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2018-02943	Why does sad music make us cry?	Believe it or not, the harmonic and melodic structure of the majority of music is set up to sound like natural human emotions, two in particular most frequently, sighing and crying. Most melodic material tends to jump from lower notes to higher notes quickly and then gradually and slowly descend notes by smaller intervals giving these types of effects. Well trained musicians will amplify these effects by putting more tension in a higher note that resolves more relaxed into a slightly lower note. Music in general largely mimics sounds of crying and sighing which is hardwired into our brains to mean sadness and/or relaxing. This is why music hits us in these ways so strongly, we can't help it.	[ "...came about from a few different sources, but one was, you know, those sort of old movies that were called weepies, where you could basically be guaranteed that if you needed a good cry, you could go and see one of these and bring your hanky and have a good time. And we want to be able to provide that for people. We want to make music that touches them and moves them in that way, the place where tears come from, for joy and for sorrow.\n", "BULLET::::- 1920's – American Delta blues artist Delta Blind Billy in his song \"Hidden Man Blues\" had the line \"Man of sorrow all my days / Left the home where I been raised.\"\n", "It was then, in my grief,\n\nthat love came to me.\n\nA voice full of harmony says,\n\n\"Keep on living, I am life itself!\n\nYour heaven is in my eyes!\n\nYou are not alone.\n\nI collect all your tears\n\nI walk with you and support you!\n\nSmile and hope! I am Love!\n\nAre you surrounded by blood and mire?\n\nI am Divine! I am oblivion!\n\nI am the God who saves the World\n\nI descend from Heaven and make this Earth\n\nA heaven! Ah!\n\nI am love, love, love.\"\n\nAnd the angel approaches with a kiss,\n", "Christian Music Zine's Tyler Hess stated \"there are songs out there that sound convoluted, but when it is known that the pain is real, that is when it is easiest to relate to and apply personally. When Hammitt sings his heart out, replacing grief with joy in the Lord Jesus Christ, that is when it is obvious that through the testing of fire, his faith has come out pure.\" In addition, Hess said \"you don’t have to be going through a tragedy to appreciate what is happening here, though it is certain to cause great comfort to those who are.\"\n", "The audio sample from \"Christianized Magick\" was taken from the 2000 film \"\", a documentary about the West Memphis Three.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- The song is referenced in a Sunday comic strip in Bill Watterson's \"Calvin and Hobbes\", where Calvin prepares to eat a green blob of his mother's cooking, before it comes to life and recites the famous \"To be, or not to be\" soliloquy from William Shakespeare's \"Hamlet\", after which it pauses briefly and then begins to sing \"Feelings\".\n", "In Salzburg, Austria, just before World War II, nuns from Nonnberg Abbey sing the \"Dixit Dominus\". One of the postulants, Maria Rainer, is on the nearby mountainside, regretting leaving the beautiful hills (\"The Sound of Music\"). She returns late to the abbey where the Mother Abbess and the other nuns have been considering what to do about the free-spirit (\"Maria\"). Maria explains her lateness, saying she was raised on that mountain, and apologizes for singing in the garden without permission. The Mother Abbess joins her in song (\"My Favorite Things\"). The Mother Abbess tells her that she should spend some time outside the abbey to decide whether she is suited for the monastic life. She will act as the governess to the seven children of a widower, Austro-Hungarian Navy submarine Captain Georg von Trapp.\n", "Section::::Music video.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Music as a form of coping has been used multiple times in cancer patients, with promising results. A study done on 113 patients going through stem cell transplants split the patients into two group; one group made their own lyrics about their journey and then produced a music video, and the other group listened to audiobooks. The results of the study showed that the music video group had better coping skills and better social interactions in comparison, by taking their mind of the pain and stress accompanying treatment, and giving them an outlet to express their feelings.\n", "I shared the fight of my people for their freedom, I lived paying attention to the fight protagonized by the thousands of combatants that cautiously prepared the for coming of the nation. And my singing was forming like this, between vibrant and melancholic exaltations of those lights and shadows that, alternatively, sadden the soul. I don’t know if soon, or late, I understood that I should pick up in my poetry all the states of mood that came from that sadness and revelry. So I opened all windows for all the winds in the world to get in, and that’s how I could collect all the leaves of the decay of a combative fire. All of my feelings, all of them, mixed, and that’s where a gold pigeon came out flying to the warm of my passions and imaginations.\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"Family Matters\" episode \"Cousin Urkel\" (November 2, 1990), Urkel (Jaleel White) sings the chorus of the song in an attempt to serenade Laura Winslow, and plays the accordion to accompany himself. Urkel's rendition, off-key for comedic effect, is late at night (at Eddie's encouragement) and wakes up the entire neighborhood.\n", "Section::::Vocal expression.\n", "Section::::Conclusion.\n", "Tears of Joy\n\nTears of Joy may refer to:\n\nSection::::Theatre, Film and TV.\n\nBULLET::::- Tears of Joy Theatre\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tears of Joy, Tears of Sorrow\", TV movie starring John Forsythe 1986\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tears of Joy\", TV episode \"Grace Under Fire\", 1994\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tears of Joy\", TV episode \"Mia and Me\", 2012\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nSection::::Music.:Albums.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tears of Joy\" (album), a 1971 album by Don Ellis, or the title song\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tears of Joy\", a 1988 album by Tuck & Patti\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tears of Joy\", a 1991 album by Jo-El Sonnier\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tears of Joy\", a 2005 album by Antonio Forcione\n", "During the Mercury Falling tour, Sting would often invite audience members up onto stage to sing the song along with him.\n\nSection::::B sides.\n\nUS Edition\n\nBULLET::::1. This Was Never Meant to Be\n\nBULLET::::2. Giacomo's Blues\n\nBULLET::::3. Beneath a Desert Moon\n\nGerman edition\n\nBULLET::::1. Moonlight\n\nBULLET::::2. La Belle Dame Sans Regrets\n\nSection::::Toby Keith version.\n", "I imagined in the lonely room\n\nA thousand forms of fearful gloom\n\nAnd with my wet eyes raised on high\n\nI prayed to God that I might die\n\nSuddenly in that silence drear\n\nA sound of music reached my ear\n\nAnd then a note I hear it yet\n\nSo full of soul so deeply sweet\n\nI thought that Gabriel's self had come\n\nTo take me to my father's home\n\nThree times it rose that seraph-strain\n\nThen died nor lived ever again\n\nBut still the words and still the tone\n\nSwell round my heart when all alone\n\n/poem\n", "Section::::Major theories.\n", "Section::::Music.\n\nMusic has a particular way of eliciting emotions into its listeners. Hearing a song, symphony, or sonnet filled with anguish, one might begin to reflect upon their own life and experiences that coincide with the notes, thereby bringing repressed memories beyond subconscious to our salient mind.\n\nSection::::Music.:Anguish in Music.\n\nBULLET::::- Mahler’s Ninth Symphony\n\nBULLET::::- “What I’d Say” –Earl Thomas Conely\n\nBULLET::::- “Eleanor Rigby” –The Beatles\n\nBULLET::::- \"Someone Like You\" -Adele\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hurt\" -Johnny Cash\n\nSection::::Quotes.\n", "Aristotle, though, advocated a useful role for music, drama, and tragedy: a way for people to purge their negative emotions. Aristotle mentions catharsis at the end of his \"Politics\", where he notes that after people listen to music that elicits pity and fear, they \"are liable to become possessed\" by these negative emotions. However, afterwards, Aristotle points out that these people return to \"a normal condition as if they had been medically treated and undergone a purge [catharsis] ... All experience a certain purge [catharsis] and pleasant relief. In the same manner cathartic melodies give innocent joy to men\" (from \"Politics\" VIII:7; 1341b 35-1342a 8).\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Although Thompson was in her thirties when she recorded \"Sad Movies\", her singing style and young-sounding voice appealed to many of the Baby Boomers whose influence was starting to become apparent on the US music charts. Loudermilk was inspired to write the song after a girlfriend of his went to see the 1960 film \"Spartacus\": \"After the movie went off, they turned the bright lights on, and it was just an ambience killer. The person I was with had tears in her eyes and said, 'Sad movies make me cry'.\"\n\nSection::::Cover versions.\n", "It also cannot be ignored the importance of coping strategies in families and caregivers of those going through serious and even terminal illness. These family members are often responsible for a vast majority of the care of their loved ones, on top of the stress of seeing them struggle. Therapists have worked with these family members, singing and playing instruments, to help them take their minds off of the stress of helping their loved ones undergo treatment. Just like in the patients themselves, the music therapy has been shown to help them cope with the intense emotions and situations they deal with on a daily basis.\n", "The piece at the end of Simonetti's \"Mater Lachrimarum\" is called \"Dulcis in Fondo\" and was performed by his heavy metal band, Daemonia. Cradle of Filth frontman Dani Filth recorded a song with Simonetti, \"Mater Lacrimarum\", for the soundtrack of the film.\n", "Nay chide not lady long ago\n\nI heard those notes in Ula's hall\n\nAnd had I known they'd waken woe\n\nI'd weep their music to recall\n\nBut thus it was one festal night\n\nWhen I was hardly six years old\n\nI stole away from crowds and light\n\nAnd sought a chamber dark and cold\n\nI had no one to love me there\n\nI knew no comrade and no friend\n\nAnd so I went to sorrow where\n\nHeaven only heaven saw me bend\n\nLoud blew the wind 'twas sad to stay\n\nFrom all that splendour barred away\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03967	Not sure if the right community to ask, but why don’t cemeteries bury our loved ones vertically? Wouldn’t it save more space to do so this way?	It would be MUCH harder to dig, as you'd need to dig far deeper so the body would have sufficient amount of dirt covering it.	[ "In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial, the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space.\n\nSection::::Burial methods.:Body positioning.:Orientation.\n", "Some couples or groups of people (such as a married couple or other family members) may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins (or urns) may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first. In many states in Australia all graves are designated two or three depth (depending of the water table) for multiple burials, at the discretion of the burial rights holder, with each new interment atop the previous coffin separated by a thin layer of earth. As such all graves are dug to greater depth for the initial burial than the traditional six feet to facilitate this practice.\n", "A burial vault or liner is not the only solution to settling earth over the grave. Traditional burials with a casket leave a larger void and thus create more settlement when the casket decomposes or collapses. Natural or \"green\" burials do not use a casket, which means only minimal settling. In either case, the cemetery can remedy sunken graves by filling in the settled area.\n", "Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. Bodies with the arms crossed date back to ancient cultures such as Chaldea in the 10th century BC, where the \"X\" symbolized their sky god. Later ancient Egyptian gods and royalty, from approximately 3500 B.C. are shown with crossed arms, such as the god Osiris, the Lord of the Dead, or mummified royalty with crossed arms in high and low body positions, depending upon the dynasty. The burial of bodies in the extended position, i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the eyes and mouth closed. Extended burials may be supine (lying on the back) or prone (lying on the front). However, in some cultures, being buried face down shows marked disrespect like in the case of the Sioux. Other ritual practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an upright position. In Islam, the body is placed in supine position, hands along the sides and the head is turned to its right with the face towards the Qibla. Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible.\n", "Another environmental concern is that traditional burial takes up a great deal of space. In a traditional burial, the body is buried in a casket made from a variety of materials. In the United States, the casket is often placed inside a concrete vault or liner before burial in the ground. While individually this may not take much room, combined with other burials, it can over time cause serious space concerns. Many cemeteries, particularly in Japan and Europe as well as those in larger cities, have run out of permanent space. In Tokyo, for example, traditional burial plots are extremely scarce and expensive, and in London, a space crisis led Harriet Harman to propose reopening old graves for \"double-decker\" burials.\n", "The system of underground piles and beams that has been constructed not only supports the cemetery walls and the Cross of Sacrifice terrace, but also supports the graves and headstones as well. Each headstone is installed in an individual base, which is supported by horizontal ground beams, which rests on the vertical piles. All this is needed to isolate the cemetery structures from ground movements.\n", "In the United Kingdom the minimum depth from the surface to the highest lid is 36 inches. There must be 6 inches between each coffin, which on average is 15 inches high. If the soil is free draining and porous, only 24 inches of soil on top is required. Coffins may be interred at lesser depths or even above ground as long as they are encased in a concrete chamber. Before 1977, double graves were dug to 8 feet and singles to 6 feet. As a single grave is now dug to 54 inches, old cemeteries contain many areas where new single graves can be dug on \"old ground\". This is considered a valid method of resource management and provides income to keep older cemeteries viable, thus forestalling the need for permanent closure, which would result in a reduction of their work force.\n", "A \"monumental cemetery\" is the traditional style of cemetery where headstones or other monuments made of marble, granite or similar materials rise vertically above the ground (typically around 50 cm but some can be over 2 metres high). Often the entire grave is covered by a slab, commonly concrete, but it can be more expensive materials such as marble or granite, and/or has its boundaries delimited by a fence which may be made of concrete, cast iron or timber. Where a number of family members are buried together (either vertically or horizontally), the slab or boundaries may encompass a number of graves. Monumental cemeteries are often regarded as unsightly due to the random collection of monuments and headstones they contain. Also, as maintenance of the headstones is the responsibility of family members (in the absence of a proscribed Perpetual Care and Maintenance Fund), over time many headstones are forgotten about and decay and become damaged. For cemetery authorities, monumental cemeteries are difficult to maintain. While cemeteries often have grassed areas between graves, the layout of graves makes it difficult to use modern equipment such as ride-on lawn mowers in the cemetery. Often the maintenance of grass must be done by more labour-intensive (and therefore expensive) methods. In order to reduce the labour cost, devices such as string trimmers are increasingly used in cemetery maintenance, but such devices can damage the monuments and headstones. Cemetery authorities dislike the criticism they receive for the deteriorating condition of the headstones, arguing that they have no responsibility for the upkeep of headstones, and typically disregard their own maintenance practices as being one of the causes of that deterioration. \n", "Many urban cemeteries are characterized by multiple burials in the same grave. Multiple burials is a consequence of the limited size of the urban cemetery, which cannot easily expand due to adjacent building development. It was not uncommon for an urban cemetery to begin adding soil to the top of the cemetery, to create new burial space. In some cases, cemeteries rose above the level of the surrounding streets, and heavy retaining walls were built to keep the cemetery (and corpses) from falling into the street.\n", "In order to physically manage the space within the cemetery (to avoid burials in existing graves) and to record locations in the burial register, most cemeteries have some systematic layout of graves in rows, generally grouped into larger sections as required. Often the cemetery displays this information in the form of a map, which is used both by the cemetery administration in managing their land use and also by friends and family members seeking to locate a particular grave within the cemetery.\n\nSection::::Contemporary management.:Pressures.\n\nCemetery authorities face a number of tensions in regard to the management of cemeteries.\n", "BULLET::::3. the fact that the bodies were buried, means that their own community had time after the events in which people died to prepare a grave, of the right size for the number of individuals, in some cases lining them with slabs, to bury them following their traditions, placing the bodies in the same flexed position with the face oriented in the same direction.\n", "Many cemeteries tended by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission have an identical war memorial called the Cross of Sacrifice designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield that varies in height from 18 ft to 32 ft depending on the size of the cemetery. If there are one thousand or more burials, a Commonwealth cemetery will contain a Stone of Remembrance, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens with words from the Wisdom of Sirach: \"Their name liveth for evermore\"; all the Stones of Remembrance are 11 ft 6 ins long and 5 ft high with three steps leading up to them.\n", "2014 documentary \"A Will for the Woods\" explores natural burial, primarily through the lens of one terminally ill North Carolina man's decision to have one.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cemetery\n\nBULLET::::- Disposal of human corpses\n\nBULLET::::- Environmentally friendly\n\nBULLET::::- Funeral\n\nBULLET::::- Hindu burial\n\nBULLET::::- Islamic burial\n\nBULLET::::- Jewish burial\n\nBULLET::::- Plastination\n\nBULLET::::- Promession\n\nBULLET::::- Sky burial\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- In many communities, the deceased is positioned so that the feet face the Temple Mount in Jerusalem (in anticipation that the deceased will be facing the reconstructed Third Temple when the messiah arrives and resurrects the dead).\n\nSection::::Religious funerals.:Sikh.\n", "Historically, Christian burials were made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian churches, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgment day (Eschaton). In many Christian traditions, ordained clergy are traditionally buried in the opposite orientation, and their coffins carried likewise, so that at the General Resurrection they may rise facing, and ready to minister to, their people.\n", "Although the expression \"six feet under\" refers to the depth at which people were traditionally buried, at least in the UK the minimum legal depth for a new grave is seven feet (2.10 m). This allows a maximum of three coffins to be buried in the same grave, typically family members of the deceased who are buried at a later date when they die - which is known as a re-open. Gravediggers must take care to get the proportions of a grave right as the hole needs to be big enough for the coffin to be lowered in. Additionally, shoring is often used to stop a grave from collapsing. Gravediggers must make sure that the coffin can fit through the shoring. Additionally, on the day of the back-fill and for the funeral service, typically artificial turf will be placed around the grave whilst the coffin is being lowered. \n", "Another method of natural burial is being developed to plant the human body in fetal position inside an egg shaped pod. The pod containing the body will form a biodegradable capsule that will not harm the surrounding earth. The biodegradable capsule doubles as a seed which can be customized to grow into either a birch, maple, or eucalyptus tree. The goal of this method is to create parks full of trees that loved ones can walk through and mourn, as opposed to a graveyard full of tombstones. This method aims to return the body to the earth in the most environmentally friendly way possible.\n", "The excavation that forms the grave. Excavations vary from a shallow scraping to removal of topsoil to a depth of 6 feet (1.8 metres) or more where a vault or burial chamber is to be constructed. However, most modern graves in the United States are only 4 feet deep as the casket is placed into a concrete box (see burial vault) to prevent a sinkhole, to ensure the grave is strong enough to be driven over, and to prevent floating in the instance of a flood.\n\nBULLET::::- Excavated soil\n", "Eco-friendly funeral practices in Canada can include:\n\nBULLET::::- Burial at sea\n\nBULLET::::- Tree planting\n\nBULLET::::- Green/natural burials\n", "Natural burial grounds employ a variety of methods of memorialization. Families that bury their loved ones in nature preserves can record the GPS coordinates of the location where they are buried, without using physical markers. Some natural burial sites use flat wooden plaques, or a name written on a natural rock. Many families plant trees, or other native plants near the grave to provide a living memorial.\n\nSection::::Alternative methods of burial.\n\nAlternatives to ground burials include: burial in a coral reef, sky burial and burial at sea.\n\nSection::::Alternative methods of burial.:Coral reefs.\n", "Some cultures place the dead in tombs of various sorts, either individually, or in specially designated tracts of land that house tombs. Burial in a graveyard is one common form of tomb. In some places, burials are impractical because the groundwater is too high; therefore tombs are placed above ground, as is the case in New Orleans, Louisiana, US. Elsewhere, a separate building for a tomb is usually reserved for the socially prominent and wealthy; grand, above-ground tombs are called mausoleums. The socially prominent sometimes had the privilege of having their corpses stored in church crypts. In more recent times, however, this has often been forbidden by hygiene laws.\n", "BULLET::::- DeathLAB + LATENT Productions' design proposal \"Sylvan Constellation\" has been awarded first place in the Future Cemetery 2016 design competition. The proposal reimagines the future of Arnos Vale Cemetery in Bristol, UK, with 150 anaerobic funerary vessels rising from the ground into a woodland canopy.\n\n2018\n\nBULLET::::- Fall-Winter MacDowell Fellowship\n\nSection::::Selected publications and lectures.\n\n2003:\n\nBULLET::::- \"process is the pollywog\", Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation\n\n2013: \n", "For humans, maintaining an upside down position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above) is highly unusual and generally symbolic. Occasionally suicides and assassins were buried upside down, as a post-mortem punishment and (as with burial at cross-roads) to inhibit the activities of the resulting undead.\n\nIn \"Gulliver's Travels\", the Lilliputians buried their dead upside down:\n", "The burial sites are arranged around the graves of Theodore Sedgwick (1746–1813), patriarch of the prominent Sedgwick family of New England and a justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (among other positions), and his wife, Pamela Dwight Sedgwick (1753–1807). The graves of the others, who include in-laws, servants, and family pets, form concentric circles around the center, with the buried grouped by familial affiliation, and laid to rest with their feet toward the center. This contrasts with the orientation of the other graves in the cemetery, which (in classic fashion) face east, toward the rising sun, Jerusalem (with all its significance), and the hoped-for Resurrection. It has been said that this arrangement of the graves sees to it that on Judgment Day, when the Sedgwicks rise to face their judge, they will only have to look at other Sedgwicks.\n", "The location of the burial may be determined by taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep the dead close to provide guidance to the living, while others \"banish\" them by locating burial grounds at a distance from inhabited areas. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries. Most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones, which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons. Sometimes multiple bodies are buried in a single grave either by choice (as in the case of married couples), due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02450	is the brain wet or dry?	Having autopsied several people including their brains and scrubbing in on many neurosurgeries on live brains... ..it is very wet.	[ "Various comments by ancient physicians have been read as referring to CSF. Hippocrates discussed \"water\" surrounding the brain when describing congenital hydrocephalus, and Galen referred to \"excremental liquid\" in the ventricles of the brain, which he believed was purged into the nose. But for some 16 intervening centuries of ongoing anatomical study, CSF remained unmentioned in the literature. This is perhaps because of the prevailing autopsy technique, which involved cutting off the head, thereby removing evidence of CSF before the brain was examined.\n", "The \"hardware\" component of wetware concerns the bioelectric and biochemical properties of the CNS, specifically the brain. If the sequence of impulses traveling across the various neurons are thought of symbolically as \"software\", then the physical neurons would be the \"hardware\". The amalgamated interaction of this \"software\" and \"hardware\" is manifested through continuously changing physical connections, and chemical and electrical influences that spread across the body. The process by which the \"mind\" and \"brain\" interact to produce the collection of experiences that we define as self-awareness is in question.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The continuity between the brain interstitial fluid and the CSF was confirmed by H. Cserr and colleagues from Brown University and Kings College London. The same group postulated that interstitial solutes in the brain parenchyma exchange with CSF via a bulk flow mechanism, rather than diffusion. However other work from this same lab indicated that the exchange of CSF with interstitial fluid was inconsistent and minor, contradicting the findings of Grady and colleagues.\n", "Section::::Paper on intracranial circulation.\n", "Lack of CSF pressure and volume can allow the brain to sag and descend through the foramen magnum (large opening) of the occipital bone, at the base of the skull. The lower portion of the brain is believed to stretch or impact one or more cranial nerve complexes, thereby causing a variety of sensory symptoms. Nerves that can be affected and their related symptoms are detailed in the table at right.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n", "The Edwin Smith Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian medical treatise written in the 17th century BC, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain. The hieroglyph for brain, occurring eight times in this papyrus, describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of two traumatic injuries to the head. The papyrus mentions the external surface of the brain, the effects of injury (including seizures and aphasia), the meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.\n", "The electrode was tested on an electrical test bench and on human subjects in four modalities of EEG activity, namely: (1) spontaneous EEG, (2) sensory event-related potentials, (3) brain stem potentials, and (4) cognitive event-related potentials. The performance of the dry electrode compared favorably with that of the standard wet electrodes in terms of skin preparation, no gel requirements (dry), and higher signal-to-noise ratio.\n", "Ten years later, Paul Broca examined two patients exhibiting impaired speech due to frontal lobe injuries. Broca’s first patient lacked productive speech. He saw this as an opportunity to address language localization. It wasn't until Leborgne, formally known as \"tan\", died when Broca confirmed the frontal lobe lesion from an autopsy. The second patient had similar speech impairments, supporting his findings on language localization. The results of both cases became a vital verification of the relationship between speech and the left cerebral hemisphere. The affected areas are known today as Broca’s area and Broca’s Aphasia.\n", "Experiments conducted at the University of Maryland in the 1980s by Patricia Grady and colleagues postulated the existence of solute exchange between the interstitial fluid of the brain parenchyma and the CSF via paravascular spaces. In 1985, Grady and colleagues suggested that cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid exchange along specific anatomical pathways within the brain, with CSF moving into the brain along the outside of blood vessels. Grady's group suggested that these 'paravascular channels' were functionally analogous to peripheral lymph vessels, facilitating the clearance of interstitial wastes from the brain. Other labs at the time, however, did not observe such widespread paravascular CSF–ISF exchange.\n", "The dura mater () (also rarely called \"meninx fibrosa\" or \"pachymeninx\") is a thick, durable membrane, closest to the skull and vertebrae. The dura mater, the outermost part, is a loosely arranged, fibroelastic layer of cells, characterized by multiple interdigitating cell processes, no extracellular collagen, and significant extracellular spaces. The middle region is a mostly fibrous portion. It consists of two layers: the endosteal layer, which lies closest to the calvaria (skullcap), and the inner meningeal layer, which lies closer to the brain. It contains larger blood vessels that split into the capillaries in the pia mater. It is composed of dense fibrous tissue, and its inner surface is covered by flattened cells like those present on the surfaces of the pia mater and arachnoid mater. The dura mater is a sac that envelops the arachnoid mater and surrounds and supports the large dural sinuses carrying blood from the brain toward the heart.\n", "CSF can leak from the dura as a result of different causes such as physical trauma or a lumbar puncture, or from no known cause when it is termed a spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak. It is usually associated with intracranial hypotension: low CSF pressure. It can cause headaches, made worse by standing, moving and coughing, as the low CSF pressure causes the brain to \"sag\" downwards and put pressure on its lower structures. If a leak is identified, a beta-2 transferrin test of the leaking fluid, when positive, is highly specific and sensitive for the detection for CSF leakage. Medical imaging such as CT scans and MRI scans can be used to investigate for a presumed CSF leak when no obvious leak is found but low CSF pressure is identified. Caffeine, given either orally or intravenously, often offers symptomatic relief. Treatment of an identified leak may include injection of a person's blood into the epidural space (an epidural blood patch), spinal surgery, or fibrin glue.\n", "BULLET::::- The Mi-go aliens in the Cthulhu Mythos of H. P. Lovecraft, first appearing in the story \"The Whisperer in Darkness\" (1931), can transport humans from Earth to Pluto (and beyond) and back again by removing the subject's brain and placing it into a \"brain cylinder\", which can be attached to external devices to allow it to see, hear, and speak.\n\nBULLET::::- In Edmond Hamilton's \"Captain Future\" novels series (1940), the character Prof. Simon Wright is a human brain living in a transparent case.\n", "Timothy Leary, in an appendix to \"Info-Psychology\" originally written in 1975–76 and published in 1989, used the term \"wetware\", writing that \"psychedelic neuro-transmitters were the hot new technology for booting-up the 'wetware' of the brain\". Another common reference is: \"Wetware has 7 plus or minus 2 temporary registers.\" The numerical allusion is to a classic 1957 article by George A. Miller, \"The magical number 7 plus or minus two: some limits in our capacity for processing information\", which later gave way to the Miller's law.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biohacker\n\nBULLET::::- Grindhouse Wetware\n\nBULLET::::- Biopunk\n\nBULLET::::- Brain–computer interface\n\nBULLET::::- Cybernetics\n", "Albrecht von Haller, a Swiss physician and physiologist, made note in his 1747 book on physiology that the \"water\" in the brain was secreted into the ventricles and absorbed in the veins, and when secreted in excess, could lead to hydrocephalus. Francois Magendie studied the properties of CSF by vivisection. He discovered the foramen Magendie, the opening in the roof of the fourth ventricle, but mistakenly believed that CSF was secreted by the pia mater.\n", "Section::::Diagnostic tests.:Caloric reflex test.\n\nThe caloric reflex test is designed to test the function of the vestibular system and can determine the cause of vestibular symptoms. The reflex test consists of pouring water into the external auditory canal of a patient and observing nystagmus, or involuntary eye movement. With normal vestibular function, the temperature of the water has an effect on the direction of eye movement. In individuals with peripheral unilateral vestibular hypofunction, nystagmus is absent.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic tests.:Rotational chair testing.\n", "Wetware (brain)\n\nWetware is a term drawn from the computer-related idea of hardware or software, but applied to biological life forms.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nThe prefix \"wet\" is a reference to the water found in living creatures. Wetware is used to describe the elements equivalent to hardware and software found in a person, especially the central nervous system (CNS) and the human mind. The term wetware finds use both in works of fiction, in scholarly publications and in popularizations.\n", "BULLET::::- Accessory nerve (Cranial nerve 11) controls specific muscles of the shoulder and neck. Modern descriptions often consider the cranial component part of the traditional accessory nerve to be more properly classified as part of the vagus nerve, leaving what is left to be called the \"spinal accessory nerve.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hypoglossal nerve (Cranial nerve 12) leads to muscles of the tongue.\n\nSection::::Structure of the human brain.:Visible anatomy.:Significant components.\n", "A few years later, a German neuroscientist, Carl Wernicke, consulted on a stroke patient. The patient experienced neither speech nor hearing impairments, but suffered from a few brain deficits. These deficits included: lacking the ability to comprehend what was spoken to him and the words written down. After his death, Wernicke examined his autopsy that found a lesion located in the left temporal region. This area became known as Wernicke's area. Wernicke later hypothesized the relationship between Wernicke's area and Broca's area, which was proven fact.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cerebral palsy\n\nBULLET::::- Encephalopathy\n\nBULLET::::- Epilepsy\n\nBULLET::::- Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nThere is some controversy about the classification and diagnosis of OAB. Some sources classify overactive bladder into two different variants: \"wet\" (i.e., an urgent need to urinate with involuntary leakage) or \"dry\" (i.e., an urgent need to urinate but no involuntary leakage). Wet variants are more common than dry variants. The distinction is not absolute; one study suggested that many classified as \"dry\" were actually \"wet\" and that patients with no history of any leakage may have had other syndromes.\n", "The medulla can be thought of as being in two parts:\n\nBULLET::::- an upper open part or superior part where the dorsal surface of the medulla is formed by the fourth ventricle.\n\nBULLET::::- a lower closed part or inferior part where the fourth ventricle has narrowed at the obex in the caudal medulla, and surrounds part of the central canal.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:External surfaces.\n", "A Schirmer's test can measure the amount of moisture bathing the eye. This test is useful for determining the severity of the condition. A five-minute Schirmer's test with and without anesthesia using a Whatman #41 filter paper 5 mm wide by 35 mm long is performed. For this test, wetting under 5 mm with or without anesthesia is considered diagnostic for dry eyes.\n", "Dr. Bryan Ripley Crandall, director of the Connecticut Writing Project at Fairfield University, posits in his critical essay \"Adding a Disability Perspective When Reading Adolescent Literature: Sherman Alexie's \"The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian\"\" that the book presents a progressive view of disability. Arnold has what he calls \"water on the brain\", which would correctly be referred to as hydrocephalus. Crandall points out that Arnold is never held back by his disability, but in fact laughs at himself: \"With my big feet and pencil body, I looked like a capital L walking down the road.\" According to Crandall, the illustrations by Ellen Forney, which are meant to be the cartoons that Arnold draws, represent a new way for the disabled narrator to communicate with the readers: they \"initiate further interpretations and conversations about how students perceive others who are not like them, especially individuals with disabilities.\" Arnold's hydrocephaly doesn't prevent him from becoming a basketball star at his new school. His disability fades as a plot device as the book progresses.\n", "The person was a married father of two children, and worked as a civil servant, leading an at least superficially normal life, despite having enlarged ventricles with a decreased volume of brain tissue. \"What I find amazing to this day is how the brain can deal with something which you think should not be compatible with life\", commented Dr. Max Muenke, a pediatric brain-defect specialist at the National Human Genome Research Institute. \"If something happens very slowly over quite some time, maybe over decades, the different parts of the brain take up functions that would normally be done by the part that is pushed to the side.\"\n", "At any one time, there is about 150mL of cerebrospinal fluid – most within the subarachnoid space. It is constantly being regenerated and absorbed, and replaces about once every 5–6 hours.\n\nA glymphatic system has been described as the lymphatic drainage system of the brain. The brain-wide glymphatic pathway includes drainage routes from the cerebrospinal fluid, and from the meningeal lymphatic vessels that are associated with the dural sinuses, and run alongside the cerebral blood vessels. The pathway drains interstitial fluid from the tissue of the brain.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n", "In 1980, Roger Lewin published an article in Science, \"Is Your Brain Really Necessary?\", about Lorber studies on cerebral cortex losses. He reports the case of a Sheffield University student who had a measured IQ of 126 and passed a Mathematics Degree but who had hardly any discernible brain matter at all since his cortex was extremely reduced by hydrocephalus. The article led to the broadcast of a Yorkshire Television documentary of the same title, though it was about a different patient who had normal brain mass distributed strangely in a very large skull.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23130	Why do the mountains curve around the horizon, so it looks like they make a semi-circle?	> I know the Rockies are pretty much a straight line and don't curve I think this is the source of your confusion. The Rockies are only straight when you look at them from the perspective of a map showing thousands of miles in one view. When you're on the ground looking directly at them they absolutely can curve around the specific location that you're at.	[ "Sometimes, when the sun is low in the sky, there are luminous spots to the left and right of the sun and at the same elevation as the sun. These luminous spots are called \"sun dogs\" or \"parhelia\". (Often on these occasions, the sun is also surrounded by a luminous ring or halo, the angle between the sun and the halo (with the observer at the angle’s vertex) measuring 22°.) On rare occasions, faint arcs extend upwards or downwards from these sun dogs. These arcs extending from the sun dogs are \"Lowitz arcs\". As many as three distinct arcs may extend from the sun dogs. The short arc that first inclines towards the sun and then extends downward is called the \"lower Lowitz arc\". A longer second arc may also extend downward from the sun dog but then curve under the sun, perhaps joining the other sun dog; this is the \"middle Lowitz arc\" or \"circular Lowitz arc\". Finally, a third arc may extend upwards from the sun dog; this is the \"upper Lowitz arc\". In his diagram of 1790, Lowitz recorded only a lower Lowitz arc.\n", "BULLET::::- The upper mask on the right is a depiction of Hunahpu, aka Venus or the Morningstar\n\nBULLET::::- The upper mask on the left is Hunahpu as well, but in the position of the Eveningstar\n\nTheir positions are meant to represent the path that the Sun and Venus follow throughout the sky.\n", "Add to that the weather: this is one of the wildest spots on the Costa Brava in the winter (Costa Brava means \"wild coast\"), so the migmatites and schists are battered and eroded by the Tramuntana wind which whips off the mountains and by a sea that appears as if it is boiling in the force 8 winds.\n", "The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common garden trellis along a strike valley, smaller tributaries feed into from the steep slopes on the sides of mountains. These tributaries enter the main river at approximately 90 degree angle, causing a trellis-like appearance of the drainage system. Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains in North America and in the north part of Trinidad.\n\nSection::::Drainage patterns.:Accordant drainage patterns.:Rectangular drainage pattern.\n", "Section::::Wind systems.:Valley winds.\n\nValley winds are best developed on clear summer days and are driven by horizontal pressure gradients. During the day, the valley is warmer than the flat terrain (because it contains a smaller volume of air receiving the same amount of radiation), which creates a lower pressure zone over the valley, entraining the air from the plains up to the valley. The opposite process occurs at nighttime, where the valley cools faster and the air flows back down to the plains .\n\nSection::::Wind systems.:Slope winds.\n", "Geographical features such as the Daughters, three mountains that were \"punched in a sloping line with the regularity of bullet holes\", and the Mother Goddess, \"the tallest of all mountains, so tall and wide that from its foot slopes it no longer seemed a mountain, but merely a gentle steepening of the ground\", correspond to the Tharsis Montes and Olympus Mons, respectively. One character mentions to another character that they are traveling through a canyon system called the \"Night Maze\", having already passed over Long Gash. This name corresponds to Noctis Labyrinthus, which lies to the west of Valles Marineris.\n", "Daylight periods change as the seasons change. From May to August, darkness does not linger for long. Instead of rising or setting, the sun circles just above the horizon, turning to darkness only for a few hours when the sun circles behind the mountains. During the quick seasons of spring and autumn, the length of daylight changes by six to eight minutes each day.\n\nSection::::Flora.\n", "BULLET::::3. Ridge: an elevated structure dominated by one or more linear or arcuate rises. 28 (24%) mountains on Io have been cataloged into this type.\n\nBULLET::::4. Massif: an elevated structure dominated by rugged or complex surface and has one or more peaks. Boösaule Montes and Tohil Mons are good examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Common features\n\nSeveral common features of Ionian mountains have been summarized.\n", "One typically sees further along the Earth's curved surface than a simple geometric calculation allows for because of refraction error. If the ground, or water, surface is colder than the air above it, a cold, dense layer of air forms close to the surface, causing light to be refracted downward as it travels, and therefore, to some extent, to go around the curvature of the Earth. The reverse happens if the ground is hotter than the air above it, as often happens in deserts, producing mirages. As an approximate compensation for refraction, surveyors measuring distances longer than 100 meters subtract 14% from the calculated curvature error and ensure lines of sight are at least 1.5 meters from the ground, to reduce random errors created by refraction.\n", "The shapes of inferior mirage sunsets and sunrises stay the same for all inferior mirage sunsets and sunrises. One well-known shape, the Etruscan vase, was named by Jules Verne.\n\nAs the sunset progresses the shape of Etruscan vase slowly changes; the stem of the vase gets shorter until the real and the miraged Suns create a new shape – Greek letter omega Ω. The inferior mirage got its name because the inverted image appears\n\nbelow the erect one.\n\nHere's how Jules Verne describes an inferior mirage sunset.\n", "A third correction for the visual observation of a sunrise (or sunset) is the angle between the apparent horizon as seen by an observer and the geometric (or sensible) horizon. This is known as the dip of the horizon and varies from 3 arcminutes for a viewer standing on the sea shore to 160 arcminutes for a mountaineer on Everest. The effect of a larger dip on taller objects (reaching over 2½° of arc on Everest) accounts for the phenomenon of snow on a mountain peak turning gold in the sunlight long before the lower slopes are illuminated.\n", "\"\"We passed Limone, the mountain-gardens of which, laid out terrace-fashion, and planted with citron-trees, have a neat and rich appearance. The whole garden consists of rows of square white pillars placed at some distance from each other, and rising up the mountain in steps. On these pillars strong beams are laid, that the trees planted between them may be sheltered in the winter. The view of these pleasant objects was favored by a slow passage, and we had already passed Malcesine when the wind suddenly changed, took the direction usual in the day-time, and blew towards the north.\"\"\n", "The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (in accordance with the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range.\n\nSection::::Erosion.\n", "In 1840, the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle (1812 - 1910) proposed that lower Lowitz arcs were produced as sun dogs are; that is, by sunlight refracting through hexagonal ice crystals. However, in the case of sun dogs, the columnar crystals are oriented vertically, whereas in the case of Lowitz arcs, Galle proposed, the crystals oscillated about their vertical axes.\n", "There are also mathematical functions describing the formula_47 profile. Some are empirical fits from measured data and others attempt to incorporate elements of theory. One common model for continental land masses is known as Hufnagel-Valley after two workers in this subject.\n\nSection::::Overcoming atmospheric seeing.\n", "Looming is most commonly seen in the polar regions. Looming was sometimes responsible for the errors made by polar explorers; for example, Charles Wilkes charted the coast of Antarctica, where later only water was found. \n\nThe larger the size of the sphere (the planet where an observer is located) the less curved the horizon is. William Jackson Humphreys' calculations showed that an observer could see all the way around a planet nearly six times larger in radius than the Earth, with the same atmosphere as the Earth, because of looming.\n\nSection::::Sinking.\n", "Section::::Halos.:Sun dogs.\n\nSun dogs are a common type of halo, with the appearance of two subtly-colored bright spots to the left and right of the sun, at a distance of about 22° and at the same elevation above the horizon. They are commonly caused by plate-shaped hexagonal ice crystals. These crystals tend to become horizontally aligned as they sink through the air, causing them to refract the sunlight to the left and right, resulting in the two sun dogs.\n", "Approaching \"Mountains and Clouds\" from the south entrance gives a different impression; one initially sees only two mountain peaks, and the highest seems to touch or merge into the lowest cloud form. From this perspective, it is the mountain-cloud unit that impresses.\n", "Since by definition, the sun elevation must exceed 22° above the horizon, most observations are from elevated observation points such as mountains and planes.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "Beginning in 1950, the Ski Club of Washington, DC was developing ski slopes on the Valley side of Bald Knob of Cabin Mountain Within the decade, a slope on Cabin Mountain and a slope on Weiss Knob had been developed. Because of its protection from the sun, snow on that side of the mountain often remains until April or later.\n", "The lower tangent arc is rarely observable, appearing under and tangent to a 22° halo centred on the sun. Just like upper tangent arcs, the shape of a lower arc is dependent on the altitude of the sun. As the sun slips over the horizon the lower tangent arc forms a sharp, wing-shaped angle below the sun. As the sun rises above over the horizon, the arc first folds upon itself and then takes the shape of a wide arc. As the sun reaches 29-32° over the horizon, it finally begins to widen and merge with the upper tangent arc to form the circumscribed halo.\n", "A \"distorted surface\", a playa-like region, occurs at the farthest northwest area, for about , starting from Nevada Route 157. At Nevada Route 156, northwest, the distorted surface, bottom land turns north, a area in length and about wide. It lies at the south drainage section of the Three Lakes Valley, where a water divide separates Dog Bone Lake in the valley's center from the southwest washes that drain into the Las Vegas Valley (upland Las Vegas Wash).\n", "BULLET::::4. Piedmonttreppen: descending erosional benches on an uplifted area. Their shape is more or less concentric. Penck interpreted the \"Piedmonttreppen\" as the result of doming. Benches he thought originated as \"Piedmontflache\" in the periphery of the dome before they were uplifted. It can be translated into English as \"piedmont benchland\", \"piedmont stairway\" or \"piedmont treppe\".\n\nBULLET::::5. Primärrumpf: A more or less plain and subtly convex slope. The form is given by the very slow waxing of erosion. Erosion cycles should begin from a \"primärrumpf\". Can be formed at the base of a dome.\n\nBULLET::::6. Rumpfläche\n", "On either side of the \"saddle\" formed by the isogyres, birefringent rings of colour run concentrically around two eye like shapes called \"melanotopes\". The closest bands are circles, but further out they become pear shaped with the narrow part pointing to the saddle. The larger bands surrounding the saddle and both melanotopes are figure 8 shaped.\n\nA Michel-Levy Chart is often used in conjunction with the interference pattern to determine useful information that aids in the identification of minerals.\n", "The surrounding area consists of hill ranges of 9,000 feet (2,750 m) running northwest-southeast and sinking to the Sistan depression in the south.\n" ]	[ "Mountains curve around the horizon." ]	[ "While mountains are straight on a map, at ground level mountains can curve around around the specific location one is at." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mountains curve around the horizon." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "While mountains are straight on a map, at ground level mountains can curve around around the specific location one is at." ]
