the part to him yet again. \"It has to twitch upwards a little just there! See...? And not too much.\"\n\nNapier-Bell consulted with Wexler over Michael's dispute with the sax sound. \"Is there really something George wants that's different from what the sax player is playing?\" Napier-Bell asked.\n\n\"Definitely!\" replied Wexler.\n", "Whispering is generally used quietly, to limit the hearing of speech to listeners who are nearby; for example, to convey secret information without being overheard or to avoid disturbing others in a quiet place such as a library or place of worship. Loud whispering, known as a stage whisper, is generally used only for dramatic or emphatic purposes. Whispering also takes less effort to vocalize than a normal speech pattern. This is because less air needs to be used to vocalize the sound. However, while it takes less effort to produce a whisper, it tires out the vocal folds more quickly.\n", "Karina Cornell's next job was with Kenneth Branagh in \"The Magic Flute\". Amanda Wright went on to do \"Prime Suspect\". Vicky Taylor-Roberts sang the closing credits \"Trading Metaphors\" taken from her album on Wistful Records. Make-up Artist Caroline went on to work on the remake of \"Brideshead Revisited\".\n\nIt was written on Final Draft with thanks credited to Rinaldo Quacquarini.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic Violence Documentaries\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Conspiracy of Silence,\" a Public Broadcasting Station (PBS) documentary\n\nBULLET::::- \"Defending Our Lives, a short documentary\n\nBULLET::::- \", a documentary about domestic violence and the community-based Duluth Model to reduce domestic violence\n", "Howie Seago, who is deaf, approached the show's producers with the idea of a deaf mediator. The initial idea came from his wife, who is a fan of \"Star Trek\". The writers originally wanted Seago's character to learn to speak after his chorus is killed, but Seago was opposed to the idea, as it could perpetuate the practice of forcing deaf children to speak. The producers were understanding of his concerns and wrote a new draft.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04931	Is it possible for energy to be created, or does the universe have the same amount of energy now as it always has?	Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Google conservation of mass energy to learn more ein depth, but basically mass is energy and energy is mass, so if it seems like the total of one was reduced, the total of the other has increased, but the sum of the two remains the same (huge oversimplification, but this is ELI5)	[ "Cosmologist Lawrence Krauss, in his article \"Our Spontaneous Universe\", wrote that \"there are remarkable, testable arguments that provide firmer empirical evidence of the possibility that our universe arose from nothing. ... If our universe arose spontaneously from nothing at all, one might predict that its total energy should be zero. And when we measure the total energy of the universe, which could have been anything, the answer turns out to be the only one consistent with this possibility. Coincidence? Maybe. But data like this coming in from our revolutionary new tools promise to turn much of what is now metaphysics into physics. Whether God survives is anyone's guess.\"\n", "When Edward P. Tryon came out in 1973 with a paper in \"Nature\" titled \"Is the Universe a Vacuum Fluctuation?”, Tryon mentions how he learned from Bergmann how our universe could have started with zero energy and not contradict the conservation of energy law because mass energy is positive and gravitational energy is negative and they cancel each other out and so our universe then could begin with zero energy.\n", "Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being \"released\" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally \"stored\" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.\n", "Energy transformations in the universe over time are usually characterized by various kinds of energy, which have been available since the Big Bang, later being \"released\" (that is, transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) by a triggering mechanism.\n\nSection::::History of energy transformation.:Release of energy from gravitational potential.\n", "Zero-energy universe\n\nThe zero-energy universe hypothesis proposes that the total amount of energy in the universe is exactly zero: its amount of positive energy in the form of matter is exactly canceled out by its negative energy in the form of gravity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each photon that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the redshift effect. This energy is not obviously transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of conservation of energy.\n", "In a similar chain of transformations beginning at the dawn of the universe, nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to one theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This resulted in hydrogen representing a store of potential energy which can be released by nuclear fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from the gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into starlight. Considering the solar system, starlight, overwhelmingly from the Sun, may again be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth. This occurs in the case of avalanches, or when water evaporates from oceans and is deposited as precipitation high above sea level (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbine/generators to produce electricity).\n", "Pascual Jordan first suggested that since the positive energy of a star's mass and the negative energy of its gravitational field together may have zero total energy, conservation of energy would not prevent a star being created by a quantum transition of the vacuum. George Gamow recounted putting this idea to Albert Einstein: \"Einstein stopped in his tracks and, since we were crossing a street, several cars had to stop to avoid running us down\".\n", "In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.\n", "A widely supported hypothesis in modern physics is the zero-energy universe which states that the total amount of energy in the universe is exactly zero. It has been argued that this is the only kind of universe that could come from nothing. Such a universe would have to be flat in shape, a state which does not contradict current observations that the universe is flat with a 0.5% margin of error.\n", "Conservation of energy is grossly violated if at every instant near-infinite amounts of new matter are generated to create the new universes.\n\nOccam's razor rules against a plethora of unobservable universes – Occam would prefer just one universe; i.e., any non-MWI.\n", "In 1918 it was proved that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time (see Noether's theorem).\n\nDuring a 1961 lecture for undergraduate students at the California Institute of Technology, Richard Feynman, a celebrated physics teacher and Nobel Laureate, said this about the concept of energy:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes\n\nBULLET::::- History of physics\n", "The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system cannot change. The zero-energy universe states that the amount of energy in the universe minus the amount of gravity is exactly zero. That is the only kind of universe that could come from nothing, assuming such a zero-energy universe already \"is\" nothing. Such a universe would need to be flat, a state which does not contradict current observations that the universe is flat with a 0.5% margin of error.\n", "For some, the end result of this line of thinking about tracking exergy into the deep past is a restatement of the cosmological argument that the universe was once at equilibrium and an input of exergy from some First Cause created a universe full of available work. Current science is unable to describe the first 10 seconds of the universe (\"See Timeline of the Big Bang\"). An external reference state is not able to be defined for such an event, and (regardless of its merits), such an argument may be better expressed in terms of entropy.\n\nSection::::Quality of energy types.\n", "Some theologians have criticised the notion of a Creator wholly becoming the universe. An example is William Walker Atkinson, in his \"Mastery of Being\":\n", "Through all of these transformation chains, the potential energy stored at the time of the Big Bang is later released by intermediate events, sometimes being stored in a number of different ways for long periods of time between releases, as more active energy. All of these events involve the conversion of one kind of energy into others, including heat.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Examples of sets of energy conversions in machines.\n\nA coal-fired power plant involves these energy transformations:\n\nBULLET::::1. Chemical energy in the coal converted to thermal energy in the exhaust gases of combustion\n", "Ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus 550 BCE had inklings of the conservation of some underlying substance of which everything is made. However, there is no particular reason to identify this with what we know today as \"mass-energy\" (for example, Thales thought it was water). Empedocles (490–430 BCE) wrote that in this universal system, composed of four roots (earth, air, water, fire), \"nothing comes to be or perishes\"; instead, these elements suffer continual rearrangement.\n\nIn 1605, Simon Stevinus was able to solve a number of problems in statics based on the principle that perpetual motion was impossible.\n", "An alternative view to extend the Big Bang model, suggesting the universe had no beginning or singularity and the age of the universe is infinite, has been presented.\n\nSection::::Energy of the cosmos.\n", "The fact that energy can be neither created nor be destroyed is called the law of conservation of energy. In the form of the first law of thermodynamics, this states that a closed system's energy is constant unless energy is transferred in or out by work or heat, and that no energy is lost in transfer. The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. Whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.\n", "Even though he was working with the caloric theory, Sadi Carnot in 1824 suggested that some of the caloric available for generating useful work is lost in any real process. In March 1851, while grappling to come to terms with the work of James Prescott Joule, Lord Kelvin started to speculate that there was an inevitable loss of useful heat in all processes. The idea was framed even more dramatically by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1854, giving birth to the spectre of the heat death of the universe.\n", "There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the universe and about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang, while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate, doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible. Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses, in which our universe might be one among many universes that likewise exist.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "The existence of phantom energy could cause the expansion of the universe to accelerate so quickly that a scenario known as the Big Rip, a possible end to the universe, occurs.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Big Rip mechanism.\n", "Philosopher Quentin Smith has cited the example of virtual particles, which appear and disappear from observation, apparently at random, to assert the tenability of uncaused natural phenomena. In his book \"\", cosmologist Lawrence Krauss has proposed how quantum mechanics can explain how space-time and matter can emerge from 'nothing' (referring to the quantum vacuum). Philosopher Michael Martin has also referred to quantum vacuum fluctuation models to support the idea of a universe with uncaused beginnings. He writes:\n", "The zero-energy universe theory originated in 1973, when Edward Tryon proposed in the journal \"Nature\" that the universe emerged from a large-scale quantum fluctuation of vacuum energy, resulting in its positive mass-energy being exactly balanced by its negative gravitational potential energy.\n\nSection::::Free-lunch interpretation.\n", "Physicists such as Stephen Hawking and Lawrence Krauss have offered explanations that rely on quantum mechanics, saying that in a quantum vacuum state particles will spontaneously come into existence. Nobel Laureate Frank Wilczek is credited with the aphorism that \"nothing is unstable.\" However, this answer has not satisfied physicist Sean Carroll who argues that Wilczek's aphorism accounts merely for the existence of matter, but not the existence of quantum states, space-time or the universe as a whole.\n\nSection::::Criticism of the question.:God is not enough.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00301	How do young-earth creationists explain 7000-year-old mummies?	They don't believe radioactive dating is reliable beyond a few thousand years, so they wouldn't believe the mummy is actually 7000 years old.	[ "BULLET::::- Harris Stone\n", "Mummies of humans and animals have been found on every continent, both as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats. Many of the Egyptian animal mummies are sacred ibis, and radiocarbon dating suggests the Egyptian Ibis mummies that have been analyzed were from time frame that falls between approximately 450 and 250 BC.\n", "BULLET::::- Leslie Greif is an executive producer of the show and frequently appears on camera. He has worked in various movie and television projects for the past 25 years. He produced and co-created \"Walker, Texas Ranger\", starring Chuck Norris, and directed documentaries on Steve McQueen and Marlon Brando. His feature film credits include \"Funny Money\", starring Chevy Chase, and \"Keys to Tulsa\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Allan Morton is fellowship coordinator. He has been an archaeologist for twenty years, and holds a Ph.D from Cambridge University.\n", "Mummies Alive\n\nDisambiguation: for the 1997 American cartoon series, see Mummies Alive!\n\nMummies Alive is a 2015 six-part television historical documentary series about mummies, that was shown on various networks, including on Smithsonian Channel (US), History (Canada), Yesterday (UK), ZDF (Germany), and SBS One (Australia). It was produced by Saloon Media and Impossible Factual, in association with Shaw Media. Directed by Mick Grogan and narrated by Jason Priestley, the six one-hour episodes center around mummies that have been found all around the world and the stories and legends surrounding their deaths.\n\nSection::::Episodes.\n\nBULLET::::1. The Gunslinger Mummy\n", "The school bully. He and his punk friend Chuck like to rough up the other kids. Tiny and Chuck appear in \"The Egyp-Tsu Kid\" and briefly in \"Dog Bites Mummy\" and \"Kid Scarab\".\n\nBULLET::::- Walter Lu\n\nCynthia's brother and Presley's friend who is in 7th grade with him.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "With the use of imaging technologies, research can be conducted on mummies without having to unwrap them. A 2014 exhibition at the British Museum highlighted these imaging techniques in conjunction with the eight mummies that were imaged. The CT scans produced allow for a digital layer by layer look at the burials. Mummy masks have been studied with six different imaging technologies in a global project involving multiple institutions to demonstrate the feasibility of using non-destructive digital imaging technology to make texts visible in images of papyrus.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Cuneiform tablets and envelopes.\n", "In 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned Inuit settlement called Qilakitsoq, in Greenland. The \"Greenland Mummies\" consisted of a six-month-old baby, a four-year-old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found.\n\nSection::::Mummification in other cultures.:North America.:Mexico.\n", "Nefer-Tina – voiced by Cree Summer\n", "Armon – voiced by Graeme Kingston\n", "At the time of de Brazza’s writing, the number of mummies in Venzone was numbered at 42. Following an earthquake in the area in 1976, the number has since been reduced to only 15. Their declining number, understandably, has made it rather difficult to study precisely what the conditions behind their mummification had truly been. As University of Minnesota professor Arthur C. Aufderheide recounts, while the community of Venzone may be “incredibly hospitable,” those with jurisdiction over the bodies have often refused even Aufderheide himself to collect samples for analysis. In turn, this means that only already-collected cultures can generally be used today in analyzing what conditions might have caused mummification.\n", "The oldest mummies in the world are found in the museum, being around 7400 years old (2000 years older than their Egyptian counterparts). Fifteen of them were put into a CAT scan in late 2016. Scientists hope to learn more about the mummification process used by the Chinchorro people of Chile. The 15 mummies were women and children and scientists note that different preservation techniques were used.\n", "The hall of artifacts is divided into two parts, the first one is ascended corridor through which the visitor could have a look on ten tablets were drawn from the papyri of Ani and Hu-nefer that displayed in the British Museum in London. Most of these tablets throw lights on the funeral journey from death to burial. The second part of the museum began from the end of the corridor and the visitor could see more than sixty pieces, which are displayed in 19 well-advanced cases.\n\nIn those 19 display cases, the artefacts are concentrated on eleven topics:\n", "Murrell was one of the stars of the internationally broadcast television series Mummy Autopsy produced by Atlantic Productions on the Discovery Channel. Atlantic Productions describes the show as \"a new series that uses forensic science and the latest investigative techniques to unlock the human stories of mummies around the world, examining their deaths - from disease, murder and even ritual sacrifice - and exploring their lives.\"\n", "BULLET::::- David Cheetham is a consulting archaeologist. He has been an archaeologist for two decades, and has conducted research in the countries of Guatemala, Belize, and Mexico.\n\nSection::::Cast.:Archaeological fellows.\n\nBULLET::::- Zoë D'Amato is an actress who has studied anthropology and art history at McGill University. She has worked as a librarian, an English teacher, bartender, and fundraiser for Greenpeace.\n\nBULLET::::- Alice Robinson is a curator at the British Museum and archaeological researcher. She holds a master's degree in archaeology and anthropology from Oxford University.\n", "It was announced by the Supreme Council of Antiquities on 26 April 2009 that an anthology of pharaonic-era mummies in vividly painted wooden coffins were uncovered near the Lahun pyramid in Egypt. The sarcophagi were decorated with bright hues of green, red and white bearing images of their occupants. Archaeologists unearthed dozens of mummies, thirty of which were very well preserved with prayers purposed to help the deceased in the afterlife inscribed upon them. The site, once enveloped in slabs of white limestone, revealed that it could possibly be thousands of years older than previously thought.\n", "In 1906, \"The Literary Digest\" translated portions of an article by F. Savorgnan de Brazza, which first appeared in the French publication \"Cosmos\". His article had described the history and characteristic of these naturally-preserved bodies. The forms and features of their appearance, he describes, were entirely recognizable. The first discovered corpse had weighed a total of only 33 pounds, with the remainder of them weighing somewhere between 22 and 44 pounds.\n", "BULLET::::- Derek Lincoln has an undergraduate degree in history and anthropology from the University of South Florida and a master's degree in Mediterranean archaeology from Bristol University.\n\nBULLET::::- Lindsay Tanner has a degree in acting and anthropology from New York University.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Description.:Discovery.\n\nWhen the Fire Mummies were 'discovered' in the early 20th century by Westerners (the mummies have been known to local communities for hundreds of years), many of them were stolen, because the caves were mostly unprotected. Because of this, Monument Watch, a nonprofit organization, declared the site as one of the 100 most endangered sites in the world.\n\nSection::::Today.\n", "BULLET::::- KV63 is the most recently opened chamber in Egypt's Valley of the Kings pharaonic necropolis. Initially believed to be a royal tomb, it is now believed to have been an ancient storage chamber for the mummification process. The 2005 discovery of KV63, located about away from King Tut's tomb, is credited to American Egyptologist Dr. Otto Schaden and his team from the University of Memphis.\n\n2007 Human genome and variation mapping\n", "In 1990 the Director of Leeds City Museum invited Dr. Rosalie David, (now Professor), to undertake a new scientific study of the mummy of Nesyamun. this multi-disciplinary team was set up in 1973 to discover more about the living conditions, diseases, and causes of death of the ancient Egyptian population, and also to establish formal non-destructive methods of examining mummified remains. The International Mummy Database founded at the Manchester Museum in 1979 is now recognized as the major center for the collection and storage of mummy-related information from all over the world. \n", "The following mummies have undergone an mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) test, of remains with the indicated name, from the indicated locations:\n\nSection::::DNA tests.\n\nThe following mummies have undergone DNA tests, of remains with the indicated name, from the indicated locations:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient DNA\n\nBULLET::::- Cambridge Reference Sequence\n\nBULLET::::- Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup\n\nBULLET::::- List of genetic results derived from historical figures\n\nBULLET::::- List of mummies\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Seven Daughters of Eve\" by Bryan Sykes.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Famous DNA\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient DNA\n\nBULLET::::- British teacher finds long-lost relative: 9,000-year-old man\n", "She is a student in Presley's grade. She likes Presley, but often has a tough time getting his attention.\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Pendleton\n", "In 2007 the Chinese government allowed a National Geographic Society team headed by Spencer Wells to examine the mummies' DNA. Wells was able to extract undegraded DNA from the internal tissues. The scientists extracted enough material to suggest the Tarim Basin was continually inhabited from 2000 BCE to 300 BCE and preliminary results indicate the people, rather than having a single origin, originated from Europe, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley and other regions yet to be determined.\n", "In August 2015, St. Anthony Shawnee Hospital performed CT scans on the two Egyptian mummies in the museum's collection. The mummies previously visited the same hospital in 1991 for X-rays. The scans showed that Tutu's organs had been individually mummified and placed back inside her stomach and chest cavity before she was wrapped in linen.\n\nSection::::Collection.\n\nThe museum's collection began with a gift in 1903. While Fr. Gregory Gerrer was traveling in the Holy Land, he was presented with an Egyptian scarab with the hieroglyphic goose symbol on it.\n", "Based on recent radiographic and genetic analyses of bodies, Françoise Dunand and Roger Lichtenberg take stock of the historical knowledge of mummies, and add a scientific dimension in this small colourful book— (lit. \"The Mummies: A Journey into Eternity\"; US edition – \"Mummies: A Voyage Through Eternity\"; UK edition – \"Mummies: A Journey Through Eternity\")—published by Éditions Gallimard in the series of their collection. According to standards of the collection, the book is richly documented with more than 200 illustrations—drawings, paintings, sculptures, X-ray photographs of mummies, etc., which illustrate the body copy as the pages are pretty equally shared between images and texts—and printed on glossy paper.\n" ]	[ "Young-earth creationists explain 7000 year old mummies in some coherent way." ]	[ "Their don't believe radioactive dating is reliable therefore they wouldn't care to explain it as they wouldn't believe it is that old. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Young-earth creationists explain 7000 year old mummies in some coherent way." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Their don't believe radioactive dating is reliable therefore they wouldn't care to explain it as they wouldn't believe it is that old. " ]
2018-13837	How does Turkey deal with 18.500 open positions after they had to let all those people go?	Turkey has a population of nearly 80 million and the society has always been a little dysfunctional, those open positions don't really alter the situation as much as it would in a smaller society or one that was functioning smoothly.	[ "On the last day of the January transfermarket 2019, Erdoğan was one of 22 players on two hours, that signed for Turkish club Elazığspor. had been placed under a transfer embargo but managed to negotiate it with the Turkish FA, leading to them going on a mad spree of signing and registering a load of players despite not even having a permanent manager in place. In just two hours, they managed to snap up a record 22 players - 12 coming in on permanent contracts and a further 10 joining on loan deals until the end of the season.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Tens of thousands of public servants and soldiers were purged in the first week following the coup. For example, on 16 July 2016, just one day after the coup was foiled, 2,745 judges were dismissed and detained. This was followed by the dismissal, detention or suspension of over 100,000 officials, a figure that had increased to over 110,000 by early November 2016, over 125,000 after the 22 November decree, reaching at least 135,000 with the 7 January's decrees, about 160,000 after 29 April 2017's suspensions and arrests decree and 180,000 after July 8, 2018's massive dismissal decree. This make up about 10% of Turkey's 2 million public employees.\n", "By law, legally employed workers, regardless of their citizenship are eligible for unemployment benefits given that they are at least 18 years old, the employees contribute 1% to unemployment funds while the employers contribute 2%, and the workers are eligible to receive benefits after 600 days of contributions within the preceding 3 years of employment. the benefit payment is 50% for the average daily earnings based on the last 4 months and cannot be higher than the mimimum wage (per industry). Benefits may be paid for a max of 1,080 days depending on the number of contributions. some are skeptical of how well the system is functioning in turkey\n", "In January 2017, \"Der Spiegel\" magazine and ARD broadcaster reported that about 40 mostly high-ranking Turkish soldiers who worked at NATO facilities in Germany requested asylum in Germany.\n\nAt the end of February 2017, Germany said it had received 136 asylum requests from Turks holding diplomatic passports since the July coup attempt, the figure being a total for the period August 2016 to January 2017; some were presumed to be military officers posted to Nato bases in Germany.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Turkish military personnel and diplomats asylum bids.:Asylum bids in NATO countries.\n", "In November 2016, NATO's secretary general, Jens Stoltenberg, said that Turkish NATO Officers had requested asylum in the countries where they had been posted. He did not name the nations involved or the number of officers, saying it was a matter for those countries to decide. He said: \"Some Turkish officers working in NATO command structure ... have requested asylum in the countries where they are working. ... As always, this is an issue that is going to be assessed and decided by the different NATO allies as a national issue.\"\n", "On the last day of the January transfermarket 2019, Solakel was one of 22 players on two hours, that signed for Turkish club Elazığspor. had been placed under a transfer embargo but managed to negotiate it with the Turkish FA, leading to them going on a mad spree of signing and registering a load of players despite not even having a permanent manager in place. In just two hours, they managed to snap up a record 22 players - 12 coming in on permanent contracts and a further 10 joining on loan deals until the end of the season.\n", "The Supreme Electoral Council scrapped the appointment-voting system that had been used in 2014 presidential election, where overseas citizens needed to book an appointment at a consulate to cast their votes. The system was blamed for the unexpectedly low turnout of less than 10% overseas compared to the 74.13% within Turkey. According to the new decision by the Council, overseas voters will be able to cast their votes up to 24 days before the actual general election within Turkey takes place without booking an appointment.\n", "2014 Nigeria Immigration Recruitment Tragedy\n\nThe 2014 Nigeria Immigration Recruitment Tragedy occurred on Saturday March 15, 2014, when 6.5 million people in all 37 states of Nigeria (including the FCT) stormed various recruitment centers in the country for the 4000 vacant positions in the Nigeria Immigration Service. At least 16 job seekers were confirmed dead, and several scores of people were injured. The major causes of death was due to overcrowding, stampede, exhaustion, and impatience of the applicants.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "By the evening of 19 July 2016, the number of public sector employees suspended had reached 49,321. In the Ministry of Finance, more than 1500 employees were suspended. In the Prime Ministry, 257 employees, including six advisers, were suspended. The Presidency of Religious Affairs suspended 492 employees, among them three provincial muftis. The numbers of suspended personnel in the National Intelligence Organization and Ministry of Family and Social Policy were 100 and 393 respectively.\n", "As part of the agreement, the AEIF and AK Steel reached a joint settlement of their 5 counter lawsuits, with AK Steel paying $7,702,301. A third of the amount was for profit sharing, a third for an assistance fund for employee benefits of employees not recalled to work, and a third an escrow account to settle employee disputes and claims as a result of the lockout. The Employment Security Plan and the Trade and Craft Quota and Service/Support Group Quota (the \"minimum base force guarantees\") were completely terminated.\n", "On 8 July 2018, Erdogan sacked 18,000 officials for alleged ties to US based cleric Fethullah Gülen, shortly before renewing his term as an executive president. Of those removed, 9000 were police officers with 5000 from the armed forces with the addition of hundreds of academics.\n\nSection::::2017 Constitutional Referendum vote.\n", "Section::::Government reforms.\n\nSection::::Government reforms.:Police and Judiciary.\n\nWithin 35 days of the 17 December anti-corruption operations, 5,000 police officers had been designated to positions elsewhere in the Directorate of Security. Interior Minister Efkan Ala made a live statement claiming that 1,000 officers had been moved to new positions and 5,000 officers had been moved in a routine procedure. He claimed that this was a small percentage of re-designations compared to the total workforce of 260,000 officers.\n", "On the last day of the January transfermarket 2019, Guidileye was one of 22 players on two hours, that signed for Turkish club Elazığspor. had been placed under a transfer embargo but managed to negotiate it with the Turkish FA, leading to them going on a mad spree of signing and registering a load of players despite not even having a permanent manager in place. In just two hours, they managed to snap up a record 22 players - 12 coming in on permanent contracts and a further 10 joining on loan deals until the end of the season.\n", "On the last day of the January transfermarket 2019, Ceylan was one of 22 players on two hours, that signed for Turkish club Elazığspor. had been placed under a transfer embargo but managed to negotiate it with the Turkish FA, leading to them going on a mad spree of signing and registering a load of players despite not even having a permanent manager in place. In just two hours, they managed to snap up a record 22 players - 12 coming in on permanent contracts and a further 10 joining on loan deals until the end of the season.\n", "On July 8, 2018, right before Erdogan new presidency with enlarged executive powers and the promised end of the state of emergency, 18,632 public officiers were dismissed by decree. Among them, 9,000+ are police officers, 6,000+ are members of the Turkish military, +1000 are from judiciary, about 650 are teachers and about 200 academics. Three newspapers, one TV channel and 12 associations were also shut down.\n", "“The displacement of workers in Libya is a clarion call for the government to build up funding for unemployment insurance and be more prepared for contingency of massive unavoidable workers’ displacement due to economic crises, calamities, war or other emergencies—like what is now happening in Libya.”\n\nUnemployment insurance is not yet instituted in the nine pillars of the SSS.\n\nBased on the joint reports of DFA and DOLE, approximately 13,000Ws are still staying in the North African country.\n", "On 29 April 2017, Turkey blocked Wikipedia and dismissed 3,974 more civil servants. The NYT qualified the move as \"an expand[ing] crackdown on dissent and free expression\".\n\nOn 5 June, the Turkish interior ministry announces that 130 people, living outside the country and suspected of militant links, will lose their citizenship unless they return to Turkey within three months and meet government standards. Named suspects include U.S.-based cleric Fethullah Gülen, and Peoples' Democratic Party leaders , , and . (Reuters)\n", "In February 2018, Austrian authorities planned to stop providing food and accommodation to rejected asylum applicants. The proposed legislation introduces penalties between €5000 to €15000 for those who remain in Austria with those refusing to leave to be detained. The applicant lying about his identity would face a €5000 fine. According to the interior ministry, application from Afghans, Nigerians and Pakistanis had mainly been rejected.\n", "There are no clear criteria set by the government in terms of the requirements needed to issue an agency licence. In order to open an agency, an agent must place a $33,500 non-interest-bearing guarantee in Bank de l’Habitat which is the government's Housing Bank. There are an estimated 310 licensed agents in Lebanon. Out of this number, 44 are operating as genuine agents with office and staff while the remaining agents hold licenses, they do not focus on the obtaining and placing Migrant Domestic Workers in positions but sell their quotas to active agencies.\n", "A study which was supported by the Istanbul University Scientific Research Projects unit and conducted by academics from a number of universities, revealed that the vast majority of Syrians in Turkey are employed in unregistered work for significantly lower wages compared to their Turkish counterparts.\n\nHowever compared to the increase in refugees, benefits towards them weren't increased as much as only 712,218 were given residency permits only 56,024 work permits were given to the Syrians by 2017.\n\nSection::::Conditions.:Housing.\n", "By the end of 2017 renewable energy employed 84 thousand people, whereas coal mining employed 10 thousand in 13 public sector workplaces and 26 thousand in 430 private sector workplaces. In 2019 the minimum wage for coal miners was 4,059 lira (gross) per month, twice the standard minimum wage. , however, Turkey had not implemented a \"just transition\" policy, despite speaking in favor of it in 2015.\n\nSection::::Transition away from coal.:Employment.:Zonguldak.\n", "Financial aid from other countries to Syrian Refugees has been limited, though €3,200,000,000 was promised by the EU in November 2015 (#2015 EU-Turkey Joint Action Plan). The promise is still not fulfilled.\n\nSection::::Conditions.:Employment.\n\nUnder Turkish law, Syrian refugees cannot apply for resettlement but only temporary protection status. Registering for temporary protection status gives access to state services such as health and education, as well as the right to apply for a work permit in certain geographic areas and professions. Over a third of urban refugees are not registered.\n", "15 June 2017, UN Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals judge Aydin Sedaf Akay was sentenced to 71⁄2 years on charges of \"membership in [to the Gulen movement, itself] a terrorist organization\", despite Mr. Akay having diplomatic immunity due to his position at the UN MICT.\n\nOn 15 July, 7,400 more police were dismissed.\n\nOn December 24, 2017, a decree announce the dismissal of 2,700 public officers.\n\nSection::::Purges by numbers.:Later purges, mass suspensions and mass arrests.:2018.\n", "Amnesty International contacted the Turkish government, requesting that it provide alternative civilian service. Turkish law had no such provision in place. The human rights group made its suggestion based on recommendations made by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and the Council of Europe.\n\nThe European Court of Human Rights found the nation had violated of article 3 of the convention in its persecution of Ülke. The court ordered Turkey to pay 11,000 euros to Ülke in compensation.\n\nSection::::Continuing Issues.\n", "In Israel, unemployment benefits are paid by Bituah Leumi (the National Insurance Institute), to which workers must pay contributions. Eligible workers must immediately register with the Employment Service Bureau upon losing their jobs or jeopordize their eligibility, and the unemployment period is considered to start upon registration with the Employment Service Bureau. To be eligible for unemployment benefits, an employee must have completed a \"qualifying period\" of work for which unemployment insurance contributions were paid, which varies between 300 and 360 days. Employees who were involuntarily terminated from their jobs or who terminated their own employment and can provide evidence of having done so for a justified reason are eligible for immediately receiving unemployment benefits, while those who are deemed to have terminated their employment of their own volition with no justified reason will only begin receiving unemployment benefits 90 days from the start of their unemployment period.\n" ]	[ "Turkey having 18,500 open positions will cause more trouble for the society." ]	[ "Turkey already a dysfunctional society, the open positions won't make things much worse." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Turkey having 18,500 open positions will cause more trouble for the society." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Turkey already a dysfunctional society, the open positions won't make things much worse." ]
2018-23768	How is it possible that compounds like CuSO4 and Na2CO3 that have neither OH- or H+ ions are acidic or basic in a solution?	Acidity/basicity is determined by its ability to produce ions by accepting or donating electron pairs in solution. An acid can readily accept an electron pair, which in water would then produce H+ ions, and a base can readily donate an electron pair, which in water would produce OH-.	[ "Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, \"α\" (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: HA, HA, and A. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases:\n", "The proton of a primary or secondary amide does not dissociate readily under normal conditions; its p\"K\" is usually well above 15. Conversely, under extremely acidic conditions, the carbonyl oxygen can become protonated with a p\"K\" of roughly −1. It is not only because of the positive charge on the nitrogen, but also because of the negative charge on the oxygen gained through resonance.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Solubility.\n", "However, p\"K\" and/or \"K\" values for strong acids can be estimated by theoretical means, such as computing gas phase dissociation constants and using Gibbs free energies of solvation for the molecular anions. It is also possible to use spectroscopy in some cases to determine the ratio of the concentrations of the conjugate base produced and the undissociated acid. For example, the Raman spectra of dilute nitric acid (HNO) solutions contain signals of the nitrate ion (NO, the conjugate base) and as the solutions become more concentrated signals of undissociated nitric acid molecules also emerge.\n\nSection::::Theoretical background.\n", "Similarly, if an acid is weak, its conjugate base will be strong. When considering the fact that the Kw is equal to the product of the concentrations of H+ and OH. A weak acid will have a low concentration of H+. The Kw (1.0 * 10^-14) divided by a low H+ concentration will result in a low OH- concentration as well. Therefore, weak acids will have weak conjugate bases, unlike the misconception that they have strong conjugate bases.\n\nSection::::Identifying conjugate acid-base pairs.\n", "The oxides of period three elements demonstrate periodicity with respect to acidity. As you move across the period, the oxides become more acidic. Sodium and magnesium oxides are alkaline. Aluminium oxides are amphoteric (reacting both as a base or acid). Silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine oxides are acidic. Some non-metal oxides, such as nitrous oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO), do not display any acid/base characteristics.\n\nAcidic oxides can also react with basic oxides to produce salts of oxoanions:\n", "Usually the pH is adjusted to a value roughly between the pK (or pK) constants of the compounds to be separated. Weak acids like citric acid, phosphoric acid, or diluted sulfuric acid are used for moderately acidic pH values, and hydrochloric acid or more concentrated sulfuric acid is used for strongly acidic pH values. Similarly, weak bases like ammonia or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) are used for moderately basic pH values while stronger bases like potassium carbonate (KCO) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are used for strongly alkaline conditions.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "Here the acetic acid is functioning as an acid. If a very strong acid such as perchloric acid is dissolved in acetic acid, the latter can function as a base and combine with protons donated by the perchloric acid to form protonated acetic acid, an onium ion:\n\nSince the CHCOOH ion readily donates its proton to a base, a solution of perchloric acid in glacial acetic acid functions as a strongly acidic solution.\n", "Since bases are proton acceptors, the base receives a hydrogen ion from water, HO, and the remaining H concentration in the solution determines pH. Weak bases will have a higher H concentration because they are less completely protonated than stronger bases and, therefore, more hydrogen ions remain in the solution. If you plug in a higher H concentration into the formula, a low pH results. However, pH of bases is usually calculated using the OH concentration to find the pOH first. This is done because the H concentration is not a part of the reaction, while the OH concentration is.\n", "BULLET::::- In the total range of pressure, the pH is always much lower than p\"K\" (= 10.3) so that the CO concentration is always negligible with respect to HCO concentration. In fact, CO plays no quantitative role in the present calculation (see remark below).\n\nBULLET::::- For vanishing formula_4, the pH is close to the one of pure water (pH = 7), and the dissolved carbon is essentially in the HCO form.\n\nBULLET::::- For normal atmospheric conditions (formula_15 atm), we get a slightly acidic solution (pH = 5.7), and the dissolved carbon is now essentially in the CO and HCO forms.\n", "is tempting to transfer this to other solvents. Such comparisons are, however, fraught with danger, as they only consider the effect \n\nof solvation on the stability of the hydrogen ion, while neglecting its effects on the stability of the other species involved in the equilibrium.\n\nGas phase acidities (normally known as proton affinities) can be measured, and their relative order is often quite different\n\nfrom that of the aqueous acidities of the corresponding acids. Few quantitative studies on acidities in nonaqueous solvents have been carried out, although some qualitative data are available.\n", "For this reason, alkali is kept in stoppered vessels to inhibit reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide. In geochemistry complex silicates are often written as though they are the products of an acid-base reaction. For example, the chemical formula of the mineral olivine can be written either as (Mg,Fe)SiO or as (MgO,FeO)SiO. This mineral is said to be ultramafic, meaning that it has a very high nominal content of the bases magnesium oxide and iron oxide and hence, a low content of the acid silicon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Reactions of acidic oxides.:Examples of reactions.\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon dioxide is the anhydride of carbonic acid:\n", "Normally, these oxidations are performed under strong basic conditions, because this promotes a greater oxidation speed and selectivity. In substrates sensitive to strong base, the reaction can be carried out at a lower pH—or even under acidic conditions—at the cost of a greatly decreased reaction velocity.\n", "In general, the lower oxidation states of osmium are stabilized by ligands that are good σ-donors (such as amines) and π-acceptors (heterocycles containing nitrogen). The higher oxidation states are stabilized by strong σ- and π-donors, such as and .\n\nDespite its broad range of compounds in numerous oxidation states, osmium in bulk form at ordinary temperatures and pressures resists attack by all acids, including aqua regia but is attacked by fused alkalis.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Isotopes.\n", "Acidic oxides are not Brønsted–Lowry acids because they do not donate protons; however, they are Arrhenius acids because they increase the hydrogen ion concentration of water. For instance, carbon dioxide increases the hydrogen ion concentration of rain water (pH = 5.6) by a factor of 25 compared to pure water (pH = 7). They are also Lewis acids, because they accept electron pairs from some Lewis bases, most notably base anhydrides.\n", "If the \"free acid\" concentration, [HA], can be taken to be equal to the analytical concentration of the acid, T (sometimes denoted as C) an approximation is possible, which is widely used in biochemistry; it is valid for very dilute solutions. \n\nThe effect of this approximation is to introduce an error in the calculated pH, which becomes significant at low pH and high acid concentration. With bases the error becomes significant at high pH and high base concentration. (pdf)\n", "Although an amphiprotic species must be amphoteric, the converse is not true. For example, the metal oxide ZnO contains no hydrogen and cannot donate a proton. Instead it is a Lewis acid whose Zn atom accepts an electron pair from the base OH. The other metal oxides and hydroxides mentioned above also function as Lewis acids rather than Brønsted acids.\n\nSection::::Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides.\n\nSection::::Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides.:Amphoteric oxides.\n\nZinc oxide (ZnO) reacts with both acids and with bases:\n\nBULLET::::- In acid: ZnO + HSO → ZnSO + HO\n\nBULLET::::- In base: ZnO + 2 NaOH + HO → Na[Zn(OH)]\n", "Thus, in liquid ammonia, (supplying ) is a strong base, and (supplying ) is a strong acid. In liquid sulfur dioxide (), thionyl compounds (supplying ) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying ) behave as bases.\n\nThe non-aqueous acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia are similar to the reactions in water:\n\nNitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:\n\nThe unique strength of this definition shows in describing the reactions in aprotic solvents; for example, in liquid :\n", "Substances which are potentially acidic can function as acids only in the presence of a base to which they can donate a proton. Conversely basic properties do not become apparent unless an acid also is present.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Organic solvents.\n\nVarious organic solvents may be used to replace water since they compete less effectively with the analyte for proton donation or acceptance.\n\nSection::::Nonaqueous solvents used.\n", "Protogenic solvents are acidic substances, e.g. sulfuric acid. They exert a leveling effect on bases.\n\nAmphiprotic solvents have both protophilic and protogenic properties. Examples are acetic acid and the alcohols. They are dissociated to a slight extent. The dissociation of acetic acid, which is frequently used as a solvent for titration of basic substances, is shown in the equation below:\n", "To avoid the implication of the naked \"solvated proton\" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the \"hydronium ion\" (). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are more realistically conceived as being organized into clusters that form species closer to H. Other oxonium ions are found when water is in acidic solution with other solvents.\n\nAlthough exotic on Earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Compounds.:Atomic hydrogen.\n", "BULLET::::- The chromate ion, , is the predominant species at high pH. As pH rises the chromate ion becomes ever more predominant, until it is the only species in solutions with pH 6.75.\n\nBULLET::::- At pH p\"K\" the hydrogen chromate ion, is predominant in dilute solution.\n\nBULLET::::- The dichromate ion, , is predominant in more concentrated solutions, except at high pH.\n\nThe species HCrO and are not shown as they are formed only at very low pH. \n", "BULLET::::- the charge neutrality condition formula_11\n\nTaken at face value, the above are 6 equations for the 6 unknowns [CO], [HCO], [H], [OH], [HCO] and [CO]. Note, however, that the first 2 equations express [CO] and [HCO] as simple linear functions of formula_4, reducing the problem to the latter 4 equations with 4 unknowns. Either way, this demonstrates that the composition of the solution is fully determined by formula_4.\n", "This reactivity can be used to separate different cations, such as zinc(II), which dissolves in base, from manganese(II), which does not dissolve in base.\n\nLead oxide (PbO):\n\nBULLET::::- In acid: PbO + 2 HCl → PbCl + HO\n\nBULLET::::- In base: PbO + 2 NaOH + HO → Na[Pb(OH)]\n\nAluminium oxide (AlO)\n\nBULLET::::- In acid: AlO + 6 HCl→ 2 AlCl + 3 HO\n\nBULLET::::- In base: AlO + 2 NaOH + 3 HO → 2 Na[Al(OH)] (hydrated sodium aluminate)\n\nStannous oxide (SnO)\n\nBULLET::::- In acid : SnO +2 HCl SnCl + HO\n", "In dilute aqueous solution, the predominant acid species is the hydrated hydrogen ion HO (or more accurately [H(OH)]). In this case \"H\" and \"H\" are equivalent to pH values determined by the buffer equation or Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.br\n", "Section::::Bases as catalysts.\n\nBasic substances can be used as insoluble heterogeneous catalysts for chemical reactions. Some examples are metal oxides such as magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, and barium oxide as well as potassium fluoride on alumina and some zeolites. Many transition metals make good catalysts, many of which form basic substances. Basic catalysts have been used for hydrogenations, the migration of double bonds, in the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction, the Michael reaction, and many other reactions. Both CaO and BaO can be highly active catalysts if they are treated with high temperature heat.\n\nSection::::Uses of bases.\n" ]	[ "Because CUSO4 and NA2CO3 contain no OH and H+, they should not be able to be acidic. " ]	[ "Acidity and basicity are determined by its ability to accept or donate electron pairs in solution, acids and base can always accept a pair which means they can receive H+ and/or OH-" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because CUSO4 and NA2CO3 contain no OH and H+, they should not be able to be acidic. ", "Because CUSO4 and NA2CO3 contain no OH and H+, they should not be able to be acidic. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Acidity and basicity are determined by its ability to accept or donate electron pairs in solution, acids and base can always accept a pair which means they can receive H+ and/or OH-", "Acidity and basicity are determined by its ability to accept or donate electron pairs in solution, acids and base can always accept a pair which means they can receive H+ and/or OH-" ]
2018-15959	Why do we sometimes sneeze once and sometimes twice (and maybe rarely three times)? How does our body determine the amount of times we sneeze in one "episode" of sneezing?	We sneeze because nerves in our nose are getting bothered, as a kind of defense mechanism against foreign objects or particles getting all up in there. So in theory, I suppose you'll sneeze until whatever it is that's tickling your nerves, stops tickling them. Could be a harmless fiber, could be bothersome pollen, could be something outright dangerous, body defaults to sneeze reflex. That's the gist of it as far as I'm aware at least. But I'm no nose expert, so someone more knowledgeable on the subject may have to confirm or clarify.	[ "BULLET::::- Donna Griffiths, a 12-year-old girl in Pershore, Worcestershire, in the United Kingdom, began sneezing, and continued to sneeze repeatedly, for 978 consecutive days. Initially sneezing twice every minute, her rate would eventually slow to once every five minutes. Donna would have her first day without sneezing on September 16, 1983.\n\nBULLET::::- Died: Dr. Owen H. Wangensteen, 82, American surgeon and inventor who created the suction procedure used in gastrointestinal surgery.\n\nSection::::January 14, 1981 (Wednesday).\n", "There are many possible variations on the rule used to generate the look-and-say sequence. For example, to form the \"pea pattern\" one reads the previous term and counts all instances of each digit, listed in order of their first appearance, not just those occurring in a consecutive block. Thus, beginning with the seed 1, the pea pattern proceeds 1, 11 (\"one 1\"), 21 (\"two 1s\"), 1211 (\"one 2 and one 1\"), 3112 (three 1s and one 2), 132112 (\"one 3, two 1s and one 2\"), 311322 (\"three 1s, one 3 and two 2s\"), etc. This version of the pea pattern eventually forms a cycle with the two terms 23322114 and 32232114.\n", "C-reactive protein levels in the blood need to be measured every few days in order to have enough time points to show a repeating fluctuation (a wave-like cycle). This is caused by the synchronous division of T cells over time, with T-effector cells boosting immune activity followed by T-regulatory cells suppressing the immune response. \n", "The start of the Allerød depends on whether an Older Dryas is present and how much time is to be allotted to the latter. A conventional date of 14,000 BP is typical. Roberts (1998) uses 13,000 BP for the end of the period.\n", "In certain parts of Eastern Asia, particularly in Chinese culture, Korean culture, Japanese culture and Vietnamese culture, a sneeze without an obvious cause was generally perceived as a sign that someone was talking about the sneezer at that very moment. This can be seen in the \"Book of Songs\" (a collection of Chinese poems) in ancient China as early as 1000 BC, and in Japan this belief is still depicted in present-day manga and anime. In China, Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan, for instance, there is a superstition that if talking behind someone's back causes the person being talked about to sneeze; as such, the sneezer can tell if something good is being said (one sneeze), something bad is being said (two sneezes in a row), even if someone is in love with them (three sneezes in a row) or if this is a sign that they are about to catch a cold (multiple sneezes).\n", "Sneezing is also triggered by sinus nerve stimulation caused by nasal congestion and allergies.\n\nThe neural regions involved in the sneeze reflex are located in the brainstem along the ventromedial part of the spinal trigeminal nucleus and the adjacent pontine-medullary lateral reticular formation. This region appears to control the epipharyngeal, intrinsic laryngeal and respiratory muscles, and the combined activity of these muscles serve as the basis for the generation of a sneeze.\n", "The game works by allowing one sneeze at each level. At each level, the player's character is moved to a point of choice on the board in the setting. The player then \"sneezes\" and \"germs\" are spread in hopes of infecting as many other people as possible. Even if that sneeze does not infect everyone itself, there is a chance that others may be infected by those who were infected by the initial sneeze. If the player reaches the target (percentage of people who must be affected on that level), s/he is allowed to proceed to the next level.\n", "Section::::Determining factors.\n\nThe specific incubation period for a disease process is the result of multiple factors, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Dose or inoculum of infectious agent\n\nBULLET::::- Route of inoculation\n\nBULLET::::- Rate of replication of infectious agent\n\nBULLET::::- Host susceptibility\n\nBULLET::::- Immune response\n\nSection::::Examples for human.\n\nDue to inter-individual variation, the incubation period is always expressed as a range. When possible, it is best to express the mean and the 10th and 90th percentiles, though this information is not always available. The values below are arranged roughly in ascending order, although in some cases the mean had to be inferred.\n", "The SECS-II messages are organized into categories called streams that are identified by an integer between 0 and 255. Each stream category contains specific messages, or functions, also identified by an integer between 0 and 255. A primary message is an odd-numbered function. A secondary message is the corresponding even numbered function. A request for information and the corresponding data transmission is an example of such an activity. In most transmissions when either the host or equipment sends a primary message, the response is the corresponding secondary message.\n", "Section::::International career.\n", "Examples of preventive techniques are: the deep exhalation of the air in the lungs that would otherwise be used in the act of sneezing, holding the breath in while counting to ten or gently pinching the bridge of the nose for several seconds.\n", "If both parents suffered from allergies in the past, there is a 66% chance for the individual to suffer from seasonal allergies, and the risk lowers to 60% if just one parent had suffered from allergies. The immune system also has strong influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and the production of antibodies. These allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. When an allergen drifts into the nose more than once, mast cells release a slew of chemicals or histamines that irritate and inflame the moist membranes lining the nose and produce the symptoms of an allergic reaction: scratchy throat, itching, sneezing and watery eyes. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include:\n", "are two frequent 2-sequences. The items involved in these sequences are (A, B) and (A,C) respectively. The candidate generation in a usual Apriori style would give (A, B, C) as a 3-itemset, but in the present context we get the following 3-sequences as a result of joining the above 2- sequences\n", "African wild dog populations in the Okavango Delta have been observed \"rallying\" before they set out to hunt. Not every rally results in a departure, but departure becomes more likely when more individual dogs \"sneeze\". These sneezes are characterized by a short, sharp exhale through the nostrils. When members of dominant mating pairs sneeze first, the group is much more likely to depart. If a dominant dog initiates, around three sneezes guarantee departure. When less dominant dogs sneeze first, if enough others also sneeze (about 10), then the group will go hunting. Researchers assert that wild dogs in Botswana, \"use a specific vocalization (the sneeze) along with a variable quorum response mechanism in the decision-making process [to go hunting at a particular moment]\".\n", "Alternative tools are available to identify seasonal allergies, such as laboratory tests, imaging tests and nasal endoscopy. In the laboratory tests, the doctor will take a nasal smear and it will be examined microscopically for factors that may indicate a cause: increased numbers of eosinophils (white blood cells), which indicates an allergic condition. If there is a high count of eosinophils, an allergic condition might be present.\n", "Section::::Professional career.\n", "The National Institute of Mental Health research definition compares the intensity of symptoms from cycle days 5 to 10 to the six-day interval before the onset of the menstrual period. To qualify as PMS, symptom intensity must increase at least 30% in the six days before menstruation. Additionally, this pattern must be documented for at least two consecutive cycles.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "The theorem does not comment on certain aspects of recurrence which this proof cannot guarantee:\n\nBULLET::::- There may be some special phases that never return to the starting phase volume, or that only return to the starting volume a finite number of times then never return again. These however are extremely \"rare\", making up an infinitesimal part of any starting volume.\n\nBULLET::::- Not all parts of the phase volume need to return at the same time. Some will \"miss\" the starting volume on the first pass, only to make their return at a later time.\n", "Typical timeframes vary according to the trader's goal:\n\nDaily, weekly, monthly for swing traders\n\nDaily, Monthly, quarterly and yearly for long-term position traders.\n\n15-minute, hourly, and daily for intraday traders\n\nThe usual moving average length for the envelopes and midline is 3-periods.\n\nThe method also relies on a moving average based on the \"PL Dot\". The formula for the PL Dot is the average of the high, low, and close of the last three bars, displaced forward one bar:\n\nformula_1 \n", "Sneeze\n\nA sneeze, or sternutation, is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa. A sneeze expels air forcibly from the mouth and nose in an explosive, spasmodic involuntary action resulting chiefly from irritation of the nasal mucous membrane. This action allows for mucus to escape through the nasal cavity. Sneezing is possibly linked to sudden exposure to bright light, sudden change (fall) in temperature, breeze of cold air, a particularly full stomach, or viral infection, and can lead to the spread of disease.\n", "The strict notion of \"return period\" actually has a meaning only when it concerns a time-dependent phenomenon, like point rainfall. The return period then corresponds to the expected waiting time until the exceedance occurs again. The return period has the same dimension as the time for which each observation is representative. For example, when the observations concern daily rainfalls, the return period is expressed in days, and for yearly rainfalls it is in years.\n\nSection::::Prediction.:Need for confidence belts.\n", "The proper classification for catamenial epilepsy has been debatable for several decades. Researchers have defined catamenial epilepsy from the broadest definition of a “greater than” approach indicating an increase in seizure frequency or severity during any specific phase of the menstrual cycle, to a “sixfold increase” in average daily seizure frequency during specific times in the cycle. In recent years, Herzog’s 1997 proposal of an admittedly arbitrary “twofold” increase has generally been accepted: Perimenstrual (C1), Periovulatory (C2), and Luteal (C3). These three classifications are based upon serum estradiol:progesterone ratio, and a 24- to 34-day menstrual cycle in which menses begins on day 1, and ovulation occurs 14 days prior to menstruation. By this measure, approximately one third of women with epilepsy would be classified under the designation of catamenial epilepsy.\n", "The disorder's first onset, usually spontaneous, may last only a few minutes. Recurrences may gradually increase from monthly, then weekly, and then daily over a period of six months to a year. The duration of the perceived odor may also increase over the same time, often lasting most of a day after one year.\n\nSome patients also state that the odor they smell is different from any known odor.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Based on user defined criteria, the software will select a number of items to count at specific locations for the specified period of time. Ideally, these selections are daily but many companies choose to generate cycle count items weekly.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Sentic cycles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11089	Why isn't salt water the solution to the incoming water crisis?	At this point it’s not easy, or cheap to make salt water into fresh water, and unless someone finds a way to make it so, it won’t be a solution.	[ "Section::::Impact reduction and management.:Best management practice.\n\nThere is no clear agreement about what constitutes best management practice for salinity in Australia. While there are a range of techniques and strategies available, success is often varied from one context to the next; there is no simple solution. Location, time frame and personal circumstances may all influence the effectiveness of particular options.\n\nPossible management strategies include: \n\nBULLET::::- The use of salt-tolerant plants, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atriplex amnicola\"\n", "Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is under increasing demand for human activities. The world has an estimated 1.34 billion cubic kilometers of water, but 96.5% of it is salty. Almost 70% of fresh water can be found in the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland. Less than 1% of this water on Earth is accessible to humans, the rest is contained in soil moisture or deep underground. Accessible freshwater is located in lakes, rivers, reservoirs and shallow underground sources. Rainwater and snowfall do very little to replenish many underground sources.\n", "Salt is expensive to remove from water, and salt content is an important factor in water use (such as potability). Increases in salinity have been observed in lakes and rivers in the United States, due to common road salt and other salt de-icers in runoff.\n", "Tampa Bay Water has put together plans that are being explored from 2009 to 2013. Here is a list of some of the plans for the future:\n\nBULLET::::- Gulf Coast Seawater Desalination Plant - an additional desalination plant is a possibility that has the potential to provide 9 million to per day.\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Tampa Bay Wellfields - This would increase the availability and allowance of using wellfields as a source of water.\n", "BULLET::::- The fact that saltwater intrusions are often not in equilibrium makes it harder to model. Aquifer dynamics tend to be slow and it takes the intrusion cone a long time to adapt to changes in pumping schemes, rainfall, etc. So the situation in the field can be significantly different from what would be expected based on the sea level, pumping scheme etc.\n\nBULLET::::- For long-term models, the future climate change forms a large unknown. Model results often depend strongly on sea level and recharge rate. Both are expected to change in the future.\n\nSection::::Mitigation.\n", "Section::::Tampa Bay Conflict.:Tampa Bay Today.\n\nThe regions today are receiving water from three sources: ground water, desalinated seawater and river water. The three sources from the configuration plan made in 1998 were supposed to meet the Tampa Bay's needs until 2013. Their water sources include Alafia River, Hillsborough River, Tampa Bypass Canal, and Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Plant. Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Plant was originally issued for building in 1997, but after many delays in construction as well as performance failures, it was not fully functioning until 2007. It is currently providing a day.\n\nSection::::Tampa Bay Conflict.:Future Plans.\n", "Prevention and alleviation of dry land salinity is a simplistic concept in theory however complex in application. Ceasing the removal of deeply rooted vegetation in order to moderate unbalanced groundwater recharge and the replanting of deeply rooted vegetation such as Eucalyptus and salt tolerant species in regions where salinity is present, will start to alleviate the salt and ground water discharge problems. (Barry and Holwell et al., 2012) However establishing plants in salt laden areas is extremely difficult.\n", "Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability (or water scarcity). Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.\n\nSection::::Problems.:Minimum streamflow.\n", "Many other concepts have been proposed, including piping water from the sea to a wetland in Mexico, Laguna Salada, as a means of salt export, and one by Aqua Genesis Ltd to bring in seawater from the Gulf of California, desalinate it at the sea using available geothermal heat, and sell the water to pay for the plan. This concept would involve the construction of over of pipes and tunneling, and, with the increasing demand for water at the coastline, would provide an additional of water to Southern California coastal cities each year.\n\nSection::::Increasing salinity.:Remediation efforts.:State restoration plan.\n", "Saltwater is also an issue where a lock separates saltwater from freshwater (for example the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks in Washington). In this case a collection basin was built from which the saltwater can be pumped back to the sea. Some of the intruding saltwater is also pumped to the fish ladder to make it more attractive to migrating fish.\n\nSection::::Areas where saltwater intrusion is occurring.\n\nBULLET::::- Water supply and sanitation in Benin\n\nBULLET::::- Geography of Cyprus\n\nBULLET::::- Bou Regreg (Morocco)\n\nBULLET::::- Water resources management in Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Water supply and sanitation in Tunisia\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n", "In 2018, California's Natural Resources Agency received 11 proposals to increase waterflow to the sea in order to reduce dust and dust-borne toxins. Proposal costs ranged from $300 million to several billion dollars. No winner was selected in this phase.\n\nSection::::Earthquake geology.\n", "Fresh water is a renewable and variable, but finite natural resource. Fresh water can only be replenished through the process of the water cycle,in which water from seas, lakes, forests, land, rivers, and reservoirs evaporates, forms clouds, and returns as precipitation. Locally, however, if more fresh water is consumed through human activities than is naturally restored, this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.\n\nFresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.\n", "BULLET::::- The History Channel's 2006 episode \"Engineering Disasters 18\" (#13-04), from the television documentary series \"Modern Marvels\", describes the combined manmade and natural events leading to the creation of the Salton Sea in the early 20th century, its brief popularity as a resort destination midcentury, and its subsequent decline due to high salinity and farm runoff. Impacts to Salton Sea fish and bird populations are addressed and future plans to rescue the sea are described.\n", "The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.\n\nSection::::Most affected countries.\n", "The technology related to this type of power is still in its infant stages, even though the principle was discovered in the 1950s. Standards and a complete understanding of all the ways salinity gradients can be utilized are important goals to strive for in order make this clean energy source more viable in the future.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Capacitive method.\n", "In response to these problems, the NSW Government's \"2006 Metropolitan Water Plan\" identified desalination as a way of securing Sydney's water supply needs in the case of a severe, prolonged drought:\n", "Until a few decades ago, Australia met its demands for water by drawing freshwater from dams and water catchments. However, during 2000-2010 a significant lack of rainfall drained water reservoirs. The most affected cities were the capitals, where there is high uncertainty in water supply and demand. In 2007, Sydney, the capital city of New South Wales, experienced a dramatic drop of its main dam Warragamba, where water levels dropped to 33% of normal.\n", "Section::::Environmental concerns.\n\nTo offset environmental impacts, of wetlands were built in San Diego Bay. Solar panels will be installed on the roof of the plant, and carbon emission offsets will be purchased.\n", "Many coastal communities around the United States are experiencing saltwater contamination of water supply wells, and this problem has been seen for decades. The consequences of saltwater intrusion for supply wells vary widely, depending on extent of the intrusion, the intended use of the water, and whether the salinity exceeds standards for the intended use. In some areas such as Washington State, intrusion only reaches portions of the aquifer, affecting only certain water supply wells. Other aquifers have faced more widespread salinity contamination, significantly affecting groundwater supplies for the region. For instance, in Cape May, New Jersey, where groundwater extraction has lowered water tables by up to 30 meters, saltwater intrusion has caused closure of over 120 water supply wells since the 1940s.\n", "Desalination appeared during the late 20th century, and is still limited to a few areas.\n", "BULLET::::- High capital costs to build the desalination plant\n\nBULLET::::- High cost of the water produced\n\nBULLET::::- Energy required to desalinate the water\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental issues with the disposal of the resulting brine\n\nBULLET::::- High cost of transporting water\n\nNevertheless, some countries like Spain are increasingly relying on desalination because of the continuing decreasing costs of the technology.\n", "Water security can be achieved along with energy security as it is going to consume electricity to link the surplus water areas with the water deficit areas by lift canals, pipe lines, etc. The total water resources going waste to the sea are nearly 1200 billion cubic meters after sparing moderate environmental / salt export water requirements of all rivers. of the subcontinent is possible to achieve water security in the Indian subcontinent with the active cooperation of the countries in the region.\n\nSection::::United States domestic policy.\n", "By 2014, large swaths of lake bed were exposed and salt levels drastically increased due to mandated water transfers to metropolitan areas along the coast and other factors, limiting the water inflow. Besides the resulting fish kills, the shrinking lake interrupts the bird migration, causes dust clouds, and negatively impacts local tourism.\n\nSection::::Increasing salinity.:Remediation efforts.\n\nSection::::Increasing salinity.:Remediation efforts.:Past efforts and proposals for a sea level canal.\n\nAlternatives for \"saving\" the Salton Sea have been evaluated since 1955.\n", "BULLET::::- Santa Barbara: The Charles Meyer Desalination Facility was constructed in Santa Barbara, California, in 1991–92 as a temporary emergency water supply in response to severe drought. While it has a high operating cost, the facility only needs to operate infrequently, allowing Santa Barbara to use its other supplies more extensively. The plant was re-activated in the spring of 2017.\n\nSection::::United States.:Florida.\n", "While there are currently no full-scale direct potable reuse schemes operating in Australia, the Australian Antarctic Division is investigating the option of installing a potable reuse scheme at its Davis research base in Antarctica. To enhance the quality of the marine discharge from the Davis WWTP, a number of different, proven technologies have been selected to be used in the future, such as ozonation, UV disinfection, chlorine, as well as UF, activated carbon filtration and RO.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Israel.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Changing salt water to fresh water can solve the water crisis." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Changing salt water to fresh water is not easy or cheap." ]
2018-06053	Why does bottled water contain sodium?	Unless it's been distilled, then sodium $and other ions$ are pretty much always present in water. Depending on where the water came from, they could have been absorbed from rocks or soil that the water touched, or from contact with living creatures like plants or animals. Sodium dissolves in water very easily, so if water contacts any sodium it will take some of it. Sometimes sodium is added on purpose to affect the hardness or the flavor of the water.	[ "In December 2009, \"Consumer Reports\" found that major canned food companies including Campbell's Soup had tinned products which had bisphenol A (BPA) levels over 100 ppb in some cases; the testing revealed that just one serving of canned food would exceed an expert's recommendation for daily exposure (0.2 micrograms per kg body weight per day).\n\nIn July 2011, citing sinking sales, and a combination of: \"consumer views and choices\" and having \"found no connection between sodium consumption and negative health outcomes\" they increased the salt contents again.\n\nSection::::GMO.\n", "BULLET::::- German pretzels are poached in a boiling sodium carbonate solution or cold sodium hydroxide solution before baking, which contributes to their unique crust.\n\nBULLET::::- Lye-water is an essential ingredient in the crust of the traditional baked Chinese moon cakes.\n\nBULLET::::- Most yellow coloured Chinese noodles are made with lye-water but are commonly mistaken for containing egg.\n\nBULLET::::- One variety of zongzi uses lye water to impart a sweet flavor.\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hydroxide is also the chemical that causes gelling of egg whites in the production of Century eggs.\n", "Sodium is an essential element for all animals and some plants. In animals, sodium ions are used against potassium ions to build up charges on cell membranes, allowing transmission of nerve impulses when the charge is dissipated; it is therefore classified as a dietary inorganic macromineral.\n", "Because large amounts of salts are given out by regenerative water softeners, over 60 cities in Southern California have banned them because of elevated salt levels in ground water reclamation projects. Water labeled as \"drinking water\" in supermarkets contains natural sodium since it is usually only filtered with a carbon filter and will contain any sodium present in the source water.\n\nSection::::Food and drink contents.:High sodium content.\n", "Section::::SodiumOne.\n", "BULLET::::- by ballerinas, to reduce slippage of pointe shoe ribbons;\n\nBULLET::::- for stiffening or straightening crinolines, skirts and tulle;\n\nBULLET::::- as a solvent for un-gluing hair extensions;\n\nBULLET::::- as a stain remover for makeup;\n\nBULLET::::- as a propellant in potato cannons;\n\nBULLET::::- as an inhalant in recreational substance abuse;\n\nBULLET::::- for increasing print adhesion in 3D Printing.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- In the film \"After Hours\" (1985), the beehive-wearing, 1960s-obsessed character Julie is shown to have a large backup supply of Aqua Net.\n", "Increasing dietary potassium intake has been shown to have a significant effect on blood pressure in populations with high sodium intake. It is not apparent from the study performed by Khaw \"et al.\" whether there is a difference for populations consuming low amounts of sodium; however, this is not particularly relevant in Canada, where people are more likely to consume excess sodium.\n\nSection::::Health claim #1.:Dietary sources of sodium.\n", "In 2007, Joffres \"et al.\" reported that in the typical Canadian diet, 11% of sodium occurs naturally, 12% is added during cooking and at the table, and 77% is added by industry during processing. Their study was to determine whether regulations to limit the amount of salt added by food manufacturers could reduce the prevalence of hypertension by 30%, which would substantially reduce Canadian health care costs.\n\nSection::::Health claim #1.:Research not supporting the claim.\n", "In much of the developed world, chlorine often is added as a disinfectant to tap water. If the water contains organic matter, this may produce other byproducts in the water such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, which has shown to increase the risk of cancer. The level of residual chlorine found at around 0.0002 g per litre, which is too small to cause any health problems directly. The chlorine concentration recommended by World Health Organization is between 0.0005 and 0.0002 g/L.\n", "Careful storage is needed when handling sodium hydroxide for use, especially bulk volumes. Following proper NaOH storage guidelines and maintaining worker/environment safety is always recommended given the chemical's burn hazard. Sodium hydroxide is often stored in bottles—as in laboratories, small-scale use—within intermediate bulk containers—medium volume containers for cargo handling and transport—or within large stationary storage tanks with volumes up to 100,000 gallons—as in manufacturing or waste water plants with extensive NaOH use. Common materials that are compatible with sodium hydroxide and often utilized for NaOH storage include: polyethylene (HDPE, usual, XLPE, less common), carbon steel, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), stainless steel, and fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP, with a resistant liner).\n", "One of the main sources for sodium in the diet is processed foods. Sodium is added to prevent spoilage, add flavor and improve the texture of these foods. Americans consume an average of 3,436 milligrams of sodium per day, which is higher than the recommended limit of 2,300 milligrams per day for healthy people, and more than twice the limit of 1,500 milligrams per day for those at increased risk for heart disease.\n\nSection::::Added sugars.\n", "BULLET::::- Dihydrate, NaOH·2: from +5.0 °C (45.7%) to +12.3 °C (51%).\n\nBULLET::::- Monohydrate, NaOH·: from +12.3 °C (51%) to 65.10 °C (69%) then to 62.63 °C (73.1%).\n\nEarly reports refer to hydrates with \"n\" = 0.5 or \"n\" = 2/3, but later careful investigations failed to confirm their existence.\n", "In fall 2007, Campbell's was awarded a Certificate of Excellence, for their efforts in lowering sodium levels, from \"Blood Pressure Canada\".\n\nBy autumn 2009, Campbell's claimed it had lowered the sodium content in 50% of its soups range.\n\nIn March 2010, this claim was challenged. ABC News reported that the low-sodium variety of Campbell soup in fact contains the same amount of sodium as the regular variety, and that Campbell's Healthy Request soup contains more fat than the regular variety.\n", "BULLET::::- Some methods of preparing olives involve subjecting them to a lye-based brine.\n\nBULLET::::- The Filipino dessert (\"kakanin\") called \"kutsinta\" uses a small quantity of lye water to help give the rice flour batter a jelly like consistency. A similar process is also used in the kakanin known as \"pitsi-pitsi\" or \"pichi-pichi\" except that the mixture uses grated cassava instead of rice flour.\n\nBULLET::::- The Norwegian dish known as lutefisk (from \"lutfisk\", \"lye fish\").\n\nBULLET::::- Bagels are often boiled in a lye solution before baking, contributing to their shiny crust.\n", "Separate from the NSRI, a number of major food producers have pledged to reduce the sodium content of their food. Pepsi is developing a \"designer salt\" that's slightly more powdery than the salt it regularly uses. The company hopes this new form of salt will cut sodium levels by 25 percent in its Lay's potato chips.\n\nNestlé's prepared foods company, which produces frozen meals, announced that it will reduce sodium in its foods by 10 percent by 2015.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- HAZMAT Class 8 Corrosive Substances\n\nBULLET::::- Common chemicals\n\nBULLET::::- List of cleaning agents\n\nBULLET::::- Acid and Base\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- International Chemical Safety Card 0360\n\nBULLET::::- Euro Chlor-How is chlorine made? Chlorine Online\n\nBULLET::::- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards\n\nBULLET::::- CDC – Sodium Hydroxide – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic\n\nBULLET::::- European Union Risk Assessment Report\n\nBULLET::::- Production by brine electrolysis\n\nBULLET::::- Data sheets\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Hydroxide Safety Data Sheet (SDS)\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Hydroxide MSDS\n\nBULLET::::- Certified Lye MSDS\n\nBULLET::::- Hill Brothers MSDS\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hydroxide Safety Summary (BASF)\n", "Because of its importance in human metabolism, salt has long been an important commodity, as shown by the English word \"salary\", which derives from \"salarium\", the wafers of salt sometimes given to Roman soldiers along with their other wages. In medieval Europe, a compound of sodium with the Latin name of \"sodanum\" was used as a headache remedy. The name sodium is thought to originate from the Arabic \"suda\", meaning headache, as the headache-alleviating properties of sodium carbonate or soda were well known in early times. Although sodium, sometimes called \"soda\", had long been recognized in compounds, the metal itself was not isolated until 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. In 1809, the German physicist and chemist Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert proposed the names \"Natronium\" for Humphry Davy's \"sodium\" and \"Kalium\" for Davy's \"potassium\". The chemical abbreviation for sodium was first published in 1814 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in his system of atomic symbols, and is an abbreviation of the element's New Latin name \"natrium\", which refers to the Egyptian \"natron\", a natural mineral salt mainly consisting of hydrated sodium carbonate. Natron historically had several important industrial and household uses, later eclipsed by other sodium compounds.\n", "In Canada sodium content in infant food is regulated; strained fruit, fruit juice, fruit drink, and cereal cannot be sold if sodium has been added (excluding strained desserts). Foods naturally containing sodium are limited to 0.05 - 0.25 grams per 100 grams of food, depending on the type of infant food.\n", "Sodium occurs naturally in most foods. The most common form of sodium is sodium chloride, which is table salt. Milk, beets, and celery also naturally contain sodium, as does drinking water, although the amount varies depending on the source. Sodium is also added to various food products. Some of these added forms are monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate.\n", "Bottled water may have reduced amounts of copper, lead, and other metal contaminants since it does not run through the plumbing pipes where tap water is exposed to metal corrosion; however, this varies by the household and plumbing system.\n", "Condiments and seasonings such as Worcestershire sauce, soy sauce, onion salt, garlic salt, and bouillon cubes contain sodium. Processed meats, such as bacon, sausage, and ham, and canned soups and vegetables are all examples of foods that contain added sodium. Fast foods are generally very high in sodium. Also, processed foods such as potato chips, frozen dinners and cured meats have high sodium content.\n\nSection::::Food and drink contents.:Low sodium content.\n", "As mentioned above, sodium intake can have cardiovascular effects without hypertension. It is therefore prudent to reduce sodium intake even if blood pressure is normal. It is important to consume an overall healthy diet that essentially follows the Canada Food Guide. Reducing sodium intake to recommended levels can reduce the risk of future hypertension and cardiovascular problems, and reduction of sodium intake carries no inherent risk. Because most of the sodium we consume is added during processing, preparing healthy meals at home and adding salt during cooking, rather than purchasing ready meals and snacks, is an easy way to reduce sodium intake without compromising the flavour and texture that salt provides in food.\n", "In establishing the Sodium Working Group, Health Canada included representatives from food manufacturing and food service industry groups, health-focused non-governmental organizations, the scientific community, consumer advocacy groups, health professional organizations and government representatives. The mandate of the Working Group was to develop and oversee the implementation of a strategy for reducing dietary sodium intake among Canadians.\n\nSection::::Focus.:Members.\n", "In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates all packaged foods and beverage products, including bottled water, and mandates labeling requirements. FDA labeling requirements include a statement of the type of water in the container, compliance with the applicable definitions in the FDA Standards of Identity, ingredient labeling, name and place of business of the manufacturer, packer or distributor, net weight, and, if required, nutrition labeling.\n\nSection::::Consumer information.:Consumer information.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Road salt.:Substitution.\n\nSome agencies are substituting beer, molasses, and beet juice instead of road salt. Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt based solutions for de-icing.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Food industry and agriculture.\n\nMany microorganisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18683	Why do posts get archived?	The focus on this site is on relevance and recency. Things that are newer will be prioritized over things that are older. By archiving discussions, you ensure that the conversation must be focused on things that have recently been posted.	[ "For privacy reasons, the users' comments are usually ignored by websites of the Internet preservation, like it happens in Web Archive, or in Archive.today copy saving.\n\nSection::::Mobile video hosting.\n", "The administrators re-upload posts without original uploaders' permission and they do not let the uploaders know that their posts are re-uploaded on HIT gallery. Some users long for their posts to be re-uploaded on HIT gallery, some users do not want their posts to be re-uploaded on HIT gallery. When users got their unwanted posts uploaded on HIT gallery, the only way to delete the posts is requesting administrators about it.\n\nSection::::Gallery.:Minor Gallery.\n", "An author who starts a new article becomes its \"owner\", that is the only person authorized to edit that article. Other users may add corrections and discuss improvements but the resulting modifications of the article, if any, are always made by the owner. However, if there are long lasting unresolved corrections, the ownership can be removed. More precisely, after 2 weeks the system starts to remind the owner by mail; at 6 weeks any user can \"adopt\" the article; at 8 weeks the ownership of the entry is completely removed (and such an entry is called \"orphaned\").\n", "A 2003 study analysed 80 journal publishers‘ copyright agreements and found that 90 percent of publishers asked for some form of copyright transfer and only 42.5 percent allowed self-archiving in some form. In 2014 the SHERPA/Romeo project recorded that of 1,275 publishers 70 percent allowed for some form of self-archiving, with 62 percent allowing both pre and postprint self-archiving of published papers. In 2017 the project recorded that of 2,375 publishers 41 percent allowed pre and postprint to be self-archived. 33 percent only allowed the self-archiving of the postprint, meaning the final draft post-refereeing. 6 percent of publishers only allowed self-archiving of the preprint, meaning the pre-refereeing draft.\n", "Since the advent of the Open Archives Initiative, preprints and postprints have been deposited in institutional repositories, which are interoperable because they are compliant with the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting.\n\nEprints are at the heart of the open access initiative to make research freely accessible online. Eprints were first deposited or self-archived in arbitrary websites and then harvested by virtual archives such as CiteSeer (and, more recently, Google Scholar), or they were deposited in central disciplinary archives such as arXiv or PubMed Central.\n", "Section::::Implementation.\n\nWhereas the right to self-archive postprints is often a copyright matter (if the rights have been transferred to the publisher), the right to self-archive preprints is merely a question of journal policy.\n", "With Screened came an upgraded version of the wiki-database system commonly seen throughout its sister-sites. Users who have gained one-thousand wiki points or more on either Giant Bomb, Comic Vine or Anime Vice (therefore allowing them to by-pass wiki-entry moderation) are automatically given one-thousand points on Screened in order to promote high quality entry submitting into the database as soon as possible as well as lightening the load on the Screened wiki-moderators.\n", "Section::::Features.\n\nSection::::Features.:Users.\n", "Sponsored posts can also serve as a means of curtailing the possibility of companies paying individuals to moderate a submitted link or media to the front page of the website, which often violates the spirit or letter of a site's Terms of Service.\n\nSection::::Instagram.\n", "In the early days of Twitter, tweets were stored in MySQL databases that were temporally sharded (large databases were split based on time of posting). After the huge volume of tweets coming in caused problems reading from and writing to these databases, the company decided that the system needed re-engineering.\n", "From \"The Need to Archive Blog Content\", this article discusses the advent of legitimate blogs that professional journalists and newspapers cite for genuine information. Because creators of blogs and social media have the ability to edit or delete postings or the entire content at the creator's will. This author has concerns about the editing, \"but will anyone be able to see the actual blog entries? Will these primary source documents be available?\" Here is a comment made in the article concerning the longevity of a news source and how it has both potential and danger in being totally unavailable once the information has passed its initial interest level: \"Since the \"Daily Nightly\" blog is not archived anywhere other than the MSNBC site, there is no guarantee that future generations will have access to these posts, considered by traditional media to be insightful and helpful for understanding part of the news process.\" The author describes possible answers to archiving blogs; however, the points align themselves with artifactual value concerns within this medium. The premise is structured around truth, validity and authenticity along with proper linking methods to accredited sources so that this form of communication and information does not go undetected. \"Trust is of fundamental importance in digital document management,\" this is an important part of establishing value to this type of sites. As more and more accredited news sources cite blogs and other traditional transient sites, the term of artifactual value will be linked to blogs and social media.\n", "Early in its history, some of the large volumes of user-uploaded material hosted on Wattpad was copyrighted material created by authors who did not grant republication rights. In May 2009, an article in 'The New York Times' noted, \"\"Sites like Scribd and Wattpad, which invite users to upload documents like college theses and self-published novels, have been the target of industry grumbling in recent weeks, as illegal reproductions of popular titles have turned up on them\"\".\n", "Matthew Hurst wrote on his Data Mining blog in 2008: \"The site is a cooperative approach to history and presents data in timelines. ... I like this vertical approach to wiki data as it has the potential to focus both expertise and data structures, making the data more valuable in a number of dimensions.\" \n\nAuthor David Ray Griffin wrote in the acknowledgements of his book \"The New Pearl Harbor Revisited\n", "Offending content is usually deleted. Sometimes if the topic is considered the source of the problem, it is \"locked\"; often a poster may request a topic expected to draw problems to be locked as well, although the moderators decide whether to grant it. In a \"locked thread\", members cannot post anymore. In cases where the topic is considered a breach of rules it – with all of its posts – may be deleted.\n\nSection::::Rules and policies.:Troll.\n", "Posts made on the message boards are mostly plain text. Some HTML mark-up is used on the boards, including bold and italics tags. The forums use a wordfilter to prevent the use of certain vulgar words, to keep the forum safe for all readers. On some boards, topics are removed permanently after having no new posts for a period of time. On other boards, they are locked and archived (a feature which was added in 2008). The length of time that a topic can remain inactive without being removed or archived depends on the number of posts on its board.\n", "Individuals may use a number of tools that allow them to archive web resources that may go missing in the future:\n\nBULLET::::- The \"WayBack Machine\", at the Internet Archive, is a free website that archives old web pages. It does not archive websites whose owners have stated they do not want their website archived.\n\nBULLET::::- WebCite, a tool specifically for scholarly authors, journal editors and publishers to permanently archive \"on-demand\" and retrieve cited Internet references.\n", "A problem that paysites have is copyright protection, even with well-secured sites: there are cases of so-called \"site rips\", i.e. sites are either hacked, or subscribers redistributed content from a members' area without authorization; there have thus been sightings of original content on other TGP sites or entire site rip archives on file sharing networks. Some sites sell site rips of paysites. Administrators may try to counter these problems by employing digital rights management technologies.\n", "Some wikis keep a record of changes made to wiki pages; often, every version of the page is stored. This means that authors can revert to an older version of the page should it be necessary because a mistake has been made, such as the content accidentally being deleted or the page has been vandalized to include offensive or malicious text or other inappropriate content.\n", "From 2000-2007, there have been several archive moves, but few events that have had long-term effects on the archive or readers. In 2001, the Gossamer Skinner name was retired and eventually replaced by Gossamer Tooms, due to the unreliability of the servers that had hosted Skinner over the years and to note the acquisition of a commercial dedicated server for Gossamer usage.\n\nSection::::Bandwidth Problems.\n\nFrom early in its history through about 2000, the Gossamer archives suffered from ongoing bandwidth problems due to the site's popularity.\n", "Modern personal archiving is often concerned with digital preservation, especially with collating individual's content from social media websites and ensuring the long-term preservation of this. This often deals with migration of digital content, as a means of preservation, rather than the tradition tasks of conservation of paper-based records.\n\nSection::::Form and Motivation.\n", "Section::::PostSecrets Archive.\n\nPostSecret Archive was a searchable database that allows users to search all previous PostSecret posts by date or by keyword. It is no longer in operation.\n\nSection::::Media.\n\nArtwork from the site was blown up to poster size and used as the background in the 2005 All-American Rejects music video for \"Dirty Little Secret.\" The blown up poster-size PostSecrets, along with thousands of regular size PostSecrets, were then featured in an exhibition with the Washington Project for the Arts.\n", "There are thousands of digital humanities projects, ranging from small-scale ones with limited or no funding to large-scale ones with multi-year financial support. Some are continually updated while others may not be due to loss of support or interest, though they may still remain online in either a beta version or a finished form. The following are a few examples of the variety of projects in the field:\n\nSection::::Projects.:Digital archives.\n", "Many questions arise regarding what should be archived and preserved and who should undertake the job. Vast amounts of born-digital content are created constantly and institutions are forced to decide what and how much should be saved. Because linking plays such a large role in the digital setting, whether a responsibility exists to maintain access to links (and therefore context) is debated, especially when considering the scope of such a task. Additionally, since publishing is not as delineated in the digital realm and preliminary versions of work are increasingly made available, knowing when to archive presents further complications.\n", "Section::::Users and institutions.:Business (for profit).\n", "Allowing offline editing, however (where the changes are synchronized when the user is back online), is a much more difficult process. One approach to doing this is using a distributed revision control system as a backend of the wiki, in peer-to-peer style. With this approach, there is no central store of the wiki's content; instead, every user keeps a complete copy of the wiki locally, and the software handles merging and propagating of changes when they are made. This is the approach taken by the ikiwiki engine (which can use the distributed revision control system Git as its back-end), and Code Co-op (a distributed revision control system that includes a wiki component).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02519	How can the same size and type of rechargeable battery have different capacities?	You can pack more active chemicals in the battery, if you use more expensive, thinner films, more expensive pastes that contain more active ingredients, and wind it all much tighter to pack more in. Some really cheap cells contain only a little bit of stuff wound rather loosely, or even packed out with sand.	[ "Lithium-ion rechargeable batteries are generally not interchangeable with primary types using different chemistry, though certain lithium primary cell sizes do have lithium-ion rechargeable equivalents. Most rechargeable cylindrical cells use a chemistry with a nominal voltage around 3.7 volts, but cells produce only 3.2 volts.\n", "The full battery designation identifies not only the size, shape and terminal layout of the battery but also the chemistry (and therefore the voltage per cell) and the number of cells in the battery. For example, a CR123 battery is always Li-MnO ('Lithium') chemistry, in addition to its unique size.\n\nThe following tables give the common battery chemistries for the current common sizes of batteries. See Battery Chemistries for a list of other electrochemical systems.\n\nSection::::Physical interchangeability.\n", "Different battery chemistries require different charging schemes. For example, some battery types can be safely recharged from a constant voltage source. Other types need to be charged with a regulated current source that tapers as the battery reaches fully charged voltage. Charging a battery incorrectly can damage a battery; in extreme cases, batteries can overheat, catch fire, or explosively vent their contents.\n\nSection::::Charging and discharging.:Rate of discharge.\n", "Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. As the usable capacity of a battery system depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of discharge must be qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle.\n", "List of battery sizes\n\nThis article lists the sizes, shapes, and general characteristics of some common primary and secondary battery types in household and light industrial use.\n\nHistorically the term \"battery\" referred to a collection of electrochemical cells connected in series, however in modern times the term has come to refer to any collection of cells (or single cell) packaged in a container with external connections provided to power electrical devices, leading to the variety of standardized form factors available today.\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI C18.1, Part 1 Portable Primary Cells and Batteries With Aqueous Electrolyte - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.1, Part 2 Portable Primary Cells and Batteries With Aqueous Electrolyte Safety Standard\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.2, Part 1 Portable Rechargeable Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.2, Part 2 Portable Rechargeable Cells and Batteries Safety Standard\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.3, Part 1 Portable lithium Primary Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.3, Part 2 Portable lithium Primary Cells and Batteries Safety Standard\n", "Lithium-ion cells are made in various sizes, often assembled into packs for portable equipment. Many types are also available with an internal protection circuit to prevent over-discharge and short-circuit damage. This can increase their physical length; for example, an 18650 is around long, but may be around long with an internal protection circuit. Safe and economic recharging requires a charger specified for these cells. Popular applications include laptop battery packs, electronic cigarettes, flashlights, electric vehicles, and cordless power tools.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive battery sizes\n\nBULLET::::- Battery holder\n\nBULLET::::- Battery recycling\n\nBULLET::::- Battery (vacuum tube)\n\nBULLET::::- Button cell\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- List of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- Nine-volt battery\n\nBULLET::::- \"Search for the Super Battery\" (2017 PBS film)\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-1: Primary batteries - Part 1: General\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-2: Primary batteries - Part 2: Physical and electrical specifications\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-3: Primary batteries - Part 3: Watch batteries\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-4: Primary batteries - Part 4: Safety of lithium batteries\n", "Section::::Charging and discharging.:Lifespan and cycle stability.\n", "Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to voltage per cell (VPC) for the individual cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V lead-acid battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.\n\nSection::::Charging and discharging.:Damage from cell reversal.\n", "On the other hand, with obscure battery types, the designation assigned by a specific brand will sometimes become the most common name for that battery type, as other manufacturers copy or modify the name so that customers recognize it.\n\nSection::::Battery chemistry.\n", "The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.\n\nSection::::Categories and types of batteries.\n\nBatteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:\n", "Section::::Cylindrical batteries.\n", "Section::::Active components.\n\nThe active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and negative are made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. The sum of these potentials is the standard cell potential or voltage.\n", "Battery pack designs for Electric Vehicles (EVs) are complex and vary widely by manufacturer and specific application. However, they all incorporate a combination of several simple mechanical and electrical component systems which perform the basic required functions of the pack.\n\nThe actual battery cells can have different chemistry, physical shapes, and sizes as preferred by various pack manufacturers. Battery pack will always incorporate many\n\ndiscrete cells connected in series and parallel to achieve the total voltage and current requirements of the pack. Battery packs for all electric drive EVs can contain several hundred individual cells.\n", "In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell.\n\nMany battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal. A smart battery has voltage monitoring circuitry built inside.\n", "Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage power stations. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.\n\nOlder rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.\n", "As SoH does not correspond to a particular physical quality, there is no consensus in the industry on how SoH should be determined.\n\nThe designer of a battery management system may use any of the following parameters (singly or in combination) to derive an arbitrary value for the SoH.\n\nBULLET::::- Internal resistance / impedance / conductance\n\nBULLET::::- Capacity\n\nBULLET::::- Voltage\n\nBULLET::::- Self-discharge\n\nBULLET::::- Ability to accept a charge\n\nBULLET::::- Number of charge–discharge cycles\n\nBULLET::::- Age of the battery\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature of battery during its previous uses\n\nBULLET::::- Total energy charged and discharged\n", "Battery nomenclature\n\nStandard battery nomenclature describes portable dry cell batteries that have physical dimensions and electrical characteristics interchangeable between manufacturers. The long history of disposable dry cells means that many different manufacturer-specific and national standards were used to designate sizes, long before international standards were reached. Technical standards for battery sizes and types are set by standards organizations such as International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Popular sizes are still referred to by old standard or manufacturer designations, and some non-systematic designations have been included in current international standards due to wide use.\n", "Alkaline batteries are usually cheaper than silver oxide equivalents. Inexpensive devices are sometimes supplied fitted with alkaline batteries, though they would benefit from the use of silver oxide batteries. Exhausted silver oxide cells are often recycled to recover their precious metal content, whereas depleted alkaline cells are discarded with household trash or recycled, depending on the local practices.\n", "All these lithium cells are rated nominally 3 volts (on-load), with open circuit voltage about 3.6 volts. Manufacturers may have their own part numbers for IEC standard size cells. The capacity listed is for a constant resistance discharge down to 2.0 volts per cell.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.:Silver oxide and alkaline cells.\n\nRound button cells have heights less than their diameter. The metal can is the positive terminal, and the cap is the negative terminal.\n", "BULLET::::- Power conversion – because all cells share the same electrolyte/s. Therefore, the electrolyte/s may be charged using a given number of cells and discharged with a different number. Because the voltage of the battery is proportional to the number of cells used the battery can therefore act as a very powerful DC–DC converter. In addition, if the number of cells is continuously changed (on the input and/or output side) power conversion can also be AC/DC, AC/AC, or DC–AC with the frequency limited by that of the switching gear.\n", "Both standards have several parts that cover general principles, physical specifications, and safety. Designations by IEC and ANSI standards do not entirely agree, though harmonization is in progress. Also, manufacturers have their systems for identifying cell types, so cross-reference tables are useful to identify equivalent types from different manufacturers.\n\nLead-acid automotive starting, lighting and ignition batteries have been standardized according to IEC standard 60095 and in North America by standards published by BCI.\n\nSection::::Non-standard brand-specific names.\n", "The complete nomenclature for the battery will fully specify the size, chemistry, terminal arrangements and special characteristics of a battery. The same physically interchangeable cell size may have widely different characteristics; physical interchangeability is not the sole factor in substitution of batteries.\n\nNational standards for dry cell batteries have been developed by ANSI, JIS, British national standards, and others. Civilian, commercial, government and military standards all exist. Two of the most prevalent standards currently in use are the IEC 60086 series and the ANSI C18.1 series. Both standards give dimensions, standard performance characteristics, and safety information.\n", "Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n" ]	[ "If a rechargeable battery is the same size and type the two should not be able to have different capacities." ]	[ "If a battery has more chemicals packed on the inside of it, it will be able to hold a larger capacity." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If a rechargeable battery is the same size and type the two should not be able to have different capacities.", "If a rechargeable battery is the same size and type the two should not be able to have different capacities." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "If a battery has more chemicals packed on the inside of it, it will be able to hold a larger capacity.", "If a battery has more chemicals packed on the inside of it, it will be able to hold a larger capacity." ]
2018-02404	why do large trucks, busses etc. have larger steering wheels than smaller vehicles?	When there's more weight resting on the wheels, they are harder to turn. Having a larger steering wheel makes that easier to overcome. Even though pretty much all vehicles now have power steering, you still need to be able to steer the vehicle in case of a failure, so they still have large wheels in spite of this.	[ "Most new vehicles now have power steering, owing to the trends toward front wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, and wider tires, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in some countries, would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds, while vehicles of lighter weight may not need power assisted steering at all.\n\nSection::::Hydraulic systems.\n", "Large cars can carry many people (five or more), and since they have larger crumple zones, they may be safer in an accident. However they also tend to be heavy (and often not very aerodynamic) and hence have relatively poor fuel economy. Small cars like the Smart Car can only carry two people, and their light weight means they are very fuel efficient. At the same time, the smaller size and weight of small cars means that they have smaller crumple zones, which means occupants are less protected in case of an accident. In addition, if a small car has an accident with a larger, heavier car, the occupants of the smaller car will fare more poorly. Thus car size (large versus small) involves multiple tradeoffs regarding passenger capacity, accident safety and fuel economy.\n", "Precision of the steering is particularly important on ice or hard packed snow where the slip angle at the limit of adhesion is smaller than on dry roads.\n", "An important aspect of forklift operation is that it must have rear-wheel steering. While this increases maneuverability in tight cornering situations, it differs from a driver’s traditional experience with other wheeled vehicles. While steering, as there is no caster action, it is unnecessary to apply steering force to maintain a constant rate of turn.\n", "Of the 300 Series the 285 and 310 models were single wheel, the 300 and 350 models being twin. While capacity for the 200 Series remained at , that of the 300 Series ranged from to , depending on the combination of wheelbase and roof profile (a high roof was an option for the lwb 310 and 350 models).\n", "Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and go-karts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a bellcrank (also commonly known as a Pitman arm) attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable-operated steering linkages (e.g. the capstan and bowstring mechanism) is also found on some home-built vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles.\n\nSection::::Land vehicle steering.:Power steering.\n", "BULLET::::- Collapsible universally jointed steering columns, along with steering wheel airbag. The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by, the front crumple zone. This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash.\n\nBULLET::::- Pedestrian protection systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts, on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash, and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas.\n", "Collapsible steering columns were invented by Béla Barényi and were introduced in the 1959 Mercedes-Benz W111 Fintail, along with crumple zones. This safety feature first appeared on cars built by General Motors after an extensive and very public lobbying campaign enacted by Ralph Nader. Ford started to install collapsible steering columns in 1968.\n\nAudi used a retractable steering wheel and seat belt tensioning system called procon-ten, but it has since been discontinued in favor of airbags and pyrotechnic seat belt pre-tensioners.\n\nSection::::Land vehicle steering.:Cycles.\n", "BULLET::::- Without mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the road wheel, it is less likely that the impact of a frontal crash will force the steering wheel to intrude into the driver's survival space.\n\nBULLET::::- Steering system characteristics can easily and infinitely be adjusted to optimize the steering response and feel.\n", "The additional height and weight of plus sized wheels may reduce vulnerability to rollovers, particularly by changing the center of gravity. During rapid tire deflation at speed, reduced sidewall height may decrease rollovers.\n", "BULLET::::- Wheel and axle motion (e.g. screwdrivers, doorknobs): A wheel is essentially a lever with one arm the distance between the axle and the outer point of the wheel, and the other the radius of the axle. Typically this is a fairly large difference, leading to a proportionately large mechanical advantage. This allows even simple wheels with wooden axles running in wooden blocks to still turn freely, because their friction is overwhelmed by the rotational force of the wheel multiplied by the mechanical advantage.\n", "Engineers try to design a sports car so that its center of mass is lowered to make the car handle better, that is maintaining traction while executing relatively sharp turns. \n\nThe characteristic low profile of the U. S. military Humvee was designed in part to allow it tilt farther than taller vehicles, without a rollover, because its low center of mass would stay over the space bounded the four wheels even at angles far from the horizontal.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Engineering designs.:Aeronautics.\n", "The steering wheels were rigid and mounted on non-collapsible steering columns. This arrangement increased the risk of impaling the driver in case of a severe crash. The first collapsible steering column was invented in 1934 but was never successfully marketed. By 1956, Ford came out with a safety steering wheel that was set high above the post with spokes that would flex, but the column was still rigid. In 1968, United States regulations (FMVSS Standard No. 204) were implemented concerning the acceptable rearward movement of the steering wheel in case of crash. Collapsible steering columns were required to meet that standard.\n", "Section::::Practical Importance.\n", "The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of feedback and direct steering \"feel\". A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash, the only cure is replacement.\n\nBMW began to use rack and pinion steering systems in the 1930s, and many other European manufacturers adopted the technology. American automakers adopted rack and pinion steering beginning with the 1974 Ford Pinto.\n", "Vehicle weight influences the size and cost of a system's guideways, which are in turn a major part of the capital cost of the system. Larger vehicles are more expensive to produce, require larger and more expensive guideways, and use more energy to start and stop. If vehicles are too large, point-to-point routing also becomes more expensive. Against this, smaller vehicles have more surface area per passenger (thus have higher total air resistance which dominates the energy cost of keeping vehicles moving at speed), and larger motors are generally more efficient than smaller ones.\n", "BULLET::::- Adjustable steering column:In contrast, an adjustable steering column allows steering wheel height to be adjusted with only a small, useful change in tilt. Most of these systems work with compression locks or electric motors instead of ratchet mechanisms; the latter may be capable of moving to a memorized position when a given driver uses the car, or of moving up and forward for entry or exit.\n\nBULLET::::- Telescope wheel\n\nBULLET::::- Swing-away steering wheel\n\nBULLET::::- Tilt-away steering wheel\n\nBULLET::::- Quick release hub steering wheel\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "In virtually all modern vehicles, the lower section of the inner shaft is articulated with universal joints which helps control movement of the column in a frontal impact, and also gives engineers freedom in mounting the steering gear itself.\n\nSection::::Regulatory requirements.\n", "Because the wheels are not constrained to remain perpendicular to a flat road surface in turning, braking and varying load conditions, control of the wheel camber is an important issue. Swinging arm was common in small cars that were sprung softly and could carry large loads, because the camber is independent of load. Some active and semi-active suspensions maintain the ride height, and therefore the camber, independent of load. In sports cars, optimal camber change when turning is more important.\n", "BULLET::::- A larger tire-footprint can increase the time taken for \"return to center\" (steering) after taking a sharp turn.\n\nSection::::Controversial issues.\n\nSome people claim larger wheels wear faster. Wheels with reduced sidewall heights may increase risk of damaged rims, breaking the bead, and/or damaged sidewalls. The increased width of the contact patch of wider tires may increase the risk of hydroplaning.\n\nPlus sizing tires may enhance the vehicle's value. Improving the vehicle from the factory specifications may increase value.\n", "Angular inertia is an integral over the \"square\" of the distance from the center of gravity, so it favors small cars even though the lever arms (wheelbase and track) also increase with scale. (Since cars have reasonable symmetrical shapes, the off-diagonal terms of the angular inertia tensor can usually be ignored.)\n", "Early Formula One cars used steering wheels taken directly from road cars. They were normally made from wood (necessitating the use of driving gloves), and in the absence of packaging constraints they tended to be made as large a diameter as possible, to reduce the effort needed to turn. As cars grew progressively lower and cockpits narrower throughout the 1960s and 1970s, steering wheels became smaller, so as to fit into the more compact space available.\n\nSection::::Passenger cars.:Spokes in steering wheel.\n\nThe number of spokes in the steering wheel has continuously changed. Most early cars had four-spoke steering wheels.\n", "It is typically used with a MacPherson strut, but can also be applied to a double wishbone suspension. In either case, the difference is that the single bottom wishbone is replaced by a pair of suspension links forming a trapezoidal four-bar linkage. This allows the kingpin to pivot about a pivot point nearer the center of the wheel's contact patch instead of the traditional pivot point at the ball joint of the bottom wishbone.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Hyundai Genesis Coupe\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 750i\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 3 Series\n\nBULLET::::- Pontiac G8\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Territory\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Falcon\n\nBULLET::::- Tesla Model S\n", "Steering wheels are used in most modern land vehicles, including all mass-production automobiles, as well as buses, light and heavy trucks, and tractors. The steering wheel is the part of the steering system that is manipulated by the driver; the rest of the steering system responds to such driver inputs. This can be through direct mechanical contact as in recirculating ball or rack and pinion steering gears, without or with the assistance of hydraulic power steering, HPS, or as in some modern production cars with the assistance of computer-controlled motors, known as Electric Power Steering.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Mass near the ends of a car can be avoided, without re-designing it to be shorter, by the use of light materials for bumpers and fenders or by deleting them entirely. If most of the weight is in the middle of the car then the vehicle will be easier to spin, and therefore will react quicker to a turn.\n\nSection::::Factors that affect a car's handling.:Suspension.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00208	Why is it easier to climb on a Stair Master versus climbing up normal everyday stairs? (at work,school,home,etc.)	With a stair master you are pressing down with your legs and not really moving your whole body. So the resistance is much lower. On regular stairs you are lifting your entire body weight up by one leg with each climb.	[ "On average in this study, infants learned to crawl and cruise before learning to ascend stairs independently. Infants were able to climb up the stairs before they could walk, but walking tended to come before independent stair descent. While most of the infants had prior stair experience, the presence or absence of stairs in the home did not influence the onsets of crawling, cruising or stair descent. However, lack of exposure to stairs resulted in a significant time-lag between first learning to ascend and to descend. Differences in housing types created a so-called 'suburban advantage' (i.e. houses with stairs versus flats/apartments without).\n", "BULLET::::- By rotating its two sets of powered wheels about each other, the iBOT can \"walk\" up and down stairs, much like a cog railway or a rack and pinion with the two wheels as the \"teeth\" of the gear. The wheels can roll slightly at each step to compensate for a wide range of stair dimensions. When stair-climbing without assistance, the user requires a sturdy handrail and a strong grip. With an assistant, neither a handrail nor a strong grip is required.\n", "One study looked at the typical age onset for stair ascent and descent, and compared them to other developmental milestones. It also looked at the stair climbing strategies that infants use. Consisting of 732 infants, and including parental assessment and documentation of motor skill achievements, along with in-depth interviews parents about the strategies involved and child assessment using laboratory stair apparatus. The results showed that children younger than 9 months of age were unable to go up or down stairs at all, or were only able to go up. By around 13 months, most infants could go upstairs and about half could ascend and descend stairs. Infants typically learned to descend stairs after they have already learned to ascend, with only about 12% achieved both stair-climbing skills at the same time.\n", "Sliding backwards feet first is the safest approach to descending stairs due to the fact that the midline of the body is closer to the staircase providing an even weight distribution on all four limbs . This might explain why it is exceptionally difficult for older people to descend stairs, because their midline is so far way due to longer arms and legs.\n", "Other research suggests that infants’ descent strategies may be related to their cognitive abilities. This is why most parents teach their children to back down stairs, even though it’s the safest it is also the most cognitively difficult descent strategy.\n\nSection::::Records.\n\nBULLET::::- On 28 September 2014, Christian Riedl climbed Tower 185 in Frankfurt, Germany 71 times in 12 hours for a total of 43,128 ft (13.14 km).\n\nBULLET::::- From 5–6 October 2007, Kurt Hess climbed Esterli Tower in Switzerland 413 times in less than 24 hours for a total of 60,974 ft (18.585 km).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tower Running\n\nBULLET::::- Stair climbing sport\n", "Stair climbing\n\nStair climbing is the climbing of a flight of stairs. It is often described as a \"low-impact\" exercise, often for people who have recently started trying to get in shape. \n\nA common exhortation in health pop culture is \"Take the stairs, not the elevator\".\n\nSection::::Energy expenditure.\n", "The conventional layout for a typical domestic stair lift is to have the seat at right angles to the rail so the user travels \"sidesaddle\". At the top of the staircase the seat can be swiveled, commonly through around 45 degrees or 90 degrees, then locked in place to allow the user to alight from it onto a landing. Stair lifts are available with either a manual swivel or a powered swivel, depending on the users ability.\n", "This form of stair climber is most commonly found in the manual non-electric variety and very common amongst courier drivers and for lightweight deliveries.\n\nSection::::Tracked stair climber type.\n", "However, a basic straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings or winders. Although the rhythm of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset the increased fall risk by helping to prevent a misstep in the first place, many stairs will require landings or winders to comply with safety standards in the Building Regulations.\n", "Some limited norms for stair climbing motor milestones have been established, but the process had historically been viewed like any other motor milestone - as a universal skill acquired through development.\n", "Stairs are not suitable for wheelchairs and other vehicles. A stairlift is a mechanical device for lifting wheelchairs up and down stairs. For sufficiently wide stairs, a rail is mounted to the treads of the stairs, or attached to the wall. A chair is attached to the rail and the person on the chair is lifted as the chair moves along the rail.\n\nSection::::Ergonomics and building code requirements.:UK requirements.\n\nApproved document K categorises stairs as\n\n‘Private’, ‘Institutional or assembly’ and ‘other’\n\nWhen considering stairs for private dwellings\n", "Powered electric stair climbers are available in many variants, both in manufacture and mechanical operation, with the most common being push arm and walker variants due to size, speed and mobility. Tracked versions offer the greatest S.W.L (safe working limit) with regards to the load being moved, whilst push arm and walker variants offer greater speed and ease of operation.\n\nSection::::Stairclimber wheels.\n", "There is a second-user market for some types of stair lift. This is most common with straight rail domestic types. The rails can be cut to length if too long, or extended with a \"joining kit\". Most models allow the carriage to be \"re-handed\" so it can be used on the left or right side of the staircase.\n", "Level, unobstructed landings should be provided at the top and bottom of every flight. The width and length being at least that of the width of the stairs and can include part of the floor. A door may swing across the landing at the bottom of the flight but must leave a clear space of at least across the whole landing\n\nTapered steps – \n\nThere are special rules for stairs with tapered steps as shown in the image Example of Winder Stairs above\n\nAlternate tread stairs can be provide in space saving situations\n\nGuarding – \n", "In one study based on mean oxygen uptake and heart rate, researchers estimated that ascending a 15 cm (5.9 inches) step expends 0.46 kJ (0.11 kcal) for the average person, and descending a step expends 0.21 kJ (0.05 kcal). The study concluded that stair-climbing met the minimum requirements for cardiorespiratory benefits, and considered stair-climbing suitable for promotion of physical activity.\n\nSection::::Competitive sport.\n", "The stair walker types use a long screw thread to extend and retract a 'foot' from the position at which the load is held. The two moving plates allow the item to be stepped down an arbitrary number of steps at any one time. To date the largest weight limit to be lifted by this method is . Some models using this approach also employ a third section to allow the load to be manipulated up and down independently of the base and wheel sections.\n\nSection::::Push arm type.\n", "Smaller tracked types are also available to move smaller weight ranges. These machines are also slower than push-arm and walker varieties but have the advantage of placing no weight on the operator. The load is in full contact with the stairs at all times and allows the operator zero load whilst stair climbing.\n\nSection::::Stair walkers types.\n", "Section::::Gait Training Using Assistive Devices.:Stairs.\n\nSection::::Gait Training Using Assistive Devices.:Stairs.:Ascending Stairs.\n", "Some insurance companies have offered breakdown policies for stair lifts. Manufacturers and installers have offered an extended warranty, rather like those available for domestic white goods and brown goods.\n\nSection::::Popular types.:Goods stair lifts.\n\nSome manufacturers produce stair lifts with trays instead of seats for moving goods between different levels, usually in commercial or industrial buildings. Some businesses have purchased normal domestic stair lifts purely as goods transporters and put items such as boxes of stationery on the seat.\n\nSection::::AC and DC power.\n", "The DIR Model and the Floortime Approach work in two general parts: Assessment and Intervention. Within each of these two categories, there are further steps and strategies.\n\nSection::::Structure of the DIR Model and the Floortime Approach.:Assessment.\n", "Stair descent involves perceptual, cognitive and motor abilities. It relies heavily on visual information to enable balance and accuracy. Seeing obstacles ahead helps stair descent, but for infants the action of keeping their heavy head balanced enough to look down at their feet and the objective together, make the process very difficult. (Hurlke, 1998). Not seeing the task ahead causes confusion and disrupts concentration.\n\nInfants tend to adopt one of several strategies closely associated with stair descent:\n\nBULLET::::- Scooting: where the infant sits on the step and thrusts forward using their bottom to land on the next step.\n", "Vertical platform lifts come under the general definition of a stair lift and are usually of a much heavier construction than a domestic stair lift due to the fact they are going to transport a wheelchair or scooter and the person.\n\nMost platform stair lifts are used in public access buildings and / or inside and outside private homes.\n", "Specifying a curved-rail stair lifts usually involves careful measurement, design and manufacturing, and the installation process usually takes longer than for a straight domestic stair lift.\n\nOne manufacturer can provide a curved-rail stair lift made from modular parts. This has the advantage of quick delivery time, even next day. \n\nThe installer brings many parts and picks from them. \n\nThey are usually similar in price to a custom-made curved-rail stair lift.\n\nSection::::Popular types.:Wheelchair vertical platform stair lifts.\n", "Control circuit design varies greatly among the different manufacturers and models.\n\nCurved rail stair lifts have more complex controls than those with straight rails.\n\nThe seat of a curved rail stair lift may have to be tilted so it remains horizontal whilst going around curves and negotiates different angles of incline. This requires an additional motor and link system.\n", "Two crutches or a cane can be used to ascending a flight of stairs. Although a walker may also be used, it is not recommended to be used to climb stairs longer than 2 or 3 steps. If the patient is using two crutches, then both crutches are held in one hand while the other hand grips the handrail. If there is no handrail or if it the two crutches can not be held in one hand, both crutches may be used without use of the handrail, although this method is not recommended for taking more than 2 or 3 steps. The order of events goes: uninjured foot, crutches or cane, injured foot. This process is repeated until the patient reaches the top of the stairs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14129	Why does a website, that seems slow to load in the first place, load much quicker, after a refresh?	Most likely because the website will have cached the data that it needed the first time you went to the page so on the reload it can get the data from that cache.	[ "2) Your offline value proposition is so compelling that people would see just one single webpage and get all the information they need and leave.\n\nA commonly used session timeout value is 30 minutes. In this case, if a visitor views a page, does not look at another page, and leaves his or her browser idle for longer than 30 minutes, they will register as a bounce. If the visitor continues to navigate after this delay, a new session will occur.\n", "One major point that Souders made in 2007 is that at least 80% of the time that it takes to download and view a website is controlled by the front-end structure. This lag time can be decreased through awareness of typical browser behavior, as well as of how HTTP works.\n\nSection::::Optimization techniques.\n", "BULLET::::- Let the user do something productive while the system is busy for instance, writing information in a form, reading a manual, etc. For instance, in a tabbed browser, the user can read one page while loading another.\n\nBULLET::::- Deliver intermediate results, before the operation is finished. For instance, a web page can already be operated before all images are loaded, which will take up the idle time which would otherwise be spent needlessly.\n", "The popular load testing tools available also provide insight into the causes for slow performance. There are numerous possible causes for slow system performance, including, but not limited to, the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Application server(s) or software\n\nBULLET::::- Database server(s)\n\nBULLET::::- Network – latency, congestion, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Client-side processing\n\nBULLET::::- Load balancing between multiple servers\n\nLoad testing is especially important if the application, system or service will be subject to a service level agreement or SLA.\n", "BULLET::::- Session Duration / Visit Duration - Average amount of time that visitors spend on the site each time they visit.It is calculated as the sum total of the duration of all the sessions divided by the total number of sessions. This metric can be complicated by the fact that analytics programs can not measure the length of the final page view.\n\nBULLET::::- Single Page Visit / Singleton - A visit in which only a single page is viewed (this is not a 'bounce').\n", "BULLET::::- when one part in a system of microservices starts becoming slower due to high load, other services will have waiting requests queuing up, potentially more than fits in their memory, which could again take down the entire system.\n\nA popular open-source tool for defending against delays in downstream systems is Finagle .\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Site Reliability Engineering: How Google Runs Production Systems\", Edited by Betsy Beyer, Chris Jones, Jennifer Petoff and Niall Richard Murphy, O'Reilly 2016,\n\nBULLET::::- \"System Support for Large-scale Internet Services\", Jingyu Zhou, PhD thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2006\n", "Dynamic web pages are often cached when there are few or no changes expected and the page is anticipated to receive considerable amount of web traffic that would create slow load times for the server if it had to generate the pages on the fly for each request.\n\nSection::::Client-side scripting.\n\nClient-side scripting is changing interface behaviors within a specific web page in response to mouse or keyboard actions, or at specified timing events. In this case, the dynamic behavior occurs within the presentation. The client-side content is generated on the user's local computer system.\n", "Web performance optimization improves user experience (UX) when visiting a website and therefore is highly desired by web designers and web developers. They employ several techniques that streamline web optimization tasks to decrease web page load times. This process is known as front end optimization (FEO) or content optimization. FEO concentrates on reducing file sizes and \"minimizing the number of requests needed for a given page to load.\"\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Prefetching.\n\nIf personalized content cannot be cached, it might be queued on an edge device. This means that the system will store a list of possible responses that might needed in the future, allowing them to be readily served. This differs from caching as prefetched responses are only served once, being especially useful for accelerating responses of third-party APIs, such as advertisements.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Route Optimization.\n", "BULLET::::- Page Time Viewed / Page Visibility Time / Page View Duration - The time a single page (or a blog, Ad Banner...) is on the screen, measured as the calculated difference between the time of the request for that page and the time of the next recorded request. If there is no next recorded request, then the viewing time of that instance of that page is not included in reports.\n", "While site-wide bounce rate can be a useful metric for sites with well-defined conversion steps requiring multiple page views, it may be of questionable value for sites where visitors are likely to find what they are looking for on the entry page. This type of behavior is common on web portals and referential content sites. For example, a visitor looking for the definition of a particular word may enter an online dictionary site on that word's definition page. Similarly, a visitor who wants to read about a specific news story may enter a news site on an article written for that story. These example entry pages could have a bounce rate above 80% (thereby increasing the site-wide average), however they may still be considered successful.\n", "Section::::Attention span.\n\nAccording to the New York Times, many scientists say that \"people's ability to focus is being undermined by bursts of information\".\n\nFrom 53,573 page views taken from various users, 17% of the views lasted less than 4 seconds while 4% lasted more than 10 minutes. In regards to page content, users will only read 49% of a site that contains 111 words or fewer while users will opt to read 28% of an average website (approximately 593 words). For each additional 100 words on a site, users will spend 4.4 seconds longer on the site.\n", "BULLET::::- Bounce Rate - The percentage of visits that are single page visits and without any other interactions (clicks) on that page. In other words, a single click in a particular session is called a bounce.\n\nBULLET::::- Click path - the chronological sequence of page views within a visit or session.\n", "Usage data\n\nUsage data is the most effective way of evaluating the true relevancy and value of a website. For example, if users arrive on a web site and go back immediately (high bounce rate), chances are that it wasn’t relevant to their query in the first place. However, if a user repeatedly visits a web site and spends a long time on the site, there is a high likelihood that it is extremely relevant. When it comes to search engines, relevant valuable sites get promoted while irrelevant sites get demoted.\n", "Bounce rates can be used to help determine the effectiveness or performance of an entry page at generating the interest of visitors. An entry page with a low bounce rate means that the page effectively causes visitors to view more pages and continue deeper into the web site.\n\nHigh bounce rates typically indicate that the website is not doing a good job of attracting the continued interest of visitors. That means visitors only view single pages without looking at others or taking some form of action within the site before a specified time period.\n", "Perceived performance\n\nPerceived performance, in computer engineering, refers to how quickly a software feature appears to perform its task. The concept applies mainly to user acceptance aspects.\n\nThe amount of time an application takes to start up, or a file to download, is not made faster by showing a startup screen (see Splash screen) or a file progress dialog box. However, it satisfies some human needs: it \"appears\" faster to the user as well as providing a visual cue to let them know the system is handling their request.\n", "Online conversion rate optimization (or website optimization) was born out of the need of e-commerce marketers to improve their website's performance in the aftermath of the dot-com bubble. As competition grew on the web during the early 2000s, website analysis tools and an awareness of website usability prompted internet marketers to produce measurables for their tactics and improve their website's user experience. \n", "BULLET::::- Using server-side scripting to change the supplied page source \"between\" pages, adjusting the sequence or reload of the web pages or web content supplied to the browser. Server responses may be determined by such conditions as data in a posted HTML form, parameters in the URL, the type of browser being used, the passage of time, or a database or server state.\n", "BULLET::::- Impression - The most common definition of \"Impression\" is an instance of an advertisement appearing on a viewed page. Note that an advertisement can be displayed on a viewed page below the area actually displayed on the screen, so most measures of impressions do not necessarily mean an advertisement has been view-able.\n\nBULLET::::- New Visitor - A visitor that has not made any previous visits. This definition creates a certain amount of confusion (see common confusions below), and is sometimes substituted with analysis of first visits.\n", "BULLET::::- Logfiles contain information on visits from search engine spiders, which generally are excluded from the analytics tools using JavaScript tagging. (Some search engines might not not even execute JavaScript on a page.) Although these should not be reported as part of the human activity, it is useful information for search engine optimization.\n\nBULLET::::- Logfiles require no additional DNS lookups or TCP slow starts. Thus there are no external server calls which can slow page load speeds, or result in uncounted page views.\n", "Internet Application Management services address this “grey area” by evaluating performance using standard web application metrics such as page load times, concurrency capability, and slow queries as a starting point. These optimizations and tuning of a web application can be achieved through first creating benchmarks using tools such as ApacheBench or J-Meter through load simulation. The output of load testing runs can then be used to identify file system and application performance improvements to be made not only at the application level, but at the operating system level - something often overlooked in the development process.\n", "The amount of time an application takes to start up, or a file to download, is not made faster by showing a startup screen (see Splash screen) or a file progress dialog box. However, it satisfies some human needs: it appears faster to the user as well as providing a visual cue to let them know the system is handling their request.\n\nIn most cases, increasing real performance increases perceived performance, but when real performance cannot be increased due to physical limitations, techniques can be used to increase perceived performance.\n\nSection::::Performance Equation.\n", "Single Page Applications have a slower first page load than server-based applications. This is because the first load has to bring down the framework and the application code before rendering the required view as HTML in the browser. A server-based application just has to push out the required HTML to the browser, reducing the latency and download time.\n\nSection::::Challenges with the SPA model.:Speed of initial load.:Speeding up the page load.\n", "In live environment MVLPO execution, a special tool makes dynamic changes to a page so that visitors are directed to different executions of landing pages created according to an experimental design. The system keeps track of the visitors and their behavior—including their conversion rate, time spent on the page, etc. Once sufficient data has accumulated, the system estimates the impact of individual components on the target measurement (e.g., conversion rate).\n\nLive environment execution has the following advantages:\n\nBULLET::::- Capable of testing the effect of variations as a real-life experience\n\nBULLET::::- Generally transparent to visitors\n", "Whereas each element in the table can be a significant source of waste in itself, linkages between elements sometimes create a cascade of waste (the so-called domino effect). For example, a faulty load balancer (waste element: Defects) that increases web server response time may cause a lengthy wait for users of a web application (waste element: Waiting), resulting in excessive demand on the customer support call center (waste element: Excess Motion) and, potentially, subsequent visits by account representatives to key customers’ sites to quell concerns about the service availability (waste element: Transportation). In the meantime, the company’s most likely responses to this problem — for example, introducing additional server capacity and/or redundant load balancing software), and hiring extra customer support agents — may contribute yet more waste elements (Overprovisioning and Excess Inventory).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02062	What is Mononucleosis and if you get it will you have a dormant virus in you for the rest of your life?	Yes, once you contract the virus it is with you for life, lying dormant in your lymphocytes. However 95% of adults have been infected at some point, so really it's almost inevitable that you will get it sooner or later, so you may as well get it over with now. Your friend is likely still infectious: estimates of how long for seem to vary between 6 weeks and 18 months.	[ "Mononucleosis is sometimes accompanied by secondary cold agglutinin disease, an autoimmune disease in which abnormal circulating antibodies directed against red blood cells can lead to a form of autoimmune hemolytic anemia. The cold agglutinin detected is of anti-i specificity.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnostic modalities for infectious mononucleosis include:\n\nBULLET::::- Person's age, with highest risk at 10 to 30 years.\n\nBULLET::::- Medical history, such as close contact with other people with infectious mononucleosis, and the presence and time of onset of \"mononucleosis-like symptoms\" such as fever and sore throat\n", "The word \"mononucleosis\" has several senses. It can refer to any monocytosis (excessive numbers of circulating monocytes), but today it usually is used in its narrower sense of infectious mononucleosis, which is caused by EBV and of which monocytosis is a finding.\n", "A minority of cases of infectious mononucleosis is caused by human cytomegalovirus (CMV), another type of herpes virus. This virus is found in body fluids including saliva, urine, blood, and tears. A person becomes infected with this virus by direct contact with infected body fluids. Cytomegalovirus is most commonly transmitted through kissing and sexual intercourse. It can also be transferred from an infected mother to her unborn child. This virus is often \"silent\" because the signs and symptoms cannot be felt by the person infected. However, it can cause life-threatening illness in infants, people with HIV, transplant recipients, and those with weak immune systems. For those with weak immune systems, cytomegalovirus can cause more serious illnesses such as pneumonia and inflammations of the retina, esophagus, liver, large intestine, and brain. Approximately 90% of the human population has been infected with cytomegalovirus by the time they reach adulthood, but most are unaware of the infection. Once a person becomes infected with cytomegalovirus, the virus stays in his/her body fluids throughout their lifetime.\n", "Mono most commonly affects those between the ages of 15 to 24 years in the developed world. In the developing world, people are more often infected in early childhood when the symptoms are less. In those between 16 and 20 it is the cause of about 8% of sore throats. About 45 out of 100,000 people develop infectious mono each year in the United States. Nearly 95% of people have had an EBV infection by the time they are adults. The disease occurs equally at all times of the year. Mononucleosis was first described in the 1920s and colloquially known as \"the kissing disease\".\n", "Spleen enlargement is common in the second and third weeks, although this may not be apparent on physical examination. Rarely the spleen may rupture. There may also be some enlargement of the liver. Jaundice occurs only occasionally.\n\nIt generally gets better on its own in people who are otherwise healthy. When caused by EBV, infectious mononucleosis is classified as one of the Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases. Occasionally the disease may persist and result in a chronic infection. This may develop into systemic EBV-positive T cell lymphoma.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Older adults.\n", "Infectious mononucleosis\n\nInfectious mononucleosis (IM, mono), also known as glandular fever, is an infection usually caused by the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). Most people are infected by the virus as children, when the disease produces few or no symptoms. In young adults, the disease often results in fever, sore throat, enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, and tiredness. Most people recover in two to four weeks; however, feeling tired may last for months. The liver or spleen may also become swollen, and in less than one percent of cases splenic rupture may occur.\n", "Infectious mononucleosis mainly affects younger adults. When older adults do catch the disease, they less often have characteristic signs and symptoms such as the sore throat and lymphadenopathy. Instead, they may primarily experience prolonged fever, fatigue, malaise and body pains. They are more likely to have liver enlargement and jaundice. People over 40 years of age are more likely to develop serious illness. (See Prognosis.)\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Incubation period.\n", "Once the acute symptoms of an initial infection disappear, they often do not return. But once infected, the person carries the virus for the rest of their life. The virus typically lives dormantly in B lymphocytes. Independent infections of mononucleosis may be contracted multiple times, regardless of whether the person is already carrying the virus dormantly. Periodically, the virus can reactivate, during which time the person is again infectious, but usually without any symptoms of illness. Usually, a person with IM has few, if any, further symptoms or problems from the latent B lymphocyte infection. However, in susceptible hosts under the appropriate environmental stressors, the virus can reactivate and cause vague physical symptoms (or may be subclinical), and during this phase the virus can spread to others.\n", "Acute HIV infection can mimic signs similar to those of infectious mononucleosis, and tests should be performed for pregnant women for the same reason as toxoplasmosis.\n\nPeople with infectious mononucleosis are sometimes misdiagnosed with a streptococcal pharyngitis (because of the symptoms of fever, pharyngitis and adenopathy) and are given antibiotics such as ampicillin or amoxicillin as treatment.\n\nOther conditions from which to distinguish infectious mononucleosis include leukemia, tonsillitis, diphtheria, common cold and influenza (flu).\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The virus replicates first within epithelial cells in the pharynx (which causes pharyngitis, or sore throat), and later primarily within B cells (which are invaded via their CD21). The host immune response involves cytotoxic (CD8-positive) T cells against infected B lymphocytes, resulting in enlarged, atypical lymphocytes (Downey cells).\n\nWhen the infection is acute (recent onset, instead of chronic), heterophile antibodies are produced.\n\nCytomegalovirus, adenovirus and \"Toxoplasma gondii\" (toxoplasmosis) infections can cause symptoms similar to infectious mononucleosis, but a heterophile antibody test will test negative and differentiate those infections from infectious mononucleosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Swollen glands – mobile; usually located around the back of the neck (posterior cervical lymph nodes) and sometimes throughout the body.\n", "BULLET::::- Elevated hepatic transaminase levels is highly suggestive of infectious mononucleosis, occurring in up to 50% of people.\n\nBULLET::::- By blood film, one diagnostic criterion for infectious mononucleosis is the presence of 50% lymphocytes with at least 10% atypical lymphocytes (large, irregular nuclei), while the person also has fever, pharyngitis, and swollen lymph nodes. The atypical lymphocytes resembled monocytes when they were first discovered, thus the term \"mononucleosis\" was coined.\n\nBULLET::::- A fibrin ring granuloma may be present.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe signs and symptoms of infectious mononucleosis vary with age.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Children.\n\nBefore puberty, the disease typically only produces flu-like symptoms, if any at all. When found, symptoms tend to be similar to those of common throat infections (mild pharyngitis, with or without tonsillitis).\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Adolescents and young adults.\n\nIn adolescence and young adulthood, the disease presents with a characteristic triad:\n\nBULLET::::- Fever – usually lasting 14 days; often mild\n\nBULLET::::- Sore throat – usually severe for 3–5 days, before resolving in the next 7–10 days.\n", "The presence of an enlarged spleen, and swollen posterior cervical, axillary, and inguinal lymph nodes are the most useful to suspect a diagnosis of infectious mononucleosis. On the other hand, the absence of swollen cervical lymph nodes and fatigue are the most useful to dismiss the idea of infectious mononucleosis as the correct diagnosis. The insensitivity of the physical examination in detecting an enlarged spleen means it should not be used as evidence against infectious mononucleosis. A physical examination may also show petechiae in the palate.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Heterophile antibody test.\n", "While usually caused by Epstein–Barr virus, also known as human herpesvirus 4, which is a member of the herpes virus family, a few other viruses may also cause the disease. It is primarily spread through saliva but can rarely be spread through semen or blood. Spread may occur by objects such as drinking glasses or toothbrushes. Those who are infected can spread the disease weeks before symptoms develop. Mono is primarily diagnosed based on the symptoms and can be confirmed with blood tests for specific antibodies. Another typical finding is increased blood lymphocytes of which more than 10% are atypical. The monospot test is not recommended for general use due to poor accuracy.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe characteristic symptomatology of infectious mononucleosis does not appear to have been reported until the late nineteenth century. In 1885, the renowned Russian pediatrician Nil Filatov reported an infectious process he called \"idiopathic denitis\" exhibiting symptoms that correspond to infectious mononucleosis, and in 1889 a German balneologist and pediatrician, Emil Pfeiffer, independently reported similar cases (some of lesser severity) that tended to cluster in families, for which he coined the term \"Drüsenfieber\" (\"glandular fever\").\n", "Infectious mononucleosis is generally self-limiting, so only symptomatic or supportive treatments are used. The need for rest and return to usual activities after the acute phase of the infection may reasonably be based on the person's general energy levels. Nevertheless, in an effort to decrease the risk of splenic rupture experts advise avoidance of contact sports and other heavy physical activity, especially when involving increased abdominal pressure or the Valsalva maneuver (as in rowing or weight training), for at least the first 3–4 weeks of illness or until enlargement of the spleen has resolved, as determined by a treating physician.\n", "The term \"infectious mononucleosis\" was coined in 1920 by Thomas Peck Sprunt and Frank Alexander Evans in a classic clinical description of the disease published in the \"Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital\", entitled \"Mononuclear leukocytosis in reaction to acute infection (infectious mononucleosis)\". A lab test for infectious mononucleosis was developed in 1931 by Yale School of Public Professor John Rodman Paul and Walls Willard Bunnell based on their discovery of heterophile antibodies in the sera of persons with the disease. The Paul-Bunnell Test or PBT was later replaced by the heterophile antibody test. \n", "The most prominent sign of the disease is often the pharyngitis, which is frequently accompanied by enlarged tonsils with pus—an exudate similar to that seen in cases of strep throat. In about 50% of cases, small reddish-purple spots called petechiae can be seen on the roof of the mouth. Palatal enanthem can also occur, but is relatively uncommon.\n", "About 90% of cases of infectious mononucleosis are caused by the Epstein–Barr virus, a member of the Herpesviridae family of DNA viruses. It is one of the most commonly found viruses throughout the world. Contrary to common belief, the Epstein–Barr virus is not highly contagious. It can only be contracted through direct contact with an infected person’s saliva, such as through kissing or sharing toothbrushes. About 95% of the population has been exposed to this virus by the age of 40, but only 15–20% of teenagers and about 40% of exposed adults actually become infected.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Cytomegalovirus.\n", "Another major symptom is feeling tired. Headaches are common, and abdominal pains with nausea or vomiting sometimes also occur. Symptoms most often disappear after about 2–4 weeks. However, fatigue and a general feeling of being unwell (malaise) may sometimes last for months. Fatigue lasts more than one month in an estimated 28% of cases. Mild fever, swollen neck glands and body aches may also persist beyond 4 weeks. Most people are able to resume their usual activities within 2–3 months.\n", "About 10% of people who present a clinical picture of infectious mononucleosis do not have an acute Epstein–Barr-virus infection. A differential diagnosis of acute infectious mononucleosis needs to take into consideration acute cytomegalovirus infection and \"Toxoplasma gondii\" infections. Because their management is much the same, it is not always helpful, or possible, to distinguish between Epstein–Barr-virus mononucleosis and cytomegalovirus infection. However, in pregnant women, differentiation of mononucleosis from toxoplasmosis is important, since it is associated with significant consequences for the fetus.\n", "The exact length of time between infection and symptoms is unclear. A review of the literature made an estimate of 33–49 days. In adolescents and young adults, symptoms are thought to appear around 4–6 weeks after initial infection. Onset is often gradual, though it can be abrupt. The main symptoms may be preceded by 1–2 weeks of fatigue, feeling unwell and body aches.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Epstein–Barr virus.\n", "The Epstein–Barr virus was first identified in Burkitt's lymphoma cells by Michael Anthony Epstein and Yvonne Barr at the University of Bristol in 1964. The link with infectious mononucleosis was uncovered in 1967 by Werner and Gertrude Henle at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, after a laboratory technician handling the virus contracted the disease: comparison of serum samples collected from the technician before and after the onset revealed development of antibodies to the virus.\n", "There is no vaccine for EBV, but infection can be prevented by not sharing personal items or saliva with an infected person. Mono generally improves without any specific treatment. Symptoms may be reduced by drinking enough fluids, getting sufficient rest, and taking pain medications such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) and ibuprofen.\n" ]	[ "Being infected with the virus that causes Mononucleosis is not inevitable. " ]	[ "Being infected with the virus that causes Mononucleosis is inevitable." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Being infected with the virus that causes Mononucleosis is not inevitable. ", "Being infected with the virus that causes Mononucleosis is not inevitable. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Being infected with the virus that causes Mononucleosis is inevitable.", "Being infected with the virus that causes Mononucleosis is inevitable." ]