2018-05876	how does the bios know if theres an os in a drive ?	It knows to look at the [boot sector]( URL_0 ) at the start of the drive to find the code that starts loading the OS. If there's nothing in the boot sector, it assumes there's no OS on the drive. If you have a boot sector but no OS, the BIOS doesn't care, it's done its job.	[ "Hardware detection operates somewhat differently depending on whether or not Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) is supported by the hardware. It passes on the hardware details gathered from the BIOS onto the OS. If ACPI is supported, the list of found devices is handed to the kernel, Windows will take responsibility for assigning each device some resources. On older hardware, where ACPI is not supported, the BIOS takes responsibility for assigning resources, not the operating system, so this information is passed to the kernel as well.\n", "However, in certain circumstances, the BIOS vendor also provides the underlying information about hardware monitoring through ACPI, in which case, the operating system may be using ACPI to perform hardware monitoring; this is done, for example, on some ASUSTeK motherboards with the AI Booster feature.\n\nSection::::Configuration.:Reprogramming.\n", "When INT 19h is called, the BIOS attempts to locate boot loader software on a \"boot device\", such as a hard disk, a floppy disk, CD, or DVD. It loads and executes the first boot software it finds, giving it control of the PC. \n", "A SCSI Send Diagnostic command or Receive Diagnostic Results command is sent from the host computer to the disk-drive to initiate an SES transfer. The Disk-drive then asserts \"-PARALLEL ESI\" to begin this sequence of ESI bus phases:\n\nFinally, the disk-drive deasserts \"-PARALLEL ESI\".\n", "The principal duties of the main BIOS during POST are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- verify CPU registers\n\nBULLET::::- verify the integrity of the BIOS code itself\n\nBULLET::::- verify some basic components like DMA, timer, interrupt controller\n\nBULLET::::- find, size, and verify system main memory\n\nBULLET::::- initialize BIOS\n\nBULLET::::- pass control to other specialized extension BIOSes (if installed)\n\nBULLET::::- identify, organize, and select which devices are available for booting\n\nThe functions above are served by the POST in all BIOS versions back to the very first. In later BIOS versions, POST will also:\n", "During the POST flow of a contemporary BIOS, one of the first things a BIOS should do is determine the reason it is executing. For a cold boot, for example, it may need to execute all of its functionality. If, however, the system supports power saving or quick boot methods, the BIOS may be able to circumvent the standard POST device discovery, and simply program the devices from a preloaded system device table.\n", "The BIOS uses the boot devices set in EEPROM, CMOS RAM or, in the earliest PCs, DIP switches. The BIOS checks each device in order to see if it is bootable by attempting to load the first sector (boot sector). If the sector cannot be read , the BIOS proceeds to the next device. If the sector is read successfully, some BIOSes will also check for the boot sector signature 0x55 0xAA in the last two bytes of the sector (which is 512 bytes long), before accepting a boot sector and considering the device bootable.\n", "Once the system is booted, hardware monitoring and computer fan control is normally done directly by the Hardware Monitor chip itself, which can be a separate chip, interfaced through I²C or SMBus, or come as a part of a Super I/O solution, interfaced through Low Pin Count (LPC). Some operating systems, like NetBSD with envsys and OpenBSD with sysctl hw.sensors, feature integrated interfacing with hardware monitors, which is normally done without any interaction with the BIOS.\n", "IO.SYS\n\nSection::::Boot sequence.\n\nIn the PC bootup sequence, the first sector of the boot disk is loaded into memory and executed. If this is the DOS boot sector, it loads the first three sectors of into memory and transfers control to it. then:\n\nBULLET::::1. Loads the rest of itself into memory.\n\nBULLET::::2. Initializes each default device driver in turn (console, disk, serial port, etc..). At this point, the default devices are available.\n", "In OpenBSD 6.4 (2018), a dozen of drivers register with the bio framework.\n\nSection::::The codice_9 sensors.\n\nMonitoring of the state of each logical drive is also duplicated into the hardware monitoring frameworks and their corresponding utilities on both systems where bioctl is available — hw.sensors with sensorsd in OpenBSD and sysmon envsys with envstat and powerd in NetBSD. For example, on OpenBSD since 4.2 release, the status of the drive sensors could be automatically monitored simply by starting sensorsd without any specific configuration being required. More drivers are being converted to use the bio and sensors frameworks with each release.\n", "BULLET::::- Enabling or disabling system components\n\nBULLET::::- Selecting which devices are potential boot devices, and in which order booting from them will be attempted\n\nBULLET::::- Setting various passwords, such as a password for securing access to the BIOS user interface functions itself and preventing malicious users from booting the system from unauthorized portable storage devices, a password for booting the system, or a hard disk drive password that limits access to it and stays assigned even if the hard disk drive is moved to another computer\n\nSection::::Configuration.:Hardware monitoring.\n", "When a bootable device is found, the BIOS transfers control to the loaded sector. The BIOS does not interpret the contents of the boot sector other than to possibly check for the boot sector signature in the last two bytes. Interpretation of data structures like partition tables and BIOS Parameter Blocks is done by the boot program in the boot sector itself or by other programs loaded through the boot process. \n", "A modern BIOS setup screen often features a PC Health Status or a Hardware Monitoring tab, which directly interfaces with a Hardware Monitor chip of the mainboard. This makes it possible to monitor CPU and chassis temperature, the voltage provided by the power supply unit, as well as monitor and control the speed of the fans connected to the motherboard.\n", "The userspace command-line utility inspects this data. Information provided by this utility typically includes the system manufacturer, model name, serial number, BIOS version and asset tag, as well other details of varying level of interest and reliability, depending on the system manufacturer. The information often includes usage status for the CPU sockets, expansion slots (including AGP, PCI and ISA) and memory module slots, and the list of I/O ports (including serial, parallel and USB).\n\nSection::::Accessing SMBIOS data.:From Windows.\n\nMicrosoft specifies WMI as the preferred mechanism for accessing SMBIOS information from Microsoft Windows.\n", "Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in an EEPROM chip soldered to or socketed on the motherboard, to boot an operating system. Non-operating system boot programs are still supported on modern IBM PC-descended machines, but nowadays it is assumed that the boot program will be a complex operating system such as Microsoft Windows or Linux. When power is first supplied to the motherboard, the BIOS firmware tests and configures memory, circuitry, and peripherals. This Power-On Self Test (POST) may include testing some of the following things:\n\nBULLET::::- Video adapter\n\nBULLET::::- Cards inserted into slots, such as conventional PCI\n", "The Linux kernel contains an SMBIOS decoder, allowing systems administrators to inspect system hardware configuration and to enable or disable certain workarounds for problems with specific systems, based on the provided SMBIOS information.\n", "The ROM BIOS starts the execution at the physical memory address FFFF0h. During this phase, BIOS first executes the Power-on self-test, then checks for the existence of a boot disk on drive A. If it is not found in drive A, the ROM BIOS checks for a hard disk. If the computer has a Plug and Play BIOS, in addition, BIOS checks the RAM for I/O port addresses, interrupt lines and DMA channels for Plug and Play devices, disables found devices, creates maps of used and unused resources and re-enables devices.\n", "Section::::Operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:System startup.\n\nEarly Intel processors started at physical address 000FFFF0h. Systems with later processors provide logic to start running the BIOS from the system ROM. \n\nIf the system has just been powered up or the reset button was pressed (\"cold boot\"), the full power-on self-test (POST) is run. If Ctrl+Alt+Delete was pressed (\"warm boot\"), a special flag value stored in nonvolatile BIOS memory (\"CMOS\") tested by the BIOS allows bypass of the lengthy POST and memory detection. \n", "The EFI configuration table (EFI_CONFIGURATION_TABLE) contains entries pointing to the SMBIOS 2 and/or SMBIOS 3 tables. There are several ways to access the data, depending on the platform and operating system.\n\nSection::::Accessing SMBIOS data.:From UEFI.\n\nIn the UEFI Shell, the SmbiosView command can retrieve and display the SMBIOS data.. One can often enter the UEFI shell by entering the BIOS, and then selecting the shell as a boot option (as opposed to a DVD drive or hard drive).\n\nSection::::Accessing SMBIOS data.:From Linux.\n", "OS loaders can be automatically detected by UEFI, which enables easy booting from removable devices such as USB flash drives. This automated detection relies on standardized file paths to the OS loader, with the path varying depending on the computer architecture. The format of the file path is defined as ; for example, the file path to the OS loader on an x86-64 system is , and on ARM64 architecture.\n", "The host computer communicates with the disks in the enclosure via a Serial SCSI interface (which may be either FC-AL or SAS). One of the disk devices located in the enclosure is set up to allow SCSI Enclosure Services (SES) communication through a LUN. The disk-drive then communicates with the SES processor in the enclosure via ESI. The data sent over the ESI interface is simply the contents of a SCSI command and the response to that command.\n", "Section::::SES/SAF-TE.\n\n In OpenBSD, both SCSI Enclosure Services (SES) and SAF-TE are supported since OpenBSD 3.8 (2005) as well, both of which feature LED blinking through bio and bioctl (by implementing the codice_10 ioctl), helping system administrators identify devices within the enclosures to service. Additionally, both the SES and SAF-TE drivers in OpenBSD feature support for a combination of temperature and fan sensors, PSU, doorlock and alarm indicators; all of this auxiliary sensor data is exported into the hw.sensors framework in OpenBSD, and can be monitored through familiar tools like sysctl, SNMP and sensorsd.\n", "This information allows the boot loader (in the MBR or VBR) to actively interact with the BIOS or a resident PnP / BBS overlay in memory in order to configure the boot order etc., however, this information is ignored by most standard MBRs and VBRs. Ideally, ES:DI is passed on, but PnP-enabled operating systems typically also have fallback methods to retrieve the PnP BIOS entry point later on so that most operating systems do not rely on this. Information in ES:DI can be used as a hint - according to the PnP BIOS specification, \"$PnP\" installation check structure could be found by searching for a signature of the ASCII string $PnP in system memory starting from F0000h to FFFFFh at every 16 byte boundary.\n", "On a regular CD-ROM install, the BIOS executes the POST and then searches for a boot descriptor on the CD-ROM. The boot descriptor points to a boot catalog file on the ISO 9660 file system. The BIOS searches for a boot image compatible with the current architecture, loads it into memory and then runs it. The boot image is analogous to the boot sector on a hard drive. The boot image loads SETUPLDR.BIN which is analogous to NTLDR. If this fails for any reason, a message is displayed saying that NTLDR was not found, which may of itself be misleading; moreover, the NTLDR on the CD is never used during the loading phase of the installer. The process also assumes that file versions are unavailable.\n", "There are many methods and utilities for examining the contents of various motherboard BIOS and expansion ROMs, such as Microsoft DEBUG or the Unix dd.\n\nSection::::Extensions (option ROMs).:Boot procedure.\n" ]	[ "The BIOS knows if there is an OS in a drive." ]	[ "The BIOS does not know if there is an OS in a drive, it simply checks for codes within the boot sector that begins the loading of the OS. If it finds nothing, it assumes there is no boot sector but doesn't truly know if that's the case." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The BIOS knows if there is an OS in a drive." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The BIOS does not know if there is an OS in a drive, it simply checks for codes within the boot sector that begins the loading of the OS. If it finds nothing, it assumes there is no boot sector but doesn't truly know if that's the case." ]
2018-02286	How do deep sea diving mammals such as seals and whales survive the changes in pressure?	In general, there's no great depressurization sequence that has to be followed for deep-diving air-breathing mammals because they don't do "pressure dives". Humans could make deep dives, too, if they could hold their breath as long as seals and whales, and not have to depressurize. (In fact, some do. There are some Japanese and Pacific Islanders who spend most of their lives at sea and train themselves to hold their breath for many minutes at a time. This enables them to stay underwater long enough to where they could, if they wanted to, dive very deeply and still rise before they need another breath.) The decompression that some humans have to undergo is because when hard-hat divers work underwater they breathe pressurized air. That is, the air supplied has to be pumped down to them at greater and greater pressures in order to have any volume of air to breathe. What that means is that a volume of air that would fill their lungs at sea level would be compressed so much that at great depths it takes "a roomful" of sea-level air to compress to a breathable lung-full of air. As the diver's depth increases the corresponding sea-level volume of air also has to increase. The diver has to ascend slowly so that the pressurized air can work its way out of his system gradually - as he breathes and as the oxygen in his blood is exchanged over time through his lungs. In other words, it's not his respiration that has to change, but his circulation. Otherwise, "the bends" result from the over-pressurized oxygen in his blood expanding into actual bubbles that can cripple or kill him - painfully - if the pressure isn't acclimated to gradually. Conversely, this is why submariners (and high-altitude fliers in airplanes) do not normally have to de-pressurize themselves, since the atmospheres in the submarine and the airplane are kept within "normal" limits. That is, submarines are not highly pressurized cylinders, and airplanes are (because there's no air pressure to speak of outside an airplane at 35,000 feet altitude), and the plane itself has to be de-pressurized as it descends for landing.	[ "Weddell seals' metabolism is relatively constant during deep-water dives, so another way to compensate for functioning with a lack of oxygen over an extended period of time must exist. Seals, unlike other terrestrial mammals such as humans, can undergo anaerobic metabolism for these extended dives, which causes a build-up of lactic acid in the muscles. The seals can also release oxygenated blood from their spleens into the rest of their bodies, acting as an oxygen reserve.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Vocalizing.\n", "While diving, the animals reduce their oxygen consumption by lowering the heart activity and blood circulation; individual organs receive no oxygen during this time. Some rorquals can dive for up to 40 minutes, sperm whales between 60 and 90 minutes and bottlenose whales for two hours. Diving depths average about . Species such as sperm whales can dive to , although more commonly .\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Social relations.\n", "Climatic and osmotic pressure places physiological constraints on organisms, especially those that fly and respire at high altitudes, or dive to deep ocean depths. These constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere, as organisms are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water pressure differences. For example, oxygen levels decrease with decreasing pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes. Water transportation by plants is another important ecophysiological process affected by osmotic pressure gradients. Water pressure in the depths of oceans requires that organisms adapt to these conditions. For example, diving animals such as whales, dolphins, and seals are specially adapted to deal with changes in sound due to water pressure differences. Differences between hagfish species provide another example of adaptation to deep-sea pressure through specialized protein adaptations.\n", "Elephant seals have a very large volume of blood, allowing them to hold a large amount of oxygen for use when diving. They have large sinuses in their abdomens to hold blood and can also store oxygen in their muscles with increased myoglobin concentrations in muscle. In addition, they have a larger proportion of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. These adaptations allow elephant seals to dive to such depths and remain underwater for up to two hours.\n", "Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day. These vertical migrations often occur over a large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swimbladder. The swimbladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the mesopelegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated. Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between , thus displaying considerable tolerances for temperature change.\n", "Breath-hold diving depth is limited in animals when the volume of rigid walled internal air spaces is occupied by all of the compressed gas of the breath and the soft spaces have collapsed under external pressure. Animals that can dive deeply have internal air spaces that can extensively collapse without harm, and may actively exhale before diving to avoid absorption of inert gas during the dive.\n", "Seals, whales and porpoises have slower respiratory rates and larger tidal volume to total lung capacity ratio than land animals which gives them a large exchange of gas during each breath and compensates for low respiratory rate. This allows greater utilisation of available oxygen and reduce energy expenditure.\n\nIn seals, bradycardia of the diving reflex reduces heart rate to about 10% of resting level at the start of a dive.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- CD-ROM prepared and distributed by the National Technical Information Service (NTIS)in partnership with NOAA and Best Publishing Company/ref\n", "Section::::Lifestyle.:Feeding and diving.\n\nSatellite tracking revealed the seals spend very little time on the surface, usually a few minutes for breathing. They dive repeatedly, each time for more than 20 minutes, to hunt their prey—squid and fish—at depths of . They are the deepest diving air-breathing non-cetaceans and have been recorded at a maximum of in depth.\n", "As far as duration, depth, and the sequence of dives, the southern elephant seal is the best performing seal. In many regards, they exceed even most cetaceans. These capabilities result from nonstandard physiological adaptations, common to marine mammals, but particularly developed in elephant seals. The coping strategy is based on increased oxygen storage and reduced oxygen consumption.\n", "The extreme difference in pressure between the sea floor and the surface makes the creature's survival on the surface near impossible; this makes in-depth research difficult because most useful information can only be found while the creatures are alive. Recent developments have allowed scientists to look at these creatures more closely, and for a longer time. A marine biologist, Jeffery Drazen, has explored a solution, a pressurized fish trap. This captures a deep-water creature, and adjusts its internal pressure slowly to surface level as the creature is brought to the surface, in the hope that the creature can adjust.\n", "Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day. These vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swimbladder. The swimbladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the messoplegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated. Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 50 °F (10 °C) and 69 °F (20 °C), thus displaying considerable tolerances for temperature change.\n", "There are many components that make up sea lion physiology and these processes control aspects of their behavior. Physiology dictates thermoregulation, osmoregulation, reproduction, metabolic rate, and many other aspects on sea lion ecology including but not limited to their ability to dive to great depths. The sea lions' bodies control heart rate, gas exchange, digestion rate, and blood flow to allow individuals to dive for a long period of time and prevent side-effects of high pressure at depth.\n", "HPNS has two components, one resulting from the speed of compression and the other from the absolute pressure. The compression effects may occur when descending below at rates greater than a few metres per minute, but reduce within a few hours once the pressure has stabilised. The effects from depth become significant at depths exceeding and remain regardless of the time spent at that depth.\n\nThe susceptibility of divers and animals to HPNS varies over a wide range depending on the individual, but has little variation between different dives by the same diver.\n", "Section::::Travelling surface behaviour.\n\nSection::::Travelling surface behaviour.:Breaching and lunging.\n", "An excursion is a visit to the environment outside the habitat. Diving excursions can be done on scuba or umbilical supply, and are limited upwards by decompression obligations while on the excursion, and downwards by decompression obligations while returning from the excursion.\n", "To complement the Marine Mammal Medic training program BDMLR has also produced a Marine Mammal Medic handbook (currently on its 8th edition), that is used globally by various governmental and non-governmental organisations to deal with stranded cetaceans.\n\nThe organisation specialises primarily in pinniped (seals) and cetacean (porpoises, dolphins and whales) rescue, however will responded to stranded sea turtles, basking sharks, otters, injured or oiled sea birds and entangled marine mammals.\n", "Injury and mortality of fish, marine mammals, including sea otters, seals, dolphins and whales, and birds by underwater explosions has been recorded in several studies. Bats can suffer fatal barotrauma in the low pressure zones behind the blades of wind turbines due to their more fragile mammalian lung structure in comparison with the more robust Avian lungs, which are less affected by pressure change.\n\nSection::::Barotrauma in animals.:Swim bladder overexpansion.\n", "The high pressures associated with deep dives cause gases such as nitrogen to build up in tissues which are then released upon surfacing, possibly causing death. One of the ways sea lions deal with the extreme pressures is by limiting the amount of gas exchange that occurs when diving. The sea lion allows the alveoli to be compressed by the increasing water pressure thus forcing the surface air into cartilage lined airway just before the gas exchange surface. This process prevents any further oxygen exchange to the blood for muscles, requiring all muscles to be loaded with enough oxygen to last the duration of the dive. However, this shunt reduces the amount of compressed gases from entering tissues therefore reducing the risk of decompression sickness. The collapse of alveoli does not allow for any oxygen storage in the lungs however, this means that sea lions must mitigate oxygen use in order to extend their dives. Oxygen availability is prolonged by the physiological control of heart rate in the sea lions. By reducing heart rate to well below surface rates, oxygen is saved by reducing gas exchange as well as reducing the energy required for a high heart rate. Bradycardia is a control mechanism to allow a switch from pulmonary oxygen to oxygen stored in the muscles which is needed when the sea lions are diving to depth. Another way sea lions mitigate the oxygen obtained at the surface in dives is to reduce digestion rate. Digestion requires metabolic activity and therefore energy and oxygen are consumed during this process, however sea lions can limit digestion rate and decrease it by at least 54%. This reduction in digestion results in a proportional reduction in oxygen use in the stomach and therefore a correlated oxygen supply for diving. Digestion rate in these sea lions increase back to normal rates immediately upon resurfacing. Oxygen depletion limits dive duration, but carbon dioxide (CO) build up also plays a role in the dive capabilities of many marine mammals. After a sea lion returns from a long dive, CO is not expired as fast as oxygen is replenished in the blood, due to the unloading complications with CO. However, having more than normal levels of CO in the blood does not seem to adversely affect dive behavior. Compared to terrestrial mammals, sea lions have a higher tolerance to storing CO which is what normally tells mammals that they need to breathe. This ability to ignore a response to CO is likely brought on by increase carotid bodies which are sensor for oxygen levels which let the animal know its available oxygen supply. Yet, the sea lions cannot avoid the effects of gradual CO build up which eventually causes the sea lions to spend more time at the surface after multiple repeated dives to allow for enough built up CO to be expired.\n", "Saturation diving allows professional divers to live and work at pressures greater than 50 msw (160 fsw) for days or weeks at a time, though lower pressures have been used for scientific work from underwater habitats. This type of diving allows for greater economy of work and enhanced safety for the divers. After working in the water, they rest and live in a dry pressurized habitat on or connected to a diving support vessel, oil platform or other floating work station, at approximately the same pressure as the work depth. The diving team is compressed to the working pressure only once, at the beginning of the work period, and decompressed to surface pressure once, after the entire work period of days or weeks. Excursions to greater depths require decompression when returning to storage depth, and excursions to shallower depths are also limited by decompression obligations to avoid decompression sickness during the excursion.\n", "Section::::Ambient pressure changes.\n", "Senses of taste and smell are not very important to the diver in the water but more important to the saturation diver while in accommodation chambers. There is evidence of a slight decrease in threshold for taste and smell after extended periods under pressure.\n\nSection::::Adaptation in other animals.\n\nAquatic mammals such as seals and whales dive after full exhalation, which would reduce the amount of nitrogen available to saturate the tissues by 80 to 90%.\n\nAquatic mammals are also less sensitive to low alveolar oxygen concentrations and high carbon dioxide concentrations than purely terrestrial mammals.\n", "The diving press picked up on this production and looked at the play through the eyes of someone who know first hand just how important accurate forecasts are. Rosemary E Lunn observed in X-Ray Magazine \" \"\"Ardent British divers understand that our weather is uniquely complex. We are aware how changeable and challenging UK coastal weather is - even in the summer. We can plan a dive to the enth degree and the weather may be kind. Or it will be less than kind.\"\"\n", "A saturation system will be managed by a Life Support Supervisor and operated by Life Support Technicians (LSTs), and there will usually be one or more Diving Medical Technicians (DMTs)on site, and an off-site standby contract with a suitably rated Diving Medical Practitioner, who is trained in diving medicine and able to advise on treatment under hyperbaric conditions.\n\nSection::::Management and control of diving operations.:Diving team.\n", "Section::::Management and control of diving operations.:Saturation dives.\n", "When not breathing for long and dangerous periods of time in cold water, a person's body undergoes great temporary changes to try to prevent death. It achieves this through the activation of the mammalian diving reflex, which has 3 main properties. Other than Bradycardia and Peripheral vasoconstriction, there is a blood shift which occurs only during very deep dives that affects the thoracic cavity (a chamber of the body protected by the thoracic wall.) When this happens, organ and circulatory walls allow plasma/water to pass freely throughout the thoracic cavity, so its pressure stays constant and the organs aren't crushed. In this stage, the lungs' alveoli fill up with blood plasma, which is reabsorbed when the organism leaves the pressurized environment. This stage of the diving reflex has been observed in humans (such as world champion freediver Martin Štěpánek) during extremely deep (over 90 metres or 300 ft) free dives.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16489	What causes the weather to act as if its got a schedule?	Most weather is caused by the sun heating part of the planet and then those parts cooling once the sunlight moves on. So as the sun moves predictably and warms one part of the planet it causes water vapor to enter the air and air currents to move. As the sun moves on the air cools, winds move in and colder air cannot hold as much water vapor and whammo rain. Same thing happens in Florida during the summer.	[ "The head of the Chilean Meteorological Directorate, Jaime Leyton, explained that the phenomenon \"is not similar to a frontal system of a defined trajectory, which has an hour of start and one hour of calculable term. In this case, the distribution of cloudiness and precipitation (rains) is irregular in space and time, therefore, a zone of impact is defined, but it is impossible to identify the exact sector where it is going to manifest with greater intensity.\" Leyton also reported that in this case the phenomenon \"does not have a trajectory of movement, but it circulates around a point and generates at different times a greater impact on geographic spatial coverage, of what usually happens. Therefore, it is a rare event, uncommon for the time of year, for intensity, and for coverage. It is comparable to a spinning top that is not known where it is going to fall, which is not known to which side will finish its fall.\n", "Section::::Regulation.\n\nSection::::Regulation.:United States.\n\nIn the US, the Commodity Exchange Act, Section 5d establishes weather in a category of market exempt from Commission oversight.\n\nRule 36.2 defines those commodities that are eligible to trade on an exempt board of trade as commodities having:\n\nBULLET::::1. A nearly inexhaustible deliverable supply;\n\nBULLET::::2. A deliverable supply that is sufficiently large, and a cash market sufficiently liquid, to render any contract traded on the commodity highly unlikely to be susceptible to the threat of manipulation;\n\nBULLET::::3. No cash market.\n", "Until the nor'easter passes, thick, dark, low-level clouds often block out the sun. Temperatures usually fall significantly due to the presence of the cooler air from winds that typically come from a northeasterly direction. During a single storm, the precipitation can range from a torrential downpour to a fine mist. All precipitation types can occur in a nor'easter. High wind gusts, which can reach hurricane strength, are also associated with a nor'easter. On very rare occasions, such as in the nor'easter in 1978, North American blizzard of 2006, and January 2018 North American blizzard, the center of the storm can take on the circular shape more typical of a hurricane and have a small \"dry slot\" near the center, which can be mistaken for an eye, although it is not an eye.\n", "Late-night rains and early morning rains may simply be the last precipitation of a passing weather front. However, since fronts pass at night as often as they do in the day, morning rain is no predictor of a dry afternoon. However, this lore can describe non-frontal weather. Given sufficient surface heating, a late-day rainstorm may continue to develop into the night, produce early precipitation, then dissipate by late morning. This, though, is the exception rather than the rule. Only 40% of rain is produced by convective events – 60% is the result of a frontal passage.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Cloud movement.\n", "Atmospheric circulation\n\nAtmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and together with ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth.\n\nThe Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the large-scale structure of its circulation remains fairly constant. The smaller scale weather systems – mid-latitude depressions, or tropical convective cells – occur \"randomly\", and long-range weather predictions of those cannot be made beyond ten days in practice, or a month in theory (see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect).\n", "Section::::Date.\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:A ring around the Moon.\n", "In severe weather, airlines, rail service providers, bus operators, and other public transport may cancel or reduce services. Route impassability, airport closure, employees' safety, and public safety may result in such action. However, some modes of transport are more prone to severe weather than others, and different forms of bad weather have different impacts.\n\nIn air travel, the decision is often based on the guidelines of the country's civil aviation authority, such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States.\n", "Section::::Meteorological signs.\n\nSection::::Meteorological signs.:Early-morning rain.\n", "The movement of air in the Walker circulation affects the loops on either side. Under normal circumstances, the weather behaves as expected. But every few years, the winters become unusually warm or unusually cold, or the frequency of hurricanes increases or decreases, and the pattern sets in for an indeterminate period. \n", "A series of storms continually moving over the same area, dumping heavy rains, can cause flash flooding. Each storm usually produces heavy rain, and after a significant amount of rain falls from the storms which have moved over the same area, flooding occurs.\n\nSection::::Thunderstorm training.\n\nThunderstorm training is used to refer specifically to training occurring with thunderstorms. It forms when storms tend to backbuild. This type of training can quickly cause flash flooding, especially if the thunderstorms are strong.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- MCS Movement and Behavior by Stephen Corfidi\n", "Section::::Significance.\n", "Training (meteorology)\n\nIn meteorology, training denotes repeated areas of rain, typically associated with thunderstorms, that move over the same region in a relatively short period of time. Training thunderstorms are capable of producing excessive rainfall totals, often causing flash flooding. The name \"training\" is derived from how a train and its cars travel along a track (moving along a single path), without the track moving.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "There are some meteorological basis suggested, but is a fuzzy mechanism, and fixing a precise date compromises the effectiveness.\n\nSection::::Calendrical lore.\n\nThere are weather lore marked by dates on the year's calendar.\n\nSection::::Calendrical lore.:February.\n\nThere are weather lore around February 2, known as Candlemas, Brigid's Day, or St. Blaise's Day (St. Blaze's Day). One French lore says that if it rains on Candlemas (\"Chandeleur\") there will be forty more days of rainy day: \"Quand il pleut pour la Chandeleur, il pleut pendant quarante jours\". Groundhog Day also falls on this day.\n\nSection::::Calendrical lore.:February.:Candlemas and animal.\n", "Farmers rely on weather forecasts to decide what work to do on any particular day. For example, drying hay is only feasible in dry weather. Prolonged periods of dryness can ruin cotton, wheat, and corn crops. While corn crops can be ruined by drought, their dried remains can be used as a cattle feed substitute in the form of silage. Frosts and freezes play havoc with crops both during the spring and fall. For example, peach trees in full bloom can have their potential peach crop decimated by a spring freeze. Orange groves can suffer significant damage during frosts and freezes, regardless of their timing.\n", "Section::::Associated weather.\n", "Climate pattern\n\nA climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate. Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years, like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages, or repeat each year, like monsoons.\n", "His interest in meteorology began at the very early age of 4 when he noticed dark clouds from an approaching storm. It was the beginning of an all-consuming passion to understand weather of all types, but during his boyhood years in New England took a particular fancy to winter snowstorms and the well-known \"nor'easter.\"\n", "Typical meteorological year\n\nTypical meteorological year is a collation of selected weather data for a specific location, listing hourly values of solar radiation and meteorological elements for a one-year period. The values are generated from a data bank much longer than a year in duration. It is specially selected so that it presents the range of weather phenomena for the location in question, while still giving annual averages that are consistent with the long-term averages for the location in question.\n", "For an authority to issue an AIRMET, applicable conditions must be widespread. \"Widespread\" means that the applicable area covers at least 3000 square miles. Because conditions across the forecast period can move across the area, it is possible that only a small portion of the area is affected at any time.\n\nAIRMETs are routinely issued for six-hour periods beginning at 0145Z during Daylight Saving Time and at 0245Z during Standard Time. AIRMETS are also amended as necessary due to changing weather conditions or issuance/cancellation of a SIGMET.\n", "A great percentage of the world's population lives in the equatorial regions, but for the most part, these regions do not experience weather as it is understood by this definition. The Sahara in northern Africa, for instance, is almost uniformly hot, sunny and dry all year long especially due to the non-stop presence of high atmospheric pressure aloft, whereas weather trends on the Indian subcontinent and in the western Pacific, for instance, the monsoonal belt, occur gradually over the very long term, and the diurnal weather patterns remain constant.\n", "A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle, like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle; a quasi periodic event, like El Niño; or a highly irregular event, such as a volcanic winter. The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization. For example, graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed.\n\nSection::::Modes of variability.\n", "In some situations, schedules can be uncertain, such as where the conduct of daily life relies on environmental factors outside human control. People who are vacationing or otherwise seeking to reduce stress and achieve relaxation may intentionally avoid having a schedule for a certain period of time.\n\nSection::::Kinds of schedules.\n\nSection::::Kinds of schedules.:Publicly available schedules.\n\nCertain kinds of schedules reflect information that is generally made available to the public, so that members of the public can plan certain activities around them. These may include things like:\n", "The Ice Saints is the name given in German, Austrian, and Swiss folklore to a period noted to bring a brief spell of colder weather in the Northern Hemisphere under the Julian Calendar in May, because the Roman Catholic feast days of St. Mamertus, St. Pancras, and St. Servatus fall on the days of May 11, May 12, and May 13 respectively.\n\nSection::::Biological signs.\n\nSection::::Biological signs.:Animal signs.\n\nSection::::Biological signs.:Animal signs.:Seagulls.\n\nSometimes the lore is concurrent with existing conditions, more than prediction, as in:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15902	What purpose do grains serve to wheat and rice plants?	The grains produced by a plant are its seeds. Therefore, they serve the purpose of reproduction.	[ "The cultivation practices are quite similar to other wheat species, especially durum. As most of the Khorasan wheat is organically produced, the nutrient supply (especially nitrogen) should be granted by using an appropriate crop rotation, such as previous pasture legumes. The nutritional content of Khorasan wheat is the most important characteristic of this crop and the reason why it is cultivated. Therefore the nutrition supply is one of the critical aspects of this production.\n", "Grains and cereal are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called grains if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as \"grain amaranth\", and amaranth products may be described as \"whole grains\". The pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes (kaniwa, kiwicha, and quinoa) are broad-leafed plants rather than grasses such as corn, rice, and wheat.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Cereal grains.\n", "Wheat middlings\n\nWheat middlings (also known as millfeed, wheat mill run, or wheat midds) are the product of the wheat milling process that is not flour. A good source of protein, fiber, phosphorus, and other nutrients, they are used to produce foods like pasta, breakfast cereals, puddings, and couscous for humans, as well as fodder for livestock and pets. They are also being researched for use as a biofuel.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::4. Sustainable production on marginal lands. Cassman et al. (2003) wrote that for large areas in poor regions of the world, “annual cereal cropping …is not likely to be sustainable over the longer term because of severe erosion risk. Perennial crops and agroforestry systems are better suited to these environments.” Current perennial crops and agroforestry systems do not produce grain. Grain provides greater food security than forage or fruit because it can be eaten directly by humans (unlike forage) and it can be stored (unlike fruit) for consumption during the winter or dry season.\n", "Section::::As a food.:Comparison with other staple foods.\n\nThe following table shows the nutrient content of wheat and other major staple foods in a raw form.\n\nRaw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sprouting grains causes increased activities of hydrolytic enzymes, improvements in the contents of total proteins, fat, certain essential amino acids, total sugars, B-group vitamins, and a decrease in dry matter, starch and anti-nutrients. The increased contents of protein, fat, fibre and total ash are only apparent and attributable to the disappearance of starch. However, improvements in amino acid composition, B-group vitamins, sugars, protein and starch digestibilities, and decrease in phytates and protease inhibitors are the metabolic effects of the sprouting process.\"\n\nSection::::Nutrition.:Increases in protein quality.\n\nChavan and Kadam (1989) stated that:\n", "Sri Lanka developed the farming practice known as coconut-soybean intercropping. Grain legumes are grown in coconut (\"Cocos nuficera)\" groves in two ways: intercropping or as a cash crop. These are grown mainly for their protein, vegetable oil and ability to uphold soil fertility. However, continuous cropping after 3–4 years decrease grain yields significantly.\n\nSection::::Farming system.\n", "Such legumes can simultaneously increase farmers' incomes and contribute to sustainability of the farming system.\n\nSection::::The importance of weeds.\n", "Millets are also used as bird and animal feed.\n\nSection::::Production.:Grazing millet.\n\nIn addition to being used for seed, millet is also used as a grazing forage crop. Instead of letting the plant reach maturity, it can be grazed by stock and is commonly used for sheep and cattle.\n\nMillet is a C4 plant, which means that it has good water-use efficiency and utilizes high temperature and is therefore a summer crop. A C4 plant uses a different enzyme in photosynthesis from C3 plants, and this is why it improves water efficiency.\n", "The 2005 Synthesis Report of the United Nations’ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment program labeled agriculture the “largest threat to biodiversity and ecosystem function of any single human activity.” Perennial grains could reduce this threat, according to the following logic:\n\nBULLET::::- Most agricultural land is devoted to the production of grain crops: cereal, oilseed, and legume crops occupy 75% of US and 69% of global croplands. These grains include such crops as wheat, rice, and maize; together they provide over 70% of human food calories.\n\nBULLET::::- All these grain crops are currently annual plants which are generally planted into cultivated soil.\n", "Because of the high susceptibility to fungi, crop rotation is quite important, especially under organic production conditions. The rotation requirements resemble more or less the ones of durum wheat. Depending on the specific production setting, Khorasan production after maize or other cereals should be avoided. Typical robust rotations would contain some of the following crops: canola, sunflower, pulses, sorghum and pasture legumes.\n\nSection::::Aspects of breeding.\n", "In order to promote millet cultivation, other potential uses have been considered recently. For example, starch derived from millets has been shown to be a good substrate for fermentation and malting with grains having similar starch contents as wheat grains. A recently published study suggested that starch derived from proso millet can be converted to ethanol with an only moderately lower efficiency than starch derived from corn. The development of varieties with highly fermentable characteristics could improve ethanol yield to that of highly fermentable corn. Since proso millet is compatible with low-input agriculture, cultivation on marginal soils for biofuel production could represent an important new market, such as for farmers in the High Plains of the US.\n", "The term \"grain\" is also used in a more general sense as synonymous with cereal (as in \"cereal grains\", which include some non-Poaceae). Considering that the fruit wall and the seed are intimately fused into a single unit, and the caryopsis or grain is a dry fruit, little concern is given to technically separating the terms \"fruit\" and \"seed\" in these plant structures. In many grains, the \"hulls\" to be separated before processing are flower bracts. \n", "Ancient grains\n\nAncient grains are a grouping of grains and pseudocereals that are considered to have been minimally changed by selective breeding over recent millennia, as opposed to more widespread cereals such as corn, rice and modern varieties of wheat, which are the product of thousands of years of selective breeding. Ancient grains are often marketed as being more nutritious than modern grains, though their health benefits have been disputed by some nutritionists.\n", "Harvest in general follows the same procedure as in the other wheat species. As soon as the grains are mature, a combine harvester threshes the Khorasan wheat. But contrary to common wheat, the seeds of Khorasan wheat are very brittle and crack in half very easily, which leads to a necessarily more gentle harvest and post-harvest treatment.\n", "that reduce the plant's sensitivity to gibberellic acid, a plant hormone that lengthens cells. RHt genes were introduced to modern wheat varieties in the 1960s by Norman Borlaug from Norin 10 cultivars of wheat grown in Japan. Short stems are important because the application of high levels of chemical fertilizers would otherwise cause the stems to grow too high, resulting in lodging (collapse of the stems). Stem heights are also even, which is important for modern harvesting techniques.\n\nSection::::Other forms of common wheat.\n", "Synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor \"Aegilops tauschii\" and various durum wheats are now being deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats.\n\nStomata (or leaf pores) are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration. Basic physiological investigation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water-use efficiency. These varieties can improve crop productivity in rain-fed dry-land wheat farms.\n", "The most common management practice for grains and legumes is the use of aeration systems. Air is pushed through the storage bins at low flow rates, which removes excess moisture and heat. Regulation of air flow allows the moisture content in harvested products to remain at a constant level and decreases the temperature within the bins. Temperature levels can decrease enough so insects and mites are dormant, which reduces rapid growth of the pathogen.\n", "Grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds, which are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include beans, lentils, lupins, peas, and peanuts. \n\nSection::::Human consumption.:Nutritional value.\n\nLegumes are a significant source of protein, dietary fiber, carbohydrates and dietary minerals; for example, a 100 gram serving of cooked chickpeas contains 18 percent of the Daily Value (DV) for protein, 30 percent DV for dietary fiber, 43 percent DV for folate and 52 percent DV for manganese. Like other plant-based foods, pulses contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium.\n", "BULLET::::- Korean cuisine (section Grains), in whose myths deities brought seeds of five grains\n\nBULLET::::- List of Five grains in world culture\n\nBULLET::::- Ogokbap, five-grains rice in Korean cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Pha Trelgen Changchup Sempa, Tibetan cultural hero story involving 5 grains\n\nBULLET::::- \"Qi Min Yao Shu\", ancient Chinese agricultural text\n\nBULLET::::- Sheji, soil and grain concept in East Asia\n\nBULLET::::- Song Yingxing (section on Agriculture), encyclopedist, 1587–1666 CE, who offers a late period list of Wǔgǔ\n\nBULLET::::- Wuliangye, example of distillation applied to grains\n", "BULLET::::6. Improved habitat for pests. If fields are not left bare for a portion of the year, rodents and insects populations may increase. Burning of the stubble of perennial grains could reduce these populations, but burning may not be permitted in some areas. Furthermore, rodents and insects living underground would survive burning, whereas tillage disrupts their habitat.\n\nSection::::Perennial Grains in the Marketplace.\n", "A comparison of nutritional analyses shows that sprouted grains contain about 75% of the energy (carbohydrates), slightly higher protein and about 40% of the fat when compared to whole grains.\n", "Consumed worldwide by billions of people, wheat is a significant food for human nutrition, particularly in the least developed countries where wheat products are primary foods. When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a healthy food source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber recommended for children and adults, in several daily servings containing a variety of foods that meet whole grain-rich criteria. Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight. Further, wheat is a major source for natural and biofortified nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber, protein and dietary minerals.\n", "In some traditional cuisines there is a balance of 70% whole grains to 30% legumes, which may vary to 80% grains with 20% legumes. This tradition can be seen expressed in three regions:\n\nBULLET::::- Latin America: beans with tortillas or rice,\n\nBULLET::::- Middle East: bulgar wheat with chickpeas, or pita falafel with hummus,\n\nBULLET::::- Asia: soy with rice (southern China, northern Japan, Indonesia), soy with wheat or millet (northern China), or soy with barley (Korea and southern China).\n", "It has been suggested that resistant starch contributes to the health benefits of intact whole grains.\n\nSection::::Industrial applications.\n\nSection::::Industrial applications.:Papermaking.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03078	why do stickers easily come off on fabric but hard to peel off on metal or other surfaces also leaving behind a sticky residue and sometimes not even being able to peel it all off?	Fabric is a relatively "rough" surface, so the sticker is only sticking to the highest points on the fabric, so there's less surface contact. Take the same sticker and stick it to the sandy side of sandpaper, same thing. Or, find a very smooth piece of silk to stick the sticker too, it likely still stick better. Lastly, when you peel the sticker off the fabric, look at the back of the sticker: it probably took a lot of fabric with in the form of lint, rather than leaving residue behind.	[ "Some artists also use self-adhesive stickers as a quick way to do catch ups. While certain critics from within graffiti culture consider this lazy, stickers can be quite detailed in their own right and often, are used in conjunction with other materials. Sticker tags are commonly executed on blank postage stickers, as these can easily be acquired with no cost on the writer's part.\n", "Label 228's are often used with hand-drawn art, and are quite hard to remove, leaving a white, sticky residue. Sticker artists can design and print thousands of stickers at low cost using a commercial printing service or at home with a computer printer and self-adhesive labels.\n", "The stickers are usually sold in blind packs, so the purchaser does not know which stickers they are buying. Collectors then swap or sell their spares with other collectors.\n\nSection::::Layout.\n\nSection::::Layout.:Sports.\n", "Because latex sheet is relatively weak, latex clothing needs special care to avoid tearing. While latex can be repaired using materials similar to those provided in a bicycle repair kit, the result is rarely as attractive as the original appearance of the garment.\n\nLatex clothing is often polished to preserve and improve its shiny appearance. \n", "Upon contact with water, the glue is loosened and the decal can be removed from its backing; overlong exposure, however, dissolves the glue completely causing the decal to fail to adhere.\n\nA \"peel-and-stick\" decal is actually not a decal as described above, but a vinyl sticker with adhesive backing, that can be transferred by peeling off its base. The sign industry calls these \"peel-and-stick\" vinyl stickers \"vinyl-cut-decals\".\n\nSection::::Production process.\n", "Stickers are also used for embellishing scrapbooking pages. Kinds of stickers sold for this purpose include acrylic, 3D, cardstock, epoxy, fabric, flocked, sparkly, paper, puffy, and vellum. While in the earlier days of scrapbooking stickers were sold mostly on 2\"x6\" sheets, now 6\"x12\" and even 12\"x12\" size sheets are very common.\n\nStickers applied to guitars are called guitar decals. Post-it notes are removable stickers having glue on only part of the back, and are usually sold blank. \n", "Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer used in various applications including non-stick coatings. Teflon is a brand of PTFE, often used as a generic term for PTFE. The metallic substrate is roughened by abrasive blasting, then sometimes electric-arc sprayed with stainless steel. The irregular surface promotes adhesion of the PTFE and also resists abrasion of the PTFE. Then one to seven layers of PTFE are sprayed or rolled on, with a larger number of layers and spraying being better. The number and thickness of the layers and quality of the material determine the quality of the non-stick coating. Better-quality coatings are more durable, and less likely to peel and flake, and keep their non-stick properties for longer. Any PTFE-based coating will rapidly lose its non-stick properties if overheated; all manufacturers recommend that temperatures be kept below, typically, .\n", "BULLET::::- Peelable – Adhesion is fairly strong and will not fall off in normal circumstances, but the label can be removed relatively easily without tearing the base stock or leaving adhesive behind on the old surface. The adhesive is usually strong enough to be applied again elsewhere. This type is frequently known as 'removable'. There are many different types of removable adhesives, some are almost permanent, some are almost 'ultra peelable'.\n", "BULLET::::- Ultra-peelable – Designed principally for use on book covers and glass, when removed these adhesives labels do not leave any residue whatsoever. Adhesion is weak and only suitable for light duty applications. Normally these labels have very little adhesion to anything once they've been removed.\n\nBULLET::::- Freezer or frost fix – Most permanent and peelable adhesives have a service temperature limit of -10 degrees Celsius, whereas freezer (otherwise known as frost fix) adhesives have a service temperature -40 degrees Celsius and are suitable for deep freeze use.\n", "Sticker artists also print their designs onto adhesive vinyl, which has a strong, permanent adhesive, is waterproof, and generally fade resistant. A variant type of adhesive vinyl, called \"destructible\", is used by some artists. Destructible vinyl decals are primarily used as tamper indicators on equipment and shipping containers. The difficult–to–remove nature of this material is attractive to sticker artists, including B.N.E. and Obey Giant.\n\nSticker art is a popular processing method to create artworks with a 3D effect. The artist cuts vinyl sheets and foam board components with a scalpel. With this components the artist glues a sticker art collage.\n", "Section::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Peel ply.\n\nFor a peel ply, a thin, woven piece of material is applied to the adherend during fabrication. Because the material is woven, it will leave a torturous surface when removed, which will improve bonding by mechanical interlocking. Prior to adhesive bonding, the woven material acts to protect the surface of the adherend from contaminates. When an adhesive is ready to be applied, the material can be peeled off, leaving a rough and clean surface for bonding.\n\nSection::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Corona discharge treatment.\n", "t is often a requirement of \"home made\" garments (adhesive based transfers) that they be washed inside out, only in cold water, sometimes by hand, and not be tumble dried. The heat from washing or drying conventionally, or from ironing over the transfer area, can damage the transfer or cause it to separate. These attributes generally make them less practical for frequent wear than purchased items.\n", "Sticker album\n\nA sticker album is a book in which collectable stickers are stuck into designated sections. Sticker album themes can be sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup or TV shows like \"Doctor Who\". Panini first produced a World Cup sticker album for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico. Initiating a craze for collecting and trading stickers, UK newspaper \"The Guardian\" states, “the tradition of swapping duplicate [World Cup] stickers was a playground fixture during the 1970s and 1980s.” A complete 1970 World Cup sticker album signed by Pelé sold for a record £10,450.\n", "BASF tape production did not use the unstable formulation, and their tape production rarely shows this type of coating instability, although BASF LH Super SM cassettes manufactured in the mid-70s are prone to the problem.\n\nAs of 2015, some 35 mm magnetic fullcoat tapes produced by Kodak, such as those used for the audio portion of older IMAX films, are also reported to be exhibiting sticky-shed. As tapes remain in storage for a longer time, it is possible that other binder formulations may develop problems.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n", "Stickers are very widely used when an object requires with a word or idea. Brand stickers may be attached to products to label these products as coming from a certain company. They may also be used to describe characteristics of the products that would not be obvious from simple examination. A label dispenser is often used as a convenient way to separate the sticky label from its liner or backing tape.\n", "Sticker\n\nA sticker is a type of label: a piece of printed paper, plastic, vinyl, or other material with pressure sensitive adhesive on one side. They can be used for decoration or for functional purposes, depending on the situation.\n\nStickers can come in many different shapes and sizes and also vary widely in colour and design. They are often adhered to items such as lunchboxes, paper, lockers, notebooks, walls, cars, windows, and so on. Temporary name tags for example are frequently stickers.\n", "Very often fabric near the selvage is unused and discarded, as it may have a different weave pattern, or may lack pile or prints that are present on the rest of the fabric, requiring that the selvage fabric be cut off or hidden in a hem. Since industrial loomed fabric often has selvages that are thicker than the rest of the fabric, the selvage reacts differently. It may shrink or \"pucker\" during laundering and cause the rest of the object made with it to pucker also.\n", "The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled by the type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable, or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on the test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws. If excess penetrant is not properly removed, once the developer is applied, it may leave a background in the developed area that can mask indications or defects. In addition, this may also produce false indications severely hindering the ability to do a proper inspection. Also, the removal of excessive penetrant is done towards one direction either vertically or horizontally as the case may be. \n", "Fabric should NEVER be applied to gooey areas of latex, as it is almost impossible to remove without further damage and makes proper restoration at a later date much more complicated.\n", "This works by flow coating the material onto the board and is suitable for low volume application, finishing and repair. The finish tends to be cosmetically inferior and can be subject to many defects such as bubbles. The coating also tends to be thicker unless skilled operators apply the coating.\n\nSection::::Coating methods.:Spray application coating.\n", "As of 2012, there are no documented or proven examples of sticky-shed from Maxell. TDK has been showing signs as of late of shedding its lubricant in the form of a white powder or white/yellowish goo. This has shown up on the TDK SA and some LX and BX tapes. There have been a few reports of some tape from the current manufacturers ATR and RMGI exhibiting symptoms of sticky-shed. But these may be isolated incidents relating to prototype or single bad batches and are not necessarily indicative of the overall product line integrity.\n", "As the latex dries it becomes very sticky and will stick to itself if accidentally folded over. Most manufacturers offer a slick spray for latex once it is dry to take away the stickiness allowing the movement of the model's limbs. Alternatively, shimmer powders can be dusted over dried liquid latex to create metallic effects. One advantage to the tackiness of liquid latex is that it can act as an adhesive to attach things to the paint, such as zippers.\n", "In order to achieve this kind of a solder joint, the component needs to be in the right place, the right volume of solder paste needs to be applied, the paste needs to wet well on the board and component, and there needs to be a residue that is either safe to leave on the board or one that can easily be cleaned.\n\nThe solder volume is a function of the stencil, the printing process and equipment, solder powder, and rheology or the physical properties of the paste. Good solder wetting is a function of the flux.\n\nSection::::Inputs.\n", "After degreasing, a good test to determine cleanliness of the surface is to use a drop of water. If the drop spreads on the surface, a low contact angle and good wettability has been achieved, which indicates the surface is clean and ready for application of the adhesive. If the drop beads up or retains its shape, the degreasing process should be repeated.\n\nSection::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Abrasion.\n", "Once across the interface, the tails and loops form whatever bonds are favorable. In the case of polymer-on-polymer surfaces, this means more van der Waals forces. While these may be brittle, they are quite strong when a large network of these bonds is formed. The outermost layer of each surface plays a crucial role in the adhesive properties of such interfaces, as even a tiny amount of interdigitation – as little as one or two tails of 1.25 angstrom length – can increase the van der Waals bonds by an order of magnitude.\n\nSection::::Strength.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06542	ELI5 How was I able to hear an AM radio station from Ontario Canada on my radio in Philadelphia?	Im pretty sure a phenomenon occurs in which radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere and bounce the siginal away, in illinois sometimes i could get am radio from B.C	[ "Canada has made an informal agreement with the United States to allow Canadian stations operating on 1610, 1630, 1650, 1670 and 1690 kHz to be located closer to their common border than would normally be allowed, in exchange for allowing the U.S. the same privilege on the other frequencies. Therefore, all of its limited number of expanded band stations currently operate on these frequencies.