2018-01784	If corn comes out the same way it goes in how do we gain nutrients.	It doesn’t come out the same way it came in. Only the shell of the corn remains, the interior has been absorbed by your body.	[ "Assimilation in simple happens in human body happens in the small intestine when the villi absorb and transport the nutrients through blood after breaking them in simpler sbstances\n\nSection::::Examples of biological assimilation.\n\nBULLET::::- Photosynthesis, a process whereby carbon dioxide and water are transformed into a number of organic molecules in plant cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Nitrogen fixation from the soil into organic molecules by symbiotic bacteria which live in the roots of certain plants, such as Leguminosae.\n", "When a legume plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest, all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated into amino acids inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are converted to nitrate (NO), making the nitrogen available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops.\n", "In many traditional and organic farming practices, crop rotation involving legumes is common. By alternating between legumes and non-legumes, sometimes planting non-legumes two times in a row and then a legume, the field usually receives a sufficient amount of nitrogenous compounds to produce a good result, even when the crop is non-leguminous. Legumes are sometimes referred to as \"green manure\".\n", "From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus, and then on ward to the midgut, as in most insects. Alternately, the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus, or the crop could just be a diverticulum, or fluid filled structure, as in some Diptera species.\n", "Generally, barley, wheat, or corn is fried and ground by a gristmill (including by hand). The ground meal is sifted to separate the chaff and other parts of the cereal.\n", "From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus, and then onward to the midgut, as in most insects. Alternately, the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus, or the crop could just be a diverticulum, or fluid-filled structure, as in some Diptera species.\n\nSection::::Morphology and physiology.:Internal.:Digestive system.:Midgut.\n", "Section::::Cultivation.\n\nDent corn is typically cultivated as a row crop grown commercially for grain and fodder. Cultivars developed for commercial cultivation are either single- or double-cross hybrids bred for special growing areas, soils, or climatic conditions.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "BULLET::::- Most of the corn produced in the US is field corn, not sweet corn, and not digestible by humans in its raw form. Most corn is used for livestock feed and not human food, even the portion that is exported.\n\nBULLET::::- Only the starch portion of corn kernels is converted to ethanol. The rest (protein, fat, vitamins and minerals) is passed through to the feed coproducts or human food ingredients.\n", "The type of crop(s) grown or animal rearing will be dependent on the farming system, either vegetables, tubers, grains, cattle etc. In cattle rearing, legume trees such as \"Gliricidia sepium\" can be planted along edges of field to provide shade for cattle, the leaves and bark are often eaten by cattle. Green manure can also be grown between periods when crops of economic importance are harvested prior to the next crops to be planted.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A great advantage of crop rotation comes from the interrelationship of nitrogen-fixing crops with nitrogen-demanding crops. Legumes, like alfalfa and clover, collect available nitrogen from the soil in nodules on their root structure. When the plant is harvested, the biomass of uncollected roots breaks down, making the stored nitrogen available to future crops. Legumes are also a valued green manure: a crop that collects nutrients and fixes them at soil depths accessible to future crops.\n\nIn addition, legumes have heavy tap roots that burrow deep into the ground, lifting soil for better tilth and absorption of water.\n", "Catch crops are typically fast-growing annual cereal species adapted to scavenge available nitrogen efficiently from the soil. The nitrogen tied up in catch crop biomass is released back into the soil once the catch crop is incorporated as a green manure or otherwise begins to decompose.\n\nAn example of green manure use comes from Nigeria, where the cover crop \"Mucuna pruriens\" (velvet bean) has been found to increase the availability of phosphorus in soil after a farmer applies rock phosphate.\n\nSection::::Soil quality management.\n", "Section::::Process steps.:Fiber recovery.\n", "There are three fundamental ways plants uptake nutrients through the root: \n\nBULLET::::1. Simple diffusion occurs when a nonpolar molecule, such as O, CO, and NH follows a concentration gradient, moving passively through the cell lipid bilayer membrane without the use of transport proteins.\n\nBULLET::::2. Facilitated diffusion is the rapid movement of solutes or ions following a concentration gradient, facilitated by transport proteins.\n\nBULLET::::3. Active transport is the uptake by cells of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient; this requires an energy source, usually ATP, to power molecular pumps that move the ions or molecules through the membrane.\n", "Section::::Process steps.:Starch processing.\n\nStarch goes through multiple stage washing using hydrocyclones. The supernatant are separated at each washing stage. The water from each stage is recycled to the previous hydrocyclones to ensure maximum amount of starch is separated. A very high purity of starch (99.5% db) can be recovered by wet-milling. Purity is important when the end product is high fructose corn syrup or when we need to modify starch (using chemicals or enzymes) but it is not important during ethanol production. After centrifugation and washing, the starch is dried.\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Co-product manufacture.\n", "When more than two crops are grown in complete spatial and temporal overlap with each other, it is referred to as intercropping. Intercropping is particularly useful in plots with limited land availability. Legumes are one of the most commonly intercropped crops, specifically legume-cereal mixtures. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil so that it is available for consumption by other plants in a process known as nitrogen fixation. The presence of legumes consequently eliminates the need for man-made nitrogen fertilizers in intercrops.\n\nSection::::Common practices.:Annual polycultures.:Cover cropping.\n", "Field corn primarily grown for livestock feed and ethanol production is allowed to mature fully before being shelled off the cob before being stored in silos, pits, bins or grain \"flats\". Field corn can also be harvested as high-moisture corn, shelled off the cob and piled and packed like silage for fermentation; or the entire plant may be chopped while still very high in moisture with the resulting silage either loaded and packed in plastic bags, piled and packed in pits, or blown into and stored in vertical silos. \n", "The corn is steeped for 30 to 48 hours, which ferments it slightly. The germ is separated from the endosperm and those two components are ground separately (still soaked). Next the starch is removed from each by washing. The starch is separated from the corn steep liquor, the cereal germ, the fibers and the corn gluten mostly in hydrocyclones and centrifuges, and then dried. (The residue from every stage is used in animal feed and to make corn oil or other applications.) This process is called wet milling. Finally, the starch may be modified for specific purposes.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "Corn harvester\n\nA corn harvester is a machine used on farms to harvest corn stripping the stalks about one foot from the ground shooting the stalks through the header to the ground. The corn is stripped from its stalk and then moves through the header to the intake conveyor belt. From there it goes up the conveying system through a fan system, separating the remaining stalks from the ears. The stalks blow out the fan duct into the field while the ears drop onto another conveyor belt. The ears ride the belt and drop into a large moving bucket. \n", "Use of concentrated Steepwater: This extract is protein rich and can be used as nutrient media for fermentation to produce enzymes or antibodies. It is also used in animal feed.\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Germ recovery.\n", "Section::::Management.:Crop rotation.\n", "Plants that reduce nitrates in the shoots and excrete alkali from their roots need to transport the alkali in an inert form from the shoots to the roots. To achieve this they synthesize malic acid in the leaves from neutral precursors like carbohydrates. The potassium ions brought to the leaves along with the nitrate in the xylem are then sent along with the malate to the roots via the phloem. In the roots, the malate is consumed. When malate is converted back to malic acid prior to use, an OH is released and excreted. (RCOO + HO - RCOOH +OH) The potassium ions are then recirculated up the xylem with fresh nitrate. Thus the plants avoid having to absorb and store excess salts and also transport the OH.\n", "Corn wet-milling\n\nThe corn wet-milling is a process of breaking corn kernels into their component parts: corn oil, protein, corn starch, and fiber. It uses water and a series of steps to separate the parts to be used for various products.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Other inputs are applied directly via foliar feeding to crops at different stages of crop development. Foliar delivery reduce the amount of nutrients required, since they are delivered directly to the plant. Young seedlings with smaller root systems can still be effectively nourished during the reproductive stage when root activity decreases. Foliar nutrient uptake during the reproductive stage is increased due to a decrease in root activity, and the ability to modify the nutrient inputs accordingly.\n", "Green manure is a crop that is mixed into the soil. Both nitrogen-fixing legumes and nutrient scavengers, like grasses, can be used as green manure. Green manure of legumes is an excellent source of nitrogen, especially for organic systems, however, legume biomass doesn't contribute to lasting soil organic matter like grasses do.\n\nSection::::Planning a rotation.\n", "Section::::Process steps.:Steeping.\n" ]	[ "Corn goes out the same way it goes in the body." ]	[ "The inside of the corn is absorbed into the body, they outside is all that is left. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Corn goes out the same way it goes in the body." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The inside of the corn is absorbed into the body, they outside is all that is left. " ]
2018-01216	When your ears are plugged, why do they "pop" when you swallow?	You have tubes connecting your ears to the back of your throat, called "eustachian tubes." They get blocked by mucus. When you swallow, the pressure can unblock the tubes enough for air pressure to escape the tubes and stop pressing on your inner ears.	[ "BULLET::::- Ears and sinuses: There is a risk of stretched or burst eardrums, usually crushed inwards during descent but sometimes stretched outwards on ascent. The diver can use a variety of methods to let air into or out of the middle ears via the Eustachian tubes. Sometimes swallowing will open the Eustachian tubes and equalise the ears.\n", "Normally, the Eustachian tube is collapsed, but it gapes open both with swallowing and with positive pressure. When taking off in an airplane, the surrounding air pressure goes from higher (on the ground) to lower (in the sky). The air in the middle ear expands as the plane gains altitude, and pushes its way into the back of the nose and mouth. On the way down, the volume of air in the middle ear shrinks, and a slight vacuum is produced. \"Active\" opening of the Eustachian tube is required to equalize the pressure between the middle ear and the surrounding atmosphere as the plane descends. A diver also experiences this change in pressure, but with greater rates of pressure change; active opening of the Eustachian tube is required more frequently as the diver goes \"deeper\" into higher pressure.\n", "Section::::Age-Associated Changes in Swallowing.:Age-related Change in Lingual Pressure Generation.\n", "Under normal circumstances, the human Eustachian tube is closed, but it can open to let a small amount of air through to prevent damage by equalizing pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere. Pressure differences cause temporary conductive hearing loss by decreased motion of the tympanic membrane and ossicles of the ear. Various methods of ear clearing such as yawning, swallowing, or chewing gum may be used to intentionally open the tube and equalize pressures. When this happens, humans hear a small popping sound, an event familiar to aircraft passengers, scuba divers, or drivers in mountainous regions. Devices assisting in pressure equalization include an \"ad hoc\" balloon applied to the nose, creating inflation by positive air pressure.\n", "A person with normal hearing can experience this by sticking their fingers into their ears and talking. Otherwise, this effect is often experienced by hearing aid users who only have a mild to moderate high-frequency hearing loss, but use hearing aids which block the entire ear canal.\n", "The lips of the mouth can be used in a similar way to create a similar sound, as any toddler or trumpeter can demonstrate. A rubber balloon, inflated but not tied off and stretched tightly across the neck produces a squeak or buzz, depending on the tension across the neck and the level of pressure inside the balloon. Similar actions with similar results occur when the vocal cords are contracted or relaxed across the larynx.\n\nSection::::Place of articulation (passive).\n", "When gas pressure within the middle ear is less than atmospheric pressure, the eardrum can become sucked into the middle ear space. This is caused by inadequate opening of the Eustachian tube and absorption of air from the middle ear space. People with a patulous Eustachian tube may also cause negative middle ear pressure by repeatedly sniffing to try to keep their Eustachian tube closed.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.:Weakness of the tympanic membrane.\n", "During swallowing or yawning, several muscles in the pharynx (throat) act to elevate the soft palate and open the throat. One of these muscles, the tensor veli palatini, also acts to open the Eustachian tube. This is why swallowing or yawning is successful in equalizing middle ear pressure. Contrary to popular belief, the jaw does not pinch the tubes shut when it is closed. In fact, the Eustachian tubes are not located close enough to the mandible to be pinched off. People often recommend chewing gum during ascent/descent in aircraft, because chewing gum increases the rate of salivation, and swallowing the excess saliva opens the Eustachian tubes.\n", "Ear discharge (otorrhoea) is common in 25-75% of children after grommets are inserted. Treatments to prevent this discharge before it occurs should be limited to children who have a higher risk of otorrhoea and it is not clear which preventative treatment is better.\n", "BULLET::::- Voluntary opening of the eustachian tubes French: (BTV) is a method of equalising or clearing the ears described by doctor Georges Delonca and used in scuba diving and freediving. It aims to rebalance the pressure between the external ear and middle ear.The subject must either exercise a voluntary control of the tensor veli palatini muscles opening the eustachian tubes, or move the jaw to open the tubes when necessary. Another description of the method is to tense the muscles of the soft palate and the throat while pushing the jaw forward and down as if starting to yawn. This should pull the eustachian tubes open.This is less easy to execute than the Valsalva maneuver, but the BTV is the gentlest method to clear the ears. However, not all divers can perform this maneuver. It may be necessary to engage in ear training exercises to train the muscles to perform this maneuver.*: Some people are able to voluntarily hold their Eustachian tubes open continuously for a period of several seconds to minutes. The 'clicking your ears' can actually be heard if one puts one's ear to another person's ear for them to hear the clicking sound. Those that are borderline on learning this voluntary control first discover this via yawning or swallowing or other means; which after practice can be done deliberately without force even when there are no pressure issues involved. When the Eustachian Tubes are deliberately held open, one's voice sounds louder in one's head than when they are closed.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Frenzel maneuver\": Using the rear part of the tongue and throat muscles, close the nostrils, and close the back of the throat as if straining to lift a weight. Then make the sound of the letter \"K.\" This pushes the back of the tongue upward, compressing air into the openings of the eustachian tubes.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Politzerization\": a medical procedure that involves inflating the middle ear by blowing air up the nose during the act of swallowing;\n", "Section::::Indications.:Hypoxemia.\n", "PET can occur as a result of liquid residue in the Eustachian tube, after suffering a middle ear infection (otitis media).\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nUpon examination of a suspected case of patulous Eustachian tube, a doctor can directly view the tympanic membrane with a light and observe that it vibrates with every breath taken by the patient. A tympanogram may also help with the diagnosis. Patulous Eustachian tube is likely if brisk inspiration causes a significant pressure shift.\n", "An ear is said to be barostricted if there are problems with this pressure equalization. Barostriction may arise from the common cold, or it may be chronic in certain individuals who have constant blockage.\n\nSection::::Intermittent nature of barostriction.\n", "BULLET::::- Barotrauma: results from changes in atmospheric pressure that occur when descending in a plane or deep diving. As atmospheric pressure increases with descent, the eustachian tube collapses due to pressure within the middle ear being less than the external pressure, which causes pain. In severe cases, middle ear hemorrhage or tympanic membrane rupture can result.\n\nBULLET::::- Tympanic membrane rupture: disruption of the eardrum. This can be caused by a blow to the ear, blast injury, barotrauma, or direct penetration of the tympanic membrane by an object entering the ear.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Referred ear pain.\n", "Section::::Normalizing middle-ear pressures.\n\nWhen rapid ambient pressure increase occurs as in diving or aircraft descent, this pressure tends to hold the Eustachian tubes closed, preventing pressure equalization across the ear drum, with painful results. To avoid this painful situation, divers, caisson workers and aircrew attempt to open the Eustachian tubes by swallowing, which tends to open the tubes, allowing the ear to equalize itself.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Toynbee maneuver\": pinching the nose and swallowing. Swallowing pulls open the eustachian tubes while the movement of the tongue, with the nose closed, compresses air which passes through the tubes to the middle ear.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Valsalva maneuver\": pinching the nose and closing the mouth and trying to breathe out through the nose. If the hand cannot reach the nose, it is possible to learn to pinch the nose shut by the action of two small face muscles called compressor naris. This is the first technique normally taught, but needs to be performed gently to lessen side-effects.\n", "If this fails, then the Valsalva maneuver may be used. This maneuver, when used as a tool to equalize middle ear pressure, carries with it the risk of auditory damage from over pressurization of the middle ear. It is safer, if time permits, to attempt to open the Eustachian tubes by swallowing a few times, or yawning, or by using the Valsalva technique of breathing a very small amount of air gently into nostrils held closed by the fingers as soon as mild pressure is felt, before it increases to the point that its release would be painful. The effectiveness of the \"yawning\" method can be improved with practice; some people are able to achieve release or opening by moving their jaw forward or forward and down, rather than straight down as in a classical yawn, and some can do so without moving their jaw at all by activating the tensor tympani muscle, which is heard by the individual as a deep, rumbling sound. Opening can often be clearly heard by the practitioner, thus providing feedback that the maneuver was successful.\n", "In severe or untreated cases, the tympanic membrane may perforate, allowing the pus in the middle-ear space to drain into the ear canal. If there is enough, this drainage may be obvious. Even though the perforation of the tympanic membrane suggests a highly painful and traumatic process, it is almost always associated with a dramatic relief of pressure and pain. In a simple case of acute otitis media in an otherwise healthy person, the body's defenses are likely to resolve the infection and the ear drum nearly always heals.\n", "There are four muscles associated with the function of the Eustachian tube:\n\nBULLET::::- Levator veli palatini (innervated by the vagus nerve)\n\nBULLET::::- Salpingopharyngeus (innervated by the vagus nerve)\n\nBULLET::::- Tensor tympani (innervated by the mandibular nerve of CN V)\n\nBULLET::::- Tensor veli palatini (innervated by the mandibular nerve of CN V)\n\nThe tube is opened during swallowing by contraction of the tensor veli palatini and levator veli palatini, muscles of the soft palate.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Foreign bodies above the larynx often present with stridor, while objects below the larynx present with wheezing. Foreign bodies above the vocal cords often present with difficulty and pain with swallowing and excessive drooling. Foreign bodies below the vocal cords often present with pain and difficulty with speaking and breathing. Increased respiratory rate may be the only sign of foreign body aspiration in a child who cannot verbalize or report if they have swallowed a foreign body.\n", "Some people are born with a dysfunctional Eustachian tube that is much slimmer than usual. The cause may be genetic, but it has also been posited as a condition in which the patient did not fully recover from the effects of pressure on the middle ear during birth (retained birth compression). It is suggested that Eustachian tube dysfunction can result in a large amount of mucus accumulating in the middle ear, often impairing hearing to a degree. This condition is known as otitis media with effusion.\n", "Adhesive otitis media occurs when a thin retracted ear drum becomes sucked into the middle-ear space and stuck (i.e., adherent) to the ossicles and other bones of the middle ear.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nAOM is far less common in breastfed infants than in formula-fed infants, and the greatest protection is associated with exclusive breastfeeding (no formula use) for the first six months of life. A longer duration of breastfeeding is correlated with a longer protective effect.\n", "Some people learn to voluntarily 'click' their ears, together or separately, performing a pressure equalizing routine by opening their Eustachian tubes when pressure changes are experienced, as in ascending/descending in aircraft, mountain driving, elevator lift/drops, etc. Some are even able to deliberately keep their Eustachian tubes open for a brief period, and even increase or decrease air pressure in the middle ear. The 'clicking' can actually be heard by putting one's ear to another's while performing the clicking sound. This voluntary control may be first discovered when yawning or swallowing, or by other means (above). Those who develop this ability may discover that it can be done deliberately without force even when there are no pressure issues involved.\n", "Barostriction\n\nBarostriction refers to a restriction of pressure equalization ventilation that should normally be present. Sealed containers, such as Pelican cases and SKB cases, often have a pressure release vent that can become blocked and cause rupture of the container during change in elevation. Similarly, acoustic suspension speakers have such need for ventilation.\n\nSection::::Barostriction in human hearing.\n\nMost notably, human hearing involves an equalization of air pressure inside and outside the ear.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04748	Why aren’t houses and buildings built entirely of stone/concrete so that they won’t catch fire or rot as easily?	> I understand that wood is cheaper, lighter, easier to cut and easier to work with This answers the question. It's susceptible to fire, damage, termites, etc, but once the sale is completed, that's not the builder's problem. Also buyers tend to not think much about the long term, and they put more value into the local area, schools, comps, etc, than the condition of the house (unless it won't pass inspection or large repairs are imminent). Also some areas it's just not practical to build with stone, especially on alluvial plains like the Gulf Coast and Florida... there's no bedrock to dig down to and no local quarries, and any masonry usually has to be sent a long distance by barge or rail which adds to the price.	[ "Traditional stone masonry evolved from dry stone stacking. Stone blocks are laid in rows of even (courses) or uneven (un-coursed) height, and fixed in place with lime mortar pasted between the stones. Traditional stone masonry is rarely used today because stone is expensive to quarry, cut and transport, and the building process is labor and skill-intensive. \n", "Stone has been used as a building material for thousands of years. It has long been recognized as a material of great durability. The pyramids in Giza, burial chambers in the UK and temples in Malta were all built from stone over 4000 years ago and are still standing. The earliest form of stone construction is known as dry stone, or dry stacking. These are freestanding structures such as field walls, bridges and buildings that use irregularly shaped stones carefully selected and placed so that they fit closely together without slipping. Structures are typically wider at the base and taper in as height increases. They do not require any special tools, only the skill of the craftsman in choosing and placing the stones.\n", "The mandatory use of masonry or timber hatch construction (\"murtvang\") was enforced in the area from 1624, and in the early 18th century this use spread out about 200 metres outside the city walls. It was many times more expensive to build houses of masonry than of wood. The mandatory use of masonry, intended to prevent fire hazards, was found difficult to enforce already from 1624, and occasional disputes about it arose as the city grew.\n", "Stone buildings can be seen in most major cities; some civilizations built entirely with stone such as the Egyptian and Aztec pyramids and the structures of the Inca civilization.\n\nSection::::Naturally occurring substances.:Thatch.\n", "Dry stone and stones laid in mortar to build foundations are common in many parts of the world. Dry laid stone foundations may have been painted with mortar after construction. Sometimes the top, visible course of stone is hewn, quarried stones. Besides using mortar, stones can also be put in a gabion. One disadvantage is that if using regular steel rebars, the gabion would last much less long than when using mortar (due to rusting). Using weathering steel rebars could reduce this disadvantage somewhat.\n\nSection::::Historic foundation types.:Rubble trench foundations.\n", "Stone masonry utilizing dressed stones is known as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry. Both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in coursed rows of even height through the careful selection or cutting of stones, but a great deal of stone masonry is uncoursed.\n\nBULLET::::- Slipform stonemasonry produces a hybrid wall of reinforced concrete with a rubble stone face.\n\nBULLET::::- Natural stone veneers over CMU, cast-in-place, or tilt-up concrete walls are widely used to give the appearance of stone masonry.\n", "Historically masonry was constructed with no mortar or with lime mortar. In modern times cement based mortars are used. The mortar glues the blocks together, and also smooths out the interface between the blocks, avoiding localised point loads that might have led to cracking.\n\nSince the widespread use of concrete, stone is rarely used as a primary structural material, often only appearing as a cladding, because of its cost and the high skills needed to produce it. Brick and concrete blockwork have taken its place.\n", "Wood, bone, stone, and earth are some of the materials which formed the structures of the Roman Empire. Certain structures were made possible by the character of the land upon which these structures are built; a volcanic peninsula with stone aggregates and conglomerates containing crystalline material will produce material which weathers differently from soft, sedimentary rock and silt. That is one of the reasons that the concrete Pantheon of Rome could last for 1850 years, and why the thatched farmhouses of Holland sketched by Rembrandt have long since decayed.\n", "In 1766, about 50% of all apartment buildings in Kvadraturen were built of timber hatch, 30% of logs and 20% of masonry. The mandatory use of masonry was one of the reasons that the city became popular among business owners and officials, while low-income inhabitants lived in wooden houses outside the city. The 200-metre boundary caused suburbs to be built outside the city. The decision to spread out the mandatory use of masonry, in 1837, 1844, 1855 and 1858, did not proceed in equal steps with the growth of the city, and wooden suburbs soon rose outside what happened to be the boundary of the mandatory use of masonry at each point of time.\n", "Work executed with more or less large stones put together without any attempt at courses is called rubble walling. Where similar work is laid in courses, it is known as coursed rubble. Dry-stone walling is somewhat similar work done without the use of mortar. It is bound together by the fit of the stones and the regular placement of stones which extend through the thickness of the wall. A rubble wall built with mortar will be stronger if assembled in this way.\n\nSection::::Building.:Rubble walls in Malta.\n", "The granite-strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example, provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse) and into modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found.\n", "Section::::Origins and history.\n\nHumans built masonry ovens long before they started writing. The process began as soon as our ancestors started using fire to cook their food, probably by spit-roasting over live flame or coals. Big starchy roots and other slower-cooking foods, however, cooked better when they were buried in hot ashes, and sometimes covered with hot stones, and/or more hot ash. Large quantities might be cooked in an earth oven: a hole in the ground, pre-heated with a large fire, and further warmed by the addition of hot rocks.\n", "Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually, different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now.\n", "It has been noted that Brymbo Hall (1625) was largely brick, but the Cheshire influence of brick building is also apparent in Halghton Hall in Maelor Gymraeg of 1662 In Montgomeryshire the earliest brick house was the \"New Build\" at Montgomery Castle, which was built for Edward Herbert by Scampion between 1622 and 1625. \n", "Five hundred years ago, lime was made by masons in small upright ovens situated either near the quarry or close to the building site, after transporting the limestone rocks and kindling there. Crushed limestone rocks and firewood were laid in alternate layers so as to facilitate calcination of the stones, and obtain an oxyde of calcium. The ovens were about ten metres high and, not resisting the heat, could be used only once. Some farmers used the same method at the beginning of the 20th century .\n", "Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in North America and Europe. Many landmarks across the world are made of limestone. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone and sandstone masonry. They are the long-lasting materials but their rather heavy weight is not beneficial for adequate seismic performance.\n", "Concrete was first used on a major scale as a building material in this period and became extremely popular as an easy and economical construction material. The material has shaped Icelandic architecture from this period. With the arrival of concrete came the first qualified Icelandic architect, Rögnvaldur Ólafsson, who had at first designed in the Swiss chalet style but soon moved on to working in concrete. His first works in concrete resembled closely the stone buildings of earlier times.\n", "Isaac Ware in his \"A Complete Body of Architecture (1756)\" remarks on \"the beauty of floors of plaster mixed with other ingredients\", comparing them with those of granite.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England.\n", "Stone is a highly durable, low maintenance building material with high thermal mass. It is versatile, available in many shapes, sizes, colors and textures, and can be used for floors, walls, arches and roofs. Stone blends well with the natural landscape, and can easily be recycled for other building purposes.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Straw bale.\n", "Earlier gabions were often cylindrical wicker baskets, open at both ends, used usually for temporary, often military, construction.\n\nSimilar work can be done with finer aggregates using cellular confinement.\n\nSection::::Passive fire protection (PFP).\n", "Battens might be nailed over the gaps between slabs, or the entire exterior might be clad with weatherboards. The exterior might then be painted, using mixes of materials as diverse as skim milk, quick-lime, lampblack and cement or plastered over entirely. All these measures were less to do with appearance than with preservation of the fabric of the building.\n", "Section::::Construction.:Modern insulation practices.\n", "Perhaps the most significant change in masonry oven construction practices is insulation. Since masonry loses heat as fast as (or faster than) it absorbs it, early ovens extended bake times by increasing mass. Thicker walls held more heat to bake more bread — but only up to a point. Since heat moves from high to lower temperature, the outside of the oven cannot get as hot as the inside — unless it is wrapped in a fireproof blanket. Like a person in a bed, an oven needs a mattress underneath, as well as a blanket over top, but where a person may weigh a couple of hundred pounds, an oven may weigh thousands. Nature offers few materials that combine compressive strength, insulative properties, and imperviousness to high temperatures, but recent technology has greatly expanded the options.\n", "Pennsylvania has a long history of stone arch bridges, including the oldest such bridge in use in the United States, the 1697 Frankford Avenue Bridge over Pennypack Creek in Philadelphia. Such bridges typically used local stone, with three types of finishing possible. Rubble or third-class masonry construction used stones just as they came from the quarry; squared-stone or second-class masonry used stones that had been roughly dressed and squared; and ashlar or first-class masonry used stones which had been finely dressed and carefully squared. Rubble masonry was the quickest and cheapest for construction, and had the largest tolerances. Many of the oldest stone bridges in Pennsylvania were built using rubble masonry techniques.\n" ]	[ "Houses should all be built out of stone so they don't catch fire." ]	[ "This is less economical and would make things more expensive. Also it doesn't work better everywhere." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Houses should all be built out of stone so they don't catch fire." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "This is less economical and would make things more expensive. Also it doesn't work better everywhere." ]
2018-09056	How Nascar races work ?	Cup cars in NASCAR are driven right at the absolute limits of their mechanics and aerodynamics. It takes a lot of skill just to stay on a decent racing line on the track. Competing with 40 other cars, at nearly 200mph, with only inches between you and the cars around you is an incredibly demanding thing to do. And that doesn't even consider race and team strategies.	[ "The Late Model race automatically qualified the national champion in the NASCAR Whelen All-American Series and the other nine drivers in NASCAR's top ten in the Whelen All-American Series standings.\n\nSeries champions in NASCAR's three international series (Canada, Mexico, Europe) had the option of racing in any of the three races. They could choose which of the three races to participate, and would automatically qualify.\n\nTime trials and heat races determined the balance of the starting field for the two races.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official announcement of 2013 University of Northwestern Ohio Battle at the Beach\n", "BULLET::::- The drivers who finished in the top 5 of a \"No Bull 5\" race qualified themselves for the bonus at the next \"No Bull 5\" race.\n\nBULLET::::- If one of those five drivers went on to win that next \"No Bull 5\" race, he won a $1 million bonus.\n\nBULLET::::- Five fans were chosen for each \"No Bull 5\" race, and were paired with each of the five qualified drivers. If the driver won the bonus, the lucky fan paired with him also won $1 million.\n", "Section::::Special rules for combination races.\n", "Section::::Xfinity Series Dash4Cash Program.\n", "Beginning in 2013, the rules reverted to a system more similar to the pre-2005 rules. In the NASCAR Cup Series, the first 36 places in the field are determined strictly by qualifying speed. The next six places are awarded on owner points, with the final place reserved for a past Series Champion. If the final exemption is not used because all past Champions are already in the field, it will pass to another car based on the number of owner points.\n", "Section::::Qualifying.:Driver change (post-qualifying).\n", "BULLET::::- Round of 16 (Races 27–29)\n\nBULLET::::- Begins with 16 drivers, each with 2,000 points, plus a 3-point bonus for each win in the first 26 races\n\nBULLET::::- Round of 12 (Races 30–32)\n\nBULLET::::- Begins with 12 drivers, each with 3,000 points\n\nBULLET::::- Round of Eight (Races 33–35)\n\nBULLET::::- Begins with eight drivers, each with 4,000 points\n\nBULLET::::- Championship Four (final race)\n", "BULLET::::- Like the NASCAR Cup Series, all Xfinity Series races were split into three segments. Top 10 drivers in the first two segments were awarded points. The final stage awarded full points as usual. The first segment finish was about a quarter of the full distance, and the second segment finish was about half of the full distance.\n", "Section::::Report.:Practice and qualifying.\n", "The rules are the same, but Xfinity drivers will have a chance to qualify for the Dash4Cash at Charlotte. After that, that next four races are Dover, Indianapolis, Bristol, and Darlington. If a driver wins the first three cash prizes, and then wins outright Darlington, the driver's winnings in the bonus program will be augmented to one million dollars. The driver must claim the Dover, Indianapolis, and Bristol bonuses, finish first overall in the Darlington race, and earn the 47 (or 48 if the driver leads the most laps) points for the win at Darlington to claim the $600,000 bonus.\n", "Section::::2008 competition changes.\n\nOn January 21, 2008, NASCAR announced various competition changes for the 2008 season.\n\nSection::::2008 competition changes.:Qualifying procedures.\n", "Section::::Qualifying procedure.\n\nSection::::Qualifying procedure.:Standard procedure.\n\nA knockout system similar to Formula One is used. During the time allotted, teams are allowed unlimited attempts to qualify with their fastest lap of each round counting as their official time.\n", "In most cases, an OST event consists of the field of cars being split into three even groups. There are three qualifying heats to sort the grid for the Main Event. In each heat, two groups will take part, with the grids ordered to give all drivers a fair chance across the night. As an example, Heat One is Group 1 & 2, Heat Two is Group 1 & 3 & Heat Three is Group 2 & 3. Drivers receive grid points for the race results, with first place taking 24, second 23, third 22 and so on.\n", "BULLET::::- Positions 39-40: The fastest two cars of non-chartered teams that are not already qualified, based on Sunday's qualifying session.\n\nSection::::Qualifying procedure.:Provisional rule.\n\nAll three NASCAR national series will set a specific number of starting positions by timed laps and have a specific number of starting positions based on owner points of vehicles that have not already qualified.\n\nBULLET::::- Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series: 36 / 4\n\nBULLET::::- Xfinity Series: 33 / 4 / 1\n\nBULLET::::- Camping World Truck Series (except Eldora): 27 / 4 / 1\n", "Section::::2008 season races.:Stater Brothers 300.\n", "Section::::Top stories.\n\nSection::::Top stories.:Car of Tomorrow.\n", "Section::::Report.:Practice and qualifying.\n", "Beginning at Martinsville, NASCAR used the 2010 owner's points standings. Teams in the top 35 positions were guaranteed entry into the race; those below had to qualify on time.\n\nBULLET::::- Changes after Phoenix race: No. 7 team moves into the Top 35, replacing the No. 34 team.\n\nBULLET::::- Texas: The No. 34 entry moves up to 34th, No. 37 falls to 35th, No. 7 is 36th, one point out of safety (Fifteen points separate 33rd (No. 38 team) and 36th).\n", "Round 25: Oral-B USA 500\n", "Section::::Report.:Practice and qualifying.\n", "In the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series four positions are awarded to the fastest qualifying open teams. In the Xfinity Series, six positions are awarded based on owner points to cars not already qualified. In the Camping World Truck Series, four positions are awarded based on owner points to trucks not already qualified.\n", "Section::::Teams and drivers.\n\nEach Nextel Cup race has a field of 43 cars.\n", "Section::::Report.:Practice and qualifying.\n", "Section::::Nationwide Series.:Car No. 59 history.\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Fuller (1995-1997) and Robert Pressley (1997-1998)\n", "Section::::Chase for the championship.\n\nIn 2016, the NXS and the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series adopted a playoff format similar to the NASCAR Cup Series Chase for the Championship. Unlike the NASCAR Cup Series, whose Chase consists of four rounds, the Xfinity Series and Truck Series both use a three-round format. After each of the first two rounds, the four Chase grid drivers with the fewest season points are eliminated from the grid and Chase contention. The best-placed driver overall from the four Dash 4 Cash races advances to the Chase.\n\nSection::::Television broadcasting.\n\nSection::::Television broadcasting.:United States.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19187	Why do drugs like SSRI/SNRI take so long to have an effect on brain chemistry? (1 week-1 month)	There are a lot of mechanisms built into the blood-brain interface to protect the brain from dangerous chemicals you might ingest. To bypass this a chemical needs to be sneaky, like cocaine or nicotine, or it needs to be patient. The sneaky chemicals shoot up and then crash down, sorta the effect SSRIs are trying to avoid. So SSRI engineers take a patient build-up strategy to be effective.	[ "Most of the current drugs and treatments for depression and anxiety increase levels of serotonin transmission among neurons. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), a very successful class of drugs, are known to increase the amount of serotonin available to brain cells quite rapidly. Despite this, their therapeutic effects take a period of several weeks to months. Recent studies show that protein p11 increases the concentration of the serotonin 5-HT receptors at neuronal synapses, thereby rendering serotonin signaling much more efficient. The interaction with the serotonin 1b receptor (5-HT) and p11 can be summarized as follows: When p11 levels increases, the number of 5-HT receptors on the cell surface increase proportionately. An increase in the number of 5-HT receptors on the surface of the neuron increase the effectiveness of serotonin communication across the synapse. On the other hand, when p11 levels decrease, fewer 5-HT receptors migrate from inside the neuron to the cell membrane at the synaptic cleft, thus lowering the efficiency with which serotonin signaling can occur across the synapse. These findings suggest that, although the serotonin levels are immediately introduced via medication, the period of time within which the medicine alleviates the patient's depression most likely relies on other regulatory proteins. Thus, given protein p11's interaction with serotonin 5-HT receptors and the increasing evidence of the protein's correlation to mood disorders, this protein has been identified as a target for research in the development of future antidepressants.\n", "SSRIs adverse effects are generally mild and temporary and are more of a discomfort than a serious threat in terms of systemic toxicity. Therefore, the adverse effect profile of the SSRIs may offer certain therapeutic advantages in the management of depression.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSSRIs are well absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and reach peak plasma levels within 1–8 hours. During absorption SSRIs bind to proteins and are widely distributed throughout the body, including the brain, whereas they are lipophilic. \n", "The SSRIs are the first rationally designed class of psychotropic medications. The strategy behind rational drug design is to develop a new drug that is capable of affecting a specific biological target, or in this case a special neural site of action (uptake pumps, receptors), while trying to avoid effects on other site of actions. The goal in such development is to produce pharmacological agents that are more efficacious, safer and better tolerated than older medications. An initial success was achieved when medicinal chemists set out in search of the ideal SSRI with the chemical synthesis of zimelidine (figure 1) from the antihistamine drug brompheniramine, which exhibited selective inhibition of 5-HT re-uptake with minimal inhibition of norepinephrine (NE) re-uptake. Most importantly, zimelidine did not come with the adverse effect profile as the TCAs and therefore it became the template for the second generation SSRIs. Zimelidine was the first SSRI to be marketed, but several cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome were associated with the use of the drug which led to withdrawal from the market in 1983. Subsequently, several non-tricyclic SSRIs were discovered and marketed. Fluoxetine, which was FDA approved in 1987 and is usually thought to be the first SSRI to be marketed, paved the way for the next generation of SSRIs and was thought to be some kind of prototype. Introduction of fluoxetine to the market is hailed as a miracle drug for the treatment of depression because it had fewer adverse effects, simpler dosing strategies and greater margin of safety when overdoses were consumed and thus it had better adherence, compared to the older antidepressants (TCAs and MAOIs). Since then the number of drugs in the SSRI class has become bigger and they are now six (fluoxetine, paroxetine, citalopram, escitalopram, sertraline and fluvoxamine), as demonstrated in table 1.\n", "Section::::Adverse effects.\n\nAlthough generally well tolerated and numerous advantages over other antidepressants, SSRIs are not devoid of adverse effects. The adverse effects of SSRIs are usually predictable from a knowledge of their pharmacology and are dose related. Such adverse effects are gastrointestinal dysfunction (nausea, diarrhea, epigastric discomfort), effects on the central nervous system (CNS) (anxiety, fatigue, tremor), anticholinergic effects (dry mouth, blurred vision, drowsiness, difficulty in urination) and sexual dysfunction (anorgasmia or delayed ejaculation). \n\nOccasionally symptoms of sexual dysfunction persist after discontinuation of SSRI's.\n", "Section::::Development history.\n", "Although SSRIs arrive rapidly to the brain after administration and the effects on 5-HT re-uptake can be measured instantly, it takes about 2–4 weeks to get therapeutic effects. The SSRIs have very high and selective affinity for SERT and after administration they inhibit SERT immediately. SERT inhibition is implicated in the antidepressant activity of SSRIs. 70-80% inhibition of SERT is usually necessary to induce antidepressant effects and higher dosage does not induce greater antidepressant effects for average patients. Higher dosage does, however, increase the incidence and severity of adverse events associated with excessive 5-HT re-uptake inhibition.\n", "BULLET::::- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as fluoxetine are widely used antidepressants that specifically block the reuptake of serotonin with less effect on other transmitters.\n\nBULLET::::- Tricyclic antidepressants also block reuptake of biogenic amines from the synapse, but may primarily effect serotonin or norepinephrine or both. They typically take 4 to 6 weeks to alleviate any symptoms of depression. They are considered to have immediate and long-term effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Induction or enzymatic inhibition: Some drugs have the capacity to inhibit or stimulate their own metabolism, in negative or positive feedback reactions. As occurs with fluvoxamine, fluoxetine and phenytoin. As larger doses of these pharmaceuticals are administered the plasma concentrations of the unmetabolized drug increases and the elimination half-life increases. It is therefore necessary to adjust the dose or other treatment parameters when a high dosage is required.\n\nBULLET::::- The kidneys can also establish active elimination mechanisms for some drugs, independent of plasma concentrations.\n", "Rislenemdaz initiated its first phase II randomized double blind clinical trial (NCT01941043) in November, 2013. This study was funded through a $32 million Series B Financing tranche led by venture capital companies such as New Enterprise Associates (NEA), Apple Tree Partners (ATP) and MPM Capital. The trial consisted of 135 patients diagnosed with MDD who were resistant to SSRI/SNRI treatment. The study lasted 28 days and saw patients receiving 8 mg/day doses of rislenemdaz in order to see a change in the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) of the patient by day 7, but no significant changes were noted.\n", "Section::::Inquiries in the United Kingdom.:May 2003 GlaxoSmithKline briefing paper.\n\nIn February 2003 the MHRA's Committee on the Safety of Medicines (CSM) set up an Expert Working Group to investigate SSRIs and safety. In preparation for its first meeting, the MHRA met GSK on 21 May 2003 to make sure that GSK had supplied all information relevant to paroxetine and safety, and to discuss Jofre's second \"Panorama\" programme.\n", "Further, the ANSM committee remarked that the gap between the 20 mg and 50 mg dose cohorts, in effect, skipped a dose based on extrapolation from the single dose part of the study, and that the progression to 50 mg was too large a jump. On reviewing the subject data from the trial itself, the committee noted that BIA 10-2474 showed non-linear pharmacokinetics at doses between 40–100 mg (that is, the molecule appeared to be accumulating at higher doses) and that most likely the elimination mechanism had become saturated. Thus dosing at 50 mg daily was - each day - 40 times more than required to achieve complete inhibition, and in practice this dose level resulted in accumulation.\n", "Section::::Structural and mechanical differences between the SSRIs.:Binding of SSRIs to SERT protein.\n\nThe molecular basis for SSRIs function, including their binding mode and molecular mechanism of 5-HT re-uptake inhibition in SERT, is not fully understood and is a matter of debate. Such information is very important for the understanding of essential aspects of the drugs action, ranging from selectivity profile to therapeutic efficacy and the development of new and improved drugs that target the human SERT.\n", "Once a dose or range of doses is determined, the next goal is to evaluate whether the drug has any biological activity or effect. Phase II trials are performed on larger groups (100–300) and are designed to assess how well the drug works, as well as to continue Phase I safety assessments in a larger group of volunteers and patients. Genetic testing is common, particularly when there is evidence of variation in metabolic rate. When the development process for a new drug fails, this usually occurs during Phase II trials when the drug is discovered not to work as planned, or to have toxic effects.\n", "Another hypothesis that has been proposed which would explain the delay is the hypothesis that monoamines don't directly influence mood, but influence emotional perception biases.\n\nSection::::Neurogenic adaptations.\n", "Section::::Precautions.\n\nSection::::Precautions.:Starting an SNRI regimen.\n\nDue to the extreme changes in noradrenergic activity produced from norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake inhibition, patients that are just starting an SNRI regimen are usually given lower doses than their expected final dosing to allow the body to acclimate to the drug's effects. As the patient continues along at low doses without any side-effects, the dose is incrementally increased until the patient sees improvement in symptoms without detrimental side-effects.\n\nSection::::Precautions.:Discontinuation syndrome.\n", "SSRIs prevent 5-HT from binding to SERT which prevents absorption of 5-HT back into the presynapse terminal, where it is metabolized by monoamine oxidase or stored in secretory vesicles. As a result, the 5-HT concentration increases at the somatodendritic area of the 5-HT neuron but not so much at the axon terminal area (demonstrated in figure 2). This increase in 5-HT concentration causes desensitization of somatodendritic 5-HT autoreceptors. When these 5-HT autoreceptors have been downregulated, they will no longer restrict the impulse flow of the 5-HT neuron. The impulse flow is turned on and as a result 5-HT is released at the axon terminal. However, this increase of 5-HT does not happen quickly compared to the increase of 5-HT at the somatodendretic area of the 5-HT neuron. This delay is caused by the time it takes 5-HT to downregulate 5-HT autoreceptors and turn on the neuro impulse flow of the 5-HT neuron. This delay can explain the reason why antidepressants do not have effect on depression immediately. This can also be the reason why the antidepressant mechanisms can be connected to the increasing neuro impulse flow from 5-HT neurons, where as the concentration of 5-HT increases at the axon terminal before SSRIs start to work properly. When SSRIs have (1) inhibited the re-uptake pump, (2) increased somatodendritic 5-HT, (3) desensitized somatodendritic 5-HT autoreceptors, (4) turned on the impulse flow and (5) increased the release of 5-HT from axon terminal, the last step might be desensitization of postsynaptic 5-HT receptors. This desensitization could be the reason for reduction of adverse effects of SSRIs as tolerance develops.\n", "The extremely slow elimination of fluoxetine and its active metabolite norfluoxetine from the body distinguishes it from other antidepressants. With time, fluoxetine and norfluoxetine inhibit their own metabolism, so fluoxetine elimination half-life changes from 1 to 3 days, after a single dose, to 4 to 6 days, after long-term use. Similarly, the half-life of norfluoxetine is longer (16 days) after long-term use. Therefore, the concentration of the drug and its active metabolite in the blood continues to grow through the first few weeks of treatment, and their steady concentration in the blood is achieved only after four weeks. Moreover, the brain concentration of fluoxetine and its metabolites keeps increasing through at least the first five weeks of treatment. That means that the full benefits of the current dose a patient receives are not realized for at least a month since its initiation. For example, in one 6-week study, the median time to achieving consistent response was 29 days. Likewise, complete excretion of the drug may take several weeks. During the first week after the treatment discontinuation, the brain concentration of fluoxetine decreases only by 50%, The blood level of norfluoxetine 4 weeks after the treatment discontinuation is about 80% of the level registered by the end of the first treatment week, and 7 weeks after the discontinuation norfluoxetine is still detectable in the blood.\n", "Computational models predict that LTD creates a gain in recognition memory storage capacity over that of LTP in the perirhinal cortex, and this prediction is confirmed by neurotransmitter receptor blocking experiments. It is proposed that there are multiple memory mechanisms in the perirhinal cortex. The exact mechanisms are not completely understood, however pieces of the mechanisms have been deciphered. Studies suggest that one perirhinal cortex LTD mechanism involves NMDA receptors and group I and II mGlu receptors 24 hours after the stimulus. The other LTD mechanism involves acetylcholine receptors and kainate receptors at a much earlier time, about 20 to 30 minutes after stimulus.\n", "New chemical entities (NCEs, also known as new molecular entities or NMEs) are compounds that emerge from the process of drug discovery. These have promising activity against a particular biological target that is important in disease. However, little is known about the safety, toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism of this NCE in humans. It is the function of drug development to assess all of these parameters prior to human clinical trials. A further major objective of drug development is to recommend the dose and schedule for the first use in a human clinical trial (\"first-in-man\" [FIM] or First Human Dose [FHD]).\n", "Funded by SmithKline Beecham, the acute phase of study 329 was an eight-week, double-blind, randomized clinical trial conducted in 12 university or hospital psychiatric departments in the United States and Canada between 1994 and 1997. The study compared paroxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor marketed as Paxil and Seroxat, with imipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant marketed as Tofranil, in teenagers aged 12–18 with a diagnosis of major depressive disorder of at least eight weeks duration. Martin Keller, then professor of psychiatry at Brown University, had proposed the trial to the company in 1992 as the largest study until then to examine the efficacy of SSRIs in children.\n", "Although many patients benefit from SSRIs, it is estimated that approximately 50% of depressive individuals do not respond adequately to these agents. Even in remitters, a relapse is often observed following drug discontinuation. The major limitation of SSRIs concerns their delay of action. It appears that the clinical efficacy of SSRIs becomes evident only after a few weeks.\n", "Clinicians try to avoid these side effects and adverse reactions by limiting -DOPA doses as much as possible until absolutely necessary.\n", "Following a declination or total extinction in response to a previously therapeutic dose of an antidepressant, the issue is clinically addressed as stemming from tolerance development. Several strategies are available, such as exploring drug options from a different drug class used to treat depression. The patient can also choose to switch to another SSRI (or MAOI, if applicable) while maintaining proportionate dose. If tolerance develops in a drug from the same class, the clinician may recommend a regular cycle consisting of all effective treatments within the SSRI or MAOI classes, in order to minimize transitional side effects while maximizing therapeutic efficacy.\n", "This is called the neurogenic hypothesis of depression. It promises to explain pharmacological antidepressant action, including the time lag from taking the drug to therapeutic onset, why downregulation (not just upregulation) of neurotransmitters can help depression, why stress often precipitates mood disorders, and why selective modulation of different neurotransmitters can help depression. It may also explain the neurobiological mechanism of other non-drug effects on mood, including exercise, diet and metabolism. By identifying the neurobiological \"final common pathway\" into which most antidepressants funnel, it may allow rational design of new medications which target only that pathway. This could yield drugs which have fewer side effects, are more effective and have quicker therapeutic onset.\n", "Section::::Adverse effects.:Sexual dysfunction.\n\nSexual dysfunction, including loss of libido, anorgasmia, lack of vaginal lubrication, and erectile dysfunction, are some of the most commonly encountered adverse effects of treatment with fluoxetine and other SSRIs. While early clinical trials suggested a relatively low rate of sexual dysfunction, more recent studies in which the investigator actively inquires about sexual problems suggest that the incidence is 70%. Symptoms of sexual dysfunction have been reported to persist after discontinuing SSRIs, although this is thought to be occasional.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Discontinuation syndrome.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10951	How did people get enough heat to smelt metals before the industrial age?	Coal fire forges are able to reach temperatures of about 1900 degrees C which is more than enough to melt most ‘primitive’ metals such as iron, bronze, copper and steel.	[ "The older method of smelting lead on wind-blown bole hills began to be superseded by artificially-blown smelters. The first such furnace was built by Burchard Kranich at Makeney, Derbyshire in 1554, but produced less good lead than the older bole hill. William Humfrey (the Queen's assay master), and a leading shareholder in the Company of Mineral and Battery Works introduced the ore hearth from the Mendips about 1577. This was initially blown by a foot-blast, but was soon developed into a water-powered smelt mill at Beauchief (now a suburb of Sheffield). \n", "In general, prehistoric extraction of metals, particularly copper, involved two fundamental stages: first, the smelting of copper ore at temperatures exceeding 700 °C is needed to separate the gangue from the copper; second, melting the copper, which requires temperatures exceeding its melting point of 1080 °C. Given the available technology at the time, accomplishing these extreme temperatures posed a significant challenge. Early smelters developed ways to effectively increase smelting temperatures by feeding the fire with forced flows of oxygen.\n", "Section::::History.:Sub-Saharan Africa.\n\nSmelting in bloomery type furnaces in West Africa and forging of tools appeared in the Nok culture by 500 BC. The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces in East Africa are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon in Nubia and Axum that dated to between 1,000–500 BC. In Meroe particularly there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced a surplus for sale.\n\nSection::::History.:Medieval Europe.\n", "By this time the forest had been almost completely denuded. One effect of this was a move towards the use of coal. Water power was already used for grinding corn and wool fulling. It found increasing use for mechanising the various forms of mineral processing. In 1556, one of the earliest ore-stamping mills was built at Hulland Ward by Burchard Kranich, who, two years earlier, had built the first Smeltmill for extracting lead from its ore at Makeney.\n", "Section::::History.:Copper and bronze.\n", "Most early processes in Europe and Africa involved smelting iron ore in a bloomery, where the temperature is kept low enough so that the iron does not melt. This produces a spongy mass of iron called a bloom, which then must be consolidated with a hammer to produce wrought iron. The earliest evidence to date for the bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell Hammeh, Jordan (), and dates to 930 BC (C14 dating).\n\nSection::::History.:Later iron smelting.\n", "In the late 16th century wind power was abandoned and the smelting blast was provided by a bellows driven first by foot, to an ore hearth, and later by water-power in a smelting mill. The mills were fuelled by “white coal”, which was in fact kiln-dried branch wood. Wood was preferred to charcoal for the main furnace, which smelted ore from the mines, as charcoal generated more heat than this furnace required. Drying the wood eliminated smoke, which would have made it difficult for the smelters to keep the necessary close observation of the process. Charcoal was used in a second furnace, which resmelted the slag from the first, and required greater heat. Draught for the furnaces came from two large bellows driven by the water wheels. Lead ore of all grades was first broken or ground again into finer particles and rewashed to produce very pure ore for the furnace. These smelters could deal with much finer particles of ore and new techniques were introduced to provide them.\n", "Iron smelting—the extraction of usable metal from oxidized iron ores—is more difficult than tin and copper smelting. While these metals and their alloys can be cold-worked or melted in relatively simple furnaces (such as the kilns used for pottery) and cast into molds, smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. Iron is a common impurity in copper ores and iron ore was sometimes used as a flux, thus it is not surprising that humans mastered the technology of smelted iron only after several millennia of bronze metallurgy.\n", "The former ruins of this industrial revolution iron mill with smelter's yard showed where the ore was also smelted, local ironstone being used.\n\nBULLET::::- Manorial history\n", "Initial concentration techniques included hand-sorting and gravity concentration. They resulted in high losses of copper. Consequently, the development of the froth flotation process was a major step forward in mineral processing. It made possible the development of the giant Bingham Canyon mine in Utah.\n\nIn the twentieth century, most ores were concentrated before smelting. Smelting was initially undertaken using sinter plants and blast furnaces, or with roasters and reverberatory furnaces. Roasting and reverberatory furnace smelting dominated primary copper production until the 1960s.\n\nSection::::Sulfide smelting.:Roasting.\n", "Heat from wood fires goes back to the earliest human habitation of Britain.\n\nWaterwheel technology was imported by the Romans, with sites in Ikenham and Willowford in England being from the 2nd century AD. At the time of the Domesday Book (1086), there were 5,624 watermills in England alone, almost all of them located by modern archaeological surveys, which suggest a higher of 6,082, with many others likely unrecoreded in the northern reaches of England. By 1300, this number had risen to between 10,000 and 15,000.\n", "In the Old World, humans learned to smelt metals in prehistoric times, more than 8000 years ago. The discovery and use of the \"useful\" metals — copper and bronze at first, then iron a few millennia later — had an enormous impact on human society. The impact was so pervasive that scholars traditionally divide ancient history into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.\n", "The ores used in ancient smelting processes were rarely pure metal compounds. Impurities were removed from the ore through the process of slagging. Slag is the material in which the impurities from ores (known as gangue), as well as furnace lining and charcoal ash, collect. The study of slag can reveal information about the smelting process used at the time of its formation.\n", "Since the discovery happened several millennia before the invention of writing, there is no written record about how it was made. However, tin and lead can be smelted by placing the ores in a wood fire, leaving the possibility that the discovery may have occurred by accident.\n", "Smelting\n\nSmelting is a process of applying heat to ore in order to extract a base metal. It is a form of extractive metallurgy. It is used to extract many metals from their ores, including silver, iron, copper, and other base metals. Smelting uses heat and a chemical reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off other elements as gases or slag and leaving the metal base behind. The reducing agent is commonly a source of carbon, such as coke—or, in earlier times, charcoal.\n", "Smelting or the reduction of an ore to its metallic state is the primary source of experimentation in archaeometallurgy. In its simplest form smelting can be accomplished by placing an ore sample between two pieces of combusting charcoal in an oxygen reducing atmosphere with a compressed air source to feed the combustion and result in temperatures high enough to smelt metal. But to reach this final metallic state several things need to be done first including the processing of the ore to remove waste or gangue material, the possible roasting of the ore, the smelting of the ore, and then there is the possibility of refining the metal through a series of remelts. Then, through chemical or microscopic analysis, the products of the smelt are analyzed and compared with the findings of archaeological excavation in order to examine the likelihood of various manufacturing processes.\n", "BULLET::::- Sir Clement Clerke, a partner in the Dudley furnace, developed lead smelting in reverberatory furnaces. He and his son Talbot Clerke then applied this method to copper smelting and to iron foundry work. Associates in the latter business, floated as the Company for Making Iron with Pitcoal, built a coke furnace at Cleator in Cumberland in the 1690s. That company had some dispute with Shadrach Fox of Coalbrookdale, who was casting shot for the Board of Ordnance, and it may have used coal at another furnace at Wombridge.\n", "Faced with competition from cheaper British iron production, the Swedish iron industry needed to find a new cheaper method of making iron. In the 1810s, experiments were made with puddling, but this proved unsatisfactory, as it needed coal of which Sweden had none. After Gustav Ekman visited Britain, he published a report of his observations. He had seen closed finery hearths in south Wales and near Ulverston, then in Lancashire (now Cumbria). Those in south Wales were similar to puddling furnaces, but in Lancashire, he saw closed furnaces, where the metal was in contact with the fuel. On his return to Sweden, Ekman experimented and built furnaces similar to what he had seen near Ulverston, most probably at Newland ironworks. \n", "In the region of the Aïr Mountains in Niger there are signs of independent copper smelting between 2500–1500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.\n", "Smeltmill\n\nSmeltmills were water-powered mills used to smelt lead or other metals.\n", "Since the Iron Age, high temperatures have had to be produced for iron smelting, for glassmaking and for the working of precious metals. Charcoal has been used to do this for centuries and, in order to produce it, entire forests were felled. With the increasing use of stone coal from the 18th century, the charcoal burning industry declined.\n", "In the early days, white phosphorus was obtained from bone ash by treating them with hydrochloric acid to produce precipitated phosphates. Then heating the meta phosphate for several days in a sealed crucible, in a retort, and distilling off phosphorus vapour, under water. Huge quantities of coal were needed for heating these retorts.\n\nThe production of white phosphorus was improved by using phosphate rock and sulfuric acid instead of bone ash and hydrochloric acid; and by the use of reverberatory furnaces instead of the direct-heated furnaces.\n", "Section::::Iron smelting and the Iron Age.:Ancient Near East.:Theories on the origin of iron smelting.\n", "The puddling process was improved in 1818 by Baldwyn Rogers, who replaced some of the sand lining on the reverberatory furnace bottom with iron oxide. In 1838 John Hall patented the use of roasted tap cinder (iron silicate) for the furnace bottom, greatly reducing the loss of iron through increased slag caused by a sand lined bottom. The tap cinder also tied up some phosphorus, but this was not understood at the time. Hall's process also used iron scale or rust, which reacted with carbon in the molten iron. Hall's process, called \"wet puddling\", reduced losses of iron with the slag from almost 50% to around 8%.\n", "In South Africa at Pinnacle Point researchers have determined that two types of silcrete tools were developed between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago and used the heat treatment technique. There is evidence to suggest the technique may have been known as early as 164,000 years ago.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04107	Does growing food always deplete the soil?	Yes and no. In your particular example, yes - you're extracting nutrients from the soil (nitrogen compounds) to grow both tomatoes and potatoes. Assuming the plants get eaten by something (and if you're not eating them, potatoes are a particularly odd choice of plant to grow ;)), that nitrogen has been permanently extracted from the system. That said, different plants extract different proportions of different nutrients from soil - and different plants also deposit different waste products^* in the soil, which other plants see as nutrients. This is why crop rotation goes back so far in human history. Grow crop A in year one, grow crop B in year two, grow crop C in year three, then let the field lie fallow in year four. When you get back to crop A in year five (if you've designed your rotation correctly), the soil is nutritive enough to give a full yield. We use fertilizers - like manure - to force-replenish the soil, and avoid having to grow less-valuable crops instead of corn. ^(*)This isn't strictly true. Various plants do fix nitrogen in the soil, but by and large the plant itself doesn't do that; the colony of bugs, worms, and microbes that form around its root system excrete nitrogen compounds in excess of what the plant itself needs, so the net effect is a positive rate of nitrogen fixation.	[ "Section::::Phosphorus conservation and recycling.\n\nSection::::Phosphorus conservation and recycling.:Overview.\n\nPhosphorus can be transferred from the soil in one location to another as food is transported across the world, taking the phosphorus it contains with it. Once consumed by humans, it can end up in the local environment (in the case of open defecation which is still widespread on a global scale) or in rivers or the ocean via sewage systems and sewage treatment plants in the case of cities connected to sewer systems. An example of one crop that takes up large amounts of phosphorus is soy.\n", "BULLET::::2. Tilling over-pumps oxygen to local soil residents, such as bacteria and fungi. As a result, the chemistry of the soil changes. Biological decomposition accelerates and the microbiota mass increases at the expense of other organic matter, adversely affecting most plants, including trees and vegetables. For plants to thrive a certain quantity of organic matter (around 5%) must be present in the soil.\n", "The proliferation of industrial monocultures, with their reduction in crop diversity and dependence on heavy use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides, has led to overexploited soils that are nearly incapable of regeneration. Over years, unsustainable farming of land degrades soil fertility and diminishes crop yield. With a steadily growing world population and local overpopulation, even slightly diminishing yields are already the equivalent to a partial harvest failure. Fertilizers obviate the need for soil regeneration in the first place, and international trade prevents local crop failures from developing into famines.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Drainage: In soils of bad drainage the water delivered through rain or irrigation may pool and stagnate. As a result, prevail anaerobic conditions and plant roots suffocate. Stagnant water also favors plant-attacking water molds. In soils of excess drainage, on the other hand, plants don't get to absorb adequate water and nutrients are washed from the porous medium to end up in groundwater reserves.\n", "In order to match an increase in food demand, agricultural production relies heavily on the use of fertilizers to increase overall crop productivity. These fertilizers contain high amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen, which results in excess amounts of nutrients entering the soil. The nutrients that are not absorbed by the plant leach out of the soil and enter freshwater systems, such as rivers. These nutrients can eventually end up in aquatic ecosystems, and are a contributor to increased eutrophication.\n", "Commonly, CAFO wastewater and manure nutrients are applied to land at agronomic rates for use by forages or crops, and it is often assumed that various constituents of wastewater and manure, e.g. organic contaminants and pathogens, will be retained, inactivated or degraded on the land with application at such rates; however, additional evidence is needed to test reliability of such assumptions\n", "BULLET::::- Sensitive areas: What’s out of the ordinary about a field’s plan? Is it irrigated? Next to a stream or lake? Especially sandy in one area? Steep slope or low area? Manure applied in one area for generations due to proximity of dairy barn? Extremely productive—or unproductive—in a portion of the field? Are there buffers that protect streams, drainage ditches, wellheads, and other water collection points? How far away are the neighbors? What’s the general wind direction? This is the place to note these and other special conditions that need to be considered.\n", "BULLET::::- Previous applications: Knowing what's been applied to the field in years past will offer insight into what may already be in the ground or what nutrients may no longer be present.\n\nBULLET::::- Water: Consider what kind of water has been applied to the field. Does irrigation water contain dissolved nutrients such as nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), or chloride (Cl)? If so, it should be counted as input.\n\nBULLET::::- What's around you?: Consider water sources that could run into your field. Is there a manufacturing facility nearby? What makes up these water sources can impact how you plant.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Control.:Agricultural operations.\n\nTo control sediment and runoff, farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops or installing riparian buffers. \"Conservation tillage\" is a concept used to reduce runoff while planting a new crop. The farmer leaves some crop reside from the previous planting in the ground to help prevent runoff during the planting process.\n", "The oldest method of recycling phosphorus is through the reuse of animal manure and human excreta in agriculture. Via this method, phosphorus in the foods consumed are excreted, and the animal or human excreta are subsequently collected and re-applied to the fields. Although this method has maintained civilizations for centuries the current system of manure management is not logistically geared towards application to crop fields on a large scale. At present, manure application could not meet the phosphorus needs of large scale agriculture. Despite that, it is still an efficient method of recycling used phosphorus and returning it to the soil.\n", "BULLET::::- slow growth and low biomass require a long-term commitment\n\nBULLET::::- with plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely prevent the leaching of contaminants into the groundwater (without the complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not resolve the problem of contamination)\n\nBULLET::::- the survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land and the general condition of the soil.\n", "BULLET::::3. Builds soil organic matter at the expense of plant productivity. In the absence of tillage, and in soils with depleted organic matter, crops with large root systems may build up organic matter to the point that nearly all of the soil nitrogen and phosphorus is immobilized. When this happens, productivity may decline until either the organic matter builds up to a level where equilibrium is reached between nutrient mineralization and nutrient immobilization or fertilizer is added to the system.\n", "BULLET::::- Pathogens – are deprived of a host or from a nutrient supply long enough for them to become the target of a heterotroph.\n\nBULLET::::- Common inorganic compounds are macronutrients such as phosphates and nitrates. Principal sources of these nutrients comes from agricultural runoff attributed to excess fertilization. Excess phosphates and nitrates can cause eutrophication in disposal zones and receiving waters. Specific bioswale plants absorb these excess nutrients.\n", "Where produce from an organic farm leaves the farm gate for the market the system becomes an open cycle and nutrients may need to be replaced through alternative methods.\n\nSection::::Ecological recycling.:Ecosystem engineers.\n", "Karl Marx wrote of the role of capitalism in soil depletion. In \"Capital, Volume I\", he wrote:\n\nOne of the most widespread occurrences of soil depletion is in tropical zones where nutrient content of soils is low. The combined effects of growing population densities, large-scale industrial logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and ranching, and other factors, have in some places depleted soils through rapid and almost total nutrient removal.\n", "Soil washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. Excess sediment causes high levels of turbidity in water bodies, which can inhibit growth of aquatic plants, clog fish gills and smother animal larvae.\n\nFarmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include:\n\nBULLET::::- contour ploughing\n\nBULLET::::- crop mulching\n\nBULLET::::- crop rotation\n\nBULLET::::- planting perennial crops\n\nBULLET::::- installing riparian buffers.\n\nSection::::Nonpoint source pollution.:Nutrient runoff.\n", "It has been estimated that productivity from irrigated perennial horticulture could be increased by two to three times the present level by improving soil structure, because of the resulting access by plants to available soil water and nutrients. The NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation suggests that in cropping systems, wheat yields can be increased by 10 kg/ha for every extra millimetre of rain that is able to infiltrate due to soil structure.\n\nSection::::Hardsetting soil.\n", "The efficiency of nutrient uptake by crops from fertilizers or residue release is generally thought to be similar. For example, about 50 percent recovery of N in the above-ground plant in the first year. There is some residual benefit of fertilizers as the crops take up a small amount of the nutrients two and three years later. Fertilizer placement can significantly affect the efficiency of crop uptake. The impact of residue placement (buried by tillage or left on the surface in zero tillage) on nutrient cycling and efficiency is under study.\n", "One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.\n", "Use of synthetic fertilizers, burning of fossil fuels, and agricultural animal production, especially concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO), have added large quantities of reactive nitrogen to the biosphere.\n\nSection::::Sources.:Phosphorus.\n\nPhosphorus pollution is caused by excessive use of fertilizers and manure, particularly when compounded by soil erosion. Phosphorus is also discharged by municipal sewage treatment plants and some industries.\n\nSection::::Sources.:Land uses.\n\nThe principal source(s) of nutrient pollution in an individual watershed depend on the prevailing land uses. The sources may be point sources, nonpoint sources, or both:\n\nBULLET::::- Agriculture: animal production or crops\n", "Nutrients are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients.\n\nTo minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.\n\nSection::::Control.:Forestry operations.\n", "Nitrogen will be lost from the site by burning, though concentrations in remaining forest floor were found by Macadam (1987) to have increased in two out of six plots, the others showing decreases. Nutrient losses may be outweighed, at least in the short term, by improved soil microclimate through the reduced thickness of forest floor where low soil temperatures are a limiting factor.\n", "Once nutrients have re-entered the soil, the plants can then reabsorb them through their roots. Therefore, nutrient reabsorption during senescence presents an opportunity for a plant’s future net primary production use. A relationship between nutrient stores can also be defined as:\n\nSection::::Collection and analysis.\n\nThe main objectives of litterfall sampling and analysis are to quantify litterfall production and chemical composition over time in order to assess the variation in litterfall quantities, and hence its role in nutrient cycling across an environmental gradient of climate (moisture and temperature) and soil conditions.\n", "Phytoremeditation is both an environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and energy-efficient measure to reduce pollution. Phytoremediation only costs about $5–$40 per ton of soil being decontaminated. Implementation of this process also reduces the amount of soil that must be disposed of in a hazardous waste landfill.\n", "The amount of manure spread onto farm land affects the concentration of nutrients in the soil, water run-off can transport nutrients such as phosphorus or nitrogen into fresh water streams. High volumes of these nutrients can disrupt the natural ecosystems causing algae blooms, etc.\n\nOther common manure issues include:\n\nBULLET::::- Strong odors associated with manure storage lagoons and ponds\n\nBULLET::::- Expensive costs associated with hauling manure\n\nBULLET::::- Increased flies and other insects at farming operation\n\nBULLET::::- Operation expansion requires additional land or higher costs for hauling manure\n" ]	[ "Growing food always depletes the soil." ]	[ "Growing some foods depletes some nutrients but deposits others. Other foods do this with other nutrients allowing for a crop cycle to keep the soil healthy." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Growing food always depletes the soil." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Growing some foods depletes some nutrients but deposits others. Other foods do this with other nutrients allowing for a crop cycle to keep the soil healthy." ]
2018-08330	Why does the common saying go "as good as anyone else" when alluding to being better than "everyone else"	Being as good as anyone else means almost the same thing as being better than everyone else. If I can type as fast than anyone else, that means there is no one who can type faster than me. At the very least, I am exactly as fast as the fastest typist, and seeing that being exactly as fast isn't possible, I would have to be a little faster to be sure of my claim. Saying I am as good as anyone else is just slightly more modest way of putting things, implying a high level of competency rather than superiority.	[ "An adaption of the melody during the lines 'nobody does it half as good as you, baby you're the best' was used as an advertising motif for a commercial airing during the mid to late 90s, commissioned by Australian real estate company LJ Hooker. Instead of the original lyrics it was sung 'Nobody does it better, L.J Hooker you're the best'. The company's tagline has remained 'Nobody Does It Better' to the present day.\n", "\"Simply The Best\" has become the slogan of loyalist paramilitary groups in Northern Ireland.\n\nIn the original version of \"The Office\", David Brent plays the Tina Turner version of the song at the end of a motivational speech, shouting, \"I've been David Brent! You've been the best!\"\n\nCadbury's used this song in their Keep Team Britain Pumped adverts with Olympic swimmer Rebecca Adlington.\n", "Plato was concerned with the \"best\" state, which requires citizens who are the best and because they possess \"arete\". This is in contrast to the attitude, cited by Heraclitus: \"We will have none best among us; if any among us would be the best, let him be so elsewhere and among others.\"\n", "Written and produced by Elliott and Danja, \"Best, Best\" is a futuristic sounding, mid-tempo Hip-hop and R&B song. Like some of Elliott's other songs it is rapped and sung. After \"Billboard\" previewed the song they stated, \"Elliott, repeated the last word to every sentence throughout, rhymes, ('We fuss fuss / we fight fight / we make up up / by the night night.')\".\n", "\"Better angels\" is a phrase used by agents of organization Tetragrammatron to describe what they hope to make humanity into. Tetragrammatron is concerned with ensuring humanity's survival by creating a machine/human transcendences, turning humans into \"better angels\". The phrase itself comes from the closing of Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address, in which he said that, despite the rising conflict in the United States, the shared history of Americans would \"yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.\"\n\nSection::::Release details.\n", "A still earlier, and more pertinent, use of the phrase is in the letter of Junius published February 7, 1769, in the \"Public Advertiser\". There Junius uses it mockingly and ironically in reference to King George III's ministers, whose capacities he had disparaged in his first letter the previous month. In response to Sir William Draper's letter defending one of Junius' targets and attacking their anonymous critics, Junius wrote:\n", "It can also signify an adaptation that, whilst reasonable at the time, has become less and less suitable and more of a problem or hindrance in its own right, as time goes on. This is because it is possible for an adaptation to be poorly selected or become less appropriate or even become on balance more of a dysfunction than a positive adaptation, over time.\n", "CORFing (cutting off reflected failure) can be seen in this same example, except when the team suffers a loss, the fans will change “we” to “they”. For example, “They did not show enough heart” or “They really got outplayed today”. \n", "BULLET::::- “Each group of parents strongly encouraged their children’s development in a particularly highly approved talent field (related to the parents’ own “special interests”) and gave much less support to other possible talent fields and activities.”\n\nBULLET::::- “Families and teachers were crucial at every point along the way to excellence… what families and teachers do at different times and how they do it clearly sets the stage for exceptional learning in each talent field”.\n", "BULLET::::- Go Joo-won - Park Chan-woo\n", "BULLET::::- 105.1 TripleM in Melbourne, Australia, uses 'You're the best' as a way of congratulating something well said by guests on talkback radio.\n\nBULLET::::- The song is also occasionally used as bumper music by Scott Ferrall on his CBS radio show \"Ferrall on the Bench.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The song is used on the Dave and Mahoney Morning Show in Las Vegas on X107.5 whenever a listener wins a contest\n\nSection::::Usage.:Video games.\n\nBULLET::::- Plays in \"Radical Heights\" after being the last man standing in a Battle Royale match.\n", "The verses of the song - sung alternately by Paul Heaton and Jacqui Abbott - are made up of a series of innuendos using clothing sizes and penis length to illustrate a loving relationship between two people who don't conform to modern stereotypes of physical perfection. The male vocal shows that although his partner is a little on the large side (\"\"but she wears a 12\"\"), she is a 'perfect 10' in his eyes. He also states, \"\"the anorexic chicks, the model 6, they don't hold no weight with me\",\" preferring instead to, \"\"hold something I can see.\"\"\n", "Micro-affirmations and micro-advantages are believed to enhance an individual's engagement and overall performance.\n\nSection::::In culture.\n\nIn human culture, many micro-inequities can be observed. Examples include the casual use of the term \"she\" while referring to individuals in occupations that have been predominantly women, such as teachers, nurses and secretaries, and the disrespect sometimes exhibited toward fathers as full-time homemakers.\n", "The title may have come from a line by Percy Bysshe Shelley in his work \"To Jane: The Invitation\" (1822):\n\nShelley's line may have originated from English bishop and hymn writer Reginald Heber in his 1811 work, \"Hymns. Epiphany\":\n", "The theme song of Besti Flokkurinn, an Icelandic political party standing in the 2010 Reykjavik local council elections, was \"Simply The Best\". Prior to the 2010 election the party published a localized version of the song with new lyrics.\n\nIn the 1980s in the North East of England, the song was used in a long running radio advert for a local motor garage, South Cleveland Garages, with the lyrics of the chorus changed to include the name of the company, forever linking the song and the company in local memory.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Other.\n", "Throughout the 1990s, Chris Eubank used \"The Best\" as both his nickname and entrance music before all of his world championship boxing matches. Arriving to the ring in a variety of forms, Eubank would always synchronise his entrance to the rising crescendo of the first verse and chorus, standing on the ring apron while tapping his gloves together nonchalantly. As Turner's second chorus boomed out he would leap over the top rope into the ring, shadow boxing and soaking in the cheers and boos from the crowd. As the pantomime villain of British boxing, Eubank used \"The Best\" to propel himself into the heart of British culture. \n", "No One Does It Better\n\nNo One Does It Better may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- No One Does It Better (album), SoulDecision 2000\n\nBULLET::::- \"No One Does It Better\", song and debut single by SoulDecision from No One Does It Better (album) 2000\n\nBULLET::::- No One Does It Better (song), You Me at Six 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"No One Does It Better\", song by The Spinners from \"The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh\" 1979 sampled on several hip-hop and rap albums\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Nobody Does It Better, song by Carly Simone\n\nBULLET::::- Nobody Does It Better (disambiguation)\n", "Bringing Out the Best in People\n\nBringing Out the Best in People (\"How to Enjoy Helping Others Excel\") () is a book by Alan Loy McGinnis and published in 1985. It describes 12 rules that a leader should follow to motivate team members.\n\nThe book has been used frequently by people new to a supervisory or management position, with the main purpose being to help other people to lead and bring out the best in people. It was originally published in May 1985, and a 20th-anniversary edition was published in 2005.\n", "\"Négritude\" inspired the birth of many movements across the Afro-Diasporic world, including Afro-Surrealism, Creolite in the Caribbean, and Black is beautiful in the United States. Frantz Fanon often made reference to Négritude in his writing.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Socio-cognitive analysis also helps us identify the responsible speakers for innovation as well as speakers who resist innovation: in this case, the age group of 31-60 first started using the sense “great”, and people over 60 are resisting the innovation since some are still using the oldest sense “terrible”.\n\nSection::::A case study in polysemy--adjective \"awesome\".:Conclusion of the study.\n", "When apartheid South Africa celebrated 20 years of independence on 31 May 1981, the theme of the celebrations was \"unity in diversity\" (). Anti-apartheid campaigners denounced the motto as a cynical attempt to explain away the inequalities in South African life and called on runners of the Comrades Marathon to protest at the co-option of the event by wearing a black armband. The winner of the race, Bruce Fordyce, was one of those wearing a black armband.\n", "Currently the term is gaining popularity in other sectors of technology, with each sector using its own appropriate components.\n\nSection::::Current trends in EDA.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early years and formation.\n", "The variants on the concept of perfection would have been quite of a piece for two thousand years, had they not been confused with other, kindred concepts. The chief of these was the concept of that which is the best: in Latin, \"\"excellentia\"\" (\"excellence\"). In antiquity, \"\"excellentia\"\" and \"\"perfectio\"\" made a pair; thus, for example, dignitaries were called \"\"perfectissime\"\", just as they are now called \"excellency.\" Nevertheless, these two expression of high regard differ fundamentally: \"\"excellentia\"\" is a distinction among many, and implies comparison; while \"\"perfectio\"\" involves no comparison, and if something is deemed perfect, then it is deemed so in itself, without comparison to other things. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who thought much about perfection and held the world to be the best of possible worlds, did not claim that it was perfect.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The statement \"as good as anyone else\" has a different meaning than \"being better than anyone else\"." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "These mean almost the same thing - saying \"as good as anyone else is a slightly more modest way of putting things, implying a high level of competency rather than superiority." ]
2018-03243	What's the difference for our legs between sitting on a chair and sitting on a toilet	On a toilet you're sitting on a ring. If you're leaning forward, which you probably are on the toilet unless you're just lounging on it, most of your weight is on the front part of that, cutting off circulation to your legs nicely.	[ "Sitting requires the buttocks resting on a more or less horizontal structure, such as a chair or the ground. Special ways of sitting are with the legs horizontal, and in an inclined seat. While on a chair the shins are usually vertical, on the ground the shins may be crossed in the lotus position or be placed horizontally under the thigh in a seiza.\n\nSection::::Basic positions.:Squatting or crouching.\n", "Most raised surfaces at the appropriate height can be used as seats for humans, whether they are made for the purpose, such as chairs, stools and benches, or not. While the buttocks are nearly always rested on the raised surface, there are many differences in how one can hold one's legs and back.\n\nThere are two major styles of sitting on a raised surface. The first has one or two of the legs in front of the sitting person; in the second, sitting astride something, the legs incline outwards on either side of the body.\n", "There are toilets on the market where the seats have integrated spray mechanicms for anal and genital water sprays (see for example Toilets in Japan). This can be useful for the elderly or people with disabilities.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Accessible toilets.\n\nAn accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities, such as age related limited mobility or inability to walk due to impairments. Additional measures to add toilet accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from the toilet seat, including enough room for a caregiver if necessary.\n\nSection::::Public toilet.\n", "Toilets can be designed to be used either in a sitting or in a squatting posture.\n\nSection::::Types by usage posture.:Toilet with a pedestal for sitting.\n\nSitting toilets are often referred to as \"western-style toilets\". Sitting toilets are more convenient than squat toilets for people with disabilities and the elderly.\n\nSection::::Types by usage posture.:Squat toilet.\n", "According to Opsvik the feet are the ignored extremities of ergonomics. As our feet and legs have the responsibility for moving us in all situations it seemed natural for Opsvik to make sure that the chair respond to and is controlled by the feet.\n\nSection::::Essential concepts.\n", "There are also injuries caused by animals. Some black widow spiders like to spin their web below the toilet seat because insects abound in and around it. Therefore, several persons have been bitten while using a toilet, particularly an outhouse toilet. Although there is immediate pain at the bite site, these bites are rarely fatal. The danger of spiders living beneath toilet seats is the subject of Slim Newton's comic 1972 country song \"The Redback on the Toilet Seat\".\n", "Urban legends have been reported regarding the dangers of using a toilet in a variety of situations. Several of them have been shown to be questionable. These include some cases of the presence of venomous spiders Except for the Australian redback spider who has a reputation for hiding under toilet seats. These recent fears have emerged from a series of hoax emails originating in the Blush Spider hoax, which began circulating the internet in 1999. Spiders have also been reported to live under seats of airplanes, however, the cleaning chemicals used in the toilets would result in an incompatibility with spider's survival. In large cities like New York City, sewer rats often have mythical status regarding size and ferocity, resulting in tales involving the rodents crawling up sewer pipes to attack an unwitting occupant. Of late, stories about terrorists booby trapping the seat to castrate their targets have begun appearing. Another myth is the risk of being sucked into an aircraft lavatory as a result of vacuum pressure during a flight.\n", "Defecation postures\n\nHumans use one of two types of defecation postures to defecate: squatting, or sitting. People use the squatting postures when using squat toilets or when defecating in the open in the absence of toilets. The sitting posture on the other hand is used in toilets that have a pedestal or \"throne\", where users generally lean forward or sit at 90-degrees to a toilet seat.\n\nIn general, the preferred posture is largely a cultural decision. People adapt their defecation posture to the toilet type available to them, e.g. while travelling or if moving to another country.\n\nSection::::Sitting.\n", "A two-piece attaching seat and toilet bowl lid are typically mounted over the bowl to allow covering the toilet when it is not in use and to provide seating comfort. The seat may be installed at the factory, or the parts may be sold separately and assembled by a plumbing distributor or the installer.\n\nSection::::Water usage.\n\nThe amount of water used by conventional flush toilets is usually a significant portion of personal daily water usage: for example, five 10-liter flushes per day use .\n\nModern low-flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush, per flush.\n", "Christopher Peterson, a professor of psychology at the University of Michigan, classifies the choice of toilet paper orientation under \"tastes, preferences, and interests\" as opposed to either values or \"attitudes, traits, norms, and needs\". Other personal interests include one's favorite cola or baseball team. Interests are an important part of identity; one expects and prefers that different people have different interests, which serves one's \"sense of uniqueness\". Differences in interests usually lead at most to teasing and gentle chiding. For most people, interests don't cause the serious divisions caused by conflicts of values; a possible exception is what Peterson calls \"the 'get a life' folks among us\" who elevate interests into moral issues.\n", "Some people regard sitting toilets as \"more modern\" than squat toilets. Sitting toilets have a lower risk of soiling clothing or shoes as urine is less likely to splash on bottom parts of trousers or shoes. Furthermore, sitting toilets are more convenient for people with disabilities and the elderly.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Public toilets.\n", "Accessible toilet\n\nAn accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities. Persons with reduced mobility find them useful, as do those with weak legs, as a higher toilet bowl makes it easier for them to stand up. Additional measures to add accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from the toilet seat, and including enough room for a caregiver if necessary. Some countries have requirements concerning the accessibility of public toilets. Toilets in private homes can be modified (retrofitted) to increase accessibility.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Superstructures associated with UDDTs are sometimes built with steep, narrow stairs and without handrails. This design is not recommended as it can prevent users with disabilities from accessing the toilet. The needs of people with disabilities should always be considered in the design of sanitation systems, and in the case of elevated structures less steep stairs or ramps should be used instead. The aforementioned \"bench design\" can alleviate the need for stairs.\n", "Section::::In fiction.\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia Lass, the protagonist of comedy-drama television series \"Dead Like Me\", is hit and killed in the pilot episode by a toilet seat falling from the deorbiting Mir space station.\n\nBULLET::::- The character Tywin Lannister in the book \"A Storm of Swords\", a novel from the A Song of Ice and Fire series written by George R.R. Martin, is killed while using the toilet.\n\nBULLET::::- Lawyer Donald Gennaro is devoured by a Tyrannosaurus Rex while sitting on the toilet of a destroyed restroom cabin in the 1993 movie \"Jurassic Park\".\n", "Swivel chairs may have wheels on the base allowing the user to move the chair around their work area without getting up. This type is common in modern offices and are often also referred to as office chairs. Office swivel chairs, like computer chairs, usually incorporate a gas lift to adjust the height of the seat, but not usually large (e.g. recliner) swiveling armchairs.\n", "The chair is available with a number of different undercarriages — as a regular four-legged chair, an office chair with five wheels and as a bar stool. It comes with armrests, a writing-table attached, and different forms of upholstering. To some extent, these additions mar the simple aesthetics of the chair, while contributing practical elements.\n", "The first \"paperless\" toilet seat was invented in Japan in 1980. A spray toilet seat, commonly known by Toto's trademark Washlet, is typically a combination of seat warmer, bidet and drier, controlled by an electronic panel or remote control next to the toilet seat. A nozzle placed at rear of the toilet bowl aims a water jet to the anus and serves the purpose of cleaning. Many models have a separate \"bidet\" function aimed towards the front for feminine cleansing. The spray toilet seat is common only in Western-style toilets, and is not incorporated in traditional style squat toilets. Some modern Japanese bidet toilets, especially in hotels and public areas, are labeled with pictograms to avoid language problems, and most newer models have a sensor that will refuse to activate the bidet unless someone is sitting on the toilet.\n", "BULLET::::- Females may use a partial squatting position (or \"hovering\") while urinating while urinating is often done to avoid sitting on a potentially contaminated toilet seat, but it may leave urine behind in the bladder and it is not good for the pelvic floor. (See here for image.)\n\nBULLET::::- A partial squatting defecation position (or \"hovering\") while defecating is often used to avoid sitting on a obviously soiled and/or potentially contaminated toilet seat.\n\nBULLET::::- Stance during surfing. (See partial squats gallery for image.)\n\nBULLET::::- Stance during skiing. (See partial squats gallery for image.)\n", "The two most common defecation positions are squatting and sitting. The squatting posture is used for Japanese, in countries with a Muslim or Hindu majority and in the absence of toilets or other devices. The sitting defecation posture is used in Western toilets, with a lean-forward posture or a 90-degrees posture.\n\nSection::::Contexts.:Eating positions.\n\nEating positions vary according to the different regions of the world, as culture influences the way people eat their meals.\n", "Toilet seat\n\nA toilet seat is a hinged unit consisting of a round or oval open seat, and usually a lid, which is bolted onto the bowl of a toilet used in a sitting position (as opposed to a squat toilet). The seat can be either for a flush toilet or a dry toilet. A toilet seat consists of the seat itself, which may be contoured forum the user to sit on, and the lid, which covers the toilet when it is not in use – the lid may be absent in some cases, particularly in public restrooms.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Section::::Manufacturers.\n\nLarge well-known manufacturers include Toto Ltd. (Washlet) in Japan, and Bemis and Kohler in the United States.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Humor.\n\nThe toilet seat functions as a comic standby for sight gags relating to toilet humor. The most common is someone staggering out of a toilet room after an explosion with a toilet seat around his neck. In the television show \"Dead Like Me\", George Lass, the main character, is killed when a zero-G toilet seat from space station Mir re-enters the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:US Navy's \"$600 Toilet Seat\".\n", "Morton Ann Gernsbacher, a professor of psychology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, compares the orientation of toilet paper to the orientation of cutlery in a dishwasher, the choice of which drawer in a chest of drawers to place one's socks, and the order of shampooing one's hair and lathering one's body in the shower. In each choice, there is a prototypical solution chosen by the majority, and it is tempting to offer simplistic explanations of how the minority must be different. She warns that neuroimaging experiments—which as of 2007 were beginning to probe behaviors from mental rotation and facial expressions to grocery shopping and tickling—must strive to avoid such cultural bias and stereotypes.\n", "The sitting defecation posture involves sitting with hips and knees at approximately right angles, as on a chair. So-called \"Western-style\" flush toilets and also many types of dry toilets are designed to be used in a sitting posture.\n\nSitting toilets only came into widespread use in Europe in the nineteenth century.\n\nSpecial devices exist in the form of \"wrap-around foot stools\" to allow users of western-style toilets to defecate in a posture that is somewhat similar to squatting.\n\nSection::::Squatting.\n", "Foot propulsion of a manual wheelchair by the occupant is possible for users who have limited hand movement capabilities or simply do not wish to use their hands for propulsion. Foot propulsion also allows patients to exercise their legs to increase blood flow and limit further disability. Users who do this commonly may elect to have a lower seat height and no footplate to better suit the wheelchair to their needs.\n", "The feet can rest on the floor or on a footrest, which can keep them vertical, horizontal, or at an angle in between. They can also dangle if the seat is sufficiently high. Legs can be kept right to the front of the body, spread apart, or one crossed over the other.\n\nThe upper body can be held upright, recline to either side or backward, or one can lean forward.\n\nSection::::Positions.:Yoga, traditions, and spirituality.\n\nThere are many seated positions in various traditions and rituals. Four examples are:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02747	Why are there so many brawls in ice hockey, and why do match officials seem to care so little?	Fighting has a long tradition in hockey. As long as certain rules are followed the refs let the fight go until one player is knocked down. Then both players get a 5 minute penalty. It's mostly used as a way to blow off steam due to some slight or foul play (like consistently blindsiding players when checking them) and the fight is the consequence. So, yes, fighting is accepted in hockey.	[ "Section::::Officials' role.\n\nThroughout a game, the referee and linesmen have a role in preventing fights through the way they are managing the game—calling penalties, breaking up scuffles before they escalate, etc. Despite an official's best efforts, though, fights do occur and once they do, the referee and linesmen have a certain set of responsibilities to follow in order to safely break up the fight. None of these responsibilities are written in the NHL's rule book, but often are guided by \"common sense\", according to officials.\n", "BULLET::::- January 9, 2010 – In a Kontinental Hockey League game between Vityaz Chekhov and Avangard Omsk, a bench-clearing brawl broke out in the 4th minute of the first period, and a bench- and penalty-box-clearing brawl broke out 39 seconds later, forcing officials to abandon the game as there were only four players left. Thirty-three players and both teams' coaches were ejected, and a world-record total of 707 penalty minutes were incurred during the game. The KHL imposed fines totaling 5.7 million rubles ($191,000), suspended seven players, and counted the game as a 5–0 defeat for both teams, with no points being awarded.\n", "In the current NHL rulebook, the archaic reference to \"fisticuffs\" has been removed; fighting is now governed under Rule 46 in the NHL rulebook. Referees are given considerable latitude in determining what exactly constitutes a fight and what penalties are applicable to the participants. Significant modifications from the original rule involve penalties which can be assessed to a fight participant deemed to have instigated the fight and additional penalties resulting from instigating a fight while wearing a face-shield.\n", "BULLET::::- Warnings and penalties\n\nA ten-minute penalty is indicated through the use of a blue card and can be caused by protesting or behaving incorrectly, attacking an opponent violently or stopping the ball incorrectly to get an advantage.\n", "BULLET::::- March 5, 2004 – A Philadelphia Flyers – Ottawa Senators game resulted in five consecutive brawls in the closing minutes of the game, including fights between many players who are not known as enforcers and a fight between Flyers goalie Robert Esche and Senators goalie Patrick Lalime. The game ended with an NHL record 419 penalty minutes, and an NHL record 20 players were ejected, leaving five players on the team benches. The officials took 90 minutes to sort out the penalties that each team had received.\n", "Section::::Enforcers.\n", "A notable KHL bench-clearing brawl saw all the players of Avangard Omsk and Vityaz Chekhov, except for the goaltenders, fighting at 3 minutes and 34 seconds. The referees penalized all the players who were involved in the brawl, and called the game due to lack of players; the teams were fined 5.7 million rubles and had the game counted as a double loss.\n\nSection::::Other sports.\n", "As in baseball, hockey brawls usually result from escalating infractions; in this case, dangerous hits, excessive post-whistle roughness, taking shots after the whistle, attacking the goaltender, and hatred from competition in a game with a significant amount of inter-player violence, all contribute to bench-clearing brawls.\n", "Sportsmanship is also an important aspect when it comes to fights. While an enforcer may start a fight in response to foul play, it is generally not acceptable to start a fight to retaliate against an opponent who scored fairly.\n\nSection::::Tactics.\n", "Unique among North American professional team sports, the National Hockey League (NHL) and most minor professional leagues in North America do not eject players outright for fighting (although they may do so for more flagrant violations as part of a fight) but major European and collegiate hockey leagues do, and multi-game suspensions may be added on top of the ejection. Therefore, the vast majority of fights occur in the NHL and other North American professional leagues.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Despite the bans, there have been fights in European leagues. In 2001, a game between the Nottingham Panthers and the Sheffield Steelers in the British Superleague saw \"some of the worst scenes of violence seen at a British ice hockey rink\". When Sheffield enforcer Dennis Vial crosschecked Nottingham forward Greg Hadden, Panthers enforcer Barry Nieckar subsequently fought with Vial, which eventually escalated into a 36-man bench-clearing brawl. Referee Moray Hanson sent both teams to their locker rooms and delayed the game for 45 minutes while tempers cooled and the officials sorted out the penalties. Eight players and both coaches were ejected, and a British record total of 404 penalty minutes were incurred during the second period. The league handed out 30 games in suspensions to four players and Steelers' coach Mike Blaisdell and a total of £8,400 in fines. Russia's Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) had a bench-clearing brawl between Vityaz Chekhov and Avangard Omsk in 2010. Officials were forced to abandon the game as there were only four players left. Thirty-three players and both teams' coaches were ejected, and a world record total of 707 penalty minutes were incurred during the game. The KHL imposed fines totaling 5.7 million rubles ($191,000), suspended seven players, and counted the game as a 5–0 defeat for both teams, with no points being awarded.\n", "Long-standing rivalries result in numerous rematches, especially if one of the enforcers has to decline an invitation to fight during a given game. This is one of the reasons that enforcers may fight at the beginning of a game, when nothing obvious has happened to agitate the opponents. On the other hand, it is bad etiquette to try to initiate a fight with an enforcer who is near the end of his shift, since the more rested player will have an obvious advantage.\n", "Section::::Differences from ice hockey.:Rules.\n\nOnly the captain and alternate may talk to the referee while the game is in session for any clarifications, with one exception: if a referee comes out flat and makes poor calls, all players are permitted to voice their displeasure.\n", "For teams that face each other frequently, players may fight just to send the message to the opposing players that they will be the target of agitation or aggression in future games. Teams that are losing by a considerable margin often start these fights near the end of the game when they have nothing to lose. Enforcers may start fights with more skilled players to draw what is called a \"reaction penalty\", an undisciplined reaction to aggressive play on the part of the enforcer. This practice is also known to be difficult due to the Instigator rule.\n", "Since the 1970s, three rules have curtailed the number and scope of fights in the NHL. In 1971, the league created the \"Third Man In\" rule which attempts to eliminate the bench-clearing brawl by providing for the ejection of the first player who joins a fight already in progress, unless a match penalty is being assessed to a player already engaged in that fight. Another rule automatically suspends the first player from each team that leaves the bench to join a fight when it is not their shift. In 1992, the \"Instigator\" rule, which adds an additional two-minute minor penalty to the player who starts a fight, was introduced.\n", "BULLET::::- 1905 – Allan Loney was charged with manslaughter in the on-ice clubbing death of Alcide Laurin. Loney claimed self-defence, and was found not guilty.\n\nBULLET::::- 1907 – Ottawa Hockey Club players Harry Smith, Alf Smith and Charles Spittal were charged with assault after beating Montreal Wanderers players Hod Stuart, Ernie \"Moose\" Johnson and Cecil Blachford with their sticks.\n", "Violence in ice hockey\n\nViolence has been a part of ice hockey since at least the early 1900s. According to the book \"\", in 1904 alone, four players were killed during hockey games from the frequent brawls and violent stickwork.\n", "On the ice, referees may impose penalties for prohibited activities. Off the ice, the National Hockey League (NHL) sometimes fines, suspends or expels players. The criminal justice system has also been known to investigate, charge and convict players. As a result, hockey has become much more regulated and the violent element much more controlled. This has been aided, in no small part, by dramatic increases in disciplinary processes and technology allowing for a high level of scrutiny of any event which occurs.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The aspects that made this game famous were the change of camera angle if the hockey player shoots and it is close to the goaltender, and the mini-fight game scenario during the match that occurs sometimes when a player commits a foul on an opposite team's member.\n\nSection::::Confusion of names.\n", "During games, there are very few rules. Players have special moves, most of which are illegal moves in actual ice hockey (such as slashing, tripping, elbowing, or kicking opponents in the groin). Fights are common, though a player losing a fight is not penalized. Instead, he becomes sluggish for a short period. If the player loses several fights in one period, he leaves the game with an injury.\n", "In the National Hockey League the penalties include, in addition to in-game penalties, an automatic 10-game suspension and a fine of $10,000 for the first player to leave his bench or the penalty box to participate in a brawl; for the second player to leave his bench or the penalty box, the penalties include, in addition to in-game penalties, an automatic five-game suspension and a fine of $5,000.\n", "BULLET::::- March 24 – During a WHL playoff game between the Seattle Thunderbirds and the Tri-City Americans at a packed Seattle Center Coliseum, Americans players responded to heckling and beer throwing from Thunderbirds fans by swinging sticks at them behind the bench; fans were able to gain control of several players' sticks. The Americans coach, Rick Kozuback, and Americans players Terry Virtue, Steve Jacques and Jeff Fancy were given game misconduct penalties and suspended for their role in the melee. A police officer and an Americans fan was injured, with four fans being arrested and another five being ejected.\n", "Section::::Incidents and controversies.:Hockey.\n", "The Punch-up in Piestany was a notable instance of fighting in international play. A 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships game between Canada and the Soviet Union was the scene of a bench-clearing brawl that lasted 20 minutes and prompted officials to turn off the arena lights in an attempt to stop it, forcing the IIHF to declare the game null and void. The fighting was particularly dangerous as fighting was a surprise and a custom unknown to the Soviet players, some of whom escalated the fighting beyond what was considered acceptable in North America. Both teams were ejected from the tournament, costing Canada an assured medal, and the Soviet team was barred from the end-of-tournament dinner.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01893	How are street address numbers decided upon, if they apparently don't refer to an agreed upon distance unit?	In US cities, some central intersection is designated as 0. The first east-west cross street north of that is 100N. The first block south is 100S. So if your address is 6407 N State Street, you're on State street 64 major cross streets North from the 0-0 intersection, and the seventh house north from the 6400 cross street. In heavily gridded cities like Chicago these are pretty straightforward, but some curvier roads in curvier cities get sloppy.	[ "\"Property numbers are worked out based on the distance from the start of the road to the entrance of the property. That distance (in metres) is divided by ten. Even numbers are on the right and odd numbers are on the left. For example: the entrance to a property 5,080 metres from the start of the road on the right hand side becomes number 508. The start of the road is determined as the fastest and safest road accessed from the nearest major road or town. Rural road maps are being drawn up to define the name, the start point and direction of every rural road.\"\n", "The history of Ordnance Survey's spatial address information goes back to the 1840s when the first large-scale maps were published with names identifying prominent properties such as large landmark houses in a locality.\n", "BULLET::::- Sub-building information, such as apartment numbers, is rarely used - a name on the post box is usually the only method of identification of an addressee within a building.\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Greece.\n\nHellenic Post recommends the following format for Greek addresses:\n", "In common with the rest of the English-speaking world, addresses in Australia put the street number—which may be a range—before the street name, and the placename before the postcode. Unlike addresses in most other comparable places, the city is not included in the address, but rather a much more fine-grained locality is used, usually referred to in Australia as a suburb or locality – although these words are understood in a different way than in other countries. Because the suburb or town serves to locate the street or delivery type, the postcode serves only as routing information rather than to distinguish previous other parts of an address. As an example, there are around 8000 localities in Victoria (cf. List of localities in Victoria (Australia) and List of Melbourne suburbs), yet around 700 unique geographic postcodes. For certain large volume receivers or post offices, the \"locality\" may be an institution or street name. It is always considered incorrect to include the city or metropolis name in an address (unless this happens to be the name of the suburb), and doing so may delay delivery.\n", "BULLET::::- In Utah, some address are given in a grid style, where the \"street name\" consists of a cardinal direction, a number that is a multiple of 100, and an orthogonal cardinal direction. For example, \"401 West 500 North\" is on the grid in St. George, Utah, on the road West 500 North between its intersections with North 400 West and North 500 West.\n\nBULLET::::- In Wisconsin and northern Illinois, grid addresses are sometimes written as a sequence of numbers and directional letters, e.g. \"N6W23001 BLUEMOUND RD\".\n", "In some \"microraion\" neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the \"microraion\" (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at \"4-th microrayon, bud. 123, kv. 56\", i.e. \"123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56\".\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:United Arab Emirates.\n\nEmirates Post Group recommends the following format:\n", "In most English-speaking countries, the usual method of house numbering is an alternating numbering scheme progressing in each direction along a street, with odd numbers on one side (often west or south or the left-hand side leading away from a main road) and even numbers on the other side, although there is significant variation on this basic pattern. Many older towns and cities in the UK have \"up and down\" numbering where the numbers progress sequentially along one side of the road, and then sequentially back down the other side. Cities in North America, particularly those planned on a grid plan, often incorporate block numbers, quadrants (explained below), and cardinal directions into their street numbers, so that in many such cities, addresses roughly follow a Cartesian coordinate system. Some other cities around the world have their own schemes.\n", "In most of the world, addresses are written in order from most specific to general, i.e. finest to coarsest information, starting with the addressee and ending with the largest geographical unit. For example:\n\nIn English-speaking countries, the postal code usually comes last. In much of Europe, the code precedes the town name, thus: \"1010 Lausanne\". Sometimes, the country code is placed in front of the postal code: \"CH-1010 Lausanne\".\n", "Although house numbering is the principal identification scheme in many parts of the world, it is also common for houses in the United Kingdom and Ireland to be identified by name, rather than number, especially in villages. In these cases, the street name will usually follow the house name. Such an address might read: \"Smith Cottage, Frog Lane, Barchester, Barsetshire, BZ9 9BA\" or \"Dunroamin, Emo, Co. Laois, Ireland\" (fictional examples).\n\nSection::::Current addressing schemes.:Quadrants.\n", "Section::::Format by country and area.:United States.\n\nThe street address line can take a number of alternate formats:\n\nBULLET::::- \"GENERAL DELIVERY\" marks the item to be held for pickup from the post office (see )\n\nBULLET::::- Some street names are simply the names of highways, like \"KY STATE HIGHWAY 625\" (a Kentucky state highway), \"INTERSTATE 55 BYP\" (a auxiliary Interstate bypass), \"FM 1200\" (a \"farm to market\" road) or \"LOOP 410\".\n", "The most widespread format, shown above, gives on the last line the recipient's five-digit post code (with a single space between the third and fourth digits) and the name of the town or village that is the base of a post office, in capital letters and separated from the postcode by two spaces. When sending mail abroad, or when sending mail from abroad to Greece, Hellenic Post recommends the following format:\n", "In some microraion neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the microraion (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at 4-th microrayon, d. 123, kv. 56, that is, 123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56.\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Saudi Arabia.\n\nThe address could be written in Arabic or English in the following format:\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Serbia.\n\nSerbian postal addresses conform to rules similar to continental European rules:\n", "In New Zealand, most suburbs are not legally defined which can lead to confusion as to where they may begin and end. Although there is a geospatial file defining suburbs for use by emergency services developed and maintained by Fire and Emergency New Zealand (formerly the New Zealand Fire Service), in collaboration with other government agencies, to date this file has not been released publicly. New Zealand company Koordinates Limited requested access to the geospatial file under the Official Information Act 1982 but this request was rejected by the New Zealand Fire Service on the basis that it would prejudice the health & safety of, or cause material loss, to the public. In September 2014 a decision was made by the Ombudsman of New Zealand ruling that the New Zealand Fire Service refusal to release the geospatial file without agreeing to terms which included, among other restrictions, a prohibition on redistribution of the geospatial file, was reasonable.\n", "If a house number is provided, it is written on the same line as the street name; a house name is written on the previous line. When addresses are written inline, line breaks are replaced by commas. Conventions on the placing of house numbers differ: either before or after the street name. Similarly, there are differences in the placement of postal codes: in the UK, they are written on a separate line at the end of the address; in Australia, Canada and the United States, they usually appear immediately after the state or province, on the same line; in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany and The Netherlands they appear before the city, on the same line.\n", "In Australia and New Zealand, the current standard (Australia/New Zealand joint standard AS/NZS 4819:2011 – Rural & Urban Addressing) is directed at local governments that have the primary responsibility for addressing and road naming. The standard calls for lots and buildings on newly created streets to be assigned odd numbers (on the left) and even numbers (on the right) when facing in the direction of increasing numbers (the European system) reflecting already common practice. It first came into force in 2003 under AS/NZS 4819:2003 – Geographic Information – Rural & Urban Addressing. Exceptions are where the road forms part of the boundary between different council areas or cities. For example, Underwood Road in Rochedale South, divided between Logan City and the City of Brisbane.\n", "Note that no space or full stops exists between P and O in PO Box or R and D in RD. One should put only one space between the town/city and the postcode.\n\nNote for Wellington metropolitan area, users should use the city name (i.e. Wellington, Lower Hutt, Upper Hutt, Porirua), not the metropolitan area name. For example:\n", "BULLET::::- In Salt Lake City, Utah, the road system is generally based on the headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Salt Lake City is also known to have a number-based naming system. For example, one may find the address of a local store at 4570 South 4000 West, where 4000 West (or 40th West) is the name of the street and 4570 is the number on the building. This means the store is approximately 45 blocks south of the LDS temple, and 40 blocks west of the LDS temple. Similar cartesian coordinate systems are used in other Utah cities and towns. Some towns in Indiana follow the same practice, as do many cities and towns in eastern Idaho.\n", "In some \"microraion\" neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the \"microraion\" (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at \"4-th microrayon, d. 123, kv. 56\", i.e. \"123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56\".\n\nSource: Belposhta\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Belgium.\n\nThe address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (postcode and town for domestic mail or country for cross border mail.)\n", "The majority of the cities in the metropolitan area, as well as unincorporated areas in Maricopa County, observe the addressing system employed by the City of Phoenix. A number of cities, however, retain their own addressing systems with differing reference points, creating the potential for multiple instances of a house number being found on the same named road.\n", "In 1945, when Ordnance Survey had moved to the National Grid system, maps at 1:1250 and 1:2500 scales showed sufficient information to infer other individual addresses. The recording of address information in large-scale data has been ongoing ever since. Address Point, which was launched in the early 1990s, was the first address-specific product in digital form. The latest evolution of Ordnance Survey's spatial address data is OS MasterMap Address Layer 2.\n", "Similar to Belgium and most other European countries, the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (postcode and town for domestic mail or country for cross border (international) mail.)\n\nSpatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line.\n", "Comprehensive addressing of all buildings is still not complete, even in developed countries. For example, the Navajo Nation in the United States was still assigning rural addresses as of 2015 and the lack of addresses can be used for voter disenfranchisement in USA. In many cities in Asia, most minor streets were never named, and this is still the case today in much of Japan. A third of houses in Ireland lacked unique numbers until the introduction of Eircode in 2014.\n\nSection::::Current addressing schemes.\n\nSection::::Current addressing schemes.:House numbering or naming.\n", "BULLET::::- Habitable structures in alleys may vary in numbering, either being numbered individually to a named alley, or being numbered to the street on the side that structure is on, possibly with a fractional or letter suffix.\n\nBULLET::::- Streets may be numbered based on distances, where the house number is based on some mathematical formula according to the distance from the start of the numbering system. Thus, a property numbered 1447 may be approximately 1.5 miles from the beginning point for the numbering system.\n", "BULLET::::- In Puerto Rico, street addresses often include an urbanization or condominium name. The USPS allows for Spanish conventions on the island.\n\nBULLET::::- United States Virgin Islands street addresses sometimes include only an estate name or a street name with no number, and many street names do not have common suffixes like \"Street\" or \"Road\".\n\nNotes:\n", "On some long urban roads (e.g. Parramatta Road in Sydney) numbers ascend until the road crosses a council or suburb boundary, then start again at 1 or 2, where a street sign gives the name of the relevant area – these streets have repeating numbers. In semi-rural and rural areas, where houses and farms are widely spaced, a numbering system based on tens of metres or (less commonly) metres has been devised. Thus a farm from the start of the road, on the right-hand side would be numbered 230.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10159	How do wrist pedometers (like fitbit) actually know how many steps you've taken.	When you walk, every time your foot hits the ground it decelerates - going from moving to stationary very quickly. This sends a little shock wave of acceleration up your body that can be sensed anywhere. (Note: acceleration = change in velocity, whether speeding up or slowing down). The Fitbit has an accelerometer, a tiny electromechanical device that can sense acceleration and generate an electrical signal. The Fitbit looks at that signal for the strong spikes that happen on each step and counts them. It's not 100% perfect, it will miss a few steps and count a few false-steps but overall they've tuned it to be pretty accurate.	[ "The Nintendo 3DS, released March 27, 2011, features an internal pedometer that counts and records daily step counts while in sleep mode. Every hundred steps earns a Play Coin, which can be spent on a variety of extras and bonuses. This pedometer is easily fooled, however, and 'steps' can be created by simply lifting the device up and down in the hand with a motion similar to walking.\n", "Section::::Accuracy.\n\nThe accuracy of step counters varies widely between devices. Typically, step counters are reasonably accurate at a walking pace on a flat surface if the device is placed in its optimal position (usually vertically on the belt clip).\n", "The Sony Ericsson W710 and W580 Walkman phones use embedded 2 axis MEMS inertial sensors to detect the steps a user takes. The W710 is a clamshell phone and displays the user's steps on the external display. The W710 must be closed in order for it to count steps. When the step counter is activated, it counts detected steps during the day, and at midnight it stores the counter in a day-by-day history and resets it to zero.\n\nSection::::Integration in personal electronic devices.:Nintendo DS/Nintendo 3DS/Wii U.\n", "Although traditional step counters are affected dramatically when placed at different angles and locations, recent advances have made them more robust to those non-ideal placements. Still, most step counters falsely count steps when a user is driving a car or makes other habitual motions that the device encounters throughout the day. This error accumulates for users with moderate commutes to work. Accuracy also depends on the step-length the user enters.\n\nThe best pedometers are accurate to within ± 5% error.\n\nSection::::Integration in personal electronic devices.\n\nSection::::Integration in personal electronic devices.:Apple products.\n\nSection::::Integration in personal electronic devices.:Apple products.:Apple iPod Nano.\n", "The Apple Watch extended step-counting capability to Apple's first wearable device using the accelerometer and gyroscope integrated in the Apple S1 SIP (System in package). Apple Watch works in parallel with a connected iPhone to improve accuracy of the user's step count.\n\nSection::::Integration in personal electronic devices.:Fitbit.\n", "A small 2015 study had participants wear multiple devices on their wrists and hips while performing different walking/running speeds on a treadmill. Fitbit devices worn on the hip accurately measured steps taken within 1 step of 100% accuracy. Devices worn on the wrist, however, were off by an average of 11 steps per minute. When measuring the number of calories burned, Fitbit devices worn on the hip underestimated by an average of 6%, while devices worn on the wrist overestimated calories burned by 21%. Authors concluded that both the Fitbit One and Fitbit Flex devices reliably measured step counts and energy expenditure, with hip-based Fitbit devices being more accurate than wrist-based devices.\n", "The data sent by the device every second is cumulative, since the device was first used, and thus can be very revealing of a user's exercise habits and life in general. The data is: number of steps run, number of steps walked, distance run, distance walked, and number of hours device has been on.\n\nSection::::Online integration.\n", "Electronic activity trackers are fundamentally upgraded versions of pedometers; in addition to counting steps, they use accelerometers and altimeters to calculate mileage, graph overall physical activity, calculate calorie expenditure, and in some cases also monitor and graph heart rate and quality of sleep. Some also include a silent alarm. Some newer models approach the US definition of a , and some manufacturers hope to eventually make them capable of alerting to a medical problem, although FDA approval would be required. Early versions such as the original Fitbit (2009), were worn clipped to the waist; formats have since diversified to include wristbands and armbands (smart bands) and smaller devices that can be clipped wherever preferred. Apple and Nike together developed the Nike+iPod, a sensor-equipped shoe that worked with an iPod Nano.\n", "The app also calculates other data such as the distance traveled, the number of calories burned and the number of steps taken at a good pace. According to the application information, a good rhythm is obtained when a rate of at least 100 steps per minute is maintained for ten minutes.\n\nAt the visual level, we can use the data with different graphics:\n\nBULLET::::- On a 24-hour day with a histogram showing activity (number of steps) in 24-minute increments (60 slices of 24 minutes in one day)\n", "Notable self-quantification tools are listed below. Numerous other hardware devices and software are available, as a result of advances and cost reductions in sensor technology, mobile connectivity, and battery life.\n\nSection::::Devices and services.:Activity monitors.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Watch\n\nBULLET::::- Garmin activity trackers\n\nBULLET::::- BodyMedia FIT – skin temperature, galvanic skin response; acquired by Jawbone in April 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Fitbit Tracker – steps taken, stairs climbed, distance traveled, calories burned, sleep quality, heart rate\n\nBULLET::::- Instant App - Automatically tracks activities: Phone/app usage, fitness, places, travel & sleep\n", "Section::::Performance.\n\nActivity trackers are available both with and without display.\n\nCertain movements of the user, such as working in the household, cycling, swimming, dancing or rowing can distort the results obtained from activity trackers. In a test conducted by Stiftung Warentest, for example, no product determined the distance of a bike ride, even approximately. Furthermore, the determined values for the human energy transformation were erroneous. With the heart rate large deviations have been observed at wristlet trackers, and it is recommended for this purpose to use appropriate chest straps.\n", "On Samsung Galaxy S5 / S5 Neo / S6 / S7 / S8 / S9 and Edge versions as well as Galaxy Note 4 / 5 / 7 / FE / 8, the application can measure the heart rate with the sensor on the back of the device.\n\nSection::::Features.:Pedometer.\n\nStep counting is a feature that is integrated with Samsung Health with the arrival of the Samsung Galaxy S4 in April 2013.\n\nThe default goal is to reach 10,000 steps per day. This number would be a recommendation of the World Health Organization according to the French Federation of Cardiology.\n", "Section::::Integration in personal electronic devices.:Pedometers for Smartphones/MP3 players.\n\nSince most smartphones, iPod Touches and some MP3 players are enhanced with an integrated accelerometer it is possible to introduce pedometer functionality to these devices. This option was successfully realized by a number of smartphone application developers, enabling any fitness savvy smartphone owner to track the number of steps taken as well as distance traveled and calories used.\n\nSection::::Integration in personal electronic devices.:NTT DoCoMo Fujitsu Pedometer Phone.\n", "Nokia Step Counter is a free application available at Nokia Beta Labs which works on a wide range of N-Series Nokia phones. The pedometer application tracks steps taken, time elapsed and distance traveled. This application can be left running all day as it is not a huge drain on the battery.\n\nSection::::Integration in personal electronic devices.:Sony Ericsson W710 Walkman phone, W580 Walkman phone.\n", "One way to identify specific people is by how they walk. Gait-recognition software can be used to record a person's gait or gait feature profile in a database for the purpose of recognizing that person later, even if they are wearing a disguise.\n\nSection::::Sensor usage.:Wi-Fi-based activity recognition.\n", "The company also features SmartMat, which is designed to monitor pedestrian traffic such as counting humans walking in and out of buildings or to and from events. Funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Smartmat system connects to the Internet for ease of tracking and can run off battery or AC. \n\nSection::::Services.\n", "The Fitbit is an always-on electronic pedometer, that in addition to counting steps also displays distance traveled, altitude climbed (via a number of flights of steps count), calories burned, current intensity, and time of day. Worn in an armband at night, it also purports to measure the length and quality of a user's sleep. Inbuilt is a daily target, of 10,000 steps and 10 flights of stairs. Connected by USB with a computer, the user's data is automatically uploaded and displayed via a web-based profile page, that keeps track of historical data, to which can be added food consumption data. Based on activity users are awarded badges for daily step and climbing targets, as well as 'lifetime' awards for same. In the US and UK users can also download an iOS or Android app for recording and display of data. Most Fitbit devices estimate distance traveled based on steps counted, the intensity of the steps and the user's profile data (specifically gender and height). Individuals can improve the accuracy of their stride length settings by measuring and calibrating their average stride length. Some higher-end Fitbit models include additional features such as heart rate monitoring and GPS tracking.\n", "It is part of both Nintendo's Touch! Generations brand and the \"Personal Trainer\" series. It is one of only two Nintendo DS titles to support Mii characters, the other being the Japan-only \"Tomodachi Collection\".\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\n\"Personal Trainer: Walking\" allows up to four users to track their walking, jogging or running activities through a series of graphs, charts and statistics, as well as set goals for themselves. The game is packaged with two infrared pedometers that communicate to the game the user's walking data. Additional pedometers will be sold separately.\n", "MotionX-GPS Drive for the iPhone, a door-to-door pedestrian and driving navigation application, was released in September 2009. With the announcement of the iPad in May 2010, MotionX released customized versions of its navigation application for the iPad.\n\nOn September 7, 2010, Nike released the Nike+ GPS App (now called Nike+ Running) that tracks human motion using the accelerometer and GPS sensors of the iPhone. MotionX provides the underlying motion sensing technology for the Nike+ GPS Application.\n\nThe application was selected as one of the \"Wall Street Journal\" 's ten best iPhone Apps of the year.\n", "Self-monitoring healthcare devices exist in many forms. An example is the Nike+ FuelBand, which is a modified version of the original pedometer. This device is wearable on the wrist and allows one to set a personal goal for a daily energy burn. It records the calories burned and the number of steps taken for each day while simultaneously functioning as a watch. To add to the ease of the user interface, it includes both numeric and visual indicators of whether or not the individual has achieved his or her daily goal. Finally, it is also synced to an iPhone app which allows for tracking and sharing of personal record and achievements.\n", "Before phone-based systems existed, many custom PDR systems existed. While a pedometer can only be used to measure linear distance traveled, PDR systems have an embedded magnetometer for heading measurement. Custom PDR systems can take many forms including special boots, belts, and watches, where the variability of carrying position has been minimized to better utilize magnetometer heading. True dead reckoning is fairly complicated, as it is not only important to minimize basic drift, but also to handle different carrying scenarios and movements, as well as hardware differences across phone models.\n\nSection::::Directional dead reckoning.\n", "Pedometer\n\nA pedometer is a device, usually portable and electronic or electromechanical, that counts each step a person takes by detecting the motion of the person's hands or hips. Because the distance of each person's step varies, an informal calibration, performed by the user, is required if presentation of the distance covered in a unit of length (such as in kilometers or miles) is desired, though there are now pedometers that use electronics and software to automatically determine how a person's step varies. Distance traveled (by walking or any other means) can be measured directly by a GPS receiver.\n", "Some health scores use in addition to static questionnaires also dynamic and ongoing data, such as captured and tracked by fitness or activity trackers or applications for smartphones, For instance, exercise can be tracked automatically by using a mobile app for smartphones to track the activity, or by using fitness tracking apps or devices from the supplier of the health score solution, or by connecting popular fitness tracking apps such as RunKeeper and activity tracking devices such as Fitbit or UP Jawbone step counters, etc.\n", "Section::::Gait Training Using Assistive Devices.:Stairs.\n\nSection::::Gait Training Using Assistive Devices.:Stairs.:Ascending Stairs.\n", "Section::::Model Categories.:Command & Control.:Manual Control Theory.\n\nComplex motor tasks, such as those carried out by musicians and athletes, are not well modeled due to their complexity. Human target-tracking behavior, however, is one complex motor task that is an example of successful HPM.\n\nThe history of manual control theory is extensive, dating back to the 1800s in regard to the control of water clocks. However, during the 1940s with the innovation of servomechanisms in WWII, extensive research was put into the continuous control and stabilization of contemporary systems such as radar antennas, gun turrets, and ships/aircraft via feedback control signals.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12704	How do mouse, keyboard, etc drivers work?	You're a computer and you speak English, you have a mouse that speaks Spanish and a keyboard that speaks German. Drivers are the translators that tell you what they're saying and allow you to communicate back and forth. Anything that has to do with direct user interaction takes priority. ------------------------ Now to dig a bit deeper and little less ELI5. Operating systems have several layers in them that handle different functions and operations. In general you can consider two major sections, user space and kernel space. User space is where all of the user programs operate, and kernel space is where all of the system programs and functions operate (resource management, task scheduling, drivers, etc). Kernel space is a safe zone, and users cannot change or touch anything in kernel space on their own. There's a built in library of functions called system calls that allow users to access things and perform operations on resources controlled by the kernel space. For instance, lets say you want to read a file from your hard drive disk. Well, storage is a resource that's controlled by the operating system kernel (if users had direct access, that would be very bad. Imagine all the things that your tech illiterate grandpa could do to screw up his new fancy computer if he had unlimited access.) So lets say you open up Microsoft Word to read a file. What's actually happening is MS Word is executing in user space and then invoking a system call named read() on the file that is stored in the hard drive. When the system call is invoked, the CPU stops executing in user space and switches to kernel mode (this is called a trap). Now that it's in a protected mode where the user can't screw anything up, it pulls the data from the hard drive and sends it back to user space so that MS Word can read it. Now if you change something and want to save it, the same process happens with the write() system call. These system calls have a ton of security measures implemented and restrict what can and can't be done to system resources. Now that we know a little bit about kernel space, user space, and system calls, we can dive into drivers. When you press a button on your keyboard or move your mouse, this raises an alert on something called the interrupt request line. This signals to the CPU that there is some kind of external input that it needs to address. The CPU will acknowledge this alert and then trap to kernel space. It then talks to the interrupt controller to determine what's going on. Hardware devices like keyboards and mice convert analog signals into digital ones, the driver is used like the glue between the hardware layer and operating system. It translates the signals into something that the operating system can understand. When a hardware interrupt occurs and the CPU switches to kernel space to handle the interrupt, it's the device driver that provides the information for the CPU to process. Processes that are directly related to user interaction usually take precedence over all other CPU processes. That's why when a program freezes you can still move your mouse around and click on stuff. The CPU is trying to execute the program, but it's taking a while and it doesn't want to make the user feel like the whole system is frozen, so when the IRQ line is raised with a mouse interrupt, the CPU acknowledges it, puts the other process on hold, and executes the mouse process instead. This is a design decision by operating system programmers. When the mouse freezes, that usually means that the CPU is under extreme load or there's some other nasty condition like deadlock (Dining Philosophers problem) going on. Hopefully that's not too convoluted to understand. It's been a while since I've taken an operating systems course, so this is pretty much just what I can remember off the top of my head.	[ "Microsoft Mouse and Keyboard Center\n\nMicrosoft Mouse and Keyboard Center is software that provides drivers for most Microsoft mice and keyboards. It allows the user to set up and configure both mice and keyboards from within the same program.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Mouse use in DOS applications became more common after the introduction of the Microsoft Mouse, largely because Microsoft provided an open standard for communication between applications and mouse driver software. Thus, any application written to use the Microsoft standard could use a mouse with a driver that implements the same API, even if the mouse hardware itself was incompatible with Microsoft's. This driver provides the state of the buttons and the distance the mouse has moved in units that its documentation calls \"mickeys\", as does the Allegro library.\n\nSection::::Connectivity and communication protocols.:Early mice.\n", "Section::::Connectivity and communication protocols.:USB.\n\nThe industry-standard USB (Universal Serial Bus) protocol and its connector have become widely used for mice; it is among the most popular types.\n\nSection::::Connectivity and communication protocols.:Cordless or wireless.\n\nCordless or wireless mice transmit data via infrared radiation (see IrDA) or radio (including Bluetooth and Wi-Fi). The receiver is connected to the computer through a serial or USB port, or can be built in (as is sometimes the case with Bluetooth and WiFi).\n", "Visi On required Mouse Systems-compatible mice; Microsoft-compatible PC mice, which over time became the standard, were introduced later (in May 1983). Visi On used two mouse drivers. First, loaded in text mode, made mouse registers accessible to the embedded driver, which translated coordinates to cursor position. This internal driver, built-in as a subroutine into VISIONXT.EXE, required Mouse Systems PC-Mouse pointing device. It is not compatible with the Microsoft Mouse standard.\n", "Section::::Types of drivers.\n", "Device driver synthesis and verification\n\nDevice drivers are programs which allow software or higher-level computer programs to interact with a hardware device. These software components act as a link between the devices and the operating systems, communicating with each of these systems and executing commands. They provide an abstraction layer for the software above and also mediate the communication between the operating system kernel and the devices below. \n", "The introduction of Vista and Microsoft Surface (now known as Microsoft PixelSense) introduced a new set of input APIs that were adopted into Windows 7, allowing for 50 points/cursors, all controlled by independent users. The new input points provide traditional mouse input; however, they were designed with other input technologies like touch and image in mind. They inherently offer 3D coordinates along with pressure, size, tilt, angle, mask, and even an image bitmap to see and recognize the input point/object on the screen.\n", "Section::::Connectivity and communication protocols.:PS/2 interface and protocol.\n", "An optical virtual keyboard was invented and patented by IBM engineers in 2008. It optically detects and analyses human hand and finger motions and interprets them as operations on a physically non-existent input device like a surface having painted keys. In that way it allows to emulate unlimited types of manually operated input devices such as a mouse or keyboard. All mechanical input units can be replaced by such virtual devices, optimized for the current application and for the user's physiology maintaining speed, simplicity and unambiguity of manual data input.\n\nSection::::Special keyboard types.:Augmented reality keyboards.\n", "Depending on the software version and specific mouse product, users can define mouse buttons to run any executable program or file they desire (or a control key + letter combination) and can even define buttons for different functions in chosen programs.\n", "InputSprocket was one of the most widely used of the Game Sprockets, and drivers were supplied for many devices that worked on the Mac. This was greatly expanded by mapping InputSprocket onto the similar Human Interface Device system that is part of the USB standard. This meant that almost any USB input device would work to at least some level with InputSprocket without any effort on the part of the developer or the user.\n\nSection::::Description.:SoundSprocket.\n", "Examples of types of keyboards include:\n\nBULLET::::- Keyer\n\nBULLET::::- Keyboard\n\nBULLET::::- Lighted Program Function Keyboard (LPFK)\n\nBULLET::::- Thumb Keyboard\n\nSection::::Mouse.\n", "Section::::Mobile devices.:Historical development.:Text entry performance.:Haptic Feedback.\n", "Section::::Features enabled by the WDDM.:Scheduling.\n", "Virtual keyboards are similar to mechanical keyboards, but do not make use of physical keys. These may be implemented on systems using a screen or projected onto a surface. The individual letters may be selected by touching them as on a touch screen or surface, or by clicking on them with a classical pointing device (a mouse or trackpad), like in the case of virtual computer keyboards. Multi-touch screens even support virtual chorded keyboards.\n", "Section::::Operation.\n\nA mouse typically controls the motion of a pointer in two dimensions in a graphical user interface (GUI). The mouse turns movements of the hand backward and forward, left and right into equivalent electronic signals that in turn are used to move the pointer.\n", "Bus mouse\n\nA bus mouse is a variety of PC computer mouse which is attached to the computer using a specialized interface (originally, the Microsoft InPort interface developed for Microsoft's original mouse product).\n", "For example, a high-level application for interacting with a serial port may simply have two functions for \"send data\" and \"receive data\". At a lower level, a device driver implementing these functions would communicate to the particular serial port controller installed on a user's computer. The commands needed to control a 16550 UART are much different from the commands needed to control an FTDI serial port converter, but each hardware-specific device driver abstracts these details into the same (or similar) software interface.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Pointing devices are the most commonly used input devices today. A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a user to input spatial data to a computer. In the case of mouse and touchpads, this is usually achieved by detecting movement across a physical surface. Analog devices, such as 3D mice, joysticks, or pointing sticks, function by reporting their angle of deflection. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of the pointer, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's graphical user interface (GUI).\n", "Section::::Mobile devices.:Historical development.:Text entry performance.:Gesture typing.\n", "The designation of a device as either input or output depends on perspective. Mouse and keyboards take physical movements that the human user outputs and convert them into input signals that a computer can understand; the output from these devices is the computer's input. Similarly, printers and monitors take signals that a computer outputs as input, and they convert these signals into a representation that human users can understand. From the human user's perspective, the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving output; this type of interaction between computers and humans is studied in the field of human–computer interaction.\n", "In non-US environments, the keyboard driver (like codice_28 for the French keyboard) was also included. Later versions were often much expanded with numerous third-party device drivers. The following is a basic DOS 5 type codice_1 configuration, consisting only of essential commands:\n", "The main categories of these devices are desktop input devices, tracking devices, 3D mice, brain-computer interface.\n\nSection::::3D user interfaces.:3D user interface input hardware.:Desktop Input devices.\n", "Mouse vendors also use other extended formats, often without providing public documentation. The Typhoon mouse uses 6-byte packets which can appear as a sequence of two standard 3-byte packets, such that an ordinary PS/2 driver can handle them. For 3-D (or 6-degree-of-freedom) input, vendors have made many extensions both to the hardware and to software. In the late 1990s, Logitech created ultrasound based tracking which gave 3D input to a few millimeters accuracy, which worked well as an input device but failed as a profitable product. In 2008, Motion4U introduced its \"OptiBurst\" system using IR tracking for use as a Maya (graphics software) plugin.\n", "Backends are also used to determine the available devices. On startup, each backend is asked for a list of devices it supports, and any information that is available.\n\nSection::::Printer drivers in different operating systems.:DOS.\n\nDOS supports predefined character devices codice_1, codice_1, codice_1 and codice_1 associated with parallel printers supported in the system. Similarly, serial printers can be used with codice_1, codice_1, codice_1, codice_1 and codice_1.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00450	Why do you get cramps when you drink water really fast and exercise/run?	You are changing your [electrolyte balance]( URL_0 ). Electrolyte balance is important because the salt/water balance of your body determines how muscle signals travel.	[ "Section::::Electrolyte depletion and dehydration theory.\n\nIt is widely believed that excessive sweating due to strenuous exercise can lead to muscle cramps. Deficiency of sodium and other electrolytes may lead to contracted interstitial fluid compartments, which may exacerbate the muscle cramping. According to this theory, the increased blood plasma osmolality from sweating sodium losses causes a fluid shift from the interstitial space to the intervascular space, which causes the interstitial fluid compartment to deform and contributes to muscle hyperexcitability and risk of spontaneous muscle activity.\n\nSection::::Neuromuscular control.\n", "Heat cramps\n\nHeat cramps, a type of heat illness, are muscle spasms that result from loss of large amount of salt and water through exercise. Heat cramps are associated with cramping in the abdomen, arms and calves. This can be caused by inadequate consumption of fluids or electrolytes. Heavy sweating causes heat cramps, especially when the water is replaced without also replacing salt or potassium.\n", "Although heat cramps can be quite painful, they usually don't result in permanent damage, though they can be a symptom of heat stroke or heat exhaustion. Heat cramps can indicate a more severe problem in someone with heart disease or if they last for longer than an hour.\n\nIn order to prevent them, one may drink electrolyte solutions such as sports drinks during exercise or strenuous work or eat potassium-rich foods like bananas and apples. When heat cramps occur, the affected person should avoid strenuous work and exercise for several hours to allow for recovery.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dehydration\n", "Section::::Treatment and prevention.\n\nMedication has not been found to help reduce or prevent muscle cramping. To prevent or treat, athletes are recommended to stretch, stop movement and rest, massaging the area that is cramping, or drink fluids. Stretching helps to calm down spindles by lengthening the muscle fibers and increase firing duration to slow down the firing rate of the muscle. Recommended fluids during cramping are water or fluids that are high in electrolytes to replenish the system with sodium.\n", "Section::::Metabolic changes.:Dehydration.\n", "For routine activities, thirst is normally an adequate guide to maintain proper hydration. Minimum water intake will vary individually depending on weight, environment, diet and genetics. With exercise, exposure to hot environments, or a decreased thirst response, additional water may be required. In athletes in competition drinking to thirst optimizes performance and safety, despite weight loss, and as of 2010, there was no scientific study showing that it is beneficial to stay ahead of thirst and maintain weight during exercise.