\n\nSection::::ITU Region 2.:Cuba.\n\nThere have only been a few expanded band stations established in Cuba. The most commonly used frequency is 1620 kHz, where multiple stations simulcast \"Radio Rebelde\" network programming.\n\nSection::::ITU Region 2.:Mexico.\n", "WQXR was the first AM station in New York to experiment with broadcasting in stereo, beginning in 1952. During some of its live concerts, it used two microphones positioned six feet apart. The microphone on the right led to its AM feed, and the one on the left to its FM feed, so a listener could position two radios six feet apart, one tuned to 1560 and the other to 96.3, and listen in stereo.\n", "On the East Coast of the United States, it is not unusual for DX'ers to hear the high-powered European stations, which operate at 9 kHz intervals, rather than the 10 kHz in the United States, helping to reduce co-channel interference from domestic stations, from countries such as Spain and Norway. Stations from Africa and the Middle East are also often heard. The Pacific Coast of the US provides a similar opportunity with stations from Asian countries and Australia / New Zealand although a considerably longer distance must be covered. On both coasts, as well as in the middle portion of the country, \"Pan-American\" DX from Latin American and Caribbean nations is often sought and logged.\n", "Section::::ITU Region 2.:Anquilla.\n\nEven before the formal adoption of the expansion, a 50,000 watt religious station located on the island of Anquilla, British West Indies, was broadcasting on 1610 kHz as \"The Caribbean Beacon\". This station dated to the early 1980s, and is no longer on the air.\n\nSection::::ITU Region 2.:Argentina.\n\nIn Argentina, the expanded band assignments are primarily in the region surrounding the nation's capital, Buenos Aires.\n\nSection::::ITU Region 2.:Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- Studio U 1710 AM at the University of Oklahoma\n\nBULLET::::- WMAX 540 at Mount Washington College in Manchester, New Hampshire\n\nBULLET::::- WPPJ/670 Point Park University\n\nBULLET::::- WPMD/1700 at Cerritos College\n\nBULLET::::- WQMC/1290 at Queens College, City University of New York in Kew Gardens Hills, Queens\n\nBULLET::::- WSIN/1590 at Southern Connecticut State University\n\nBULLET::::- WSLU 1620/100.1 at Saint Leo University, St. Leo, Florida\n\nBULLET::::- WTBU 640 AM/89.3 FM at Boston University\n\nSection::::Low-power broadcasting stations.:Educational institution carrier current and cablecast stations.:Former stations.\n\nBULLET::::- Brown Student Radio at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, on AM 600.\n", "The original tower was over 300 feet tall and was located directly behind the station. It is now owned by a radio station in Puerto Rico.\n\nThe AM still uses its original audio processor, which has only been disconnected one time—when locations changed.\n\nSection::::WTBF programming through the years.\n", "The introduction of 10 kW and 50 kW solid state AM transmitters from Nautel in 1982 and 1985 was another first for the broadcast industry. The first 50 kW AM transmitter from Nautel was purchased by CBA (AM) in Moncton where it remained operational until April 8, 2008, when the station's AM signal was taken off the air. Although commonplace today, solid state transmitter technology was non-existent before Nautel entered the market. More than 30 years after being introduced, many of Nautel's first generation of AM transmitters can still be found operational and on the air at transmitter sites around the world.\n", "BULLET::::- WVAT (Voice of Alfred Tech) at SUNY, Alfred, New York — started broadcasting January 1965, now WETD-FM\n\nBULLET::::- WVAU on 610 AM at American University, Washington, D.C. — station is still present, but no longer broadcasts carrier current\n\nBULLET::::- WVBU on 640 AM at Bucknell University later licensed to 90.5 MHz FM, carrier current turned off several years later\n\nBULLET::::- WVOF on 620 AM at Fairfield University, Connecticut\n\nBULLET::::- WVYC 640 AM at York College of Pennsylvania, sister station to FCC-licensed WVYC FM 99.7, also on the Internet\n", "BULLET::::- American territories in ITU region 3 with AM broadcasting stations (Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands) use the 9 kHz spacing customary to the rest of the world. All stations are class B or lower.\n\nBULLET::::- Canada also defines Class CC (Carrier Current, restricted to the premises) and LP. (less than 100 watts)\n\nBULLET::::- TIS stations can be found on any frequency from 530 kHz to 1700 kHz in the US, but may only carry non-commercial messages without music. There is a network of TISs on 1710 in New Jersey.\n", "BULLET::::- Unlicensed broadcasting — (see low-power broadcasting) — 100 mW DC input to final amplifier with a 3-meter maximum length radiator, no license needed, may be measured at edge of campus for school stations\n\nNotes:\n\nBULLET::::- In the Western Hemisphere (ITU region 2), medium wave AM broadcasts are on channels spaced 10 kHz apart from 530 kHz to 1700 kHz, with certain classes restricted to subsets of the available frequencies.\n", "BULLET::::- The Mount Beacon tower site used by WOKO prior to its move is today used by FM station WSPK. Though unforgiving to AM due to the lack of a ground system, Mount Beacon would prove to be ideal for FM as its terrain allows WSPK to be heard in parts of six states.\n\nBULLET::::- Ian Fleming had the protagonist Vivienne Michel listening to WOKO three paragraphs into the first chapter of his novel \"The Spy Who Loved Me\".\n", "In Turkey, FM broadcasting began in the late 1960s, carrying several shows from the One television network which was transferred from the AM frequency (also known as MW in Turkey). In subsequent years, more MW stations were slowly transferred to FM, and by the end of the 1970s, most radio stations that were previously on MW had been moved to FM, though many talk, news and sport, but mostly religious stations, still remain on MW.\n\nSection::::History.:Other countries.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The majority of programming in the United States is in English, with Spanish the second-most popular language; these are the only two languages with domestically produced, national radio networks. In the largest urban areas of the United States, \"world ethnic\" stations broadcast a wide variety of languages, including Russian, Chinese, Korean and the languages of India; although the relatively widespread languages French and German have comparatively few radio outlets; in the case of German, due to the fact that most of its speakers are Amish or from similar sects and thus shun radio technology. French speakers can generally receive programming direct from Canadian broadcasters, which are receivable across the Canada–US border, and a handful of local stations serving the Haitian diaspora and Creole populations also serve areas in the southeast.\n", "Section::::History.:Move to AM 650.\n\nAbout 1985, the frequency was changed to 650 kHz (CFML's former frequency) and the daytime power increased to 10,000 watts, still at the same Richmond transmitter site. The antenna tower array was changed from four to three towers). \n", "BULLET::::- WNTC on 640 KC at Clarkson College of Technology and SUNY Potsdam, in Potsdam, New York from 1948 to 2001\n\nBULLET::::- WNYU on 800 AM in New York University's dorms at its Lower Manhattan campus\n\nBULLET::::- WOCR-650, a \"pirate\" carrier current station in Ocean City, Maryland, in 1973\n\nBULLET::::- WOLF at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, North Carolina — now WKNC-FM\n\nBULLET::::- WPSM at Penn State's McKeesport campus (now Penn State Greater Allegheny) — now an Internet station WMKP\n\nBULLET::::- WQAD/WFQR/WIN/WIUS at Indiana University — now WIUX-LP\n\nBULLET::::- WRAF on 590 AM at Binghamton University — now WHRW\n", "The original AM/MW transmitter was installed in New York before 1972 and consisted of two 25,000-watt Collins units and a Collins combiner, giving the station a potential 50 kW AM signal. The MW signal was broadcast from a centre-fed horizontal antenna slung between the fore and aft masts, a design similar to those used by Radio Veronica and later Laser 558. The station normally ran at 35 kW until late 1976, when it was decided to operate just one transmitter at a time, keeping the other in reserve. In 1985, Keith York's repair of the combiner enabled the two Collins units to be run together again, resulting in a large mailbag from Turkey, Crete, Greece, and Cyprus, areas the Voice of Peace message hadn't reached for nine years. After these AM transmitters became unserviceable, a Canadian Nautel 10 kW AM transmitter was installed.\n", "The broadcast transmitters were a pair of CSI 25 kilowatt AM transmitters, built in Boca Raton, Florida. Usually only one was in use at half power, due to the limitations of tuning components in the antenna. This was an \"inverted L\" array running up to the top of a 100 foot high fore mast, and then across to a similar construction at the stern of the ship. Coverage was good with the \"commercially marketable\" core area of the signal travelling 140 miles over land, which included most of England, all of the Netherlands and Belgium and much of northern France as far as Paris.\n", "Section::::History.:Europe.\n\nThe medium wave band (known as the \"AM\" band because most stations using it employ amplitude modulation) was overcrowded in Western Europe, leading to interference problems and, as a result, many MW frequencies are suitable only for speech broadcasting.\n\nBelgium, the Netherlands, Denmark and particularly Germany were among the first countries to adopt FM on a widespread scale. Among the reasons for this were:\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:WJZ Newark (1921-1923).\n\nIn November 1920 the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company had established its first broadcasting station, KDKA, located in its plant at East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in order to promote the sale of radio receivers. This initial station proved successful, so the next year the company developed plans to set up additional stations in major population centers, including, in addition to the New York City area, WBZ, originally in Springfield, Massachusetts, and KYW, originally in Chicago, Illinois.\n", "Section::::Canada.\n\nIn Canada, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission previously required most cable companies to provide cable FM service; those that did were required to convert all local AM broadcast radio stations to cable FM signals. The commission now requires only that campus, community, native radio stations, and one CBC Radio station in each official language, be provided by local cable companies, either via cable FM or digital cable audio channels.\n\nSection::::Russian Federation.\n\nIn the former Soviet Union, cable radio was popular and Radio Rossii is reported to have had as many as forty million listeners.\n", "Most of the stations have non-directional antennas, using ten kilowatts during the day and one kilowatt at night. A exception for stations that use antennas with higher than normal efficiency or those multiplexed with an existing station on a different frequency. One station (KVNS 1700 kHz, licensed to Brownsville, Texas) operates at 12% less than the standard (8.8kW day and 880 watts at night) due to treaty obligations with Mexico.\n", "The \"broadcasting boom\" of 1922 resulted in a tremendous increase, to over 500, in the number of private radio broadcasting stations operating in the United States. During this developmental period there was an ongoing search for innovative programming, and a number of stations began picking up NAA's twice-a-day longwave time signal transmissions, at 12 o'clock noon and 10 p. m. Eastern time, and rebroadcasting them for their local audiences.\n", "BULLET::::- Low-power AM stations located on a school campus are allowed to be more powerful, so long as their signal strength does not exceed roughly 14 to 45 µV/m (microvolts per meter) (depending on frequency) at a distance of 30 meters (98.4 ft) from campus.\n\nSection::::AM.:Station class descriptions.:Former system.\n", "A provision had been added to the Communications Act of 1934 in late 1991 which mandated that priority for expanded band assignments would be given to existing daytime-only stations that were located in a community with a population over 100,000, and which also did not have any fulltime stations. The two authorized stations that met this standard became the first two to begin broadcasting on the new band: WJDM, 1660 kHz in Elizabeth City, New Jersey (now WWRU in Jersey City, New Jersey) in late 1995, and KXBT (now KDIA), 1640 kHz in Vallejo, California in early 1996.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16746	How do USB wall adapters convert large voltages in such a small cube?	This becomes a far more interesting problem when factoring in the fact that the wall output is AC and we need DC for USB. Alternating current is what is found in our wall outlets, the electricity goes back and forth really fast in a pattern like a sine wave. Direct current, the electricity just goes in one direction all the time. We need direct current to charge out phones and what not. Anyways, here is how it is done. The problem: we need to take the voltage down from 120 volts (in reality this is a bit less because of the capacitor smoothing mentioned before but still way more than 5) all the way down to 5. Transformers are devices which do this, however they require AC current and the slower the switching of the AC current is, the bigger the transformer needs to be and the more inefficient the transformation is (this also results in a lot of heat which brings its own problems). AC current from the wall alternates 60 times per second and this is too slow, we would need a massive brick to convert this directly, maybe a fan to cool the entire thing. We have tools which convert AC to DC, so that isn't a problem, but converting slow AC to faster AC isn't really possible without first turning it into DC. So the goal high voltage wall AC - > high voltage DC - > fast high voltage AC - > transform into low voltage AC - > low voltage DC. A rectifier is a device which makes it so that AC current is converted roughly to DC current. The problem is that it is choppy, [this image illustrates this]( URL_1 ). I won't get into the specifics of how a rectifier works, but it consists of devices called diodes which only allow electricity to move in one direction. You can look it up online for more details. But as you see, its main goal is to bring all the waves onto the positive side. We don't like choppy voltage so we use something called a capacitor, which is a device that holds charge temporarily like a battery however has a nice tendency of wanting to keep voltage constant on the wires (it charges up to higher voltage when the voltage is at the peaks in that image, reducing the voltage other devices connected to the same wires in parallel use, then when the voltage is low on those wires, it instead releases its charged up voltage, bringing the voltage back up on these wires). This isn't ideally smoothened, but its pretty good, [here is an image]( URL_2 ). Next, with the use of a transistor (this is just an electronic switch, imagine instead of you needing to physically flip a switch, there was an additional wire turning the switch on and off) and a clock circuit, we have this transistor turn on and off real fast, producing AC switching many thousands of times per second. Because the transistor is a switch, the current coming out is a rather blocky AC than a nice smooth sign wave but a transformer still works fine with this so it’s alright. This is fed into a transformer which converts it to low voltage. Finally through a second rectifier converting it to DC, finally through an another smoothing capacitor, and out into the USB port. One of the nice additional features is that the "jitter" of smoothening I showed in the second image above is less noticeable the higher frequency the AC is. This jitter generally is not much of a problem in most cases but IIRC batteries prefer smoother current for their longevity and computers become unstable with if the jitter is bad enough so its best to minimize it. This process has been innovated with things like computer chips regulating everything inside (mainly the transistor speed, which happens to allow for control over a lot) but the basic principle remains. This is a lot of stuff to do in a small USB charger. In fact, [we can barely cram everything needed for it into the brick]( URL_0 ). But it works and it fits.	[ "As the catoms are scaled down, an onboard battery sufficient to power it will exceed the size of the catom itself, so an alternate energy solution is desired. Research is being done into powering all of the catoms in an ensemble, utilizing the catom-to-catom contact as a means of energy transport. One possibility being explored is using a special table with positive and negative electrodes and routing the power internally through the catoms, via “virtual wires.”\n", "then writes the course of the later circuit trace on the plastic. Where the laser beam hits the plastic the metal additive forms a micro-rough track. The metal particles of this track form the nuclei for the subsequent metallization. In an electroless copper bath, the conductor path layers arise precisely on these tracks. Successively layers of copper, nickel and gold finish can be raised in this way.\n\nThe LDS process is characterized by:\n\nBULLET::::- single-component injection molding\n\nBULLET::::- a wide range of materials is available\n\nBULLET::::- full three-dimensionality in a sphere\n", "The accelerator tube is made from sheets of fused silica, only 250 µm thick. After polishing, the sheets are coated with 0.5 µm of chromium and 2.5 µm of gold. About 80 layers of the sheets are stacked together, and then heated in a brazing furnace, where they fuse together. The stacked assembly is then machined into a hollow cylinder. Fused silica is pure transparent quartz glass, a dielectric, which is why the machine is called a \"dielectric wall accelerator.\"\n", "Superconducting magnesium diboride wire can be produced through the powder-in-tube (PIT) \"ex situ\" and \"in situ\" processes. In the \"in situ\" variant, a mixture of boron and magnesium is reduced in diameter by conventional wire drawing. The wire is then heated to the reaction temperature to form MgB. In the \"ex situ\" variant, the tube is filled with MgB powder, reduced in diameter, and sintered at 800 to 1000 °C. In both cases, later hot isostatic pressing at approximately 950 °C further improves the properties.\n", "As reported at the HotChips 23 conference in 2011, the first generation of HMC demonstration cubes with four 50 nm DRAM memory dies and one 90 nm logic die with total capacity of 512 MB and size 27×27 mm had power consumption of 11 W and was powered with 1.2 V.\n", "To recognize Battery Charging, a dedicated charging port places a resistance not exceeding 200 Ω across the D+ and D− terminals.\n\nIn addition to standard USB, there is a proprietary high-powered system known as PoweredUSB, developed in the 1990s, and mainly used in point-of-sale terminals such as cash registers.\n\nSection::::Signaling.\n\nSection::::Signaling.:Electrical specification.\n\nUSB signals are transmitted using differential signaling on a twisted-pair data cable with characteristic impedance.\n", "Another way to enhance CNT electrodes is by doping with a pseudocapacitive dopant as in lithium-ion capacitors. In this case the relatively small lithium atoms intercalate between the layers of carbon. The anode is made of lithium-doped carbon, which enables lower negative potential with a cathode made of activated carbon. This results in a larger voltage of 3.8-4 V that prevents electrolyte oxidation. As of 2007 they had achieved capacitance of 550 F/g. and reach a specific energy up to 14 Wh/kg ().\n\nSection::::Materials.:Electrodes.:Electrodes for hybrid capacitors.:Battery-type electrodes.\n", "One design uses a stainless steel anode covered in Silicon Nanowires. Silicon stores ten times more lithium than graphite, offering increased energy density. The large surface area increases the anode's power density, allowing for fast charging and high current delivery. The anode was invented at Stanford University in 2007.\n", "In 2012 a group at Northwestern University developed a vibration-powered generator out of polymer in the form of a spring. This device was able to harvest the energy from vibrations at the same frequencies as the University of Southampton groups cantilever based device, but at approximately one third the size of the other device.\n\nSection::::Piezoelectric generators.\n", "In 2014 a supercapacitor anchored on a graphene foam electrode delivered specific capacitance of 502.78 F/g and areal capacitance of 1.11 F/cm) leading to a specific energy of 39.28 Wh/kg and specific power of 128.01 kW/kg over 8,000 cycles with constant performance. The device was a three-dimensional (3D) sub-5 nm hydrous ruthenium-anchored graphene and carbon nanotube (CNT) hybrid foam (RGM) architecture. The graphene foam was conformally covered with hybrid networks of nanoparticles and anchored CNTs.\n", "Section::::Technology Platforms for Scalability.:Mechanical Valving.\n", "Section::::Technology Platforms for Scalability.\n\nThere are three different technology platforms for the integrated nanoliter system's scalability. Therefore, the main processing method of the integrated nanoliter system varies from the type of technology platform it is using. The three technology platforms for scalability are electrokinetic manipulation, vesicle encapsulation, and mechanical valving.\n\nSection::::Technology Platforms for Scalability.:Electrokinetic Manipulation.\n", "In 2014 a demonstration device was made from a ceramic sheet made of anodic aluminum. It held two vanadium pentoxide nanotube electrodes separated by an electrolyte that carried the electrical charge between the two. The current collector was made of ruthenium. The individual batteries are connected in parallel.\n\nThe is prelithiated at one end to form the anode, with pure at the other end to form the cathode. The battery asymmetrically cycles between 0.2 V and 1.8 V.\n\nSection::::Performance.\n", "Employing additive layer technology offered by 3D printing, Terahertz devices which act as waveguides, couplers and bends have been created. The complex shape of these devices could not be achieved using conventional fabrication techniques. Commercially available professional grade printer EDEN 260V was used to create structures with minimum feature size of 100 µm. The printed structures were later DC sputter coated with gold (or any other metal) to create a Terahertz Plasmonic Device.\n", "The first version (2015) was made out of four CNC cut wooden plated, painted white and mounted to a metal structure. Its size is 2.80x1.65 meters (9.2x4.5 foot) and it consists of a 16x16 grid (a total of 256 inputs). Each divot has a switch and an LED inside it. The system is connected via one Arduino mega, going into a laptop running Ableton Live and a custom patch made in Max MSP. All of the wiring was handmade, except the LEDs which were prewired. The second version (2017) was developed as a commercial product and is slightly larger than the fir st 300x184x12cm (9.84x6.0x0.3 foot). It is made out of four CNC cut plastic plates mounted to a metal structure. It has the same 16x16 grid of divots, but underneath there are custom made electronics, which hold the LED and switches in place.\n", "BULLET::::- By collaborating with the Belgian 3D printing innovator, Materialise, Dror was able to manufacture and test the QuaDror structure on another level. The result of the collaboration was a kinetic cube named Volume.MGX, a piece created by 1,200 tiny laser cut QuaDror structures. Once printed, the cube can be expanded to fit a source of light at the center, resulting in a lamp that emits a unique glow.\n\nSection::::Key works.:Brancott Estate (2017).\n", "The body (housing) of a DIP containing an IC chip is usually made from molded plastic or ceramic. The hermetic nature of a ceramic housing is preferred for extremely high reliability devices. However, the vast majority of DIPs are manufactured via a thermoset molding process in which an epoxy mold compound is heated and transferred under pressure to encapsulate the device. Typical cure cycles for the resins are less than 2 minutes and a single cycle may produce hundreds of devices.\n", "The researchers at Carnegie Mellon University have developed various prototypes of catoms. These vary from small cubes to giant helium balloons. The prototype that is most like what developers hope catoms will become is the planar catom. These take the form of 44 mm diameter cylinders. These cylinders are equipped with 24 electromagnets arranged in a series of stacked rings along the cylinder’s circumference. Movement is achieved by the catoms cooperatively enabling and disabling the magnets in order to roll along each other’s surfaces. Only one magnet on each catom is energized at a time. These prototypes are able to reconfigure themselves quite quickly, with the uncoupling of two units, movement to another contact point, and recoupling taking only about 100 ms. Power is supplied to the catoms using pickup feet on the bottom of the cylinder. Conductive strips on the table supply the necessary power.\n", "Some devices, when plugged into charging ports, draw even more power (10 watts at 2.1 amperes) than the Battery Charging Specification allows — The iPad is one such device; it negotiates the current pull with data pin voltages. Barnes & Noble Nook Color devices also require a special charger that runs at 1.9 amperes.\n\nSection::::Power.:PoweredUSB.\n\nPoweredUSB is a proprietary extension that adds four additional pins supplying up to 6 A at 5 V, 12 V, or 24 V. It is commonly used in point of sale systems to power peripherals such as barcode readers, credit card terminals, and printers.\n", "The largest cradle device in the world was designed by \"MythBusters\" and consisted of five one-ton concrete and steel rebar-filled buoys suspended from a steel truss. The buoys also had a steel plate inserted in between their two halves to act as a \"contact point\" for transferring the energy; this cradle device did not function well because concrete is not elastic so most of the energy was lost to a heat buildup in the concrete. A smaller scale version constructed by them consists of five chrome steel ball bearings, each weighing , and is nearly as efficient as a desktop model.\n", "Once the raw MMC is melted, it is then transferred to the foaming apparatus where gas is injected into the melt and dispersed using either rotating impellers or vibrating nozzles. The bubbles rise to the surface and the resultant metal foam mixture cast will rise out of the foaming apparatus due to its density relative to that of the molten MMC. As the metallic foam is being cast, it is simultaneously drawn off the surface by, for example, a conveyor belt. While it is drawn off, it is then cooled and forms a porous metallic structure.\n\nMajor Production Revenue Breakthrough:\n", "Section::::Types.:Liquid electrolysis method.\n\nIn 2015, researchers in the George Washington University discovered a new pathway to synthesize MWCNTs by electrolysis of molten carbonates. The mechanism is similar to CVD. Some metal ions were reduced to a metal form and attached on the cathode as the nucleation point for the growing of CNTs. The reaction on the cathode is\n\nThe formed lithium oxide can in-situ absorb carbon dioxide (if present) and form lithium carbonate, as shown in the equation.\n\nThus the net reaction is\n", "In 2005, research efforts to develop a hardware concept were successful on the scale of millimeters, creating cylindrical prototypes 44 millimeters in diameter which interact with each other via electromagnetic attraction. Their experiments helped researchers verify the relationship between mass and potential force between objects as “a 10-fold reduction in size [which] should translate to a 100-fold increase in force relative to mass”. Recent advancements in this prototype concept are in the form of one millimeter diameter cylindrical robots fabricated on a thin film by photolithography that would cooperate with each other using complex software that would control electromagnetic attraction and repulsion between modules.\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nNanoblocks are similar in design to a Lego brick but smaller, with the smallest brick being 4 mm × 4 mm × 5 mm. The bricks are the size of Kawada's Diablock line of bricks. The underside of the bricks are different from Lego bricks because they use a dividing flange, known as the double-ridged backing system, instead of the tube system that Lego employs. The bricks are made using ABS plastic and there are eleven different types, the biggest being an 8×2 brick and the smallest a single stud brick.\n\nNanoblock sets typically include spare pieces.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Another major design challenge will be developing a genderless unary connector for the catoms in order to keep reconfiguration time at a minimum. Nanofibers provide a possible solution to this challenge. Nanofibers allow for great adhesion on a small scale and allow for minimum power consumption when the catoms are at rest.\n\nSection::::Software.\n\nOrganizing all of the communication and actions between millions of sub-millimeter scale catoms requires development of advanced algorithms and programming languages. The researchers and engineers of Carnegie Mellon-Intel Claytronics Research Lab launched a wide range of projects to develop the necessary software to facilitate communication between catoms.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04861	If the temperature of a place is determined mostly by the amount of sunlight it receives, how come different places have such varying temperatures at night?	temperature is not determined by sunlight alone. altitude, latitude and weather conditions also have to be considered.	[ "The IPCC stated that \"it is well-known that compared to non-urban areas urban heat islands raise night-time temperatures more than daytime temperatures.\" For example, Barcelona, Spain is cooler for daily maxima and warmer for minima than a nearby rural station. A description of the very first report of the UHI by Luke Howard in the late 1810s said that the urban center of London was warmer at night than the surrounding countryside by . Though the warmer air temperature within the UHI is generally most apparent at night, urban heat islands exhibit significant and somewhat paradoxical diurnal behavior. The air temperature difference between the UHI and the surrounding environment is large at night and small during the day. The opposite is true for skin temperatures of the urban landscape within the UHI.\n", "As solar energy strikes the Earth's surface each morning, a shallow layer of air directly above the ground is heated by conduction. Heat exchange between this shallow layer of warm air and the cooler air above is very inefficient. On a warm summer's day, for example, air temperatures may vary by from just above the ground to waist height. Incoming solar radiation exceeds outgoing heat energy for many hours after noon and equilibrium is usually reached from 3–5 p.m. but this may be affected by a variety of different things such as large bodies of water, soil type and cover, wind, cloud cover/water vapor, and moisture on the ground.\n", "Section::::Differences in variation.\n\nDiurnal temperature variations are greatest very near Earth's surface.\n\nHigh desert regions typically have the greatest diurnal-temperature variations, while low-lying humid areas typically have the least. This explains why an area like the Snake River Plain can have high temperatures of during a summer day, and then have lows of . At the same time, Washington D.C., which is much more humid, has temperature variations of only ; urban Hong Kong has a diurnal temperature range of little more than .\n", "In the absence of such extreme air-mass changes, diurnal temperature variations typically range from 10 or fewer degrees in humid, tropical areas, to 40-50 degrees in higher-elevation, arid to semi-arid areas, such as parts of the U.S. Western states' Intermountain Plateau areas, for example Elko, Nevada, Ashton, Idaho and Burns, Oregon. The higher the humidity is, the lower the diurnal temperature variation is.\n\nSection::::Viticulture.\n", "Diurnal temperature variation\n\nIn meteorology, diurnal temperature variation is the variation between a high temperature and a low temperature that occurs during the same day.\n\nSection::::Temperature lag.\n\nTemperature lag is an important factor in diurnal temperature variation: peak daily temperature generally occurs \"after\" noon, as air keeps net absorbing heat even after noon, and similarly minimum daily temperature generally occurs substantially after midnight, indeed occurring during early morning in the hour around dawn, since heat is lost all night long. The analogous annual phenomenon is seasonal lag.\n", "The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation. Temperature ranges can also be based on periods of a month, or a year. \n\nThe size of ground-level atmospheric temperature ranges depends on several factors, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- The average temperature\n\nBULLET::::- The average humidity\n\nBULLET::::- The regime of winds (intensity, duration, variation, temperature, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- The proximity to large bodies of water, such as the sea\n", "Urban environments are typically warmer than their surroundings, as documented over a century ago by Howard. Urban areas are islands or spots on the broader scale compared with more rural surrounding land. The spatial distribution of temperatures occurs in tandem with temporal changes, which are both causally related to anthropogenic sources.\n", "As a comparison, Temperatures on any given clear night throughout the year, can be between 1-3 degrees C warmer than the Manchester weather station, situated in nearby Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire, near to Bramhall but on a cloudy night are almost equal. Daytime highs are pretty similar, and predominately almost exacting to 'Woodford', though fluctuations due to localised weather patterns can produce variations.\n", "It has been reported that \"On the basis of the nightime air temperature data, every northern spring and early northern summer yet observed were identical to within the level of experimental error (to within ±1 °C)\" but that the \"daytime data, however, suggest a somewhat different story, with temperatures varying from year-to-year by up to 6 °C in this season. This day-night discrepancy is unexpected and not understood\". In southern spring and summer, variance is dominated by dust storms which increase the value of the night low temperature and decrease the daytime peak temperature. This results in a small (20 °C) decrease in average surface temperature, and a moderate (30 °C) increase in upper atmosphere temperature.\n", "The UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes \n\nSection::::Diurnal behavior.\n", "Also in the middle latitudes, the seasonal climate variations produced by changes in the length of daytime are the most marked, with very distinct periods of cold and heat, and other secondary seasonal changes such as snow and ice in winter that disappear in summer and so on. At high latitudes, it is cold most of the time, with constant snow and ice, so the seasons are less obvious; and in the tropics, it is hot most of the time, with no snow or ice at all, so again the seasons are less obvious.\n", "The summer and winter solstices mark the shortest and longest nights, respectively. The closer a location is to either the North Pole or the South Pole, the wider the range of variation in the night's duration. Although daytime and night nearly equalize in length on the equinoxes, the ratio of night to day changes more rapidly at high latitudes than at low latitudes before and after an equinox. In the Northern Hemisphere, Denmark experiences shorter nights in June than India. In the Southern Hemisphere, Antarctica sees longer nights in June than Chile. Both hemispheres experience the same patterns of night length at the same latitudes, but the cycles are 6 months apart so that one hemisphere experiences long nights (winter) while the other is experiencing short nights (summer).\n", "Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n\nSection::::Physical processes.:Weathering.\n", "The majority of the regions with Mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters and very warm summers. However winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a Mediterranean climate. For instance, in the case of winters, Barcelona and Los Angeles experience mild temperatures in the winter, with frost and snowfall almost unknown, whereas Tashkent has colder winters with annual frosts and snowfall. Or to consider summer, Athens experiences rather high temperatures in that season ( has been measured in nearby Eleusis). In contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around due to the continuous upwelling of cold subsurface waters along the coast.\n", "In Tasmania the variation in temperature between day and night can be highly significant. For example, a summer day on the Central Plateau could be above 30 °C followed by a night temperature of 0 °C. This differential is less substantial closer to the ground. Additionally, soil temperature is much less variable and at a shallow depth of 5–10 cm, day/night temperatures will be more or less constant.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Climatic factors.:Radiation.\n", "Urban climate\n\nThe climate in urban areas differs from that in neighboring rural areas, as a result of urban development. Urbanization greatly changes the form of the landscape, and also produces changes in an area's air.\n\nIn 1950 Åke Sundborg published one of the first theories on the climate of cities.\n\nSection::::Temperature.\n", "At the time, it was believed that the temperature at night is lowest at the ground and increases with altitude. These were based on meteorological observations that started taking temperature measurements of the atmosphere starting at a height (called the \"screen height\") of 1.2m from the ground.\n\nRamdas however, conducted such measurements at a number of points closer to the ground. Observations conducted at Pune, Agra, Madras and Bhadrachalam all indicated that on clear windless nights, the minimum temperature is not on the ground but is lifted by a distance between 20 and 50 cm.\n", "For example, under the standard Köppen system, in the United States, western Washington and Oregon are classed into the same climate zone as southern California, even though the two regions have strikingly different weather and vegetation. Under the old Köppen system cool oceanic climates like that of London or Seattle were classed in the same zone as hot subtropical cities like Savannah, Georgia or Brisbane, Australia. In the United States, locations like Colorado and Kansas, which have long, severe winter climates where plants are completely dormant, were classed into the same climate zone as Louisiana or northern Florida which have mild winters and a green winter landscape.\n", "The temperature variations between spring and summer are much less than the very sharp variations that occur within a single Martian sol (solar day). On a daily basis, temperatures peak at local solar noon and reach a minimum at local midnight. This is similar to the effect in Earth's deserts, only much more pronounced.\n", "Although Helsinki, Oslo, Stockholm, Tallinn, and Saint Petersburg also enter into nautical twilight after sunset, they do have noticeably lighter skies at night during the summer solstice than other locations mentioned in their category above, because they do not go far into nautical twilight. A white night is a night with only civil twilight which lasts from sunset to sunrise.\n\nAt the winter solstice within the polar circle, twilight can extend through solar noon at latitudes below 72.561° (72°33′43″) for civil twilight, 78.561° (78°33′43″) for nautical twilight, and 84.561° (84°33′43″) for astronomical twilight.\n\nSection::::On other planets.\n", "The average yearly temperature is around during the day and at night (one of the warmest temperature averages in Europe). In the coldest month – January – the typical maximum temperature ranges from during the day and the minimum from at night. In the warmest month – August – the typical maximum temperature ranges from during the day and the minimum from at night. \n", "December and January are the coolest months with nighttime lows just above . May is the hottest, just before the onset of the rainy season. Overall, there is very little temperature variation year round: daytime highs in January are around ; daytime highs in May are around to .\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Mesoscale features.:Sea and land breeze fronts.\n\nSea breeze fronts occur on sunny days when the landmass warms the air above it to a temperature above the water temperature. Similar boundaries from downwind on lakes and rivers during the day, as well as offshore landmasses at night. Since the specific heat of water is so high, there is little diurnal temperature change in bodies of water, even on the sunniest days. The water temperature varies less than . By contrast, the land, with a lower specific heat, can vary several degrees in a matter of hours.\n", "Some cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night. Seasonally, UHI shows up both in summer and winter.. The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields. The difference in temperature between an inner city and its surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports, as in \" downtown, in the suburbs\". \"The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as .\"\n", "One distinctive feature of Hawaii's climate is the small annual variation in temperature range. Because of Hawaii's close proximity to the Equator, there is only a slight variation in length of night and day through the year. The small variations in the length of the daylight period, together with the smaller annual variations in the altitude of the sun above the horizon, result in relatively small variations in the amount of incoming solar energy from one time of the year to another. The surface waters of the open ocean around Hawaii range from between late February and early April, to a maximum of in late September or early October. Water temperatures remain this mild for hundreds of miles around.\n" ]	[ "Temperature is determined mostly by sunlight.", "The temperature of places is determined solely by the amount of sunlight the area receives." ]	[ "Temperature is determined by other things including altitude, latitude, and general weather. ", "Temperature is not determined by sunlight alone, many other determining factors to consider such as altitude, longitude and weather conditions. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Temperature is determined mostly by sunlight.", "The temperature of places is determined solely by the amount of sunlight the area receives." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Temperature is determined by other things including altitude, latitude, and general weather. ", "Temperature is not determined by sunlight alone, many other determining factors to consider such as altitude, longitude and weather conditions. " ]
2018-16322	Why we have to grind our teeth when we are angry or when getting into a fight	I'm not an expert here but I don't think we "have to" grind teeth when angry or prepping for a fight. I've been in plenty of fights and been plenty mad at times and never "ground" my teeth. Clinched my teeth, sure. You don't want a sloppy jaw in a fight. That is how you get chipped/broken teeth or bite your tongue. If your just angry don't grind your teeth anyway. It's a just a habit. One that the older version of yourself will thank you for ridding yourself of. No really, train yourself out of grinding your teeth. They don't come back and not even dentist's mothers like dentists.	[ "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nClenching the teeth is generally displayed by humans and other animals as a display of anger, hostility or frustration. It is thought that in humans, clenching the teeth may be an evolutionary instinct to display teeth as weapons, thereby threatening a rival or a predator. The phrase \"to grit one's teeth\" is the grinding or clenching of the teeth in anger, or to accept a difficult or unpleasant situation and deal with it in a determined way.\n", "Testosterone has a major effect on aggression in animals. Dogs with excess testosterone are found to act out violently, and are far less likely to practice bite inhibition, especially without proper training.\n\nIn observations of a wild population of gray wolves, or \"canis lupus\", levels of adrenal glucocorticoid (GCs) were found to be elevated in dominant wolves. GCs affect the stress responses in vertebrates, redirecting energy from systems such as the digestive and reproductive to the senses and heart to eliminate immediate threats.\n", "Emotional stress (anxiety, depression, anger) may increase pain by causing autonomic, visceral and skeletal activity and by reduced inhibition via the descending pathways of the limbic system. The interactions of these biological systems have been described as a vicious \"anxiety-pain-tension\" cycle which is thought to be frequently involved in TMD. Put simply, stress and anxiety cause grinding of teeth and sustained muscular contraction in the face. This produces pain which causes further anxiety which in turn causes prolonged muscular spasm at trigger points, vasoconstriction, ischemia and release of pain mediators. The pain discourages use of the masticatory system (a similar phenomenon in other chronic pain conditions is termed \"fear avoidance\" behavior), which leads to reduced muscle flexibility, tone, strength and endurance. This manifests as limited mouth opening and a sensation that the teeth are not fitting properly.\n", "Extreme force upon the teeth can occur during some situations as a protective reflex. When a person senses the risk of an imminent car crash, for example, the teeth arches are normally firmly occluded. This over-clenching is still considered parafunctional, although is serves a functional purpose; the maxilo-mandibular complex is much less vulnerable to harm and dislocation because it is bonded by muscles and interposed teeth. When this kind of reflex acts, it is very important to have a good memory of one's \"best bite\" position in order to avoid fractures. It is one hypothesis for why military jet pilots crack more teeth than auxiliary crew.\n", "Robert Sapolsky argues that the tendency to form in-groups and out-groups of Us and Them, and to direct hostility at the latter, is inherent in humans. He also explores the possibility raised by Samuel Bowles that intra-group hostility is reduced when greater hostility is directed at Thems, something exploited by insecure leaders when they mobilise external conflicts so as to reduce in-group hostility towards themselves.\n\nSection::::Non-verbal indicators.\n\nAutomatic mental functioning suggests that among universal human indicators of hostility are the grinding or gnashing of teeth, the clenching and shaking of fists, and grimacing. Desmond Morris would add stamping and thumping.\n", "Male western gorillas display a wide range of both vocal and gestural communications when threatened by an opponent. A silverback (alpha male) will start hooting, throwing, chest pounding, leg kicks, and sideways running when approached by another male. This is done to intimidate the opponent and show physical abilities without actually making any physical contact.\n\nSection::::Threats.\n", "Memory, being the “retention of perceptions”, can be viewed as a giant mosaic (Robertson, 2002). This mosaic would consist of fragmented perceptions (tiles) being held together by astrocytes (glue), creating resistance. A ratio of 3:2 could indicate an increased demand on neurons being held together, or insulated. This also raises the possibility that a more developed memory improved an individual’s fitness.\n", "Masticatory force\n\nMasticatory force or force of mastication is defined as the force that is created by the dynamic action of the masticatory muscles during the act of chewing.\n\nSection::::Masticatory muscles.\n\nhuman teeth can bear a 200 N force per second. The muscles that power the jaw movements during chewing are known as the muscles of mastication or masticatory muscles, and are functionally classified as:\n\nBULLET::::- Jaw elevators: the masseter, temporalis, medial pterygoid and superior belly of the lateral pterygoid\n\nBULLET::::- Jaw depressors; the anterior digastrics, geniohyoid, mylohyoid and inferior belly of the lateral pterygoid\n\nSection::::Measuring masticatory force.\n", "Contrary to common belief, functional activities such as chewing are not the main cause of tooth wear. Parafunctional habits are the most destructive forces for several reasons. Whereas teeth rarely come into contact during normal chewing, grinding of teeth may occur 1-4 hours in a 24-hour period, most often during sleep. The amount of pressure placed on teeth during functional habits is , but the pressure can range from during parafunctional habits. The direction of forces during functional habits is placed vertically along the long axis of teeth, which is the least harmful because of the anatomical structure of the attachment of teeth to the bone. On the other hand, parafunctional habits direct their forces horizontally. Normally, the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) acts as a class III lever, which helps to restrict the amount of force generated. Class I or class II levers may be created during bruxism, which generates more force from the same amount of muscle activity and subsequently delivers more force to the teeth.\n", "BULLET::::- Jaw fracture\n\nBULLET::::- Sequestrum (most commonly found below the mandible)\n\nIf symptoms are evident, these should be reported to the patient's doctor or healthcare team as soon as possible.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "In mammals, the hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray of the midbrain are critical areas, as shown in studies on cats, rats, and monkeys. These brain areas control the expression of both behavioral and autonomic components of aggression in these species, including vocalization. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior and the hypothalamus has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin and vasopressin. In rodents, activation of estrogen receptor-expressing neurons in the ventrolateral portion of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHvl) was found to be sufficient to initiate aggression in both males and females. Midbrain areas involved in aggression have direct connections with both the brainstem nuclei controlling these functions, and with structures such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.\n", "This system plays a crucial role in the regulation of memory. Studies have suggested that glucose, together with epinephrine from the adrenal medulla have an effect on memory. Although high doses of epinephrine have been proven to impair memory, moderate doses of epinephrine actually enhance memory. This leads to questioning the role that epinephrine has played on the evolution of the genus Homo as well as epinephrine's crucial role during fits of rage. The crucial role that astrocytes play in the formation of muscle memory may also shed light on the beneficial impact of meditation and deep breathing as a method of managing and controlling one's rage.\n", "When primary teeth are near exfoliation there will inevitably be an increase in mobility.\n\nSection::::Physiological causes.:Dental treatments.\n", "The less pronounced nature of the upper canine teeth in \"A. ramidus\" has been used to infer aspects of the social behavior of the species and more ancestral hominids. In particular, it has been used to suggest that the last common ancestor of hominids and African apes was characterized by relatively little aggression between males and between groups. This is markedly different from social patterns in common chimpanzees, among which intermale and intergroup aggression are typically high. Researchers in a 2009 study said that this condition \"compromises the living chimpanzee as a behavioral model for the ancestral hominid condition\".\n", "Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.\n", "However, while short-term increases in GCs can be beneficial under stress, long-term increases are harmful to health, as GCs contribute to immune and reproductive system suppression, as well as loss in muscle mass. Therefore, being a dominant individual in the pack has a high cost(and high benefit), while accepting subordination is low cost-low benefit.\n", "Osteonecrosis can affect any bone, but the hips, knees and jaws are most often involved. Pain can often be severe, especially if teeth and/or a branch of the trigeminal nerve is involved, but many patients do not experience pain, at least in the earlier stages. When severe facial pain is purported to be caused by osteonecrosis, the term NICO, for neuralgia-inducing cavitational osteonecrosis, is sometimes used, but this is controversial and far from completely understood.\n", "Section::::Social behavior.:Rebuttals to the social hypothesis.\n", "Section::::Human evolution.:Milder punishment as a survival advantage.\n", "Section::::Function.:Stress and depression.\n\nThe dentate gyrus may also have a functional role in stress and depression. For instance, neurogenesis has been found to increase in response to chronic treatment with antidepressants. The physiological effects of stress, often characterized by release of glucocorticoids such as cortisol, as well as activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, have been shown to inhibit the process of neurogenesis in primates. Both endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids are known to cause psychosis and depression, implying that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus may play an important role in modulating symptoms of stress and depression.\n", "Further research has shown that the normal occlusal forces from chewing and swallowing are not sufficient to cause the stress and flexion required to cause abfraction lesions. However, these studies have shown that the forces are sufficient in a person who grinds their teeth (bruxism). Several studies have suggested that it is more common among those who grind their teeth, as the forces are greater and of longer duration. Yet further studies have shown that these lesions do not always appear in people with bruxism and others without bruxism have these lesions.\n", "It has been suggested that osteophagy is an innate behavior that allows animals to supplement their phosphorus and calcium uptake in order to avoid the costly effects of deficiencies in these minerals. Osteophagic behavior has been observed in pastoral and wild animals, most notably ungulates and other herbivores, for over two hundred years. Based on observational studies of dental wear in Pleistocene fossils, it has been proposed that osteophagia dates as far back as 780 thousand years ago. It has been seen in domestic animals, as well as red deer, camels, giraffes, wildebeest, antelopes, tortoises, and grizzly bears. Due to differences in tooth structure, herbivores tend to chew old dry bones that are easier to break, while carnivores prefer to chew softer fresh bones. Variations of the behavior have also been observed in humans.\n", "The external expression of anger can be found in physiological responses, facial expressions, body language, and at times in public acts of aggression. The rib cage tenses and breathing through the nose becomes faster, deeper, and irregular. Anger activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. The catecholamine activation is more strongly norepinephrine than epinephrine. Heart rate and blood pressure increase. Blood flows to the hands. Perspiration increases (particularly when the anger is intense). The face flushes. The nostrils flare. The jaw tenses. The brow muscles move inward and downward, fixing a hard stare on the target. The arms are raised and a squared-off stance is adopted. The body is mobilized for immediate action, often manifesting as a subjective sense of strength, self-assurance, and potency. This may encourage the impulse to strike out.\n", "Causes of tooth mobility other than pathological reasons are listed below:\n\nSection::::Physiological causes.:Hormonal.\n", "There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth. Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the \"ligament\" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide. Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.\n" ]	[ "Humans have to grind teeth when angry or preparing for a fight. ", "People are required to grind their teeth before a fight." ]	[ "When angry or prepping for a fight humans do not have to grind teeth.", "People clench their teeth to protect their jaw in a fight." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans have to grind teeth when angry or preparing for a fight. ", "People are required to grind their teeth before a fight." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When angry or prepping for a fight humans do not have to grind teeth.", "People clench their teeth to protect their jaw in a fight." ]