\n", "The primary causes of EAH include excessive fluid retention during exercise with a significant sodium deficit and excessive fluid intake leading to an increase in total body water resulting in a reduction in blood sodium levels.\n\nAthlete-specific risk factors are: being of female sex; use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [NSAIDs]; slow running; excessive fluid ingestion; low body weight; and event inexperience. Event-specific risk factors are: high availability of drinking fluids; duration of exercise exceeds 4 hours; unusually hot environmental conditions; and extreme cold temperature.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "The second hypothesis is altered neuromuscular control. In this hypothesis, it is suggested that cramping is due to altered neuromuscular activity. The proposed underlying cause of the altered neuromuscular control is due to fatigue. There are several disturbances, at various levels of the central and peripheral nervous system, and the skeletal muscle that contribute to cramping. These disturbances can be described by a series of several key events. First and foremost, repetitive muscle exercise can lead to the development of fatigue due to one or more of the following: inadequate conditioning, hot and or humid environments, increased intensity, increased duration, and decreased supply of energy. Muscle fatigue itself causes increased excitatory afferent activity within the muscle spindles and decreased inhibitory afferent activity within the Golgi tendon. The coupling of these events leads to altered neuromuscular control from the spinal cord. A cascade of events follow the altered neuromuscular control; this includes increased alpha-motor neuron activity in the spinal cord, which overloads the lower motor neurons, and increased muscle cell membrane activity. Thus, the resultant of this cascade is a muscle cramp.\n", "Risks that lead to ER include exercise in hot and humid conditions, improper hydration, inadequate recovery between bouts of exercise, intense physical training, and inadequate fitness levels for beginning high intensity workouts. Dehydration is one of the biggest factors that can give almost immediate feedback from the body by producing very dark-colored urine.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Anatomy.\n", "Section::::Running injuries.:Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome.\n", "Many factors may contribute to the development of EAH. Under normal conditions, sodium and water levels are regulated by the renal and hormonal systems. The decrease in sodium levels can occur due to a defect in the renal and hormonal systems, an overwhelming increase in water consumption and excessive loss of sodium through sweating. When the sodium levels outside of the cells decrease, water moves into the cells. The cells begin to increase in size. When several cells in one area begin to increase in size, swelling occurs in the affected area. Swelling is commonly observed in hands, legs, and feet.\n", "Prolonged physical inactivity can worsen the symptoms of POTS. Techniques that increase a person's capacity for exercise, such as endurance training or graded exercise therapy, can relieve symptoms for some patients. Aerobic exercise performed for 20 minutes a day, three times a week, is sometimes recommended for patients who can tolerate it. Exercise may have the immediate effect of worsening tachycardia, especially after a meal or on a hot day. In these cases, it may be easier to exercise in a semi-reclined position, such as riding a recumbent bicycle, rowing or swimming.\n", "BULLET::::1. Excessive thirst despite frequently taking water / other liquids\n\nBULLET::::2. Continued high level of blood sugar\n\nBULLET::::3. Dry and/ or parched mouth\n\nBULLET::::4. Frequency of urination increases\n\nBULLET::::5. Pulse rate becomes rapid\n\nBULLET::::6. Shortness of breath with exertion\n\nBULLET::::7. Skin becomes dry and warm and there is no sweating\n\nBULLET::::8. Sleepiness and/ or a condition of confusion\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "In many cases, these symptoms may be exacerbated by the consumption of certain foods or beverages, such as caffeine, particularly coffee, regular tea, green tea, soda, diet soda and fruit juice. Cranberry juice, for example, may cause extreme urgency in those experiencing such urgency.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Non-medical causes.\n", "Athletes actively training and competing lose water and electrolytes by sweating, and expending energy. However, Robert Robergs, an exercise physiologist at the University of New Mexico who studied Gatorade, said that unless someone is exercising or competing in a sporting event for longer than 90 minutes, there is no reason to drink something with excess sugar and electrolytes. The Australian Institute of Sport states that excessive salt supplementation during exercise may lead to \"gastrointestinal problems or cause further impairment of fluid balance\" and may cause salt-induced cramps.\n", "BULLET::::- Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise.\n\nSection::::Brain.\n", "BULLET::::- increased salt intake also can increase body fluid volume as well as increasing urine sodium excretion, which further increases urinary potassium excretion.\n\nBULLET::::- after rehydration, a loop diuretic such as furosemide can be given to permit continued large volume intravenous salt and water replacement while minimizing the risk of blood volume overload and pulmonary oedema. In addition, loop diuretics tend to depress calcium reabsorption by the kidney thereby helping to lower blood calcium levels\n\nBULLET::::- can usually decrease serum calcium by 1–3 mg/dL within 24 hours\n\nBULLET::::- caution must be taken to prevent potassium or magnesium depletion\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Bisphosphonates and calcitonin.\n", "BULLET::::- Weight gain: this is commonly found in patients with large ASD and can be a symptom of developing right-sided heart failure. As there is a chronically increased left-to-right blood flow through the atria, this will lead in the future to right-sided heart failure.\n\nBULLET::::- Ankle edema: This is also caused by a large ASD and has the same symptoms and causes as seen in weight gain and right upper quadrant pain. As blood flow is not happening correctly and the heart is pumping under strain, pooling of blood and fluid will happen in the ankles.\n", "BULLET::::- Sweating removes not only water, but also salt. This may result in a deficiency of sodium (\"hyponatremia\"). Eating salty snacks together with drinking water helps to avoid this problem.\n\nBULLET::::- If deprived of food for several days, travelers may become \"malnourished\". Malnutrition takes several weeks to kill a person, but because it impairs judgment, it can cause problems much sooner. \"Low blood sugar\" may have a similar effect, especially for those with diabetes. Carrying extra food will minimize risk to the hiker.\n", "Section::::Differential diagnosis.\n\nCauses of cramping include hyperflexion, hypoxia, exposure to large changes in temperature, dehydration, or low blood salt. Muscle cramps can also be a symptom or complication of pregnancy; kidney disease; thyroid disease; hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, or hypocalcaemia (as conditions); restless legs syndrome; varicose veins; and multiple sclerosis.\n\nAs early as 1965, researchers observed that leg cramps and restless legs syndrome can result from excess insulin, sometimes called hyperinsulinemia.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Skeletal muscle cramps.\n", "The human kidneys will normally adjust to varying levels of water intake. The kidneys will require time to adjust to the new water intake level. This can cause someone who drinks a lot of water to become dehydrated more easily than someone who routinely drinks less.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Output.\n\nBULLET::::- The majority of fluid output occurs via the urine, approximately 1500 ml/day (approx 1.59 qt/day) in the normal adult resting state.\n", "Although this condition can be very painful, kidney stones usually cause no permanent physical damage. The experience is said to be traumatizing due to pain, and the experience of passing blood, blood clots, and pieces of the stone. In most cases, people with renal colic are advised to drink an increased amount of water; in other instances, surgery may be needed. Preventive treatment can be instituted to minimize the likelihood of recurrence.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of renal colic is same as the diagnosis for the Renal calculus and Ureteric stones.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "Exercise-associated muscle cramps (EAMC) are defined as cramping (painful muscle spasms) during or immediately following exercise. Muscle cramps during exercise are very common, even in elite athletes. EAMC are a common condition that occurs during or after exercise, often during endurance events such as a triathlon or marathon. Although EAMC are extremely common among athletes, the cause is still not fully understood because muscle cramping can occur as a result of many underlying conditions. Elite athletes experience cramping due to paces at higher intensities. The cause of exercise-associated muscle cramps is hypothesized to be due to altered neuromuscular control, dehydration, or electrolyte depletion.\n", "Under normal circumstances, skeletal muscles can be voluntarily controlled. Skeletal muscles that cramp the most often are the calves, thighs, and arches of the foot, and are sometimes called a \"Charley horse\" or a \"corky\". Such cramping is associated with strenuous physical activity and can be intensely painful; however, they can even occur while inactive and relaxed. Around 40% of people who experience skeletal cramps are likely to endure extreme muscle pain, and may be unable to use the entire limb that contains the \"locked-up\" muscle group. It may take up to a week for the muscle to return to a pain-free state, depending on the person's fitness level, age, and several other factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Leg and foot cramps may be caused by unaccustomed exercise, cold, or ill-fitting fins.\n\nBULLET::::- Lower back pain may be caused by a heavy weightbelt hanging from the small of the back, counteracting the buoyancy of the diving suit which is distributed over the full length of the diver. This effect can be reduced by use of integrated weight systems which support the weights over the length of the back on the diving harness backplate.\n\nBULLET::::- Restricted circulation to the hands may be caused by excessively tight dry suit cuff seals.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02051	Why is there so much variance in file size for difference video qualities?	I can't give you a perfect answer but I believe it goes like this. Anything other than raw footage is a compromise on quality for the sake of a smaller file size. Newer video codecs are getting better at reducing the size more with less comprise of qualify. The other thing is audio, it is not easy to keep it clean and sometimes the file has multiple languages built in. Lastly, some people are better at encoding and some just choose to preserve as much quality as possible... In the end I can't really say exactly why.	[ "Many popular codecs are lossy. They reduce quality in order to maximize compression. Often, this type of compression is virtually indistinguishable from the original uncompressed sound or images, depending on the codec and the settings used. Smaller data sets ease the strain on relatively expensive storage sub-systems such as non-volatile memory and hard disk, as well as write-once-read-many formats such as CD-ROM, DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Lower data rates also reduce cost and improve performance when the data is transmitted.\n\nSection::::Media codecs.\n", "Codecs have their qualities and drawbacks. Comparisons are frequently published. The trade-off between compression power, speed, and fidelity (including artifacts) is usually considered the most important figure of technical merit.\n\nSection::::Codec packs.\n\nOnline video material is encoded by a variety of codecs, and this has led to the availability of codec packs — a pre-assembled set of commonly used codecs combined with an installer available as a software package for PCs, such as K-Lite Codec Pack, Perian and Combined Community Codec Pack.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Video coding format\n\nBULLET::::- Bitrate\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of video codecs\n\nBULLET::::- Display resolution\n\nBULLET::::- Frame rate\n", "The compression may employ lossy data compression, so that quality-measurement issues become important. Shortly after the compact disc became widely available as a digital-format replacement for analog audio, it became feasible to also store and use video in digital form. A variety of technologies soon emerged to do so. The primary goal for most methods of compressing video is to produce video that most closely approximates the fidelity of the original source, while simultaneously delivering the smallest file-size possible. However, there are also several other factors that can be used as a basis for comparison.\n\nSection::::Introduction to comparison.\n", "The quality the codec can achieve is heavily based on the compression format the codec uses. A codec is not a format, and there may be multiple codecs that implement the same compression specification – for example, MPEG-1 codecs typically do not achieve quality/size ratio comparable to codecs that implement the more modern H.264 specification. But quality/size ratio of output produced by different implementations of the same specification can also vary.\n", "For a sufficiently long clip, it is possible to select sequences that have suffered little from the compression, and sequences that have suffered heavily, especially if CBR has been used, whereby the quality between frames can vary highly due to different amounts of compression needed to achieve a constant bitrate. So, in a given long clip, such as a full-length movie, any two codecs may perform quite differently on a particular sequence from the clip, while the codecs may be approximately equal (or the situation reversed) in quality over a wider sequence of frames. Press-releases and amateur forums may sometimes select sequences known to favor a particular codec or style of rate-control in reviews.\n", "The amount of data used by video streaming services depends on the quality of the video. Thus, Android Central breaks down how much data is used (on a smartphone) with regards to different video resolutions. According to their findings, per hour video between 240p and 320p resolution uses roughly 0.3GB. Standard video, which is clocked in at a resolution of 480p, uses approximately 0.7GB per hour. \n", "There are complex relationships between the video quality, the amount of data used to represent the video (determined by the bit rate), the complexity of the encoding and decoding algorithms, sensitivity to data losses and errors, ease of editing, random access, and end-to-end delay (latency).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- MSWMM – Windows Movie Maker project file\n\nBULLET::::- PPJ & PRPROJ– Adobe Premiere Pro video editing file\n\nBULLET::::- IMOVIEPROJ – iMovie project file\n\nBULLET::::- VEG & VEG-BAK – Sony Vegas project file\n\nBULLET::::- SUF – Sony camera configuration file (setup.suf) produced by XDCAM-EX camcorders\n\nBULLET::::- WLMP – Windows Live Movie Maker project file\n\nBULLET::::- KDENLIVE – project file\n\nBULLET::::- VPJ – VideoPad project file\n\nBULLET::::- MOTN – Apple Motion project file\n\nBULLET::::- IMOVIEMOBILE – iMovie project file for iOS users\n\nSection::::Video game data.\n", "BULLET::::- High 4:4:4 Predictive Profile (Hi444PP): This profile builds on top of the High 4:2:2 Profile, supporting up to 4:4:4 chroma sampling, up to 14 bits per sample, and additionally supporting efficient lossless region coding and the coding of each picture as three separate color planes.\n\nBULLET::::- Multiview High Profile: This profile supports two or more views using both inter-picture (temporal) and MVC inter-view prediction, but does not support field pictures and macroblock-adaptive frame-field coding.\n", "Bit rate control is suited to video streaming. For offline storage and viewing, it is typically preferable to encode at constant quality (usually defined by quantization) rather than using bit rate control.\n\nSection::::Software characteristics.\n\nSection::::Software characteristics.:Codecs list.\n\n The Xiph.Org Foundation has negotiated an irrevocable free license to Theora and other VP3-derived codecs for everyone, for any purpose.\n\nSection::::Software characteristics.:Native operating system support.\n", "BULLET::::- Motion estimation (ME) search strategy can also cause different visual quality for the same PSNR. So-called \"true motion\" search commonly will not reach minimum sum of absolute differences (SAD) values in codec ME, but may result in better visual quality. Such methods also require more compression time.\n\nBULLET::::- Rate control strategy. VBR commonly cause better visual quality marks than CBR for the same average PSNR values for sequences.\n", "Section::::Comparison.:Compression ratio.\n\nThe compression ratio (that is, the size of the compressed file compared to that of the uncompressed file) of lossy video codecs is nearly always far superior to that of the audio and still-image equivalents.\n\nBULLET::::- Video can be compressed immensely (e.g. 100:1) with little visible quality loss\n\nBULLET::::- Audio can often be compressed at 10:1 with almost imperceptible loss of quality\n\nBULLET::::- Still images are often lossily compressed at 10:1, as with audio, but the quality loss is more noticeable, especially on closer inspection.\n\nSection::::Transcoding and editing.\n", "Winamp and Windows Media Player cannot play the unmodified .avi file because the non-standard file header corrupts the file. However, Media Player Classic, MPlayer, the VLC Media Player and GOM Player will play the unmodified .avi file, and the Google .mp4 file. Media Player Classic can do so only if an MPEG-4 DirectShow Filter, such as ffdshow, is installed. Most Linux media players (including xine, Totem, the Linux version of VLC Media Player, and Kaffeine) have no problem playing Google's .avi format.\n", "There are now some DVD players that will output enhanced or high-definition signals from standard-definition DVDs. This upconversion process can improve the perceived picture quality of standard-definition video.\n\nSection::::Compression codecs.\n\nMany codecs are in contention such as Microsoft's Windows Media 9(VC1), H.264/AVC (MPEG-4 Part 10) and the VP6/VP7 codecs from On2 Technologies.\n\nSection::::Compression codecs.:Microsoft VC-1.\n", "Comparison of video codecs\n\nΑ video codec is software or a device that provides encoding and decoding for digital video, and which may or may not include the use of video compression and/or decompression. Most codecs are typically implementations of video coding formats.\n", "The compressed data format usually conforms to a standard video compression specification. The compression is typically lossy, meaning that the compressed video lacks some information present in the original video. A consequence of this is that decompressed video has lower quality than the original, uncompressed video because there is insufficient information to accurately reconstruct the original video.\n", "BULLET::::- Samples in image sequence tracks must be either intra-coded images or inter-picture predicted images with reference to only intra-coded images. These constraints of inter-picture prediction reduce the decoding latency for accessing any particular image within an HEVC image sequence track.\n\nSection::::HEVC Image File Format.:Implementation.\n", "Transcoding video from most consumer digital cameras can reduce the file size significantly while keeping the quality about the same. This is possible because most consumer cameras are real-time, power-constrained devices having neither the processing power nor the robust power supplies of desktop CPUs.\n", "It is possible to build a computer-based video editor that spots problems caused when I frames are edited out while other frames need them. This has allowed newer formats like HDV to be used for editing. However, this process demands a lot more computing power than editing intraframe compressed video with the same picture quality.\n\nSection::::Profiles and levels.\n", "BULLET::::- Different demosaicing algorithms can be used, not just the one coded into the camera.\n\nBULLET::::- The contents of raw files include more information, and potentially higher quality, than the converted results, in which the rendering parameters are fixed, the color gamut is clipped, and there may be quantization and compression artifacts.\n", "BULLET::::- Uncompressed data, because any lossy compression, which is common in most finalized products, introduces unacceptable quality losses.\n\nBULLET::::- Uncompressed data (again), because decompression times may degrade playing/visualization performance by hardware and software.\n\nBULLET::::- Frame-per-file data management, because common post-production operations imply the shortest seek-times ever; \"fast-forwarding\" or \"rewinding\" to a specific (key) frame is much faster if done at filesystem level rather than within a huge, possibly fragmented video file; every frame is then stored in a single file as a still digital picture.\n", "BULLET::::- AAF – mostly intended to hold edit decisions and rendering information, but can also contain compressed media essence\n\nBULLET::::- 3GP – the most common video format for cell phones\n\nBULLET::::- GIF – Animated GIF (simple animation; until recently often avoided because of patent problems)\n\nBULLET::::- ASF – container (enables any form of compression to be used; MPEG-4 is common; video in ASF-containers is also called Windows Media Video (WMV))\n\nBULLET::::- AVCHD – Advanced Video Codec High Definition\n\nBULLET::::- AVI – container (a shell, which enables any form of compression to be used)\n", "Uncompressed video formats, such as \"Clean HDMI\", is a form of lossless video used in some circumstances such as when sending video to a display over a HDMI connection. Some high-end cameras can also capture video directly in this format.\n\nSection::::Intra-frame video coding formats.\n\nInterframe compression complicates editing of an encoded video sequence.\n", "BULLET::::- Video streaming: , Netflix had 3.14 petabytes of video \"master copies\", which it compresses and converts into 100 different formats for streaming.\n\nBULLET::::- Photos: , Facebook users had uploaded over 240 billion photos, with 350 million new photos every day. For each uploaded photo, Facebook generates and stores four images of different sizes, which translated to a total of 960 billion images and an estimated 357 petabytes of storage.\n\nBULLET::::- Music: One petabyte of average MP3-encoded songs (for mobile, roughly one megabyte per minute), would require 2000 years to play.\n", "For non-HLS applications, no media types were standardized or registered with the IANA, but a number of media types are nonetheless associated with the historical and ongoing use of the M3U and M3U8 formats for general playlists:\n\nBULLET::::- codice_4\n\nBULLET::::- codice_5\n\nBULLET::::- codice_3\n\nBULLET::::- codice_7\n\nThese types, plus codice_1 and codice_9, are supported for HLS applications by (for example) Microsoft's Windows 10 and Internet Explorer 9, and LG's WebOS.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Example 1\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08635	why did the Sun not burn out instantaneously?	I know this may sound confusing, since preschoolers are taught differently so that they get a less confusing perspective on the world, but the sun is not technically "on fire". Ancient philosophers thought it was, but for "fire" you need "Oxogen", and the sun doesn't have any significant amount of oxogen within it. What the sun is going through isn't actually fire, but is instead, a incredibly long lasting series of nuclear explosions. Kind of like an atom bomb or a nuclear reactor, but in reverse. (an atom bomb releases energy by splitting big atoms apart. The Sun releases energy by smashing tiny atoms together) These reactions will only really happen within the very center of the sun, bit by bit, but the entire sun is made out of material which can be fuel for this process, so this can take an extremely long time. Our Sun will have lived about 10 billion years total by the time it burns out. The light that the center of the sun gives off has to travel through enough gas on the outside that it inevitably bounces several times before making it to the surface, making it seem like the gas is supplying the light. And the gas seems like a relatively liquid surface due to how much gravity the sun has, so that it pulls and smushes even the gas down far enough that it doesn't seem like gas from a distance. People have being trying to replicate the nuclear processes of the sun within labs since at least the cold war, in the hopes of near infinite energy, but considering the conditions we'd need to sustain this miniature sun, it seems pretty impossible.	[ "De Marchi authored several books on the subject, such as \"The True Story of Fátima\". They include a number of witness descriptions.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The sun, at one moment surrounded with scarlet flame, at another aureoled in yellow and deep purple, seemed to be in an exceedingly swift and whirling movement, at times appearing to be loosened from the sky and to be approaching the earth, strongly radiating heat.\"―Dr. Domingos Pinto Coelho, writing for the Catholic newspaper \"Ordem\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"... The silver sun, enveloped in the same gauzy grey light, was seen to whirl and turn in the circle of broken clouds ... The light turned a beautiful blue, as if it had come through the stained-glass windows of a cathedral, and spread itself over the people who knelt with outstretched hands ... people wept and prayed with uncovered heads, in the presence of a miracle they had awaited. The seconds seemed like hours, so vivid were they.\"―Reporter for the Lisbon newspaper \"O Dia\".\n", "Dr. Research continues, telling how science believes the Sun started as a loose cloud of hydrogen gas compressed by gravity and this compression raised the temperature until it reached 30 million degrees and started the thermonuclear reaction. The nuclear reactions expand the Sun and gravity compresses it until the two forces reach a balance. The Sun has only used small portion of its hydrogen and has about 98% of it left which will take about 50 to 100 billion years until it is gone and the Sun dies.\n", "BULLET::::- \"I feel incapable of describing what I saw. I looked fixedly at the sun, which seemed pale and did not hurt my eyes. Looking like a ball of snow, revolving on itself, it suddenly seemed to come down in a zig-zag, menacing the earth. Terrified, I ran and hid myself among the people, who were weeping and expecting the end of the world at any moment.\"—Rev. Joaquim Lourenço, describing his boyhood experience in Alburitel, eighteen kilometers from Fátima.\n", "BULLET::::- \"As if like a bolt from the blue, the clouds were wrenched apart, and the sun at its zenith appeared in all its splendor. It began to revolve vertiginously on its axis, like the most magnificent firewheel that could be imagined, taking on all the colors of the rainbow and sending forth multicolored flashes of light, producing the most astounding effect. This sublime and incomparable spectacle, which was repeated three distinct times, lasted for about ten minutes. The immense multitude, overcome by the evidence of such a tremendous prodigy, threw themselves on their knees.\"—Dr. Manuel Formigão, a professor at the seminary at Santarém, and a priest.\n", "Section::::Other proposed explanations.\n\nA minority view, propounded by the Israeli-American physicist Nir Shaviv, uses climatological influences of solar wind, combined with a hypothesis of Danish physicist Henrik Svensmark for a cooling effect of cosmic rays, to explain the paradox. According to Shaviv, the early Sun had emitted a stronger solar wind that produced a protective effect against cosmic rays. In that early age, a moderate greenhouse effect comparable to today's would have been sufficient to explain an ice-free Earth. Evidence for a more active early Sun has been found in meteorites.\n", "Albert Einstein saw a deficiency in Newton's theory. The finiteness of the speed of light would mean that it would take a certain amount of time before the darkness from the sun's absence would reach the orbiting planet. Therefore, why would the planet instantaneously start traveling in a straight line before the arrival of information that the sun's disappearance has occurred?\n", "Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century. At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by gravitational contraction. In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Kelvin, who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. However, the Sun only has enough gravitational potential energy to power its luminosity by this mechanism for about 30 million years—far less than the age of the Earth. (This collapse time is known as the Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale.)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The sun's disc did not remain immobile. This was not the sparkling of a heavenly body, for it spun round on itself in a mad whirl when suddenly a clamor was heard from all the people. The sun, whirling, seemed to loosen itself from the firmament and advance threateningly upon the earth as if to crush us with its huge fiery weight. The sensation during those moments was terrible.\"—De Marchi attributes this description to Dr. Almeida Garrett, Professor of Natural Sciences at Coimbra University. Theologian Father Stanley L. Jaki wrote that it was actually given by Dr. José Almeida Garrett, a young lawyer, and is often mistakenly attributed to his father, a professor of natural sciences at the University of Coimbra, named Dr. Gonçalo de Almeida Garrett.\n", "160-minute solar cycle\n\nThe 160-minute solar cycle was an apparent periodic oscillation in the solar surface which was observed in a number of early sets of data collected for helioseismology.\n\nThe presence of a 160 minute cycle in the Sun is not substantiated by contemporary solar observations, and the historical signal is considered by mainstream scientists to occur as the redistribution of power from the diurnal cycle as a result of the observation window and atmospheric extinction.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::The event.:De Marchi accounts.\n", "Over billions of years, the Sun is gradually expanding, and emitting more energy from the resultant larger surface area. The unsolved question of how to account for the clear geological evidence of liquid water on the Earth billions of years ago, at a time when the sun's luminosity was only 70% of its current value, is known as the faint young Sun paradox.\n\nSection::::Variations due to atmospheric conditions.\n", "Early in Earth's history, the Sun's output would have been only 70 percent as intense as it is during the modern epoch, owing to a higher ratio of hydrogen to helium in its core. Since then the Sun has gradually brightened and consequently warmed the Earth's surface, a process known as radiative forcing. During the Archaean age, assuming constant albedo and other surface features such as greenhouse gases, Earth’s equilibrium temperature would have been too small to sustain a liquid ocean. Astronomers Carl Sagan and George Mullen pointed out in 1972 that this is contrary to the geological and paleontological evidence.\n", "Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Archean eon, the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One theory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of solar energy reaching it.\n", "Theologian, professor, and priest Stanley L. Jaki, concurs, concluding that by divine intervention, a coordinated interplay of natural meteorological events, an enhancement of air lens with ice crystals, was made to occur at the exact time predicted, and this is the essence of the miracle. He assumed as fact that the Sun didn't move since observatories did not perceive any solar movement and the vast majority of the Earth's populace didn't notice it either.\n\nJaki described the phenomenon thus:\n", "The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate because of conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accreted more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion.\n", "Shortly before, on February 13, sunspot 1158 had unleashed an M6.6-class solar flare. On February 18, the same active region produced another x-ray burst with identical class, M6.6. 13 M-class bursts were registered in February 2011.\n\nSection::::Events.:2011.:March.\n\nA CME exploded from the vicinity of sunspot 1164 during the late hours of March 7, 2011. It leapt away from the Sun traveling ~2200 km/s, making it the fastest CME since September 2005.\n\nbr\n", "An unresolved question is how a climate suitable for life was maintained on Earth over the long timescale despite the variable solar output and wide range of terrestrial conditions.\n\nSection::::Solar evolution.\n", "Faint young Sun paradox\n\nThe faint young Sun paradox or faint young Sun problem describes the apparent contradiction between observations of liquid water early in Earth's history and the astrophysical expectation that the Sun's output would be only 70 percent as intense during that epoch as it is during the modern epoch. The issue was raised by astronomers Carl Sagan and George Mullen in 1972. Proposed resolutions of this paradox have taken into account greenhouse effects, astrophysical influences, or a combination of the two.\n", "Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the Sun's energy output increased and atmospheric composition changed. The Great Oxygenation Event around 2.4 billion years ago was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a red giant and then a white dwarf will have dramatic effects on climate, with the red giant phase likely ending any life on Earth.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "Prior to the minimum between the end of Solar Cycle 23 and the beginning of Solar Cycle 24, two theories predicted how strong Solar Cycle 24 would be. One camp postulated that the Sun retained a long memory (Solar Cycle 24 would be active) while the other asserted that it had a short memory (quiet). Prior to 2006, the difference was substantial with a minority of researchers predicting \"the smallest solar cycle in 100 years.\" Another group of researchers, including one at NASA, predicted that it \"looks like its going to be one of the most intense cycles since record-keeping began almost 400 years ago.\"\n", "It has been proposed several times that mass loss from the faint young Sun in the form of stronger solar winds could have compensated for the low temperatures from greenhouse gas forcing. In this framework, the early Sun underwent an extended period of higher solar wind output. This caused a mass loss from the Sun on the order of 5−10 percent over its lifetime, resulting in a more consistent level of solar luminosity (as the early Sun had more mass, resulting in more energy output than was predicted). In order to explain the warm conditions in the Archean era, this mass loss must have occurred over an interval of about one billion years. Records of ion implantation from meteorites and lunar samples show that the elevated rate of solar wind flux only lasted for a period of 0.1 billion years. Observations of the young Sun-like star π Ursae Majoris matches this rate of decline in the stellar wind output, suggesting that a higher mass loss rate can not by itself resolve the paradox.\n", "On very long time scales, the evolution of the sun is also an important factor in determining Earth's climate. According to standard solar theories, the sun will gradually have increased in brightness as a natural part of its evolution after having started with an intensity approximately 70% of its modern value. The initially low solar radiation, if combined with modern values of greenhouse gases, would not have been sufficient to allow for liquid oceans on the surface of the Earth. However, evidence of liquid water at the surface has been demonstrated as far back as . This is known as the faint young sun paradox and is usually explained by invoking much larger greenhouse gas concentrations in Earth's early history, though such proposals are poorly constrained by existing experimental evidence.\n", "Section::::Greenhouse gas solutions.:Carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas.\n\n It is now thought that carbon dioxide was present in higher concentrations during this period of lower solar radiation. It was first proposed and tested as part of Earth's atmospheric evolution in the late 70s. An atmosphere that contained about 1000 times the Present Atmospheric Level (or PAL) was found to be consistent with the evolutionary path of the Earth's carbon cycle and solar evolution.\n", "However, it soon was recognized by Sir Arthur Eddington and others that the total amount of energy available through this mechanism only allowed the Sun to shine for millions of years rather than the billions of years that the geological and biological evidence suggested for the age of the Earth. (Kelvin himself had argued that the Earth was millions, not billions, of years old.) The true source of the Sun's energy remained uncertain until the 1930s, when it was shown by Hans Bethe to be nuclear fusion.\n\nSection::::Power generated by a Kelvin–Helmholtz contraction.\n" ]	[ "The sun burns.", "The sun is on fire. " ]	[ "The sun does not burn, instead the sun has an long lasting series of nuclear explosions.", "The sun is not on fire, but the sun is going through a long series of nuclear explosions." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The sun burns.", "The sun is on fire. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The sun does not burn, instead the sun has an long lasting series of nuclear explosions.", "The sun is not on fire, but the sun is going through a long series of nuclear explosions." ]
2018-23826	Can the non dominant hand ever be as dextrous as the dominant hand?	Yes. The non dominant hand can be, you just have to start at a young age practicing or practice really hard now. The brain has a preference towards your dominant hand, making you ignore your non dominant. Since you ignore it, it’ll never get better and only make you use your dominant more.	[ "Section::::Complications.:Conflicting evidence.\n\nA number of asymmetrical findings have been disputed, with various studies stating null results in opposition to previously reported differences. This is an issue in handedness neuroscience, as imaging methods are highly susceptible to type 1 errors due to the number of comparisons which they make.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Complexity of causality.\n", "The Fusiform Face area is an area typically unilaterally, much like the language areas, and localized on the right fusiform gyrus. However, this brain region has been found to be more bilateral in left-handers; that is the left fusiform gyrus responds more to faces in left-handers than in right-handers. However the occipital face area shows no such correlation, and so handedness is thought to impact face processing on a level in the hierarchy which does not involve the occipital face area, however does include the fusiform gyrus.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Handedness inventory.\n", "The relationship between handedness and its neuronal correlates is complex. Language areas themselves are not concretely correlated, and motor area show exceedingly subtle differences. Because of this, the literature shows many differing opinions. Clearly, advances in research are still necessary to unveil true causal relationships between structural differences and their manifestation in the form of handedness.\n", "Section::::Properties.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Nonexact reproduction.\n\nExamples of motor coordination are the ease with which people can stand up, pour water into a glass, walk, and reach for a pen. These are created reliably, proficiently and repeatedly, but these movements rarely are reproduced exactly in their motor details, such as joint angles when pointing or standing up from sitting.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Combination.\n", "A study at Duke University’s Primate Center examined feeding behaviors of captive sifakas to determine their handedness. Given chopped fruits and vegetables, adult male and female sifakas showed a predominant preference for left-handedness, while younger sifakas alternated hands to grab food. The study reveals that Coquerel’s sifakas gain dexterity and hand preference with age, diverging only slightly by gender.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Communication.\n", "Section::::Language and speech areas.:Planum temporale.\n\nThe planum temporale is a brain region within Broca's Area, and is thought to be the most asymmetric area of the human brain; with the left side having shown to be five times the size of the right in some individuals. However in people who are left handed, this asymmetry has shown to be reduced\n\nSection::::Motor areas.\n\nHandedness correlates in motor areas have been found to be more subtle and less pronounced than language areas, but are nevertheless still detectable.\n\nSection::::Motor areas.:Central sulcus.\n", "The surface area of the central sulcus has been found to be larger in the dominant hemisphere, as well as the 'hand knob', an area in the primary motor cortex which is responsible for hand movements, is located more dorsally in the left hemisphere of people who are right- compared to left-handed\n\nSection::::Motor areas.:Right shift theory.\n", "Language areas are represented unilaterally in the human brain. In around 95% of right-handers, these brain areas are often located on the left hemisphere, however the proportion reduces in left handers down to around 70%. Therefore 7 in every 100 individuals is right-hemisphered for language and left-hand dominant. It is unclear as to whether or not left-hemisphered left handers suffer any language or writing deficits because of this. Broca's area has been found to have differing grey matter structures depending on handedness. The inferior frontal sulcus, which contains Broca's area, was found to be more continuous in the hemisphere ipsilateral to the dominant hand\n", "Left-handed adaptations have even bridged the world of music. Left-handed string instruments are produced, including guitars and violins. Inverted trumpets are made, too. Although the trumpet's valves are normally designed to be operated with the right hand, the prevailing belief is that left-handed trumpeters are not at a significant disadvantage. The French horn, for example, is played with the left hand, yet most horn players are right-handed. Left handed drummers also set up drum kits the exact opposite to conventional right-handed setup (i.e. hi-hat on the right, bass pedal under left foot, ride cymbal to the drummer's left, etc.).\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Sports.\n", "Section::::Correlation with other factors.\n\nSection::::Correlation with other factors.:Intelligence.\n\nIn his book \"Right-Hand, Left-Hand\", Chris McManus of University College London argues that the proportion of left-handers is increasing and left-handed people as a group have historically produced an above-average quota of high achievers. He says that left-handers' brains are structured differently (in a way that increases their range of abilities) and the genes that determine left-handedness also govern development of the language centers of the brain.\n\nWriting in \"Scientific American,\" McManus states that,\n", "Neuroanatomy of handedness\n\nAn estimated 90% of the world's human population consider themselves to be right handed. The human brain's control of motor function is a mirror image in terms of connectivity; the left hemisphere controls the right hand and vice versa. This theoretically means that the hemisphere contralateral to the dominant hand tends to be more dominant than the ipsilateral hemisphere, however this is not always the case and there are numerous other factors which contribute in complex ways to physical hand preference.\n\nSection::::Language and speech areas.\n", "When a person is forced to use the hand opposite of the hand that they would naturally use, this is known as \"forced laterality\", or more specifically \"forced dextrality\". A study done by the Department of Neurology at Keele University, North Staffordshire Royal Infirmary suggests that forced dextrality may be part of the reason that the percentage of left-handed people decreases with the higher age groups, both because the effects of pressures toward right-handedness are cumulative over time (hence increasing with age for any given person subjected to them) and because the prevalence of such pressure is decreasing, such that fewer members of younger generations face any such pressure to begin with.\n", "Ribot admitted to \"Guitar Player\" a relatively limited technical facility due to learning to play right-handed despite being left-handed: \"That's a real limit, one that caused me a lot of grief when I was working with Jack McDuff and realizing I wasn't following in George Benson's footsteps. I couldn't be a straight-ahead jazz contender if you held a gun to my head, but that begs the question of whether I would want to be one.\"\n", "Section::::Body of research.:Benbow study.\n\nA study by C. P. Benbow did not work to prove the mathematical abilities of study participants who are left-hand dominant but to prove the weakness in those who are right-hand dominant. Using a series of questions that relate left-handedness and mathematical giftedness, Benbow was able to base their team's conclusion off of a series of questions that associated hand dominance and mathematical ability. \n\nSection::::Body of research.:Ongoing Debate.\n", "The corticospinal tract is a bundle of white matter which connects the cerebral cortex with motor neurons in the spinal cord. Notably, humans show a natural asymmetry between left and right tracts, such that the left tract (and therefore connections to the right hand) is significantly larger. However this asymmetry has been found to be reduced in left-handers, suggesting a less biased connection to both hands.\n\nSection::::Forced handedness.\n", "Section::::Language and speech areas.:Corpus callosum.\n\nBecause the left arm is controlled by the right hemisphere and vice versa, the corpus callosum has also been found to be larger in left-handers. This is theoretically so that language comprehension and production can more efficiently move from the primary language areas into the motor areas which control the contralateral arm. No research has investigated the effect of being right-hemispheric for language whilst being left-handed, and whether or not the corpus callosum is still larger without the need to communicate across hemispheres, such would be the case in right-hemispheric left-handers.\n", "The brain's ability to adapt toward active functions allows humans to specialize in specific processes based on relative use and activity. For example, a right-handed person may perform any movement poorly with his/her left hand but continuous practice with the less dominant hand can cause one to become ambidextrous. Another example is if someone was born with a neurological disorder such as major depressive disorder or had a stroke that resulted in a disorder, then they are capable of retrieving much of their lost function through practice, which in turn \"rewires\" the brain to mitigate neurological dysfunction.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In order to untangle causality, some research employs a 'forced handedness' group. Left-handers who were forced during childhood to use their right hand showed a larger surface area of the central sulcus in their left hemisphere, which is associated with right-handedness. Also, structures in the basal ganglia such as the putamen also mirrored developmental right-hand dominant individuals in the forced group.\n\nSection::::Face processing.\n", "Section::::Correlation with other factors.:Left-handedness and sports.\n\nInteractive sports such as table tennis, badminton and cricket have an overrepresentation of left-handedness, while non-interactive sports such as swimming show no overrepresentation. Smaller physical distance between participants increases the overrepresentation. In fencing, about half the participants are left-handed.\n\nOther, sports-specific factors may increase or decrease the advantage left-handers usually hold in one-on-one situations:\n", "Other examples used by Annett include a study that observed the hand use of teachers of mathematics and other sciences from various universities and polytechnics, as they underwent a personal interview, compared to a control group comprising non-mathematics teachers. Again, a statistically significant difference was found for males, and again Annett states this to be consistent with the right-shift model. Further examples are a 1986 study by Benbow and a 1990 study by Temple of staff at the University of Oxford, which, Annett states, show not that there is a predominance of left-handers in talented groups, whether that talent be with mathematics or otherwise, but rather that there is a shortfall in such groups of people who are strongly right-handed.\n", "Laterality of motor and sensory control has been the subject of a recent intense study and review. It turns out that the hemisphere of speech is the hemisphere of action in general and that the command hemisphere is located either in the right or the left hemisphere (never in both). Around eighty percent of people are left hemispheric for speech and the remainder are right hemispheric: ninety percent of right-handers are left hemispheric for speech, but only fifty percent of left-handers are right hemispheric for speech (the remainder are left hemispheric). The reaction time of the neurally dominant side of the body (the side opposite to the major hemisphere or the command center, as just defined) is shorter than that of the opposite side by an interval equal to the interhemispheric transfer time. Thus, one in five persons has a handedness that is the opposite for which they are wired (per laterality of command center or brainedness, as determined by reaction time study mentioned above).\n", "At least one study maintains that left-handers are more likely to suffer from heart disease, and in a cardiovascular context, are more likely to have reduced longevity.\n\nLeft-handers are more likely to suffer bone fractures.\n\nOne systematic review concluded: \"Left-handers showed no systematic tendency to suffer from disorders of the immune system\".\n\nAs handedness is a highly heritable trait, these health problems would have presented a fitness challenge indicating left-handness would previously have been eliminated through natural selection. However, left-handers enjoy an advantage in fighting and competitive, interactive sports, increasing their likelihood of reproduction.\n\nSection::::Correlation with other factors.:Income.\n", "An EEG-study by Melanie A. Hart, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Department of Health, Exercise and Sports Sciences at the Texas Tech University support the claim that cup stacking does utilize both sides of the brain. During the left-hand condition, activity in the right hemisphere was larger than the left, while for the right-hand task, the left hemisphere was greater than the right. Their scientific poster on that topic got awarded by the AAHPERD On the other hand, Hart couldn't get the same results as Udermann when studying improvement on reaction time.\n", "It has been asserted that cross-dominance (in which the dominant eye is on one side and the dominant hand is on the other) is advantageous in sports requiring side-on stances (e.g. baseball, cricket, golf); however, studies within the last 20 years have shown this not to be the case. In a 1998 study of professional baseball players, hand–ocular dominance patterns did not show an effect on batting average or ERA. Similarly, in 2005, a South African study found that \"cricketers were not more likely to have crossed dominance\" than the normal population.\n", "Former Beatles member Paul McCartney is left-handed (guitar and bass guitar), and had his guitar altered (restrung) for performing (as can be seen in many photos and videos throughout his musical career). The drummer of The Beatles, Ringo Starr, is left-handed as well, but he plays a right-handed drum kit. American instrumental guitarist Michael Angelo Batio is known for being able to play both right-handed and left-handed guitar proficiently. Irish guitar player Niall Horan, from boyband One Direction, applies on this case. He writes with the left hand but plays the guitar with the right one.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02798	How does stainless steel remove smell of garlic off your hands?	The volatile compounds that cause the smell in garlic, onions, etc. are sulfur-based. Most stainless steel in kitchens contains chromium. The chromium oxide attracts the sulfur molecule and draws it off of your skin	[ "Stainless steel soap\n\nStainless steel soap is a piece of stainless steel, in the form of a soap bar or other hand-held shape. Its purported purpose is to neutralize or reduce strong odors such as those from handling garlic, onion, durian, guava, salami, or fish.\n", "Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal–treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. The surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) have also been used in some of the early dental implants.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Energy.\n", "All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at room temperature. At high concentration and elevated temperature attack will occur and higher alloy stainless steels are required.\n", "There is evidence that garlic may prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases. A possible reason for some of these diseases, such as atherosclerosis or coronary heart disease is oxidative stress. The latter is reduced by diallyl disulfide by assisting in the detoxification of the cell, as well as some other mechanisms. By activating the TRPA1 ion channel, diallyl disulfide leads to a short-term lowering of blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Vinyldithiins have been investigated as a preventative for cardiovascular disease and as antioxidants. In the early 1980s, it was noted that people in the Mediterranean had lower risk of cardiovascular disease. Since garlic is used extensively in the Mediterranean, it is hypothesized that the chemicals in garlic might have cardiovascular effects. Studies have been done measuring the use of garlic for controlling serum cholesterol levels.\n", "Stainless steel nanoparticles have been produced in the laboratory. These may have applications as additives for high performance applications. For examples, sulfurization, phosphorization and nitridation treatments to produce nanoscale stainless steel based catalysts could enhance the electrocatalytic performance of stainless steel for water splitting.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n\nStainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert, but some sensitive individuals develop a skin irritation due to a nickel allergy caused by certain alloys. Stainless steel leaches small amounts of nickel and chromium during cooking.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Argon oxygen decarburization\n\nBULLET::::- Corrugated stainless steel tubing\n\nBULLET::::- Crucible Industries\n", "BULLET::::- DansSQ, in which Fe(II) binding increases fluorescence at 460 nm. It consists of a Dansyl group bound to styrylquinoline and operates by the disruption of intra-molecular charge transfer upon the binding of Fe(II). It is limited in that it is only soluble in acetonitrile in 10% HO.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Cobalt.\n\nCobalt sensors have been made that capitalize on the breaking of C-O bonds by Co(II) in a fluorescent probe known as Cobalt Probe 1 (CP1).\n\nSection::::Examples.:Mercury.\n\nMercury is a toxic heavy metal, and as such it is important to be able to detect it in biological systems. Sensors include:\n", "Garlic is used as a fish and meat preservative, and displays antimicrobial effects at temperatures as high as 120 degree Celsius.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Adverse effects and toxicology.\n", "BULLET::::- Pryrene-TEMPO, in which the binding of iron to TEMPO quenches the fluorescence of pyrene when no Fe(II) is bound. Upon binding however, TEMPO is reduced and pyrene regains fluorescence. This probe is limited in that an analogous response can be generated by unwanted free radicals, and that it can only by used in acidic solution.\n", "Aside from the practical application of this reaction in medicinal chemistry and natural product synthesis, recent work has also used the Tsuji–Trost reaction to detect palladium in various systems. This detection system is based on a non-fluorescent fluorescein-derived sensor (longer-wavelength sensors have also recently been developed for other applications) that becomes fluorescent only in the presence of palladium or platinum.\n", "The director recommends that, when the film is shown, a toaster oven containing several heads of garlic be turned on in the rear of the theater, unbeknownst to the audience, with the intended result that approximately halfway through the showing the entire theater will be filled with the smell of garlic.\n\nIn Blank's 1982 film \"Burden of Dreams\", a documentary chronicling the filming of \"Fitzcarraldo\", director Werner Herzog and other crew members can be seen wearing \"Garlic Is as Good as Ten Mothers\" T-shirts.\n\nSection::::Title.\n", "Oxidation of sulfide can also form thiosulfate () an intermediate species responsible for severe problems of pitting corrosion of steel and stainless steel while the medium is also acidified by the production of sulfuric acid when oxidation is more advanced.\n\nSection::::Organic chemistry.\n", "The electrical connections of high-pressure sodium vapour lamps, the yellow lamps for street lighting, are made of niobium alloyed with 1% of zirconium.\n", "Dimethyl sulfide, a byproduct of the Swern oxidation, is one of the strongest odours known in organic chemistry. Humans can detect this compound in concentrations as low as 0.02 to 0.1 parts per million. A simple remedy for this problem is to rinse used glassware with bleach or oxone solution, which will oxidize the dimethyl sulfide back to dimethyl sulfoxide or to dimethyl sulfone, both of which are odourless and nontoxic.\n", "Reduction of alkyl halide with metallic lithium can afford simple alkyl and aryl organolithium reagents.\n", "Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soya sauce may require higher alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Locomotion.\n\nBULLET::::- Automobiles\n", "Section::::Stainless steels.:Stainless steel in the home.\n", "Modified versions of XPhos have also been reported. The more hindered tBuXPhos and Me4tButylXPhos has been employed in the formation of diaryl ethers. Incorporation of a sulfonate group at the 4-position allows this ligand to be used for Sonogashira couplings in aqueous biphasic solvents.\n\nSection::::SPhos.\n", "Diallyl disulfide and trisulfide are produced by decomposition of allicin, which is released upon breaking the cells of the Alliaceae plants, especially garlic. The diallyl disulfide yield is the highest for the steam distillation of garlic bulbs which contain about 2 wt.% of diallyl disulfide-rich oil. Diallyl disulfide can also be extracted from garlic leaves, but their oil content is significantly lower at 0.06 wt.%.\n\nSection::::Extraction and representation.\n", "Fresh or crushed garlic yields the sulfur-containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallyl polysulfides, vinyldithiins, \"S\"-allylcysteine, and enzymes, saponins, flavonoids, and Maillard reaction products, which are not sulfur-containing compounds.\n", "If the intramolecular charge transfer mechanism dominates the fluorescent quenching of YOYO-1 in water, then one can add bulky ligand to stop or slow down the rotation to increase its quantum yield in water. However, if the intermolecular charge transfer dominates, one can modify the molecule to stop the charge transfer between YOYO-1 and water either by charge passivation, or ligand modification to shift its redox potentials.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Black garlic is made when heads of garlic are aged under specialized conditions of heat and humidity. Bulbs are kept in a humidity-controlled environment at temperatures that range from for 60 to 90 days. There are no additives, preservatives, or burning of any kind. The enzymes that give fresh garlic its sharpness break down. Those conditions are thought to facilitate the Maillard reaction, the chemical process that produces new flavour compounds responsible for the deep taste of seared meat and fried onions. The cloves turn black and develop a sticky date-like texture.\n", "Generally, there are two main ways to passivate aluminium alloys (not counting plating, painting, and other barrier coatings): chromate conversion coating and anodizing. Alclading, which metallurgically bonds thin layers of pure aluminium or alloy to different base aluminium alloy, is not strictly passivation of the \"base\" alloy. However, the aluminium layer clad on is designed to spontaneously develop the oxide layer and thus protect the base alloy.\n", "Using silver nanoparticles for catalysis has been gaining attention in recent years. Although the most common applications are for medicinal or antibacterial purposes, silver nanoparticles have been demonstrated to show catalytic redox properties for dyes, benzene, carbon monoxide, and likely other compounds.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15104	What are the differences between the 3 types of queens, and what type of queen is Elsa?	Queen Consort: She's not queen in her own right, but her husband is the king and as his wife she gets the title "queen." Dowager Queen: The king has died and his queen consort is still alive. The new monarch is typically their oldest child. She's not the queen anymore, but she doesn't just get her title stripped from her either. Queen Regnant: The queen is the actual monarch in her own right. Her husband can be king consort (very rare) or prince consort or whatever title she and/or her government chooses. The current queen of the UK, Elizabeth II, is a queen regnant. Her mother was queen consort while Elizabeth's father was alive, and then became a dowager after Elizabeth became the monarch. Elsa is a queen regnant.	[ "Section::::Description.:Queens.\n", "Twenty years later, with Arminio (Massimo Girotti) having grown up in the forest, Sedemondo arranges a tournament to determine who will marry Elsa (Elisa Cegani). Tundra (Luisa Ferida) leads the resistance among the people against the king. The tournament, with various characters attending in disguise, sets up whether the prophesy will come to pass.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Elisa Cegani as the mother of Elsa & Elsa\n\nBULLET::::- Luisa Ferida as Kavaora, mother of Tundra & Tundra\n\nBULLET::::- Rina Morelli as the wise old woman\n\nBULLET::::- Gino Cervi as Sedemondo, the king of Kindaor\n", "In Baum's book, \"The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus\", the Queen of the Fairies is unnamed, and the Queen of the Wood Nymphs is named Zurline. Some debate exists among fans of the Oz books as to whether the unnamed Fairy Queen and Lurline are the same person. \"Queen Zixi of Ix\" depicts another Fairy Queen named Lulea, who is based in the Forest of Burzee, just as The Fairy Queen and Queen Zurline of the Wood Nymphs are.\n\nSection::::Lurline in Gregory Maguire's books.\n", "Section::::Other appearances.:Games.\n\nThe Evil Queen is featured in a number of traditional games, albeit usually as a mere obstacle for the players. She is, however, playable in some of them, such as \"Snow White and the Severn Dwarfs Game\" in the Disneykins franchise and \"Disney Villains Collector's Edition Monopoly\". In 2019, the Evil Queen was added to \"Disney Villainous\" as a player character in the expansion set \"Wicked to the Core\".\n", "The Giant (Janitor) keeps an eye out for the heroes while the two-headed Turla, a combination of Turk and Carla, lends some magic, but it's the brave knight in shining armor (the storyteller, Dr. Cox) that lends them the knowledge that may save the day. However, with Dr. Kelso's new rules, the staff of Sacred Heart may not have time to figure out how to slay the monster.\n", "The King is seen asleep on a couch. Nisia sits beside a table on which rests his crown. She gazes sadly on this symbol of earthly power, conscious of the gloomy future that lies before her. Then she looks at Candaules, the cause of her fall.\n", "As she is a young, female monster-hunter there are potential similarities with Buffy the Vampire Slayer, although when asked about this the authors claimed \"neither of us have seen an episode of \"Buffy\" all the way through! I know we're missing out on some great TV but we've determined to steer clear of Buffy at least while we're doing Bloodstone.\"\n\nSection::::Publication history.\n\nElsa appeared as the lead character in the \"Bloodstone\" mini-series and has been mentioned in the aftermath of the Civil War.\n", "Section::::Other appearances.:Comics.:Italian comics.\n", "She became the second queen next to Queen Oleya. Her early years as a queen proved how good she is. Her deeds gave a fruitful Eden and Nature. She had three daughters; Diwani Alvera, Diwani Valeriana and Diwani Quassia. She became ill because of Menandro's greed over her power. She died because of saving the mortal world from Valeriana's evil attacks.\n\nBULLET::::- Queen Alvera\n\nBULLET::::- Played by Alice Dixson\n", "Ani's family - Her mother, the Queen of Kildenree. Her father, the King of Kildenree, whose name is revealed in \"Enna Burning\" to be Tusken. Her siblings (in order from oldest to youngest): brother Calib-Loncris (later Crown Prince, when Ani is sent away); sister Napralina-Victery; sister Susena-Ofelienna; and baby brother Rianno-Hancery. Her aunt, an animal-speaker, who taught Ani animal-speaking and told her stories.\n", "Section::::Realm.:Freya.\n\nFreya () is a secondary character in the series who shows little development because she does not appear often until the end. She has no special name for herself while she is in the Wonderland, and goes by her name from Realm during all conversations. However, some information can be provided.\n", "The Queen's ladies enter and prepare to receive her. Nisia arrives, splendidly attired and attended by many slaves. The arrival of Candaules is announced. He kneels before the Queen whom he has elevated to a goddess. He is surrounded by the women who attempt to fascinate him.\n", "Two of the kings are dead. The third, about to be born, is hunted by the Demon Riders of the Krayakin, Lords of the Undead.\n\nAll the terrifying forces of evil range against a pregnant queen at bay in a haunted forest. But she is not alone. Three warriors stand with her, the last remnants of the once proud Drenai army. Three old men, ancient heroes, discarded by the king: Nogusta the Swordsman, Kebra the Bowman, and the hulking fighter, Bison.\n", "Section::::Realm.:Ururu and Nori.\n", "The Magic Urn is a magical object used to imprison beings with some kind of magic. In the Enchanted Forest of the past, it belonged to Rumplestiltskin for a short time, after a deal made with Ingrid/Snow Queen, he gave the urn to her. Later, Ingrid is trapped in the urn by his sister Gerda, after killing his other sister Helga. After many years trapped in the urn, Ingrid is released by Prince Hans. Shortly thereafter, Elsa is trapped in the urn by Anna and remains in urn for 30 years until it was accidentally brought to the future by Emma and Hook, after they travel to the past through the time portal created by Zelena. When Elsa arrives to Storybrooke, she breaks free from the urn and immediately destroys it with her magic.\n", "In the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", Ninsun is depicted as a human queen who lives in Uruk with her son as king. Since the father of Gilgamesh was former king Lugalbanda, it stands to reason that Ninsun procreated with Lugalbanda to give birth. She assists her son in his adventure by providing him with the meanings of his dream in the beginning.\n\nAlso in the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", Ninsun is summoned by Gilgamesh and Enkidu to help pray to the god Utu to help the two on their journey to the Country of the Living to battle Humbaba.\n\nSection::::Names.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fantaghirò\": Brigitte Nielsen said she has based her role as the Black Witch (\"more than a witch, a queen\") in the 1992 film \"Fantaghirò 2\" on Disney's Evil Queen.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jupiter Ascending\": In this science fiction film, the Queen figure is \"a higher-evolved being known as the Queen of the Universe.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Queen Oleya\n\nBULLET::::- Played by Nora Aunor\n\nShe is the first known queen of Eden. When Saulo and Jasmina punished Helvora by the use of the Shrine of Justice, she made a sanctuary on the world of mortals and renamed herself as Nana Sela. This is for refuge to Helvora's vengeance. Saulo and Jasmina didn't believe her but dethroned her.\n\nBULLET::::- Queen Jasmina\n\nBULLET::::- Played by Marita Zobel\n", "Oshun - Oshun, named after the Orisha of rivers and streams, has the ability to control any liquid around her and manipulate it to her will, including the liquids inside a person.\n\nOgun - Ogun named after the Orisha of war, and has super strength, which is enough to level a building. The exact limit of his strength is unknown.\n\nChango - Chango is named after the Orisha of fire and passion, can create and can control electricity by generating it from his fingertips and blasting it at will.\n", "A 2014 weekly challenge in \"Disney Infinity: Toy Box\" included \"Mirror Mirror\" obstacle course that pit Snow White against the Evil Queen in a race for the poisonous apple. Downloadable Queen-themed avatar costumes were made available for the users of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game consoles. A webcam browser game \"Become Your Inner Villain\" hosted on Disneyland Resort's Facebook page enables the player turn into one of four villains including the Evil Queen. Her dungeon and laboratory (complete with the Mirror) are featured in the online game \"Aaah-Choo\".\n", "Fairy Queen\n\nThe Fairy Queen or Queen of the Fairies is a figure from Irish and British folklore, believed to rule the fairies. Based on Shakespeare's influence, in English-speaking cultures she is often named Titania or Mab. \n\nSection::::Folklore.\n\nIn Irish folklore, the last High Queen of the Daoine Sidhe - and wife of the High King Finvarra - was named Una (or Oonagh, or Oona, or Uonaidh etc.). In the ballad tradition of Northern England and Lowland Scotland, she was called the Queen of Elphame. \n", "Section::::In \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\".:Conception, design and portrayal.\n", "Rudolf Simek says that Sága should be considered \"one of the not closer defined Asyniur\" along with Hlín, Sjöfn, Snotra, Vár, and Vör, and that they \"should be seen as female protective goddesses.\" Simek adds that \"these goddesses were all responsible for specific areas of the private sphere, and yet clear differences were made between them so that they are in many ways similar to matrons.\"\n", "Regina "Queen" Saraiva\n", "BULLET::::- Otrera, the daughter of Eurus (the east wind)\n\nBULLET::::- Hippolyta, the Amazonian queen who possessed a magical girdle\n\nBULLET::::- Penthesilea, the daughter of Ares and Otrera and the sister of Hippolyta, Antiope and Melanippe\n\nBULLET::::- Antianara, the daughter of Ares and Otrera and the sister of Hippolyta, Antiope and Melanippe\n\nBULLET::::- Eurypyle\n\nBULLET::::- Lampedo\n\nBULLET::::- Marpesia\n\nSection::::Legendary Queens.:Assyria.\n\nBULLET::::- Semiramis, the legendary queen of king Ninus, succeeding him to the throne of Assyria\n\nSection::::Legendary Queens.:Bohemia.\n\nBULLET::::- Libuše\n\nSection::::Legendary Queens.:Bornu Empire.\n\nBULLET::::- Aissa Kili N'guirmamaramama (ruled 1573-1580)\n\nSection::::Legendary Queens.:Champa.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03117	How can some women not show signs of pregnancy until extremely late?	Genetics can play a part in it. Women who are overweight can miss the signs. Women who continue to have spotting may think they are having a period and miss it. Women who have little or no morning sickness can miss the other signs.	[ "Most pregnant women experience a number of symptoms, which can signify pregnancy. A number of early medical signs are associated with pregnancy. These signs include:\n\nBULLET::::- the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine\n\nBULLET::::- missed menstrual period\n\nBULLET::::- implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period\n\nBULLET::::- increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation\n\nBULLET::::- Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva)\n\nBULLET::::- Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix)\n", "The beginning of pregnancy may be detected either based on symptoms by the woman herself, or by using pregnancy tests. However, an important condition with serious health implications that is quite common is the denial of pregnancy by the pregnant woman. About one in 475 denials will last until around the 20th week of pregnancy. The proportion of cases of denial, persisting until delivery is about 1 in 2500. Conversely, some non-pregnant women have a very strong belief that they are pregnant along with some of the physical changes. This condition is known as a false pregnancy.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Physical signs.\n", "HIV testing begins with a screening test. The most common screening test is the rapid HIV antibody test which tests for HIV antibodies in blood, urine, or oral fluid. HIV antibodies are only produced if an individual is infected with the disease. Therefore, presence of the antibodies is indicative of an HIV infection. Sometimes, however, a person may be infected with HIV but the body has not produced enough antibodies to be detected by the test. If a woman has risk factors for HIV infection but tests negative on the initial screening test, she should be retested in 3 months to confirm that she does not have HIV. Another screening test that is more specific is the HIV antigen/antibody test. This is a newer blood test that can detect HIV infection quicker than the antibody test because it detects both virus particles and antibodies in the blood.\n", "False negative readings can occur when testing is done too early. Quantitative blood tests and the most sensitive urine tests usually begin to detect hCG shortly after implantation, which can occur anywhere from 6 to 12 days after ovulation. hCG levels continue to rise through the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, so the chances of false negative test results diminish with time (gestation age). Less sensitive urine tests and qualitative blood tests may not detect pregnancy until three or four days after implantation. Menstruation occurs on average 14 days after ovulation, so the likelihood of a false negative is low once a menstrual period is late.\n", "Healthy women are fertile from puberty until menopause, although fertility is typically much reduced towards the extremes of this period. The onset of puberty is typically identified by menarche and the presence of secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development, the appearance of pubic hair and changes to body fat distribution. The end of a woman's fertile years typically comes somewhat before menopause, as fertility declines to a point where establishing a viable pregnancy is very unlikely.\n\nSection::::Women.:Ovulation testing.\n\nVarious methods of predicting fertility exist, to either aid or avoid pregnancy.\n\nSection::::Women.:Ovulation testing.:Stretch test.\n", "Pregnancy detection can be accomplished using one or more various pregnancy tests, which detect hormones generated by the newly formed placenta, serving as biomarkers of pregnancy. Blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy 12 days after implantation. Blood pregnancy tests are more sensitive than urine tests (giving fewer false negatives). Home pregnancy tests are urine tests, and normally detect a pregnancy 12 to 15 days after fertilization. A quantitative blood test can determine approximately the date the embryo was conceived because HCG doubles every 36 to 48 hours. A single test of progesterone levels can also help determine how likely a fetus will survive in those with a threatened miscarriage (bleeding in early pregnancy).\n", "Section::::Factors that put a pregnancy at risk.:Age.\n\nPregnant teens are more likely to develop high blood pressure and anemia (lack of healthy red blood cells), and go into labor earlier than women who are older. Teens also may be exposed to a sexually transmitted disease or infection that could affect their pregnancy. Teens may be less likely to get prenatal care or to make ongoing appointments with health care providers during the pregnancy to evaluate risks, ensure they are staying healthy, and understand what medications and drugs they can use.\n", "From the date that a sample is taken, results may take weeks to months, depending upon the complexity and extent of the tests being performed. Results for prenatal testing are usually available more quickly because time is an important consideration in making decisions about a pregnancy. Prior to the testing, the doctor or genetic counselor who is requesting a particular test can provide specific information about the cost and time frame associated with that test.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- DNA profiling\n\nBULLET::::- Genographic Project\n\nBULLET::::- Personalized medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Elective genetic and genomic testing\n\nBULLET::::- Eugenics\n\nBULLET::::- Full Genome Sequencing\n", "Any woman who has a positive HIV screening test must receive follow-up testing to confirm the diagnosis. The follow-up test can differentiate HIV-1 from HIV-2 and is a more specific antibody test. It may also detect the virus directly in the bloodstream.\n\nSection::::Prevention of mother-to-child transmission.\n", "On the other hand, not every girl follows the typical pattern, and some girls ovulate before the first menstruation. Although unlikely, it is possible for a girl who has engaged in sexual intercourse shortly before her menarche to conceive and become pregnant, which would delay her menarche until after the end of the pregnancy. This goes against the widely held assumption that a woman cannot become pregnant until after menarche. A young age at menarche is not correlated with a young age at first sexual intercourse.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Onset.\n", "If a pregnant woman has already been diagnosed with pre-eclampsia during the current pregnancy and then develops a seizure, she may be assigned a 'clinical diagnosis' of eclampsia without further workup. This means that a diagnosis of eclampsia is most likely given the symptoms and medical history, and eclampsia can be assumed to be the correct diagnosis until proven otherwise. However, if a woman has a seizure and it is unknown whether or not she has pre-eclampsia, testing can help make the diagnosis clear.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Vital signs.\n", "Ovulation may not occur at a predictable time in the menstrual cycle, however. A number of factors may cause an unexpectedly early or late ovulation, even for women with a history of regular menstrual cycles. Using ovulation predictor kits (OPKs), or charting the fertility signs of cervical mucus or basal body temperature give a more accurate idea of when to test than day-counting alone.\n", "Most women with a PUL are followed up with serum hCG measurements and repeat TVS examinations until a final diagnosis is confirmed. Low-risk cases of PUL that appear to be failing pregnancies may be followed up with a urinary pregnancy test after two weeks and get subsequent telephone advice. Low-risk cases of PUL that are likely intrauterine pregnancies may have another TVS in two weeks to access viability. High-risk cases of PUL require further assessment, either with a TVS within 48 h or additional hCG measurement.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medical.\n", "Because of high rates of very early miscarriage (25% of pregnancies are lost within the first six weeks since the woman's last menstrual period, or LMP), the methods used to detect pregnancy may lead to bias in conception rates. Less-sensitive methods will detect lower conception rates, because they miss the conceptions that resulted in early pregnancy loss. A Chinese study of couples practicing random intercourse to achieve pregnancy used very sensitive pregnancy tests to detect pregnancy. It found a 40% conception rate per cycle over the 12-month study period.\n", "In women with a pregnancy of unknown location, between 6% and 20% have an ectopic pregnancy. In cases of pregnancy of unknown location and a history of heavy bleeding, it has been estimated that approximately 6% have an underlying ectopic pregnancy. Between 30% and 47% of women with pregnancy of unknown location are ultimately diagnosed with an ongoing intrauterine pregnancy, whereof the majority (50–70%) will be found to have failing pregnancies where the location is never confirmed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "Ovulation may also be confirmed by testing for serum progesterone in mid-luteal phase, approximately seven days after ovulation (if ovulation occurred on the average cycle day of fourteen, seven days later would be cycle day 21). A mid-luteal phase progesterone test may also be used to diagnose luteal phase defect. Methods that confirm ovulation may be used to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments to stimulate ovulation.\n\nBasal body temperatures are not reliable for predicting ovulation.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "BULLET::::- Not having any of the \"traditional\" symptoms (weight gain, extended abdomen, feeling of movement in stomach, morning sickness, unusual food cravings).\n\nBULLET::::- Assuming their birth control methods were 100% effective.\n\nBULLET::::- Vaginal bleeding during pregnancy being misinterpreted as a period.\n\nBULLET::::- False negative pregnancy tests.\n\nSection::::Production history and cancellation.\n\nThe series is shown on Discovery en Español and the OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network.\n", "The accuracy of a pregnancy test is most closely related to the day of ovulation, not of the act of intercourse or insemination that caused the pregnancy. It is normal for sperm to live up to five days in the fallopian tubes, waiting for ovulation to occur. It could take up to 12 further days for implantation to occur, meaning even the most sensitive pregnancy tests may give false negatives up to 17 days after the act that caused the pregnancy. Because some home pregnancy tests have high hCG detection thresholds (up to 100 mIU/mL), it may take an additional three or four days for hCG to rise to levels detectable by these tests — meaning false negatives may occur up to three weeks after the act of intercourse or insemination that causes pregnancy.\n", "Women of fertile age may be infertile for a number of reasons. Various tests are available to establish reasons.\n\nSection::::Women.:Diagnosis of infertility.:Anti-Müllerian hormone testing.\n\nAnti-Müllerian hormone tests allow the estimation of ovarian reserve. These give an indication of the likely remaining fertility opportunities a woman may have.\n\nSection::::Women.:Diagnosis of infertility.:Follicle stimulating hormone.\n\nTests for follicle stimulating hormone establish whether or not a woman will ovulate in any given month. This test is typically carried out on day 3 of the menstural cycle.\n\nSection::::Women.:Diagnosis of infertility.:Hysterosalpingography.\n", "Women who present to the hospital in labor with an unknown HIV status should undergo immediate HIV testing. If the initial screening test is positive, the mother should immediately be given a single dose of nifedipine (NVD), tenofovir (TDF) and emtricitabine (FTC) and a three-hourly dose of zidovudine (AZT) and the baby should receive prophylactic ART after birth. This will help reduce the risk of HIV transmission during labor and delivery. A confirmatory HIV test should also be performed in the meantime. If the test results are positive, treatment should continue. If the results are negative, the medications may be stopped.\n", "Basal body temperature changes during the menstrual cycle. Higher levels of progesterone released during the menstrual cycle causes an abrupt increase in basal body temperature by 0.5 °C to 1 °C at the time of ovulation. This enables identification of the fertile window through the use of commercial thermometers. This test can also indicate if there are issues with ovulation.\n\nSection::::Women.:Ovulation testing.:Calendar methods.\n\nBecause the fertile window arrives at approximately the same time each month, calendar methods can be used to predict ovulation.\n\nSection::::Women.:Diagnosis of infertility.\n", "At present no program screens for risk in families who have not yet had a child with CAH. For families desiring to avoid virilization of a second child, the current strategy is to start dexamethasone as soon as a pregnancy has been confirmed even though at that point the chance that the pregnancy is a girl with CAH is only 12.5%. Dexamethasone is taken by the mother each day until it can be safely determined whether she is carrying an affected girl.\n", "Certain blood work may be ordered. This often includes a CBC (Complete Blood Count) which can show anemia. A CBC includes WBC (White Blood Cell Count) which can show the presence of infection. Anemia and infection, indicating problems with the woman's overall health at that moment, can both affect a woman's ability to become pregnant at that time as well as affect the stability of the pregnancy and health of the fetus. In the majority of cases both infection and anemia can be treated once the cause is identified. Anemia may require ongoing evaluation and iron supplement.\n", "If a woman chooses to decline testing, she will not receive the test. However, she will continue to receive HIV counseling throughout the pregnancy so that she may be as informed as possible about the disease and its impact. She will be offered HIV testing at all stages of her pregnancy in case she changes her mind.\n", "At the initial antenatal care visit and with the aid of a special booking checklist the pregnant women become classified into either normal risk or high risk.\n\nIn many countries, women are given a summary of their case notes including important background information about their pregnancy for example their medical history, growth charts and any scan reports. If the mother goes to a different hospital for care or to give birth the summary of her case notes can be used by the midwives and doctors until her hospital notes arrive.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00102	Why do people say we know more about outer space than we know about our ocean? How can people quantify this?	People can say whatever they want and it doesn't need to be even the slightest bit accurate for them to say it, or for other people to repeat it. There are large chunks of our ocean that are unexplored. This is a fact. Obviously the universe is nearly infinitely larger and we have not explored any of it physically outside of our own solar system, and only in extremely small detail with telescopes.	[ "A typical basic depth measuring device is the US AN/UQN-4A. Both the water surface and bottom are reflecting and scattering boundaries. For many purposes, but not all naval tactical applications, the sea-air surface can be thought of as a perfect reflector. In reality, there are complex interactions of water surface activity, seafloor characteristics, water temperature and salinity, and other factors that make \"...range predictions difficult. Multi-path degradation affects overall figure of merit and active classification. As a result, false target identifications are frequent.\"\n", "BULLET::::- NASA's OceanColor Web\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Gene Carl Feldman presents lecture \"Satellites, Seabirds and Seals: A thirty year retrospective of Ocean Color from Space\" on June 27, 2012 at NASA Goddard\n\nBULLET::::- Monitoring the Earth from Space with SeaWiFS\n\nBULLET::::- SeaWiFS 10 Year Global Biosphere Animation\n\nBULLET::::- Climate Warming Reduces Ocean Food Supply\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Betsy Pugel interviews Dr. Gene Carl Feldman for “Straight from the Scientist’s. Mouth”\n\nBULLET::::- From Sea to Shining Sea - A Film Treatment for the Science Channel Documentary about the Ben Franklin\n", "Space Saves Society makes uses of satellite imagery and satellite radiometer readings. The first, being acquired across a variety of EM spectrums, enables the identification of information otherwise impossible to be perceived, such as changes in recent changes in water volume, pollution, changes in concentration and vegetation, etc. Radiometer readings vary among surface temperatures, currents, salinity and other properties which can be used as indicators for understanding the changes and stresses an area might undergo. \n\nBased upon the above technology, Space Saves Society focuses its studies on the following six main areas:\n", "The ocean data products that can be derived from the measurements are mainly the chlorophyll concentration, the optical diffuse attenuation coefficients, the concentration of dissolved organic material or yellow substance, and the concentration of suspended particles in the near-surface zone of the sea. In operational oceanography, satellite derived data products are used in conjunction with numerical models and in situ measurements to provide forecasting and now casting of the ocean state. Such information is of genuine interest for many categories of users.\n\nSection::::Vision and goals.\n\nBULLET::::- Detecting, monitoring and predicting short term biophysical phenomena\n", "All types of literacy in Earth systems have a definition like the above. Ocean literacy is further defined as \"understanding our impact on the ocean and the ocean's impact on us\".\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n\nThere are a number of ways to measure ocean turbidity, including autonomous remote vehicles, shipcasts and satellites.\n", "Study of the oceans is linked to understanding global climate changes, potential global warming and related biosphere concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. All these factors relate to the ocean's biogeochemical setup.\n\nFurther understanding of the worlds oceans permit scientists to better decide weather changes which in addition guides to a more reliable utilization of earths resources. \n\nSection::::Branches.\n", "The collection of the data is useful for the long-term information about the ocean and its currents. According to NASA science this data can also be used to provide understanding of weather, climate, navigation, fisheries management, and offshore operations. Observations made about the data are used to study the oceans tides, circulation, and the amount of heat the ocean contains. These observations can help predict short and long term effects of the weather and the earth’s climate over time.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "In 2007, the National Science and Technology Council's Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology developed an Ocean Research Priorities Strategy, which provides a research investment framework to advance understanding of ocean processes and interactions that facilitate responsible use of the ocean environment. The ORPS identified three cross-cutting elements, one of which is ocean observing for research and management.\n", "The quality of \"in situ\" measurements is non-uniform across space, time and platforms. Different platforms employ a large variety of sensors, which operate in a wide range of often hostile environments and use different measurement protocols. Occasionally, buoys are left unattended for extended periods of time, while ships may involve a certain amount of the human-related impacts in data collection and transmission. Therefore, quality control is necessary before in situ data can be further used in scientific research or other applications. This is an example of quality control and monitoring of sea surface temperatures measured by ships and buoys, the iQuam system developed at NOAA/NESDIS/STAR, where statistics show the quality of \"in situ\" measurements of sea surface temperatures.\n", "Half the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans over 3,000 metres deep, making them the biggest ecosystem on the planet. Nevertheless, due to the limitations of the technology available until just recently, the oceans remain something of a mystery. Indeed, it is often said that we know more about the Moon or Mars than Earth’s oceans.\n", "Water resources have not been so widely studied as compared to land and atmosphere, mainly because there exist more difficulties in the first case scenario. That’s the reason why studies in such cases are usually realised via UAVs and in-situ measurements. However, recent developments in water remote sensing allows more detailed analysis and understanding of the status of the water regions studied and of the effects that this can give rise to.\n\nSection::::Motivation and background.:Means and Areas of focus.\n", "There is a composite network of subsurface observations. These include:\n\nSection::::Accuracy of measurements.\n", "In 1977, Colwell produced the award-winning film, \"Invisible Seas.\" In this 26 minute film, the microbiology department at the University of Maryland, College Park demonstrates what types of methodology are required of marine microbiologists when studying microorganisms in the ocean. They emphasize the importance of marine microbiologists studying microorganisms in the ocean in order to determine the impact pollution has had on our oceans.\n", "In 1977 the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) deployed the first successful moored equatorial current meter – the beginning of the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean, TAO, array. In 1984 the Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere program (TOGA) program began.\n\nSection::::Organizational structure.:NOAA Services.:Office of Marine and Aviation Operations.\n", "In a Podcast interview with Social Science Space Massey talks about the idea of physical space being alive: \"A lot of what I've been trying to do over the all too many years when I’ve been writing about space is to bring space alive, to dynamize it and to make it relevant, to emphasize how important space is in the lives in which we live. Most obviously I would say that space is not a flat surface across which we walk; Raymond Williams talked about this: you’re taking a train across the landscape – you’re not traveling across a dead flat surface that is space: you’re cutting across myriad stories going on. So instead of space being this flat surface it's like a pincushion of a million stories: if you stop at any point in that walk there will be a house with a story. Raymond Williams spoke about looking out of a train window and there was this woman clearing the grate, and he speeds on and forever in his mind she’s stuck in that moment. But actually, of course, that woman is in the middle of doing something, it’s a story. Maybe she's going away tomorrow to see her sister, but really before she goes she really must clean that grate out because she’s been meaning to do it for ages. So I want to see space as a cut through the myriad stories in which we are all living at any one moment. Space and time become intimately connected.\"\n", "Pendleton worked with NOAA in 2005 on the National Ocean Economics Program (NOEP) as a nonmarket research specialist. The goal of this program was to determine the value of ocean and coastal resources to give coastal managers a “better understanding of the value of an area’s resources and how important they are to local and national economies.”\n", "In June 1966, the U.S. Congress passed the Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act, which declared that it was U.S. Government policy to:\n\n...develop, encourage, and maintain a coordinated, comprehensive, and long-range national program in marine science for the benefit of mankind, to assist in protection of health and property, enhancement of commerce, transportation, and national security, rehabilitation of our commercial fisheries, and increased utilization of these and other resources.\n", "The Ocean Agency\n\nThe Ocean Agency is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to marine conservation. Currently, The Ocean Agency is focused on coral reef conservation.\n\nSection::::Projects.\n\nIn 2012, The Ocean Agency launched the XL Catlin Seaview Survey to create an underwater Google Street View using the Seaview SVI and Seaview SVII 360-degree underwater cameras. From 2013 to 2016, The Ocean Agency visited more than 26 countries and surveyed over 1,000 km of reef area, taking over a million 360-degree images with the cameras.\n", "BULLET::::- NOAA NODC WOA05 is the World Ocean Atlas 2005, an atlas of objectively analyzed fields of major ocean parameters at monthly, seasonal, and annual time scales.\n\nIn situ observations spanning from the early 1700s to present are available from the International Comprehensive Ocean Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS).\n\nThis data set includes observations of a number of the surface ocean and atmospheric variables from ships, moored and drifting buoys and C-MAN stations.\n", "The field of global change biology includes investigation of evidence relating to global warming and ocean acidification. Many of the measurable changes in global climate occur in the sea. Coral bleaching is an example of an indicator of change, and scuba diving has provided a large amount of low-impact observational data contributing significantly to the large body of knowledge on the subject over several decades.\n", "Coastal ocean dynamics are important for many societal applications. They have smaller spatial and temporal scales than the dynamics of the open ocean and require finer-scale monitoring. SWOT will provide global, high-resolution observations in coastal regions for observing coastal currents and storm surges. While SWOT is not designed to monitor the fast temporal changes of the coastal processes, the swath coverage will allow us to characterize the spatial structure of their dynamics when they occur within the swath.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Reducing environmental risk and contributing to public policy-making.\n", "BULLET::::1. Enhanced knowledge of emerging ocean science issues\n", "BULLET::::- 16 Cooperative Institutes\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA Climate Program Office\n\nBULLET::::- Office of Weather and Air Quality\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA National Sea Grant Program\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA Unmanned Aircraft Systems\n\nBULLET::::- NOAA Ocean Acidification Program\n\nSection::::What NOAA Research does.\n\nWorking under the broad themes of Climate, Atmosphere, and Oceans, NOAA scientists study the ocean's depths and the highest reaches of space. NOAA's long-term commitment to conducting preeminent research includes engaging in-house and external talent to: \n\nBULLET::::- Continue to conduct experiments to understand natural processes (physical, geochemical, ecological)\n", "Section::::Data transmission to the International Scientific Community.\n" ]	[ "People say we know more about space than the ocean and it is true." ]	[ "This is just a thing that was stated by someone and is repeated all the time. It is not true. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People say we know more about space than the ocean and it is true." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "This is just a thing that was stated by someone and is repeated all the time. It is not true. " ]
2018-16907	What's the difference between symptoms of the common cold, and symptoms of the inflammation my body is producing to fight the virus attempting to cause the common cold?	Rhinovirus is a particularly simple and relatively harmless virus. Don't get me wrong, the common cold is plenty dangerous, but only if you're immunocompromised, very young, very old, etc. It, like all other viruses, is destroying your cells in order to replicate. With a simple virus like this, that's pretty much the only effect the virus is actually having; destroying some cells. You're right in that, when it comes to the common cold as caused by a rhinovirus, practically all of your symptoms are simply the immune response at work. They are all designed to either dispose of virus or virus-infected cells, or otherwise destroy them. Your body heats up in order to destabilize the viral replication process, causing fever. You are expelling mucus containing viral particles and the immune cells they were doing battle with via a sneeze. Et cetera, et cetera. This isn't the case for every virus, though. Virtually every virus causes damage by destroying some kind of cell, which varies in severity. HIV, for example, is so dangerous because the cells it destroys are supremely important in the body. Other viruses have direct effects on the body, typically as a means to disable or hamper the immune response: Ebola is particularly deadly because it does such a fantastic job suppressing the immune system. As for the bleeding out of every orifice, well, that doesn't happen in every Ebola patient and we kinda still don't know why it does happen sometimes.	[ "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe distinction between viral upper respiratory tract infections is loosely based on the location of symptoms with the common cold affecting primarily the nose, pharyngitis (the throat), and bronchitis (the lungs). There can be significant overlap and more than one area can be affected. The common cold is frequently defined as nasal inflammation with varying amount of throat inflammation. Self-diagnosis is frequent. Isolation of the viral agent involved is rarely performed, and it is generally not possible to identify the virus type through symptoms.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "In people with secondary CAD (associated with another underlying condition), there may be additional signs and symptoms depending on the condition present. For example: Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection (the most common cause of secondary CAD) may cause respiratory symptoms. Various infections or cancers may cause enlarged or swollen lymph nodes.\n\nBULLET::::- 80–99% of people have these symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- Arthralgia\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmunity\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- Hemolytic anemia\n\nBULLET::::- Muscular weakness\n\nBULLET::::- Pallor\n\nBULLET::::- 5–29% of people have these symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal urine color\n\nBULLET::::- Back pain\n\nBULLET::::- Diarrhea\n\nBULLET::::- Headache\n\nBULLET::::- Hepatomegaly\n\nBULLET::::- Lymphadenopathy\n\nBULLET::::- Nausea and vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- Splenomegaly\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "The color of the sputum or nasal secretion may vary from clear to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Progression.\n", "Rhinovirus-caused colds are most infectious during the first three days of symptoms; they are much less infectious afterwards.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Weather.\n", "The symptoms of the common cold are believed to be primarily related to the immune response to the virus. The mechanism of this immune response is virus specific. For example, the rhinovirus is typically acquired by direct contact; it binds to human via ICAM-1 receptors and the CDHR3 receptor through unknown mechanisms to trigger the release of inflammatory mediators. These inflammatory mediators then produce the symptoms. It does not generally cause damage to the nasal epithelium. The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), on the other hand, is contracted by direct contact and airborne droplets. It then replicates in the nose and throat before frequently spreading to the lower respiratory tract. RSV does cause epithelium damage. Human parainfluenza virus typically results in inflammation of the nose, throat, and bronchi. In young children when it affects the trachea it may produce the symptoms of croup due to the small size of their airways.\n", "The typical symptoms of a cold include cough, runny nose, sneezing, nasal congestion, and a sore throat, sometimes accompanied by muscle ache, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. A sore throat is present in about 40% of cases and a cough in about 50%, while muscle ache occurs in about half. In adults, a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children. The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza. While a cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults, a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections.\n", "BULLET::::- West Nile meningoencephalitis is inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and meninges (meningitis).\n\nBULLET::::- West Nile poliomyelitis (WNP), an acute flaccid paralysis syndrome associated with WNV infection, is less common than WNM or WNE. This syndrome is generally characterized by the acute onset of asymmetric limb weakness or paralysis in the absence of sensory loss. Pain sometimes precedes the paralysis. The paralysis can occur in the absence of fever, headache, or other common symptoms associated with WNV infection. Involvement of respiratory muscles, leading to acute respiratory failure, sometimes occurs.\n", "A number of various diseases may present with symptoms similar to those caused by a clinical West Nile virus infection. Those causing neuroinvasive disease symptoms include the enterovirus infection and bacterial meningitis. Accounting for differential diagnoses is a crucial step in the definitive diagnosis of WNV infection. Consideration of a differential diagnosis is required when a patient presents with unexplained febrile illness, extreme headache, encephalitis or meningitis. Diagnostic and serologic laboratory testing using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and viral culture of CSF to identify the specific pathogen causing the symptoms, is the only currently available means of differentiating between causes of encephalitis and meningitis.\n", "The symptoms vary greatly, in part, because of the underlying or causing infection. While the inflammation can cause a number of effects such as those mentioned previously, the base infection could cause other symptoms that don’t necessarily have to do with the ventriculitis, itself. One of the challenges doctors face in diagnosing ventriculitis is distinguishing indicative symptoms, in spite of the wide variety of possible presentations of the disease. A great deal of emphasis is being put on research into better and faster ways to diagnose ventriculitis without the delay inherent with microbiological testing of the cerebrospinal fluid.\n", "Characteristics of a viral infection can include pain, swelling, redness, impaired function, fever, drowsiness, confusion and convulsions.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nBULLET::::- Acute - the most common diseases caused by acute viral infections are encephalitis, flaccid paralysis, aseptic meningitis, post infectious and encephalomyelitis.\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic - the most common diseases caused by chronic viral infections are subacute-sclerosing panencephalitis, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, retrovirus disease and spongiform encephalopathies.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nProphylactic vaccination is available against poliomyelitis, measles, Japanese encephalitis, and rabies. Hyper immune immunoglobulin has been used for prophylaxis of measles, herpes zoster virus, HSV-2, vaccine, rabies, and some other infections in high-risk groups.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Patients with Franklin disease usually have a history of progressive weakness, fatigue, intermittent fever, night sweats and weight loss and may present with lymphadenopathy (62%), splenomegaly (52%) or hepatomegaly (37%). The fever is considered secondary to impaired cellular and humoral immunity, and thus recurrent infections are the common clinical presentation in Franklin disease. Weng et al. described the first case of Penicillium sp. infection in a patient with Franklin disease and emphasized the importance of proper preparation for biopsy, complete hematologic investigation, culture preparation and early antifungal coverage to improve the outcome.\n", "There is no vaccine for the common cold. The primary methods of prevention are hand washing; not touching the eyes, nose or mouth with unwashed hands; and staying away from sick people. Some evidence supports the use of face masks. There is also no cure, but the symptoms can be treated. Zinc may reduce the duration and severity of symptoms if started shortly after the onset of symptoms. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen may help with pain. Antibiotics, however, should not be used and there is no good evidence for cough medicines.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nTreatment for the common cold primarily involves medications and other therapies for symptomatic relief. Getting plenty of rest, drinking fluids to maintain hydration, and gargling with warm salt water are reasonable conservative measures. Much of the benefit from symptomatic treatment is, however, attributed to the placebo effect. No medications or herbal remedies have been conclusively demonstrated to shorten the duration of infection.\n\nSection::::Management.:Symptomatic.\n", "They cause symptoms ranging from short self-limiting fevers, such as pappataci fever, to encephalitis and fatal haemorrhagic fever.\n\nSection::::Serogroups.\n\nThere are several recognized serocomplexes\n\nSection::::Serogroups.:Bhanja serocomplex.\n\nBULLET::::- Bhanja virus\n\nBULLET::::- Forecariah virus\n\nBULLET::::- Kismayo virus\n\nBULLET::::- Palma virus\n\nSection::::Serogroups.:Candiru serocomplex.\n\nBULLET::::- Candiru virus\n\nSection::::Serogroups.:Frijoles serocomplex.\n\nBULLET::::- Frijoles virus\n\nSection::::Serogroups.:Salehabad serocomplex.\n\nBULLET::::- Adana virus\n\nBULLET::::- Adria virus\n\nBULLET::::- Alcube virus\n\nBULLET::::- Arbia virus\n\nBULLET::::- Salehabad virus\n\nSection::::Serogroups.:Sandfly fever serocomplex.\n\nThe sandfly serocomplex is divided into two groups: Naples and Sicilian\n\nBULLET::::- Sandfly fever Naples group\n\nBULLET::::- Granada virus\n\nBULLET::::- Massila virus\n\nBULLET::::- Punique virus\n\nBULLET::::- Sandfly fever Naples virus\n", "A cold usually begins with fatigue, a feeling of being chilled, sneezing, and a headache, followed in a couple of days by a runny nose and cough. Symptoms may begin within sixteen hours of exposure and typically peak two to four days after onset. They usually resolve in seven to ten days, but some can last for up to three weeks. The average duration of cough is eighteen days and in some cases people develop a post-viral cough which can linger after the infection is gone. In children, the cough lasts for more than ten days in 35–40% of cases and continues for more than 25 days in 10%.\n", "Viral Meningitis is mostly caused by an infectious agent that has colonized somewhere in its host. People who are already in an immunocompromised state are at the highest risk of pathogen entry. Potential sites for this include the skin, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, nasopharynx, and genitourinary tract. The organism invades the submucosa at these sites by invading host defenses, such as local immunity, physical barriers, and phagocytes or macrophages. After pathogen invasion, the immune system is activated. An infectious agent can enter the central nervous system and cause meningeal disease via invading the bloodstream, a retrograde neuronal pathway, or by direct contiguous spread. Immune cells and damaged endothelial cells release matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), cytokines, and nitric oxide. MMPs and NO induce vasodilation in the cerebral vasculature. Cytokines induce capillary wall changes in the blood brain barrier, which leads to expression of more leukocyte receptors, thus increasing white blood cell binding and extravasation.\n", "Symptoms appear within 1–8 days after exposure to \"C. canimorsus\" but usually present around day 2. Symptoms range from mild, flu-like symptoms to full-blown fulminant sepsis. Individuals often complain of any combination of: fever, vomiting, diarrhea, malaise, abdominal pain, myalgia, confusion, dyspnea, headaches, and skin rashes such as exanthema. More severe cases of endocarditis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and meningitis have been reported. Prior treatment with methylprednisolone has been shown to prolong bacteremia in these infections, which enables the progression of endocarditis.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment is first with many different high-dose steroids, namely glucocorticoids. Then, if symptoms do not improve additional immunosuppression such as cyclophosphamide are added to decrease the immune system's attack on the body's own tissues. Cerebral vasculitis is a very rare condition that is difficult to diagnose, and as a result there are significant variations in the way it is diagnosed and treated.\n\nSection::::Specific Diseases.\n\nSection::::Specific Diseases.:Giant cell arteritis (GCA).\n\nSection::::Specific Diseases.:Giant cell arteritis (GCA).:Symptoms.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever\n\nBULLET::::- general uneasiness\n\nBULLET::::- weight loss\n\nBULLET::::- inflammation of the muscles causing stiffness in the shoulders; neck; and/or upper arms\n\nBULLET::::- persisting headache\n", "Inflammation can occur when the immune system recognizes an antigen and activates the immune response cascade. The transcribed and translated products of the HERV-W Env gene come from retroviral DNA thus the human body detects these proteins as antigens triggering the immune response. Specifically, cytokine production is elevated in the MS PBMC cultures as compared to the healthy controls and mediated by the surface unit of the MSRV Env protein.\n", "The common cold is generally mild and self-limiting with most symptoms generally improving in a week. Half of cases go away in 10 days and 90% in 15 days. Severe complications, if they occur, are usually in the very old, the very young, or those who are immunosuppressed. Secondary bacterial infections may occur resulting in sinusitis, pharyngitis, or an ear infection. It is estimated that sinusitis occurs in 8% and ear infection in 30% of cases.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Some advise to avoid physical exercise if there are symptoms such as fever, widespread muscle aches or fatigue. It is regarded as safe to perform moderate exercise if the symptoms are confined to the head, including runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing, or a minor sore throat. There is an old wives tale that having a hot drink can help with cold symptoms, but evidence to support this is very limited.\n\nSection::::Management.:Antibiotics and antivirals.\n", "They can be divided into three phases: \n\nBULLET::::- Acute - mild inflammatory cell infiltration\n\nBULLET::::- Subacute – intense inflammatory reactions\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic – increase of perivascular cuffing, extensive necrosis\n\nAdditionally you can observe temporal lobes with dense mononuclear cells infiltrating the meninges, and cerebellar herniation through the foramen magnum, which leads to neurological symptoms like continuous circling or stroke like seizures. Attempts at proving a viral etiology have been unsuccessful.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Any living organism can contract a virus by giving parasites the opportunity to grow. Parasites feed on the nutrients of another organism which allows the virus to thrive. Once the human body detects a virus, it then creates fighter cells that attack the parasite/virus; literally, causing a war within the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately. Symptoms of this virus are very similar to the common cold but much worse. Body aches, sore throat, headache, cold sweats, muscle aches and fatigue are among the many symptoms accompanied by the virus. A viral infection in the upper respiratory tract results in the common cold. With symptoms like sore throat, sneezing, small fever, and a cough, the common cold is usually harmless and tends to clear up within a week or so. The common cold is also a virus that is spread through the air but can also be passed through direct contact. This infection takes a few days to develop symptoms; it is a gradual process unlike the flu.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Medications.\n\nA number of treatments have been investigated in the past for IPF, including interferon gamma-1β, bosentan, ambrisentan, and anticoagulants, but these are no longer considered effective treatment options. Many of these earlier studies were based on the hypothesis that IPF is an inflammatory disorder.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.:Pirfenidone.\n", "Terms such as ‘mild’, ‘moderate’, and ‘severe’ are sometimes used for staging disease and are commonly based on resting pulmonary function test measurements. However, there is no clear consensus regarding the staging of IPF patients and what are the best criteria and values to use. Mild-to-moderate IPF has been characterized by the following functional criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) of ≥50%\n\nBULLET::::- DL of ≥30%\n\nBULLET::::- 6MWT distance ≥150 meters.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00443	How is it possible that I copied a file without copy all of its content?	I would make another copy, and get the user to try to put more data into the file as they had done before - see if it shows up. My brain goes to PICNIC error first here. If your system said the file copied successfully, then it most likely did (unless you mean that computer 1 died during the transfer?). It's extremely unlikely (probably impossible) for a copy operation to keep a file in a readable format, but leave out some data.	[ "As an example, reading a file and then sending it over a network the traditional way requires two data copies and two context switches per read/write cycle. One of those data copies uses the CPU. Sending the same file via zero copy reduces the context switches to two and eliminates all CPU data copies.\n", "Copy-evident computer image files are also possible, for example by embedding a high-frequency pattern in a JPEG image that is imperceptible, but produces an obvious message when re-compressed with a different quality factor.\n\nSome forms of paper watermarking and digital watermarking can be regarded as copy-evidence, although detecting that a document or file has been copied typically requires special inspection, tools or software. For example, 3D printed objects can be equipped with marks of genuinity that can be identified using a measurement device but are hard to deduce from sample objects; copies will lack these marks.\n", "Phantom OS uses CoW at all levels, not just a database or file system. At any time, a computer running this system can fail, and then, when it starts again, the software and operating system resume operation. Only small amounts of work can be lost.\n\nThe basic approach is that all program data are kept in virtual memory. On some schedule, a summary of all software data are written to virtual memory, forming a log that tracks the current value and location of each value. \n", "The copy-on-write technique can be used to emulate a read-write storage on media that require wear leveling or are physically write once read many.\n\nThe qcow2 (QEMU copy on write) disk image format uses the copy-on-write technique to reduce disk image size.\n\nSome Live CDs (and Live USBs) use copy-on-write techniques to give the impression of being able to add and delete files in any directory, without actually making any changes to the CD (or USB flash drive).\n\nSection::::In high-reliability software.\n", "When the computer fails, a recent copy of the log and other data remain safe on disk. When operation resumes, operating system software reads the log to restore consistent copies of all the programs and data.\n\nThis approach uses copy-on-write at all levels in all software, including in application software. This requires support within the application programming language. In practice, Phantom OS permits only languages that generate Java byte codes.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Allocate-on-flush\n\nBULLET::::- Btrfs\n\nBULLET::::- Demand paging\n\nBULLET::::- Dirty COW – a computer security vulnerability for the Linux operating system kernel\n\nBULLET::::- Flyweight pattern\n\nBULLET::::- Memory management\n", "File verification\n\nFile verification is the process of using an algorithm for verifying the integrity of a computer file. This can be done by comparing two files bit-by-bit, but requires two copies of the same file, and may miss systematic corruptions which might occur to both files. A more popular approach is to generate a hash of the copied file and comparing that to the hash of the original file.\n\nSection::::Integrity verification.\n", "Snapshots and cloned files share extents. When a small part of a large such extent is overwritten, the resulting copy-on-write may create three new extents: a small one containing the overwritten data, and two large ones with unmodified data on either side of the overwrite. To avoid having to re-write unmodified data, the copy-on-write may instead create \"bookend extents\", or extents which are simply slices of existing extents. Extent data items allow for this by including an offset into the extent they are tracking: items for bookends are those with non-zero offsets.\n", "File copying is the creation of a new copy file which has the same content as an existing file.\n\nSection::::Description.:Shadow.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nFor the simple case, nodes are never deleted. At each step we create a new node\n\nwith a single edge emanating from it. Let u be a page chosen\n\nuniformly at random from the pages in existence before this\n\nstep.\n\n(I) With probability formula_1, the only parameter of the model,\n\nthe new edge points to u.\n\n(II) With probability formula_2,\n\nthe new edge points to the destination of u's (sole) out-link;\n\nthe new node attains its edge by copying.\n", "CoW may also be used as the underlying mechanism for snapshots, such as those provided by logical volume management, file systems such as Btrfs and ZFS, and database servers such as Microsoft SQL Server. Typically, the snapshots store only the modified data, and are stored close to the main array, so they are only a weak form of incremental backup and cannot substitute for a full backup. Some systems also use a CoW technique to avoid the fuzzy backups, otherwise incurred when any file in the set of files being backed up changes during that backup.\n", "Zero-copy\n\n\"Zero-copy\" describes computer operations in which the CPU does not perform the task of copying data from one memory area to another. This is frequently used to save CPU cycles and memory bandwidth when transmitting a file over a network.\n\nSection::::Principle.\n", "However, it is possible that two filenames on two different secondary volumes will be encrypted to the same filename. In this case, any other file will be overwritten with a new file being created. Note that this refers only to the encrypted filenames, not the unencrypted filenames. This danger can be averted by creating one directory per secondary volume and storing files in the only visible directory after a secondary volume is mounted.\n", "\"Array's\" destructor deletes the \"data\" array of the original, therefore when it deleted \"copy's\" data, because they share the same pointer, it also deleted \"first's\" data. Line (2) now accesses invalid data and writes to it! This produces the infamous segmentation fault. \n\nIf we write our own copy constructor that performs a \"deep copy\" then this problem goes away. \n\nHere, we are creating a new int array and copying the contents to it. Now, \"other's\" destructor deletes only its data, and not \"first's\" data. Line (2) will not produce a segmentation fault anymore.\n", "Automatic merging of backups: If one has two or more damaged copies of a file, CD-ROM, etc., and run ddrescue on all of them, one at a time, with the same output file, one will probably obtain a complete and error-free file. Using the logfile, only the needed blocks are read from the second and successive copies.\n", "In this algorithm, the video is divided in \"N\" blocks, sorted by gray level. Then it's possible to create a vector describing the average gray level of each block.\n\nWith these average levels it is possible to create a new vector \"S(t)\", the video's signature:\n\nformula_2\n\nTo compare two videos, the algorithm defines a \"D(t)\" representing the similarity between both.\n\nformula_3\n\nThe value returned by \"D(t)\" helps determine whether the video in question is a copy.\n\nSection::::Algorithms.:Global Descriptors.:Ordinal and Temporal Descriptors.\n", "An actual move (\"viz.\", a rename) is dramatically faster than the circuitous copy-and-move procedure. The file's i-number (short for \"i-node number\") does not change. No permission is required to read the file being moved insofar as—conceptually speaking—it is only cataloguing information that is being changed as a result of the \"move.\" Since the source and target directories are being modified, to wit, entries are being created within the target directory and erased from within the source directory, \"write\" permission in both directories is required to complete the move. Moving files from one file system to another may fail entirely or may be automatically performed as an atomic copy-and-delete action; the actual details are dependent upon the implementation.\n", "For some time, Locksmith continued to defeat virtually all of the copy protection systems in existence. The next advance came from Henry Roberts' thesis on software copy protection, which devised a way of replacing Apple’s sync field of FFs with random appearing patterns of bytes. Because the graduate student had frequent copy protection discussions with Apple’s copy protection engineer, Apple developed a copy protection system which made use of this technique.\n", "In the above expression, the following transformation has been used: \n\nHowever, if we are able to delete a copy, then, at the output port of the deleting machine, the combined state should be \n\nIn general, these states are not identical and hence we can say that the machine fails to delete a copy. If we require that the final output states are same, then we will see that there is only one option:\n\nand\n", "Malware has used alternate data streams to hide code. As a result, malware scanners and other special tools now check for alternate data streams.\n\nSection::::Features.:File compression.\n", "BULLET::::- If the drive has to seek forwards, the sector's original content \"\"Jill\"\" is returned.\n\nBULLET::::- If the drive has to seek backwards, the sector's twin \"\"Mary\"\" is returned.\n\nA protected program can check whether the CD-ROM is original by positioning the drive behind sector \"6553\" and then reading from it — expecting the \"Mary\" version to appear. When a program tries to copy such a CD-ROM, it will miss the twin-sector as the drive skips the second \"6553\"-sector, seeking for sector \"6554\".\n", "An early implementation was IBM OS/360 where a program could instruct the channel subsystem to copy blocks of data from one file or device to another without the nucleus having to copy the data to an intermediate buffer.\n\nTechniques for creating zero-copy software include the use of DMA-based copying and memory-mapping through an MMU. These features require specific hardware support and usually involve particular memory alignment requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- Hach PORs (proofs of retrievability for large files) is based on a symmetric cryptographic system, where there is only one verification key that must be stored in a file to improve its integrity. This method serves to encrypt a file F and then generate a random string named \"sentinel\" that must be added at the end of the encrypted file. The server cannot locate the sentinel, which is impossible differentiate from other blocks, so a small change would indicate whether the file has been changed or not.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Steinbuch.\n", "A modification of this approach uses large regions of unreadable sectors with small \"islands\" of readable ones interspersed. Most software trying to copy protected media will skip intervals of sectors when confronted with unreadable ones, expecting them all to be bad. In contrast to the original approach, the protection scheme expects the sectors to be readable, supposing the medium to be a copy when read-errors occur.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Sub-channels.\n", "A process reading from or writing to the underlying file will not always see the same data as a process that has mapped the file, since the segment of the file is copied into RAM and periodically flushed to disk. Synchronization can be forced with the codice_14 system call.\n" ]	[ "Copying a file without copying everything." ]	[ "Copying proces must not have completed correctly and needs to be re done. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Copying a file without copying everything." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Copying proces must not have completed correctly and needs to be re done. " ]
2018-01119	How is it that anti-dandruff shampoo can have “immediate results”? What’s it doing to my head in that short time during/after my shower?	There are multiple causes of dandruff. It can be caused by fungus, excess skin production, or something else interfering with the shedding of dead skin. 1) Coal tar shampoo like T-Gel work by slowing the scalp skin growth. 2) Salicylic Acid shampoos like Head and Shoulders work by applying a mild acid to aid breaking up dead skin. 3) Antifungal shampoos like Ketoconazole shampoo have agents that kill funguses. My guess, given your experiences, would be that you had a build up of dead skin in spite of your T-Gel usage. You used some Salicylic acid that helped removed the excess dead skin. If you keep using the Salicylic acid shampoo, you run the risk of drying out the scalp. I'd stick with T-Gel for preventative usage and the other one when it builds up regardless.	[ "Not all flakes are dandruff. For example, some can merely be product buildup on the scalp skin. This could result from the common practice of applying conditioner to scalp skin without washing. This would dry upon the scalp skin and flake off, appearing like dandruff and even causing itchiness, but have no health effects whatsoever.\n", "Section::::Specialized shampoos.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Dandruff.\n\nCosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have dandruff. These contain fungicides such as ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione and selenium disulfide, which reduce loose dander by killing fungi like \"Malassezia furfur\". Coal tar and salicylate derivatives are often used as well.\n\nAlternatives to medicated shampoos are available for people who wish to avoid synthetic fungicides. Such shampoos often use tea tree oil, essential oils or herbal extracts.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Colored hair.\n\nMany companies have also developed color-protection shampoos suitable for colored hair; some of these shampoos contain gentle cleansers according to their manufacturers.\n", "In the European Union, there is a requirement for the anti-dandruff claim to be substantiated as with any other advertising claim, but it is not considered to be a medical problem.\n\nSection::::Health risks.\n\nA number of contact allergens are used as ingredients in shampoos, and contact allergy caused by shampoos is well known. Patch testing can identify ingredients to which patients are allergic, after which a physician can help the patient find a shampoo that is free of the ingredient to which they are allergic. The US bans 11 ingredients from shampoos, Canada bans 587, and the EU bans 1328.\n", "In cases that are related to fungal infection, such as Tinea capitis, doctors may recommend a treatment application of clotrimazole (commonly prescribed for jock itch or athlete's foot) or miconazole (commonly prescribed for vaginal candidiasis).\n\nDoctors may recommend a treatment with a mild dandruff shampoo such as Selsun Blue even though the treatment may cause initial additional scalp irritation. A doctor may instead prescribe an antifungal soap such as ketoconazole (2%) shampoo, which can work in a single treatment and shows significantly less irritation than over-the-counter shampoos such as selenium disulfide shampoos.\n", "A project in 2007 has sequenced the genome of dandruff-causing \"Malassezia globosa\" and found it to have 4,285 genes. \"M. globosa\" uses eight different types of lipase, along with three phospholipases, to break down the oils on the scalp. Any of these 11 proteins would be a suitable target for dandruff medications.\n\n\"M. globosa\" has been predicted to have the ability to reproduce sexually, but this has not been observed.\n\nSection::::Numbers.\n\nThe number of specimens of \"M. globosa\" on a human head can be up to ten million.\n\nSection::::Treatment of symptomatic scalp infections.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Seborrhoeic dermatitis.\n\nIn seborrhoeic dermatitis, redness and itching frequently occur around the folds of the nose and eyebrow areas, not just the scalp. Dry, thick, well-defined lesions consisting of large, silvery scales may be traced to the less common condition of scalp psoriasis. Inflammation can be characterized by redness, heat, pain, swelling and can cause sensitivity.\n", "BULLET::::- Pus-like drainage\n\nBULLET::::- Shedding\n\nAny of these symptoms may indicate a need for professional assistance from a dermatologist or trichologist for diagnosis.\n\nScalp skin can suffer from infestations of mites, lice, infections of the follicles or fungus. There could be allergic reactions to ingredients in chemical preparations applied to the hair, even ingredients from shampoo or conditioners. Common concerns surrounding dandruff (often associated with excessive sebum); psoriasis, eczema, or seborrheic dermatitis.\n\nAn odor that persists for a few weeks despite regular hair washing may be an indication of a health problem on the scalp skin.\n", "Inflammation and extension of scaling outside the scalp exclude the diagnosis of dandruff from seborrhoeic dermatitis. However, many reports suggest a clear link between the two clinical entities - the mildest form of the clinical presentation of seborrhoeic dermatitis as dandruff, where the inflammation is minimal and remain subclinical.\n\nSeasonal changes, stress, and immunosuppression seem to affect seborrheic dermatitis.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Dandruff scale is a cluster of corneocytes, which have retained a large degree of cohesion with one another and detach as such from the surface of the stratum corneum. A corneocyte is a protein complex that is made of tiny threads of keratin in an organised matrix. The size and abundance of scales are heterogeneous from one site to another and over time. Parakeratotic cells often make up part of dandruff. Their numbers are related to the severity of the clinical manifestations, which may also be influenced by seborrhea.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nShampoos use a combination of special ingredients to control dandruff.\n", "Although hair, dander, and saliva can be minimized, they are still present and can stick to \"clothes and the carpets and furnishings in your home\"; inhaling them, or being licked by the dog, can trigger a reaction in a sensitive person. An air cleaner, air duct outlet and vacuuming with a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter can help clear dander floating in the air.\n", "MdDS is diagnosed several ways, one being by the symptoms: in particular, the \"constant rocking, swaying feeling\" and the abatement of this feeling when in motion again and as a matter of exclusion. There are no definitive tests that confirm MdDS, only tests that rule out other conditions. Tests include hearing and balance, and MdDS is generally diagnosed by either a neurologist or an ear, nose, and throat specialist.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The current treatment of choice is the intravenous administration of dantrolene, the only known antidote, discontinuation of triggering agents, and supportive therapy directed at correcting hyperthermia, acidosis, and organ dysfunction. Treatment must be instituted rapidly on clinical suspicion of the onset of malignant hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Dantrolene.\n", "More pet dander is sloughed off in older animals than in younger animals. Dander build up can be a cause of allergies, such as allergic rhinitis, in humans. \"Dr. Paivi Salo, and allergy expert at the National Institute of Health states 'Currently, airborne allergies affect approximately 10-30% of adults and 40% of children.'”Damp dusting and vacuum cleaners with sealed bodies and fitted with HEPA filters reduce re-distribution of the dander dust, with associated dust mites, into the air.\n\nAn older etymology has it that dander is a dialect synonym of dandruff, possibly from Yorkshire in England.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "As the skin layers continually replace themselves, cells are pushed outward where they die and flake off. For most individuals, these flakes of skin are too small to be visible. However, certain conditions cause cell turnover to be unusually rapid, especially in the scalp. It is hypothesized that for people with dandruff, skin cells may mature and be shed in 2–7 days, as opposed to around a month in people without dandruff. The result is that dead skin cells are shed in large, oily clumps, which appear as white or grayish flakes on the scalp, skin and clothes.\n", "Liver side effects may be seen either as asymptomatic elevation of liver enzymes and/or bilirubin or, most severe, as fatal and nonfatal liver inflammation. The risk of liver inflammation is associated with the duration of treatment and the daily dose. In patients treated for hyperthermia, no liver toxicity has been observed so far. Patients on chronic dantrolene therapy should routinely have LFTs monitored.\n", "Alternative treatments include alpha hydroxy acids (naturally available in small amounts in citrus fruits), Azelaic acid, and zinc. It is not thought that they are as effective as standard medical treatment but they tend to have less side effects. Some suggest tea tree oil and a specific strain of brewer's yeast, called CBS 5926. However, the former can cause contact dermatitis for some as well as breast development in teenage boys and should not be used if one suffers from rosacea as well due to it making the symptoms of that strand of acne worse; the latter (CBS 5962) can cause migraines and intestinal issues for some. None of these have been formally tested by the FDA so beware the risk you take when you forgo traditional Western medicine for herbal supplements.\n", "Older literature cites the fungus \"Malassezia furfur\" (previously known as \"Pityrosporum ovale\") as the cause of dandruff. While this species does occur naturally on the skin surface of both healthy people and those with dandruff, in 2007 it was discovered that the responsible agent is a scalp specific fungus, \"Malassezia globosa\", that metabolizes triglycerides present in sebum by the expression of lipase, resulting in a lipid byproduct oleic acid. During dandruff, the levels of \"Malassezia\" increase by 1.5 to 2 times its normal level. Oleic acid penetrates the top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum, and evokes an inflammatory response in susceptible people which disturbs homeostasis and results in erratic cleavage of stratum corneum cells.\n", "The paper noted that at least three studies supported the safety and effectiveness for weight loss of Cissus quadrangularis (CQ), which is an ingredient used in one of the reformulated Hydroxycut products, but \"lack financial disclosures or funding sources, beyond mentioning that the CQ being tested was provided by\" General Health Alliances, an herbal products manufacturer. The studies did not disclose that one of its authors was a chief scientific officer for GHA that holds a patent on a CQ product.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- FDA Letter to Iovate Health Sciences re: Hydroxycut. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 30 April 2009.\n", "There is no known cure. The typical treatment is with antifungal cream such as ketoconazole. Dandruff affects about half of adults. Onset is usually at puberty. Males are more often affected than females. Rates decrease after the age of 50.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe signs and symptoms of dandruff are an itchy scalp and flakiness. Red and greasy patches of skin and a tingly feeling on the skin are also symptoms.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "A twelve-month follow-up study was performed on actinic keratosis patients who had been treated with ingenol mebutate, 108 of which had been treated for face or scalp and 71 for trunk or extremities and the study found that of those treated for the face or scalp 46.1% had sustained clearance, and of those treated for the trunk 44.0% had sustained clearance for the period of the study.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n", "Dr Dai has developed an intervention that provided improvement in symptoms for 70% of the patients in the clinical trial phase. The protocol involves a physical manipulation of the patient intended to readapt the vestibulo-ocular reflex. While the program is no longer in the research phase, Dai continues to accept patients. According to Dai, \"success\" is measured as a 50% reduction of symptoms.\n\nRecent research reveals a very small percentage of MdDS cases may be related to optokinetic nystagmus (OKN).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Motion sickness (seasickness, travel sickness)\n\nBULLET::::- Space adaptation syndrome (Space flight \"zero-g\" and return)\n", "It was approved for the treatment of scalp hair loss in South Korea since 2009 and in Japan since 2015. It has not been approved for this indication in the United States, though it is often used off-label.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Generic names.\n\n\"Dutasteride\" is the generic name of the drug and its , , , and .\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Brand names.\n", "DHEA levels are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Adult men: 180–1250 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Adult women: 130–980 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Pregnant women: 135–810 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Prepubertal children (1 year): 26–585 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Prepubertal children (1–5 years): 9–68 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Prepubertal children (6–12 years): 11–186 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Adolescent boys (Tanner II–III): 25–300 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Adolescent girls (Tanner II–III): 69–605 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Adolescent boys (Tanner IV–V): 100–400 ng/dL\n\nBULLET::::- Adolescent girls (Tanner IV–V): 165–690 ng/dL\n\nSection::::Biochemistry.:Measurement.\n", "Section::::Facial.\n\nRice bran is sometimes added to the guano for the purpose of exfoliation. The powder is mixed with water yielding a paste. The paste is massaged into the skin for a few minutes and then it is rinsed off. The facial is usually rather odorless and sanitized. The added rice bran can also neutralize the slight musky odor.\n\nIn one New York spa that offers the Geisha Facial, the process takes about one hour and costs $180.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of facial.\n", "Because hydrosols are produced at high temperatures and are somewhat acidic, they tend to inhibit bacterial growth but not fungal growth. They are not sterile, and should be kept refrigerated to preserve freshness. Herbal distillates degrade over time and will degrade faster than essential oils, which are more stable and will degrade slower. Small-scale producers of hydrosols must be particularly aware of the risk of bacterial contamination and take steps to prevent it. Despite concerns that there may be significant amounts of heavy metals in popular herbal distillates, this has not shown to be the case.\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02384	Why do singers scrunch up their shoulders or move their hand up and down when they sing higher/lower?	By flexing the diaphragm it changes the pitch and tone of the note. Sometimes it takes auxillary muscles. Imagine someone flexing their bicep with a straight arm. But they dont get the most of it. Also some is ritual.	[ "There are eight components of the ideal singing posture:\n\nBULLET::::1. Feet slightly apart\n\nBULLET::::2. Legs straight but knees slightly bent\n\nBULLET::::3. Hips facing straight forward\n\nBULLET::::4. Spine aligned\n\nBULLET::::5. Abdomen flat\n\nBULLET::::6. Chest comfortably forward\n\nBULLET::::7. Shoulders down and back\n\nBULLET::::8. Head facing straight forward\n\nSection::::Vocal pedagogy.:Breathing and breath support.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "McKinney says, \"These three factors can be expressed in three basic rules: (1) As you sing higher, you must use more energy; as you sing lower, you must use less. (2) As you sing higher, you must use more space; as you sing lower, you must use less. (3) As you sing higher, you must use more depth; as you sing lower, you must use less.\"\n\nSection::::Vocal pedagogy.:Posture.\n", "Shoulderstand is entered from a supine position with the knees bent. The shoulders may be supported on folded blankets, and the upper arms may be held in with a belt just above the elbows. Beginners may lift with bent legs, advanced users with straight legs. The back is supported by the hands: once up, the hands reach lower down the trunk towards the head, and the trunk is lifted further; the legs may then be straightened to a vertical position.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "BULLET::::2. The \"space\" factor – \"space\" refers to the size of the inside of the mouth and the position of the palate and larynx. Generally speaking, a singer's mouth should be opened wider the higher he or she sings. The internal space or position of the soft palate and larynx can be widened by relaxing the throat. Vocal pedagogists describe this as feeling like the \"beginning of a yawn\".\n", "BULLET::::2. The Space Factor – Space refers to the amount of space created by the moving of the mouth and the position of the palate and larynx. Generally speaking, a singer's mouth should be opened wider the higher they sing. The internal space or position of the soft palate and larynx can be widened by the relaxing of the throat. Voice teachers often describe this as feeling like the \"beginning of a yawn\".\n", "To execute the exercise, the weightlifter attains a prone rib cage position. This is usually done by standing and bending over, or by laying face-down on a bench. Flat is ideal, though slight inclines can also be used. The arms hang straight down. The goal is to bring the arms to the side away from the body at a 90 degree angle. While leverage is most difficult with fully extended elbows, a slight bend is useful as it allows the lifter to maintain awareness of this.\n", "Torso Control: Torso \"anchoring\" stabilises the body and breath. Gillyanne Kayes writes, 'Techniques for anchoring the tone have been described over the centuries by singers and teachers under a variety of names: support, singing from the back, singing from the neck, appoggiare, rooting, grounding and connecting the voice. In the Estill training model, I believe these techniques have been correctly identified as postural anchoring.'\n\nSection::::Voice qualities.\n", "In a 2011 interview, Nile Rodgers said \"Diana Ross was the first big star we ever worked with and we took it very seriously.\" Rodgers and Edwards interviewed her for several days. \"This was the first time in her life somebody cared about who she was; what she was — everyone previously had treated her the way we had treated Sister Sledge — they got her in and said 'Sing this'. We (took a more personal approach).\"\n", "Certain body postures can significantly influence the tone of voice. For instance, if someone is speaking whilst sitting in a chair with a hunched back, then this obstructs the breathing system, including the throat, and may muffle the tone of voice and convey the impression of being deenergised, unhappy or bored. Whereas if they were sitting up straight, this would allow the breathing system to be unobstructed, the throat to be open, and the tone of voice to be clearer, more energetic and focused.\n\nSection::::Attitude.\n", "Pulling higher with a narrow grip puts the focus on extension rather than adduction of the shoulder.\n\nIf one leans back at the top of the movement, the focus is shifted somewhat towards scapular retraction and hyperextension.\n", "When practiced as an Hasta Vinyasa, a minor back-bend can be performed starting on an inhale after entering the pose. When back-bending, the chest is lifted, shoulders dropped, and shoulder blades brought inward. There is then a pause with the breath held for a moment, and on the exhale one returns to standing (or ). This back bending series is repeated 3–6 times.\n\nThis hand position can also be applied to other asanas, such as uttanasana, as well as backward bending poses. \n\nSection::::Description.:Hands Lock Behind Body Movements.:Hands Interlaced Palms Down.\n", "A seated leg raise is halfway between a lying raise and a hanging/suspended/tractioned one. They are done seated on an elevated surface. Usually the hands are placed on the surface (or arm rests) and bear some of the body's weight to lessen the weight borne on the buttocks and increase abdominal recruitment.\n\nSection::::Angles.:Tractioned.\n\nLeg raises can also be performed hanging onto an overhead bar. These are known as hanging leg raises and are more challenging than lying leg raises.\n", "A compound variation is the bent over row done with a wide overhand grip that allows the elbows out, as opposed to the elbows-in lat-targeting variation. This is also referred to as a \"rear delt row\" as opposed to a \"raise\". Bodyweight/supine rows (or \"australian pullups\") can also be done with a wide overhand grip to target the rear delts. It requires less work by the lower back and legs to stabilize.\n", "McKinney says, \"These three factors can be expressed in three basic rules: (1) As you sing higher, you must use more energy; as you sing lower, you must use less. (2) As you sing higher, you must use more space; as you sing lower, you must use less. (3) As you sing higher, you must use more depth; as you sing lower, you must use less.\"\n\nSection::::Topics of study.:General music studies.\n", "\"Lift Up Your Face\" is a southern rock song with a length of four minutes and twenty-six seconds. It is set in common time in the key of E minor and has a tempo of 88 beats per minute, with a vocal range spanning from D-G. The lyrics to the song portray a hopeful message of salvation and encouragement. Lead vocalist Mac Powell commented that \"The country is going through hard times, and there are doubts and insecurity. The message of 'Lift Up Your Face' is [Third Day's] message of encouragement – not just to listeners though - to us as well. It's a message we all need to hear\".\n", "This twisting asana is normally performed sitting, and has several forms. \n\nIn Marichyasana I, one leg is stretched out straight ahead of the body, the other is bent with the sole of the foot on the floor and the knee up beside the body. The body is twisted towards the side with the straight leg, and the arms are clasped behind the back and around the raised knee. The body may then lean forwards until the nose and chin touch the straight leg. \n", "When sung with a child in the knee, the child is rocked in one direction, and the person singing it moves in the other direction and when the lyrics come to \"slank han/hon ned i diket\" the singer removes his thigh to make the child feel it will fall down. However, it's up to the person singing it to ensure that the child doesn't fall down to the floor.\n\nSection::::Recordings.\n", "From a kneeling position, bring the forehead to the floor and relax the arms alongside the body, palms upwards.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nIf need be, and during pregnancy, the knees can be spread. The arms may be stretched forward in front of the head.\n\nDiscomfort in the neck and shoulders while performing Child's Pose can be alleviated \"by placing a thickly rolled blanket between your buttocks and heels, then bend your elbows and stack your forearms so you can rest your forehead on them.\" \n", "Maximum Bob uses a wide range, using deep and high pitched singing. He usually delivers lyrics in either slow short sections or long fast spoken segments in a deep bass range. His delivery of the chorus uses either deep or high pitched singing or, in studio recorded material, both at the same time, usually creating octaves.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "By carefully controlling the configurations of the vocal cords, a singer may obtain \"undertones\" which may produce period doubling, tripling or a higher degree of multiplication; this may give rise to tones that fairly coincide with those of an inverse harmonic series. Although the octave below is the most frequently used undertone, a twelfth below and other lower undertones are also possible. This technique has been used most notably by Joan La Barbara..However, undertones may be generated by processes that include more than the vocal folds. For instance, the ventricular folds (also called the \"false vocal folds\") may be recruited, probably by solely aerodynamic forces, and made to vibrate with the vocal folds, generating undertones, like those found, for instance, in Tibetan low-pitched chant.\n", "Drummer Maurice White (better known as a singer for Earth, Wind & Fire) also played on the recording. Motown’s Mike Terry played the baritone saxophone.\n", "The above variation is most difficult when the muscle is maximally contracted, and allows both arms to be worked out at once. To emphasize the contraction in a stretched position using a weight, the arms must be worked unilaterally. The exerciser rotates the side he is working toward the ceiling and lies on the opposite side. The resistance meets its peak when the humerus is parallel with the ground. To attain a similar effect, it is common to use a cable crossover variation to the rear lateral raise, which allows the angle to be done on both sides simultaneously and without lying on one's side, which can be uncomfortable for some people.\n", "According to Carl Davis, the Funk Brothers \"used to come over on the weekends from Detroit. They'd load up in the van and come over to Chicago, and I would pay 'em double scale, and I'd pay 'em in cash.\" Similarly, two members of Motown's house session singers The Andantes, Jackie Hicks and Marlene Barrow, along with Pat Lewis (who was filling in for Andantes member Louvain Demps), performed on the session for \"Higher and Higher\". \n", "In 2008, jazz singer Rene Marie was asked to perform the national anthem at a civic event in Denver, Colorado, where she caused a controversy by substituting the words of \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" into the song. This arrangement of the words of \"Lift Ev'ry Voice and Sing\" with the melody of \"The Star Spangled Banner\" became part of the titular suite on her 2011 CD release, \"The Voice of My Beautiful Country\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12707	why do tornado/emergency sirens use that whining drone sound instead of a beeping or something similar?	The whining is created by what is basically a whistle driven by a powerful electric motor. It spins a cylinder with carefully positioned slots in them in order to create the resonant whistle and characteristic whine of the storm/air raid siren. The benefit here is that by adding a more powerful motor you can easily and reliably create an enormously loud sound which is easily recognizable through various background noise. By gradually changing in pitch it will hopefully not be overpowered by some nearby noise which is exactly the same pitch.	[ "BULLET::::- Auckland Radio Ltd – A Waihi, New Zealand company that built warning sirens based on a local design used in fire engines. The Akrad air raid siren was built from 1939, until the factory was closed in 1984. Many fire stations in New Zealand have the sirens, for both fire and civil defense purposes.\n", "BULLET::::- Battle Creek, Michigan has four rotating 1600 watt ATIs, dubbed the HPSS16R. They run 575hz alert for tornado warnings.\n\nBULLET::::- Menominee, Michigan has three rotating ATI HPSS32R units\n\nBULLET::::- Pensacola NAS, Florida, ATI HPSS16 (mostly), the sirens on Pensacola's navy base are mostly used for tornado warnings and they play the colors in the morning and evening. When a warning is issued, these siren sound ATI's version of wail signal during tornado warnings. Attack signal or other signals have not been used yet. These siren are silently tested on Fridays.\n", "Belgium used to test its air raid sirens every first Thursday of the trimester. Sirens are Sonnenburg Electronic sirens. When the air-raid sirens are tested, the message \"proefsignaal\" or \"signal d'essai\" is pronounced every time the sirens work. There are 540 sirens placed all across the country. The system's use was discontinued in January 2019.\n\nSection::::Civil defense sirens around the world.:Europe.:Czech Republic.\n", "Smaller-scale sirens are also deployed, like the Model 5 or Model A, used at fire stations for call-outs and at Sydney's beaches for shark alarms. Alarms are also used around prisons for breakouts and at many factories and schools to announce start and finish times.\n", "Warning sounds vary from area to area, including rising and falling notes and Morse code sirens. Communities with volunteer fire brigades use a continuous note on all sirens for civil defense, and a warbling siren on the fire station siren only for fire callouts. Civil defense uses a distinctive \"sting\" siren that is used by all radio stations nationwide, but is currently only used for civil defense sirens in Wanganui.\n\nSection::::Defunct manufacturers.\n", "Section::::Usage in other countries.\n\nin 2009, Hörmann Sirens and Sircom AG of Germany has thought of using the SCDF's Public Warning System's siren as a base to make their own sirens, made two types of sirens based on Singapore's PWS designs: the ECN 1200, which is based on SCDF's 'Standard' build but with an unusual arrangement of its eight acoustic radiators and the ground type ECN 2400 also with its unusual arrangement of its radiators and Sircom's version with its sixteen radiators attached to front and rear of the pole.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cell Broadcast\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency population warning\n", "BULLET::::- University of West Florida In Pensacola, Florida, ATI HPSS16 sirens here are used for chemical spills, weather warnings, lock downs, and they play a daily Westminster chime tone at noon.\n\nBULLET::::- Arnold, Missouri 7 ATI HPSS32 units which replace the old Whelen WPS 3016 Sirens.\n\nBULLET::::- Ketchikan, Alaska maintains a system of 3 ATI HPSS32 units which are tested audibly on the 15th of the month at noon. These sirens are used to warn for tsunamis or in the event of a dam failure.\n\nSection::::Problems and criticism.\n", "Section::::Civil defense sirens around the world.:Europe.:Finland.\n\nA general alarm consists of a repeating 1-minute sound that consists of tones ascending for 7 seconds and descending for 7 seconds. The end of danger is signaled by a 1-minute continuous tone. Warning sirens are tested on the first Monday of every month at noon. The testing alarm is shorter than the general alarm (only lasting for 7 or 14 seconds) and may be a flat tone.\n\nSection::::Civil defense sirens around the world.:Europe.:France.\n", "Section::::Areas known to use HPSS systems.\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco, California - This system is unique, in that it features the sound of the decommissioned Federal Signal STL-10 sirens that the HPSS units replaced\n\nBULLET::::- Casitas Dam, Ventura, California (This system is unique, in that they look like the Federal Signal Directional Speaker Array (DSA) sirens), but can have 7–8 speakers per stack, and gray caps on the speaker cones).\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Point Energy Center, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Owasso, Oklahoma - System of sixteen HPSS32 sirens.\n", "During World War II, Berlin's air raid sirens became known by the city's residents as \"Meiers trumpets\" or \"Meiers hunting horns\" due to Luftwaffe chief Hermann Goering's boast that \"If a single bomb ever falls on Berlin, you can call me Meier!\".\n\nSection::::Civil defense sirens around the world.:Europe.:Italy.\n\nThe Italian War Ministry began installing air raid sirens and issuing air defence regulations in 1938. Production was entrusted to La Sonora, founded in 1911 and still active today.\n", "BULLET::::- All clear: A 30 second steady tone that marks testing of the sirens every first Saturday each month at noon and the end of an emergency for which the immediate danger signal was sounded.\n", "Many warning sirens in provinces such as Ontario, Alberta and Saskatchewan are now used as tornado warning instruments. Smithers, British Columbia uses an old air raid siren as a noon-day whistle. One of the warning sirens was even used as a goal horn for the Quebec Nordiques between the mid 1980s and 1991.\n\nSection::::Civil defense sirens around the world.:North America.:United States.\n", "In the late 1960s the company's name changed to Alerting Communicators of America (ACA) and the production of new models began, to suit the needs of individual municipalities. Banshee, Screamer, Cyclone, Howler, and Allertor are just a few of the names under which these sirens were known. In the 1980s, the company produced a line of sirens known as the Penetrator series, a more substantial variant of sirens the company had previously manufactured. In 1982, the company became the first in its industry to provide a wireless digital supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system called CompuLert, with over 6000 installations worldwide. Over the decade, the prominent advancements the company made in its siren's designs included battery operation, high powered Voice/Sirens and indoor alerting systems. Similarly designed sirens were still manufactured, but under new names, such as the Tempest series. , ASC is still in operation and supplies many towns and cities in the U.S. with outdoor warning sirens, most of which are now used to warn the public of threats such as tsunamis, severe weather, chemical spills and civil emergencies.\n", "In United States English language usage, vehicular pneumatic sirens are sometimes referred to as mechanical or coaster sirens, to differentiate them from electronic devices. Mechanical sirens driven by an electric motor are often called \"electromechanical\". One example is the Q2B siren sold by Federal Signal Corporation. Because of its high current draw (280 amps when power is applied) its application is normally limited to fire apparatus, though it has seen increasing use on type IV ambulances and rescue-squad vehicles. Its distinct tone of urgency, high sound pressure level (123 dB at 10 feet) and square sound waves account for its effectiveness.\n", "BULLET::::- Some electronic civil defense sirens in the United States manufactured by Federal Signal Corporation such as the Electronic Outdoor Warning Siren (EOWS), Modulator, and the Directional Speaker Array (DSA) sound off the chimes on a daily basis. It is also used in Japan and the Philippines by some loudspeakers installed in public areas as a time signal.\n\nBULLET::::- On the Japanese game show \"Panel Quiz Attack 25\", which airs on TV Asahi, the chimes signal the end of the game when there are any boxes left on the board.\n", "BULLET::::- Israel has 3100 sirens as a part of its warning system, and 300 of them are HPSS32 sirens.\n\nBULLET::::- Sedgwick County, Kansas and the City of Wichita 27 ATI HPSS32 units are part of the system's 150 sirens.\n\nBULLET::::- Forsyth County, Georgia\n\nBULLET::::- Frisco, Texas ATI HPSS32 units.\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Riley, Kansas 2 ATI HPSS16 units.\n\nBULLET::::- Del City, Oklahoma 8 ATI HPSS16 units.\n\nBULLET::::- Malmstrom AFB, MT 6 ATI HPSS16 units\n\nBULLET::::- Pasig City, Philippines has 1 ATI HPSS32 unit.\n", "The Whelen Hornet is an electronic civil defense siren. It was introduced in 1995. It contains a single 400-watt speaker. The siren's appearance is best described as a small dish on a square rotator platform, with the single driver located at the center of the horn. It is the smallest outdoor siren made by Whelen. The siren can sound six signals, just like most other sirens produced by Whelen, however, it is not voice-capable like the WPS-2900 and WPS-4000 series sirens.\n", "BULLET::::- Toshiba – The company is still in business, but no longer manufactures its unusual omnidirectional, compressor-charged siren.\n\nBULLET::::- Decot – A Wisconsin-based manufacturer of fire sirens as early as the 1910s. They also produced CD sirens in their later days. Defunct since the 1950s, they invented one of the first dual-tone sirens around the 1910s.