2018-19207	What exactly happens during a food coma?	Your autonomic nervous system (which controls most involuntary functions of your body), is split in two. The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The sympathetic is the "fight-and-flight" reflex, which activates in high stress situations to raise heart rate and blood pressure, increase sweating, and all that. The parasympathetic system is controls your "rest and digest" cycle. It slows down heart rate and blood pressure, and tells your GI tract to start digesting food. Digesting food is pretty energy intensive, so the parasympathetic nervous system tells the rest of your body to spend less energy. All these changes also make it easier for you to sleep, although sleep is a very complicated system and this is only part of it. But when you eat a ton of food, your parasympathetic nervous system gets revved up, and those changes make it easier for you to sleep, so you take one hell of a nap.	[ "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nMeal replacements have been a regular feature of science fiction, especially the space travel genre, at least since the film \"Santa Claus Conquers the Martians\" (1964) and TV's \"Lost in Space\" (1965).\n\nSection::::Countries.\n\nSection::::Countries.:EU.\n", "The symptoms of hyperammonemia include lethargy, vomiting, ataxia, hyperesthesia and can be serious enough to induce death and coma in a matter of days if a cat is being fed an arginine-free diet. The quick onset of these symptoms is due to the fact that diets devoid in arginine will typically still contain all of the other amino acids, which will continue to be catabolized by the body, producing mass amounts of ammonia that very quickly build up with no way of being excreted.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.:Dietary components.:Taurine.\n", "Food energy listings, such as calorie and fat content, are provided in most episodes; not all episodes have this information, due to either insufficient data or not being applicable (as is in the case of 'deleted scenes' episodes).\n\nSection::::2015.\n\nStarting with episode #284, the \"Next time, we eat...\" ending is no longer used. Also, starting with episode #286, episodes end with a plug for Harley's YouTube channel unless otherwise noted.\n\nSection::::2016.\n", "Food addiction has some physical signs and symptoms. Decreased energy; not being able to be as active as in the past, not being able to be as active as others around, also a decrease in efficiency due to the lack of energy. Having trouble sleeping; being tired all the time such as fatigue, oversleeping, or the complete opposite and not being able to sleep such as insomnia. Other physical signs and symptoms are restlessness, irritability, digestive disorders, and headaches.\n\nIn extreme cases food addiction can result in suicidal thoughts.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "As well, several twelve-step programs exist to help members recover from compulsive overeating and food addiction, such as Overeaters Anonymous.\n\nAs of 2018, the Ontario Health Insurance Plan has announced a new program designed to assist individuals struggling with food addiction.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nOnce an eating disorder such as BED is developed there are two potential pathways that can occur for an individual.\n", "Emaciation was also a major cause of death in Nazi concentration camps during World War II. It was largely the result of a starvation diet imposed on the inmates. It became endemic during the last stages of the war when rations were restricted even further. \n\nIt can also occur if a prisoner, often for a political cause or in plead of innocence, refuses food on a hunger strike or is forcibly fed but unable to retain the fluids or maintain nutrition. \n", "In the severe form, symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, and acidosis. Laboratory studies during the acute episode shows an elevated white blood cell count with a left shift and elevated platelet count and methemoglobinemia. Endoscopy may reveal a mixed Eosinophilic and neutrophilic infiltrate but is not required to make the diagnosis. The exact mechanism is unclear, but it is hypothesized to be a T cell driven disorder. There is a variant of FPIES and it manifests as chronic emesis, diarrhea, and failure to thrive. Upon re-exposure to the offending food after a period of elimination, a subacute syndrome can present with repetitive emesis and dehydration.\n", "While some only experience symptoms following some meals, most experience episodes following any ingestion, from a single bite to a large meal. However, some long-term patients will find a select couple of food or drink items that do not trigger a response.\n\nUnlike typical vomiting, the regurgitation is typically described as effortless and unforced. There is seldom nausea preceding the expulsion, and the undigested food lacks the bitter taste and odour of stomach acid and bile.\n", "Anaerobic Digestion is a conversion process that converts food waste into renewable energy. Food is separated from any packaging and broken down into a more digestible state and then it is mixed with bacteria in special oxygen free holding tanks. The bacteria work to break down the food waste converting it into methane biogas which can be used to generate electricity.\n", "The crew of the show with their families were shown at the end of the first hour-long episodes (\"Right On Q\") eating BBQ while Brown narrated that truly a BBQ is just an event meant to be shared with friends and family. In the special Thanksgiving episode of 2011, \"Reromancing the Bird\", favorite characters of the show—sister Marsha, niece Marsha Jr., neighbor Chuck, the southerner Uncle Colonel Bob Boatwright, the food agent Sid, Frances Andersen portraying Uncle Bob's nurse, and the Dungeon Master—reappeared for a last time as a final tribute to their contribution to the show. At the end of the final episode, for the first time in years, Brown did not finish the show with the line \"see you next time on Good Eats\". Instead, he said, \"Stay dark, America\", snapped his fingers, and the screen went dark.\n", "Section::::Joint intracellular and extracellular digestion in cnidarians.\n\nJoint intracellular and extracellular digestion In hydra and other cnidarians, the food is caught by the tentacles and ingested through the mouth into the single large digestive cavity, the gastrovascular cavity. Enzymes are secreted from the cells bordering this cavity and poured on the food for extracellular digestion. Small particles of the partially digested food are engulfed into the vacuoles of the digestive cells for intracellular digestion. Any undigested and un-absorbed food is finally thrown out of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Invert digestive systems are bags and tubes.\n", "Food addiction is defined in FA as \"an illness of the mind, body, and spirit for which there is no cure\". As is the case with other addictions, food addiction involves physical craving and an ever-increasing dependence upon and struggle with a substance (food). The manifestations of food addiction vary. Overeating, under-eating or self-starvation, bulimia (including exercise bulimia), and extreme obsession with weight or food are among the symptoms of this addiction.\n", "Section::::North America.:After 2007 financial crisis.\n", "Postprandial somnolence (colloquially known as the itis, food coma, after dinner dip, or postprandial sleep) is a normal state of drowsiness or lassitude following a meal. Postprandial somnolence has two components: a general state of low energy related to activation of the parasympathetic nervous system in response to mass in the gastrointestinal tract, and a specific state of sleepiness. While there are numerous theories surrounding this behavior, such as decreased blood flow to the brain, neurohormonal modulation of sleep through digestive coupled signaling, or vagal stimulation, very few have been explicitly tested. To date, human studies have loosely examined the behavioral characteristics of postprandial sleep, demonstrating potential shifts in EEG spectra and self-reported sleepiness. To date, the only clear animal models for examining the genetic and neuronal basis for this behavior are the fruit fly and the mouse.\n", "The phrase was echoed by Dr J E Rullfson of Toledo after fasting for sixty days from January 5, 1907. He holds that the entire human race is food drunk, saying \"the dinner eaten by Napoleon just before the battle of Leipsic proved so indigestible that the monarch's brain was clouded and as a result the battle was lost and a pie which King Philip failed to digest caused the revolt of the Netherlands.\"\n\nSection::::State of being food drunk.\n", "Starting on October 19, 2012 on different days, Epic Meal Time broadcasts \"Throwback Thursday\" or \"Flashback Friday\" episodes, which are previous episodes with \"Pop-Up Video\"-style facts added. In the earlier episodes before his Muscles Glasses persona was created, Alex Perrault's eyes are blocked by a bacon strip while his voice is distorted.\n", "Section::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery.\n\nAlthough the passage of food into the gastrointestinal tract results in increased blood flow to the stomach and intestines, this is achieved by diversion of blood primarily from skeletal muscle tissue and by increasing the volume of blood pumped forward by the heart each minute. The flow of oxygen and blood to the brain is extremely tightly regulated by the circulatory system and does not drop after a meal.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Turkey and tryptophan.\n", "Gastroparesis is another common misdiagnosis. Like rumination syndrome, patients with gastroparesis often bring up food following the ingestion of a meal. Unlike rumination, gastroparesis causes vomiting (in contrast to regurgitation) of food, which is not being digested further, from the stomach. This vomiting occurs several hours after a meal is ingested, preceded by nausea and retching, and has the bitter or sour taste typical of vomit.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "Food Unwrapped (book)\n\nFood Unwrapped is a 2014 book about the food industry by the British writer Daniel Tapper. It is based on a BBC Channel 4 television series of the same name, and covers food science and food technology in mass-produced foods with the objective of \"dispel[ing] food myths and reveal[ing] some truths about the food we buy\". Subjects covered in the book include the relative merits of sea salt versus table salt; and the harm or lack of harm in artificial food colorings and flavorings.\n", "Refeeding syndrome\n\nRefeeding syndrome is a syndrome consisting of metabolic disturbances that occur as a result of reinstitution of nutrition to patients who are starved, severely malnourished or metabolically stressed due to severe illness. When too much food and/or liquid nutrition supplement is consumed during the initial four to seven days of refeeding, this triggers synthesis of glycogen, fat and protein in cells, to the detriment of serum (blood) concentrations of potassium, magnesium and phosphorus. Cardiac, pulmonary and neurological symptoms can be signs of refeeding syndrome. The low serum minerals, if severe enough, can be fatal.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "A food addiction features compulsive overeating, such as binge eating behavior, as its core and only defining feature. There are several potential signs that a person may be suffering from compulsive overeating. Common behaviors of compulsive overeaters include eating alone, consuming food quickly, and gaining weight rapidly, and eating to the point of feeling sick to the stomach. Other signs include significantly decreased mobility and the withdrawal from activities due to weight gain. Emotional indicators can include feelings of guilt, a sense of loss of control, depression and mood swings.\n", "A food addiction, especially long-term, can result in negative consequences to all aspects of a person’s life, creating damaging and chronic symptoms.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Physical consequences.\n\nThe short-term physical effect associated with dopamine and endogenous opiate release in the brain reward center is low level euphoria, a decrease in both anxiety and emotional pain also known as a “food coma.” The long-term physical effects may vary. The health consequences can be severe.\n\nIf a food addict has obesity, it can be associated with the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetes\n\nBULLET::::- High blood pressure\n\nBULLET::::- High cholesterol and triglycerides\n\nBULLET::::- Osteoarthritis in the knees\n", "Gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying) may occur and is due to metabolic causes (e.g. poorly controlled diabetes mellitus), decreased gastric motility (e.g. due to head injury) or pyloric obstruction (e.g. pyloric stenosis). Delayed gastric emptying usually only affects the emptying of the stomach of high-cellulose foods such as vegetables. Gastric emptying of clear fluids such as water or black coffee is only affected in highly progressed delayed gastric emptying.\n", "\"Aircrew Build to Order Meal Module\" (ABOMM) are a special variant consisting of repacking existing MRE food elements into a form that provides military flight crews and tank operators with a meal designed to be eaten on the go or while operating their aircraft or ground vehicle without the use of utensils, and packaged for use in confined spaces.\n", "Section::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.\n\nThe patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be divided into two distinct patterns, peristalsis and segmentation. Occurring between meals, the migrating motor complex is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes.\n\nThis cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.\n\nSection::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.:Peristalsis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03950	Why does a song get better or “grow on me” after a couple listens, but it progressively gets worse after the next hundred listens or so?	It could be you appreciate it differently or notice something about it in the second or third pass that you missed the third time. After a hundred listens, the well's pretty much dry.	[ "Section::::Reception.\n\nThis Is How The Wind Shifts was met with critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 82, based on four reviews. \n", "Regarding the album's lo-fi aesthetic, Vile noted, \"[the album] has songs that maybe if you don't normally listen to that stuff, you'd think were a bit throwaway because of the recording quality.\"\n\nSection::::Release and reception.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.:\"Pitchfork\" review and \"sad boy\" comment.\n", "I haven’t listened to Hungry Ghost in eight months, and I don’t intend to listen to it again for a long time. I play it live enough. I’ve already started writing. Obviously the next thing is another record. I think the approach to Hungry Ghost was good for our band, so we won’t start recording it till it’s ready to go. I don’t think you have to change your sound every record and be fucking Radiohead going from OK Computer to Kid A or anything like that. But I do think progression is healthy ... The writing’s started. When that progresses into a whole album and when it’s released, I have no idea. I’m just gonna keep writing until I strike songs where I think \"fuck, this is great\" and I’m personally pleased. Until I feel good about it, we won’t bother to hit a studio.\n", "Louder Than the Music's Jono Davies indicated \"the album for me seemed to get better the longer it went on. The tracks seem to get more creative and not as obvious in sound towards the latter part of the album. With any album people have there [sic] favourites, and I'm sure this will be no different on this album. For me the one thing I have taken from this album is that actually this debut is very strong and can only lead onto bigger and better releases.\"\n", "Encompassing the tone and content of the album, White stated \"I had written these songs over the course of a year full of the emotion and hope . . . \" In another interview White expounds \"How can, on one record, I expect people to listen from one to the next? It made sense to me – a record is a representation of your psyche at a point in time and space. I think there was a lot of sorrow on the outside, but in the center of me there is still some sense of joy and celebration.\" The somber songs on the album are certainly part of the landscape but there are also several upbeat, even rousing tracks as well.\n", "Following the release of \"How Does Your Garden Grow?\", Elektra dropped the band. In 2013 the album was mixed into 5.1 surround sound from the original multitracks and released on DVD-Audio.\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nAll tracks by Kevin Griffin\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Je ne m'en Souviens pas\" – 4:43\n\nBULLET::::2. \"One More Murder\" – 4:39\n\nBULLET::::3. \"At the Stars\" – 3:43\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Like It Like That\" – 2:44\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Allison Foley\" – 3:45\n\nBULLET::::6. \"Under You\" – 4:56\n\nBULLET::::7. \"Live Again\" – 4:24\n\nBULLET::::8. \"Happy Day Mama\" – 3:22\n\nBULLET::::9. \"Pull\" – 2:58\n\nBULLET::::10. \"Particle\" – 6:04\n\nBULLET::::11. \"Beautiful Mistake\" – 4:35\n", "Another observation mentioned is when a single introduction of a different stimulus late in the habituation procedure when responding to the eliciting stimulus has declined can cause an increase in the habituated response. This increase in responding is temporary and is called \"dishabituation\" and always occurs to the original eliciting stimulus (not to the added stimulus). Researchers also use evidence of dishabituation to rule out sensory adaptation and fatigue as alternative explanations of the habituation process. Habituation of dishabituation can occur. The amount of dishabituation that occurs as a result of the introduction of a different stimulus can decrease after repeated presentation of the \"dishabituating\" stimulus.\n", "Section::::Composition and release.\n", "On the other hand, David Moore of \"Gigwise.com\" said that \"after about ten plays it creates a personality for itself and you start to get it, but ten times is a lot.\" He added that the song \"works much better inside the album than it does a stand alone track.\" However, Moore did note that as an introduction to the band, \"it's a perfect place to start.\"\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "The style and content of the album overall is oriented with the night, with the album cover carrying the subtitle \"A Series of Nocturnes\". Though critically acclaimed, the album was a relative failure commercially, only peaking at #128 on the \"Billboard\" charts. The first single, \"One More Murder\" scraped the bottom end of the \"Billboard\" Modern Rock charts, while the second single, \"At the Stars,\" performed better, becoming a Modern Rock and Adult Top 40 hit (and later covered by Howie Day). A third single, \"Like it Like That,\" failed to chart.\n", "A 1996 study by Hsee asked participants to evaluate two used music dictionaries, one of which contained 20,000 entries and had a torn cover, the other of which contained 10,000 entries and looked brand-new. When evaluated separately, the newer-looking book was preferred; when evaluated together, the older book was chosen.\n", "In 2017, computer scientist Colin Morris analyzed 15,000 \"Billboard\" Hot 100 hits for repetitiveness, based on compression algorithms. \"Better off Alone\" was found to be the most repetitive of the songs analyzed of the '00s.\n\nSection::::Release.\n\nSection::::Release.:Single.\n", "After the required incubation period, and only when an even lawn of growth is distinctly visible, the MIC value can be read where the edge of the inhibition ellipse intersects the side of the strip. The plate should not be read if the culture appears mixed or if the lawn of growth is too light or too heavy.\n\nEtest MIC endpoints are usually clear-cut although different growth/inhibition patterns may be seen.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n", "- Michael Barclay The Record (Waterloo, ON)\n\n“5 stars…this is one album that I play in its entirety every time, a rarity these days.”\n\n- Backstage Vancouver\n\n“THT has come through in the clutch…if this doesn’t put them at the top of that hypothetical “best young band” list, they’re certainly in the conversation.”\n\n- Herohill.com\n\n“…tends to grow on you after repeated listens and its delights become more apparent. Well done, lads. Performance: A-/Production: A”\n\n- Scene Magazine (London, ON)\n", "\"I don't put out a record every year so I can see what others are doing and learn from that and see things that are happening. So I feel that a good record from me never defines 2011 -- it should be totally timeless and be able to live in any era. I think I've done that with this one. It's different at times [...] but I don't think it's a huge departure from anything I've ever done. And I think my fans who have been there since \"Endtroducing\" will really like this one.\"\n\nSection::::Themes.\n", "BULLET::::- Nate Mercereau – production\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Walker – additional production\n\nBULLET::::- Rain on Shine – additional production\n\nTechnical\n\nBULLET::::- Oak Felder – programming , engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Pop & Oak – programming\n\nBULLET::::- Inaam Haq – engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Downtown Trevor Brown – programming\n\nBULLET::::- Zaire Koalo – programming\n\nBULLET::::- Alessia Cara – engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Ethan Shumaker – engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Keith Sorrels – engineering, engineering assistance\n\nBULLET::::- Kieron Menzies – engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Trevor Yasuda – engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Rockwell – engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Dean Reid – engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Reault – recording engineering assistance\n\nBULLET::::- Casey Cuayo – recording engineering assistance\n", "\"I had just gone through an experience that made me write this song about like knowing the second you see someone like, 'Oh, this is going to be interesting. It's going to be dangerous, but look at me going in there anyway... I think that for me, it was the first time I ever kind of noticed that in myself, like when you are curious about something you know might be bad for you, but you know that you are going to go for it anyway because if you don't, you'll have greater regrets about not seeing where that would go, but I think that for me it all went along with this record that was pushing boundaries, like the sound of this record pushes boundaries, it was writing about something I hadn't written before.\"\n", "Section::::Critical reception.:Retrospective assessment.:Biographers' appraisal.\n", "\"It doesn't quite get you the first time,\" Jay Kay told \"Q\". \"And a lot of the songs are quite similarly paced. It's almost like the same song being subtly changed ten different ways. A lot of it, lyrically, is about the break-up of his relationship. There's a track called 'Anger', which is lyrically really brilliant; and there's a track called 'Time To Get It Together' using, I think, a marimba, and it's just dreamy and lovely. He was a deep man at the time, but I think the charlie was eating him up. It's all about struggling and fighting, and you can feel it.\"\n", "Tris McCall of the \"Newark Star-Ledger\" discussed his approach to music criticism in a 2010 interview, stating, \"Most of us [critics] begin writing about music because we love it so much. We can't wait to tell our friends and neighbors about what we're hearing.\" According to McCall, even over the course of a long professional career, the enthusiastic impulse to share \"never fades\". McCall expressed his interest in \"examining why people respond to what they respond to. I hazard guesses. Sometimes I'm wrong, but I hope I'm always provocative.\"\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Shelved LP.\n\nMotown originally created an album to capitalize on the success of the single, but when the single failed to hit the top of the charts the album was scrapped, and the single was included rather on Diana Ross and the Supremes' \"Love Child\" LP. The shelved LP track list was intended as follows:\n\nSide One:\n\nBULLET::::1. Some Things You Never Get Used To\n\nBULLET::::2. Heaven Must Have Sent You\n\nBULLET::::3. He's My Sunny Boy\n\nBULLET::::4. Come On And See Me\n\nBULLET::::5. Can I Get A Witness\n\nBULLET::::6. You've Been So Wonderful To Me\n\nSide two:\n\nBULLET::::1. My Guy\n", "In an interview with \"Billboard\", Anderson explained that \"I started putting the album together properly about two years ago. But the oldest song on the album, “Never Better,” is about four years old. I’ve written hundreds of songs, and I was still writing new stuff when I was putting the album together. It was just a matter of deciding how to construct it as something that made sense of how I was feeling.\" He also noted Kanye West’s album \"The College Dropout\" as a source of personal inspiration for his music.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14760	Why are tattoos not removed with layers of skin?	That is why tattoos do fade over time and why they become less sharp looking but the ink is too deep for it to come out completely. But with lazer treatment it breaks up the pigment so your body can metabolize it and flush it from your system.	[ "While tattoos are considered permanent, it is sometimes possible to remove them, fully or partially, with laser treatments. Typically, black and some colored inks can be removed more completely than inks of other colors. The expense and pain associated with removing tattoos are typically greater than the expense and pain associated with applying them. Pre-laser tattoo removal methods include dermabrasion, salabrasion (scrubbing the skin with salt), cryosurgery and excision—which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos. These older methods, however, have been nearly completely replaced by laser removal treatment options.\n\nSection::::Temporary tattoos.\n", "Tattoo ink is generally permanent. Tattoo removal is difficult, painful, and the degree of success depends on the materials used. Recently developed inks claim to be comparatively easy to remove. Unsubstantiated claims have been made that some inks fade over time, yielding a \"semi-permanent tattoo.\"\n\nSection::::Regulations.\n", "Some wearers decide to cover an unwanted tattoo with a new tattoo. This is commonly known as a cover-up. An artfully done cover-up may render the old tattoo completely invisible, though this will depend largely on the size, style, colors and techniques used on the old tattoo and the skill of the tattoo artist.\n\nCovering up a previous tattoo necessitates darker tones in the new tattoo to effectively hide the older, unwanted piece.\n", "Tattoo removal\n\nTattoo removal has been performed with various tools since the start of tattooing. While tattoos were once considered permanent, it is now possible to remove them with treatments, fully or partially.\n\nThe \"standard modality for tattoo removal\" is the non-invasive removal of tattoo pigments using Q-switched lasers. Different types of Q-switched lasers are used to target different colors of tattoo ink depending on the specific light absorption spectra of the tattoo pigments. \n", "Before the development of laser tattoo removal methods, common techniques included dermabrasion, TCA (Trichloroacetic acid, an acid that removes the top layers of skin, reaching as deep as the layer in which the tattoo ink resides), salabrasion (scrubbing the skin with salt), cryosurgery and excision which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos. Many other methods for removing tattoos have been suggested historically including the injection or application of tannic acid, lemon juice, garlic and pigeon dung.\n\nRecent research is investigating the potential of multi-pass treatments and the use of picosecond laser technology, which seem promising.\n", "Topical anesthetics are often used by technicians prior to cosmetic tattooing and there is the potential for adverse effects if topical anesthetics are not used safely. In 2013 the International Industry association CosmeticTattoo.org published a detailed position and general safety precautions for the entire industry.\n\nThe causes of a change of colour after cosmetic tattooing are both complex and varied. As discussed in the detailed industry article \"Why Do Cosmetic Tattoos Change Colour\", primarily there are four main areas that have influence over the potential for a cosmetic tattoo to change colour;\n\nBULLET::::1. Factors related to the pigment characteristics\n", "Section::::Laser removal.:Factors contributing to the success of laser tattoo removal.\n", "Permanent Makeup is typically done with some form of tattoo machine. There are machines now that are needle-less which should result in less painful procedures. These needle-free devices are considered safer and more sterile to use than traditional tattoo machines. They are designed to create a more comforting experience during the application process and eliminate the possibility of spreading disease like HIV, hepatitis and other healthcare issues. The needle-less device is also capable of inserting the pigment deeper into the skin than machines that use needles. \n", "As with tattoos, permanent makeup may have complications, such as migration, allergies to the pigments, formation of scars, granulomas and keloids, skin cracking, peeling, blistering and local infection. The use of unsterilized tattooing instruments may infect the patient with serious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis. Removal problems may also ensue, due to patient dissatisfaction or regret, and they may be particularly difficult to remove in places such as eyelids and lips without leaving permanent sequelae. Compliance with 'standard precautions' and a uniform code of safe practice should be insisted upon by a person considering undergoing a cosmetic tattoo procedure.\n", "Typically, black and other darker-colored inks can be removed completely using Q-switched lasers while lighter colors such as yellows and greens are still very difficult to remove. Success can depend on a wide variety of factors including skin color, ink color, and the depth at which the ink was applied.\n", "Many tattoos are too dark to cover up and in those cases patients may receive laser tattoo removal to lighten the existing ink to make themselves better candidates for a cover up tattoo.\n\nSection::::Laser removal.\n", "It is also essential that technicians have been properly trained in the application of pigment into the skin to avoid migration. Tattoo pigments can \"migrate\" when a technician \"overworks\" an area, especially around the eyes where the pigment can \"bleed\" into surrounding tissue. Migration is generally avoidable by not over-working swollen tissue. Understanding the need to minimize swelling and recognize a good stopping point is paramount to successful application. Removing migrated pigment is a difficult and complicated process.\n", "Permanent Makeup or micropigmentation is much like any tattoo and can have side effects over time. Infections, fading, scarring, inflammation, and allergic reactions are just a few of the side effects that have been reported from patients who received permanent makeup procedures.\n\nSection::::Modern tattooing.:Nipple-Areola Tattoos.\n", "There are several different ways to get rid of these tattoos, the most common being laser removals. It is suggested that different color pigments should be removed with different lasers in order to reduce the risk of scarring and ink retention. The needle-free machines also have the capability of removing or lightening the pigment from the skin as well by adding in a removal solution into the skin. \n", "Unfortunately the dye systems used to change the wavelength result in significant power reduction such that the use of multiple separate specific wavelength lasers remains the gold standard.\n", "Other territories produce standards for tattooing inks but do not keep publicly available lists of products which pass certifications. This makes it very difficult for tattooists and their clients to judge the safety of any particular ink, a problem that extends to all inks.\n", "The amount of ink that remains in the skin throughout the healing process determines how the final tattoo will look. If a tattoo becomes infected or the flakes fall off too soon (e.g., if it absorbs too much water and sloughs off early or is picked or scraped off) then the ink will not be properly fixed in the skin and the final image will be negatively affected.\n", "Tattoos that indicate a significant relationship such as a spouse, girlfriend or boyfriend, can become problematic if the relationship ends. \n\nAngelina Jolie, Eva Longoria, Marc Anthony and Denise Richards are some of the celebrities that have had this kind of tattoo removed.\n", "Another tattoo alternative is henna-based tattoos, which generally contain no additives. Henna is a plant-derived substance which is painted on the skin, staining it a reddish-orange-to-brown color. Because of the semi-permanent nature of henna, they lack the realistic colors typical of decal temporary tattoos. Due to the time-consuming application process, it is a relatively poor option for children. Dermatological publications report that allergic reactions to natural henna are very rare and the product is generally considered safe for skin application. Serious problems can occur, however, from the use of henna with certain additives. The FDA and medical journals report that painted black henna temporary tattoos are especially dangerous.\n", "Tattoo pigments have specific light absorption spectra. A tattoo laser must be capable of emitting adequate energy within the given absorption spectrum of the pigment to provide an effective treatment. Certain tattoo pigments, such as yellows and fluorescent inks are more challenging to treat than darker blacks and blues, because they have absorption spectra that fall outside or on the edge of the emission spectra available in the tattoo removal laser. Recent pastel coloured inks contain high concentrations of titanium dioxide which is highly reflective. Consequently, such inks are difficult to remove since they reflect a significant amount of the incident light energy out of the skin.\n", "Transient textural changes are occasionally noted but often resolve within a few months; however, permanent textural changes and scarring very rarely occur. If a patient is prone to pigmentary or textural changes, longer treatment intervals are recommended. Additionally, if a blister or crust forms following treatment, it is imperative that the patient does not manipulate this secondary skin change. Early removal of a blister of crust increases the chances of developing a scar. Additionally, patients with a history of hypertrophic or keloidal scarring need to be warned of their increased risk of scarring.\n", "A variety of medical problems, though uncommon, can result from tattooing.\n\nMedical workers have observed rare but severe medical complications from tattoo pigments in the body, and have noted that people acquiring tattoos rarely assess health risks \"prior\" to receiving their tattoos.\n\nA recent case report also showed that tattoo pigments migrate into lymph nodes. These can show up on some types of medical scans as tumors. One woman was given a complete hysterectomy only to find out later that the lymph nodes contained tattoo pigment.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.:Glow in the dark ink and blacklight ink.\n", "Section::::Laser removal.:Pain management during treatment.\n", "There are a number of factors that determine how many treatments will be needed and the level of success one might experience. Age of tattoo, ink density, color and even where the tattoo is located on the body, all play an important role in how many treatments will be needed for complete removal. However, a rarely recognized factor of tattoo removal is the role of the client’s immune response. The normal process of tattoo removal is fragmentation followed by phagocytosis which is then drained away via the lymphatics. Consequently, it’s the inflammation resulting from the actual laser treatment and the natural stimulation of the hosts’s immune response that ultimately results in removal of tattoo ink; thus variations in results are enormous.\n", "Very rarely, non Q-switched laser treatments, like CO2 or Argon lasers, which are very rarely offered these days, can rupture blood vessels and aerosolize tissue requiring a plastic shield or a cone device to protect the laser operator from tissue and blood contact. Protective eyewear may be worn if the laser operator chooses to do so.\n\nWith the mechanical or salabrasion method of tattoo removal, the incidence of scarring, pigmentary alteration (hyper- and hypopigmentation), and ink retention are extremely high.\n" ]	[ "Tattoos are not affected when layers of skin are lost." ]	[ "Tattoos fad as layers of skin are lost, just not completely." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Tattoos are not affected when layers of skin are lost.", "Tattoos are not affected when layers of skin are lost." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Tattoos fad as layers of skin are lost, just not completely.", "Tattoos do fade somewhat as layers of skin are lost, just not completely." ]
2018-09659	Does eating a certain amount of food increases your weight initially by the same amount?	depends on the time frame really. if you drink 2 lbs of water, you will be 2 lbs heavier right away. But your body expels the water over time bringing you back to your real weight. eat 2 lbs of lard? and you might be working that off for a while.	[ "Section::::Key components of weight management.:Thermogenic Effect of Food.\n\nThe thermogenic effect of food is another component of a person's daily energy expenditure and refers to the amount of energy it takes the body to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients in the diet. The amount of energy expended while processing food differs by individual but on average it amounts to about 10% the number of calories consumed during a given time period. Processing proteins and carbohydrates has more of a thermogenic effect than does processing fats.\n\nSection::::Key components of weight management.:Genetics.\n", "Section::::Strategies for maintaining a healthy weight.:Eating more soup.\n\nSoups have a significant effect on satiety. Studies have demonstrated that when compared to solid foods, soup ingestion decreases the amount of energy intake. When soup is consumed before a meal, there is a 20% decrease in the number of calories consumed during the meal.\n\nSection::::Strategies for maintaining a healthy weight.:Choosing low-calorie foods.\n", "The weight of eating companions may also influence the volume of food consumed. Obese individuals have been found to eat significantly more in the presence of other obese individuals compared to normal-weight others, while normal-weight individuals' eating appears unaffected by the weight of eating companions.\n", "Section::::Deficiencies.\n", "Section::::Factors that affect the thermic effect of food.\n\nThe thermic effect of food is increased by both aerobic training of sufficient duration and intensity or by anaerobic weight training. However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of the meals ingested. Meal frequency has little to no effect on TEF; assuming total calorie intake for the days are equivalent.\n", "Roberts argued that weight is controlled by maintaining body fat at a certain amount, referred to as a \"set point.\" When weight is above the set point, appetite decreases, and it takes less food to feel full. When weight is below the set point, appetite increases, and it takes more food to feel full. He further stated that eating strongly flavored foods (like soda or donuts) can raise the set point, whereas flavorless foods (like sugar water, canola oil, extra light olive oil) can lower the set point. These flavorless foods must be consumed in a \"flavorless window,\" at least one hour after and one hour before consuming flavors. Consumption of 100-400 flavorless calories per day lowers the set point, and therefore, lowers weight.\n", "The science behind weight management is complex, but one of the key concepts that governs weight management is Energy Balance. Energy Balance is the phrase used to describe the difference between the number of calories a person consumes and the number of calories that same person expends (a.k.a. burns) in a given time period. There are three possible scenarios when it comes to the energy balance equation:\n\nBULLET::::- Calories consumed (food, drink) = Calories expended (basal metabolic rate, physical activity, thermogenic effect of food, acute illness)\n\nBULLET::::- Outcome: Weight remains unchanged\n\nBULLET::::- Calories consumed Calories expended\n", "Although some believe that TEF is reduced in obesity, discrepant results and inconsistent research methods have failed to validate such claims.\n\nThe mechanism of TEF is unknown. TEF has been described as the energy used in the distribution of nutrients and metabolic processes in the liver, but a hepatectomized animal shows no signs of TEF and intravenous injection of amino acids results in an effect equal to that of oral ingestion of the same amino acids.\n\nSection::::Types of foods.\n", "Weight gain has a latency period. The effect that eating has on weight gain can vary greatly depending on the following factors: energy (calorie) density of foods, exercise regimen, amount of water intake, amount of salt contained in the food, time of day eaten, age of individual, individual's country of origin, individual's overall stress level, and amount of water retention in ankles/feet. Typical latency periods vary from three days to two weeks after ingestion.\n", "Postingestive feedback factors such as energy density and nutrient composition could affect the palatability of a food which in turn would inhibit or facilitate \"sensory-specific satiety\". Studies done by Birch & Deysher (1986) and B.J. Rolls \"et al.\", summarized in a paper by Raynor and Epstein, show that postingesitive feedback does not influence \"sensory-specific satiety\" very much. Since postingestive feedback seems to have little effect of sensory-specific satiety, it is probable that sensory-specific satiety is more driven by external factors, such as the sensory properties of the food, than internal factors.\n\nSection::::Obesity in relation to sensory-specific satiety.\n", "Body weight regulation requires a balance between food intake and energy expenditure. Two mechanisms are required to maintain a relatively constant body weight: one must increase motivation to eat if long-term reservoirs are being depleted, and the other must restrain food intake if more calories than needed are being consumed.\n\nSection::::Initiating ingestion.:Signals from environment.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "A study, involving more than 12,000 people tracked over 32 years, found that social networks play a surprisingly powerful role in determining an individual's chances of gaining weight, transmitting an increased risk of becoming obese from wives to husbands, from brothers to brothers and from friends to friends.\n\nThe human microbiota facilitates fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates to short-chain fatty acids, SCFAs, contributing to weight gain. A change in the proportion of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes may determine host’s risk of obesity.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Sleep and stress.\n", "Efficiency of food conversion\n\nThe efficiency of conversion of ingested food to unit of body substance (ECI, also termed \"growth efficiency\") is an index measure of food fuel efficiency in animals. The ECI is a rough scale of how much of the food ingested is converted into growth in the animal's mass. It can be used to compare the growth efficiency as measured by the weight gain of different animals from consuming a given quantity of food relative to its size.\n", "Using smaller plates helps to consume smaller portion sizes which leads to the consumption of fewer calories. Studies have shown that portion size influences energy intake. People who are presented with larger portions do not report to have a higher level of satiety, which suggests that hunger and satiety signals are ignored when a large portion of food is placed in front of them. In particular, one study showed that participants consumed 31% less calories with the small portion sized of a 6-inch submarine sandwich compared with the large portion size of a 12-inch submarine sandwich. Increased portion sizes have occurred simultaneously with the increase in obesity rates; hence, large portion sizes can be one of the factors contributing to the current increase in average body weight in the US. Evidence from a systematic review of 72 randomized controlled trials indicates that people consistently eat more food when offered larger portion, package, or tableware sizes rather than smaller size alternatives.\n", "Sensory stimulation from high-fat foods is one behavioral mechanism in the diet-induced obesity model—humans’ and rats’ neural proclivity for the texture, smell, and taste of high-fat foods stimulates \"selection, consumption, digestion and absorption\" of those foods. According to some studies, time, frequency, and quantity of feedings are other behavioral factors in the DIO model. Some research shows that nightly eating, low eating frequency, and large meal size may contribute to diet-induced obesity. Depression and long-term stress are also reported mechanisms contributing to obesity via increased food intake.\n\nSection::::Research done with model.:Physiological changes.\n", "The glycemic load is \"the mathematical product of the glycemic index and the carbohydrate amount\".\n\nIn a randomized controlled trial that compared four diets that varied in carbohydrate amount and glycemic index found complicated results:\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 and 2 were high carbohydrate (55% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 2 was low-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 and 4 were high protein (25% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 4 was low-glycemic index\n", "Cox and McCullagh interpret the problem by constructing a model of what could have happened should the students not dined in the dining hall, where they assume that a student's weight would have stayed constant. They conclude that in fact the first statistician was right when asking about group differences, while the second was right when asking about the effect on an individual. \n\nSection::::Responses.:Early Responses.:Holland and Rubin (1983).\n", "Studies have shown that eating monotonous meals (limited variety in food) results in long-term sensory-specific satiety. By continuing to eat similar meals, a dieter can reduce their overall food intake and use sensory-specific satiety as a tool for weight loss. On the contrary, sensory-specific satiety can also cause obesity because of the stimulation of hunger for foods of different variety. The higher energy content the food has, the less likely sensory-specific satiety will become activated.\n\nSection::::Age in relation to sensory-specific satiety.\n", "The process of regaining weight and especially body fat is further promoted by the high metabolic plasticity of skeletal muscle. The \"Summermatter Cycle\" explains how skeletal muscle persistently reduces energy expenditure during dieting. In addition, food restriction increases physical activity which further supports body weight loss initially. Such weight regain in the form of preferential catch-up-fat is well documented after weight loss due to malnutrition, cancer, septic shock or AIDS and thus constitutes a general phenomenon related to weight loss.\n\nSection::::Effects on health.\n", "Many physiological and biochemical processes (such as heart rate, respiration rate or the maximum reproduction rate) show scaling, mostly associated with the ratio between surface area and mass (or volume) of the animal. The metabolic rate of an individual animal is also subject to scaling.\n\nSection::::Physiological scaling.:Metabolic rate and body mass.\n", "Serving Frappe to table 1\n\nServing Espresso to table 1\n\nServing Frappe to table 897\n\nServing Cappuccino to table 97\n\nServing Frappe to table 3\n\nServing Espresso to table 3\n\nServing Cappuccino to table 3\n\nServing Espresso to table 96\n\nServing Frappe to table 552\n\nServing Cappuccino to table 121\n\nServing Espresso to table 121\n\nCoffeeFlavor objects in cache: 3\n\nSection::::Example in Python.\n", "Section::::B-, C-, D- and Z-weightings.\n", "Bock responded to the paradox by positing that both statisticians in the scenario are correct once the question being asked is clarified. The first statistician (who compares group means and distributions) is asking \"are there differences in average weight gain?\", whereas the second is asking \"what are the differences in individual weight gain.\n\nSection::::Responses.:Early Responses.:Cox and McCullagh (1982).\n", "In regard to adipose tissue increases, a person generally gains weight by increasing food consumption, becoming physically inactive, or both. When energy intake exceeds energy expenditure (when the body is in positive energy balance), the body can store the excess energy as fat. However, the physiology of weight gain and loss is complex involving numerous hormones, body systems and environmental factors. Other factors beside energy balance that may contribute to gaining weight include:\n\nSection::::Causes.:Social factors.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04406	Why and how are atomic fountain clocks the most accurate time keepers?	Atoms are very small and extremely stable oscillators. The atoms we use for clocks, mostly cesium, can be kept in a little ball in a vacuum by cooling them with lasers. Alas, in the little ball the signal from each atom gets combined with the others in a non-synchronized way. This makes the signal muddy and not as accurate. To improve accuracy, only a few atoms are tossed up from the ball, like the way a fountain tosses a little bit of its water up into the air, hence the name. When the atoms are floating around as individuals, they can be excited and their vibration measured to enormous accuracy. They fall back into the ball, and so the fountain has to knock new ones up to look at all the time. If we could get individual atoms to hang around, that would be even better, but atoms have mass so that's a problem here on Earth. Without the laser stuff they all just settle to the bottom of the vacuum chamber; sad. [This great article on the NIST site]( URL_0 ) has some great youtube videos on how the thing works, with animations and all.	[ "Similar atomic fountain clocks, with comparable accuracy, are operated by other time and frequency laboratories, such as the Paris Observatory, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the United Kingdom and the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt in Germany.\n\nSection::::Accuracy.\n\nAs of 2013, the clock's uncertainty was about 3.1 × 10. It is expected to neither gain nor lose a second in more than 100 million years.\n\nSection::::Evaluated accuracy.\n\nThe evaluated accuracy \"u\" reports of various primary frequency and time standards are published online by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).br\n", "Often, one standard is used to fix another. For example, some commercial applications use a rubidium standard periodically corrected by a global positioning system receiver (see GPS disciplined oscillator). This achieves excellent short-term accuracy, with long-term accuracy equal to (and traceable to) the U.S. national time standards.\n", "The precision of the Ramsey method can be increased by increasing the wait time \"T\" of the cloud. The use of an atomic fountain with a cooled atomic cloud allows for wait times on the order of one second, which is vastly greater than what can be achieved by performing the Ramsey method on a hot atomic beam. This is one reason why NIST-F1, a caesium fountain clock, can keep time more precisely than NIST-7, a caesium beam clock.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Synchronous clocks\" rely on the 50 or 60 Hz utility frequency of the AC electric power grid as a timing source, by driving the clock gears with a synchronous motor. They essentially count cycles of the power supply. While the actual frequency may vary with loading on the grid, the total number of cycles per 24 hours is maintained rigorously constant, so that these clocks can keep time accurately for long periods, barring power cuts; over months they are more accurate than a typical quartz clock. This was the most common type of clock from the 1930s but has now been mostly replaced by quartz clocks.\n", "In March 2008, physicists at NIST described a quantum logic clock based on individual ions of beryllium and aluminium. This clock was compared to NIST's mercury ion clock. These were the most accurate clocks that had been constructed, with neither clock gaining nor losing time at a rate that would exceed a second in over a billion years. In February 2010, NIST physicists described a second, enhanced version of the quantum logic clock based on individual ions of magnesium and aluminium. Considered the world's most precise clock in 2010 with a fractional frequency inaccuracy of , it offers more than twice the precision of the original.\n", "In the current design, a slow mechanical oscillator, based on a torsional pendulum, keeps time inaccurately, but reliably. At noon the light from the Sun, a timer that is accurate but (due to weather) unreliable, is concentrated on a segment of metal through a lens. The metal buckles and the buckling force resets the clock to noon. The combination can, in principle, provide both reliability and long-term accuracy.\n\nSection::::Design.:Displaying the time and date.\n", "For some scientific work timing of the utmost accuracy is essential. It is also necessary to have a standard of the maximum accuracy against which working clocks can be calibrated. An ideal clock would give the time to unlimited accuracy, but this is not realisable. Many physical processes, in particular including some transitions between atomic energy levels, occur at exceedingly stable frequency; counting cycles of such a process can give a very accurate and consistent time—clocks which work this way are usually called atomic clocks. Such clocks are typically large, very expensive, require a controlled environment, and are far more accurate than required for most purposes; they are typically used in a standards laboratory.\n", "Section::::Era of precision timekeeping.:Atomic clock.\n\nAtomic clocks are the most accurate timekeeping devices in practical use today. Accurate to within a few seconds over many thousands of years, they are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nHoptroff London watches are advertised by the company as \"The most accurate timepieces in the world”. Its atomic timepieces use chip scale atomic clock technology, where a small vessel of Caesium 133 is exposed to 130 °C. A laser is used to excite the atoms and a microwave resonator which causes the hyperfine transition frequency of the atoms. The resultant watch after this process has a higher accuracy of 1.5 seconds every thousand years.\n\nHowever, the technology used its quartz timepieces is still unknown to the public.\n", "Radio-controlled watches require no setting of time, date, or daylight savings time adjustments, as they attempt automatic synchronization at least once every 24 hours, typically at midnight. Free-running Wave Ceptors, like other commercial quartz timepieces, are typically accurate to better than 15 seconds per month; daily synchronization ensures 500 ms per day accuracy.\n", "The NIST-F2 caesium fountain clock operated by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), was officially launched in April 2014, to serve as a new U.S. civilian frequency and time standard, along with the NIST-F1 standard. The planned \"u\" performance level of NIST-F2 is . \"At this planned performance level the NIST-F2 clock will not lose a second in at least 300 million years.\" NIST-F2 was designed using lessons learned from NIST-F1. The NIST-F2 key advance compared to the NIST-F1 is that the vertical flight tube is now chilled inside a container of liquid nitrogen, at . This cycled cooling dramatically lowers the background radiation and thus reduces some of the very small measurement errors that must be corrected in NIST-F1.\n", "As the optical experimental clocks move beyond their microwave counterparts in terms of accuracy and stability performance this puts them in a position to replace the current standard for time, the caesium fountain clock.\n\nIn the future this might lead to redefine the caesium microwave based SI second and other new dissemination techniques at the highest level of accuracy to transfer clock signals will be required that can be used in both shorter-range and longer-range (frequency) comparisons between better clocks and to explore their fundamental limitations without significantly compromising their performance.\n\nSection::::Research.:Clock comparison techniques.\n", "A number of other atomic clock schemes are in use for other purposes. Rubidium standard clocks are prized for their low cost, small size (commercial standards are as small as 17 cm) and short-term stability. They are used in many commercial, portable and aerospace applications. Hydrogen masers (often manufactured in Russia) have superior short-term stability compared to other standards, but lower long-term accuracy.\n", "Section::::Types of equation clock.:Clocks that directly display solar time.:Clocks that do mechanical addition.\n", "To read the clock the viewer finds the number of filled \"hour\" spheres lining the left side of the clock and the number of filled discs on the \"minutes\" side of the clock, with each disc equaling two minutes.\n\nSection::::Maintenance.\n", "GPS Time (GPST) is a continuous time scale and theoretically accurate to about 14 ns. However, most receivers lose accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 ns.\n", "21st century experimental atomic clocks that provide non-caesium-based secondary representations of the second are becoming so precise that they are likely to be used as extremely sensitive detectors for other things besides measuring frequency and time. For example, the frequency of atomic clocks is altered slightly by gravity, magnetic fields, electrical fields, force, motion, temperature and other phenomena. The experimental clocks tend to continue improving, and leadership in performance has been shifted back and forth between various types of experimental clocks.\n\nSection::::Research.:Quantum clocks.\n", "The principle of operation of an atomic clock is based on atomic physics; it measures the electromagnetic signal that electrons in atoms emit when they change energy levels. Early atomic clocks were based on masers at room temperature. Since 2004, more accurate atomic clocks first cool the atoms to near absolute zero temperature by slowing them with lasers and probing them in atomic fountains in a microwave-filled cavity. An example of this is the NIST-F1 atomic clock, one of the national primary time and frequency standards of the United States.\n", "Fast rise time steps are also used. Instead of looking for the reflection of a complete pulse, the instrument is concerned with the rising edge, which can be very fast. A 1970s technology TDR used steps with a rise time of 25 ps.\n\nStill other TDRs transmit complex signals and detect reflections with correlation techniques. See spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry.\n\nSection::::Example traces.\n", "The Perpetual Chrono A-T synchronizes with the atomic clocks in Colorado or india, depending on signal strength and location, and incorporates Eco-Drive technology, so it does not require a battery.\n\nSection::::Products.:Bulova UHF movement.\n\nIn 2010, Miyota (Citizen Watch) of Japan introduced a newly developed movement (UHF 262 kHz) that uses a three-prong quartz crystal for the Precisionist or Accutron II line, a new type of quartz watch with ultra-high frequency (262.144 kHz) which is claimed to be accurate to +/- 10 seconds a year and has a smooth sweeping second hand rather than one that jumps each second.\n\nSection::::Products.:Chronomaster.\n", "The most accurate commercially produced mechanical clock was the electromechanical Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock invented by W. H. Shortt in 1921, which had an uncertainty of about 1 second per year. The most accurate mechanical clock to date is probably the electromechanical Littlemore Clock, built by noted archaeologist E. T. Hall in the 1990s. In Hall's paper, he reports an uncertainty of 3 parts in 10 measured over 100 days (an uncertainty of about 0.02 seconds over that period). Both of these clocks are electromechanical clocks: they use a pendulum as the timekeeping element, but electrical power rather than a mechanical gear train to supply energy to the pendulum.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Oscillator.:Synchronized or slave clocks.\n\nSome clocks rely for their accuracy on an external oscillator; that is, they are automatically synchronized to a more accurate clock:\n\nBULLET::::- Slave clocks, used in large institutions and schools from the 1860s to the 1970s, kept time with a pendulum, but were wired to a master clock in the building, and periodically received a signal to synchronize them with the master, often on the hour. Later versions without pendulums were triggered by a pulse from the master clock and certain sequences used to force rapid synchronization following a power failure.\n", "In 2013 Bathys Hawaii introduced their Cesium 133 Atomic Watch the first watch to keep time with an internal atomic clock. Unlike the radio watches described above, which achieve atomic clock accuracy with quartz clock circuits which are corrected by radio time signals received from government atomic clocks, this watch contains a tiny cesium atomic clock on a chip. It is reported to keep time to an accuracy of one second in 1000 years.\n", "In 2013 optical lattice clocks (OLCs) were shown to be as good as or better than caesium fountain clocks. Two optical lattice clocks containing about of strontium-87 were able to stay in synchrony with each other at a precision of at least , which is as accurate as the experiment could measure. These clocks have been shown to keep pace with all three of the caesium fountain clocks at the Paris Observatory. There are two reasons for the possibly better precision. Firstly, the frequency is measured using light, which has a much higher frequency than microwaves, and secondly, by using many atoms, any errors are averaged.\n", "Section::::Reason for accuracy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13161	Why can a person feel faint after getting out of a hot bath?	While you're in a hot bath, you're body works hard to keep you cool. this means a lot of blood is pumped away from the center of your body, to nearer the skin surface where it can lose some heat to the cooler atmosphere. ...Except, there's a problem: there is no atmosphere, just hot water. so the blood doesnt cool. and now your body works harder at the same thing. More blood into the extremes. The upshot is your blood pressure drops, and less blood goes to the brain Add to that when you stand to exit the bath your blood pressure drops a little more anyway (because now your heart has to pump blood vertically again and takes a moment to change gear) - again less blood to the brain so: you feel faint. incidentally, if you notice that water condenses on your skin after a hot bath, thats not moisture in the air condensing, its sweat from your skin that cant evaporate due to the humidity.	[ "Heat syncope occurs in a warm environment when blood pressure is lowered as the body dilates (widens) arterioles (small blood vessels) in the skin to radiate heat. This condition occurs within five days of heat acclimatization, before the blood volume expands. The result is less blood to the brain, causing light-headedness and fainting when a person stands up quickly or stands for a long period of time. Those who perform strenuous work outside in warm climates are at particular risk.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Heat syncope\n\nHeat syncope is fainting or dizziness as a result of overheating (\"syncope\" is the medical term for fainting). It is a type of heat illness. The basic symptom of heat syncope is fainting, with or without mental confusion. Heat syncope is caused by peripheral vessel dilation, resulting in diminished blood flow to the brain and dehydration.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nFaintness, dizziness, headache, increased pulse, restlessness, nausea, vomiting, and brief loss of consciousness.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Uhthoff's phenomenon\n\nUhthoff's phenomenon (also known as Uhthoff's syndrome, Uhthoff's sign, and Uhthoff's symptom) is the worsening of neurologic symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS) and other neurological, demyelinating conditions when the body gets overheated from hot weather, exercise, fever, or saunas and hot tubs. It is possibly due to the effect of increased temperature on nerve conduction. With an increased body temperature, nerve impulses are either blocked or slowed down in a damaged nerve but once the body temperature is normalized, signs and symptoms may disappear or improve.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "In severe heat stroke, they may be confused, hostile, or seemingly intoxicated behavior. Heart rate and respiration rate will increase (tachycardia and tachypnea) as blood pressure drops and the heart attempts to maintain adequate circulation. The decrease in blood pressure can then cause blood vessels to contract reflexively, resulting in a pale or bluish skin color in advanced cases. Young children, in particular, may have seizures. Eventually, organ failure, unconsciousness and death will result.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Heat stroke generally presents with a hyperthermia of greater than in combination with disorientation and a lack of sweating. Before a heat stroke occurs, people show signs of heat exhaustion such as dizziness, mental confusion, headaches, and weakness; if a heat stroke occurs when the person is asleep, symptoms may be harder to notice. However, in exertional heat stroke, the affected person may sweat excessively. Young children, in particular, may have seizures. Eventually, unconsciousness, organ failure, and death will result.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Biological.\n", "Rescuers who are trained in mountain survival techniques are taught to expect this; however, people who die from hypothermia in urban environments are sometimes incorrectly assumed to have been subjected to sexual assault.\n\nOne explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Terminal burrowing.\n", "Immersing a person into a tub of cold water (immersion method) is a widely recognized method of cooling. This method may require the effort of several people and the person should be monitored carefully during the treatment process. Immersion should be avoided for an unconscious person, but if there is no alternative, the person's head must be held above water.\n", "Heat stroke occurs because of high external temperatures or physical exertion. Risk factors include heat waves, high humidity, certain drugs such as diuretics, beta blockers, or alcohol, heart disease, and skin disorders. Cases not associated with physical exertion typically occur in those at the extremes of age or with long term health problems. Diagnosis is based on symptoms. It is a type of hyperthermia. It is distinct from a fever, where there is a physiological increase in the temperature set point.\n", "Heat exhaustion\n\nHeat exhaustion is a severe form of heat illness. It is a medical emergency. Heat exhaustion is caused by the loss of water and electrolytes through sweating. \n\nThe United States Department of Labor makes the following recommendation, \"Heat illness can be prevented. Remember these three things: water, rest, and shade.\"\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nCommon causes of heat exhaustion include:\n\nBULLET::::- Hot, sunny, humid weather\n\nBULLET::::- Physical exertion, especially in hot, humid weather\n", "Other signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.\n", "At normal body temperature of 37°C only several minutes of stopped blood circulation causes changes within the brain leading to permanent damage after circulation is restored. Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived. At a brain temperature of 14 °C, blood circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes. There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes, but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it. Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults.\n", "Many patients with MS experience increased fatigue and other symptoms such as pain, concentration difficulties, and urinary urgency when exposed to heat. As a result, many patients with MS tend to avoid saunas, warm baths, and other sources of heat or wear ice or evaporative cooling apparel in the form of vests, neck wraps, arm/wrist bands, and hats. \n", "Hypoglycemia is a frequent complication and needs to be tested for and treated. Intravenous thiamine and glucose is often recommended, as many causes of hypothermia are complicated by Wernicke's encephalopathy.\n\nThe UK National Health Service advises against putting a person in a hot bath, massaging their arms and legs, using a heating pad, or giving them alcohol. These measures can cause a rapid fall in blood pressure and potential cardiac arrest.\n\nSection::::Management.:Rewarming.\n", "Physical activity in extremely hot weather should be avoided. If a person starts to experience over heating, and symptoms of heat syncope, they should move or be moved to a shaded or cool area. It is also recommended to avoid alcoholic beverages in hot weather, because they cause dehydration which may worsen symptoms. Finally, drinking plenty of water with electrolytes is imperative when engaging in physical activity in hot weather.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "When body temperature is significantly elevated, mechanical cooling methods are used to remove heat and to restore the body's ability to regulate its own temperatures. Passive cooling techniques, such as resting in a cool, shady area and removing clothing can be applied immediately. Active cooling methods, such as sponging the head, neck, and trunk with cool water, remove heat from the body and thereby speed the body's return to normal temperatures. Drinking water and turning a fan or dehumidifying air conditioning unit on the affected person may improve the effectiveness of the body's evaporative cooling mechanisms (sweating).\n", "BULLET::::- – (Medical emergency) – Fainting, vomiting, severe headache, dizziness, confusion, hallucinations, delirium and drowsiness can occur. There may also be palpitations and breathlessness.\n\nBULLET::::- 40 °C (104 °F) – Fainting, dehydration, weakness, vomiting, headache, breathlessness and dizziness may occur as well as profuse sweating. Starts to be life-threatening.\n\nBULLET::::- – Severe sweating, flushed and red. Fast heart rate and breathlessness. There may be exhaustion accompanying this. Children and people with epilepsy may be very likely to get convulsions at this point.\n", "Heat stroke occurs when thermoregulation is overwhelmed by a combination of excessive metabolic production of heat (exertion), excessive environmental heat, and insufficient or impaired heat loss, resulting in an abnormally high body temperature. In severe cases, temperatures can exceed . Heat stroke may be \"non-exertional\" (classic) or \"exertional\".\n\nSection::::Causes.:Exertional.\n", "The carotid sinus can be oversensitive to manual stimulation, a condition known as carotid sinus hypersensitivity, carotid sinus syndrome or carotid sinus syncope, in which manual stimulation causes large changes in heart rate and/or blood pressure. This classically presents as a patient who has \"fainted\" (actually a presyncope) on several occasions while shaving, or in some other way coming into contact with their carotid sinus.\n\nCarotid sinus syndrome is a temporary loss of consciousness that sometimes accompanies convulsive seizures because of the intensity of the carotid sinus reflex when pressure builds in one or both carotid sinuses.\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "An early stage of hyperthermia can be \"heat exhaustion\" (or \"heat prostration\" or \"heat stress\"), whose symptoms can include heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak pulse. If the condition progresses to heat stroke, then hot, dry skin is typical as blood vessels dilate in an attempt to increase heat loss. An inability to cool the body through perspiration may cause the skin to feel dry. Hyperthermia from neurological disease may include little or no sweating, lack of heart rate change, and confusion or delirium.\n", "Heat exhaustion is considered by experts to be the forerunner of heat stroke (hyperthermia). It may even resemble heat stroke, with the difference being that the neurologic function remains intact. Heat exhaustion is marked by excessive dehydration and electrolyte depletion. Symptoms may include diarrhea, headache, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, tachycardia, malaise, and myalgia. Definitive therapy includes removing patients from the heat and replenishing their fluids. Most patients will require fluid replacement with IV isotonic fluids at first. The salt content is adjusted as necessary once the electrolyte levels are known. After discharge from the hospital, patients are instructed to rest, drink plenty of fluids for 2–3 hours, and avoid the heat for several days. If this advice is not followed it may then lead to heat stroke.\n", "When the body temperature reaches about , or if the affected person is unconscious or showing signs of confusion, hyperthermia is considered a medical emergency that requires treatment in a proper medical facility. In a hospital, more aggressive cooling measures are available, including intravenous hydration, gastric lavage with iced saline, and even hemodialysis to cool the blood.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Complications.\n", "BULLET::::- Some medications, like beta blockers and antipsychotic medicines\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSymptoms of heat exhaustion include nausea, dizziness, irritability, headache, thirst, weakness, high body temperature, excessive sweating, and decreased urine output.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:First aid.\n\nFirst aid for heat exhaustion includes:\n\nBULLET::::- Moving the person to a cool place\n\nBULLET::::- Having the patient take off extra layers of clothes\n\nBULLET::::- Cooling the patient down by fanning them and putting wet towels on their body\n\nBULLET::::- Having them lie down and put their feet up if they are feeling dizzy\n", "Hydration is important in cooling the person. In mild cases of concomitant dehydration, this can be achieved by drinking water, or commercial isotonic sports drinks may be used as a substitute. In exercise- or heat-induced dehydration, electrolyte imbalance can result, and can be worsened by excess consumption of water. Hyponatremia can be corrected by intake of hypertonic fluids. Absorption is rapid and complete in most people but if the person is confused, unconscious, or unable to tolerate oral fluid, then an intravenous drip may be necessary for rehydration and electrolyte replacement.\n" ]	[ "A person can feel faint after getting out of a hot bath." ]	[ "A person can feel faint when standing to exit the bath as their blood pressure drops a little more." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A person can feel faint after getting out of a hot bath." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A person can feel faint when standing to exit the bath as their blood pressure drops a little more." ]
2018-01709	Why do astronauts grow taller in during their time in space?	They don't really grow taller, their spine just stretches out due to the zero G environment. They shrink back when they go back to Earth. The same thing happens every night when you sleep, actually.	[ "However, since the mean fiber size was also reduced, the number of capillaries per unit of CSA of skeletal muscle tissue remained the same. \n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Experimental animal studies.:Effects of spaceflight and hindlimb suspension on muscle mass, protein content and gross morphological properties of skeletal muscle.\n", "With respect to the current issue of loss of muscle mass and function, two key studies were performed during the course of the three Skylab orbital missions. First, leg and arm volumes were calculated by measuring the girth (circumference) of contiguous 3-centimeter arm and leg segments, treating all the segments as a short tapered cylinder, and then summing the segment volumes to obtain the volume of each extremity.\n", "Microgravity can also lead to height increases; in 2018 a Japanese astronout reported growing 2 centimetres in just three weeks of micro-gravity on board the International Space Station.\n\nSection::::Health effects of the micro-g environment.:Cardiovascular effects.\n", "In the Skylab 4 Commander, the loss in leg volume appears to be nearly 300 cc. (figure 6-2, topmost graph). Because the complement of exercise equipment for this mission was the largest (consisting of a cycle ergometer, passive treadmill, and the \"Mini gym\", modified commercial devices that provided the capability for low-load resistive exercises) losses in muscle mass and strength were less than in the previous two missions of shorter duration.\n", "On Skylab 4, the crew used the bicycle ergometer at essentially the same rate as on Skylab 3, as well as the MK-I and MK-II Mini Gym exercisers. In addition, they typically performed 10 minutes per day of walking, jumping and jogging on the treadmill. Food intake had again been increased.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Experimental animal studies.:Muscle fiber phenotype remodeling in response to spaceflight and hind-limb suspension.\n", "The second study included the first muscle strength measurements by means of a dynamometer. In addition to measurements relating directly to skeletal muscle strength and mass, indirect measurements were made that demonstrated that all Skylab crewmembers had a negative nitrogen balance indicative of skeletal muscle attrition. This was also observed 10 years later in short-duration Space Shuttle crewmembers.\n", "The same effect can be observed for long flight Astronauts or Cosmonauts. While they still use their arms in an almost normal manner due to the lack of gravity in space there are no maximum forces induced on the bones of the legs. On earth, long term players of racquet sports experience similar effects, where the dominant arm can have 30% more bone than the other due to the asymmetric applications of force.\n", "A second device, designated \"MK-II\", consisted of a pair of handles between which up to five extension springs could be attached, allowing development of maximum forces of 25 pounds per foot. These two devices were flown on Skylab 3, and in-flight nutrition support and exercise time and food were increased. The crew performed many repetitions per day of their favorite maneuvers on the MK-I and to a lesser extent, on the MK-II. Also, the average amount of work done on the bicycle ergometer was more than doubled on Skylab 3, with all crewmembers participating actively.\n", "days after their return to Earth (Figures 14 and 15).\n", "Upper and lower limb volumes obtained on the three crewmembers of Skylab 4 are shown in figure 6-2. Fluid shifts contributed the largest changes to lower limb volumes, but loss of leg tissue mass is clearly evident, particularly in the Commander. As shown in the graphs, significant loss of leg volume occurs within the first few days of microgravity exposure while changes in the upper limbs are less remarkable. Upon return to Earth, much of the loss of leg volume is corrected and there is often a short over-correction or overshoot. Once this fluid shift resolves, the true loss of muscle mass remaining in the legs is revealed that more slowly returns to the baseline or preflight level (see figure 6-2, leg during recovery on right side of graph for all three crewmembers).\n", "Section::::Future exploration missions.:Lunar sortie missions.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Experimental animal studies.:Metabolic processes.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Experimental animal studies.:Functional correlates to the alterations in muscle mass and contractile phenotype in response to spaceflight.\n", "Section::::Future exploration missions.:Mars outpost.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Experimental animal studies.:Activity patterns during spaceflight.\n", "Section::::Future exploration missions.\n", "Bone remodels in response to stress in order to maintain constant strain energy per bone mass throughout. To do this, it grows more dense in areas experiencing high stress, while resorbing density in areas experiencing low stress. On Mars, where gravity is about one-third that of earth, the gravitational forces acting on astronauts' bodies would be much lower, causing bones to decrease in mass and density.\n\nAverage bone loss of 1-2% was recorded in astronauts on Mir each month. This is in comparison to 1–1.5% bone loss in the elderly \"per year\", and 2–3% in postmenopausal women.\n\nSection::::Countermeasures.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Other human spaceflight.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Experimental animal studies.:Effects of spaceflight on non-human primates.\n", "BULLET::::- The results of lunar analog studies will be invaluable for the design and planning of a Martian outpost mission.\n\nSection::::Current gaps.:Exploration mission operational scenarios.\n", "Section::::Songs.\n", "However, the data depicted in table 6-1 may be somewhat misleading because in some cases there were tremendous differences in strength between crewmembers who exercised during flight versus those who did not. For example, some crewmembers who exercised during flight actually gained in isokinetically measured strength in the ankle extensor/flexor muscles (anterior versus posterior calf muscles, that is \"m. tibialis anterior\" versus the gastrocnemius/soleus complex) compared to crewmembers who did not exercise and who actually showed a decrease in isokinetically measured strength in these muscles (figure 6-6).\n", "Upon their return to Earth and even before muscle testing, it was apparent that the Skylab 4 crewmembers were in very good physical condition. They were able to stand and walk for long periods without apparent difficulty on the day after landing (R+1), in contrast to the crewmembers from the earlier two missions. Results of strength testing confirmed a surprisingly small loss in leg strength even after nearly 3 months of microgravity exposure (figure 6-3). In fact, knee extensor strength increased over the pre-flight level (figure 6-13).\n\nSection::::Historical overview.:U.S. human spaceflight programs.:Space Shuttle.\n" ]	[ "Astronauts grow taller in space.", "Astronauts actually grow taller in space." ]	[ "Astronauts do not grow taller their spine just expands in space and shrinks back down on earth. ", "Astronauts do not grow, their spines just elongates due to the lack of consistent downward gravity directly pushing it together. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Astronauts grow taller in space.", "Astronauts actually grow taller in space." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Astronauts do not grow taller their spine just expands in space and shrinks back down on earth. ", "Astronauts do not grow, their spines just elongates due to the lack of consistent downward gravity directly pushing it together. " ]
2018-14662	Why do religious people have death anxiety	This is somewhat of a false premise and a gross generalization. Many people have death anxiety. Why? Because avoiding death is the most powerful biological urge there is. Even those that fully accept that life will just move on and they will in fact move to a better place, can be afraid of change for its own sake.	[ "The thought of death may cause different degrees of anxiety for different individuals, depending on many factors.\n\nA 2012 study involving Christian and Muslim college-students from the US, Turkey, and Malaysia found that their religiosity correlated positively with an increased fear of death.\n\nOther studies have found that a strong sense of religion in a person's life can relate to a lower sense of anxiety towards death. Although there has been no association discovered between religiosity and death anxiety, it has also been shown that death anxiety tends to be lower in individuals who regularly attend religious meetings or gatherings.\n", "A 2017 review of the literature found that in the US, both the very religious and the not-at-all religious enjoy a lower level of death anxiety and that a reduction is common with old age.\n\nSection::::Children.\n", "A 2010 study asked one hundred and sixty-five church participants to fill out the \"Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale, the Revised Death Anxiety Scale\" and the results were analyzed using factor analyses, Pearson correlation, and linear and quadratic regression. All found an inverse relationship between intrinsic religious motivation and death anxiety. This suggested that the more religious a person is, the less anxious they may be about death, possibly associating it with an expected afterlife. The study also found that gender did not have an effect on religiosity and total death anxiety.\n", "Psychologists have tested the hypotheses that fear of death motivates religious commitment, and that assurances about an afterlife alleviate the fear; however, empirical research on this topic has been equivocal. Religiosity can be related to fear of death when the afterlife is portrayed as time of punishment. \"Intrinsic religiosity\", as opposed to mere \"formal religious involvement\", has been found to be negatively correlated with death anxiety. In a 1976 study of people of various Christian denominations, those who were most firm in their faith, who attended religious services weekly, were the least afraid of dying. The survey found a negative correlation between fear of death and \"religious concern\".\n", "In a 2006 study of white, Christian men and women the hypothesis was tested that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are ways of approaching fear of death in old age. Both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Fear of the unknown.\n", "Research has found that strong belief in religious \"or\" secular meaning systems affords psychological security and hope. It is moderates (e.g. agnostics, slightly religious individuals) who likely suffer the most anxiety from their meaning systems. Religious meaning systems are especially adapted to manage anxiety about death or dying because they are unlikely to be disconfirmed (for various reasons), they are all encompassing, and they promise literal immortality.\n", "A 1997 study by O'Laoire measured the effects on the agents performing daily prayers and reported benefits not only for the beneficiaries, but also for the agents, and the benefit levels correlated with the belief levels of agents and beneficiaries in some cases. The study measured anxiety and depression. This study used beneficiary names as well as photographs.\n\nSection::::Studies.:Sicher.\n", "This form of contemplation by focusing the mind on God and praying to God unceasingly looks for its inspiration to the Bible, (the pure of heart will see God), and to the compilation Philokalia. The tradition of contemplation with inner silence or tranquility, having its roots in the Egyptian traditions of monasticism exemplified by such monastics as St Anthony of Egypt, is shared by Christian ascetics.\n", "Mayo Clinic researchers examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality, and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes. The authors reported that: \"Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide.\"\n", "Finding solace in religion is another method to cope with one's fear. Having something to answer your questions regarding your fears, such as, what happens after death or if there is an afterlife, can help mitigate one's fear of death because there is no room for uncertainty as their questions are answered. Religion offers a method of being able to understand and make sense of one's fears rather than ignore them.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Death.\n", "When a patient is at the end of life, one of the most important things that a lot of them want to talk to their physicians about is their spirituality. Regardless of this desire, less than 50% of physicians believe that it is their job to address these religious concerns, and only a minority of patients have been recorded to have had their spiritual needs met. According to a multiple site cohort study involving 343 advanced cancer patients, it was found that those who had their religious needs met were more likely than those who did not have their religious needs met to go through with more hospice care and to not get unnecessary treatments at the end of life, as well as the study showed that they ended up having higher quality of life scores than those who did not have their spiritual needs met.\n", "A study was conducted by Dr Roxane Gervais, a senior psychologist at the Health and Safety Laboratory in Stockport. She found that people who were more actively religious were more likely to report low levels of anxiety, depression and fatigue and also felt a higher presence of meaning in life. These people also took less sick days. She concluded that employers should accommodate time for employees to engage in religious beliefs while at work in order to improve performance.\n\nSection::::Religious coping in clinical settings.\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Casuals\" are the people who see religious and/or spiritual practices as primarily functional. Spirituality is not an organizing principle in their lives. Rather they believe it should be used on an as-needed basis for bettering their health, relieving stress, and for emotional support. The spirituality of \"Casuals\" is thus best understood as a \"therapeutic\" spirituality that centers on the individual's personal wellbeing.\n", "Exline et al. 1999 showed that the difficulty in forgiving God and alienation from God were associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety. Among those who currently believed in God, forgiving God for a specific, unfortunate incident predicted lower levels of anxious and depressed mood.\n\nSection::::Dimensions of health.:Mental health.:Schizophrenia and Psychosis.\n", "Most research done on terror management theory revolves around the mortality salience paradigm. It has been found that religious individuals as well as religious fundamentalists are less vulnerable to mortality salience manipulations, and so religious believers engage in cultural worldview defense to a lesser extent than nonreligious individuals.\n\nSection::::Self-esteem.\n", "Those who feel conflicted about religion may encounter a decline in their health, both mentally and physically. Research has shown that those who have religious struggles could have higher depression and anxiety levels. The risk of suicide is even elevated when struggle is present within religion. These struggles have been linked to a separation from the church or the divine; however the cause for the separation is unknown and may stem from different events throughout life such as a traumatic death in the family, difficult life events, or a mental battle between oneself. More research is needed to validate the causes of religious separation and how it effect one's personality.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Would you like for us to contact your clergy member or religious advisor?\".\"\n\nSection::::Role of spirituality in illness.\n\nThe prospect of death may lead a patient to deal with questions related to meaning of life, such as \"Why is this happening to me?\" or \"Is there a God?\"\n\nSection::::Self-care.\n\nLi and Shun (2016) focused on self care coping styles in patients with chronic heart failure found that spiritual and religious support affects heart failure patients coping with both physical and psychological self-care.\n\nSection::::Applications in health care.\n\nSection::::Applications in health care.:Third-party professional aid.\n", "One scientific movement attempts to track the physical effects of prayer through neuroscience. Leaders in this movement include Andrew Newberg, an Associate Professor at the University of Pennsylvania. In Newberg's brain scans, monks, priests, nuns, sisters and gurus alike have exceptionally focused attention and compassion sites. This is a result of the frontal lobe of the brain’s engagement (Newberg, 2009). Newburg believes that anybody can connect to the supernatural with practice. Those without religious affiliations benefit from the connection to the metaphysical as well. Newberg also states that further evidence towards humans' need for metaphysical relationships is that as science had increased spirituality has not decreased. Newburg believes that at the end of the 18th century, when the scientific method began to consume the human mind, religion could have vanished. However, two hundred years later, the perception of spirituality, in many instances, appears to be gaining in strength (2009). Newberg's research also provides the connection between prayer and meditation and health. By understanding how the brain works during religious experiences and practices Newberg's research shows that the brain changes during these practices allowing an understanding of how religion affects psychological and physical health (2009). For example, brain activity during meditation indicates that people who frequently practice prayer or meditation experience lower blood-pressure, lower heart rates, decreased anxiety, and decreased depression.\n", "In a case-control study done following 5,286 Californians over a 28-year period in which variables were controlled for (i.e. age, race/ethnicity, gender, education level), participants who went to church on a frequent basis (defined as attending a religious service once a week or more) were 36% less likely to die during that period. However, this can be partly be attributed to a better lifestyle since religious people tend to drink and smoke less and eat a healthier diet.\n\nSection::::Dimensions of health.:Mental health.\n", "b. We display the courage to be when facing this anxiety by displaying true faith, and by again, self-affirming oneself. We draw from the \"power of being\" which is God for Tillich and use that faith to in turn affirm ourselves and negate the non-being. We can find our meaning and purpose through the \"power of being\" (172-73).\n", "Researchers in a 2000 study found religious delusions to be unrelated to any specific set of diagnostic criteria, but correlated with demographic criteria, primarily age. In a comparative study sampling 313 patients, those with religious delusion were found to be aged older, and had been placed on a drug regime or started a treatment programme at an earlier stage. In the context of presentation, their global functioning was found to be worse than another group of patients without religious delusions. The first group also scored higher on the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS), had a greater total on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), and were treated with a higher mean number of neuroleptic medications of differing types during their hospitalization.\n", "In Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role. Awareness of death was what motivated Prince Siddhartha to strive to find the \"deathless\" and finally to attain enlightenment. In Buddhist doctrine, death functions as a reminder of the value of having been born as a human being. Being reborn as a human being is considered the only state in which one can attain enlightenment. Therefore, death helps remind oneself that one should not take life for granted. The belief in rebirth among Buddhists does not necessarily remove death anxiety, since all existence in the cycle of rebirth is considered filled with suffering, and being reborn many times does not necessarily mean that one progresses.\n", "Additionally, there is anxiety caused by death-recent thought-content, which might be classified within a clinical setting by a psychiatrist as morbid and/or abnormal, which for classification pre-necessitates a degree of anxiety which is persistent and interferes with everyday functioning. Lower ego integrity, more physical problems and more psychological problems are predictive of higher levels of death anxiety in elderly people perceiving themselves close to death.\n\nDeath anxiety can cause extreme timidness with a person's attitude towards discussing organ donation and anything to do with death.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nRobert Langs distinguishes three types of death anxiety:\n\nSection::::Types.:Predatory death anxiety.\n", "This extract does not explain on what grounds Le Goff argued that prayer for the dead was not in use in the first half of the 2nd century BC. The account of the action of Judas Maccabaeus was written midway through the second half of the same century, in about 124 B.C., and in the view of Philip Schaff its mention of prayer for the dead \"seems to imply habit\".\n\nSection::::Taoism.\n\nTaoists chant Qinghuahao (青華誥) or Jiukujing (救苦經).\n\nSection::::Bahá'í Faith.\n", "Religious delusions have generally been found to be less stressful than other types of delusion. A study found adherents to new religious movements to have similar delusionary cognition, as rated by the Delusions Inventory, to a psychotic group, although the former reported feeling less distressed by their experiences than the latter.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nBehaviours out of the ordinary were traditionally viewed as demonic possession. These episodes, although entirely disavowed by modern psychiatry, are evaluated by clinicians only such that they fall within the safety of a treatment programme.\n" ]	[ "religous people have a death anxiety.", "Religious people have death anxiety. " ]	[ "This s a false premise and a gross generalization.", "It is inaccurate to say that religious people have death anxiety, many people fear death, and many do not, religion in most cases doesn't determine whether one is anxious to die or not." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "religous people have a death anxiety.", "Religious people have death anxiety. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "This s a false premise and a gross generalization.", "It is inaccurate to say that religious people have death anxiety, many people fear death, and many do not, religion in most cases doesn't determine whether one is anxious to die or not." ]
2018-00542	Why are spiderwebs so durable and what are they made of? Do we have a synthetic equivalent?	It is made of spider silk, a sort of protein. And we do not have a synthetic equivalent - but we really would like to. That stuff is pure magic and a true SciFi material that would allow us to replace steel cables with something much lighter, thinner and stronger, would open whole new ideas reagarding super strong, super light fabric. It probably would even let us construct a [Space Elevator]( URL_0 ) if we had the ability to mass produce it.	[ "In traditional European medicine, cobwebs were used on wounds and cuts and seem to help healing and reduce bleeding. Spider webs are rich in vitamin K, which can be effective in clotting blood. Webs were used several hundred years ago as gauze pads to stop an injured person's bleeding.\n\nSpider web strands have been used for crosshairs or reticles in telescopes.\n\nDevelopment of technologies to mass-produce spider silk has led to manufacturing of prototype military protection, medical devices, and consumer goods.\n\nSection::::Adhesive properties.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Mechanical properties.:Highest-performance.\n\nThe toughest known spider silk is produced by the species Darwin's bark spider (\"Caerostris darwini\"): \"The toughness of forcibly silked fibers averages 350 MJ/m, with some samples reaching 520 MJ/m. Thus, \"C. darwini\" silk is more than twice as tough as any previously described silk, and over 10 times tougher than Kevlar\".\n\nSection::::Properties.:Adhesive properties.\n", "Spider web\n\nA spider web, spiderweb, spider's web, or cobweb (from the archaic word \"\", meaning \"spider\") is a structure created by a spider out of proteinaceous spider silk extruded from its spinnerets, generally meant to catch its prey.\n\nSpider webs have existed for at least 100 million years, as witnessed in a rare find of Early Cretaceous amber from Sussex, southern England.\n", "which are decorative objects hung from the ceiling. Various materials are used to make them, including tissue paper cut, wrapped or manipulated into flowers or garland. “It was probably this enormous variety of form of spider girandoles that caused them to occur practically universally throughout Poland.” “The most recent version of spider girandoles were festoons and garlands of tissue which were stretched starwise at the ceiling.\"\n", "Section::::Artificial synthesis.:Other artificial shapes formed from silk.\n\nSilk can be formed into other shapes and sizes such as spherical capsules for drug delivery, cell scaffolds and wound healing, textiles, cosmetics, coatings, and many others. Spider silk proteins can also self-assemble on superhydrophobic surfaces to generate nanowires, as well as micron-sized circular sheets.\n\nSection::::Research milestones.\n", "Development of methods to mass-produce spider silk has led to manufacturing of military, medical and consumer goods, such as ballistics armour, athletic footwear, personal care products, breast implant and catheter coatings, mechanical insulin pumps, fashion clothing, and outerwear.\n\nSection::::Attempts at producing synthetic spider silk.\n", "The tensile strength of spider silk is greater than the same weight of steel and has much greater elasticity. Its microstructure is under investigation for potential applications in industry, including bullet-proof vests and artificial tendons. Researchers have used genetically modified mammals to produce the proteins needed to make this material.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThere are a few types of spider webs found in the wild, and many spiders are classified by the webs they weave. Different types of spider webs include:\n\nBULLET::::- Spiral orb webs, associated primarily with the family Araneidae, as well as Tetragnathidae and Uloboridae\n", "In addition to medical uses of arachnid defense compounds, a great amount of research has recently been directed toward the synthesis and use of spider silk as a scaffolding for ligament generation. Spider silk is an ideal material for the synthesis of medical skin grafts or ligament implants because it is one of the strongest known natural fibers and triggers little immune response in animals. Spider silk may also be used to make fine sutures for stitching nerves or eyes to heal with little scarring. Medical uses of spider silk is not a new idea. Spider silks have been used for thousands of years to fight infection and heal wounds. Efforts to produce industrial quantities and qualities of spider silk in transgenic goat milk are underway.\n", "Spider silk is the strongest natural fiber known. The strongest dragline silk is five times stronger than steel and three times tougher than Kevlar. It is also highly elastic, the silk of the ogre-faced spider can be stretched six times its original length without damage. As of 2005, there is no synthetic material in production that can match spider silk, but it is actively being sought by the U.S. military for such applications as body armour, parachutes and rope. Genetically engineered goats have been raised to produce spider silk in their milk at a cost of around $1,500 per gram.\n", "Replicating the complex conditions required to produce fibres that are comparable to spider silk has proven difficult in research and early-stage manufacturing. Through genetic engineering, \"Escherichia coli\" bacteria, yeasts, plants, silkworms, and animals have been used to produce spider silk proteins, which have different, simpler characteristics than those from a spider. Artificial spider silks have fewer and simpler proteins than natural dragline silk, and are consequently half the diameter, strength, and flexibility of natural dragline silk.\n", "Spider web silk is as strong as the Kevlar used in bulletproof vests. Engineers could in principle use such a material, if it could be reengineered to have a long enough life, for parachute lines, suspension bridge cables, artificial ligaments for medicine, and other purposes. The self-sharpening teeth of many animals have been copied to make better cutting tools.\n\nNew ceramics that exhibit giant electret hysteresis have also been realized.\n\nSection::::Bio-inspired technologies.:Self healing materials.\n", "Many spiders build webs specifically to catch insects to eat. However, not all spiders catch their prey in webs, and some do not build webs at all. \"Spider web\" is typically used to refer to a web that is apparently still in use (i.e. clean), whereas \"cobweb\" refers to abandoned (i.e. dusty) webs. However, the word \"cobweb\" is also used by biologists to describe the tangled three-dimensional web of some spiders of the Theridiidae family. While this large family is known as the cobweb spiders, they actually have a huge range of web architectures; other names for this spider family include tangle-web spiders and comb-footed spiders. \n", "BULLET::::- 500 pyriform glands for attachment points\n\nBULLET::::- 4 ampullate glands for the web frame\n\nBULLET::::- about 300 aciniform glands for the outer lining of egg sacs, and for ensnaring prey\n\nBULLET::::- 4 tubuliform glands for egg sac silk\n\nBULLET::::- 4 aggregate glands for adhesive functions\n\nBULLET::::- 2 coronate glands for the thread of adhesion lines\n\nSection::::Artificial synthesis.\n", "Cobweb paintings, which began during the 16th century in a remote valley of the Austrian Tyrolean Alps, were created on fabrics consisting of layered and wound cobwebs, stretched over cardboard to make a mat, and strengthened by brushing with milk diluted in water. A small brush was then used to apply watercolor to the cobwebs, or custom tools to create engravings. Fewer than a hundred cobweb paintings survive today, most of which are held in private collections.\n", "Because spider silk is both light and strong, attempts are being made to produce it in goats' milk and in the leaves of plants, by means of genetic engineering.\n\nSection::::In medicine.\n", "The silk of \"Nephila clavipes\" was used in research concerning mammalian neuronal regeneration.\n\nSpider silk has been used as a thread for crosshairs in optical instruments such as telescopes, microscopes, and telescopic rifle sights. In 2011, spider silk fibres were used in the field of optics to generate very fine diffraction patterns over N-slit interferometric signals used in optical communications. In 2012, spider silk fibres were used to create a set of violin strings.\n", "A dragline silk's tensile strength is comparable to that of high-grade alloy steel (450−2000 MPa), and about half as strong as aramid filaments, such as Twaron or Kevlar (3000 MPa). In 2018, a wood-based nanofiber achieved tensile stiffness eight times greater and with higher tensile strength than spider silk.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Mechanical properties.:Density.\n", "Recent studies have shown that hagfish slime has similar properties of spider silk, strong and light. If hagfish slime could be replicated in laboratories it could replace artificial materials, like nylon, in women's stockings and workout pants. This would ultimately be better for the environment since nylon is produced from petroleum, and hagfish slime threads could be implanted into bacterium and grown with no harm to the environment.\n\nSection::::Egg characteristics.\n", "Research has since continued with the help of Randy Lewis, a professor formerly at the University of Wyoming and now at Utah State University. He was also able to successfully breed spider goats in order to create artificial silk. As of 2012, there are about 30 spider goats at a university-run farm. The U.S. Navy has plans to turn this silk into a tool for stopping vessels by entangling their propellers.\n", "BULLET::::- A span set or daisy chain can be used to add length to the silks if needed; they can also be used to wrap around a beam.\n\nBULLET::::- A span set is a polyester loop that can hold up to 44kN (10,000 lbs), depending on the quality.\n", "BULLET::::- Extrusion of protein fibres in an aqueous environment is known as \"wet-spinning\". This process has so far produced silk fibres of diameters ranging from 10 to 60 μm, compared to diameters of 2.5–4 μm for natural spider silk.\n\nBULLET::::- In March 2010, researchers from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology succeeded in making spider silk directly using the bacteria \"E. coli\", modified with certain genes of the spider Nephila clavipes. This approach eliminates the need to milk spiders and allows the manufacture of the spider silk in a more cost-effective manner.\n", "Meeting the specification for all these ecological uses requires different types of silk suited to different broad properties, as either a fibre, a structure of fibres, or a silk-globule. These types include glues and fibres. Some types of fibres are used for structural support, others for constructing protective structures. Some can absorb energy effectively, whereas others transmit vibration efficiently. In a spider, these silk types are produced in different glands; so the silk from a particular gland can be linked to its use by the spider.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Mechanical properties.\n", "Silk and other fibers have been commonly used in the manufacture of various banknote papers, intended to provide both additional durability and security. Crane and Company patented banknote paper with embedded silk threads in 1844 and has supplied paper to the United States Treasury since 1879. Banknotes printed on pure silk \"paper\" include \"emergency money\" Notgeld issues from a number of German towns in 1923 during a period of fiscal crisis and hyperinflation. Most notoriously, Bielefeld produced a number of silk, leather, velvet, linen and wood issues. These issues were produced primarily for collectors, rather than for circulation. They are in demand by collectors. Banknotes printed on cloth include a number of Communist Revolutionary issues in China from areas such as Xinjiang, or Sinkiang, in the United Islamic Republic of East Turkestan in 1933. Emergency money was also printed in 1902 on khaki shirt fabric during the Boer War.\n", "Many species of spider have different glands to produce silk with different properties for different purposes, including housing, web construction, defence, capturing and detaining prey, egg protection, and mobility (fine \"gossamer\" thread for ballooning, or for a strand allowing the spider to drop down as silk is extruded). Different specialised silks have evolved with properties suitable for different uses. For example, \"Argiope argentata\" has five different types of silk, each used for a different purpose:\n\nSection::::Structural.\n\nSection::::Structural.:Macroscopic structure down to protein hierarchy.\n", "Many spiders use especially fine silk called \"gossamer\" to lift themselves off a surface, and silk also may be used by a windblown spider to anchor itself to stop its journey. The term \"gossamer\" is used metaphorically for any exceedingly fine thread or fabric. Biologists also apply the term \"balloon silk\" to the threads that mechanically lift and drag systems.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18959	Why is paper usually hot in a short time after printing?	Simply put: printers that use toner have a device within,called a fuser, which heats the toner, melting it to the paper. That’s why the paper is warm.	[ "Process: A special \"heat sensitized\" paper is fed into the copier in direct contact to the original. There is a strong lamp within the machine that heats both original and the \"heat sensitized\" copy paper. Due to its absorption of heat strokes of black colour areas in the original are hotter than the white areas which reflect light and do not become so hot. These black areas of the original being hot and pressed against the copy paper, make areas with \"heat-sensitive\" substrate in contact with them to become darker.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Process: A special \"thermo-sensitive\" paper is fed into the copier at the same time but in indirect contact to the original. The thermo-sensitive paper is actually feed between the thermal head and the platen. The copier, while scanning the original, sends an electric current to some selected heating elements of the thermal head, which generate heat. The heated elements correspond to the black areas of the original and, being pressed against the copy paper, make the areas they touch on the \"thermo-sensitive\" substrate, to become darker.\n\nSection::::Heating lamp type.\n", "There are several types of thermal printers, among them and marketed at present time as \"Tattoo transfer copiers\", there are two main types made by different manufactures: Thermo-head type and Heat lamp type\n\nSection::::Thermo-head type.\n\nThe black parts on the original sheet, once scanned, make the copier activate the heating elements that produce some chemical reactions on the \"thermo-sensitive\" copy paper that darkens its surface\n", "Texas Instruments invented the thermal print head in 1965, and the Silent 700, a computer terminal with a thermal printer, was released in the market in 1969. The Silent 700 was the first thermal print system that printed on thermal paper. During the 1970s, Hewlett-Packard integrated thermal paper printers into the design of its HP9800 series desktop computers, and integrated it into the top of the 2600-series CRT terminals as well as in plotters.\n", "A thermal printer comprises these key components:\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal head: generates heat; prints on paper\n\nBULLET::::- Platen: a rubber roller that feeds paper\n\nBULLET::::- Spring: applies pressure to the thermal head, causing it to contact the thermosensitive paper\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Printing text on the thermal printer is as easy as writing to the device:\n\nCommands are sent as binary. This will cause the paper in the thermal printer to be cut:\n\nSection::::Interface.:Interface Examples.:Printer status.\n", "A \"make-ready\" is the preparatory work carried out by the pressmen to get the printing press up to the required quality of impression. Included in make-ready is the time taken to mount the plate onto the machine, clean up any mess from the previous job, and get the press up to speed. As soon as the pressman decides that the printing is correct, all the make-ready sheets will be discarded, and the press will start making books. Similar make readies take place in the folding and binding areas, each involving spoilage of paper.\n\nSection::::Modern manufacturing.:Processes.:Binding.\n", "Solid contaminants in ink blocks can clog printhead nozzles when using original or compatible inks, and may require costly printhead replacement. For this reason, many third-party ink manufacturers provide a guarantee and will pay for the replacement of a damaged printhead. Xerox also provides its own warranty.\n\nWhen the device is cold, the first page may take several minutes to print. However, once the printer is warmed up, the additional time to print the first page is negligible.\n", "Early formulations of the thermo-sensitive coating used in thermal paper were sensitive to incidental heat, abrasion, friction (which can cause heat, thus darkening the paper), light (which can fade printed images), and water. Later thermal coating formulations are far more stable; in practice, thermally printed text should remain legible at least 50 days.\n", "BULLET::::- The Ink or Toner does not absorb into the substrate, as does conventional ink, but forms a layer on the surface and may be fused to the substrate by using an inline fuser fluid with heat process (toner) or UV curing process (ink).\n\nBULLET::::- It generally requires less waste in terms of chemicals used and paper wasted in set up or makeready (bringing the image \"up to color\" and checking position).\n", "Thermographic printing\n\nThermographic printing refers to two types of printing, both of which rely on heat to create the letters or images on a sheet of paper. \n\nThe simplest type of thermography is where the paper has been coated with a material that changes colour on heating. This is called thermal printing and was used in older model fax machines and is used in most shop till receipt printers. This is called direct thermal.\n\nMore complex is thermal transfer printing that melts print off a ribbon and onto the sheet of paper.\n\nSection::::Thermography as raised print process.\n", "In the 19th century, hot stamping became a popular method of applying gold tooling or embossing in book printing. The first patent for hot stamping was recorded in Germany by Ernst Oeser in 1892. Originally used on leather and paper, the method became a popular means of marking plastic from the 1950s on. It is also one of the most commonly used methods of security printing.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "The bamboo-sheath covering the baren may need to be renewed after a day's printing. Rewrapping requires great skill; a printer's ability is sometimes judged by their competence carrying out this work.\n", "Thermal printing\n\nThermal printing (or direct thermal printing) is a digital printing process which produces a printed image by selectively heating coated thermochromic paper, or thermal paper as it is commonly known, when the paper passes over the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. Two-color direct thermal printers can print both black and an additional color (often red) by applying heat at two different temperatures.\n\nThermal transfer printing is a very different method that uses a heat-sensitive ribbon instead of heat-sensitive paper, but uses similar thermal print heads.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Some printers use a very thin flexible metal foil roller, so there is less thermal mass to be heated and the fuser can more quickly reach operating temperature. If paper moves through the fuser more slowly, there is more roller contact time for the toner to melt, and the fuser can operate at a lower temperature. Smaller, inexpensive laser printers typically print slowly, due to this energy-saving design, compared to large high speed printers where paper moves more rapidly through a high-temperature fuser with a very short contact time.\n\nSection::::Printing process.:Cleaning and recharging.\n", "Most block-books before about 1480 were printed on only one side of the paper — if they were printed by rubbing it would be difficult to print on both sides without damaging the first one to be printed. Many were printed with two pages per sheet, producing a book with opening of two printed pages, followed by openings with two blank pages (as earlier in China). The blank pages were then glued together to produce a book looking like a type-printed one. Where both sides of a sheet have been printed, it is presumed a printing-press was used.\n", "BULLET::::- Thermal Transparencies - They have a layer of silver salt / silver halide. When any part of it is heated it becomes dark brown\n\nBULLET::::- Heat shield for silk-screen printing. These screens have a special emulsion. When heated, the emulsion is burned revealing silk screen.\n\nBULLET::::- Paper Masters for alcohol copiers. Of great use today in the tattoo technique. Each master has 4 sheets\n\nBULLET::::- The top sheet is white. This is the layer where the image will be transferred.\n", "Section::::Service providers.:POD enablement.\n", "The ink must be heated, and a large portion of the printing mechanism must be kept at or near the ink's melting point during use. When the printer is in \"sleep mode\", most units keep a small pool of each color wax within the printhead heated to a temperature just above the ink's \"freeze point\". According to the Xerox service manual, this consumes about 50 watts.\n", "The third section of the process conveys the product through a radiant oven where it is exposed to temperatures of 900 to 1300 degrees Fahrenheit. The heating process takes on the order of 2.5 to 3 seconds. The substrate (usually paper) has a peak in IR absorption at the wavelength used. Through conduction from the paper, the powder temperature rapidly increases and starts melting. When the process is correctly adjusted, the center of the largest filmed areas reach sufficient quality level as the product exits the heater. The melted ink then solidifies as the product cools.