\n\nBULLET::::- Erick – A Minnesota-based manufacturer, started in the 1920s and liquidated around the 1950s. Although the sirens were intended for fire-department use, they were also suitable for warning of air raids and nuclear attacks. These types can be found in the Midwest.\n", "The mechanical siren was used on police vehicles, ambulances, fire apparatus and other emergency vehicles beginning in the early 1900s. The first were driven with a hand crank or driven by the vehicles tire or fan belt. They were manufactured by the Sterling Siren and Fire Alarm Company in Rochester, NY; B&M in Los Angeles and a few others. Later, electric motor driven sirens were widely manufactured by Federal Signal Corp, Sireno, Sterling and a few others. Beginning in the late 60's, the electronic siren began to replace the mechanical siren. It provided several tones (wail and yelp) and a PA option. The electronic siren did not clog with snow in the winter (NYPD cops would beat the roof mounted siren with their nightsticks to break off the ice.) Federal Signal emerged as the largest manufacturer and makes (in University Park, IL) the \"Q\" siren to date. B&M still makes their \"Super Chief\" to date in their California facility. One other US manufacturer makes a \"Timberwolf\" siren.\n", "A unique feature of the SiraTone siren series was the ability to conduct routine tests with a Westminster Chime melody instead of an actual alarm tone, intended to be a more pleasant alternative to the use of actual alarm tones. This allowed for operators to test sirens without fear of public panic and still ensure siren speakers were fully functional. Various other signals could be added upon special request.\n", "Section::::Civil defense sirens around the world.:Europe.:Slovenia.\n\nSlovenia has 1,496 operable civil defence sirens. Most of them are electronic sirens, although there are some mechanical ones. Civil defence sirens are mounted on fire stations, town halls, etc.\n\nThree siren tones are used in the whole country:\n\nBULLET::::- Warning: 2 minutes long steady tone. Used to warn of the impending danger of a fire, environmental or other disaster, or high water level.\n\nBULLET::::- Immediate danger: 1 minute wailing tone. Used to warn of the danger of a major fire, flood, radiological and chemical danger, or air raid.\n", "Singapore currently has a network of over 2,000 stationary sirens named the Public Warning System which warns the entire country of air raids, and human-made and natural disasters (except earth tremors). On the first day of every month, Singapore's sirens are tested. During the test, the sirens sound a light cheerful chime instead of any of its three signals. The sirens look very similar to the ECN3000 Israel version.\n\nSection::::Civil defense sirens around the world.:Asia.:South Korea.\n", "BULLET::::- H.O.R. – A New York company that started around 1930. They made vertical sirens 3, 5, and 7.5 HP. They also produced the Super Sirex, a large, double-ended siren usually available in single tone, dual tone, and rotating versions with a 25, 40, or 50 Hp. motor. Their dual-tone sirens had 7 and 10 ports, producing the infamous \"Devil's interval\" of a diminished fifth, or tritone. They went out of business by the 1980s or the 1990s.\n", "The most common tone, 'alert', is widely used by municipalities to warn citizens of impending severe weather, particularly tornadoes. This practice is nearly universal in the Midwest and parts of the deep South, where intense and fast moving thunderstorms that can produce tornadoes occur frequently. The sound of 'alert' is a steady continuous note. In seaside towns, 'alert' may also be used to warn of a tsunami. Sirens that rotate will have a rising-and-falling tone as the direction of the horn changes. The 'attack' tone is the rising-falling sound of an air raid or nuclear attack, frequently heard in war movies. It was once reserved for imminent enemy attack, but is today sometimes used to warn of severe weather, tsunamis, or even fire calls, depending on local ordinance.\n", "Every village, town, and city in the United Kingdom used to have a network of dual-tone sirens to warn of incoming air raids during World War II. The operation of the sirens was coordinated by a wire broadcast system via police stations. In towns and cities with a population of over 3,000, powered sirens were used, whereas in rural areas hand operated sirens were used (which were later put to use as warnings for nuclear attack during the Cold War). With the end of the Cold War, the siren network was decommissioned in 1992, and very few remain. These sirens, mostly built by Carter, Gents, Castle Castings, and Klaxon Signal Co., have 10 and 12 ports to create a minor third interval (B and D notes) and are probably the world's most recognised World War II air raid siren sound. Recordings of British sirens are often dubbed into movies set in countries which never used this type of siren.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05057	If I fire lasers opposite directions, what speed do they have relative to each other?	Adding relative speeds is technically not correct. It's just a very close approximation for slow speeds (as in: significantly less than the speed of light). To answer the title question: the two beams move away from each other at the speed of light AND they both move away from the starting point at the speed of light. It's mind-bending, yes, but it can be proven by experiment and the math of relativity predicts exactly that. Time and space are relative themselves, they seemingly stretch and contract depending on relative speeds. I your example with the 2km/h + 100km/h the resulting speed after "adding" is actually a tiny bit less than 102 km/h because of this. This effect gets stronger the bigger the speeds are until it completely cancels the addition out at the speed of light.	[ "Section::::Phase shift.\n", "Hence each of two electrons (A and C) in a head-on collision at 45 GeV in the lab frame (B) would see the other coming toward them at \"v\" ~ \"c\" and \"w\" = 88,000(1 + 1) ~ 1.55×10 lightseconds per traveler second. Thus from the target's point of view, colliders can explore collisions with much higher projectile energy and momentum per unit mass.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Proper velocity-based dispersion relations.\n", "where\n\nThe \"magnitude of the radial velocity\" is the dot product of the velocity vector and the unit vector in the direction of the displacement.\n\nwhere\n\nThe \"magnitude of the transverse velocity\" is that of the cross product of the unit vector in the direction of the displacement and the velocity vector. It is also the product of the angular speed formula_27 and the magnitude of the displacement.\n\nsuch that\n", "For example, a 45 GeV electron accelerated by the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at Cern in 1989 would have had a Lorentz factor γ of about 88,000 (45 GeV divided by the electron rest mass of 511 keV). Its coordinate speed \"v\" would have been about sixty four trillionths shy of lightspeed \"c\" at 1 lightsecond per \"map\" second. On the other hand, its proper speed would have been \"w\" = \"γv\" ~ 88,000 lightseconds per \"traveler\" second. By comparison the coordinate speed of a 250 GeV electron in the proposed International Linear Collider (ILC) will remain near \"c\", while its proper speed will significantly increase to ~489,000 lightseconds per traveler second.\n", "The faster one drives, the farther down-road an interceptor must be in order to be able to transverse the horizontal sight distance in time to collide, however this says nothing of whether the vehicle can stop by the end of this type of assured clear distance. Equating this distance to the total stopping distance and solving for speed yields one's maximum safe speed as purely dictated by the horizontal sight distance.\n\nSection::::Determining the ACDA.:Dynamic \"following\" distance.\n", "provided formula_40 and formula_41.\n\nSection::::Radar measurements and velocity.\n\nIn the \"k\"-calculus methodology, distances are measured using radar. An observer sends a radar pulse towards a target and receives an echo from it. The radar pulse (which travels at formula_42, the speed of light) travels a total distance, there and back, that is twice the distance to the target, and takes time formula_43, where formula_44 and formula_45 are times recorded by the observer's clock at transmission and reception of the radar pulse. This implies that the distance to the target is\n", "where is the component of momentum along the beam axis. This is the rapidity of the boost along the beam axis which takes an observer from the lab frame to a frame in which the particle moves only perpendicular to the beam. Related to this is the concept of pseudorapidity.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bondi k-calculus\n\nBULLET::::- Lorentz transformation\n\nBULLET::::- Pseudorapidity\n\nBULLET::::- Proper velocity\n\nBULLET::::- Theory of relativity\n\nSection::::Notes and references.\n\nBULLET::::- Varićak V (1910), (1912), (1924) See Vladimir Varićak#Publications\n\nBULLET::::- Borel E (1913) La théorie de la relativité et la cinématique, Comptes Rendus Acad Sci Paris 156 215-218; 157 703-705\n", "The big difference can be discerned when considering movement around a circle. When something moves in a circular path and returns to its starting point, its average \"velocity\" is zero, but its average \"speed\" is found by dividing the circumference of the circle by the time taken to move around the circle. This is because the average \"velocity\" is calculated by considering only the displacement between the starting and end points, whereas the average \"speed\" considers only the total distance traveled.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Tangential speed.\n", "If energy conserving control is required (as is the case when only using control surfaces), the following acceleration, which is orthogonal to the missile velocity, may be used:\n", "In the literature the quantity formula_110 as well as formula_73 are both referred to as the relative velocity. In some cases (statistical physics and dark matter literature), formula_110 is referred to as the \"Møller velocity\", in which case formula_73 means relative velocity. The true relative velocity is at any rate formula_95. The discrepancy between formula_95 and formula_73 is relevant though in most cases velocities are collinear. At LHC the crossing angle is small, around 300 rad, but at\n\nthe old Intersecting Storage Ring at CERN, it was about 18.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperbolic law of cosines\n\nBULLET::::- Biquaternion\n\nSection::::References.\n", "where \"c\" is the speed of light (in units of velocity) and formula_8 is the coherence length (in units of length) so that the linewidth formula_3 is in units of frequency. The equivalent definition in the wavelength domain is\n\nThus the quantity formula_8 is the common factor between the equivalent linewidths in Hz and meter units. With these definitions it can be shown, for example, that formula_3 ≈ 350 MHz is equivalent to formula_4 ≈ 0.0004 nm at a laser wavelength of 590 nm.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Beam divergence\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple-prism dispersion theory\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator\n\nBULLET::::- N-slit interferometric equation\n", "BULLET::::- Direct measurements of possible difference in the one-way speed of light between the east-west and west-east directions on the rotating Earth, by flying atomic clocks between Christchurch, New Zealand, and Thule, Greenland\n", "Express c in terms of x and y via Pythagorean theorem:\n\nformula_34\n\nExpress dc/dt using chain rule in terms of dx/dt and dy/dt:\n\nSubstitute in x = 4 mi, y = 3 mi, dx/dt = -80 mi/hr, dy/dt = 60 mi/hr and Simplify\n\nformula_35\n\nConsequently, the two vehicles are getting closer together at a rate of 28 mi/hr.\n\nSection::::Physics Examples.:Physics Example II: Electromagnetic induction of conducting loop spinning in magnetic field.\n\nThe magnetic flux through a loop of area A whose normal is at an angle θ to a magnetic field of strength B is\n\nformula_36\n", "BULLET::::- formula_4, formula_5 and formula_6 are the relative distance component of the chaser in the target fixed frame of reference\n\nBULLET::::- formula_7and formula_8 are the specific thrust in the form of control input along formula_4, formula_5 and formula_6-axis of the target fixed frame of reference\n\nBULLET::::- formula_12 is the orbital frequency of the target orbit\n\nSection::::Mathematical Models.:Optimal relative transfers.\n", "Each Drive Beam complex is composed of a 2.5 km-long linac, followed by a Drive Beam Recombination Complex: a system of delay lines and combiner rings where the incoming beam pulses are interleaved to ultimately form a 12 GHz sequence and a local beam current as high as 100A. Each 2.5 km-long Drive Beam linac is powered by 1 GHz klystron\"s\". This produces a 148 µs-long beam (for the 1.5 TeV energy stage scenario) with a bunching frequency of 0.5 GHz. Every 244 ns the bunching phase is switched by 180 degrees, i.e. odd and even buckets at 1 GHz are ﬁlled alternately. This phase-coding allows the ﬁrst factor two recombination: the odd bunches are delayed in a Delay Loop (DL), while the even bunches bypass it. The time of flight of the DL is about 244 ns and tuned at the picosecond level such that the two trains of bunches can merge, forming several 244 ns-long trains with bunching frequency at 1 GHz, separated by 244 ns of empty space. This new time-structure allows for further factor 3 and factor 4 recombination in the following combiner rings with a similar mechanism as in the DL. The ﬁnal time structure of the beam is made of several (up to 24) 244 ns-long trains of bunches at 12 GHz, spaced by gaps of about 5.5 µs. The recombination is timed such that each combined train arrives in its own decelerator sector, synchronized with the arrival of the Main Beam. The use of low-frequency (1 GHz), long-pulse-length (148 µs) klystrons for accelerating the Drive Beam and the beam recombination makes it more convenient than using klystrons to directly accelerate the Main Beam.\n", "Section::::Description.:Details.\n\nConsidering the input beam as a single pulse with envelope formula_1, the constant fixed path distance as formula_2, and the variable path distance as a function of time formula_3, the input to the SHG can be viewed as\n\nThis comes from formula_5 being the speed of light and formula_6 being the time for the beam to travel the given path. In general, SHG produces output proportional to the square of the input, which in this case is\n", "BULLET::::- APS Division of Plasma Physics - John Dawson award for Excellence in Plasma Physics (1996) citation: \"For their pioneering experiments in Plasma Based Accelerator Concepts; particularly for their unambiguous experimental demonstration that electrons can be accelerated to relativistic energies by the beating of two laser beams in a plasma with their frequency difference equal to the plasma frequency. \"\n", "The equivalent of displacement in rotational motion is the angular displacement formula_6 measured in radian.\n\nThe displacement of an object cannot be greater than the distance because it is also a distance but the shortest one. Consider a person travelling to work daily. Overall displacement when he returns home is zero, since the person ends up back where he started, but the distance travelled is clearly not zero.\n\nSection::::Velocity.\n", "Now imagine the helicopter in forward flight at, say, \"v\" meters per second. The speed of the blade-tip at point A in the diagram relative to the air is the \"sum\" of the blade-tip speed and the helicopter forward-flight speed: \"r\"ω+\"v\". But the blade-tip speed at point B, relative to the air, is the \"difference\" of its rotational speed and the forward-flight speed: \"r\"ω-\"v\".\n", "If a laser beam is swept across a distant object, the spot of laser light can easily be made to move across the object at a speed greater than \"c\". Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move across the object faster than \"c\". In neither case does the light travel from the source to the object faster than \"c\", nor does any information travel faster than light. An analogy can be made to pointing a water hose in one direction and then quickly moving the hose to point the stream of water in another direction. At no point does the water leaving the hose ever increase in velocity, but the endpoint of the stream can be moved faster than the water in the stream itself.\n", "The equation for the divergence, of a pure Gaussian TEM unfocused beam propagating through space is given by\n\nwhere \"D\" is the diameter of the beam waist, and \"λ\" is the wavelength. Higher mode beams often start with a larger beam waist, \"D\", and/or have a faster divergence \"Θ\". In this case Equation (1) becomes\n", "BULLET::::- 470 km – distance from Dublin to London as the crow flies\n\nBULLET::::- 600 km – range of a Scud-C missile\n\nBULLET::::- 600 km – height above ground of the Hubble Space Telescope\n\nBULLET::::- 804.67 km – (500 miles) distance of the Indy 500 automobile race\n\nSection::::100 kilometres.:Geographical.\n\nBULLET::::- 111 km – distance covered by one degree of latitude on Earth's surface\n\nBULLET::::- 180 km – distance between Mumbai and Nashik\n\nBULLET::::- 203 km – length of Sognefjorden, the third largest fjord in the world\n\nBULLET::::- 220 km – distance between Pune and Nashik\n\nBULLET::::- 240 km – widest width of the English Channel\n", "In practice, at low rotation rates the output frequency can drop to zero as the result of backscattering causing the beams to synchronise and lock together. This is known as a \"lock-in\", or \"laser-lock\". The result is that there is no change in the interference pattern and therefore no measurement change.\n", "BULLET::::- 109 km – length of High Speed 1 between London and the Channel Tunnel\n\nBULLET::::- 130 km – range of a Scud-A missile\n\nBULLET::::- 163 km – length of the Suez Canal\n\nBULLET::::- 164 km – length of the Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge\n\nBULLET::::- 213 km – length of Paris Métro\n\nBULLET::::- 217 km – length of the Grand Union Canal\n\nBULLET::::- 223 km – length of the Madrid Metro\n\nBULLET::::- 300 km – range of a Scud-B missile\n\nBULLET::::- 386 km – altitude of the International Space Station\n\nBULLET::::- 408 km – length of the London Underground (active track)\n\nBULLET::::- 460 km – distance from London to Paris\n", "In the case where two objects are traveling in parallel directions, the relativistic formula for relative velocity is similar in form to the formula for addition of relativistic velocities.\n\nThe relative speed is given by the formula:\n\nSection::::Special relativity.:Perpendicular velocities.\n\nIn the case where two objects are traveling in perpendicular directions, the relativistic relative velocity formula_28 is given by the formula:\n\nwhere\n\nThe relative speed is given by the formula\n\nSection::::Special relativity.:General case.\n" ]	[ "Taking account of the relative speed of two moving objects is necessary to calculate equations regarding the speed of the two. " ]	[ "Adding relative speeds is technically not correct, it should only be considered a close approximation. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Taking account of the relative speed of two moving objects is necessary to calculate equations regarding the speed of the two. ", "Taking account of the relative speed of two moving objects is necessary to calculate equations regarding the speed of the two. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Adding relative speeds is technically not correct, it should only be considered a close approximation. ", "Adding relative speeds is technically not correct, it should only be considered a close approximation. " ]
2018-24388	Why do flocks of bird tend to fly in a "V" formation?	Aerodynamics makes it easier for them to fly longer distances. The bird in front takes the most resistance so you might often see it exchanging places with another bird.	[ "Section::::Formation flight.\n\nOne theory on migrating bird flight states that many larger bird species fly in a V formation so that all but the leader bird can take advantage of the upwash part of the wingtip vortex of the bird ahead.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n", "The V formation possibly improves the efficiency of flying birds, particularly over long migratory routes. All the birds except the first fly in the upwash from one of the wingtip vortices of the bird ahead. The upwash assists each bird in supporting its own weight in flight, in the same way a glider can climb or maintain height indefinitely in rising air. According to a 1970 paper, in a V formation of 25 members, each bird can achieve a reduction of induced drag and as a result increase their range by 71%. The birds flying at the tips and at the front are rotated in a timely cyclical fashion to spread flight fatigue equally among the flock members. Canada geese, ducks and swans commonly form a skein in V formation.\n", "Section::::Coordinated formation flight.\n\nA wide variety of birds fly together in a symmetric V-shaped or a J-shaped coordinated formation, also referred to as an \"echelon\", especially during long distance flight or migration. It is often assumed that birds resort to this pattern of formation flying in order to save energy and improve the aerodynamic efficiency. The birds flying at the tips and at the front would interchange positions in a timely cyclical fashion to spread flight fatigue equally among the flock members.\n", "In the Denmark, there is a biannual phenomenon known as \"sort sol\" (Danish for \"black sun\"). This is when flocks of European starlings gather in vast numbers, creating complex shapes against the sky during the spring. It is during this time spent in Denmark that the European starlings spend time gathering food and resting as part of their migration journey. By being in groups this large the European starlings are able to decrease their risk of predation by hawks.\n", "The standardwing was filmed for the first time in 1986 for the BBC nature documentary \"Birds for all Seasons\", when a cameraman Michael W Richards stationed in the canopy captured footage of a male bird displaying. Ten years later, David Attenborough observed a mass display of dozens of males for the BBC \"Natural World\" film \"Attenborough in Paradise,\" leading him to speculate that the reason for their extravagant behaviour is to establish the hierarchy for breeding rights, rather than to directly impress the females.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- BirdLife Species Factsheet\n\nBULLET::::- Oriental Bird Images\n\nBULLET::::- The Internet Bird Collection\n", "Section::::Vortex surfing in nature.\n\nCooperative fluid dynamics techniques like drafting are also found in nature. Flocks of geese and some other birds fly in a V formation because the wingtip vortices generated by the front bird will create up-wash circulations. The birds flying behind will receive lift force from these up-wash vortices. Thus other birds in the flock do not need to work as hard to achieve lift. Studies show that birds in a V formation place themselves roughly at the optimum distance predicted by simple aerodynamic theory.\n", "Many, if not most, birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, flying in flocks reduces the energy cost. Geese in a V-formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone. Red knots \"Calidris canutus\" and dunlins \"Calidris alpina\" were found in radar studies to fly faster in flocks than when they were flying alone.\n", "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n\nThe greater adjutant is usually seen singly or in small groups as it stalks about in shallow lakes or drying lake beds and garbage dumps. It is often found in the company of kites and vultures and will sometimes sit hunched still for long durations. They may also hold their wings outstretched, presumably to control their temperature. They soar on thermals using their large outstretched wings.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and ecology.:Breeding.\n", "Section::::History.:Sutherland single wing.\n\nThe Sutherland single-wing was a variation of the single-wing used with great success by Coach Jock Sutherland of the 1930s and 1940s. Note that coach Sutherland mastered many forms of the single-wing, but the formation described here is the one he invented and was named for him.\n", "Section::::Military flight missions.\n\nThe \"V\", or \"Vic\" formation is a basic flight formation for military aircraft in many air forces. The Vic formation is also common in ceremonial flyovers and airshow flights.\n\nAir Mobility Command, which accounts for 20 percent of all avionic fuel usage by the United States federal government, is experimenting with autopilot changes to find the best tradeoff between the reduced drag of 'vortex surfing' and the resulting 'ride qualities' of flying through another aircraft's wake.\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Holmes, Tony. \"Spitfire vs Bf 109: Battle of Britain\". Oxford, UK/ New York: Osprey, 2007. .\n", "Possible improvements:\n\nBULLET::::- bin-lattice spatial subdivision. Entire area the flock can move in is divided into a large number of bins. Each bin stores which birds it contains. Each time a bird moves from one bin to another, lattice has to be updated.\n\nBULLET::::- Example: 2D(3D) grid in a 2D(3D) flocking simulation.\n\nBULLET::::- Complexity: formula_2, k is number of surrounding bins to consider; just when bird's bin is found in formula_3\n\nLee Spector, Jon Klein, Chris Perry and Mark Feinstein studied the emergence of collective behavior in evolutionary computation systems.\n", "An intricate hunting system can be seen in the Harris's hawk in which groups of 2–6 hunt a single prey together. The group splits into smaller groups in which it then encloses on a prey, such as a rabbit, before it attacks it. By hunting as a group the Harris's Hawk is able to hunt larger animals and decrease the amount of energy spent hunting while each hawk in the group is able to eat from the catch.\n\nSection::::Black sun.\n", "The current incarnation of the Wildcat offense, which has been adopted by many college, NFL, and high school teams uses many elements of the single-wing formation.\n\nSection::::Modern use.:Successful teams.\n", "Measurements of bird flocking have been made using high-speed cameras, and a computer analysis has been made to test the simple rules of flocking mentioned above. It is found that they generally hold true in the case of bird flocking, but the long range attraction rule (cohesion) applies to the nearest 5-10 neighbors of the flocking bird and is independent of the distance of these neighbors from the bird. In addition, there is an anisotropy with regard to this cohesive tendency, with more cohesion being exhibited towards neighbors to the sides of the bird, rather than in front or behind. This is no doubt due to the field of vision of the flying bird being directed to the sides rather than directly forward or backward.\n", "Flying wedge\n\nA flying wedge (also called flying V or wedge formation, or simply wedge) is a configuration created from a body moving forward in a triangular formation. This V-shaped arrangement began as a successful military strategy in ancient times when infantry units would move forward in wedge formations to smash through an enemy's lines. This principle was later used by Medieval European armies, as well as modern armed forces, which have adapted the V-shaped wedge for armored assault.\n", "\"Megaceryle\" kingfishers are often seen perched prominently on trees, posts, or other suitable watch-points close to water before plunging in head first after their prey, usually fish, crustaceans or frogs, but sometimes aquatic insects and other suitably sized animals.\n\nSection::::Origins and taxonomy.\n", "Flocking (behavior)\n\nFlocking behavior is the behavior exhibited when a group of birds, called a flock, are foraging or in flight. There are parallels with the shoaling behavior of fish, the swarming behavior of insects, and herd behavior of land animals.\n\nComputer simulations and mathematical models which have been developed to emulate the flocking behaviors of birds can also generally be applied to the \"flocking\" behavior of other species. As a result, the term \"flocking\" is sometimes applied, in computer science, to species other than birds.\n", "Echelon formations are also commonly used by civic, or riot police to move crowds either to the left or right. \"En echelon\" is also used for a type of arrangement of gun turrets on ships, see .\n\nSection::::Derived meanings.\n\nThe name has also been adopted by the birdwatching community to describe the familiar V-shaped formations of flights of geese, ducks and other migratory birds, though this more symmetric formation is more strictly defined as a V formation.\n", "Studies of waldrapp ibis show that birds spatially coordinate the phase of wing flapping and show wingtip path coherence when flying in V positions, thus enabling them to maximally utilise the available energy of upwash over the entire flap cycle. In contrast, birds flying in a stream immediately behind another do not have wingtip coherence in their flight pattern and their flapping is out of phase, as compared to birds flying in V patterns, so as to avoid the detrimental effects of the downwash due to the leading bird's flight.\n\nSection::::Adaptations for flight.\n", "BULLET::::- In Disney's The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996 film), Laverne is seen shouting to a flock of pigeons flying to the guards, \"Fly my pretties, fly!\" with background music that strongly resembles the music in the 1939 \"Wizard of Oz\" scene when the Wicked Witch sends out the flying monkey bats to capture Dorothy.\n", "In addition, the primary purpose of Fighter Command was to intercept the bombers, who still flew in the defensive Kette; therefore the optimum formation for attacking them was a corresponding three plane Vic, so each fighter would find itself against a different bomber. \n\nThis was also the conclusion of the Luftwaffe later, when faced with USAAF bombers in their box formations of massed Vics, German pilots reverted to the \"Kette\" to tackle them.\n", "Section::::Flight.:Bounding flight.\n\nSmall birds often fly long distances using a technique in which short bursts of flapping are alternated with intervals in which the wings are folded against the body. This is a flight pattern known as \"bounding\" or \"flap-bounding\" flight. When the bird's wings are folded, its trajectory is primarily ballistic, with a small amount of body lift. The flight pattern is believed to decrease the energy required by reducing the aerodynamic drag during the ballistic part of the trajectory, and to increase the efficiency of muscle use.\n\nSection::::Hovering.\n", "Section::::Biological swarming.:Birds.\n\nBULLET::::- Supplementary pdf\n\nSection::::Biological swarming.:Birds.:Bird migration.\n", "Thick-knees are birds that are seen in large flocks during particular seasons in various regions of the world. During the nonbreeding season, Peruvian thick-knees in Chile are reported to have an average of 22.5 birds — a mixture of adults and youngsters — in their flocks. Young birds were observed learning anti-predator behaviour strategies from adults during this time. Researchers believe that the flocking behaviour may help to decrease a predator's success rate when attacking the flock, rather than increasing the ability of the flock to spot an approaching predator.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Flocking and other associations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03519	Why does land cost so much relative to other necessities?	Land isn't expensive, the land you want is expensive. You can import food and goods from the cheapest seller. You can't do that with land.	[ "Land value is highly sensitive to supply and demand (for the end product), build costs, planning and affordable housing contributions, and so on. Understanding the intricacies of the development system and the effect of \"value drivers\" can result in massive differences in the landowner's sale value.\n\nSection::::Conversion of landforms.\n", "Fractionation has become significantly worse. As noted above, in some cases the land is so highly fractionated that it can never be made productive. With such small ownership interests, it is nearly impossible to obtain the level of consent necessary to lease the land. In addition, to manage highly fractionated parcels of land, the government spends more money probating estates, maintaining title records, leasing the land, and attempting to manage and distribute tiny amounts of income to individual owners than is received in income from the land. In many cases, the costs associated with managing these lands can be significantly more than the value of the underlying asset.\n", "Another major concern in such areas is the traffic. Heavy farming materials as well as materials for home construction are heavy and bulky, and therefore move somewhat slowly and cause traffic congestions. Crime in such fringes, particularly trespassing and vandalism, are also common, and affect both landowners and the producers.\n\nSection::::Common types.:Rural.\n", "Such lands are often rather far away from existing infrastructure when purchased by the land banking investor, therefore prices being low. The investor anticipates that, because of the area's natural productive potential, an agricultural infrastructure (sufficient roads, specialised contractors, grain storages) will develop, with more land put under cultivation and land values multiplying.\n\nAgricultural land banking is found where large tracts of fertile virgin land still exist, where valuations are low and where legislation allows large land holdings (free hold) by domestic and foreign investors.\n\nTypical countries for such investments during recent years have been Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay,\n", "Henry George (September 2, 1839 – October 29, 1897) was perhaps the most famous advocate of land rents. An American political economist, he advocated a \"Single Tax\" on land that would eliminate the need for all other taxes. In 1879 he authored \"Progress and Poverty\", which significantly influenced land taxation in the United States.\n\nSection::::Legality.\n\nThere are two potential legal obstacles unique to land value taxation in the United States: uniformity clauses and Dillon's Rule. At the federal level, land value taxation is legal so long as it is apportioned among the states.\n\nSection::::Legality.:Uniformity clauses.\n", "Most taxes distort economic decisions and suppress beneficial economic activity. LVT is payable regardless of how well or poorly land is actually used. Because the supply of land is essentially fixed, land rents depend on what tenants are prepared to pay, rather than on landlord expenses, preventing landlords from passing LVT to tenants.\n", "Land for sprawl is often taken from fertile agricultural lands, which are often located immediately surrounding cities; the extent of modern sprawl has consumed a large amount of the most productive agricultural land, as well as forest, desert and other wilderness areas. In the United States the seller may avoid tax on profit by using a tax break exempting like-kind exchanges from capital gains tax; proceeds from the sale are used to purchase agricultural land elsewhere and the transaction is treated as a \"swap\" or trade of like assets and no tax is due. Thus urban sprawl is subsidized by the tax code. In China, land has been converted from rural to urban use in advance of demand, leading to vacant rural land intended for future development, and eventual urban sprawl.\n", "In all of those respects, land consumption is equivalent to typical land use in industrialized regions and civilizations.\n\nSince often aforementioned conversion activities are virtually irreversible, the term land loss is also used. From 1990 to 2000, of open space were consumed in the U.S.. In Germany, land is being consumed at a rate of more than every day (~ per 10 years). In European Union, land take is estimated approximately about to 1.2 million hectares in 21 EU countries over the period 1990-2006. \n", "As the saying goes, in real estate only three things matter: location, location, location. Because idled and underused infill sites are often located in distressed urban areas concerns arise about crime, safety, and access to quality education and services. These and other market factors frequently pull development to open land near traditionally desirable communities and away from urban infill sites.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Market factors.:Greenfields competition.\n", "Land taxes in Australia are levied by the states, and generally apply to land holdings only within a particular state. The exemption thresholds vary, as do the tax rates and other rules.\n", "Land plays an important role in advanced economies. In the UK the \"non-produced asset of land\" accounts for 51% of the country's total net worth, implying that it plays a more important role in the economy than capital.\n\nSection::::Academic.\n\nSome United Kingdom and commonwealth universities offer a courses in \"land economy\", where economics is studied alongside law, business regulation, surveying and the built and natural environments. This mode of study at Cambridge dates back to 1917 when William Cecil Dampier suggested the creation of a school of rural economy at the university.\n\nSection::::Accounting.\n", "BULLET::::- High transaction costs. Buying and/or moving into a home costs much more than most types of transactions. The costs include search costs, real estate fees, moving costs, legal fees, land transfer taxes, and deed registration fees. Transaction costs for the seller typically range between 1.5% and 6% of the purchase price. In some countries in continental Europe, transaction costs for both buyer and seller can range between 15% and 20%.\n", "Land development can pose the most risk, but can also be the most profitable technique as it is dependent on the public sector for approvals and infrastructure and because it involves a long investment period with no positive cash flow.\n", "Section::::Practical issues.:Revenue.\n", "Land that is not arable, in the sense of lacking capability or suitability for cultivation for crop production, has one or more limitations e.g. lack of sufficient fresh water for irrigation, stoniness, steepness, adverse climate, excessive wetness with impracticality of drainage, excessive salts, among others. Although such limitations may preclude cultivation, and some will in some cases preclude any agricultural use, large areas unsuitable for cultivation are agriculturally productive. For example, US NRCS statistics indicate that about 59 percent of US non-federal pasture and unforested rangeland is unsuitable for cultivation, yet such land has value for grazing of livestock. In British Columbia, Canada, 41 percent of the provincial Agricultural Land Reserve area is unsuitable for production of cultivated crops, but is suitable for uncultivated production of forage usable by grazing livestock. Similar examples can be found in many rangeland areas elsewhere.\n", "Profit income from ordinary land sales is excluded from official value-added, since land is not considered to be a \"produced asset\". (see gross fixed capital formation). Included in capital formation is only the value of certain land improvements which are excluded from investments in building & construction (land clearing, land reclamation, land drainage, irrigation works, flood barriers, contouring, creation of wells and watering holes etc.).\n", "Even though global land loss progresses at an alarming rate, the land footprint, the area required by some Western countries can a lot larger than the land actually used or even available in the country itself.\n\nWhile land prices have surged in the first few years of the 21st century, land consumption economy still lacks environmental full-cost accounting to add the long-term costs of environmental degradation.\n\nSection::::Consequences of land consumption.\n\nThe major effects of land conversion for economic growth are:\n\nBULLET::::- Land degradation\n\nBULLET::::- Habitat loss - built-up areas support only particularly adapted species\n", "The direct beneficiaries of incremental improvements to the area surrounding a site are the land's occupants. Such improvements shift tenants' demand curve to the right. Landlords benefit from price competition among tenants; the only direct effect of LVT in this case is to reduce the amount of social benefit that is privately captured as land price by titleholders.\n", "Land value taxation (i.e. property tax applied only to the unimproved value of land) has a long history in the United States dating back from Physiocrat influence on Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. It is most famously associated with Henry George and his book \"Progress and Poverty\" (1879), which argued that because the supply of land is fixed and its location value is created by communities and public works, the economic rent of land is the most logical source of public revenue. and which had considerable impact on turn-of-the-century reform movements in America and elsewhere. Every single state in the United States has some form of property tax on real estate and hence, in part, a tax on land value. However, Pennsylvania in particular has seen local attempts to rely more heavily on the taxation of land value.\n", "LVT is arguably an ecotax because it discourages the waste of prime locations, which are a finite resource. LVT is an efficient tax to collect because unlike labour and capital, land cannot be hidden or relocated. Many urban planners claim that LVT is an effective method to promote transit-oriented development.\n\nSection::::Economic properties.:Real estate values.\n", "While most land banking is based on the prospect of urban areas expanding at the expense of rural areas, in various parts of the world agricultural land is expanding at the expense of virgin land. The purchase of virgin land that has been identified as suitable for agriculture because of its climate, topography and soil properties, where the buyer has no intention to work the land himself or lease it out, would be agricultural land banking.\n", "On completion, a buyer pays a given price for a piece of land and the seller is aware of the buyer's intention to develop the land. Overage provisions are negotiated into the contract of sale to ensure that once planning is obtained, the seller receives a proportion of the increase in the value of the land.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nPhysiocrat influence in the United States came by Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson as Ambassadors to France, and Jefferson brought his friend Pierre du Pont to the United States to promote the idea. A statement in the 36th Federalist Paper reflects that influence, \"A small land tax will answer the purpose of the States, and will be their most simple and most fit resource.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Henry George.\n", "Under common law, Fee simple is the most complete ownership interest one can have in real property, other than the rare Allodial title. The holder can typically freely sell or otherwise transfer that interest or use it to secure a mortgage loan. This picture of \"complete ownership\" is, of course, complicated by the obligation in most places to pay a property tax and by the fact that if the land is mortgaged, there will be a claim on it in the form of a lien. In modern societies, this is the most common form of land ownership. Land can also be owned by more than one party and there are various concurrent estate rules.\n", "Land acquires a scarcity value owing to the competing needs for space. The value of land generally owes nothing to the landowner and everything to the surroundings. LVT supporters claim that the value of land depends on the community.\n\nSection::::Ethics.:Religion.\n\nIn religious terms, it has been claimed that land is God's gift to mankind. For example, the Roman Catholic Church as part of its \"universal destination of goods\" principle asserts:\n" ]	[ "All land is expensive." ]	[ "The land you want is expensive." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All land is expensive." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The land you want is expensive." ]
2018-21539	How is the speed of an airplane calculated when it is in the air?	A pitot tube located on the outside of the aircraft in the airflow, measures the airflow and indicates the velocity in the airspeed indicator inside the cockpit or a GPS which uses satellites.	[ "A range of different methods exist for the measurement of sound in air.\n", "The clock in the lighthouse was remembered (by the family of the lighthouse keeper) as indicating 2 p.m. Atlantic Time when the \"Bremen\" was first sighted from the ground. Captain Köhl and Baron von Hünefeld said that they were in the air 36½ hours. If their statements of elapsed time had an accuracy of better than one minute, which is unlikely, then the time of touchdown was 18:08 GMT or 13:08 EST or 14:08 Atlantic Time. \n", "BULLET::::- President Roosevelt established the Resettlement Administration, providing government funds to resettle farmers to more productive land.\n\nBULLET::::- A Trans World Airlines test plane sent a new transcontinental record for transport planes, flying from Burbank, California to Floyd Bennett Field in New York City in 11 hours and 5 minutes – 30 minutes shorter than the old record. Most of the flight was conducted by autopilot.\n", "Section::::Timeline.\n\nRecords in \"gray\" font color are unofficial, including unconfirmed or unpublicized (wartime) secrets.\n\nSection::::Official records versus unofficial.\n", "For example, a certain flight may have a calculated ETA based on the speed by which it has covered the distance traveled so far. The remaining distance is divided by the speed previously measured to roughly estimate the arrival time. This particular method does not take into account any unexpected events (such as new wind directions) which may occur on the way to the flight's destination.\n", "After some more simple algebra, we can calculate that v2 (the velocity of the rocket) is the following:\n\nformula_7\n\nThis gives us the velocity of the aircraft right after it takes off. Because we know all forces acting on it from this point on, we can calculate net acceleration using Newton's second law. Given the velocity that the aircraft takes off with and the acceleration at any point, the velocity can also be calculated at any given point.\n", "With the advent of Doppler radar navigation and, more recently, GPS receivers, with other advanced navigation equipment that allows pilots to read ground speed directly, the TAS calculation in-flight is becoming unnecessary for the purposes of navigation estimations.\n\nTAS is the primary method to determine aircraft's cruise performance in manufacturer's specs, speed comparisons and pilot reports.\n\nSection::::Other airspeeds.\n\nFrom IAS, the following speeds can also be calculated:\n", "TAS is the true measure of aircraft performance in cruise, thus it is the speed listed in aircraft specifications, manuals, performance comparisons, pilot reports, and every situation when cruise or endurance performance needs to be measured. It is the speed normally listed on the flight plan, also used in flight planning, before considering the effects of wind.\n", "Modern jet airliners also include ground speed (GS) and Machmeter. Ground speed shows the actual speed that the aircraft uses compared to the ground. This is usually connected to a GPS or similar system. Ground speed is just a pilot aid to estimate if the flight is on time, behind or ahead of schedule. It is not used for takeoff and landing purposes, since the imperative speed for a flying aircraft always is the speed against the wind.\n", "In simple aircraft, without an air data computer or Machmeter, true airspeed can be calculated as a function of calibrated airspeed and local air density (or static air temperature and pressure altitude, which determine density). Some airspeed indicators incorporate a slide rule mechanism to perform this calculation. Otherwise, it can be performed using this applet or a device such as the E6B (a handheld circular slide rule).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Equivalent airspeed\n\nBULLET::::- Indicated airspeed\n\nBULLET::::- Calibrated airspeed\n\nBULLET::::- Flight planning\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Clancy, L.J.(1975), \"Aerodynamics\", Chapter 3. Pitman Publishing Limited, London.\n", "Aircraft records\n\nThis article gives yearly aviation records under 5 headings: airspeed, range, ceiling, gross take-off weight, and engine power.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n", "At the time, the \"Anchorage Daily Times\" had written that the flight would set a record for \"the longest flight ever made with an automobile engine.\" The aircraft had the name Se As Ka at the pilot door followed by the description \"The Flying Automobile\", while the side of the fuselage was inscribed by the message \"Seattle-Alaska Last Airmail Frontier Trail Blazed by The Seattle Washingtonians\".\n", "However Späte may not have considered sinking air between thermals, and there is no mention of this until 1947 when Ernest Dewing and George Pirie independently included this aspect. Paul MacCready, however, certainly invented the \"ring\", which allowed an easy indication of the optimal speed to fly.\n\nSection::::Instrumentation.\n", "With the widespread use of GPS and other advanced navigation systems in cockpits, the first application is rapidly decreasing in importance – pilots are able to read groundspeed (and often true airspeed)\n", "The basic formula for DR is Distance = Speed x Time. An aircraft flying at 250 knots airspeed for 2 hours has flown 500 nautical miles through the air. The wind triangle is used to calculate the effects of wind on heading and airspeed to obtain a magnetic heading to steer and the speed over the ground (groundspeed). Printed tables, formulae, or an E6B flight computer are used to calculate the effects of air density on aircraft rate of climb, rate of fuel burn, and airspeed.\n", "BULLET::::- Flying a modified Yakovlev Yak-3U powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-2000 engine, William Whiteside sets an official international speed record for piston-engined aircraft in the under-3,000 kg (6,615-pound) category, reaching 655 km/hr (407 mph) over a 3-km (1.863-mile) course at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah in the United States, greatly exceeding the previous record of 491 km/hr (305 mph) set in 2002 by Jim Wright.\n\nBULLET::::- 11 October\n", "List of vehicle speed records\n\nThe following is a list of speed records for various types of vehicles. This list only presents the single greatest speed achieved in each broad record category; for more information on records under variations of test conditions, see the specific article for each record category. As with many world records, there may be some dispute over the criteria for a record-setting event, the authority of the organization certifying the record, and the actual speed achieved.\n\nSection::::Aircraft.\n\nAircraft speed records are based on airspeed, rather than ground speed.\n\nSection::::Spacecraft.\n", "The minimal instrumentation required is an airspeed indicator and a variometer. The pilot will use the polar curve information for the particular glider to derive the exact speeds to fly depending on the lift and sink conditions in which the glider is flying. This is commonly done using a speed to fly ring (known as a 'MacCready Ring') which is fitted around the aircraft's variometer. The ring is usually calibrated in either knots or meters per second and its markings are based on the aircraft's polar curve. During the glide between thermals, the index arrow is set at the rate of climb expected in the next thermal. On the speed ring, the variometer needle points to the optimum speed to fly between thermals.\n", "Air data computer\n\nAn air data computer (ADC) is an essential avionics component found in modern aircraft. This computer, rather than individual instruments, can determine the calibrated airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend data from an aircraft's pitot-static system. In some very high speed aircraft such as the Space Shuttle, equivalent airspeed is calculated instead of calibrated airspeed.\n\nThe first air data computer patented in the US was developed by John H. Andresen in February, 1971.\n\nAir data computers usually also have an input of total air temperature. This enables computation of static air temperature and true airspeed.\n", "For clarity, the \"Fixed-wing aircraft\" table is sorted by FAI-designated categories as determined by whether the record-creating aircraft left the ground by its own power (category \"Altitude\"), or whether it was first carried aloft by a carrier-aircraft prior to its record setting event (category \"Altitude gain\", or formally \"Altitude Gain, Aeroplane Launched from a Carrier Aircraft\"). Other sub-categories describe the airframe, and more importantly, the powerplant type (since rocket-powered aircraft can have greater altitude abilities than those with air-breathing engines).\n", "In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an aircraft at or Mach 6.1. Aside from vehicles designed to fly in outer space, this record was renewed by X-43 in the 21st century.\n", "A more complex and precise experiment of this kind was performed by a research group at the University of Maryland between September 1975 and January 1976. Three atomic clocks were brought to an altitude of 10 km above Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, and three other atomic clocks were at the ground. A turboprop plane was used, flying at only 500 km/h, in order to minimize the velocity effect. The plane was steadily observed using radar, and its position and velocity were measured every second. Five flights were carried out, each of 15 hours duration. Special containers protected the clocks from external influences such as vibrations, magnetic fields, or temperature variations. The time difference was measured by direct clock comparison at the ground before and after the flight, as well as during the flight by laser pulses of 0.1 ns duration. Those signals were sent to the plane, reflected, and again received at the ground station. The time difference was observable during the flight, before later analysis. An overall difference of 47.1 ns was measured, which consisted of the velocity effect of −5.7 ns and a gravitational effect of 52.8 ns. This agrees with the relativistic predictions to a precision of about 1.6%.\n", "CFM56-3B2 engines. The aircraft had recorded approximately 16,800 hours of flight time before the crash.\n\nSection::::Involved.:Crew.\n", "directly, without calculating calibrated airspeed as an intermediate step. The second application remains critical, however – for example, at the same weight, an aircraft will rotate and climb at approximately the same calibrated airspeed at any elevation, even though the true airspeed and groundspeed may differ significantly. These V speeds are usually given as IAS rather than CAS, so that a pilot can read them directly from the airspeed indicator.\n\nSection::::Calculation from impact pressure.\n", "inaccurately.\n\nSection::::Types of Airspeeds.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19755	Why is there a rivalry between Michigan and Ohio (as States, not schools or sports teams)?	As an Ohioan it mostly stems from the Ohio State-Michigan rivalry but it goes back further than that. [There was a brief clash between Ohio and Michigan militias over control of Toledo]( URL_0 ) back in 1835 that only had one casualty and left Toledo a part of Ohio. Both states had booming industrial centers around the early 20th century that resulted in a competitive rivalry most notably between Detroit and Cleveland due to proximity, something that still lasts between the cities today, especially when the Indians are playing the Tigers. Though today most of this stems from the Wolverines and Buckeyes rivalry and has become a part of both states cultures which has allowed it to merge into almost every aspect of interaction between the states, even if you aren’t necessarily a fan of Michigan or Ohio State.	[ "The University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, and The Ohio State University in Columbus are separated by just 180 miles, and had enjoyed a rivalry in football that began in 1897 and had been renewed annually since Michigan rejoined the Big Ten in 1918.\n", "BULLET::::- Federal Hocking Lancers\n\nBULLET::::- Meigs Marauders\n\nBULLET::::- Miller Falcons\n\nBULLET::::- Nelsonville-York Buckeyes\n\nBULLET::::- Trimble Tomcats\n\nBULLET::::- Vinton County Vikings\n\nBULLET::::- Wellston Golden Rockets\n", "In 2011, 10-year-old Grant Reed of Columbus was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor. Not liking to use the word \"cancer\", Reed (whose parents are both Ohio State alums and himself is an Ohio State fan) decided to call his cancer \"Michigan\", since \"Ohio State is always going to beat Michigan\". The move of calling his cancer \"Michigan\" got the support of his parents, Ohio State head coach Urban Meyer (who Reed later got to meet), and even some Michigan fans, including Michigan head coach Brady Hoke. After his last chemotherapy treatment in 2013 which placed him in remission, Reed now tells people that he \"beat Michigan\".\n", "Section::::Big Ten expansion.\n", "BULLET::::- University of Michigan and Ohio State University – ESPN calls the Michigan–Ohio State rivalry the greatest sports rivalry of the 20th century. According to legend, its history can be traced back to the Toledo War. The rivalry between the two schools is simply known as \"The Game\", no trophy is awarded to the winner of the game.\n\nBULLET::::- University of Michigan and Michigan State University – Paul Bunyan Trophy\n\nBULLET::::- University of Michigan and University of Minnesota – The Little Brown Jug\n", "Universities in the Big Ten Conference in the Midwest have more rivalries than Universities in the Southeast. In football, these rivalries are usually marked by traveling trophies, which are indicated in the list below:\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana University and Michigan State University – Old Brass Spittoon\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan State University and Pennsylvania State University – Land Grant Trophy\n", "Section::::Notable games.:1900s.\n", "Section::::Sports sponsored.:Football.:Rivalries.\n", "The designation \"Ohio Five\" first appeared in Ohio newspapers in the early twentieth century. The grouping, predating any formal agreement, was immediately adopted by the press as a foreshadowing of an Ohio league of schools with similar academic and athletic reputations, which, at the time was a common perception. \n", "The Michigan–Notre Dame football rivalry was inactive during the Kipke years. The two programs did not meet between 1909 and 1942.\n\nSection::::Rivalries.:Ohio State.\n", "Section::::Notable games.:1910s.\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Wayne State and Eastern Michigan withdrew from the PAC following the 1966–67 academic year, leaving the conference with seven members.\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 – Case Institute of Technology and Western Reserve University federated into a new institution known as Case Western Reserve University. The undergraduate student bodies remained separate, however, and both Case Tech and Adelbert College (the male undergraduate school of the former Western Reserve University) continued to field separate teams.\n\nBULLET::::- 1968 – Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh is accepted into the PAC.\n", "2007\n", "Section::::Rivalries.:Michigan State.\n\nThe Michigan – Michigan State football rivalry also developed during the Yost era. Prior to 1901, the teams had played only once, in 1898. Michigan's 1902 \"Point-a-Minute\" team defeated Michigan Agricultural College (as Michigan State was then known) by a score of 119-0, the highest margin of victory in any game between the two programs. The teams did not play again until 1907, and from that point forward, the schools began a tradition of playing each other on a more-or-less annual basis.\n", "Woody coined the phrase \"That state up north\" and \"That team up north\", so he would not have to say the word \"Michigan\". He was famous for his intense hatred of all things Michigan and according to legend, once refused to get gas in an empty tank, saying: \"No, goddammit! We do NOT pull in and fill up. And I'll tell you exactly why we don't. It's because I don't buy one goddam drop of gas in the state of Michigan! We'll coast and PUSH this goddam car to the Ohio line before I give this state a nickel of my money!\"\n", "In 2006, as part of their \"Midwest Midterm Midtacular\", \"The Daily Show\" visited Ohio State University and made fun of the rivalry on the final night by having correspondent Rob Riggle report while wearing a Michigan sweatshirt. This brought boos, jeers, and a few laughs from the OSU audience. After the sketch was over, Jon Stewart compared the rivalry to the disputes between Sunni and Shiite Muslims.\n\nThe 2007 HBO documentary \"Michigan vs. Ohio State: The Rivalry\" focused on the rivalry, chiefly the \"Ten-Year War\" through the present.\n", "2008\n", "Despite the prohibition on out-of-state students, OHSAA's public member schools continued to complain that private schools and public open enrollment schools enjoyed an unfair advantage over public schools by drawing students from a broader geographic area than conventional school district boundaries. In May 2014, a majority of member school principals rejected a plan to hold separate district, regional, and state championships for public schools and private schools, similar to the proposal that failed in 1978. Instead, they voted to institute a \"competitive balance\" plan that took effect for six major sports during the 2017–18 school year.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::The Grange years (1924–1925).:1925: Michigan stops Grange.\n", "In 1973, both teams entered undefeated, with the winner guaranteed a trip to the Rose Bowl. The rivals played to a 10–10 tie in Ann Arbor on November 24, and the athletic directors of the other Big Ten institutions were forced to vote on the Big Ten representative for the bowl game. In a secret ballot, Ohio State won the vote, to the outrage of Michigan athletic officials and fans. Schembechler argued that Michigan was robbed of its on-field achievements, and for months afterward, Ohio State newspapers were flooded with angry Wolverine letters and threats of lawsuits.\n", "Michigan was scheduled to play Notre Dame again on November 5, 1910. Michigan protested Notre Dame's use of two players (Philbrook and Dimmick) who had reportedly played more than four years of college football. After Notre Dame refused to bench the players, Michigan's Board of Control of Athletics canceled the game. \"The New York Times\" reported: \"It is understood here that this ends all athletic relations between Michigan and Notre Dame.\" The two teams did not play again for more than 30 years, the longest break in the history of the storied rivalry.\n\nSection::::Rivalries.:Ohio State.\n", "BULLET::::- The charter members of the Central Buckeye Conference were Bellefontaine, Greenon, London, Northeastern, Shawnee, and Urbana.\n\nIn 1977, New school Kenton Ridge joined the CBC becoming the 7th member.\n\nIn 1978, London left the CBC after 4 years for the now defunct Central Buckeye League bringing the CBC back to 6 members.\n\nNorthwestern would join the CBC in 1982 bringing the conference back to 7 members which would eventually grow to 8 when Tecumseh joined in 1991 from the Greater Miami Valley Conference.\n", "In 2008, while Troy and Middle Tennessee were in the Sun Belt Conference together, ESPN named The Battle for the Palladium as one of the Top 5 non-BCS intra-conference rivalries in college football.\n\nSection::::The Palladium.\n", "Section::::Series history.:\"Ten-Year War\": Hayes vs Schembechler (1969–1978).\n", "The game became a division matchup in 2014 under the Big Ten's geographical realignment. Michigan and Ohio State were both placed in the East Division.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nDuring the mid-2000s, ESPN aired several commercials describing certain situations that would be \"normal, if it wasn't for sports\". One commercial featured a man in an Ohio State shirt making out with a woman wearing a Michigan shirt. An ESPNU commercial air portrayed a couple on a blind date that appears to be successful until it becomes clear that she is from Michigan and he is a fan of Ohio State.\n" ]	[ "A rivalry exists between Michigan and Ohio outside of sports teams. " ]	[ "In the past a rivalry existed outside of sports teams, but a rivalry outside of sports teams does not exist today. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A rivalry exists between Michigan and Ohio outside of sports teams. ", "A rivalry exists between Michigan and Ohio outside of sports teams. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "In the past a rivalry existed outside of sports teams, but a rivalry outside of sports teams does not exist today. ", "In the past a rivalry existed outside of sports teams, but a rivalry outside of sports teams does not exist today. " ]
2018-22242	ELIF: Why does’t jello go back to its liquid state when kept out of the fridge?	The stuff that makes Jello a gel is the gelatin. Gelatin normally has a gel texture. The stuff in the Jello packet is gelatin that has had water removed, so it's dry, and turned into powder. It's also had flavor added, and a few other things like preservative. When you make Jello, you're taking that dry gelatin and putting water back in. You heat it up to create a chemical reaction. You've noticed hot water cleans dishes better than cold water. Hot water absorbs the gelatin and the flavoring. While it's still hot, it's a liquid. As it cools down, the gelatin is spread out in the water and starts reverting back to it's original texture. How close it gets to that depends on how much water you use. If you use more water, it might not set up well. Use less, you get Jigglers, or more dense Jello. The reason we put it in the fridge is not to cool it down, but to cool it down quickly. Doing so can help it maintain consistency, whereas leaving it where parts of it can cool unevenly can make it soupy. Also because we like to eat it, and the sooner the better. Putting it in the fridge also keeps flies off it, and out of reach of the dog. It also tastes better cold, but that is a matter of, uh, taste.	[ "BULLET::::- The Canning Process - In order to imprison Monster-Skas in Taming Boxes (Domboxes), all Tamers have to follow the same procedure. First of all, the monster must be subdued using the power of the voice. Only when this has been done can the Move be used. The Tamer, with their right hand, makes a special canning move that sucks the monster safety into the Taming Box (Dombox). The final closing of the jar is of vital importance, because if it is not carried out quickly and firmly, the entire operation can be undone.\n", "Gelation times vary depending on the organogelators and medium. One can promote or delay gelation by influencing the molecular self-assembly of organogelators in a system.\n", "As of July 2019, JEB ships with the following proprietary and open-source decompiler plugins:\n\nBULLET::::- Dalvik bytecode to Java\n\nBULLET::::- MIPS machine code to C\n\nBULLET::::- ARM machine code to C\n\nBULLET::::- Intel x86/x86-64 machine code to C\n\nBULLET::::- WebAssembly bytecode to C\n\nBULLET::::- EVM bytecode (compiled Ethereum smart contracts) to Solidity-like source code\n\nBULLET::::- Libra bytecode (compiled libravm modules run on the Libra blockchain) to mvir-like (Move IR) source code\n\nSection::::Other Plugins.\n\nJEB ships with a sizable number of disassemblers and debugger plugins .\n", "Just as a teaspoonful of water dropped into a bowl of vegetable oil forms a little bubble of water in the oil, each drop of the alginated liquid tends to form into a small sphere in the calcium solution. Then, during a reaction time of a few seconds to a few minutes, the calcium solution causes the outer layer of each alginated liquid sphere to form a thin, flexible skin. The resulting \"popping boba\" or artificial \"caviar\" balls are rinsed then in water and saved for later use in food or beverages.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Reverse spherification.\n", "The hot process consists of heating the ingredients to 85°C (185 °F) for pasteurization. Then, it is lowered to 5°C (41°F) and mixed to the desired texture.\n\nThe cold process mixes the ingredients and is batched in the freezer.\n\nIn the \"sprint\" process, milk or water is added to a package of ingredients which is then mixed and batched.\n", "This process includes several steps such as filtration, evaporation, drying, grinding, and sifting. These operations are concentration-dependent and also dependent on the particular gelatin used. Gelatin degradation should be avoided and minimized, so the lowest temperature possible is used for the recovery process. Most recoveries are rapid, with all of the processes being done in several stages to avoid extensive deterioration of the peptide structure. A deteriorated peptide structure would result in a low gel strength, which is not generally desired.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Early history of food applications.\n", "In late August, the band announced via their Myspace page that they would again be going on tour in the Fall. Several \"new\" songs became available via their Myspace page, as well as information on a new Green Jellö DVD and CD.\n", "Once the spile is reinserted, enough gas will be generated by the yeast to replace the volume of gas that will have come out of solution. But the amount of carbon dioxide that can be produced is limited, so a hard spile is kept in as much as possible. This is one of the reasons for real ale's short shelf-life once a cask is opened – if too much carbon dioxide is lost, the beer will become flat. Typically, the beer will be good only for two to four days; this short shelf life is why it is important that a pub serving real ale have sufficient turnover for casks to be emptied while still at their best.\n", "Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials include gelatin, agar, maize flour, and arrowroot flour. Some foods naturally form a protein gel when cooked, such as eels and elvers, and sipunculid worms, which are a delicacy in Xiamen, in the Fujian province of the People's Republic of China. Jellied eels are a delicacy in the East End of London, where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. Potted meats in aspic (a gel made from gelatin and clarified meat broth) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in the UK until the 1950s. Many jugged meats are also jellied.\n", "The decomposition process starts after death and can proceed in the water column as the gelatinous organisms are sinking. Decay happens faster in the tropics than in temperate and subpolar waters as a result of warmer temperatures. In the tropics, a jelly-fall may take less than 2 days to decay in warmer, surface water, but as many as 25 days when it is lower than 1000m deep. However, lone gelatinous organisms may spend less time on the sea floor as one study found that jellies could be decomposed by scavengers in the Norwegian deep sea in under two and a half hours.\n", "Traditional processing methods, carried out by a jellyfish master, involve a 20- to 40-day multi-phase procedure in which, after removing the gonads and mucous membranes, the umbrella and oral arms are treated with a mixture of table salt and alum, and compressed. Processing makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a crispy texture. Jellyfish prepared this way retain 7–10% of their original weight, and the processed product consists of approximately 94% water and 6% protein. Freshly processed jellyfish has a white, creamy color and turns yellow or brown during prolonged storage.\n", "Programs written in programming languages that use a garbage collector (e.g. Java) usually rely on this feature for avoiding memory leaks. Thus the \"aging\" of these programs is at least partially dependent on the quality of the garbage collector built into the programming language's runtime environment itself.\n", "Section::::Deinking process.:Debaling.\n\nThe bales are opened and large foreign objects are sorted out on the conveyor belt to the pulper. Many extraneous materials are readily removed. Twine, strapping, etc. are removed from the hydropulper by a \"ragger\". Metal straps and staples can be screened out or removed by a magnet. Film-backed pressure-sensitive tape stays intact: the PSA adhesive and the backing are both removed together.\n\nSection::::Deinking process.:Pulping.\n", "BULLET::::9. The Jelly Must Flow - On a seemingly normal day, Goomo steps outside for a nice jog when he notices that something is slightly different about Jammbo today...everything has stopped moving! The music has stopped. The dodos are frozen mid-air. Even his friends are stiff as statues! It's up to Goomo and his helpful headphones to find out what happened and get Jammbo flowing again.\n", "The finished product will be entirely injection molded using PET plastic. The company claims that the shelf life of its contents, once opened, will match that of a normal peanut butter jar at 3 to 6 months.\n", "Wet rendang, more accurately identified as \"kalio\", is a type of rendang that is cooked for a shorter period of time and much of the coconut milk liquid has not evaporated. If stored at room temperature, \"kalio\" lasts less than a week. Kalio usually has a light golden brown colour, paler than dry rendang.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nRendang is made from beef (or occasionally beef liver, chicken, mutton, water buffalo, duck, or vegetables like jackfruit or cassava). Chicken or duck rendang also contains tamarind and is usually not cooked for as long as beef rendang.\n", "Dead code elimination in dynamic languages is a much harder problem than in static languages. The idea of a \"treeshaker\" originated in LISP in the 1990s. The idea is that all possible execution flows of a program can be represented as a tree of function calls, so that functions that are never called can be eliminated.\n\nThe algorithm was applied to JavaScript in Google Closure Tools and then to Dart in the dart2js compiler also written by Google, presented by Bob Nystrom in 2012 and described by the book \"Dart in Action\" by author Chris Buckett in 2013:\n", "There is no equivalent mechanism in Java. Thus there are also no codice_4 methods. \n\nConst-correctness cannot be enforced in Java, although by use of interfaces and defining a read-only interface to the class and passing this around, one can ensure that objects can be passed around the system in a way that they cannot be modified. \n\nJava collections framework provides a way to create unmodifiable wrapper of a codice_13 via codice_14 and similar methods.\n", "BULLET::::36. Wild Nature – Goomo and Rita enjoy their day in the outdoors when they suddenly discover a Dodo egg. The children and the small egg will go on an action-packed adventure. Will the egg survive after so much hustle and bustle?\n\nBULLET::::37. Soundgatchers – The Disk of Sounds has gone crazy and all the sounds in Jammbo have been changed, causing a huge chaos. Bello and Rita will be in charge of returning each sound to the place where it belongs.\n", "Coir waste from coir fibre industries is washed, heat-treated, screened and graded before being processed into coco peat products of various granularity and denseness, which are then used for horticultural and agricultural applications and as industrial absorbent.\n\nUsually shipped in the form of compressed bales, briquettes, slabs or discs, the end user usually expands and aerates the compressed coco peat by the addition of water. A single kilogramme of dry coco peat will expand to 15 litres of moist coco peat.\n", "Section::::Processing.\n\nTraditional methods of processing jellyfish into a dried food product can take a considerable amount of time, between 19 and 37 days. A common processing technique is the preservation of jellyfish, which may utilize salt curing to accomplish this, creating a dried finished product. Some commercially processed edible jellyfish are purveyed in dried sheets. The process of producing dehydrated jellyfish typically includes the removal of the tentacles prior to drying, because the upper dome area of the marine animal is the part typically used for cooking.\n", "Section::::Research.:Safety concerns.\n\nHydrolyzed collagen, like gelatin, is made from animal by-products from the meat industry, including skin, bones, and connective tissue.\n", "BULLET::::1. There must not be any grease in the container or water used to wash or set the gel,\n\nBULLET::::2. Sugar must not be added to the aiyu prior to the setting of the gel,\n\nBULLET::::3. Distilled water must not be used since the gelling depends on the presence of minerals in the water,\n\nBULLET::::4. During washing, the seeds must not be rubbed so hard as to rupture their shells.\n\nWater will slowly seep out of the jelly some time after it sets, and it will turn back to a liquid over the course of several days.\n", "Section::::History.:Green Jellö Suxx Live - DVD & Tour (2017).\n", "Finally, decomposition is aided by the microbial community. In a case study on the Black Sea, the number of bacteria increased in the presence of jelly-falls, and the bacteria were shown to preferentially use nitrogen released from decaying jelly carcasses while mostly leaving carbon. In addition, with the exclusion of scavengers, jelly-falls develop a white layer of bacteria over the decaying carcasses and emit a black residue over the surrounding area, which is from sulfide. This high level of microbial activity requires a lot of oxygen, which can lead zones around jelly-falls to become hypoxic and inhospitable to larger scavengers.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04212	Why do PC manufacturers continue to release new computers with McAfee or Norton installed even though they slow down computers?	They get revenue sharing whenever a user subscribes. also, those brands still carry weight with a majority of non-tech savy customers, they believe these programs are important and beneficial.	[ "It is very important to secure sheep dip computers as strongly as possible against malware, because their role as a first line of defence means that they are particularly likely to be attacked. Software updates should be applied as soon as they become available. Antivirus signatures should be the most up-to-date that are available, which in practice means that they must be updated at least daily. The operating system should be hardened and locked down as far as possible.\n", "Symantec's \"corporate\" antivirus software and Norton 2010 range and beyond worked on x64 editions of Windows despite KPP's restrictions, although with less ability to provide protection against zero-day malware.\n\nAntivirus software made by competitors ESET, Trend Micro, Grisoft AVG, avast!, Avira Anti-Vir and Sophos do not patch the kernel in default configurations, but may patch the kernel when features such as \"advanced process protection\" or \"prevent unauthorized termination of processes\" are enabled.\n", "The announcement of Microsoft Security Essentials affected the stocks of AV vendors. On November 19, 2008, after Microsoft announced codename \"Morro\", Symantec and McAfee shares fell 9.44 and 6.62 percent respectively. On 10 June 2009, after announcing an upcoming beta version, Microsoft shares rose 2.1 percent. Symantec and McAfee shares, however, fell 0.5 and 1.3 percent respectively. Daniel Ives, an analyst with FBR Capital Markets, said that Microsoft Security Essentials would be a \"long-term competitive threat\", although near-term impact would be negligible.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Reviews and awards.\n", "A review of VirusScan 2006 by CNET criticized the product due to \"pronounced performance hits in two of our three real-world performance tests\" and some users reviewing the same product reported encountering technical problems.\n\nSome older versions of the VirusScan engine use all available CPU cycles.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Customer support criticisms.\n\nReviewers have described customer support for McAfee products as lacking, with support staff slow to respond and unable to answer many questions.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:2010 reboot problem.\n", "Real-time protection, on-access scanning, background guard, resident shield, autoprotect, and other synonyms refer to the automatic protection provided by most antivirus, anti-spyware, and other anti-malware programs. This monitors computer systems for suspicious activity such as computer viruses, spyware, adware, and other malicious objects in 'real-time', in other words while data loaded into the computer's active memory: when inserting a CD, opening an email, or browsing the web, or when a file already on the computer is opened or executed.\n\nSection::::Issues of concern.\n\nSection::::Issues of concern.:Unexpected renewal costs.\n", "From the 2009 to 2012 editions, Symantec made huge changes to their products' speed and performance. Norton products now have only 2 running processes, using about 24 MB of RAM. As soon as a virus is recognized, information in regards to the virus (a virus signature) is stored in a pandemic definitions file, which contains the vital know-how to become aware of and get rid of the virus. According to tests sponsored by Symantec, PassMark Security Benchmark 2012 Norton AntiVirus and Norton Internet Security are the lightest suites available. Av-comparatives.org also tested these products and gave similar results.\n", "Running (the real-time protection of) multiple antivirus programs concurrently can degrade performance and create conflicts. However, using a concept called multiscanning, several companies (including G Data Software and Microsoft) have created applications which can run multiple engines concurrently.\n", "When installed in 32-bit versions of Windows XP Service Pack 2, 150 MB of free space, a 300 MHz processor, and 256 MB of RAM is required. When installed in 32-bit or 64-bit versions of Windows Vista, 150 MB of free space, an 800 MHz processor, and 512 MB of RAM is required.\n", "BULLET::::- On April 21, 2010, beginning at approximately 14:00 UTC, millions of computers worldwide running Windows XP Service Pack 3 were affected by an erroneous virus definition file update by McAfee, resulting in the removal of a Windows system file (svchost.exe) on those machines, causing machines to lose network access and, in some cases, enter a reboot loop. McAfee rectified this by removing and replacing the faulty DAT file, version 5958, with an emergency DAT file, version 5959 and has posted a fix for the affected machines in their consumer knowledge base. The University of Michigan's medical school reported that 8,000 of its 25,000 computers crashed. Police in Lexington, Ky., resorted to hand-writing reports and turned off their patrol car terminals as a precaution. Some jails canceled visitation, and Rhode Island hospitals turned away non-trauma patients at emergency rooms and postponed some elective surgeries. Australian supermarket Coles reported that 10% (1,100) of its point-of-sales terminals were affected and was forced to shut down stores in both western and southern parts of the country. As a result of the outage, McAfee implemented additional QA protocols for any releases that directly impacted critical system files. The company also rolled out additional capabilities in Artemis that provide another level of protection against false positives by leveraging a whitelist of hands-off system files.