\n", "Commercial quality heat transfer paper used in a heat press will yield much better results in terms of 'hand' (how the print feels on the fabric) and durability than store bought papers or transfers applied with a home iron.\n\nThe advantages of commercial heat transfer over screenprinting are that it is relatively cheap and easy to create one-off, full color designs. Also, when compared with dye sublimation techniques, heat transfers can be used on 100% cotton garments, whereas dye sublimation requires at least a 50/50 poly cotton garment.\n", "Many popular microcomputer systems from the late 1970s and early 1980s had first-party and aftermarket thermal printers available for them - such as the Atari 822 printer for the Atari 8-bit systems, the Apple Silentype for the Apple II and the Alphacom 32 for the Sinclair ZX Spectrum and ZX81. They often used unusually-sized supplies (10CM wide rolls for the Alphacom 32 for instance) and were often used for making permanent records of information in the computer (graphics, program listings etc.), rather than for correspondence.\n", "Section::::Web-fed offset.:Coldset web offset.\n\nThis is also a subset of web offset printing, typically used for lower quality print output. It is typical of newspaper production. In this process, the ink dries by absorption into the underlying paper. A typical coldset configuration is often a series of vertically arranged print units and peripherals. As newspapers seek new markets, which often imply higher quality (more gloss, more contrast), they may add a heatset tower (with a dryer) or use UV (ultraviolet) based inks which \"cure\" on the surface by polymerisation rather than by evaporation or absorption.\n\nSection::::Sheet-fed vs. web-fed.\n", "Low-height pieces of wood or metal furniture are added to make up the blank areas of a page. The printer uses a mallet to strike a wooden block, which ensures tops (and only the tops) of the raised type blocks are all aligned so they will contact a flat sheet of paper simultaneously.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04008	Why do our face or ear turns red when we are embarrassed?	I'm not sure anybody knows for certain, but I've heard that it's essentially an involuntary reflex to show submission. When your face turns red, it's essentially showing "I'm vulnerable, so please don't hurt me". But I'm not totally sure.	[ "Flushing (physiology)\n\nFlushing is to become markedly red in the face and often other areas of the skin, from various physiological conditions. Flushing is generally distinguished, despite a close physiological relation between them, from blushing, which is milder, generally restricted to the face, cheeks or ears, and generally assumed to reflect emotional stress, such as embarrassment, anger, or romantic stimulation. Flushing is also a cardinal symptom of carcinoid syndrome—the syndrome that results from hormones (often serotonin or histamine) being secreted into systemic circulation.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In extreme cases a surgical procedure known as endoscopic transthoracic sympathicotomy (ETS) is available. Pioneered by surgeons in Sweden, this procedure has recently become increasingly controversial due to its many potential adverse effects. Patients who have undergone the procedure frequently complain of compensatory sweating and fatigue, with around 5% reconsidering getting the treatment. ETS is now normally only considered in extreme cases where other treatments have been ineffective.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The New Yorker - \"CRIMSON TIDE - What is blushing?, No one knows for sure, but it can ruin your life\" by Atul Gawande.\n", "Some people are very sensitive to emotional stress. Given a stimulus such as embarrassment, the person's sympathetic nervous system will cause blood vessels to open wide, flooding the skin with blood and resulting in reddening of the face. In some people, the ears, neck and upper chest may also blush. As well as causing redness, blushing can sometimes make the affected area feel hot.\n\n\"Erythrophobia\" is the fear of blushing, from and literally \"fear of redness\".\n\nSection::::Physiology of blushing.\n", "The temporary vasocongestion of the cheeks of the face is called blushing. It may be caused by the emotions of anger or embarrassment. The illness of rosacea is a chronic vasocongestion condition of the face that primarily affects the cheeks and nose, but may include other areas such as the eyes and chin.\n\nVasocongestion of the area around the human anus can lead to the formation of hemorrhoids.\n\nSection::::Human sexual behavior.\n", "Blushing\n\nBlushing is the reddening of a person's face due to psychological reasons. It is normally involuntary and triggered by emotional stress tying candor, such as that associated with passion, embarrassment, shyness, anger, or romantic stimulation.\n\nSevere blushing is common in people who suffer social anxiety in which the person experiences extreme and persistent anxiety in social and performance situation.\n\nSection::::Summary.\n", "There is evidence that the blushing region is anatomically different in structure. The facial skin, for example, has more capillary loops per unit area and generally more vessels per unit volume than other skin areas. In addition, blood vessels of the cheek are wider in diameter, are nearer the surface, and visibility is less diminished by tissue fluid. These specific characteristics of the architecture of the facial vessels led Wilkin in an overview of possible causes of facial flushing to the following conclusion: \"[...] increased capacity and greater visibility can account for the limited distribution of flushing\".\n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "A blush is a reddening of the cheeks and forehead bought about by increased capillary blood flow in the skin. It can also extend to the ears, neck and upper chest , an area termed the ‘blush region’. \n", "Idiopathic craniofacial erythema\n\nIdiopathic craniofacial erythema is a medical condition characterised by severe, uncontrollable, and frequently unprovoked, facial blushing.\n\nBlushing can occur at any time and is frequently triggered by even mundane events, such as, talking to friends, paying for goods in a shop, asking for directions or even simply making eye contact with another person.\n", "For many years, the cause of the condition was thought to be an anxiety problem, caused by a mental health disorder. However, in recent years experts in the field of the disorder believe it to be caused by an overactive sympathetic nervous system, an automatic response which sufferers have no mental control over. It is related to focal hyperhidrosis, more commonly known as excessive sweating, as it is caused by the same overactive nerves which cause excessive sweating. Sufferers of severe facial blushing commonly experience focal hyperhidrosis. Studies have also shown that patients with severe facial blushing or focal hyperhidrosis commonly have family members with one or both of the related disorders.\n", "Blushing is generally distinguished, despite a close physiological relation, from flushing, which is more intensive and extends over more of the body, and seldom has a mental source. If redness persists for abnormal amounts of time after blushing, then it may be considered an early sign of rosacea. Idiopathic craniofacial erythema is a medical condition where a person blushes strongly with little or no provocation. Just about any situation can bring on intense blushing and it may take one or two minutes for the blush to disappear. Severe blushing can make it difficult for the person to feel comfortable in either social or professional situations. People who have social phobia are particularly prone to idiopathic craniofacial erythema. Psychological treatments and medication can help control blushing.\n", "The bright coloration on the mantle of \"Peltodoris\" serves as aposematic signals which warns predators of protective mechanisms, making predators less likely to attack.\n\nSection::::Defense mechanisms.:Mucus.\n\nA colorless mucus secreted from the mantle of \"Peltodoris\" both when the animal is stressed and under normal conditions. The fluid has a relatively neutral pH between 6 and 7. However, it is uncertain whether the mucus plays a role in defense. \n\nSection::::Autotomy.\n", "In smooth muscle cells of blood vessels the principal effect of activation of these receptors is vasoconstriction. Blood vessels with α-adrenergic receptors are present in the skin, the sphincters of gastrointestinal system, kidney (renal artery) and brain. During the fight-or-flight response vasoconstriction results in decreased blood flow to these organs. This accounts for the pale appearance of the skin of an individual when frightened.\n", "Evidence for special vasodilation mechanisms was reported by Mellander and his colleagues (Mellander, Andersson, Afzelius, & Hellstrand. 1982). They studied buccal segments of the human facial veins in vitro. Unlike veins from other areas of the skin, facial veins responded with an active myogenic contraction to passive stretch and were therefore able to develop an intrinsic basal tone. Additionally Mellander et al. showed that the veins in this specific area were also supplied with beta-adrenoceptors in addition to the common alpha-adrenoceptors. These beta-adrenoceptors could exert a dilator mechanism on the above-described basal tone of the facial cutaneous venous plexus. Mellander and his colleagues propose that this mechanism is involved in emotional blushing. Drummond has partially confirmed this effect by pharmacological blocking experiments (Drummond. 1997). In a number of trials, he blocked both alpha-adrenergic receptors (with phentolamine) and beta-adrenergic receptors (with propranolol introduced\n", "According to Friedman, a young child in a compromising situation with a predatory adult might be helpless to prevent the negative outcome but is intuitively aware of the immodesty and inappropriateness of the adult's behavior.\n\nSection::::Quotes.\n\n\"If you help yourself to the benefits of being married when you are single, you're likely to help yourself to the benefits of being single when you're married.\"\n\nSection::::Publishing.\n", "During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms.\n", "It has also been suggested that blushing and flushing are the visible manifestations of the physiological rebound of the basic instinctual fight/flight mechanism, when physical action is not possible.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Vickers, S., \"MyBlushingCure.com: Free Information from a former blusher\", Australian Publisher, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Crozier, W. R., \"Blushing and the Social Emotions: The Self Unmasked\", Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.\n\nBULLET::::- Miller, R. S., \"Embarrassment: Poise and Peril in Everyday Life\", Guilford Press, 1997.\n\nBULLET::::- Jadresic, E., \"When Blushing Hurts: Overcoming Abnormal Facial Blushing\" (2nd edition, expanded and revised), iUniverse, 2014. .\n", "This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.\n\nThe autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n", "Section::::Behavior.\n", "Several different psychological and psycho-physiological mechanisms for blushing have been hypothesized by Crozier (2010): \"An explanation that emphasizes the blush's visibility proposes that when we feel shame we communicate our emotion to others and in doing so we send an important signal to them. It tells them something about us. It shows that we are ashamed or embarrassed, that we recognise that something is out of place. It shows that we are sorry about this. It shows that we want to put things right. To blush at innuendo is to show awareness of its implications and to display modesty that conveys that you are not brazen or shameless. The blush makes a particularly effective signal because it is involuntary and uncontrollable. Of course, a blush can be unwanted [but the] costs to the blusher on specific occasions are outweighed by the long-term benefits of being seen as adhering to the group and by the general advantages the blush provides: indeed the costs may enhance the signal's perceived value.\" A number of techniques may be used to help prevent or reduce blushing.\n", "Health-related embarrassment\n\nMedical help may in some instances be accompanied by embarrassment.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n", "Hot flashes, a common symptom of menopause and perimenopause, are typically experienced as a feeling of intense heat with sweating and rapid heartbeat, and may typically last from two to thirty minutes for each occurrence, ending just as rapidly as they began. The sensation of heat usually begins in the face or chest, although it may appear elsewhere such as the back of the neck, and it can spread throughout the whole body. Some women feel as if they are going to faint. In addition to being an internal sensation, the surface of the skin, especially on the face, becomes hot to the touch. This is the origin of the alternative term \"hot flush\", since the sensation of heat is often accompanied by visible reddening of the face. Excessive flushing can lead to rosacea.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Professional embarrassment.\n", "Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, in particular the large arteries and small arterioles. The process is the opposite of vasodilation, the widening of blood vessels. The process is particularly important in staunching hemorrhage and acute blood loss. When blood vessels constrict, the flow of blood is restricted or decreased, thus retaining body heat or increasing vascular resistance. This makes the skin turn paler because less blood reaches the surface, reducing the radiation of heat. On a larger level, vasoconstriction is one mechanism by which the body regulates and maintains mean arterial pressure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04404	Why do our noses run when we make the transition from being outside to inside where it is warm?	Your nose produces mucus when it's irritated. The sudden shift in temperate irritates it and causes it to run when you go inside. Hope that helps	[ "We use our nose and throat as a regenerative heat exchanger when we breathe. The cooler air coming in is warmed, so that it reaches the lungs as warm air. On the way back out, this warmed air deposits much of its heat back onto the sides of the nasal passages, so that these passages are then ready to warm the next batch of air coming in. Some animals, including humans, have curled sheets of bone inside the nose called nasal turbinates to increase the surface area for heat exchange.\n\nSection::::Types of regenerators.:Cryogenics.\n", "In the lungs a temperature of 37 °C and 100% relative humidity (RH) is the ideal condition for the ciliary activity. If the conditions are too warm or cold, the cilia beat slower and at some point not at all. During normal nasal inspiration, air of 22 °C and 40% RH is conditioned into air of 32 °C and 99% RH at the level of the trachea.\n", "During cold, dry seasons, the mucus lining nasal passages tends to dry out, meaning that mucous membranes must work harder, producing more mucus to keep the cavity lined. As a result, the nasal cavity can fill up with mucus. At the same time, when air is exhaled, water vapor in breath condenses as the warm air meets the colder outside temperature near the nostrils. This causes an excess amount of water to build up inside nasal cavities. In these cases, the excess fluid usually spills out externally through the nostrils.\n\nSection::::Respiratory system.:Lower respiratory tract.\n", "Section::::Sense of direction.\n\nThe wet nose of dogs is useful for the perception of direction. The sensitive cold receptors in the skin detect the place where the nose is cooled the most and this is the direction a particular smell that the animal just picked up comes from.\n\nSection::::Structure in air-breathing forms.\n", "Section::::Organisation of the barrel fields.:Barrels of the major facial whiskers.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n\nThere is a rich blood supply to the nasal cavity. In some animals, such as dogs, the capillary beds flowing through the nasal cavity help cool the blood flow to the brain.\n\nBlood supply comes from branches of both the internal and external carotid artery, including branches of the facial artery and maxillary artery. The named arteries of the nose are:\n\nBULLET::::- Sphenopalatine artery and greater palatine artery, branches of the maxillary artery.\n\nBULLET::::- Anterior ethmoidal artery and posterior ethmoidal artery, branches of the ophthalmic artery\n", "Clive Finlayson of the Gibraltar Museum said the large Neanderthal noses were an adaption to the cold, Todd C. Rae of the American Museum of Natural History said primate and arctic animal studies have shown sinus size reduction in areas of extreme cold rather than enlargement in accordance with Allen's rule. Therefore, Todd C. Rae concludes that the design of the large and Neanderthal nose was evolved for the hotter climate of the Middle East and Africa and remained unchanged when they entered Europe \n", "Nasal hair\n\nNasal hair or nose hair, or vibrissae, is the hair in the nose. Adult humans have hair in the interior nasal passage. Nasal hair functions include filtering foreign particles from entering the nasal cavity and collecting moisture. In support of the first function, the results of a 2010 study indicated that increased nasal hair density decreases development of asthma in those who have seasonal rhinitis, possibly due to an increased capacity of the faces to filter out pollen and other allergens.\n", "There is a nasal valve area in the cavity responsible for providing resistance to the flow of air. This enables an increased time for warming and moistening the air. This area is of two nasal valves. The internal nasal valve is the narrowest part of the airway in the middle third of the cavity. The larger external nasal valve is located in the alar wall.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Internal nose.:Nasal vestibule.\n", "Excessive moisture as tears collected in the lacrimal sac travel down the nasolacrimal ducts where they drain into the inferior meatus in the nasal cavity.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nose shape.\n\nThe shape of the nose varies widely due to differences in the nasal bone shapes and formation of the bridge of the nose. Some nose shapes were classified for surgeries by Eden Warwick in \"Nasology\" 1848:\n", "Section::::Nerve supply.:Parasympathetic supply.\n", "Dogs and other canids also possess a very well-developed set of nasal turbinates, an elaborate set of bones and associated soft-tissue structures (including arteries and veins) in the nasal cavities. These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their maxilloturbinate surfaces (the surfaces of turbinates positioned on maxilla bone) in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same complex turbinate structure helps conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric ancestors) to survive in the harsh Arctic environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.\n", "In humans, the conchae divide the nasal airway into 4 groove-like air passages, and are responsible for forcing inhaled air to flow in a steady, regular pattern around the largest possible surface area of nasal mucosa. As a ciliated mucous membrane with shallow blood supply, the nasal mucosa cleans and warms the inhaled air in preparation for the lungs.\n", "The conchae comprise most of the mucosal tissue of the nose and are required for functional respiration. They are enriched with airflow pressure and temperature-sensing nerve receptors (linked to the trigeminal nerve route, the fifth cranial nerve), allowing for tremendous erectile capabilities of nasal congestion and decongestion, in response to the weather conditions and changing needs of the body. In addition, the erectile tissue undergoes an often unnoticed cycle of partial congestion and decongestion called the nasal cycle. The flow of blood to the nasal mucosa in particular the venous plexus of the conchae is regulated by the pterygopalatine ganglion and heats or cools the air in the nose.\n", "One study into the learning ability of dogs compared to wolves indicated that dogs have a better sense of smell than wolves when locating hidden food, but there has yet been no experimental data to support this view.\n\nThe wet nose, or rhinarium, is essential for determining the direction of the air current containing the smell. Cold receptors in the skin are sensitive to the cooling of the skin by evaporation of the moisture by air currents.\n\nSection::::Senses.:Taste.\n", "In addition to cases caused by heredity, physical injury, the transverse nasal crease is common in children and adults with chronic nasal allergies. People with allergies often use their hands to remove mucus from a runny nose or rub an itchy nose. As the hand slides upward, the tip of the nose is pressed up, thus creating the crease.\n\nSection::::Appearance.\n", "The optimal temperature for rhinovirus replication is 33-35 °C, which corresponds to the temperature of nasal mucosa. At 37 °C virus replication rate falls to 10% to 50% of optimum. This may be the major reason why rhinoviruses can replicate better in the nasal passages and upper tracheobronchial tree than in the lower respiratory tract. Most of the rhinovirus serotypes bind to intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM), whereas approximately 10% of the serotypes bind to the low-density lipoprotein receptor. Normally, rhinoviruses would infect small clusters of cells in the epithelial layer with little cellular cytotoxicity. Although an increase in polymorphonuclear neutrophils are shown in infected nasal epithelium, little or no mucosal damage occurs from the infection. Nevertheless, rhinovirus infection leads to symptoms of the common cold, which is primarily an upper airway illness. Rhinovirus receptors are insensitive to neuraminidase but are sensitive to proteolytic enzymes.\n", "Section::::Distribution.\n", "Hair in the nostrils plays a protective role, trapping particulate matter such as dust. The cough reflex expels all irritants within the mucous membrane to the outside. The airways of the lungs contain rings of muscle. When the passageways are irritated by some allergen, these muscles can constrict.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nThe respiratory tract is a common site for infections.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Infection.\n\nUpper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world.\n", "The conchae are also responsible for filtration, heating, and humidification of air inhaled through the nose. Of these three, filtration is achieved mostly by other more effective means such as mucous and cilia. As air passes over the conchae, it is heated to 32 - 34 °C (89 - 93 °F), humidified (up to 98% water saturation) and filtered.\n\nSection::::Function.:Immunological role.\n", "Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said the \"high and narrow nose of Eskimos\" and \"Neanderthals\" is an \"adaption to a cold and dry environment\", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the \"recovery of heat and moisture from expired air\".\n\nSection::::Neoteny.\n", "In vasomotor rhinitis, certain nonspecific stimuli, including changes in environment (temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or weather), airborne irritants (odors, fumes), dietary factors (spicy food, alcohol), sexual arousal, exercise, and emotional factors trigger rhinitis. There is still much to be learned about this, but it is thought that these non-allergic triggers cause dilation of the blood vessels in the lining of the nose, which results in swelling and drainage.\n", "nasal conchae, thus exposing a large area of nasal mucous membrane to the air as it is inhaled (and exhaled). This causes the inhaled air to take up moisture from the wet mucus, and warmth from the underlying blood vessels, so that the air is very nearly saturated with water vapor and is at almost body temperature by the time it reaches the larynx. Part of this moisture and heat is recaptured as the exhaled air moves out over the partially dried-out, cooled mucus in the nasal passages, during breathing out. The sticky mucus also traps much of the particulate matter that is breathed in, preventing it from reaching the lungs.\n", "Animals with respiratory turbinates can breathe faster without drying out their lungs, and consequently can have a faster metabolism. For example, when the emu exhales, its nasal turbinates condense moisture from the air and absorbs it for reuse. Dogs and other canids possess well-developed nasal turbinates. These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their maxilloturbinate (turbinates positioned on maxilla bone) surfaces in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric gray wolf ancestors) to survive in the harsh Arctic environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.\n", "The nose is the first organ of the upper respiratory tract in the respiratory system, and its main function is the supply and conditioning of inhaled air to the rest of the respiratory tract and the lungs. Another function is to filter the air by removing particulates. Nasal hair in the nostrils traps large particles preventing their entry into the lungs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20329	What is the "fresh" in fresh frozen plasma? After all, they aren't called fresh packed red blood cells, or fresh platelets.	Just means it was frozen as quickly as possible after being separated from other blood products (like red blood cells). Also, google? E: frozen within a set time frame, better answer	[ "The less-dense blood plasma is made into a variety of frozen components, and is labeled differently based on when it was frozen and what the intended use of the product is. If the plasma is frozen promptly and is intended for transfusion, it is typically labeled as fresh frozen plasma. If it is intended to be made into other products, it is typically labeled as recovered plasma or plasma for fractionation. Cryoprecipitate can be made from other plasma components. These components must be stored at or colder, but are typically stored at . The layer between the red cells and the plasma is referred to as the buffy coat and is sometimes removed to make platelets for transfusion. Platelets are typically pooled before transfusion and have a shelf life of 5 to 7 days, or 3 days once the facility that collected them has completed their tests. Platelets are stored at room temperature () and must be rocked/agitated. Since they are stored at room temperature in nutritive solutions, they are at relatively high risk for growing bacteria.\n", "The risks of FFP include disease transmission, anaphylactoid reactions, and excessive intravascular volume (transfusion associated circulatory overload (TACO)), as well as transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI). Risks of transfusion transmitted infections are similar to that of whole blood and red blood cells.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n\nFFP is made by centrifugation of whole blood or apheresis device followed by freezing and preservation.\n\nSection::::Frequency of use.\n", "The collected plasma is promptly frozen at lower than -20 °C (-4 °F) and is typically shipped to a processing facility for fractionation. This process separates the collected plasma into specific components, such as albumin and immunoglobulins, most of which are made into medications for human use. Sometimes the plasma is thawed and transfused as Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP), much like the plasma from a normal blood donation.\n", "In the United States it refers to the fluid portion of one unit of whole blood that has been centrifuged, separated, and frozen solid at or colder within eight hours of collection from whole blood donation or was otherwise collected via apheresis device. The phrase \"FFP\" is often used to mean any transfused plasma product. The other commonly transfused plasma, plasma frozen within 24 hours after phlebotomy (PF24), has similar indications as those for FFP. PF24 has slightly lower levels of Factors V and VIII than FFP. PF24 is actually more commonly used than FFP in the United States.\n", "Fresh frozen plasma\n\nFresh frozen plasma (FFP) is a blood product made from the liquid portion of whole blood. It is used to treat conditions in which there are low blood clotting factors (INR1.5) or low levels of other blood proteins. It may also be used as the replacement fluid in plasma exchange. Using ABO compatible plasma, while not required, may be recommended. Use as a volume expander is not recommended. It is given by slow injection into a vein.\n", "FFP is not recommended unless there is ongoing bleeding or there is a significant blood clotting problem. That is, FFP is not used in people to reverse warfarin if there is no bleeding, even for an INR 9 unless they need urgent surgery. It is also not used in elective surgery, or non-emergency surgery.\n\nThawed plasma is made from FFP or PF24 and kept refrigerated (at 1–6 °C) after thawing can be stored for 5 days post thaw.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "With the addition of glycerol or other cryoprotectants, RBCs can be frozen and thus stored for much longer (this is not common). Frozen RBCs are typically assigned a ten-year expiration date, though older units have been transfused successfully. The freezing process is expensive and time-consuming and is generally reserved for rare units such as ones that can be used in patients that have unusual antibodies. Since frozen RBCs have glycerol added, the added glycerol must be removed by washing the red blood cells using special equipment, such as the IBM 2991 cell processor in a similar manner to washing RBCs.\n", "Section::::Medical uses.\n\nThere are few specific indications for FFP. These generally are limited to the treatment of deficiencies of coagulation proteins for which specific factor concentrates are unavailable or undesirable. A usual dose of plasma is 10–20 mL/kg recipient weight.\n\nIndications for the use of FFP include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Replacement of isolated factor deficiencies FFP is used to treat rare bleeding disorders when specific factor concentrates are not available. FFP is the usual treatment for factor V deficiency.\n", "BULLET::::- Use in antithrombin III deficiency FFP can be used as a source of antithrombin III in patients who are deficient of this inhibitor and are undergoing surgery or who require heparin for treatment of thrombosis. There are purified, human derived, as well as recombinant forms of antithrombin III available in the US.\n", "Evidence indicates that other plasma components (e.g., single-donor plasma) that do not meet the criteria of FFP may have adequate levels of coagulation factors and are suitable for patients in whom FFP is indicated. Single-donor plasma is efficacious in the treatment of mild deficiencies of stable clotting factors. It also is of value in treatment of multiple deficiencies as in reversal of warfarin effects or in liver disease.\n", "Whole blood is typically stored under the same conditions as red blood cells and can be kept up to 35 days if collected with CPDA-1 storage solution or 21 days with other common storage solutions such as CPD.\n\nIf the blood is used to make platelets, it is kept at room temperature until the process is complete. This must be done quickly to minimize the warm storage of RBCs in the unit.\n\nSection::::Name.\n\nIn the US, the capitalized \"Whole Blood\" means a specific standardized product for transfusion or further processing, where \"whole blood\" is any unmodified collected blood.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Much of the donor blood supply is obtained at \"remote\" blood donation events, such as blood drives at colleges, community events, etc., rather than at dedicated donation centers. The time required for transportation and processing often precludes production of FFP in such cases; that is the plasma cannot be separated and frozen within 8 hours of collection. However, the (male) donor blood can be separated into packed red blood cells and plasma within 24 hours (and usually less).\n", "Plasma donors undergo a screening process to ensure both the donor's safety and the safety of the collected product. Factors monitored include blood pressure, pulse, temperature, total protein, protein electrophoresis, health history screening similar to that for whole blood, as well as an annual physical exam with a licensed physician or an approved physician substitute under the supervision of the physician. Donors are screened at each donation for viral diseases that can be transmitted by blood, sometimes by multiple methods. For example, donations are tested for HIV by ELISA, which shows if they have been exposed to the disease, as well as by nucleic acid methods (PCR or similar) to rule out recent infections that the ELISA test might miss and are also screened for hepatitis B and hepatitis C. Industry standards require at least two sets of negative test results before the collected plasma is used for injectable products. The plasma is also treated in processing multiple times to inactivate any virus that was undetected during the screening process.\n", "Once they are received into the company, samples (which must meet well-defined acceptance criteria) are processed in a dedicated clean area consisting of two biological safety cabinets within a soft wall clean room. For the processing and storage of samples, clients can choose between two services. For \"volume-reduced service\", samples are additionally processed in a closed cell separation system designed to remove the plasma fraction. For the \"whole blood service\", samples are stored without this processing step. In both cases, samples are held for long term, vapor-phase storage in dedicated liquid nitrogen tanks situated on-site and on licensed third party premises. Samples are stored across dual facilities for additional safety.\n", "Fresh frozen plasma is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. It is of critical importance in the treatment of many types of trauma which result in blood loss, and is therefore kept stocked universally in all medical facilities capable of treating trauma (e.g. trauma centers, hospitals, and ambulances) or that pose a risk of patient blood loss such as surgical suite facilities.\n\nSection::::Volume.\n", "BULLET::::- Reversal of warfarin effect Patients who are anticoagulated with warfarin are deficient in the functional vitamin K dependent coagulation factors II, VII, IX, and X, as well as proteins C and S. These functional deficiencies can be reversed by the administration of vitamin K. For anticoagulated patients who are actively bleeding or who require emergency surgery prothrombin complex concentrate (ideally, four factor PCCs) should be used if available. FFP/PF24/thawed plasma should only be used if more effective alternative treatments are not available. The ASA task force recommends starting with 5–8 mL/kg of FFP for warfarin reversal and rechecking laboratory values.\n", "The processing (often termed \"manufacture\", since the end result is deemed a biologic biopharmaceutical product) and the storage can occur at a collection center or a blood bank. RBCs are mixed with an anticoagulant and storage solution which provides nutrients and aims to preserve viability and functionality of the cells (limiting their so-called \"storage lesion\"), which are stored at refrigerated temperatures for up to 42 days (in the US), except for the rather unusual long-term storage in which case they can be frozen for up to 10 years. The cells are separated from the fluid portion of the blood after it is collected from a donor, or during the collection process in the case of apheresis. The product is then sometimes modified after collection to meet specific patient requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- Treatment of immunodeficiencies FFP is useful in infants with secondary immunodeficiency associated with severe protein-losing enteropathy and in whom total parenteral nutrition is ineffectual. FFP also can be used as a source of immunoglobulin for children and adults with humoral immunodeficiency. However, the development of a purified immune globulin for intravenous use (i.e., IVIG) largely has replaced fresh frozen plasma\n\nBULLET::::- Treatment of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: Therapeutic plasma exchange with FFP/PF24 or thawed plasma as the replacement fluid is considered the treatment of choice for patients with proven or suspected thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP).\n", "Side effects include nausea and itchiness. Rarely there may be allergic reactions, blood clots, or infections. It is unclear if use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe for the baby. Greater care should be taken in people with protein S deficiency, IgA deficiency, or heart failure. Fresh frozen plasma is made up of a complex mixture of water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins. When frozen it lasts about a year.\n", "BULLET::::4. Albumin is eluted with a sodium acetate buffer, and\n\nBULLET::::5. Final polishing with gel filtration.\n\nThe end result is a highly pure and safe batch of albumin that is 100% non-pyrogenic, sterile, and free of active HIV virus. The product purity is greater than 98% and the protein content is about 50 g/L.\n\nSection::::Non-chromatographic processing methods.\n\nOther plasma processing methods exist, but generally do not provide the resolution or purity of chromatographic methods. \n", "\"Long-term\" storage for all blood products is relatively uncommon, compared to routine/short-term storage. Cryopreservation of red blood cells is done to store rare units for up to ten years. The cells are incubated in a glycerol solution which acts as a cryoprotectant (\"antifreeze\") within the cells. The units are then placed in special sterile containers in a freezer at very low temperatures. The exact temperature depends on the glycerol concentration.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Medical technologist\n\nBULLET::::- Phlebotomist\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Name.\n\nThe product is typically abbreviated RBC, pRBC, PRBC, and sometimes StRBC or even LRBC (the latter being to indicate those that have been leukoreduced, which is now true for the vast majority of RBC units). The name \"Red Blood Cells\" with initial capitals indicates a standardized blood product in the United States. Without capitalization, it is simply generic without specifying whether or not the cells comprise a blood product, patient blood, etc. (with other generic terms for it being \"erythrocyte\" and \"red cell\").\n", "Red blood cells are sometimes modified to address specific patient needs. The most common modification is leukoreduction, where the donor blood is filtered to remove white cells, although this is becoming increasingly universal throughout the blood supply (over 80% in the US, 100% in Europe). The blood may also be irradiated, which destroys the DNA in the white cells and prevents graft versus host disease, which may happen if the blood donor and recipient are closely related, and is also important for immunocompromized patients. Other modifications, such as washing the RBCs to remove any remaining plasma, are much less common.\n", "Pooled whole-blood platelets, sometimes called “random” platelets, are separated by one of two methods. In the US, a unit of whole blood is placed into a large centrifuge in what is referred to as a “soft spin.” At these settings, the platelets remain suspended in the plasma. The platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is removed from the red cells, then centrifuged at a faster setting to harvest the platelets from the plasma. In other regions of the world, the unit of whole blood is centrifuged using settings that cause the platelets to become suspended in the “buffy coat” layer, which includes the platelets and the white blood cells. The “buffy coat” is isolated in a sterile bag, suspended in a small amount of red blood cells and plasma, then centrifuged again to separate the platelets and plasma from the red and white blood cells. Regardless of the initial method of preparation, multiple donations may be combined into one container using a sterile connection device to manufacture a single product with the desired therapeutic dose.\n", "BULLET::::- In cases of extremely low white blood cell count, it may be difficult to perform a manual differential of the various types of white cells, and it may be virtually impossible to obtain an automated differential. In such cases the medical technologist may obtain a buffy coat, from which a blood smear is made. This smear contains a much higher number of white blood cells than whole blood.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11166	How do Cheques work? Can someone just write someone else’s name and signature on a card, then write out a number with lots of zeros, and then cash it in?	It's a crime to do that, and you are likely to be caught and convicted. People don't do it frequently because going to prison is no fun.	[ "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:England.\n\nCheques came into use in England in the 1600s. The person to whom the cheque was drawn (the \"payee\") could go to the drawer's bank (\"the issuing bank\") and present the cheque and receive payment. Before payment, the drawer's bank would check that the cheque was in order - e.g., that the signature was that of the drawer, that the date was valid, that the cheque was properly set out, etc. Alternatively, the payee could deposit the cheque with their own bank who would arrange for it to be presented to the issuing bank for payment.\n", "All licensed banks in Australia may issue cheques in their own name. Non-banks are not permitted to issue cheques in their own name but may issue, and have drawn on them, payment orders (which functionally are no different from cheques).\n\nSection::::Cheques around the world.:Canada.\n\nIn Canada, cheque sizes and types, endorsement requirements and MICR tolerances are overseen by Payments Canada.\n\nBULLET::::- Canadian cheques can legally be written in English, French or Inuktitut.\n", "In America, the Bank of New York, after its establishment by Alexander Hamilton in 1784, began issuing cheques. The oldest surviving example of a complete American chequebook from the 1790s was discovered by a family in New Jersey. The documents are in some ways similar to modern-day checks, with some data pre-printed on sheets of paper alongside black spaces for where other information could be hand-written as needed.\n", "A cheque, or check (American English; see spelling differences), is a document that orders a bank to pay a specific amount of money from a person's account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The person writing the cheque, known as the \"drawer\", has a transaction banking account (often called a current, cheque, chequing or checking account) where their money is held. The drawer writes the various details including the monetary amount, date, and a payee on the cheque, and signs it, ordering their bank, known as the \"drawee\", to pay that person or company the amount of money stated.\n", "Section::::Variations on regular cheques.:Money or postal order.\n\nA cheque sold by a post office, bank, or merchant such as a grocery store for payment in favour of a third party is referred to as a money order or postal order. These are paid for in advance when the order is drawn and are guaranteed by the institution that issues them and can only be paid to the named third party. This was a common way to send low value payments to third parties, avoiding the risks associated with sending cash by post, prior to the advent of electronic payment methods.\n", "Section::::Variations on regular cheques.\n\nIn addition to regular cheques, a number of variations were developed to address specific needs or address issues when using a regular cheque.\n\nSection::::Variations on regular cheques.:Cashier's cheques and bank drafts.\n", "Typically when customers pay bills with cheques (like gas or water bills), the mail will go to a \"lock box\" at the post office. There a bank will pick up all the mail, sort it, open it, take the cheques and remittance advice out, process it all through electronic machinery, and post the funds to the proper accounts. In modern systems, taking advantage of the Check 21 Act, as in the US, many cheques are transformed into electronic objects and the paper is destroyed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "In Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Scandinavia, cheques have almost completely vanished in favour of direct bank transfers and electronic payments. Direct bank transfers, using so-called giro transfers, have been standard procedure since the 1950s to send and receive regular payments like rent and wages and even mail-order invoices. In the Netherlands, Austria, and Germany, all kinds of invoices are commonly accompanied by so-called ' (Netherlands) or ' (German), which are essentially standardized bank transfer order forms preprinted with the payee's account details and the amount payable. The payer fills in his account details and hands the form to a clerk at his bank, which will then transfer the money. It is also very common to allow the payee to automatically withdraw the requested amount from the payer's account (\"Lastschrifteinzug\" (German) or \"Incasso (machtiging)\" (Netherlands)). Though similar to paying by cheque, the payee only needs the payer's bank and account number. Since the early 1990s, this method of payment has also been available to merchants. Due to this, credit cards are rather uncommon in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands, and are mostly used to give access to credit rather than as a payment mechanism. However, debit cards are widespread in these countries, since virtually all Austrian, German and Dutch banks issue debit cards instead of simple ATM cards for use on current accounts. Acceptance of cheques has been further diminished since the late 1990s, because of the abolition of the Eurocheque. Cashing a foreign bank cheque is possible, but usually very expensive.\n", "Check verification services have been most common in the United States, in Europe a cheque guarantee system operated for a number of years that could be used by merchants until the usage of cheques declined to the point where it was no longer necessary. Outside the US the decline in check usage in favour of debit cards and credit cards has meant that cheques are rarely accepted by merchants anymore and so cheque verification services have not been needed.\n\nSection::::Verification methods.\n", "The under supervision of Reserve Bank of New Zealand provide the cheque payment services. Once banked, cheques are processed electronically together with other retail payment instruments. \"Homeguard v Kiwi Packaging\" is often cited case law regarding the banking of cheques tendered as full settlement of disputed accounts.\n\nSection::::Cheques around the world.:United Kingdom.\n\nIn the UK all cheques must now conform to an industry standard detailing layout and font (\"Cheque and Credit Clearing Company (C&CCC) Standard 3\"), be printed on a specific weight of paper (CBS1), and contain explicitly defined security features.\n", "Parties to regular cheques generally include a \"drawer\", the depositor writing a cheque; a \"drawee,\" the financial institution where the cheque can be presented for payment; and a \"payee,\" the entity to whom the drawer issues the cheque. The drawer \"drafts\" or \"draws\" a cheque, which is also called \"cutting a cheque\", especially in the US. There may also be a \"beneficiary\"—for example, in depositing a cheque with a custodian of a brokerage account, the payee will be the custodian, but the cheque may be marked \"F/B/O\" (\"for the benefit of\") the beneficiary.\n", "The specification for US cheques is given by ANSI committee X9 Technical Report 2.\n\nSection::::Cheques around the world.:Turkey.\n\nIn Turkey, cheques are usually used for commercial transactions only, and using post-dated cheques is legally permissible.\n\nSection::::Cheque fraud.\n", "Section::::Variations on regular cheques.:Payment vouchers.\n\nIn the US some public assistance programmes such as the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children, or Aid to Families with Dependent Children make \"vouchers\" available to their beneficiaries, which are good up to a certain monetary amount for purchase of grocery items deemed eligible under the particular programme. The voucher can be deposited like any other cheque by a participating supermarket or other approved business.\n\nSection::::Cheques around the world.\n\nSection::::Cheques around the world.:Australia.\n", "Cheque guarantee card\n\nA cheque guarantee card was essentially an abbreviated portable letter of credit granted by a bank to a qualified depositor in the form of a plastic card that was used in conjunction with a cheque. \n\nThe scheme provided retailers accepting cheques with greater security. The retailer would write the card number on the back of the cheque, which was signed in the retailer's presence, and the retailer verified the signature on the cheque against the signature on the card. \n", "A cheque is a negotiable instrument instructing a financial institution to pay a specific amount of a specific currency from a specified transactional account held in the drawer's name with that institution. Both the drawer and payee may be natural persons or legal entities. Cheques are \"order instruments\", and are not in general payable simply to the bearer as bearer instruments are, but must be paid to the payee. In some countries, such as the US, the payee may endorse the cheque, allowing them to specify a third party to whom it should be paid.\n", "By the 17th century, bills of exchange were being used for domestic payments in England. Cheques, a type of bill of exchange, then began to evolve. Initially they were called \"drawn notes\", because they enabled a customer to draw on the funds that he or she had in the account with a bank and required immediate payment. These were handwritten, and one of the earliest known still to be in existence was drawn on Messrs Morris and Clayton, scriveners and bankers based in the City of London, and dated 16 February 1659.\n", "Any change for a purchase transaction would be given in the local currency.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Deposit and settlement.\n\nA payee receiving a traveler's cheque would follow its normal procedures for depositing cheques into its bank account: usually, endorsement by stamp or signature and listing the cheque and its amount on the deposit slip. The bank account will be credited with the amount of the cheque as with any other negotiable item submitted for clearance.\n", "Cheques have been a tempting target for criminals to steal money or goods from the drawer, payee or the banks. A number of measures have been introduced to combat fraud over the years. These range from things like writing a cheque so it is difficult to alter after it is drawn, to mechanisms like crossing a cheque so that it can only be paid into another bank's account providing some traceability. However, the inherent security weaknesses of cheques as a payment method, such as having only the signature as the main authentication method and not knowing if funds will be received until the clearing cycle to complete, have made them vulnerable to a number of different types of fraud.\n", "Starting in the 1960s machine readable routing and account information was added to the bottom of cheques in MICR format. This allowed automated sorting and routing of cheques between banks and led to automated central clearing facilities. The information provided at the bottom of the cheque is country specific and is driven by each country's cheque clearing system. This meant that the payee no longer had to go to the bank that issued the cheque, instead they could deposit it at their own bank or any other banks and the cheque would be routed back to the originating bank and funds transferred to their own bank account.\n", "Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) was developed and commercialized in the 1950s, and enabled computers to reliably read routing and account numbers and automated the sorting of paper cheques.\n\nSection::::Automation.:Electronic clearance.\n\nCheque truncation was introduced in various countries, starting in the 1990s, to allow electronic images to be made of physical cheques, for electronic clearance.\n", "As cheque usage increased during the 19th and 20th centuries additional items were added to increase security or to make processing easier for the bank or financial institution. A signature of the drawer was required to authorize the cheque and this is the main way to authenticate the cheque. Second it became customary to write the amount in words as well as in numbers to avoid mistakes and make it harder to fraudulently alter the amount after the cheque had been written. It is not a legal requirement to write down the amount in words, although some banks will refuse to accept cheques that do not have the amount in both numbers and words.\n", "Following concerns about the amount of time it took banks to clear cheques, the United Kingdom Office of Fair Trading set up a working group in 2006 to look at the cheque clearing cycle. They produced a report recommending maximum times for the cheque clearing which were introduced in UK from November 2007. In the report the date the credit appeared on the recipient's account (usually the day of deposit) was designated \"T\". At \"T + 2\" (two business days afterwards) the value would count for calculation of credit interest or overdraft interest on the recipient's account. At \"T + 4\" clients would be able to withdraw funds on current accounts or at \"T + 6\" on savings accounts (though this will often happen earlier, at the bank's discretion). \"T + 6\" is the last day that a cheque can bounce without the recipient's permission—this is known as \"certainty of fate\". Before the introduction of this standard (also known as 2-4-6 for current accounts and 2-6-6 for savings accounts), the only way to know the \"fate\" of a cheque has been \"Special Presentation\", which would normally involve a fee, where the drawee bank contacts the payee bank to see if the payee has that money at that time. \"Special Presentation\" had been stated at the time of deposit.\n", "In US, remotely created cheques are also called demand drafts. Remotely created cheques are orders of payment created by the payee and authorized by the customer remotely, using a telephone or the internet by providing the required information including the MICR code from a valid cheque. They do not bear the signatures of the customers like ordinary cheques. Instead, they bear a legend statement \"Authorized by Drawer\". This type of instrument is usually used by credit card companies, utility companies, or telemarketers. Remotely created cheques are susceptible to fraud.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cashier's check\n\nBULLET::::- Money order\n\nBULLET::::- Traveler's cheque\n", "Remotely created check\n\nIn the United States, remotely created checks (also called a demand draft, a tele-check, check by phone, check by fax, or e-check) are orders of payment created by the payee using a telephone or the Internet.\n", "Remotely created checks are orders of payment created by the payee and authorized by the customer remotely, using a telephone or the Internet by providing the required information including the MICR code from a valid check. They do not bear the signatures of the customers like ordinary checks. Instead, they bear a legend statement \"Authorized by Drawer\". This type of instrument is usually used by credit card companies, utility companies, or telemarketers. Remotely created checks are vulnerable to fraud.\n\nSection::::Use.\n" ]	[ "You can just write someone else's name and signature on a check and cash it." ]	[ "That would be a crime and you would go to jail." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can just write someone else's name and signature on a check and cash it.", "You can just write someone else's name and signature on a check and cash it." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "That would be a crime and you would go to jail.", "That would be a crime and you would go to jail." ]
2018-20724	How does Captcha security verification work. Why does it sometimes ask to click on images but other times directly goes through without any tests ?	There is no single Captcha system. Basically any system designed to tell humans and machines apart automatically is a Captcha. Some are only designed to tell humans from machines. Others have a secondary function of also teaching machines. For example, when you're clicking those pictures, you might be confirming that you're a human, but you might also be helping to teach AI how to tell those pictures apart.	[ "BULLET::::- Chew et al. published their work in the 7th International Information Security Conference, ISC'04, proposing three different versions of image recognition CAPTCHAs, and validating the proposal with user studies. It is suggested that one of the versions, the anomaly CAPTCHA, is best with 100% of human users being able to pass an anomaly CAPTCHA with at least 90% probability in 42 seconds.\n", "BULLET::::- Podec, a trojan discovered by the security company Kaspersky, forwards CAPTCHA requests to an online human translation service that converts the image to text, fooling the system. Podec targets Android mobile devices.\n\nSection::::Alternative CAPTCHAs schemas.\n\nWith the demonstration that text distortion based \n", "Section::::Relation to AI.\n\nWhile used mostly for security reasons, CAPTCHAs also serve as a benchmark task for artificial intelligence technologies. According to an article by Ahn, Blum and Langford, \"any program that passes the tests generated by a CAPTCHA can be used to solve a hard unsolved AI problem.\"\n", "Note that \"CAPTCHA\" is an acronym for \"Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart\" so that the original designers of the test regard the test as a Turing test to some degree.\n\nSection::::Judgement of sufficient input.\n", "Section::::History.:Inventorship claims.\n", "In 2014, reCAPTCHA began implementing behavioral analysis of the browser's interactions with the CAPTCHA to predict whether the user was a human or a bot before displaying the CAPTCHA, and presenting a \"considerably more difficult\" captcha in cases where it had reason to think the user might be a bot. By end of 2014, this mechanism started to be rolled out to most of the public Google services. \n", "Software that could reverse CAPTCHA with some accuracy by analysing patterns in the generating engine started being developed soon after the creation of CAPTCHA.\n\nIn 2013, researchers at Vicarious announced that they had developed a system to solve CAPTCHA challenges from Google, Yahoo!, and PayPal up to 90% of the time.\n\nIn 2014, Google engineers demonstrated a system that could defeat CAPTCHA challenges with 99.8% accuracy.\n\nIn 2015, Shuman Ghosemajumder, former click fraud czar of Google, stated that there were cybercriminal sites that would defeat CAPTCHA challenges for a fee, to enable various forms of fraud.\n", "The term was coined in 2003 by Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas J. Hopper, and John Langford. The most common type of CAPTCHA (displayed as Version 1.0) was first invented in 1997 by two groups working in parallel. This form of CAPTCHA requires that the user type the letters of a distorted image, sometimes with the addition of an obscured sequence of letters or digits that appears on the screen. Because the test is administered by a computer, in contrast to the standard Turing test that is administered by a human, a CAPTCHA is sometimes described as a reverse Turing test.\n", "During this evaluation, three different automatic tests were given to the principal investigators without human intervention:\n\nBULLET::::1. The large gallery test, which served to baseline how algorithms performed against a database when it has not been properly tuned.\n\nBULLET::::2. The false-alarm test, which tested how well the algorithm monitored an airport for suspected terrorists.\n\nBULLET::::3. The rotation test, which measured how well the algorithm performed when the images of an individual in the gallery had different poses compared to those in the probe set.\n", "Additionally, TVT supports QRD & SPL-format and the exception list of the ANSM. Since the launch of TVT 8.0 in 2016, users can compare live to non-live text as well as complete an entire inspection with hot keys (shortcuts) - saving even more time compared to manual proofreading.\n\nSection::::How it works.\n", "CAPTCHA is a form of reverse Turing test. Before being allowed to perform some action on a website, the user is presented with alphanumerical characters in a distorted graphic image and asked to type them out. This is intended to prevent automated systems from being used to abuse the site. The rationale is that software sufficiently sophisticated to read and reproduce the distorted image accurately does not exist (or is not available to the average user), so any system able to do so is likely to be a human.\n", "CAPTCHA\n\nA CAPTCHA (, an acronym for \"completely automated public Turing test to tell computers and humans apart\") is a type of challenge–response test used in computing to determine whether or not the user is human.\n", "One of the earliest commercial uses of CAPTCHAs was in the Gausebeck–Levchin test. In 2000, idrive.com began to protect its signup page with a CAPTCHA and prepared to file a patent on this seemingly novel technique. In 2001, PayPal used such tests as part of a fraud prevention strategy in which they asked humans to \"retype distorted text that programs have difficulty recognizing.\" PayPal cofounder and CTO Max Levchin helped commercialize this early use.\n", "Each of these problems poses a significant challenge for a computer, even in isolation. The presence of all three at the same time is what makes CAPTCHAs difficult to solve.\n", "BULLET::::- Microsoft (Jeremy Elson, John R. Douceur, Jon Howell, and Jared Saul) claim to have developed Animal Species Image Recognition for Restricting Access (ASIRRA) which ask users to distinguish cats from dogs. Microsoft had a beta version of this for websites to use. They claim \"Asirra is easy for users; it can be solved by humans 99.6% of the time in under 30 seconds. Anecdotally, users seemed to find the experience of using Asirra much more enjoyable than a text-based CAPTCHA.\" This solution was described in a 2007 paper to Proceedings of 14th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS). However, this project was closed in October 2014 and is no longer available.\n", "CAPTCHAs are vulnerable to machine learning based attacks, some researchers have proposed alternatives including image recognition CAPTCHAs which require users to identify simple objects in the images presented. The argument in favor of these schemes is that tasks like object recognition are typically more complex to perform than text recognition and therefore should be more resilient to machine learning based attacks. Here are some of notable alternative CAPTCHA schemas:\n", "The second team to claim to be the first to invent CAPTCHAs with Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas J. Hopper, and John Langford, first described CAPTCHAs in a 2003 publication and subsequently received much coverage in the popular press. Their notion of CAPTCHA covers any program that can distinguish humans from computers.\n", "BULLET::::- CAPTCHA (visual confirmation) routines on forum registration pages can help prevent spambots from carrying out automated registrations. Simple CAPTCHA systems which display alphanumeric characters have proven vulnerable to optical character recognition software but those that scramble the characters appear to be far more effective.\n\nBULLET::::- Textual confirmation is an alternative to CAPTCHA in which the user answers one or more random questions to prove that he/she is not a spambot.\n\nBULLET::::- Confirmation e-mails to registering users prior to allowing the user a first log in, either containing a site-generated password or an activation code/link.\n", "Many software systems are untestable, or not immediately testable. For example, Google's ReCAPTCHA, without having any metadata about the images is not a testable system. Recaptcha, however, can be immediately tested if for each image shown, there is a tag stored elsewhere. Given this meta information, one can test the system.\n", "In its earliest iterations there was not a systematic methodology for designing or evaluating CAPTCHAs. As a result, there were many instances in which CAPTCHAs were of a fixed length and therefore automated tasks could be constructed to successfully make educated guesses about where segmentation should take place. Other early CAPTCHAs contained limited sets of words, which made the test much easier to game. Still others made the mistake of relying too heavily on background confusion in the image. In each case, algorithms were created that were successfully able to complete the task by exploiting these design flaws. These methods proved brittle however, and slight changes to the CAPTCHA were easily able to thwart them. Modern CAPTCHAs like reCAPTCHA no longer rely just on fixed patterns but instead present variations of characters that are often collapsed together, making segmentation almost impossible. These newest iterations have been much more successful at warding off automated tasks.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nCAPTCHAs are, by definition, fully automated, requiring little human maintenance or intervention to administer, producing benefits in cost and reliability.\n\nThe algorithm used to create the CAPTCHA must be made public, though it may be covered by a patent. This is done to demonstrate that breaking it requires the solution to a difficult problem in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) rather than just the discovery of the (secret) algorithm, which could be obtained through reverse engineering or other means.\n", "As part of phasing out Google Labs, Google has shut down Sputnik. All current Sputnik tests have been incorporated into ECMA's Test262 test suite.\n\nSection::::Browsers that do not pass.\n\nAs example, Konqueror 4.10.1 still only passes 91.8% of the 11573 tests.\n\nSection::::Browsers that do not pass.:Desktop browsers.\n\nScores represent the number of failed tests – a perfect score is 0 (100%).\n\nSection::::Browsers that do not pass.:ECMAScript testsuite.\n", "In 2012, reCAPTCHA began using photographs taken from Google Street View project, in addition to scanned words. As for 2019 image identification captchas - such as store fronts, buses, cross-walks, traffic lights - became the only type of captcha offered by the system.\n\nIn 2014, reCAPTCHA implemented another system in which users are asked to select one or more images from a selection of nine images.\n\nIn 2017, reCAPTCHA was improved to require no interaction for most users.\n\nSection::::Operation.:No CAPTCHA reCAPTCHA.\n", "BULLET::::- Datta et al. published their paper in the ACM Multimedia '05 Conference, named IMAGINATION (IMAge Generation for INternet AuthenticaTION), proposing a systematic way to image recognition CAPTCHAs. Images are distorted in such a way that state-of-the-art image recognition approaches (which are potential attack technologies) fail to recognize them.\n", "Other kinds of challenges, such as those that require understanding the meaning of some text (e.g., a logic puzzle, trivia question, or instructions on how to create a password) can also be used as a CAPTCHA. Again, there is little research into their resistance against countermeasures.\n\nSection::::Circumvention.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Captcha security verification is all the same system." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are multiple types and purposes of Captcha systems." ]
2018-03940	How can my phone have 6GB of RAM but my PCs 8GB RAM sticks are bigger than my phone?	There are different considerations taken in mind when both are manufactured. RAM for your phone has to be small, light, and efficient. PC RAM isn't constrained by those, so it can be bigger - which makes it significantly less expensive - and it can use as much power as it needs to - which makes it faster. That also makes it hotter, so it has to be bigger to have more surface area to dissipate heat. Your PC RAM is also interchangeable, since it's not built into the motherboard. It's the same question posed to laptop manufacturers: why is RAM designed for laptops smaller and usually more expensive? Well, smaller makes it more expensive, and it has to be more power efficient. Your phone's RAM is built into the board, it uses more expensive smaller parts, and it isn't as powerful.	[ "Previously, Windows Phone 7 devices were required to have 512 MB of RAM. As of the \"Tango\" update, the requirements were revised to allow for chipsets with slower processors, and for devices to have a minimum of 256 MB of RAM. Certain features of the operating system, and the ability to install certain resource-intensive apps are disabled on Windows Phone devices with under 512 MB of RAM.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "The A4 processor package does not contain RAM, but supports PoP installation. Hence, there is a package with two low-power 128 MB DDR SDRAM chips (totaling 256 MB) mounted on top of the A4 used in the first-generation iPad, the fourth-generation iPod touch, and the second-generation Apple TV. The iPhone 4 has two 256 MB packages for a total of 512 MB. The RAM is connected to the processor using ARM's 64-bit-wide AMBA 3 AXI bus. To support the iPad's demand for high graphics bandwidth, the width of the RAM data bus is double that used in previous ARM11 and ARM9 based Apple devices.\n", "The A4 processor package does not contain RAM, but supports PoP installation. The top package of the A4 used in the iPad, in the iPod Touch 4th gen and in the Apple TV 2nd gen contains two low-power 128 MB DDR SDRAM chips for a total of 256 MB RAM. For the iPhone 4 there are two chips of 256 MB for a total of 512 MB. RAM is connected to the processor using ARM's 64-bit-wide AMBA 3 AXI bus. This is twice the width of the memory buses of the SoCs used by the contemporary Apple iPhone and iPod touch, supporting the greater need for graphics bandwidth in the iPad.\n", "and while RAM can exist and be addressable above the 4 GB point, these MMIO locations decoded by I/O devices cannot be. \n\nThey are limited by PCI bus specifications to addresses of 0xFFFFFFFF (2 − 1) and below. With 4 GB or more of RAM installed, and with RAM occupying a contiguous range of addresses starting at 0, some of the MMIO locations will overlap with RAM addresses. On machines with large amounts of video memory, MMIO locations have been found to occupy as much as 1.8 GB of the 32-bit address space.\n", "Requirements for the minimum amount of RAM for devices running Android 7.1 depend on screen size and density and type of CPU, ranging from 816MB–1.8GB for 64-bit and 512MB–1.3GB for 32-bit meaning in practice 1GB for the most common type of display (while minimum for Android watch is 416MB). The recommendation for Android 4.4 is to have at least 512 MB of RAM, while for \"low RAM\" devices 340 MB is the required minimum amount that does not include memory dedicated to various hardware components such as the baseband processor. Android 4.4 requires a 32-bit ARMv7, MIPS or x86 architecture processor (latter two through unofficial ports), together with an OpenGL ES 2.0 compatible graphics processing unit (GPU). Android supports OpenGL ES 1.1, 2.0, 3.0, 3.2 and since Android 7.0 Vulkan (and version 1.1 available for some devices). Some applications may explicitly require a certain version of the OpenGL ES, and suitable GPU hardware is required to run such applications.\n", "Initially only rev. C2 quad core processors were supported, latest BIOS allows user to upgrade with rev. C3 processors (Athlon II X3 405e and Athlon II X4 605e). HP states in its support website that Touchsmart 300 RAM is upgradeable to 8Gb RAM using 2 x 4gb modules but it's been proved it supports up to 16Gb DDR3 PC-12800 (2 x 8Gb) even if those are not recognized in the BIOS.\n\nSection::::HP TouchSmart All-in-One.:Touchsmart 500.\n", "The A8 is manufactured on a 20 nm process by TSMC, which replaced Samsung as the manufacturer of Apple's mobile device processors. It contains 2 billion transistors. Despite having twice the number of transistors of the A7, the A8's physical size has been reduced by 13% to 89 mm. The A8 uses LPDDR3-1333 RAM on a 64-bit memory interface; in the iPhone 6/6 Plus, sixth generation iPod touch and HomePod the A8 has 1 GB RAM included in the package, while the A8 in the iPad Mini 4 and 4th generation Apple TV is packaged with 2 GB RAM.\n", "For mass-market personal computers, there may be no financial advantage to a manufacturer in providing more memory sockets, address lines, or other hardware than necessary to run mass-market software. When memory devices were relatively expensive compared with the processor, often the RAM delivered with the system was much less than the address capacity of the hardware, because of cost. \n", "Requirements for the minimum amount of RAM for devices running Android 7.1 range from in practice 2 GB for best hardware, down to 1 GB for the most common screen, to absolute minimum 512 MB for the lowest spec 32-bit smartphone. The recommendation for Android 4.4 is to have at least 512 MB of RAM, while for \"low RAM\" devices 340 MB is the required minimum amount that does not include memory dedicated to various hardware components such as the baseband processor. Android 4.4 requires a 32-bit ARMv7, MIPS or x86 architecture processor (latter two through unofficial ports), together with an OpenGL ES 2.0 compatible graphics processing unit (GPU). Android supports OpenGL ES 1.1, 2.0, 3.0, 3.1 and as of latest major version, 3.2 and since Android 7.0 Vulkan (and version 1.1 available for some devices). Some applications may explicitly require a certain version of the OpenGL ES, and suitable GPU hardware is required to run such applications.\n", "Unlike the A9, the A9X does not contain an L3 cache due to its significant DRAM bandwidth. The A9X is paired with 4 GB of LPDDR4 memory in the 12.9\" iPad Pro and 2 GB of LPDDR4 memory in the 9.7\" iPad Pro with a total bandwidth of 51.2 GB/s. This high bandwidth is necessary to feed the SoC's 12-core PowerVR 7 Series GPU. The RAM is not included in the A9X package unlike its sibling, the A9.\n", "Both device variants also contain a new iteration of Apple's motion coprocessor, the M10. Unlike previous iPhone models, internal storage options for iPhone 7 begin at 32 GB instead of 16 GB, and max out at 256 GB. iPhone 7 Plus offers 3 GB of RAM, more than any other previous iPhone; the 4.7-inch iPhone 7 has 2 GB.\n", "Its physical placement on the processor imposes some limits on capacity - up to 16 GB at launch, which is much smaller than the capacity of off-package DRAM (384GB). \n\nSection::::Programming.\n\nThe memory can be partitioned at boot time, with some used as cache for more distant DDR, and the remainder mapped into the physical address space.\n", "Windows Mobile 5.0 requires at least 64 MB of ROM (it's advisable to have 64 MB of RAM), and the device must run an ARM compatible processor such as the Intel XScale or the Samsung and Texas Instruments ARM compatibles.\n\nSection::::History.:Windows Mobile 6.\n\nWindows Mobile 6, formerly codenamed \"Crossbow\", was released on February 12, 2007 at the 3GSM World Congress 2007, and was based on the Windows CE 5.2 kernel. \n", "BULLET::::- Memory: Up to 4GB 667MT/s DDR2 (2 slots) with 2GB fitted as standard\n\nBULLET::::- Graphics: ATI Radeon 3200\n\nBULLET::::- Display: (169) LED-backlit TN LCD\n\nBULLET::::- Storage: 1 × SATA 3Gbit/s (250GB 5400RPM)\n\nBULLET::::- 0.3Mpx webcam, 4-in-1 card reader\n\nBULLET::::- Battery: 6-cell\n\nBULLET::::- Dimensions:\n\nBULLET::::- Mass/Weight: with a 6-cell battery\n\nBULLET::::- Operating System: Microsoft Windows 7 Professional 32-bit\n", "Devices with 512 MB of RAM or less report themselves as \"low RAM\" devices. Using an API, apps may detect low RAM devices and modify their functionality accordingly. KitKat also supports zram. WebView components were updated to utilize a version of the Google Chrome rendering engine. A new Storage Access Framework API allows apps to retrieve files in a consistent manner; as part of the framework, a new system file picker allows users to access files from various sources (including those exposed by apps, such as online storage services).\n", "Unlike the A4 and A5, the A5X is covered with a metal heat spreader and is not a package-on-package (PoP) assembly. In those earlier chips the RAM sat on top of the SoC, however, in the A5X the RAM is not bundled together with the SoC, instead the A5X sits on one side of the motherboard and twin Samsung LP DDR2 SDRAM is soldered directly to the other side of the motherboard. The A5X is manufactured on a 45 nm process by Samsung. The silicon die size has increased drastically compared to the A5 at 165 mm, 3.1 times larger than the 53.3 mm die area of the original A4.\n", "Apple uses the APL0698 variant of the A7 chip, running at 1.3 GHz, in the iPhone 5S, iPad Mini 2, and iPad Mini 3. This A7 is manufactured by Samsung on a high-κ metal gate (HKMG) 28 nm process and the chip includes over 1 billion transistors on a die 102 mm in size. According to ABI Research the A7 drew 1100 mA during fixed point operations and 520 mA during floating point operations, while its predecessor, the A6 processor in the iPhone 5, drew 485 mA and 320 mA. It is manufactured in a package on package (PoP) together with 1 GB of LPDDR3 DRAM with a 64-bit wide memory interface onto the package.\n", "Further comparison to the A8 shows that the A8X uses a metal heat spreader, which the A8 does not, and it doesn't use the package on package configuration with included RAM which the A8 does. This is similar to how the older \"\"X\"\" variants, the A5X and A6X, were designed. Instead the A8X in the iPad Air 2 uses an external 2 GB RAM module.\n", "Minimum specifications for Windows 10 Mobile devices are similar to those of Windows Phone 8, with a minimum screen resolution of 800×480 (854×480 if software buttons are in use), 1 GB of RAM and 8 GB of internal storage. Owing to hardware advancements and the operating system's support for tablets, screen resolutions can now reach as high as QSXGA resolution (2560×2048) and further, as opposed to the 1080p cap of Windows Phone 8. The minimum amount of RAM required is dictated by the screen's resolution; screens with a resolution 800×480 or 960×540 and higher require 1 GB, 1920×1080 (FHD) or 1440×900 and higher require 2 GB, and 2560×1440 and higher require 3 GB.\n", "Section::::Design.:Apple A7 (APL5698).\n\nApple uses the APL5698 variant of the A7 chip, running at 1.4 GHz,1.4 in the iPad Air. Its die is identical in size and layout to that of the first A7 and is manufactured by Samsung. However, unlike the first version of the A7, the A7 used in the iPad Air is not on a PoP, having no stacked RAM. Instead it uses a chip-on-board mounting, immediately adjacent DRAM, and is covered by a metallic heat spreader, similar to the Apple A5X and A6X.\n\nSection::::Patent litigation.\n", "While official support for Memory Stick PRO Duo is capped at 4 GB, users have reported using 16 GB sticks with full functionality (read and write), though at larger sizes, some functions (boot time, media playback, and file retrieval, for example) are noticeably slower.\n\nSection::::Cosmetics.\n", "8 GB is usually the recommended amount of memory for gaming computers, as some 64-bit games can use over 4 GB of RAM.\n\nRAM capacity is also an issue with gaming PCs, and usually at least 4 GB or more, depending on how many RAM slots the board can hold, and whether it supports 4 or 8 GB modules. The current maximum amount supported ( for quad-channel configuration )on consumer hardware is 128 GB, with 8 slots on some LGA 2066 motherboards, each slot supporting up to a 16 GB DIMM.\n\nSection::::Hardware description.:Storage.\n", "The A5X features a dual-core ARM Cortex-A9 CPU at 1 GHz and a quad-core PowerVR SGX543MP4 GPU clocked at 250 MHz. Apple doubled the size of the A5X's memory interface in comparison to the A5, including a memory interface subsystem with four 32-bit wide LP-DDR2 memory controllers. This was done to provide sufficient bandwidth for the very high pixel count on the third generation iPad's Retina Display.\n", "The iPhone 4 has 512 MB of DRAM. The additional DRAM supports increased performance and multi-tasking.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Storage and micro-SIM.\n", " the majority of desktop and laptop computers used microprocessors compatible with the 32- and 64-bit x86 instruction sets. Smaller portable devices use processors with different and incompatible instruction sets, such as ARM. The difference between larger and smaller devices is such that detailed software operation is different; an application designed to display suitably on a large screen cannot simply be ported to a pocket-sized smartphone with a tiny screen even if the functionality is similar.\n" ]	[ "Phone ram has a smaller shape, therefore it should not be able to hold nearly as much as PC RAM, which is much larger physically.", "Phone ram has a smaller shape, therefore it should not be able to hold nearly as much as PC RAM, which is much larger physically.", "Due to phones being physically smaller than PCs, they should not be able to carry nearly as much Ram as PCs. ", "Due to phones being physically smaller than PCs, they should not be able to carry nearly as much Ram as PCs. ", "Because phones are smaller in size physically, they should not be able to carry nearly as much RAM as PCs.", "Because phones are smaller in size physically, they should not be able to carry nearly as much RAM as PCs." ]	[ "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs.", "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs.", "Phones use more expensive parts that allow them to carry a large capacity Ram despite being so small. ", "Phones use more expensive parts that allow them to carry a large capacity Ram despite being so small. designed entirely differently with different priorities. This causes them to be different sizes.", "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs.", "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Phone ram has a smaller shape, therefore it should not be able to hold nearly as much as PC RAM, which is much larger physically.", "Phone ram has a smaller shape, therefore it should not be able to hold nearly as much as PC RAM, which is much larger physically.", "Due to phones being physically smaller than PCs, they should not be able to carry nearly as much Ram as PCs. ", "Due to phones being physically smaller than PCs, they should not be able to carry nearly as much Ram as PCs. ", "Because phones are smaller in size physically, they should not be able to carry nearly as much RAM as PCs.", "Because phones are smaller in size physically, they should not be able to carry nearly as much RAM as PCs.", "Phone ram should be the same size as PC ram.", "PC RAM and Phone RAM are supposed to be the same size." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs.", "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs.", "Phones use more expensive parts that allow them to carry a large capacity Ram despite being so small. ", "Phones use more expensive parts that allow them to carry a large capacity Ram despite being so small. designed entirely differently with different priorities. This causes them to be different sizes.", "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs.", "Phones use more expensive parts when constructing the RAM, allowing it to carry a near equal amount of memory as PCs.", "PC ram is bigger which allows for more performance at less cost.", "PC RAM and Phone RAM are designed entirely differently with different priorities. This causes them to be different sizes." ]
2018-09576	Why is atmospheric pressure high at the poles, but low at higher altitudes?	At higher altitudes you are above some of the atmosphere, so the remaining atmosphere upon you weighs less. Keep going up and you'll reach outer space, where the atmospheric pressure is zero.	[ "Section::::Pressure and temperature structure.:Pressure.\n\nThe pressure of the atmosphere is maximum at sea level and decreases with altitude. This is because the atmosphere is very nearly in hydrostatic equilibrium so that the pressure is equal to the weight of air above a given point. The change in pressure with altitude can be equated to the density with the hydrostatic equation\n\nwhere:\n\nSince temperature in principle also depends on altitude, one needs a second equation to determine the pressure as a function of altitude as discussed in the next section.\n\nSection::::Pressure and temperature structure.:Temperature.\n", "At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases by about for every 100 metres. For higher altitudes within the troposphere, the following equation (the barometric formula) relates atmospheric pressure \"p\" to altitude \"h\":\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere the constant parameters are as described below:\n\nSection::::Local variation.\n\nAtmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these changes are important in studying weather and climate. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather.\n", "Note that in this simplification, the temperature is treated as constant, even though temperature also varies with height. However, the temperature variation within the lower layers of the atmosphere (troposphere, stratosphere) is only in the dozens of degrees, as opposed to their thermodynamic temperature, which is in the hundreds, so the temperature variation is reasonably small and is thus ignored. For smaller height differences, including those from top to bottom of even the tallest of buildings, (like the CN tower) or for mountains of comparable size, the temperature variation will easily be within the single-digits. (See also lapse rate.)\n", "Pressure on Earth varies with the altitude of the surface; so air pressure on mountains is usually lower than air pressure at sea level. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%.\n", "Pure water boils at at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the water. Because of this, the boiling point of water is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. Cooking at high elevations, therefore, requires adjustments to recipes or pressure cooking. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers.\n\nSection::::Measurement and maps.\n", "The scale height of pressure in Pluto's atmosphere varies significantly with height (in other words, the height dependence of the pressure deviates from exponential). This is caused by strong height variations of temperature. For the lowermost layer of the atmosphere the scale height is about , and for heights — .\n\nSection::::Seasonal changes.\n", "Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises, although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies, which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes. Since clouds reflect sunlight, incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases, which causes lower temperatures during the day. At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation, such as heat energy from the surface, allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons. The stronger the area of low pressure, the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity. Globally, low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains. In Europe (particularly in the British Isles and Netherlands), recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as \"depressions\".\n", "At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand.\n\nSection::::In atmospheric studies.:Temperature profile.\n", "The strongest high-pressure areas are associated with cold air masses which push away out of polar regions during the winter when there is less sun to warm neighboring regions. These Highs change character and weaken once they move further over relatively warmer water bodies.\n\nSomewhat weaker but more common are high-pressure areas caused by atmospheric subsidence, that is, areas where large masses of cooler, drier air descend from an elevation of 8 to 15 km after the lower temperatures have precipitated out the water vapor.\n", "the atmosphere is unstable to vertical motions, and convection is likely. Since convection acts to quickly mix the atmosphere and return to a stably stratified state, observations of decreasing potential temperature with height are uncommon, except while vigorous convection is underway or during periods of strong insolation. Situations in which the equivalent potential temperature decreases with height, indicating instability in saturated air, are much more common.\n", "BULLET::::- Ahead of embedded shortwave troughs, which have smaller wavelengths.\n\nDiverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below, which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity.\n", "An area of convergence is one in which the total mass of air is increasing with time, resulting in an increase in pressure at locations below the convergence level (recall that atmospheric pressure is just the total weight of air above a given point). Divergence is the opposite of convergence – an area where the total mass of air is decreasing with time, resulting in falling pressure in regions below the area of divergence. Where divergence is occurring in the upper atmosphere, there will be air coming in to try to balance the net loss of mass (this is called the principle of mass conservation), and there is a resulting upward motion (positive vertical velocity). Another way to state this is to say that regions of upper air divergence are conducive to lower level convergence, cyclone formation, and positive vertical velocity. Therefore, identifying regions of upper air divergence is an important step in forecasting the formation of a surface low pressure area.\n", "Section::::Climatology.\n\nSection::::Climatology.:Mid-latitudes and subtropics.\n", "Strong, vertically shallow high-pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses. Once arctic air moves over an unfrozen ocean, the air mass modifies greatly over the warmer water and takes on the character of a maritime air mass, which reduces the strength of the high-pressure system. When extremely cold air moves over relatively warm oceans, polar lows can develop. However, warm and moist (or maritime tropical) air masses that move poleward from tropical sources are slower to modify than arctic air masses.\n\nSection::::In climatology.\n", "The troposphere begins at the surface and extends up to an altitude of 65 kilometres (an altitude at which the mesosphere has already been reached on Earth). At the top of the troposphere, temperature and pressure reach Earth-like levels. Winds at the surface are a few metres per second, reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere. The stratosphere and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km.\n", "Under almost all circumstances, potential temperature increases upwards in the atmosphere, unlike actual temperature which may increase or decrease. Potential temperature is conserved for all dry adiabatic processes, and as such is an important quantity in the planetary boundary layer (which is often very close to being dry adiabatic).\n\nPotential temperature is a useful measure of the static stability of the unsaturated atmosphere. Under normal, stably stratified conditions, the potential temperature increases with height,\n\nand vertical motions are suppressed. If the potential temperature decreases with height,\n", "where formula_8 is the mean molecular mass of the gas. Solving these two equations gives:\n\nwhich is the equation for the pressure scale height. As the pressure scale height is almost equal to the density scale height of the primary constituent, and because the Knudsen number is the ratio of mean free path and typical density fluctuation scale, this means that the exobase lies in the region where formula_10.\n", "If one is to analyze the vertical pressure variation of the atmosphere of Earth, the length scale is very significant (troposphere alone being several kilometres tall; thermosphere being several hundred kilometres) and the involved fluid (air) is compressible. Gravity can still be reasonably approximated as constant, because length scales on the order of kilometres are still small in comparison to Earth's radius, which is on average about 6371 km, and gravity is a function of distance from Earth's core.\n\nDensity, on the other hand, varies more significantly with height. It follows from the ideal gas law that\n\nwhere\n", "All of the above influences of low atmospheric pressures on breathing are accommodated primarily by breathing deeper and faster (hyperpnea). The exact degree of hyperpnea is determined by the blood gas homeostat, which regulates the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This homeostat prioritizes the regulation of the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide over that of oxygen at sea level. That is to say, at sea level the arterial partial pressure of CO is maintained at very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mmHg) under a wide range of circumstances, at the expense of the arterial partial pressure of O, which is allowed to vary within a very wide range of values, before eliciting a corrective ventilatory response. However, when the atmospheric pressure (and therefore the partial pressure of O in the ambient air) falls to below 50-75% of its value at sea level, oxygen homeostasis is given priority over carbon dioxide homeostasis. This switch-over occurs at an elevation of about 2500 m (or about 8000 ft). If this switch occurs relatively abruptly, the hyperpnea at high altitude will cause a severe fall in the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, with a consequent rise in the pH of the arterial plasma. This is one contributor to high altitude sickness. On the other hand, if the switch to oxygen homeostasis is incomplete, then hypoxia may complicate the clinical picture with potentially fatal results.\n", "If we define the exobase as the height at which upward-traveling molecules experience one collision on average, then at this position the mean free path of a molecule is equal to one pressure scale height. This is shown in the following. Consider a volume of air, with horizontal area formula_1 and height equal to the mean free path formula_2, at pressure formula_3 and temperature formula_4. For an ideal gas, the number of molecules contained in it is:\n\nwhere formula_6 is the universal gas constant. From the requirement that each molecule traveling upward undergoes on average one collision, the pressure is:\n", "Put more simply, air density depends on air pressure. Given that air pressure also depends on air density, it would be easy to get the impression that this was circular definition, but it is simply interdependency of different variables. This then yields a more accurate formula, of the form\n\nwherebr\n\nTherefore, instead of pressure being a linear function of height as one might expect from the more simple formula given in the \"basic formula\" section, it is more accurately represented as an exponential function of height.\n", "In the mesoscale, equivalent potential temperature is also a useful measure of the static stability of the unsaturated atmosphere. Under normal, stably stratified conditions, the potential temperature increases with height,\n\nand vertical motions are suppressed. If the equivalent potential temperature decreases with height,\n\nthe atmosphere is unstable to vertical motions, and convection is likely. Situations in which the equivalent potential temperature decreases with height, indicating instability in saturated air, are quite common.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Meteorology\n\nBULLET::::- Moist static energy\n\nBULLET::::- Potential temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Weather forecasting\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.\n", "The Earth's atmosphere is divided into several altitude regions. These regions start and finish at varying heights depending on season and distance from the poles. The altitudes stated below are averages:\n\nBULLET::::- Troposphere: surface to at the poles, at the Equator, ending at the Tropopause\n\nBULLET::::- Stratosphere: Troposphere to\n\nBULLET::::- Mesosphere: Stratosphere to\n\nBULLET::::- Thermosphere: Mesosphere to\n\nBULLET::::- Exosphere: Thermosphere to\n", "The exact altitude varies by the energy inputs of location, time of day, solar flux, season, etc. and can be between high at a given place and time because of these. A portion of the magnetosphere dips below this layer as well.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19802	Why does capsaicin taste like hot and mint tastes like cold?	Capsaicin triggers pain receptors that the brain interpretates as a burning sensation. I have no clue why mints cause a feeling of cooling	[ "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Prostanthera cruciflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera cryptandroides\" - Wollemi mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera cuneata\" – alpine mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera decussata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera densa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera denticulata\" – rough mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera discolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera eckersleyana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera eriocalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera eurybioides\" – Monarto mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera florifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera galbraithiae\" – Wellington mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera granitica\" – granite mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera grylloana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera hindii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera hirtula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera howelliae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera incana\" - velvet mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera incisa\" – cut-leaved mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera incurvata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera junonis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera lanceolata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera laricoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera lasianthos\" – Victorian Christmas bush\n", "BULLET::::- \"Prostanthera linearis\" – narrow-leaved mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera lithospermoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera magnifica\" – magnificent mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera marifolia\" – Seaforth mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera megacalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera melissifolia\" – balm mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera microphylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera monticola\" – monkey mint-bush, buffalo mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera nanophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera nivea\" – snowy mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera nudula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera ovalifolia\" – mint bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera palustris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera parvifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera patens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera pattila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera pedicellata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera petrophila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera phylicifolia\" – spiked mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera porcata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera prostantheroides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera prunelloides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera rhombea\" - sparkling mint-bush\n", "The amount of capsaicin in the fruit is highly variable and dependent on genetics and environment, giving almost all types of \"Capsicum\" varied amounts of perceived heat. The most recognizable \"Capsicum\" without capsaicin is the bell pepper, a cultivar of \"Capsicum annuum\", which has a zero rating on the Scoville scale. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to a recessive gene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently, the \"hot\" taste usually associated with the rest of the \"Capsicum\" family. There are also other peppers without capsaicin, mostly within the \"Capsicum annuum\" species, such as the cultivars Giant Marconi, Yummy Sweets, Jimmy Nardello, and Italian Frying peppers (also known as the Cubanelle).\n", "BULLET::::- Limnophila aromatica (rice paddy herb) – \"Limnophila aromatica\" is a tropical flowering plant in the plantain family, Plantaginaceae.\n\nBULLET::::- Lovage – tall perennial plant, the sole species in the genus \"Levisticum\", in the family Apiaceae, subfamily Apioideae, tribe Apieae.\n\nBULLET::::- Marjoram – somewhat cold-sensitive perennial herb or undershrub with sweet pine and citrus flavors.\n\nBULLET::::- Mint – \"Mentha\" is a genus of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae . The species are not clearly distinct and estimates of the number of species varies from 13 to 18. Hybridization between some of the species occurs naturally.\n", "The taxonomic family Lamiaceae is known as the mint family. It includes many other aromatic herbs, including most of the more common cooking herbs, such as basil, rosemary, sage, oregano, and catnip.\n\nAs an English colloquial term, any small mint-flavored confectionery item can be called a mint.\n\nIn common usage, other plants with fragrant leaves may be called \"mint\", although they are not in the mint family.\n\nBULLET::::- Vietnamese mint, commonly used in Southeast Asian cuisine is \"Persicaria odorata\" in the family Polygonaceae, collectively known as smartweeds or pinkweeds.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Prostanthera ringens\" – gaping mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera rotundifolia\" – round-leaf mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera rugosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera saxicola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera scutata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera scutellarioides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera semiteres\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera sericea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera serpyllifolia\" – small-leaved mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera sieberi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera spinosa\" – spiny mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera splendens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera staurophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera stenophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera striatiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera stricta\" – Mount Vincent mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera suborbicularis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera teretifolia\" – turpentine mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera tysoniana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera verticillaris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera violacea\" – violet mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera walteri\" – blotchy mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera wilkieana\"\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Florabase\n", "The leaf, fresh or dried, is the culinary source of mint. Fresh mint is usually preferred over dried mint when storage of the mint is not a problem. The leaves have a warm, fresh, aromatic, sweet flavor with a cool aftertaste, and are used in teas, beverages, jellies, syrups, candies, and ice creams. In Middle Eastern cuisine, mint is used on lamb dishes, while in British cuisine and American cuisine, mint sauce and mint jelly are used, respectively.\n", "BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n", "Capsinoid chemicals provide the distinctive tastes in \"C. annuum\" variants. In particular, capsaicin creates a burning sensation (\"hotness\"), which in extreme cases can last for several hours after ingestion. A measurement called the Scoville scale has been created to describe the hotness of peppers and other foods.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Traditional medicine.\n\nHot peppers are used in traditional medicine as well as food in Africa. English botanist John Lindley described \"C. annuum\" in his 1838 \"Flora Medica\" thus:\n\nIn Ayurveda, \"C. annuum\" is classified as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Guna\" (properties) – \"ruksha\" (dry), \"laghu\" (light) and \"tikshna\" (sharp)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasa\" (taste) – \"katu\" (pungent)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mangiferaffinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mangoaffinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mangofrequentis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mangoinfestans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mangomolestus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mangonoxius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mangorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips manihoti\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips martingonzalezi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips moneres\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips multistriatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips mugambii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips musciaffinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips niveus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips novomangorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips nubicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips oligochaetus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips pan\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips panamensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips pendulae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips perseae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips pilbara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips prosopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips pteridicola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips pteridis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips quadriseta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips ruthveni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips silvatropicalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips silvicola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips solaris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips solus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips spinosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scirtothrips taxendii\"\n", "Both Chinese and Batak Toba cooking include the idea of 麻 (\"má\" or \"mati rasa\"), a tingling numbness caused by spices such as Sichuan pepper. The cuisines of Sichuan province in China and of the Indonesian province of North Sumatra often combine this with chili pepper to produce a 麻辣 \"málà\", \"numbing-and-hot\", or \"mati rasa\" flavor. These sensations although not taste fall into a category of Chemesthesis.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Astringency.\n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "Section::::Plants used.\n\nThere are many plant species that are used for potpourri. Researchers have identified 300 species from 95 families, including fungi and lichens. A few toxic ingredients have been found in fruits such as \"Strychnos nux-vomica\", the strychnine tree. Naturally scented plants used in traditional potpourri include:\n\nBULLET::::- allspice\n\nBULLET::::- cedar wood shavings (toxic, a moth repellent)\n\nBULLET::::- cinnamon bark and cassia bark (smells like cinnamon only less potent)\n\nBULLET::::- cloves\n\nBULLET::::- cypress wood shavings (toxic, another moth repellent)\n\nBULLET::::- fennel seed\n\nBULLET::::- incense-cedar wood shavings\n\nBULLET::::- jasmine flowers and oil\n\nBULLET::::- jujube flowers and blooms\n", "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "BULLET::::- Spearmint (\"Mentha spicata\")\n\nBULLET::::- Spikenard (\"Nardostachys grandiflora\" or \"N. jatamansi\")\n\nBULLET::::- Star anise (\"Illicium verum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Sumac (\"Rhus coriaria\")\n\nBULLET::::- Sweet woodruff (\"Galium odoratum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Szechuan pepper, Sichuan pepper (\"Zanthoxylum piperitum\")\n\nSection::::T.\n\nBULLET::::- Tarragon (\"Artemisia dracunculus\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tabasco (\"Capsicum frutescens\" cultivar)\n\nBULLET::::- Tasmanian pepper\n\nBULLET::::- Thyme (\"Thymus vulgaris\")\n\nBULLET::::- Thyme, lemon (\"Thymus citriodorus\")\n\nBULLET::::- Turmeric (\"Curcuma longa\")\n\nSection::::V.\n\nBULLET::::- Vanilla (\"Vanilla planifolia\")\n\nBULLET::::- Voatsiperifery (\"Piper borbonense\") [Madagascar]\n\nSection::::W.\n\nBULLET::::- Wasabi (\"Wasabia japonica\")\n\nBULLET::::- Water-pepper, smartweed (\"Polygonum hydropiper\")\n\nBULLET::::- Watercress (\"Rorippa nasturtium-aquatica\")\n\nBULLET::::- Wattleseed (from about 120 spp. of Australian \"Acacia\")\n\nBULLET::::- Wild thyme (\"Thymus serpyllum\")\n", "BULLET::::- Gallic nard (\"Valeriana italica\"), 16 grams\n\nBULLET::::- gentian root, 16 grams\n\nBULLET::::- dried rose leaves, 16 grams\n\nBULLET::::- poppy-tears (\"Papaver rhoeas\", a wild poppy with low opiate content), 17 grams\n\nBULLET::::- parsley, 17 grams\n\nBULLET::::- casia, 20–66 grams\n\nBULLET::::- saxifrage, 20–66 grams\n\nBULLET::::- darnel, 20–66 grams\n\nBULLET::::- long pepper, 20–66 grams\n\nBULLET::::- storax, 21 grams\n\nBULLET::::- castoreum, 24 grams\n\nBULLET::::- frankincense, 24 grams\n\nBULLET::::- hypocistis juice, 24 grams\n\nBULLET::::- myrrh, 24 grams\n\nBULLET::::- opopanax, 24 grams\n\nBULLET::::- malabathrum leaves, 24 grams\n\nBULLET::::- flower of round rush, 24–66 grams\n\nBULLET::::- turpentine-resin, 24–66 grams\n\nBULLET::::- galbanum, 24–66 grams\n", "The two crystal forms for racemic menthol have melting points of 28 °C and 38 °C. Pure (−)-menthol has four crystal forms, of which the most stable is the α form, the familiar broad needles.\n\nSection::::Biological properties.\n\nMenthol's ability to chemically trigger the cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin is responsible for the well-known cooling sensation it provokes when inhaled, eaten, or applied to the skin. In this sense, it is similar to capsaicin, the chemical responsible for the spiciness of hot chilis (which stimulates heat sensors, also without causing an actual change in temperature).\n", "BULLET::::- Indian Bay leaf, \"tejpat\", \"malabathrum\" (\"Cinnamomum tamala\")\n\nBULLET::::- Boldo (\"Peumus boldus\")\n\nBULLET::::- Borage (\"Borago officinalis\")\n\nBULLET::::- Blue fenugreek, blue melilot (\"Trigonella caerulea\")\n\nSection::::C.\n\nBULLET::::- California bay laurel (\"Umbellularia californica\")\n\nBULLET::::- Caper (\"Capparis spinosa\")\n\nBULLET::::- Caraway (\"Carum carvi\")\n\nBULLET::::- Cardamom (\"Elettaria cardamomum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Cardamom, black (\"Amomum subulatum\", \"Amomum costatum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Cassia (\"Cinnamomum aromaticum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Catnip (\"Nepeta cataria\")\n\nBULLET::::- Cayenne pepper (\"Capsicum annuum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Celery leaf (\"Apium graveolens\")\n\nBULLET::::- Celery seed (\"Apium graveolens\")\n\nBULLET::::- Chervil (\"Anthriscus cerefolium\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cichοrium spinosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- Chicory (\"Cichorium intybus\")\n\nBULLET::::- Chili pepper (\"Capsicum spp.\")\n\nBULLET::::- Chives (\"Allium schoenoprasum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Cicely, sweet cicely (\"Myrrhis odorata\")\n", "Section::::Taxonomy.:Species.\n\n, Plants of the World Online recognized the following species:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha alaica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha aquatica\" – water mint, marsh mint\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha arvensis\" – corn mint, wild mint, Japanese peppermint, field mint, banana mint\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha atrolilacina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha australis\" – Australian mint\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha canadensis\" – American wild mint\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha cervina\" – Hart's pennyroyal\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha cunninghamii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha dahurica\" – Dahurian thyme\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha darvasica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha diemenica\" – slender mint\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha gattefossei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha grandiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha japonica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha laxiflora\" – forest mint\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha longifolia\" – horse mint\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha micrantha\"\n", "The amount of capsaicin in hot peppers varies significantly among varieties, and is measured in Scoville heat units (SHU). The world's current hottest known pepper as rated in SHU is the 'Carolina Reaper,' which had been measured at over 2,200,000 SHU.\n\nSection::::Species and varieties.:Species list.\n\nSources:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum annuum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum baccatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum campylopodium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum cardenasii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum ceratocalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum chacoense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum chinense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum coccineum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum cornutum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum dimorphum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum dusenii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum eximium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum flexuosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum friburgense\" Bianch. & Barboza\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum frutescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum galapagoense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum geminifolium\"\n", "In a recent study, 3-\"trans\"-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid was found to be the substance that compelled spicebush swallowtails to lay their eggs on members of Lauraceae. However, 3-\"trans\"-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid is a component of the extract from sassafras plants but not from spicebush, redbay or camphor tree, the other top three host plants of spicebush swallowtails. This substance is not necessarily itself the stimulant but instead activates another as yet unknown compound that thus compels the spicebush swallowtail to lay eggs. Thus, this substance may hold the link for why some spicebush swallowtails prefer to lay eggs on sassafras rather than spicebush. In addition, 3-\"trans\"-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid is a member of a family of acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, which are present in oviposition stimulants for some members of all five families of swallowtail butterflies. Hydroxycinnamic acids are also present in the extracts from host plants for two other species within the genus \"Papilio\": the black swallowtail butterfly, \"P. polyxenes\", and \"P. protenor\". Thus, hydroxycinnamic acids may help explain why many types of swallowtails choose to oviposit on the plants that they choose.\n", "Visual, olfactive, “sapictive” (the perception of tastes), trigeminal (hot, cool), mechanical, all contribute to the perception of \"taste\". Of these, transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) vanilloid receptors are responsible for the perception of heat from some molecules such as capsaicin, and a CMR1 receptor is responsible for the perception of cold from molecules such as menthol, eucalyptol, and icilin.\n\nSection::::Tissue distribution.\n", "Section::::Properties.\n\nSection::::Properties.:pH-sensitivity.\n\nIn contrast to the TRPV1 (capsaicin) receptor, which is potentiated by low pH, acidic conditions were shown to inhibit the TRPM8 Ca response to menthol and icilin (an agonist of the menthol receptor). It is hypothesized the TRPV1 and TRPM8 receptors act together in response to inflammatory conditions: TRPV1, by proton action, increases the burning sensation of pain, while the acidity inhibits TRPM8 to block the more pleasant sensation of coolness in more dire instances of pain.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Sensitization.\n", "BULLET::::2. Variability of composition, both qualitative and quantitative. The composition of a plant-based drug is often subject to wide variations due to a number of factors such as seasonal differences in concentrations, soil type, climatic changes or the existence of different varieties or chemical races within the same plant species that have variable compositions of the active ingredient. On occasion, an interaction can be due to just one active ingredient, but this can be absent in some chemical varieties or it can be present in low concentrations, which will not cause an interaction. Counter interactions can even occur. This occurs, for instance, with ginseng, the \"Panax ginseng\" variety increases the Prothrombin time, while the \"Panax quinquefolius\" variety decreases it.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Flavors should not taste like a temperature." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some flavors trigger pain receptors which are interpreted as burning." ]