\n", "Vendors with security problems supply regular security updates (see \"Patch Tuesday\"), and if these are installed to a machine then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, a zero-day attack is possible.\n", "Spyware detection is made an even bigger priority in newer versions of the computer program, with the System Protector feature used to monitor the computer’s processes for any suspicious activity. A disk optimizer is also included with the latest versions of Advanced System Optimizer, which allows the applications on the machine to run more quickly and for the machine to boot in a faster manner. An undelete feature is also included, allowing users to easily recover files that were accidentally removed from the computer system.\n\nSection::::Improvements and upgrades.:Conclusion.\n", "Kaspersky claims the core anti-virus engine was revised to increase scan speed. PC Magazine found an initial scan took over two hours, however subsequent scans took two minutes to complete. However, malware detection was relatively low in comparison to other anti-virus applications tested. Out of 650 thousand samples, version 8.0 detected 95.6 percent. The top score was around 99 percent. Using two-week-old signatures, version 8.0 detected 52 percent of viruses in a different set of samples. Kaspersky also blocked about 60 percent of malware based solely on behaviour. The top performers scored 55.3 percent and 80 percent respectively. Version 2009 detected 98.1 percent of adware. However, PC World noted to achieve that kind of performance, users will have to modify program settings. On default settings, KIS allowed Zango to install. To block the installation, users must enable KIS to scan for \"other malware\".\n", "BULLET::::- The ability to delay \"feature updates\" for up to 365 days.\n\nThese features were added in Windows 10 version 1511. They are intended for large organizations with lots of computers, so that they can logically group their computers for gradual deployment. Microsoft recommends a small set of pilot computers to receive the updates almost immediately, while the set of most critical computers to receive them after every other group has done so, and has experienced their effects.\n", "Once SymNRT has started the removal process, it cannot be stopped. It is recommended to close all running programs prior to running SymNRT. ACT! and WinFax users are recommended to back up their databases before running SymNRT.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Incompatibilities with ZoneAlarm.\n", "When a process is \"trusted\", it has been deemed safe and excluded from risk scanning. There are two trust levels; \"standard\" and \"high\". The third option is to disable Norton Insight. In standard trust, processes appearing in the majority of participants' computers are deemed safe. High trust, in addition, excludes digitally signed files from scanning.\n\nSection::::Basic introduction & usage.:Tamper protection.\n\nNorton analyzes the NTFS file system upon startup, and if unaccounted changes are found, trust values of the processes on the system are revoked. \n", "Over the years it has become necessary for antivirus software to use several different strategies (e.g. specific email and network protection or low level modules) and detection algorithms, as well as to check an increasing variety of files, rather than just executables, for several reasons:\n\nBULLET::::- Powerful macros used in word processor applications, such as Microsoft Word, presented a risk. Virus writers could use the macros to write viruses embedded within documents. This meant that computers could now also be at risk from infection by opening documents with hidden attached macros.\n", "BULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2012 (14.0), March 5, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP1, June 1, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP2, July 26, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP3, November 21, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP4, March 13, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2014, (14.1), June 2, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2014 SP1, September 22, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 2014 SP2, December 15, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 15, (14.2 Rev 1180), April 6, 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec Backup Exec 15 FP1, July 8, 2015\n", "Norton recommends disabling the Windows Firewall to avoid redundant alerts. The firewall stealthed all significant ports in \"PC Magazine\" testing. Attacking the firewall itself was unsuccessful, and \"PC Magazine\" was unable to stop its service, terminate its process, or disable the firewall using simulated mouse clicks. The firewall also passed \"PC Pro\"s tests, successfully stealthing all ports.\n", "Windows 10's Anniversary Update introduced Limited Periodic Scanning, which optionally allows Windows Defender to scan a system periodically if another antivirus app is installed. It also introduced Block at First Sight, which uses machine learning to predict whether a file is malicious.\n\nSection::::Windows Vista-specific functionality.\n\nWindows Defender had additional functionality in Windows Vista which was removed in subsequent versions of Windows:\n\nSection::::Windows Vista-specific functionality.:Security agents.\n\nSecurity agents which monitor the computer for malicious activities:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Auto Start\" – Monitors lists of programs that are allowed to automatically run when the user starts the computer\n", "In an article of \"PC Magazine\", Bill Marczak (member of Bahrain Watch and computer science PhD student at University of California, Berkeley doing research into FinFisher) said of FinSpy Mobile (Gamma's mobile spyware): \"As we saw with respect to the desktop version of FinFisher, antivirus alone isn't enough, as it bypassed antivirus scans\". The article's author Sara Yin, an analyst at \"PC Magazine\", predicted that antivirus providers are likely to have updated their signatures to detect FinSpy Mobile.\n\nAccording to announcements from ESET, FinFisher and FinSpy are detected by ESET antivirus software as \"Win32/Belesak.D\" trojan.\n", "Section::::System requirements.\n\nA DVD-ROM or CD-ROM drive, Internet Explorer 8 or above and Windows Installed 3.0 or above are also required for the installation of Kaspersky Anti-Virus in Windows. The latest version can either be downloaded from their official website or purchased through retail.\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "The security status and settings are now displayed in a single main interface. A CPU usage monitor displays the total CPU utilization and Norton's CPU usage in the main interface. Other features include Norton Insight, a whitelisting technology which cuts scanning times by mapping known safe files using information from an online database. To address malware response times, updates are delivered every 5 to 15 minutes. However, such updates are not tested by Symantec, and may cause false positives, or incorrectly identify files as malicious. The exploit scanner found in the 2007 and 2008 versions was dropped from this release.\n", "On April 21, 2010, beginning approximately at 2 PM GMT, an erroneous virus definition file update from McAfee affected millions of computers worldwide running Windows XP Service Pack 3. The update resulted in the removal of a Windows system file (codice_1) on those machines, causing machines to lose network access and, in some cases, to enter a reboot loop. McAfee rectified this by removing and replacing the faulty DAT file, version 5958, with an emergency DAT file (version 5959) and has posted a fix for the affected machines in its consumer \"KnowledgeBase\".\n\nSection::::Controversies.:2012 update issues.\n", "Another alternative to these methods is to open the task manager immediately after booting the computer system and killing the process ending with \"tssd.exe\" or \"shdw.exe\" as soon as it appears under the list. After, one should restart their computer in safe mode and run a virus scanner, which will most likely detect the virus.\n", "As Mocmex can be described as a serious virus, protection is not hard. First of all, it is important to update your antivirus software, as updated antivirus works unless the malware writers get ahead of the antivirus vendors (which is what happened with the new Mocmex). Another way is to check a digital photo frame for malware on a Macintosh or Linux machine before plugging it into a computer with Windows, or disable autorun on Windows.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00682	Why are circles the only shape that can not fall into themselves?	If you're referring to manholes, it's because no matter where you measure the diameter of a circle, it's always the same. That diameter is also the widest length between any two points on that circle. If you have one large circle (manhole cover) and one smaller circle (manhole), the diameter of the cover will always be greater than the hole underneath, no matter how you rotate the cover. In the case of a triangle, for example, you can draw lines through it and come up with several lengths. But the maximum length of the triangle is not through the middle, but along one side. This means that a triangle has a minimum diameter that is less than the length of a single side. Which means you can turn it and fit the minimum length through a hole of the same shape but smaller, as long as the length of one side of the hole is longer than the shortest length on the cover. This is not an absolute rule. There is a triangle shape that is very rare but has been used. The sides are curved out so that it has a minimum diameter that is greater than the maximum diameter of the hole underneath.	[ "Perceived circles or lines are not exactly circular or straight, and true circles and lines could never be detected since by definition they are sets of infinitely small points. But if the perfect ones were not real, how could they direct the manufacturer?\n\nSection::::Criticisms of Platonic Forms.\n\nSection::::Criticisms of Platonic Forms.:Self-criticism.\n", "The importance of this determinant condition shows the following statement:\n\nBULLET::::- A ruled surface formula_47 is \"developable\" into a plane, if for any point the Gauss curvature vanishes. This is exactly the case if\n\nThe generators of any ruled surface coalesce with one family of its asymptotic lines. Also forming one family of its lines of curvature. It can be shown that \"any developable\" surface is a cone, a cylinder or a surface formed by all tangents of a space curve.\n\nSection::::Further examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Conoid\n\nBULLET::::- Catalan surface\n\nBULLET::::- Oloid\n\nSection::::Application and History of developable surfaces.\n", "These issues of infinity arise from problems of rolling circles. If two concentric circles of different radii roll along lines, then if the larger does not slip it appears clear that the smaller must slip. But in what way? Galileo attempts to clarify the matter by considering hexagons and then extending to rolling 100 000-gons, or n-gons, where he shows that a finite number of finite slips occur on the inner shape. Eventually, he concludes \"the line traversed by the larger circle consists then of an infinite number of points which completely fill it; while that which is traced by the smaller circle consists of an infinite number of points which leave empty spaces and only partly fill the line,\" which would not be considered satisfactory now.\n", "Curves of constant width are also the general answer to a brain teaser: \"What shape can you make a manhole cover so that it cannot fall down through the hole?\" In practice, there is no compelling reason to make manhole covers non-circular. Circles are easier to machine, and need not be rotated to a particular alignment in order to seal the hole.\n\nSection::::Generalizations.\n", ", as well as studying axiality, studies a restricted version of axiality in which the goal is to find a halfspace whose intersection with a convex shape has large area lies entirely within the reflection of the shape across the halfspace boundary. He shows that such an intersection can always be found to have area at least 1/8 that of the whole shape.\n", "The ISO definition of roundness is based on the ratio between the inscribed and the circumscribed circles, i.e. the maximum and minimum sizes for circles that are just sufficient to fit inside and to enclose the shape. \n\nSection::::Simple definitions.:Diameter.\n\nHaving a constant diameter, measured at varying angles around the shape, is often considered to be a simple measurement of roundness. This is misleading.\n", "Although constant diameter is a necessary condition for roundness, it is not a sufficient condition for roundness: shapes exist that have constant diameter but are far from round. Mathematical shapes such as the Reuleaux triangle and, an everyday example, the British 50p coin demonstrate this.\n\nSection::::Simple definitions.:Radial displacements.\n\nRoundness does not describe radial displacements of a shape from some notional centre point, merely the overall shape.\n", "For a given point \"c\" in the plane, the set of all circles having \"c\" as their center forms a pencil of circles. Each two circles in the pencil are concentric, and have different radii. Every point in the plane, except for the shared center, belongs to exactly one of the circles in the pencil. Every two disjoint circles, and every hyperbolic pencil of circles, may be transformed into a set of concentric circles by a Möbius transformation.\n\nSection::::Applications and examples.\n", "Remarkably, it is possible to turn an ordinary sphere inside out in a three-dimensional space with possible self-intersections but without creating any crease, in a process called sphere eversion.\n\nSection::::Spherical geometry.\n", "The existence of Reuleaux polygons shows that diameter measurements alone cannot verify that an object has a circular cross-section. Overlooking this fact may have played a role in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, as the roundness of sections of the rocket in that launch was tested only by measuring different diameters, and off-round shapes may cause unusually high stresses that could have been one of the factors causing the disaster.\n", "Archimedes emphasizes this in the beginning of the treatise, and invites the reader to try to reproduce the results by some other method. Unlike the other examples, the volume of these shapes is not rigorously computed in any of his other works. From fragments in the palimpsest, it appears that Archimedes did inscribe and circumscribe shapes to prove rigorous bounds for the volume, although the details have not been preserved.\n\nThe two shapes he considers are the intersection of two cylinders at right angles, which is the region of (\"x\", \"y\", \"z\") obeying:\n\nand the circular prism, which is the region obeying:\n", "The existence and structure of spherical designs with \"d\" = 1 (that is, in a circle) were studied in depth by Hong (1982).\n\nSection::::Spherical designs in any dimension.\n", "BULLET::::- Each point is associated with a unique line, called the \"polar line\" of the point, which is the line on the plane through the centre of the sphere and perpendicular to the diameter of the sphere through the given point.\n\nAs there are two arcs (\"line segments\") determined by a pair of points, which are not antipodal, on the line they determine, three non-collinear points do not determine a unique triangle. However, if we only consider triangles whose sides are minor arcs of great circles, we have the following properties:\n", "BULLET::::- The minimum covering circle of a set \"S\" can be determined by at most three points in \"S\" which lie on the boundary of the circle. If it is determined by only two points, then the line segment joining those two points must be a diameter of the minimum circle. If it is determined by three points, then the triangle consisting of those three points is not obtuse.\n", "Section::::Astrology.\n", "Among the most common 3-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces; ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects; cylinders; and cones.\n\nIf an object falls into one of these categories exactly or even approximately, we can use it to describe the shape of the object. Thus, we say that the shape of a manhole cover is a disk, because it is approximately the same geometric object as an actual geometric disk.\n\nSection::::Shape in geometry.\n\nThere are several ways to compare the shapes of two objects:\n", "In every triangle a unique circle, called the incircle, can be inscribed such that it is tangent to each of the three sides of the triangle.\n\nAbout every triangle a unique circle, called the circumcircle, can be circumscribed such that it goes through each of the triangle's three vertices.\n\nA tangential polygon, such as a tangential quadrilateral, is any convex polygon within which a circle can be inscribed that is tangent to each side of the polygon. Every regular polygon and every triangle is a tangential polygon.\n", "BULLET::::- Not every polygon with more than three sides has an inscribed circle; those polygons that do are called tangential polygons. Not every polygon with more than three sides is an inscribed polygon of a circle; those polygons that are so inscribed are called cyclic polygons.\n\nBULLET::::- Every triangle can be inscribed in an ellipse, called its Steiner circumellipse or simply its Steiner ellipse, whose center is the triangle's centroid.\n", "Two offset copies of this circle pattern makes a rhombic tiling pattern, while three copies make the original triangular pattern. \n\nSection::::Triangular grid of overlapping circles.:Related concepts.\n\nThe center lens of the 2-circle figure is called a Vesica piscis, from Euclid. Two circles are also called Villarceau circles as a plane intersection of a torus. The areas inside one circle and outside the other circle is called a lune.\n", "If all three of the original generating circles have the same radius then the Apollonian gasket has three lines of reflective symmetry; these lines are the mutual tangents of each pair of circles. Each mutual tangent also passes through the centre of the third circle and the common centre of the first two Apollonian circles. These lines of symmetry are at angles of 60 degrees to one another, so the Apollonian gasket also has rotational symmetry of degree 3; the symmetry group of this gasket is \"D\".\n\nSection::::Links with hyperbolic geometry.\n", "A Reuleaux triangle is a shape formed from the intersection of three circular disks, each having its center on the boundary of the other two. Its boundary is a curve of constant width, the simplest and best known such curve other than the circle itself. Constant width means that the separation of every two parallel supporting lines is the same, independent of their orientation. Because all its diameters are the same, the Reuleaux triangle is one answer to the question \"Other than a circle, what shape can a manhole cover be made so that it cannot fall down through the hole?\"\n", "Familiar examples of inscribed figures include circles inscribed in triangles or regular polygons, and triangles or regular polygons inscribed in circles. A circle inscribed in any polygon is called its incircle, in which case the polygon is said to be a tangential polygon. A polygon inscribed in a circle is said to be a cyclic polygon, and the circle is said to be its circumscribed circle or circumcircle.\n\nThe inradius or filling radius of a given outer figure is the radius of the inscribed circle or sphere, if it exists.\n", "Simple shapes can often be classified into basic geometric objects such as a point, a line, a curve, a plane, a plane figure (e.g. square or circle), or a solid figure (e.g. cube or sphere). However, most shapes occurring in the physical world are complex. Some, such as plant structures and coastlines, may be so complicated as to defy traditional mathematical description – in which case they may be analyzed by differential geometry, or as fractals.\n\nSection::::Shape in geometry.:Equivalence of shapes.\n", "The tangent developable is a developable surface; that is, it is a surface with zero Gaussian curvature. It is one of three fundamental types of developable surface; the other two are the generalized cones (the surface traced out by a one-dimensional family of lines through a fixed point), and the cylinders (surfaces traced out by a one-dimensional family of parallel lines). (The plane is sometimes given as a fourth type, or may be seen as a special case of either of these two types.) Every developable surface in three-dimensional space may be formed by gluing together pieces of these three types; it follows from this that every developable surface is a ruled surface, a union of a one-dimensional family of lines. However, not every ruled surface is developable; the helicoid provides a counterexample.\n", "This is an application of Cavalieri's principle: volumes with equal-sized corresponding cross-sections are equal. Indeed, the area of the cross-section is the same as that of the corresponding cross-section of a sphere of radius \"h\"/2, which has volume\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Visual calculus, an intuitive way to solve this type of problem, originally applied to finding the area of an annulus, given only its chord length\n\nBULLET::::- String girdling Earth, another problem where the radius of a sphere or circle is counter-intuitively irrelevant\n\nSection::::References.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00460	Why can we make bluray versions of old movies that look better but cant make better quality versions of old songs?	We can and they do. And they do it in pretty much the exact way that they restore films. They go back to the original recordings, clean them up, and remaster them.	[ "BULLET::::- Ian Williams as a guy in record store\n\nBULLET::::- Al Johnson as a record store geek\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Legacy.\n", "In contrast, even if digital data is stored on a medium that will preserve its integrity, highly specialized digital equipment will always be required to reproduce it. Changes in technology may thus render the format unreadable or expensive to recover over time. For this reason, film studios distributing digitally-originated films often make film-based separation masters of them for archival purposes.\n\nSection::::Comparison with film cinematography.:Reliability.\n", "In 1984, an edited restoration of \"Metropolis\" (1927) was released with a new rock music score by producer-composer Giorgio Moroder. Although the contemporary score, which included pop songs by Freddie Mercury, Pat Benatar, and Jon Anderson of Yes, was controversial, the door had been opened for a new approach to the presentation of classic silent films.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nAlthough the technology for creating digital recordings from analog sources has existed for some time, it was not necessarily viewed as a \"hole\" until the widespread deployment of DRM in the late 1990s. However, if high-quality equipment is not used to perform the conversion, the resulting copy may have distinguishable low fidelity compared to the digital original.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2K, for Flat (1.85:1) presentation 1998×1080 pixels of the imager is used\n\nBULLET::::- In 4K, for Scope (2.39:1) presentation 4096×1716 pixels of the imager is used\n\nBULLET::::- In 4K, for Flat (1.85:1) presentation 3996×2160 pixels of the imager is used\n\nBULLET::::- 12 bits per color component (36 bits per pixel) via dual HD-SDI (encrypted)\n\nBULLET::::- 10 bits only permitted for 2K at 48 frame/s\n\nBULLET::::- CIE XYZ color space\n\nBULLET::::- TIFF 6.0 container format (one file per frame)\n\nBULLET::::- JPEG 2000 compression\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Novelization.\n\nIn 1980, Jamaican-American author Michael Thelwell published a novel based on the film, using the same title. Thelwell inserted many Jamaican proverbs into the novel that were unused in the film.\n\nSection::::Legacy.:Digital restoration.\n\nIn 2006, Prassad Corporation digitally restored the film, frame by frame, to remove dirt, tears, scratches, and other artifacts and recapture its original look. Prasad cleaned 14,000 frames.\n\nSection::::Legacy.:Stage play.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Suite Life on Deck\" (season one episodes used \"FilmLook\" processing)\n\nBULLET::::- \"True Jackson, VP\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Drake & Josh\" (season one used \"FilmLook\" processing\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"iCarly\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Grange Hill\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A.N.T. Farm\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Family Feud\" (2012–present)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Choo Choo Soul\" (used FilmLook before switching back to Filmized for the Disney Songs)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mighty Boosh (series 1)\"\n\nMany digitally-shot productions have been filmized during mastering.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n", "BULLET::::- those that apply no equalization (also called \"Flat\" phonopreamplifiers). These require audio software to apply the correct equalization to the digital recording during the restoration process. As such, this type of premplifier is suitable for all record formats regardless of equalization employed by the mastering process.\n", "One can also use formats with bitrate peeling, that allow one to easily lower the bitrate without re-encoding, but quality is often lower than a re-encode. For example, in Vorbis bitrate peeling as of 2008, the quality is inferior to re-encoding.\n\nSection::::Drawbacks.\n\nThe key drawback of transcoding in lossy formats is decreased quality. Compression artifacts are cumulative, so transcoding causes a progressive loss of quality with each successive generation, known as digital generation loss. For this reason, transcoding (in lossy formats) is generally discouraged unless unavoidable.\n", "Additionally, from an artistic point of view, original mastering involved the original artist, remastering often not. Therefore, many times remasters result in a totally changed character to the music.\n\nSection::::Remastering.:Film and television.\n", "The rise of digital media and analog-to-digital conversion technologies has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-owning individuals and organizations, particularly within the music and movie industries. While analog media inevitably lose quality with each copy generation, and in some cases even during normal use, digital media files may be duplicated an unlimited number of times with no degradation in the quality.\n", "Section::::Modern equipment.\n", "Matting also has some other fundamental limitations. The process cannot reconstruct parts of the background that are occluded by the foreground, and any sort of approximation will be limited. Additionally, the foreground and background of an image still have an effect on each other due to shadows being cast and light being reflected between them. When compositing an image or video from mattes of different origin, missing or extra shadows and other details of light can ruin the impact of the new image. \n", "Section::::Comparison.:Compression ratio.\n\nThe compression ratio (that is, the size of the compressed file compared to that of the uncompressed file) of lossy video codecs is nearly always far superior to that of the audio and still-image equivalents.\n\nBULLET::::- Video can be compressed immensely (e.g. 100:1) with little visible quality loss\n\nBULLET::::- Audio can often be compressed at 10:1 with almost imperceptible loss of quality\n\nBULLET::::- Still images are often lossily compressed at 10:1, as with audio, but the quality loss is more noticeable, especially on closer inspection.\n\nSection::::Transcoding and editing.\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 photochemical restoration: 132 minutes – 125 minutes of footage synchronised to complete premiere version soundtrack; film freeze frames and on-set publicity photos fill in the blank sections.\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 digital restoration: 132 minutes – further work was carried out on the 1986 restoration.\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 all-new 4K digital restoration: 132 minutes – 126 minutes of footage synchronised to premiere soundtrack, after an extra minute of missing film was discovered.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2003 film adaptation of Dr. Seuss' \"The Cat in the Hat\", a version of this song recorded by the band Smash Mouth, with a horn interlude replacing the third verse, was used in the sequence of the Cat, Thing One and Thing Two cleaning up the wreckage of the house.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2007, Kaiser Chiefs re-recorded the song for \"It Was 40 Years Ago Today\", a BBC television film with contemporary acts recording the album's songs using the same studio, technicians and recording techniques as the original.\n", "Section::::Comparison with film cinematography.:Grain and noise.\n\nFilm has a characteristic grain structure. Different film stocks have different grain.\n\nDigitally acquired footage lacks this grain structure. It has electronic noise.\n\nSection::::Comparison with film cinematography.:Digital intermediate workflow and archiving.\n\nThe process of using digital intermediate workflow, where movies are color graded digitally instead of via traditional photochemical finishing techniques, has become common.\n", "American copyright laws about sound recordings are uniquely restrictive compared to American copyright laws for other formats and international copyright laws about sound recordings. In addition to preventing access, existing laws sometimes prohibit the preservation of deteriorating carrier objects until the object has audibly degraded.\n", "BULLET::::- A Brief History for Colorists, History of Telecines\n\nBULLET::::- Photo of a VDC Specter in three 19 inch rackes\n\nBULLET::::- theasc.com, © 2003 American Cinematographer, DI by Debra Kaufman\n\nBULLET::::- American Cinematographer A flex Finish\n\nBULLET::::- Thomson Grassvalley Home Page\n\nBULLET::::- Ascent Media’s Virtual Telecine\n\nBULLET::::- - Pogle\n\nBULLET::::- Pandora International Home Page\n\nBULLET::::- Marquise Technologies Home Page\n\nBULLET::::- Grande Vitesse Systems Home Page\n\nBULLET::::- theasc.com, © 2003 American Cinematographer, DI by Debra Kaufman\n\nBULLET::::- American Cinematographer A flex Finish\n\nBULLET::::- kodak.com \"Restoration of an impeccably preserved old negative\"\n", "A further, self-imposed limitation is that VidFIRE is used only to process material that originally was produced using video cameras. There is no technical reason why film-originated material cannot be processed, but it is not considered to be \"in the spirit\" of restoration. It is also possible that the difference in lighting and picture balance on film may mean the final processed images look subjectively \"wrong\".\n", "Very few titles were made available in any market for this format, although it is presumed that many would be needed to drive purchase of incompatible players. Because of this, it is unlikely any major U.S. studio will commit to movies in this format without some form of copy-protection, which is not yet specified.\n", "So, the dilemma is this: should coarse-groove recordings be transferred in mass to digital using an arbitrary phonoequalization curve such as with the AES calibration discs, or should each recording be matched to the curve appropriate to its vintage and label, then transferred to digital media?\n\nSection::::Use of RIAA Equalization.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Enquire Within\" (Edison cylinder 13023)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nine Gallant Highlanders\" (Edison cylinder 13024)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scoot\" (Edison cylinder 13025)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Volunteer Fireman\" (Edison cylinder 13036)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Three Stages of Women\" (Edison cylinder 13037)\n\nMade on the earliest commercial medium for recording and reproducing sound, the recordings may have disintegrated:\n", "BULLET::::- Star Wars: The legendary first three ‘Star Wars’ feature films were all scanned at 4K with full restoration including stabilization, grain reduction, and dust & dirt removal.\n\nBULLET::::- Avatar & Titanic: In addition to image processing and grain reduction, Z axis issues that had occurred during the original 3D shooting were fixed.\n\nBULLET::::- Disney: Short films and platinum classic films like 'Dumbo', 'Snow White', 'Cinderella', 'Sleeping Beauty' and several others were scanned at 4K, color corrected and restored according to fixed specifications. Dirt and dust were removed from each of these films, and scratches and grains were cleaned up.\n" ]	[ "Cannot make better quality versions of old songs. ", "It is not possible to make better quality versions of old songs." ]	[ "We can make better quality versions of songs in the same way we do for films. ", "Better quality versions of old songs are actually already created, and it is done in the same process that improved older movies are made." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cannot make better quality versions of old songs. ", "It is not possible to make better quality versions of old songs." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "We can make better quality versions of songs in the same way we do for films. ", "Better quality versions of old songs are actually already created, and it is done in the same process that improved older movies are made." ]
2018-11422	Why is there more (aparrent) variance between the faces of humans (to the point where the human face is instantly recognizable) than those of other species?	There is literally a part of the human brain (right fusiform gyrus, in the lumpy gray section) dedicated to facial recognition, separate from the other parts that recognize color and shade patterns. We need to see faces for many reasons: communication, response, survival etc. You could say we're just built for it. Prosopagnosia is a disease that disables that part, so everybody looks like a Picasso painting. Edit: not exactly like a Picasso, clarified in the comment below.	[ "Among human beings, the sense of sight is usually in charge of recognizing other members of the same species, with maybe the subconscious help of smell. In particular, the human brain has a disproportionate amount of processing power dedicated to finely analyze the features of a human face. This is why we are able to distinguish basically all six billions of human beings from each other (barring look-alikes), and a human being from a similar species like some anthropomorphic ape, with only a quick glance.\n", "Neurobiologist Jenny Morton and her team have been able to teach sheep to choose a familiar face over unfamiliar one when presented with two photographs, which has led to the discovery that sheep can recognise human faces. Archerfish (distant relatives of humans) were able to differentiate between forty-four different human faces, which supports the theory that there is no need for a neocortex or a history of discerning human faces in order to do so. Pigeons were found to use the same parts of the brain as humans do to distinguish between happy and neutral faces or male and female faces.\n", "For humans, the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of the sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features.\n", "The more familiar a particular type of face (e.g. human or dog) is, the more susceptible one is to the face inversion effect for that face. This applies to both humans and other species. For example, older chimpanzees familiar with human faces experienced the face inversion effect when viewing human faces, but the same result did not occur for younger chimpanzees familiar with chimpanzee faces. The face inversion effect was also stronger for dog faces when they were viewed by dog experts. This evidence demonstrates that familiarity with a particular type of face develops over time and appears to be necessary for the face inversion effect to occur.\n", "Face\n\nThe face is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's sense organs, the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions. The face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThe front of the human head is called the face. It includes several distinct areas, of which the main features are:\n\nBULLET::::- The forehead, comprising the skin beneath the hairline, bordered laterally by the temples and inferiorly by eyebrows and ears\n", "When comparing facial features across species, it was found that infants of six months were better at distinguishing facial information of both humans and monkeys than older infants and adults. They found that both nine-month-olds and adults could discriminate between pictures of human faces; however, neither infants nor adults had the same capabilities when it came to pictures of monkeys. On the other hand, six-month-old infants were able to discriminate both facial features on human faces and on monkey faces. This suggests that there is a narrowing in face processing, as a result of neural network changes in early cognition. Another explanation is that infants likely have no experience with monkey faces and relatively little experience with human faces. This may result in a more broadly tuned face recognition system and, in turn, an advantage in recognizing facial identity in general (i.e., regardless of species). In contrast, healthy adults due to their interaction with people on a frequent basis have fine tuned their sensitivity to facial information of humans – which has led to cortical specialization.\n", "The muscles of the face play a prominent role in the expression of emotion, and vary among different individuals, giving rise to additional diversity in expression and facial features.\n", "Section::::Function.:Perception and recognition of faces.:Biological perspective.\n", "Cross species studies have been conducted where human infants at 6 months of age were familiarized with individual monkeys. When the monkey faces were associated with unique proper name labels, the infants maintained their ability to discriminate between them when retested at nine months of age. If the exposure was just to monkey faces in general, without name labels, the infants were unable to discriminate between them when retested at the nine months mark. This research shows that the individuation process helps to shape and maintain discrimination abilities for categories of familiarity, and is instrumental in the recognition of familiar faces later in life. It also highlights the importance of experience in perceptual narrowing.\n", "The face is itself a highly sensitive region of the human body and its expression may change when the brain is stimulated by any of the many human senses, such as touch, temperature, smell, taste, hearing, movement, hunger, or visual stimuli.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Shape.\n", "Human physical appearance\n\nHuman physical appearance is the outward phenotype or look of human beings.\n\nThere are infinite variations in human phenotypes, though society reduces the variability to distinct categories. Physical appearance of humans, in particular those attributes which are regarded as important for physical attractiveness, are believed by anthropologists to significantly affect the development of personality and social relations. Humans are acutely sensitive to their physical appearance. Some differences in human appearance are genetic, others are the result of age, lifestyle or disease, and many are the result of personal adornment.\n", "BULLET::::- Crowded teeth and poor sinus drainage, as human faces are significantly flatter than those of other primates and humans share the same tooth set. This results in a number of problems, most notably with wisdom teeth, which can damage neighboring teeth or cause serious infections of the mouth.\n", "Humans are distributed across the globe with the exception of Antarctica, and form a variable species. In adults, average weight varies from around 40 kilos for the smallest and most lightly built tropical people to around 80 kilos for the heavier northern peoples. Size also varies between the sexes, the sexual dimorphism in humans being more pronounced than that of chimpanzees, but less than the dimorphism found in gorillas. The colouration of skin, hair and eyes also varies considerably, with darker pigmentation domination in tropical climates and lighter in polar regions.\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic, ethnic affiliation, geographical ancestry.\n", "Facial perception has well identified, neuroanatomical correlates in the brain. During the perception of faces, major activations occur in the extrastriate areas bilaterally, particularly in the fusiform face area, the occipital face area (OFA), and the superior temporal sulcus (fSTS). Perceiving an inverted human face involves increased activity in the inferior temporal cortex, while perceiving a misaligned face involves increased activity in the occipital cortex. However, none of these results were found when perceiving a dog face, suggesting that this process may be specific to perception of human faces.\n", "Section::::Trait selection and convergent evolution.\n\nAnimals often portray many similar characteristics displayed by humans. There looms large belief that while both humans and animals evolve simultaneously, domesticated animals have benefitted the most from human-animal relationships because they have increased in population much further than they ever would have in a natural occurrence because of their selected \"human-like\" characteristics. The selection of behavioural skills provides a typical environment for :convergent evolution.\n\nSection::::Trait selection and convergent evolution.:\"Canis lupus familiaris\".\n", "symmetry may serve as an honest signal of mate quality in both humans and animals. However Langlois, Roggman and Musselman found that when faces were divided down the middle two perfectly symmetrical faces could be created from the two halves, a \"left face\" consisting of the left half of the face and its mirror image, and a \"right face\" constructed in a similar manner. These two perfectly symmetrical faces could then be compared with the unaltered face. In all cases, except in the most unattractive original faces, the unaltered face was rated as more attractive than either of the perfectly symmetrical faces. Furthermore, when photographs of faces in profile were used (in which there is no symmetry between the front and back of the head) the average of these photographs was consistently judged to be the most attractive. \n", "Even fish, which lack a neocortex, have been taught to distinguish and respond differently to different human faces (archerfish) or styles of music (goldfish and koi).\n\nMolluscs, with totally different brain designs, have been taught to distinguish and respond to symbols (cuttlefish and octopus), and have been taught that food behind a clear barrier cannot be eaten (squid).\n", "BULLET::::- Least chipmunk, \"Tamias minimus\"\n\nBULLET::::- California chipmunk, \"Tamias obscurus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-cheeked chipmunk, \"Tamias ochrogenys\"\n\nBULLET::::- Palmer's chipmunk, \"Tamias palmeri\"\n\nBULLET::::- Panamint chipmunk, \"Tamias panamintinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Long-eared chipmunk, \"Tamias quadrimaculatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado chipmunk, \"Tamias quadrivittatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-tailed chipmunk, \"Tamias ruficaudus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hopi chipmunk, \"Tamias rufus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Allen's chipmunk, \"Tamias senex\"\n\nBULLET::::- Siskiyou chipmunk, \"Tamias siskiyou\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sonoma chipmunk, \"Tamias sonomae\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lodgepole chipmunk, \"Tamias speciosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern chipmunk, \"Tamias striatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Townsend's chipmunk, \"Tamias townsendii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Uinta chipmunk, \"Tamias umbrinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Geomyidae\n\nBULLET::::- Desert pocket gopher, \"Geomys arenarius\"\n\nBULLET::::- Attwater's pocket gopher, \"Geomys attwateri\"\n", "This episode investigates family resemblances, facial recognition and the purpose of the face and its features, going back to five hundred million years ago. It also speculates about the multi-racial face of the future and showed surgeons in Kentucky preparing for the world’s first facial transplant.\n\nSection::::Plot.:Part Three: Beauty.\n\nOriginal airdate: 21 March 2001\n", "Psychology research has shown that when humans gaze at the face of another human, the gaze is not symmetrical; the gaze instinctively moves to the right side of the face to obtain information about their emotions and state. Research at the University of Lincoln shows that dogs share this instinct when meeting a human, and only when meeting a human (i.e. not other animals or other dogs). They are the only non-primate species known to share this instinct.\n", "Because men generally exhibit uniform preference for neotenous women's faces, Elia (2013) questioned if women's varying preferences for neotenous men's faces could \"help determine\" the range of facial neoteny in humans.\n\nSection::::Neoteny and its connection with human specialization features.\n", "There is evidence that dogs can discriminate the emotional expressions of human faces. In addition, they seem to respond to faces in somewhat the same way as humans. For example, humans tend to gaze at the right side of a person's face, which may be related to the use of right brain hemisphere for facial recognition. Research indicates that dogs also fixate the right side of a human face, but not that of other dogs or other animals. Dogs are the only non-primate species known to do so.\n\nSection::::Problem solving.\n", "The fusiform face area, part of the fusiform gyrus is an area some believe to specialize in the identification and processing of human faces, although others suspect it is responsible for distinguishing between well known objects such as cars and animals. Neuroimaging studies have found activation in this area in response to participants viewing images of prototypical faces, but not scrambled or inverted faces, suggesting that this region is specialized for processing human faces but not other material. This area has been an area of increasing debate and while some psychologists may approach the fusiform face area in a simplistic manner, in that it specializes in the processing of human faces, more likely this area is implicated in the visual processing of many objects, particularly those familiar and prevalent in the environment. Impairments in the ability to recognize subtle differences in faces would greatly inhibit emotion perception and processing and have significant implications involving social interactions and appropriate biological responses to emotional information.\n", "It has also been suggested that people are attracted to faces similar to their own as these features serve as cues of kinship. This preference for facial-resemblance is thought to vary across contexts. For example, a study by DeBruine et al. (2008) found that individuals rated faces which had been manipulated to be similar to their own as having more prosocial attributes, but were less likely to find them sexually attractive. These results support \"inclusive fitness theory\", which predicts that organisms will help closely related kin over more distant relatives. Results further suggest inherent mate-selective mechanisms that consider costs of inbreeding to offspring health.\n", "In contrast, Cunningham said that faces that were \"low in neoteny\" were judged as \"intimidating\". Upon analyzing the results of his study Cunningham concluded that preference for \"neonate features may display the least cross-cultural variability\" in terms of \"attractiveness ratings\". In a study of Italian women who have won beauty competitions, the study said that the women had faces characterized by more \"babyness\" traits compared to the \"normal\" women used as a reference. In a study of sixty Caucasian female faces, the average facial composite of the fifteen faces considered most attractive differed from the facial composite of the whole by having a reduced lower facial region, a thinner jaw, and a higher forehead.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02782	Why are printers always f***ing up?	Yeah it's the worst. I see it as the most major part of a PC setup that has multiple large moving parts and consumables (ink and paper). They are typically infrequently used too which means ink dries etc. I know that doesn't answer the technical side of it, but that's what I think makes them unique and problematic.	[ "BULLET::::- Media handling: Most page printers accept paper, transparencies, envelopes, labels etc. in formats up to letter and A4. Some printers may also handle other media types such as larger formats and heavier paper.\n\nBULLET::::- Energy consumption, noise, etc. Some page printers are too noisy to stay in the near vicinity of the users, even if page printers are quieter than the old line printers and other impact printers.\n", "Section::::Components.:Ram / Slide.\n", "A second aspect of printer technology that is often forgotten is resistance to alteration: liquid ink, such as from an inkjet head or fabric ribbon, becomes absorbed by the paper fibers, so documents printed with liquid ink are more difficult to alter than documents printed with toner or solid inks, which do not penetrate below the paper surface.\n", "The following basic types of refill toner (differing mainly in particle size and fusing temperature) have been identified by one vendor while other refill vendors insist that each printer or copier model requires a unique type.\n\nBULLET::::1. HP, Canon printers\n\nBULLET::::2. Canon PC copiers\n\nBULLET::::3. IBM/Lexmark Optra and similar\n\nBULLET::::4. Epson EPL, NEC Silentwriter\n\nBULLET::::5. Xerox and Sharp\n\nBULLET::::6. Samsung and Lexmark Optra E\n\nBULLET::::7. Brother\n", "Other manufacturers, in reaction to the challenges from using this business model, choose to make more money on printers and less on the ink, promoting the latter through their advertising campaigns. Finally, this generates two clearly different proposals: \"cheap printer – expensive ink\" or \"expensive printer – cheap ink\". Ultimately, the consumer decision depends on their reference interest rate or their time preference. From an economics viewpoint, there is a clear trade-off between cost per copy and cost of the printer.\n\nSection::::Attributes.:Printer steganography.\n", "Section::::Waste.\n", "Line printers are the fastest of all impact printers and are used for bulk printing in large computer centres. A line printer can print at 1100 lines per minute or faster, frequently printing pages more rapidly than many current laser printers. On the other hand, the mechanical components of line printers operate with tight tolerances and require regular preventive maintenance (PM) to produce top quality print. They are virtually never used with personal computers and have now been replaced by high-speed laser printers. The legacy of line printers lives on in many computer operating systems, which use the abbreviations \"lp\", \"lpr\", or \"LPT\" to refer to printers.\n", "The ink is controlled in the flexographic printing process by the inking unit. The inking unit can be either of fountain roll system or doctor blade system. The fountain roll system is a simple old system yet if there is too much or too little ink this system would likely control in a poor way. The doctor blade inside the anilox/ceramic roller uses cell geometry and distribution. These blades ensure that the cells are filled with enough ink.\n\nSection::::Presses.\n\nStack press\n", "There are two main design philosophies in inkjet head design: \"fixed-head\" and \"disposable head\". Each has its own strengths and weaknesses.\n\nSection::::Printing heads.:Fixed head.\n", "Many consumer grade printers are designed with close-fitting and sometimes fully enclosing shrouds over the print carriage. It may be difficult or impossible to install a retrofit kit because there is no room to install the flexible tubing that must flex and bend as the printhead moves back and forth. Jamming may occur if the tubing droops into the path of the printhead and is crushed underneath the printhead or between the printhead and cover. It may be necessary to modify the printer by removing the cover or cutting slots into the body to provide an open space for the tubing.\n", "Manufacturing two versions of the same product at different prices. In the hi-tech world it is common for companies to produce a high-specification product, sold at a premium price, and then sell the same product more cheaply with some of the functions disabled. IBM did this with a printer in the 1990s, where an economy version for a home user was the top-of-the-range model with a microchip in it to slow it down. \n", "Depending on the hardware and software components and configurations, RIPs can experience problems rasterizing the image data contained in PostScript or PDF files. If there is a failure in rasterizing the image, it can be costly, as output systems (printers, plate-setters, etc.) consume expensive supplies, can require extensive amounts of time to process complex image data, and require skilled labor to operate.\n\nSection::::The preflight process.\n", "BULLET::::- Speed: The user has to wait for the job to be copied and processed from the moment the print job is pulled.\n\nBULLET::::- Costs: Extra licensing and hardware.\n\nBULLET::::- Specialised software may be required on the server and also possibly on the printer.\n\nBULLET::::- Compatibility: The print driver used when the user initially prints must be compatible with all the devices that the user might release their print job to. Some software solutions can perform conversions or a common print driver to negate this requirement.\n", "Professional solvent- and UV-curable ink wide-format inkjet printers generally include a \"manual clean\" mode that allows the operator to manually clean the print heads and capping mechanism and to replace the wiper blades and other parts used in the automated cleaning processes. The volume of ink used in these printers often leads to \"overspray\" and therefore buildup of dried ink in many places that automated processes are not capable of cleaning.\n", "\"The printed proof is a dispassionate simulation of the ultimate output – a CMYK press sheet. The mission of a proofing system is to create accurate predictions, not pretty pictures.\" In the best conditions the proofing process will actually try to emulate the effects of the printing press through color management and screening techniques, which can be quite challenging because proofing devices may behave and operate quite differently from press devices.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "These machines can be highly durable. When they do wear out, it is generally due to ink invading the guide plate of the print head, causing grit to adhere to it; this grit slowly causes the channels in the guide plate to wear from circles into ovals or slots, providing less and less accurate guidance to the printing wires. Eventually, even with tungsten blocks and titanium pawls, the printing becomes too unclear to read, a common problem when users failed to maintain the printer with regular cleaning as outlined in most user manuals.\n", "The frequent cleaning conducted by some printers can consume quite a bit of ink and has a great impact on cost-per-page determinations.\n\nClogged nozzles can be detected by printing a standard test pattern on the page. Some software workaround methods are known for re-routing printing information from a clogged nozzle to a working nozzle.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n\nCompared to earlier consumer-oriented color printers, inkjet printers have a number of advantages. They are quieter in operation than impact dot matrix or daisywheel printers. They can print finer, smoother details through higher resolution. Consumer inkjet printers with photographic-quality printing are widely available.\n", "One of the important functions in the printing process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are correctly processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model, finalizing the files, and creating plates for each color of the job to be run on the press.\n", "BULLET::::- Green IT: the server-less flavour of pull printing allows the removal of all print servers throughout the company. A widget can show users the environmental impact of printing by showing them the number of trees and amount of CO2 and energy used to deliver a print job.\n\nBULLET::::- Security: No more unattended documents on printers output trays, the user must authenticate, increasing privacy policy compliance.\n\nBULLET::::- Accounting: Although this is not really a Pull Printing feature, centralized printing solutions often come with these additional features (e.g. reporting, charging, monitoring).\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "Section::::Efficiency.\n", "Prepress proofing\n\nA contract proof usually serves as an agreement between customer and printer and as a color reference guide for adjusting the press before the final press run. Most contract proofs are a prepress proof.\n", "Section::::Advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Flexibility: The user can print first and choose the printer afterwards (while standing next to it).\n\nBULLET::::- IT management: instead of having to manage hundreds of print queues on print servers and multiple printers on the user desktops there is only one print queue on each user PC.\n\nBULLET::::- Costs and environment: Reduces uncollected paper.\n", "In the past, particularly noisy printer such as dot matrix and daisy wheel designs were often housed in soundproofed boxes or cabinets, and the same technique can be used with modern printers to reduce their perceived noise. Another solution is to network the printer, and locate it physically away from the immediate work area.\n\nSection::::Laptop.\n", "Other problems that have been faced in the past include differences in the fonts used by the printer and the on-screen display (largely solved by the use of downloadable font technologies like TrueType), and differences in color profiles between devices (mostly solved by printer drivers with good color model conversion software).\n", "Climatic conditions will significantly affect the performance of any pad printing ink, especially the open ink well style printers. Too dry conditions can lead to faster evaporation of solvents causing the ink to thicken prematurely and too much moisture can lead to ink issues of \"clumping\" or something alike. Also the climate can affect other aspects of the printing process such as ink pick up and release from the plate to the pad to the substrate, as well as polymer plate to blade chattering or binding due to humidity.\n\nSection::::Process.:Substrate.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01628	ELIF: How is there snow on the top of Mount Everest if the clouds are below it?	The simple answer is: all the clouds _aren't_ below it. Snow clouds go over the top of Everest...it's not tall enough to be taller than all clouds. You would need a _really_ big mountain to be above the snowline. For example, if Mars was terraformed it's possible that Olympus Mons would stick up above the snowline. But Everest is too short.	[ "In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area, who made two observations from Jirol, away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east, obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations, with the closest being from the peak.\n", "In the summer, the Indian monsoon brings warm wet air from the Indian Ocean to Everest's south side. During the winter the west-southwest flowing jet stream shifts south and blows on the peak.\n\nSection::::History of expeditions.\n\nBecause Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, it has attracted considerable attention and climbing attempts. A set of climbing routes has been established over several decades of climbing expeditions to the mountain. Whether the mountain was climbed in ancient times is unknown. It may have been climbed in 1924.\n\nSection::::History of expeditions.:Overview.\n", "named glaciers or snow fields, the most visited of which is Palmer Glacier, partially within the Timberline Lodge ski area and on the most popular climbing route. The glaciers are almost exclusively above the level, which also is about the average tree line elevation on Mount Hood. More than 80 percent of the glacial surface area is above .\n", "Section::::Extent.:Alpine permafrost.\n\nEstimates of the total area of alpine permafrost vary. Bockheim and Munroe combined three sources and made the tabulated estimates by region, totaling .\n\nAlpine permafrost in the Andes has not been mapped. Its extent has been modeled to assess the amount of water bound up in these areas. In 2009, a researcher from Alaska found permafrost at the level on Africa's highest peak, Mount Kilimanjaro, approximately 3° north of the equator.\n\nSection::::Extent.:Subsea permafrost.\n", "Approaching \"Mountains and Clouds\" from the south entrance gives a different impression; one initially sees only two mountain peaks, and the highest seems to touch or merge into the lowest cloud form. From this perspective, it is the mountain-cloud unit that impresses.\n", "The intermediate layers of the troposphere are the regions with less influence of human activity. This region is far enough from the surface for not being affected by the surface emissions. Additionally, commercial and military flights only cross this region during ascending or descending maneuvers. Moreover, in this region there exist two types of clouds with a large horizontal extension: \"Nimbostratus\" and \"Altostratus\", which cannot originate from human activity. Consequently, it is assumed that there are no anthropic clouds of these two \"genera\". However, what can occur is enhancing existing \"Nimbostratus\" or \"Altostratus\" due to the additional water vapor or condensation nuclei emitted by a thermal power plant, for instance. \n", "Section::::Climate.\n", "Cirrus clouds that produced snow were sighted in \"Phoenix\" imagery. The clouds formed at a level in the atmosphere that was around -65 °C, so the clouds would have to be composed of water-ice, rather than carbon dioxide-ice because the temperature for forming carbon dioxide ice is much lower—less than -120 °C. As a result of the mission, it is now believed that water ice (snow) would have accumulated later in the year at this location.\n", "Section::::Weather.\n\nThe Matterhorn is an isolated mountain. Because of its position on the main Alpine watershed and its great height, the Matterhorn is exposed to rapid weather changes. In addition, the steep faces of the mountain and its isolated location make it prone to banner clouds formation, with the air flowing around the mountain producing condensation of the air on the lee side and also creating vortices.\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "Glaciations in East Africa are associated with a colder, drier climate when the precipitation is less, but the extra temperature drop means any solid precipitation stays. Stratus cloud, which probably dominated during some of the glaciations would have provided insulation but little precipitation.\n", "Birds, such as the bar-headed goose, have been seen flying at the higher altitudes of the mountain, while others, such as the chough, have been spotted as high as the South Col at . Yellow-billed choughs have been seen as high as and bar-headed geese migrate over the Himalayas. In 1953, George Lowe (part of the expedition of Tenzing and Hillary) said that he saw bar-headed geese flying over Everest's summit.\n", "Section::::Flora and fauna.\n\nThere is very little native flora or fauna on Everest. A moss grows at on Mount Everest. It may be the highest altitude plant species. An alpine cushion plant called \"Arenaria\" is known to grow below in the region.\n\n\"Euophrys omnisuperstes\", a minute black jumping spider, has been found at elevations as high as , possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. It lurks in crevices and may feed on frozen insects that have been blown there by the wind. There is a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher altitudes.\n", "Cloud cover has been seen on most other planets in the solar system. Venus's thick clouds are composed of sulfur dioxide (due to volcanic activity) and appear to be almost entirely stratiform. They are arranged in three main layers at altitudes of 45 to 65 km that obscure the planet's surface and can produce virga. No embedded cumuliform types have been identified, but broken stratocumuliform wave formations are sometimes seen in the top layer that reveal more continuous layer clouds underneath. On Mars, noctilucent, cirrus, cirrocumulus and stratocumulus composed of water-ice have been detected mostly near the poles. Water-ice fogs have also been detected on Mars.\n", "Above most of the precipitation falls as snow, but as the air is very dry there is not much of this. Therefore, the major source of water in the alpine and nival zones is the nightly frost. This plays a very important role in feeding the glaciers, however there is yet no accurate way to measure the contribution this makes. Lower down, in the dry season, dew every morning has a similar role, and it is estimated that the majority of the small streams are fed in this way.\n\nSection::::Past Climate.\n", "Genus and species types are further subdivided into \"varieties\" whose names can appear after the species name to provide a fuller description of a cloud. Some cloud varieties are not restricted to a specific altitude level or form, and can therefore be common to more than one genus or species.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Species.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Species.:Stable or mostly stable.\n", "BULLET::::- The highest natural lake is an unnamed crater lake on Ojos del Salado at , on the Argentina side. Another candidate was Lhagba Pool on the northeast slopes of Mount Everest, Tibet, China, at an elevation of , which has since dried up.\n\nBULLET::::- The highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca, on the border of Bolivia and Peru in the Andes, at .\n\nBULLET::::- The highest glacier is the Khumbu Glacier on the southwest slopes of Mount Everest in Nepal, beginning on the west side of Lhotse at an elevation of .\n", "The current height () of Mount Vinson was measured by a GPS survey that was conducted by the 2004 Omega Foundation team comprising Damien Gildea of Australia (leader) and Rodrigo Fica and Camilo Rada of Chile. Since 1998 and continuing through 2007, the Omega Foundation has placed a GPS receiver on the summit for a suitable period of time to obtain accurate satellite readings.\n\nSection::::Climate and glaciers.\n", "The Polish climber Andrzej Zawada headed the first winter ascent of Mount Everest, the first winter ascent of an eight-thousander. The team of 20 Polish climbers and 4 Sherpas established a base camp on Khumbu Glacier in early January 1980. On 15 January, the team managed to set up Camp III at 7150 meters above sea level, but further action was stopped by hurricane-force winds. The weather improved after 11 February, when Leszek Cichy, Walenty Fiut and Krzysztof Wielicki set up camp IV on South Col (7906 m). Cichy and Wielicki started the final ascent at 6:50 am on 17 February. At 2:40 pm Andrzej Zawada at base camp heard the climbers' voices over the radio – \"We are on the summit! The strong wind blows all the time. It is unimaginably cold.\" The successful winter ascent of Mount Everest started a new decade of Winter Himalaism, which became a Polish specialisation. After 1980 Poles did ten first winter ascents on 8000 metre peaks, which earned Polish climbers a reputation of \"Ice Warriors\".\n", "The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. \"Hydrangea hirta\" is an example of floral species that can be found in this area. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially rhododendron, apple and \"box myrtle\". The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is \"Juniperus tibetica\" located at in Southeastern Tibet.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "BULLET::::- Genus altostratus (As):\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Levels and genera.:Low-level.\n\nLow clouds are found from near the surface up to . Genus types in this level either have no prefix or carry one that refers to a characteristic other than altitude. Clouds that form in the low level of the troposphere are generally of larger structure than those that form in the middle and high levels, so they can usually be identified by their forms and genus types using satellite photography alone.\n\nBULLET::::- Genus stratocumulus (Sc):\n\nBULLET::::- Genus cumulus (Cu); species humilis – \"little vertical extent\":\n", "The height at which the cloud forms depends on the amount of moisture in the thermal that forms the cloud. Humid air will generally result in a lower cloud base. In temperate areas, the base of the cumulus clouds is usually below above ground level, but it can range up to in altitude. In arid and mountainous areas, the cloud base can be in excess of .\n", "In 1913, high Prins Hendrik peaks (now Puncak Yamin) was named and reported to have \"eternal\" snow, but this observation was never repeated. The ice cap of Wilhelmina Peaks, which reached below in 1909, vanished between 1939 and 1963. The Mandala / Juliana ice cap disappeared in the 1990s. and the Idenburg glacier on Ngga Pilimsit dried up in 2003. This leaves only the remnants of the once continuous icecap on New Guinea's highest mountain, Mount Carstensz with the high Puncak Jaya summit, which is estimated to have had an area of in 1850.\n", "Section::::Everest and aviation.:1991: Hot air balloon flyover.\n", "BULLET::::3. Add the results from step (2) to the field elevation to obtain the altitude of the cloud base above mean sea level.\n\nSection::::Weather and climate relevance.\n\nIn well-defined air masses, many (or even most) clouds may have a similar cloud base because this variable is largely controlled by the thermodynamic properties of that air mass, which are relatively homogeneous on a large spatial scale. This is not the case for the cloud tops, which can vary widely from cloud to cloud, as the depth of the cloud is determined by the strength of local convection.\n", "The storm's impact on climbers on the mountain's other side, the North Ridge, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first hand account by British filmmaker and writer Matt Dickinson in his book \"The Other Side of Everest\".\n\nBULLET::::- Sherpa Ang Rita was the first person to summit ten times, between 7 May 1983 through 23 May 1996.\n\nBULLET::::- Hans Kammerlander climbed the mountain from the north side in the record ascent time of 17 hours from base camp to the summit. He climbed alone without supplementary oxygen and skied down from 7,800 metres.\n" ]	[ "All of the clouds are below Mount Everest.", "If there are clouds below Mount Everest, there is no way snow should be able to be on top of the mountain. " ]	[ "Some clouds are below Mount Everest and some go over the top of Everest.", "Mount Everest is not above every single cloud, some clouds are taller than Mt Everest, allowing there to be snow on top of it. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All of the clouds are below Mount Everest.", "If there are clouds below Mount Everest, there is no way snow should be able to be on top of the mountain. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some clouds are below Mount Everest and some go over the top of Everest.", "Mount Everest is not above every single cloud, some clouds are taller than Mt Everest, allowing there to be snow on top of it. " ]
2018-07145	Would a newborn baby from the stone ages, if brought to the modern day, grow up like any other child?	More or less yes. There would be differences genetically, we're talking about ten thousand years or more of drift, but functionally speaking the child would grow up and fit in exactly like any other child.	[ "One theory of the premise that Stone Age humans did not record birth date but instead assumed age based on appearance holds that if milder punishment to juvenile delinquents existed in Paleolithic times, it would have imparted milder punishment for longer on those retaining a more youthful appearance into adulthood. This theory holds that those who got milder punishment for the same breach of rules had the evolutionary advantage, passing their genes on while those who got more severe punishment had more limited reproductive success due to either limiting their survival by following all rules or by being severely punished.\n", "The first hypothesis would indicate that the characters of the book are the original humans of the 20th century Earth. The latter two hypotheses would indicate that the characters of the book are \"duplicates\" of humans that lived and died thousands of years previously. The creatures that moved or copied humanity are unknown, as is the technology they used and the purpose for their action.\n", "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "A single tooth of another Neanderthal infant, also found at the site, was analysed by Christine Austin and Tanya Smith, whose analysis suggests that this particular child has received 7 months of breastfeeding and supplementation for additional 7 months, which adds up to roughly 14 months of breastfeeding. This cycle is indeed longer than that of some contemporary human cultures, which implies that Neanderthal children might have grown up faster, a process that began only after the stages of early infancy.\n\nSection::::Behavior and tool use.\n", "Humans in the Pliocene Epoch play a variety of different roles and are difficult to classify as a group. Virtually all humans are time-travelers from the 21st century, as the Tanu forbid human/human procreation on pain of death, so human children are born only in outcast villages. Nevertheless, there are some humans born in the Pliocene (i.e. Sunny Jim Quigley and Calistro, a goat-herder).\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "There are some indications the individuals may have been deliberately placed in the cave near the time of their death, and experts state more evidence is needed to support this hypothesis.\n", "Section::::Scladina Neanderthal child.\n\nDated to be around 127,000 years old, the first fragment of the now nearly complete mandible, was found on 16 July 1993. A maxillary fragment and several teeth of the child were excavated in subsequent campaigns. A genetic sample was successfully extracted from one of the molars at a specific laboratory for ancient DNA and analyzed at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig.\n\nSection::::Physiology and development.\n", "Other paleoanthropologists like Marcia Ponce de León and Christoph Zollikofer have cautioned to interpret the brain size as sign of delayed maturation, because of the small case number and lack of statistical evidence and Tanya Smith noted that the assumption depends on the accuracy of the tooth's age\n\nSection::::Neanderthal finds.:Archaeogenetics.\n", "Since the zygote is genetically identical to the embryo, the fully formed fetus, and the baby, questioning the beginning of personhood could lead to an instance of the Sorites paradox, also known as \"the paradox of the heap\".\n", "More recent claims regarding continuity in skeletal morphology in Europe focus on fossils with both Neanderthal and modern anatomical traits, to provide evidence of interbreeding rather than replacement. Examples include the \"Lapedo child\" found in Portugal and the \"Oase 1\" mandible from Peștera cu Oase, Romania, though the \"Lapedo child\" is disputed by some.\n\nFossil remains of \"Graecopithecus\" found in Bulgaria and Greece have been dated to 7.2 million years ago, \"several hundred thousand years older than the oldest known African hominid.\"\n\nSection::::Genetic evidence.\n\nSection::::Genetic evidence.:Mitochondrial Eve.\n", "One such burial is of a 10 year old boy from the earliest of the Middle Paleolithic layers, who was buried in a rectangular grave carved out of the bedrock, with his arms folded alongside his body and his hands placed on either side of his neck. Deer horns were laid on his hands, probably constituting one of the offerings put in the grave. The boy's skull bears signs of a head trauma that had probably been the cause of death.\n", "This depiction fit in well with contemporary evolutionary scenarios in which Neanderthals were not considered to be direct ancestors of modern humans (the relationship of Neanderthals to modern humans remains a major debate in anthropology today).\n", "\"El Sidrón J1\" exhibits many traits of delayed maturation. At the time of death, \n\n\"El Sidrón J1's\" brain was likely not yet fully developed. \"El Sidrón J1's\" estimated cranial capacity is , which is around 87% of the average adult Neanderthal cranial capacity \n\n(). At a comparable age, typical modern human juveniles reach around 95% of the average adult human cranial capacity. Additionally, the juvenile specimen exhibits an unusual developmental feature; the neurocentral synchondrosis between his thoracic and C1 vertebrae had not yet fused; typically, this fusion occurs around 2 years earlier in modern humans.\n", "Neanderthal children may have grown faster than modern human children. Modern humans have the slowest body growth of any mammal during childhood (the period between infancy and puberty) with lack of growth during this period being made up later in an adolescent growth spurt. The possibility that Neanderthal childhood growth was different was first raised in 1928 by the excavators of the Mousterian rock-shelter of a Neanderthal juvenile. Arthur Keith in 1931 wrote, \"Apparently Neanderthal children assumed the appearances of maturity at an earlier age than modern children.\" The rate of body maturation can be inferred by comparing the maturity of a juvenile's fossil remains and the estimated age of death.\n", "The calibrated radiocarbon dates for his grave and dating of Stonehenge suggest the sarsens and trilithons at Stonehenge may have been raised by the time he was born, although a new bluestone circle may have been raised at the same time as his birth.\n\nSection::::The burial.\n", "Accurate to current DNA evidence, Auel depicts Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals as able to interbreed. The mixed-race children are generally not favorably regarded by either group. As in many historical cultures, malformed Clan children are routinely subjected to exposure, while the Others may allow such children to live but prejudicially label them as 'abominations'. Such children and their experiences enter the plotline in several books of the series.\n", "The image of the caveman is commonly associated with the Stone Age. For example, a 2003 documentary series showing the evolution of humans through the Stone Age was called \"Walking with Cavemen\", but only the last programme showed humans living in caves. While the idea that human beings and dinosaurs coexisted is sometimes portrayed in popular culture in cartoons, films and computer games, such as \"The Flintstones\", \"One Million Years B.C.\" and \"Chuck Rock\", the notion of hominids and non-avian dinosaurs co-existing is not supported by any scientific evidence.\n", "In the pages of \"52\", Osiris mentions that he helped the Kid fight against the Keeper who was trying to control the dead.\n", "The earliest human remains found in Bulgaria have been excavated in the Kozarnika cave, with an approximate age of 1,6 million BP. This cave probably keeps the earliest evidence of human symbolic behaviour ever found. Human remains found in Bacho Kiro cave that are 44,000 years old consist of a pair of fragmented human jaws, but it is disputed whether these early humans were in fact Homo sapiens or Neanderthals.\n", "Two bodies were found in 1969 close to one another, the skeleton of an adult (late adolescent), thought to be a female (Qafzeh 9), and the skeleton of a young child (Qafzeh 10). Qafzeh 9 has a high forehead, lack of occipital bun, a distinct chin, but an orthognathic face.\n\nSection::::Qafzeh.:Qafzeh 11.\n\nFound in 1971 was the body of an adolescent (aged about 13 years)\n", "The child's DNA is one of the oldest to have been extracted from a \"Homo neanderthalensis\" fossil and has significantly contributed to the genetic mapping of the Neanderthal genome and the comparison with \"Homo sapiens\". Initially it was suggested that the Scladina child was 2 to 4 years older than current estimates, based upon traditional assessments of the progressive dental development. Results of an international research collaboration allow the proposal that \"Homo neanderthalensis\" children had a faster rate of dental development than modern human children as well as other aspects of physical development were likely to be more rapid in juvenile Neanderthals, such as a quicker onset of sexual maturity and different and faster patterns of early cognitive development.\n", "Six cemeteries in Bichir's list contain both cremation and inhumation graves. At the Poieneşti site (the only one fully investigated by 1976), 6 adults and 17 children were buried (compared with 62 cremated). Of these, 2 adults and 7 children were found to have artificially elongated crania. This custom, achieved by tightly binding an infant's skull during its early growth phase, is associated with steppe nomads. Bichir identifies the adults as nomads and the children as the progeny of mixed nomad-sedentary marriages.\n", "Babies destined to become dragùa are born \"wearing shirts\" and qeleshes, with two or four wings under their arms. This notion that the predestined hero are born \"in a chemise\" does not refer to them literally wearing articles of clothing; rather, these are babies born with their heads covered in caul, or amniotic membrane.\n\nIn some regions (such as Celza parish), it is said that dragùa babies are only born to parents whose lineage have not committed adultery for three generations, or from mothers who were kulshedras.\n\nSection::::Appearance and attributes.\n", "All these injuries were acquired long before death, showing extensive healing and this has been used to infer that Neanderthals looked after their sick and aged, denoting implicit group concern.\n\nSection::::Neanderthal remains.:Shanidar 2.\n\nShanidar 2 was an adult male, who evidently died in a rock fall inside the cave, as his skull and bones were crushed. There is evidence that Shanidar 2 was given a ritual send-off: a small pile of stones with some worked stone points (made out of chert) were found on top of his grave. Also, there had been a large fire by the burial site.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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