2018-01336	Why are certain countries paying up to 60% less for digital PC games?	The concept is termed 'differential pricing'. Imagine I sell widgets that cost essentially nothing to produce, but cost an enormous amount to design. My goal then becomes to make the most money possible, without regard for the cost of producing additional copies of my widgets. Now, if I charge $0.01 for my widgets, they'll fly out the door. Anyone who even vaguely wants a widget will purchase them and I'll completely saturate the market. But at $0.01, I won't be making all that much money because even with the massive customer base I'm making so little per customer. On the other hand, if I charge $100 for my widgets, no one will want to buy them - they just aren't worth that much. So I'll make $0. Somewhere in between those price points is an optimum solution to my problem - the point at which (price of widget) x (number of customers willing to pay that price) is highest. However, that optimum solution is different for different markets. The optimum price point in Westchester is not the same as the optimum price point in Mali. Ideally what I'd like to do is segment the market and choose the optimum price point for each market segment. Which is precisely how it works for most digital content and some other high-development-cost/low-per-unit-cost products like pharmaceuticals. If you live in a low cost-of-living nation, you get them cheaply. If you live in a high cost-of-living nation, they're expensive.	[ "In Uruguay the first idea of taxing the digital services from foreign suppliers appeared in 2015. As in Colombia the law regarding digital tax has come in effect in July 2018 being set at 22% as considered as VAT. As in most cases on of the main reasons was to make local suppliers competitive. It is estimated that this new VAT can bring 10 million USD per year into Uruguay treasury. \n\nSection::::The rest of the World.:South America.:Brazil.\n", "In 2016, in Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico alone, $4.1 billion was spent on video games. This is the second highest region in the world for video games. For phones, $1.4 billion will be reached by the end of 2017. Predictions for the future Latin American video game market are that it will generate $6.2 billion between 2012 and 2019, by the end of 2019. Predictions also say that phones and tablets will be used more than computers and consoles, which have an estimated projected revenue of $3 billion, leaving consoles at $1.6 billion, and computers at $1.6 billion as well.\n", "PEGI is an example of European harmonisation. The European Commission supports the PEGI self-regulation: \"PEGI appears to have achieved good results and PEGI On-line is also a promising initiative, making of PEGI a good example of self-regulation in line with the better regulation agenda.\"\n\nMoreover, the European Parliament in its last report on protection of consumers \"takes the view that the PEGI system for rating games is an important tool which has improved transparency for consumers, especially parents, when buying games by enabling them to make a considered choice as to whether a game is suitable for children\".\n\nSection::::Rating process.\n", "Newzoo reports that the \"PC gaming sector\" is the third-largest category (and estimated in decline) across all platforms , with the \"console sector\" second-largest, and \"mobile/smartphone gaming sector\" biggest. 2.2 billion video gamers generate US$101.1 billion in revenue, excluding hardware costs. \"Digital game revenues will account for $94.4 billion or 87% of the global market. Mobile is the most lucrative segment, with smartphone and tablet gaming growing 19% year on year to $46.1 billion, claiming 42% of the market. In 2020, mobile gaming will represent just more than half of the total games market. [...] China expected to generate $27.5 billion, or one-quarter of all revenues in 2017.\"\n", "Despite the global financial crisis of 2008–2009, the situation of video gaming in the Netherlands is not all that bad. Both publishers and retailers report that the crisis has certainly not caused a drop in sales, while at times, sales have even improved.\n\nSection::::Consumer availability.:History.\n", "Section::::Morocco.:Solutions.\n", "Starting January 2014, Green Man Gaming has added the Euro to its list of supported currencies, in European countries such as France and Germany. Other European countries, however, now pay using the GBP.\n", "Section::::France.:Libraries.\n", "According to the 2017 paper \"Estimating displacement rates of copyrighted content in the EU\" by the European Commission, illegal usage increases game sales, stating \"The overall conclusion is that for games, illegal online transactions induce more legal transactions.\"\n\nSection::::Economic impact.:Market dominance.\n", "2.7 billion euros in revenues for the video game sector in France (+3% vs. 2013), including €758 million for consoles (+ 24% vs. 2013) and €1.392 billion For software (-5% vs. 2013) In 2014, the turnover of the video game market is generated at 29% by consoles, 61% by software and 10% by accessories. In 2017 the video games market in France grew to €4.3 billion annually, an 18% increase year-on-year, including the software sector increase by 16 percent to €2.61 billion, and the hardware and accessories sector increase by 22 percent to €1.69 billion.\n\nSection::::Consoles.\n", "Section::::History.:2005–2007: Digital distribution.\n\nDigital distribution was a revolution in game development. Valve launched Steam in 2003. The Steam platform is considered to be the largest digital distribution platform for PC gaming, and was estimated by Screen Digest to have 75% of the market space in October 2013. \n\nIn traditional model, game developer is a subcontractor, and distribution is expensive due to costs of marketing, materials and shipping. Developer gets around 10%. In digital delivery, distribute takes only 30% share of the income. This allows Indie game developers to bring their product to the market.\n", "In 2013, the French Parliament voted to include all types of video games in the tax credit, and not only the ones below the PEGI 18 rating system. The cultural criteria remain fully in place and enforced.\n\nOn November 17, 2016, the French Parliament voted to increase the rate of the tax credit to 30% (previously 20% and to increase the ceiling of receivable tax credit to 6 millions, up from 3 millions, per company per year.\n\nSection::::Personal recognition for game developers.\n", "French video game policy\n\nFrench video game policy refers to the strategy and set of measures laid out by France since 2002 to maintain and develop a local video game development industry in order to preserve the European market diversity.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Proposals for government support.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "One problem that South Africa is undertaking is the struggle to get protection from the government for Game Developers. There is a \"ball-passing\" going on at the different departments. The Dep. of Trade, Arts and Culture and Sports are still discussing which one will take the authority of handling the rights of game developers.\n\nSection::::Compared to the rest of Africa.\n", "Video games often have digital currencies. The more time players spend in a game, the more \"wealth\" they acquire. Players use this virtual wealth to \"purchase\" new aspects of the game.\n\nRewards are set on different time schedules in video games. Players may be rewarded for finishing tasks within a certain time frame, or might be given bonuses for playing during a pre-determined period.\n", "The country also went without tax relief until March 21, 2012 when the British government changed its mind on tax relief for UK developers, which without, meant most of the talented development within the UK may move overseas for more profit, along with parents of certain video game developers which would pay for having games developed in the UK. The industry trade body TIGA estimates that it will increase the games development sector's contribution to UK GDP by £283 million, generate £172 million in new and protected tax receipts to HM Treasury, and could cost just £96 million over five years. Before the tax relief was introduced there was a fear that the UK games industry could fall behind other leading game industries around the world such as France and Canada, of which Canada overtook the UK in terms of job numbers in the industry in 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- Castronova, Edward. \"Virtual Worlds: A First-Hand Account of Market and Society on the Cyberian Frontier,\" \"CESifo Working Paper No. 618\", December 2001.\n\nBULLET::::- Castronova, Edward. \"On Virtual Economies,\" \"CESifo Working Paper Series No. 752\", July 2002.\n\nBULLET::::- Castronova, Edward. \"The Price of 'Man' and 'Woman': A Hedonic Pricing Model of Avatar Attributes in a Synthethic World,\" \"CESifo Working Paper Series No. 957\", June 2003.\n\nSection::::Biography.:Media.\n\nBULLET::::- BBC News - Virtual gaming worlds overtake Namibia\n\nBULLET::::- Norrath Economic Report Now Available - Slashdot.org on Castronova's report\n", "Digital distribution is one of the important elements in sustaining the Oddworld/Just Add Water partnership in the video game industry because of the vast savings in cost associated with moving games from developer to consumer digitally instead of physically. According to Lanning, when \"Abe's Oddysee\" was completed and distributed to the consumer, 20% of royalties went towards his team of developers. They then needed the game to make back approximately four million dollars in earnings using just their 20% in royalties to break even on the funds provided by their publisher, GT Interactive. Once that had been achieved, under the model that assumed the cost of \"Abe's Oddysee\" remained at US$59.99, his team of developers would receive just US$7 for every unit sold. The rest would go towards paying all the associated costs that go with publishing, marketing and distributing the game, such as disc manufacturing, licensing fees, fuel for transporting the game to retailers, retail staff and more. Gilray revealed that in 2013–2014, if Oddworld Inhabitants and Just Add Water chose to distribute a game on disc at retail for the Xbox 360, they would have to pay for a minimum of 50,000 discs per territory, at a cost of $600,000, just for manufacturing the discs, before factoring in marketing and development costs, hence the reason for higher costs at the retail shelf. And on top of everything else, their physical disc would have to compete with countless other games for selection on the retailer shelf.\n", "Section::::Japan.:Possible solutions.\n", "Foreign AAA video games sell for around US$100 in Kenya, making it impossible for the general public to purchase more than a handful of video games, though a rise in spending power has been noticed, with some young people buying high-end PCs valued US$17,000 and upward. An issue faced by ICT entrepreneurs is that gaming is not taken seriously by the general public, making it difficult to find financial support.\n", "Video gaming in Belgium\n\nThis article is about the video game market and culture in Belgium.\n\nSection::::Consumer availability.\n\nSection::::Consumer availability.:Distribution.\n\nDistribution in the Belgium is usually done by publishers that cover the entire Benelux, although some of the publishers' offices are located in Belgium. Since not every publisher has a separate office for the Benelux, certain publishers take care of multiple labels, including those of other publishers.\n\nSection::::Consumer availability.:Rating.\n\nBelgium supports the PEGI rating system but there is no legislative basis. PEGI was developed and is owned by the Interactive Software Federation of Europe which is based in Brussels.\n", "British online gamers are outspending their German and French counterparts according to a recently released study commissioned by Gamesindustry.com and TNS. The UK MMO-market is now worth £195 million in 2009 compared to the £165 million and £145 million spent by German and French online gamers.\n", "First plan to implement digital tax in Brasil was revealed in October 2017. On 15 March 2018, São Paulo State Court decided in favour of Association of Information and Communication Technology Companies (Brasscom) and so the effects of the digital tax were suspended on software streaming and downloading.\n\nSection::::The rest of the World.:South America.:Argentina.\n", "Section::::The effects of digitization on industrial organization.:User-generated content and open source production.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08679	since babies are fed through umbilical cords, how do they just know to suck on their mothers breast if they’ve never eaten through their mouths?	Baby’s instinctually suck on their thumbs within the womb and this habit is passed on to the nipple	[ "Section::::Sucking reflex.\n\nThe sucking reflex is common to all mammals and is present at birth. It is linked with the rooting reflex and breastfeeding. It causes the child to instinctively suck anything that touches the roof of their mouth, and simulates the way a child naturally eats. There are two stages of the action:\n\nBULLET::::1. Expression: activated when the nipple is placed between a child's lips and touches their palate. They will instinctively press it between their tongue and palate to draw out the milk.\n", "Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations. If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is done with expressed breast-milk or with infant formula. Infants are born with a sucking reflex allowing them to extract the milk from the nipples of the breasts or the nipple of the baby bottle, as well as an instinctive behavior known as \"rooting\" with which they seek out the nipple. Sometimes a wet nurse is hired to feed the infant, although this is rare, especially in developed countries.\n", "Breastfeeding can begin immediately after birth. The baby is placed on the mother and feeding starts as soon as the baby shows interest. According to some authorities the majority of infants do not immediately begin to suckle if placed between the mother's breasts but rather enter a period of rest and quiet alertness. During this time they seem to be more interested in the mother's face, especially her eyes, than beginning to suckle. It has been speculated that this period of infant-mother interaction assists in the mother-child bonding for both mother and baby.\n", "According to La Leche League International, \"Experienced breastfeeding mothers learn that the sucking patterns and needs of babies vary. While some infants' sucking needs are met primarily during feedings, other babies may need additional sucking at the breast soon after a feeding even though they are not really hungry. Babies may also nurse when they are lonely, frightened or in pain...Comforting and meeting sucking needs at the breast is nature's original design. Pacifiers (dummies, soothers) are a substitute for the mother when she cannot be available. Other reasons to pacify a baby primarily at the breast include superior oral-facial development, prolonged lactational amenorrhea, avoidance of nipple confusion, and stimulation of an adequate milk supply to ensure higher rates of breastfeeding success.\"\n", "The infants use their sense of smell in finding the nipple. The areola smells similar to amniotic fluid, the baby recognizes this smell on its hands and begins to move towards the breast. As shown in a 1994 study in which one of the breasts was washed with unscented soap and the baby preferred the other one. They also use visual stimuli (such as the mother's face and the breast's areola) and auditory (the mother's voice).\n", "How an infant feeds from the breast to bottle differs. A breastfed infant regulates the suction required for the flow of milk from the breast by using small pauses to breathe and to swallow. On the other hand, for a bottle-fed infant, they do not have to create suction as the flow from the bottle allows for a continuous flow. When switched back to the breast, the infant faces sudden confusion regarding the lack of continuous flow that they got adapted to. Bottle-feeding requires no serious effort whereas breastfeeding demands the usage of at least 40 muscles in the infant’s face. This could make it difficult for the infant to latch efficiently and be breastfed well after being fed from the bottle.\n", "To Mundugumor women, the point of feeding their child was for him or her to absorb enough food to stop crying and allow the mother to place the child back in their basket. This hurried sense of what seems to be the only form of comfort provided by mothers was what caused the first signs of violence and competition in a Mundugumor individual. Because there was always a risk of being refused feeding, babies developed a fighting attitude while being nursed, holding on firmly to the mother's nipple and sucking milk as fast as possible. This harried notion of feeding caused many babies to choke from swallowing too fast. This choking irritated the mother and angered the child as they failed to accomplish their goal of satisfaction. Because of this, feeding became a situation of anger and struggle instead of reassurance and affection.\n", "Children who are born preterm have difficulty in initiating breast feeds immediately after birth. By convention, such children are often fed on expressed breast milk or other supplementary feeds through tubes or bottles until they develop satisfactory ability to suck breast milk. Tube feeding, though commonly used, is not supported by scientific evidence as of October 2016. It has also been reported in the same systematic review that by avoiding bottles and using cups instead to provide supplementary feeds to preterm children, a greater extent of breast feeding for a longer duration can subsequently be achieved.\n", "According to studies cited by UNICEF, babies naturally follow a process which leads to a first breastfeed. Initially after birth the baby cries with its first breaths. Shortly after, it relaxes and makes small movements of the arms, shoulders and head. If placed on the mother's abdomen the baby then crawls towards the breast, called the breast crawl and begins to feed. After feeding, it is normal for a baby to remain latched to the breast while resting. This is sometimes mistaken for lack of appetite. Absent interruptions, all babies follow this process. Rushing or interrupting the process, such as removing the baby to weigh him/her, may complicate subsequent feeding. Activities such as weighing, measuring, bathing, needle-sticks, and eye prophylaxis wait until after the first feeding.\"\n", "While the infant is feeding, his or her nostrils may flare to breathe in air. Do not panic—this flaring is normal. The infant can breathe normally while breastfeeding.\n\nAs the infant tilts backward, support his or her upper back and shoulders with the palm of the hand and gently pull the infant close.\n\nSection::::Tongue-tie.\n", "There is increasing evidence that suggests that early skin-to-skin contact (also called kangaroo care) between mother and baby stimulates breastfeeding behavior in the baby. Newborns who are immediately placed on their mother’s skin have a natural instinct to latch on to the breast and start nursing, typically within one hour of birth. Immediate skin-to-skin contact may provide a form of imprinting that makes subsequent feeding significantly easier. In addition to more successful breastfeeding and bonding, immediate skin-to-skin contact reduces crying and warms the baby.\n", "The infant's head should be slightly tilted back to make nursing and swallowing easier. When his or her head is tilted back and the mouth is open, the tongue will naturally be down in the mouth to allow the breast to go on top of it.\n\nAt first, allow the breast to hang naturally. The infant may open his or her mouth when the nipple is near his or her mouth. The mother also can gently guide the infant to latch on to the nipple.\n", "The feeder's design enables the feeder to be activated by tongue and gum pressure, imitating the mechanics involved in breastfeeding, rather than by sucking. \n", "Information can be provided to the mother before the birth to enhance the understanding of breastfeeding and the support that will be available to make it successful. The mother is encouraged to breastfeed and spend time bonding with her infant immediately after the birth. \n\nSucking causes the pituitary gland to release oxytocin, which contracts the uterus and prevents bleeding. This can be felt by the mother in the breasts. The crying of the infant can also induce the release of oxytocin. Cracked nipples can develop at this time, which can be managed with pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment.\n\nSection::::Uterus.\n", "From infancy, the only oral motor pattern appreciated is suck-swallow-breathe. This reflexive way of eating allows infants to feed from birth (from a breast or bottle) while protecting their airway and meeting their nutritional needs (Case-Smith & Humphry, in Case-Smith, 2005). The oral motor patterns required for eating and swallowing solids include tongue lateralization, tongue elevation, and munching/chewing, and unlike the suck-swallow-breathe sequence, coordination of these oral motor patterns is learned, not reflexive (Morris & Dunn Klein, 2000). When an infant is offered a spoon of puree, the practiced or familiar oral motor pattern is sucking. As purees are thicker than formula or breastmilk, puree is sucked off of a presented spoon and moved in the mouth in a similar fashion as liquid. This is generally looked at as a part of the process of introducing solid foods and parents are often encouraged to push past this. Conversely, current research supports that delayed experience with eating lumpy foods leads to poor food acceptance in later years (Coulthard, Harris, & Emmett,2009). Through playful exploration, BLW provides an opportunity for infants to practice new oral motor patterns. Through this method, infants gradually develop the oral motor patterns required for mature bolus manipulation, chewing, and swallowing, as well as allow the infant to be in charge of what goes in their mouth, how it goes in, and when. (Case-Smith, 2005, Rapley & Murkett, 2008).\n", "BULLET::::- Little or no areola, which is the dark-colored skin on the breast that surrounds the nipple. Depending on the size of the areola and the size of the infant's mouth, it is possible to only see a small amount of areola. If more areola is showing, it should seem that more is above the infant's lip and less is below.\n\nBULLET::::- The infant's mouth will be filled with breast when in the best latch position.\n\nBULLET::::- The infant's tongue is cupped under the breast, although it might not be seen.\n", "Breastfeeding has been reported to foster the early post-partum maternal bond, via touch, response, and mutual gazing. Extensive claims for the effect of breastfeeding were made in the 1930s by Margaret Ribble, a champion of \"infant rights,\" but were challenged by others. The claimed effect is not universal, and bottle-feeding mothers are generally appropriately concerned with their babies. It is difficult to determine the extent of causality due to a number of confounding variables, such as the varied reasons families choose different feeding methods. Many believe that early bonding ideally increases response and sensitivity to the child's needs, bolstering the quality of the mother–baby relationship—however, many exceptions can be found of highly successful mother–baby bonds, even though early breastfeeding did not occur, such as with premature infants who may lack the necessary sucking strength to be successfully breastfed.\n", "Maternal mouthbrooding is recognized to affect hormones and reproductive cycles for the female cichlids, but the effects as a result of neural processing and food deprivation are not known. A study particularly focused on this subject matter examined the effects that maternal mouthbrooding may have on a wide variety of physiological practices, in order to see if they are consequences of food deprivation, and indeed it was found that many of the changes (not all) are explained by food deprivation.\n\nSection::::Communication.\n\nSection::::Communication.:Acoustic signals.\n", "The mother must remove the breast milk. If the baby can attach well and suckle, then she should breastfeed as frequently as the baby is willing. If the baby is not able to attach and suckle effectively, she should express her milk by hand or with a pump a few times until the breasts are softer, so that the baby can attach better, and then get them to breastfeed frequently.\n", "BULLET::::2. Milking: The tongue moves from areola to nipple, coaxing milk from the mother to be swallowed by the child.\n\nSection::::Rooting reflex.\n", "When the baby suckles or stimulates the nipple, oxytocin levels rise and small muscles in the breast contract and move the milk through the milk ducts. The result of nipple stimulation by the newborn helps to move breast milk out through the ducts and to the nipple. This contraction of milk is called the “let-down reflex.” Latching on refers to the baby fastening onto the nipple to breastfeeding. A good attachment is when the bottom of the areola (the area around the nipple) is in the baby's mouth and the nipple is drawn back inside his or her mouth. A poor latch results in insufficient nipple stimulation to create the let down reflex. The nipple is poorly stimulated when the baby latches on too close to the tip of the nipple. This poor attachment can cause sore and cracked nipples and a reluctance of the mother to continue to breastfeed. After the birth of the infant, the milk supply increases based upon the continuous and increasing stimulation of the nipple by the infant. If the baby increases nursing time at the nipple, the mammary glands respond to this stimulation by increasing milk production.\n", "In some cases in which a baby seems unable to latch on properly the problem may be related to a medical condition called ankyloglossia, also referred to as \"tongue-tied\". In this condition a baby can't get a good latch because their tongue is stuck to the bottom of their mouth by a band of tissue and they can't open their mouth wide enough or keep their tongue over the lower gum while sucking. If an infant is unable to hold their tongue in the correct position they may chew rather than suck, causing both a lack of nutrition for the baby and significant nipple pain for the mother. If it is determined that the inability to latch on properly is related to ankyloglossia, a simple surgical procedure can correct the condition.\n", "BULLET::::- Premature babies can have difficulties coordinating their sucking reflex with breathing. They may need to be fed more frequently because their stomachs tend to be smaller, and they may get sleepier during feedings. Premature infants unable to take enough calories by mouth may need enteral or gavage feeding - inserting a feeding tube into the stomach to provide enough breast milk or a substitute. This is often done together with Kangaroo care (prolonged skin-to-skin contact with the mother) which makes later breastfeeding easier. For some suckling difficulties, such as may happen with cleft lip/palate, the baby can be fed with a Haberman Feeder.\n", "Mbusas operate under the assumption that less interference during the laboring process is better. However, at times they will employ a variety of strategies to accelerate the labor process. These include: providing fundal pressure, using a cooking stick to provide pressure in their mouth, and physically moving the mother. The gag reflex is used to help speed up either the labor process or the delivery of the placenta.\n\nSection::::Birth.\n", "Messner \"et al.\" studied ankyloglossia and infant feeding. Thirty-six infants with ankyloglossia were compared to a control group without ankyloglossia. The two groups were followed for six months to assess possible breastfeeding difficulties; defined as nipple pain lasting more than six weeks, or infant difficulty latching onto or staying onto the mother’s breast. Twenty-five percent of mothers of infants with ankyloglossia reported breastfeeding difficulty compared with only 3% of the mothers in the control group. The study concluded that ankyloglossia can adversely affect breastfeeding in certain infants. Infants with ankyologlossia do not, however, have such big difficulties when feeding from a bottle. Limitations of this study include the small sample size and the fact that the quality of the mother’s breastfeeding was not assessed.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05077	How do bubbles oxegenate water?	> If bubbles are released under water but immediately float to the top, how are they oxygenating the whole body of water? Oxygen dissolves into the water and does so more quickly the greater the surface area exposed to oxygen gas. By bubbling the air through the water it increases the surface area exposed greatly; the finer bubbles the better as there is more surface area for the volume of gas and water. You can't see the dissolved oxygen in the water but it is there.	[ "Section::::Commercialization.\n", "BULLET::::2. The bubbles form a foam which travels up a column and is discharged to the foamate stream of foam fractionation.\n\nThe rate at which certain non-ionic molecules can adsorb to bubble surface can be estimated by solving the Ward-Tordai equation. The enrichment and recovery depend on the hydrodynamic condition of the rising foam, which is a complex system dependent upon bubble size distribution, stress state at the gas-liquid interface, rate of bubble coalescence, gas rate \"inter alia\". The hydrodynamic condition is described by the Hydrodynamic Theory of Rising Foam.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The method in which the bubbles are introduced into the water stream and retention time are also important factors. The average retention time for a vertical unit is typically 4 to 5 minutes and 5 to 6 minutes for a horizontal unit.\n\nSection::::DGF pump.\n", "Section::::Air elimination.:Water-loop system.:Entrained air.\n\nEntrained air is air bubbles that travel around in the piping at the same velocity as the water. Air \"scoops\" are one example of products which attempt to remove this type of air.\n\nSection::::Air elimination.:Water-loop system.:Dissolved air.\n\nDissolved air is also present in the system water and the amount is determined principally by the temperature and pressure (see Henry's Law) of the incoming water. On average, tap water contains between 8-10% dissolved air by volume.\n", "Foam fractionation is closely related to the allied process of froth flotation in which hydrophobic particles attach to the surface of bubbles which rise to form a pneumatic (i.e. rising) foam. In this way, relatively hydrophobic particles can be separated from relatively hydrophilic particles. Froth flotation is typically used to separate coal particles from ash or particles of valuable minerals from gangue material. It was research into the froth phase of froth flotation conducted at the University of Newcastle, Australia, specifically into the prediction of liquid fraction and liquid flux in a pneumatic foam, that enabled a preliminary mechanistic description of foam fractionation. The synergies between foam fractionation and froth flotation have been explored in a 2009 special issue of the Asia Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering.\n", "Efforts are under way to develop a solution for removing the gas from these lakes and to prevent a build-up which could lead to another catastrophe. A team led by French scientist Michel Halbwachs began experimenting at Lake Monoun and Lake Nyos in 1990 using siphons to degas the waters of these lakes in a controlled manner. The team positions a pipe vertically in the lake with its upper end above the water surface. Water saturated with CO enters the bottom of the pipe and rises to the top. The lower pressure at the surface allows the gas to come out of solution. Only a small amount of water must be mechanically pumped initially through the pipe to start the flow. As saturated water rises, the CO comes out of solution and forms bubbles. The natural buoyancy of the bubbles draws the water up the pipe at high velocity resulting in a fountain at the surface. The degassifying water acts like a pump, drawing more water into the bottom of the pipe, and creating a self-sustaining flow. This is the same process which leads to a natural eruption, but in this case it is controlled by the size of the pipe.\n", "Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:\n\nBULLET::::- Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n", "The Jameson cell uses neither impellers nor spargers, instead combining the slurry with air in a downcomer where high shear creates the turbulent conditions required for bubble particle contacting.\n\nSection::::Mechanics of flotation.\n\nThe following steps are followed, following grinding to liberate the mineral particles:\n\nBULLET::::1. Reagent conditioning to achieve hydrophobic surface charges on the desired particles\n\nBULLET::::2. Collection and upward transport by bubbles in an intimate contact with air or nitrogen\n\nBULLET::::3. Formation of a stable froth on the surface of the flotation cell\n\nBULLET::::4. Separation of the mineral laden froth from the bath (flotation cell)\n", "The principle behind IWR treatment is the same as that behind the treatment of DCS in a recompression chamber: an increase in ambient pressure will reduce the volume of the bubbles allowing better blood transport downstream of the bubbles. If the casualty can breathe pure oxygen further improvements will occur because the increase in the proportion of oxygen in the blood may keep previously oxygen-starved tissues alive and the oxygen will remove other inert gases from the bubbles making the bubbles smaller.\n", "The concept of the Cell followed when further investigations showed that most of the bubble–particle interactions were occurring in the downcomer, rendering unnecessary the collection zone of flotation columns. The idea of the downcomer and short separation tank was developed and a provisional patent application was lodged in 1986. This patent was later assigned to TUNRA Limited (\"TUNRA\"), the technology transfer company of the University of Newcastle that is now known as \"Newcastle Innovation\".\n", "Chemical and metallurgic engineers rely on bubbles for operations such as distillation, absorption, flotation and spray drying. The complex processes involved often require consideration for mass and heat transfer, and are modelled using fluid dynamics.\n\nThe star-nosed mole and the American water shrew can smell underwater by rapidly breathing through their nostrils and creating a bubble. \n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.:Pulsation.\n", "The above explanation only holds for bubbles of one medium submerged in another medium (e.g. bubbles of gas in a soft drink); the volume of a membrane bubble (e.g. soap bubble) will not distort light very much, and one can only see a membrane bubble due to thin-film diffraction and reflection.\n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.:Applications.\n\nNucleation can be intentionally induced, for example to create a bubblegram in a solid.\n\nIn medical ultrasound imaging, small encapsulated bubbles called contrast agent are used to enhance the contrast.\n", "The gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected or ignited with a flame above the water if this was the intention. The required potential for the electrolysis of pure water is 1.23 V at 25 °C. The operating potential is actually 1.48 V or higher in practical electrolysis.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "An example of a non-Boussinesq flow is bubbles rising in water. The behaviour of air bubbles rising in water is very different from the behaviour of water falling in air: in the former case rising bubbles tend to form hemispherical shells, while water falling in air splits into raindrops (at small length scales surface tension enters the problem and confuses the issue).\n", "During the last two decades, a new form of electrode was developed based on the luminescence emission of a photo active chemical compound and the quenching of that emission by oxygen. It is also called optical dissolved oxygen sensor. This quenching photophysics mechanism is described by the Stern–Volmer equation for dissolved oxygen in a solution:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_10: Luminescence in the presence of oxygen\n\nBULLET::::- formula_11: Luminescence in the absence of oxygen\n\nBULLET::::- formula_12: Stern-Volmer constant for oxygen quenching\n\nBULLET::::- [O2]: Dissolved oxygen concentration\n", "Fine bubble diffused aeration is able to maximize the surface area of the bubbles and thus transfer more oxygen to the water per bubble. Additionally, smaller bubbles take more time to reach the surface so not only is the surface area maximized but so are the number of seconds each bubble spends in the water, allowing it more time to transfer oxygen to the water. As a general rule, smaller bubbles and a deeper release point will generate a greater oxygen transfer rate.\n", "The attachment of the bubbles to the particles is determined by the interfacial energies of between the solid, liquid, and vapor phases, as modeled by the Young/Dupre Equation. The interfacial energies can be based on the natural structure of the materials, or the addition of chemical treatments can improve energy compatibility.\n", "Froth flotation depends on the selective adhesion of air bubbles to mineral surfaces in a mineral/water slurry. The air bubbles will attach to more hydrophobic particles. The attachment of the bubbles to the surface is determined by the interfacial energies between the solid, liquid, and gas phases. This is determined by the Young-Dupré Equation:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- γ is the surface energy of the liquid/vapor interface\n\nBULLET::::- γ is the surface energy of the solid/vapor interface\n\nBULLET::::- γ is the surface energy of the solid/liquid interface,\n", "Induced gas flotation is very widely used in treating the industrial wastewater effluents from oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and similar industrial facilities. A very similar process known as \"dissolved air flotation\" is also used for waste water treatment. \"Froth flotation\" is commonly used in the processing of mineral ores.\n\nIGF units in the oil industry do not use air as the flotation medium due to the explosion risk. These IGF units use natural gas or nitrogen to create the bubbles.\n\nSection::::Process description.\n", "The detachment of a particle and bubble requires adsorption bond cleavage driven by shear forces. Depending on the flotation cell type, shear forces are applied by a variety of mechanical systems. Among the most common are impellers and mixers. Some systems combine the functionalities of these components by placing them at key locations where they can take part in multiple froth flotation mechanisms. Cleaning cells also take advantage of gravitational forces to improve separation efficiency.\n\nSection::::Science of flotation.:Theory.:Performance calculations.\n\nSection::::Science of flotation.:Theory.:Performance calculations.:Relevant equations.\n", "Effervescence\n\nEffervescence is the escape of gas from an aqueous solution and the foaming or fizzing that results from that release. The word effervescence is derived from the Latin verb \"fervere\" (to boil), preceded by the adverb \"ex\". It has the same linguistic root as the word fermentation.\n\nEffervescence can also be observed when opening a bottle of champagne, beer or carbonated beverages such as soft drinks. The visible bubbles are produced by the escape from solution of the dissolved gas (which itself is not visible while dissolved in the liquid).\n", "Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and the result is a nanoemulsion, where the inner state disperses into \"nano-size\" droplets within the outer phase. A well-known example of this phenomenon, the \"ouzo effect\", happens when water is poured into a strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, absinthe, arak, or raki. The anisolic compounds, which are soluble in ethanol, then form nano-size droplets and emulsify within the water. The resulting color of the drink is opaque and milky white.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of emulsification.\n", "The tiny bubbles within the chocolate form via aerating the molten chocolate with gas, typically carbon dioxide or nitrogen, while at a high pressure, which causes microscopic gas bubbles to form within the liquid. The liquid is then lowered to atmospheric pressure as it cools, causing the gas pockets to expand and become trapped in the chocolate. Air is not used to make the bubbles as this would oxidize the chocolate.\n\nSection::::Advertising.\n", "Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process affecting silicate and carbonate minerals. In such reactions, pure water ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate minerals. An example reaction:\n\nThis reaction theoretically results in complete dissolution of the original mineral, if enough water is available to drive the reaction. In reality, pure water rarely acts as a H donor. Carbon dioxide, though, dissolves readily in water forming a weak acid and H donor.\n", "Dissolved air flotation is very widely used in treating the industrial wastewater effluents from oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural gas processing plants, paper mills, general water treatment and similar industrial facilities. A very similar process known as \"induced gas flotation\" is also used for wastewater treatment. \"Froth flotation\" is commonly used in the processing of mineral ores.\n\nIn the oil industry, \"dissolved gas flotation\" (DGF) units do not use air as the flotation medium due to the explosion risk. Nitrogen gas is used instead to create the bubbles.\n\nSection::::Process description.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11631	Why does wind feel so much colder when we are wet?	It’s called the windchill effect and it’s the same reason you can cool food off by blowing on it. You’re body heats the air around you and when that air is blown away it’s replaced by cooler air that your body also has to warm. This causes you to feel cold because your body is constantly losing heat to the air around it. This effect is magnified by water because water can absorb a lot of heat. When you’re wet, your body loses heat to the water (a lot of heat). The wind blows, and that heat is lost and the water continues to leech heat from your skin. Hope that explains it!	[ "Section::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Books.:\"Wind - Water - Sun\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aquilo\" (NNE) – Isidore relates it to water (\"acqua\"), because but probably from \"aquilus\", because it soaks up water from the ground. Pliny says the surface of the earth \"announces the approach\" of Aquilo by drying, and the approach of Auster, by becoming moist \"without any apparent cause\". Alternative etymologies is that it derives from \"aquilus\" (\"dark\"), meaning either dark rainclouds (although it is not usually characterized as wet) or simply because it blows from the \"land of darkness\" (the far north)\n", "As summer visitors to the beach in Provence learn, the summer mistral can quickly lower the temperature of the sea, as the wind pushes the warm water near the surface out to sea and it is replaced by colder water from greater depths.\n\nSection::::Effects.:The effects of the mistral beyond France.\n", "As the air temperature falls, the chilling effect of any wind that is present increases. For example, a wind will lower the apparent temperature by a wider margin at an air temperature of , than a wind of the same speed would if the air temperature were .\n\nThe 2001 WCET is a steady state calculation (except for the time to frostbite estimates). There are significant time-dependent aspects to wind chill because cooling is most rapid at the start of any exposure, when the skin is still warm.\n\nSection::::Alternative approaches.:Australian apparent temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1970 Tim Buckley song \"Venice Beach\" includes the lyrics \"White heat of swaying day/ Dark slap of conga cries/ 'Come out and breathe as one'/ Salt sea and fiddles drone/ Out on the dancing stone/ While the Santanas blow/ Sing the music boats in the bay.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The 1983 Randy Newman song I Love L.A. includes the lines \"Santa Ana winds blowin’ hot from the north / And we was born to ride\"\n", "Buys Ballot's law states that if a person in the Northern Hemisphere stands with his back to the wind, the atmospheric pressure is low to the left, high to the right. His main research effort in meteorology went into examining long-time series for regularities; he was more concerned with establishing the regularities than in explaining them. He made no contributions to the theory of meteorology which is perhaps surprising given his training in physics. The contrast with his American contemporary, William Ferrel, who discovered Buys-Ballot's law slightly earlier, is striking.\n", "BULLET::::- Official lowest wind chill: on 28 January 1989 (air temperature of ) and wind speed of\n\nSection::::Health care.\n", "BULLET::::- The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 10 °C (50 °F). As airflow increases over the skin, more heat will be removed. Standard models and conditions are used.\n", "Driving Force is the difference in the level of heat and humidity on one side of the material compared to the other side. Also known as the Differential Pressure. By 2nd law of thermodynamics moisture will move towards dry. Therefore, warm, moist air will flow towards cold, dry air until there is an equilibrium.\n", "Through the wind stress, the wind generates ocean surface waves; the longer waves have a phase velocity tending towards the wind speed. Momentum of the surface winds is transferred into the energy flux by the ocean surface waves. The increased roughness of the ocean surface, by the presence of the waves, changes the wind near the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Moisture\n", "BULLET::::- The Santa Ana Winds were an important part of the plot in the 2006 movie The Holiday.\n\nBULLET::::- In Joan Didion's essay, The Santa Ana, she describes the winds effect on the local residents in a story-like manner.\n\nBULLET::::- Los Angeles native Belinda Carlisle's album Runaway Horses mentions \"...kisses hotter than the Santa Ana Winds\" in the song Summer Rain.\n\nBULLET::::- Danish indie rock band Mew's song The Zookeeper's Boy from their 2005 album And the Glass Handed Kites has the line \"Santa Ana Wind brings seasickness.\"\n", "If the sun is not warming the water, but the path x(\"t\") is not a standstill, the time derivative of \"φ\" may change due to the path. For example, imagine the swimmer is in a motionless pool of water, indoors and unaffected by the sun. One end happens to be at a constant high temperature and the other end at a constant low temperature. By swimming from one end to the other the swimmer senses a change of temperature with respect to time, even though the temperature at any given (static) point is a constant. This is because the derivative is taken at the swimmer's changing location and the second term on the right formula_10 is sufficient to describe the rate of change of temperature. A temperature sensor attached to the swimmer would show temperature varying with time, simply due to the temperature variation from one end of the pool to the other.\n", "There has been controversy over why damp cold air feels colder than dry cold air. Some believe it is because when the humidity is high, our skin and clothing become moist and are better conductors of heat, so there is more cooling by conduction.\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.:Natural ventilation.\n", "The apparent temperature (AT), invented in the late 1970s, was designed to measure thermal sensation in indoor conditions. It was extended in the early 1980s to include the effect of sun and wind. The AT index used here is based on a mathematical model of an adult, walking outdoors, in the shade (Steadman 1994). The AT is defined as; the temperature, at the reference humidity level, producing the same amount of discomfort as that experienced under the current ambient temperature and humidity.\n\nThe formula is:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" = dry bulb temperature (°C)\n\nBULLET::::- \"e\" = water vapour pressure (hPa)\n", "In situations where modern instruments are not available, an index finger can be used to test the direction of wind. This is accomplished by wetting the finger and pointing it upwards. The side of the finger that feels \"cool\" is (approximately) the direction from which the wind is blowing. The \"cool\" sensation is caused by an increased rate of evaporation of the moisture on the finger due to the air flow across the finger, and consequently the \"finger technique\" of measuring wind direction does not work well in either very humid or very hot conditions. The same principle is used to measure the dew point using a sling psychrometer (a more accurate instrument than the human finger).\n", "BULLET::::- The winds and their psychological impact feature heavily in the 1971 American horror film, The Return of Count Yorga.\n\nBULLET::::- In his 2014 song \"Devil, Devil\", Country music singer Eric Church uses the line \"I'm a brush fire in a drought land and you're Santa Ana Breeze\" when addressing his precarious relationship.\n", "Many formulas exist for wind chill because, unlike temperature, wind chill has no universally agreed upon standard definition or measurement. All the formulas attempt to qualitatively predict the effect of wind on the temperature humans \"perceive\". Weather services in different countries use standards unique to their country or region; for example, the U.S. and Canadian weather services use a model accepted by the National Weather Service. That model has evolved over time.\n", "Section::::Strongest winds.\n", "BULLET::::- At this latitude, the now cool, dry, high altitude air begins to sink. As it sinks, it warms adiabatically, decreasing its relative humidity.\n\nBULLET::::- Near the surface, a frictional return flow completes the loop, absorbing moisture along the way. The Coriolis effect gives this flow a westward component, creating the trade winds.\n", "BULLET::::- The band Animal Logic recorded a song \"Winds Of Santa Ana\" appearing in the band's self-titled 1989 album.\n", "When river water passes over rocks, turbulence is generated in the form of rapids, and white water reveals the turbulent mixing of the water with the air above. Similarly, as air passes over mountains, turbulence occurs and the atmosphere is mixed in the vertical. This mixing generally leads to a downward warming and upward moistening of the cross-mountain airflow, and consequently to warmer, drier foehn winds in the valleys downwind.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Radiative warming.\n", "The record high temperature of was on July 23, 1928. The record low temperature of was on December 9, 1972 until 1990 when it reached . There are an average of 51.3 afternoons annually with highs of or higher, eight afternoons reaching at least and 77.5 mornings annually with lows of or lower.\n", "This refers to the effect of west wind in the water. The question that comes up when reading the third canto at first is what the subject of the verb \"saw\" (33) could be. On the one hand there is the \"blue Mediterranean\" (30). With the \"Mediterranean\" as subject of the canto, the \"syntactical movement\" is continued and there is no break in the fluency of the poem; it is said that \"he lay, / Lull'd by the coil of his crystalline streams, / Beside a pumice isle in Baiae's bay, / And saw in sleep old palaces and towers\" (30–33). On the other hand it is also possible that the lines of this canto refer to the \"wind\" again. Then the verb that belongs to the \"wind\" as subject is not \"lay\", but the previous line of this canto, that says Thou who didst waken ... And saw\" (29, 33). But whoever—the \"Mediterranean\" or the \"wind\"—\"saw\" (33) the question remains whether the city one of them saw, is real and therefore a reflection on the water of a city that really exists on the coast; or the city is just an illusion. Pirie is not sure of that either. He says that it might be \"a creative you interpretation of the billowing seaweed; or of the glimmering sky reflected on the heaving surface\". Both possibilities seem to be logical. To explain the appearance of an underwater world, it might be easier to explain it by something that is realistic; and that might be that the wind is able to produce illusions on the water. With its pressure, the wind \"would waken the appearance of a city\". From what is known of the \"wind\" from the last two cantos, it became clear that the wind is something that plays the role of a Creator. Whether the wind creates real things or illusions does not seem to be that important.\n", "BULLET::::- Foehn winds in the foothills of the southern Appalachian mountains, which can be unusual compared to other foehn winds in that the relative humidity typically changes little due to the increased moisture in the source air mass\n\nBULLET::::- The Santa Ana winds of southern California, including the Sundowner winds of Santa Barbara, are in some ways similar to the Föhn, but originate in dry deserts as a katabatic wind.\n\nBULLET::::- Puelche wind in Chile\n\nBULLET::::- Suêtes on the west coast of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Zonda winds in Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- in Antarctica\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18349	How is the human body able to regrow bone following laser dental surgery?	They don't grow, as in continuing to enlarge your proportions. However bones still 'grow' when it comes to repairs. Otherwise once a bone was broken it couldn't heal. I had a tooth pulled. They filled the hole in the jaw from where the root was with cadaver bone, so my jaw bone would grow across the hole. So they can install a implant later. As said, the plates are about proportional growth, not the creation of cells period.	[ "To achieve an adequate width and height of bone, various bone grafting techniques have been developed. The most frequently used is called guided bone graft augmentation where a defect is filled with either natural (harvested or autograft) bone or allograft (donor bone or synthetic bone substitute), covered with a semi-permeable membrane and allowed to heal. During the healing phase, natural bone replaces the graft forming a new bony base for the implant.\n\nThree common procedures are:\n\nBULLET::::1. The sinus lift\n\nBULLET::::2. Lateral alveolar augmentation (increase in the width of a site)\n", "Success depends on osteoblasts being present at the site, there must be a sufficient blood supply, graft must be stabilised during healing and soft tissue must not be under tension.\n\nis\n\nBULLET::::- vertical and horizontal augmentation of the upper and lower jaws\n\nSection::::Indications.\n\nThere are several uses of bone regeneration:\n\nBULLET::::- Fenestration and Dehiscence\n\nBULLET::::- building up bone around implants placed in tooth sockets after tooth extraction\n\nBULLET::::- socket preservation for future implantation of false teeth or prosthetics\n\nBULLET::::- Sinus Lift Elevation prior to implant placement\n", "Bone fracture, which is a complete or partial break in the bone, is a very common condition that has more than three million US cases per year. Human bones have the ability to regenerate themselves by cycle of bone resorption and bone formation. The cell responsible for bone resorption is osteoclast, while the cell responsible for bone formation is osteoblast. That being said, the human body can regenerate fractured bone. However, if damage to bone is caused by a disease or severe injury, it becomes difficult for the body to repair itself. When the human body is unable to regenerate the lost bone tissue, surgeons come in and replace the missing bone using autografts, allografts, and synthetic grafts (artificial bone). When compare artificial bone to autograft and allograft, it is less invasive and more biocompatible since it avoids the risk of unknown viral infections.\n", "Section::::Method.:Growth Factors.\n\nGrowth Factor enhanced grafts are produced using recombinant DNA technology. They consist of either Human Growth Factors or Morphogens (Bone Morphogenic Proteins in conjunction with a carrier medium, such as collagen).\n\nSection::::Method.:Recovery and aftercare.\n\nThe time it takes for an individual to recover depends on the severity of the injury being treated and lasts anywhere from two weeks to two months, with a possibility of vigorous exercise being barred for up to six months.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Dental implants.\n", "In Korea, the Korea Tooth Bank performed bio-recycling of 38 000 patients' own teeth from January 2009 until October 2012.\n\nSection::::Method.:Allografts.\n", "Use of barrier membranes to direct bone regeneration was first described in the context of orthopaedic research 1959. The theoretical principles basic to guided tissue regeneration were developed by Melcher in 1976, who outlined the necessity of excluding unwanted cell lines from healing sites to allow growth of desired tissues. Based on positive clinical results of regeneration in periodontology research in the 1980s, research began to focus on the potential for re-building alveolar bone defects using guided bone regeneration. The theory of Guided tissue regeneration has been challenged in dentistry. \n", "A non-viral PDGF \"bio patch\" can regenerate missing or damaged bone by delivering DNA in a nano-sized particle directly into cells via genes. Repairing bone fractures, fixing craniofacial defects and improving dental implants are among potential uses. The patch employs a collagen platform seeded with particles containing the genes needed for producing bone. In experiments, it new bone fully covered skull wounds in test animals and stimulated growth in human bone marrow stromal cells.\n\nThe addition of PDGF at specific time‐points has been shown to stabilise vasculature in collagen‐glycosaminoglycan scaffolds.\n\nSection::::Family members.\n", "Section::::Gingival grafting.:Growth-factor techniques.\n\nRecent advances have seen the introduction of platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) infused bone graft material. This material is usually combined with the cellular matrix to form a soft bone paste that is then covered by the allograft. The development of this type of bone and tissue cellular matrix (also known as ortho filler) results in greater osseointegration with the patient's healthy bone and soft tissue.\n", "The linear bone resorption rate (M) cannot be measured directly, but it approximates a third of σ.\n\nSection::::Interspecies differences.\n\nEach vertebrate species exhibits a distinct duration of bone regeneration and remodeling, and it appears as though there is an inversely proportional relationship between the rate of bone regeneration and the phylogenetic evolution of the animal. Each remodeling period lasts 3–6 months in humans, 3 months in dogs, and 6 weeks in rabbits.\n", "After endodontic therapy has been executed, or re-executed, successfully, and the canals can no longer provide a nutrient-rich habitat for microbes, the issue of bone healing comes into focus. Ostensibly, then, for regeneration to occur, the root canal system must have been decontaminated and further access to microbial invasion must be prohibited. Regeneration of the bone has been demonstrated to occur, on average, at a rate of 3.2 mm² per month, and studies suggest that 71% of lesions have achieved complete resolution one year post-operatively.\n", "An autograft may also be performed without a solid bony structure, for example using bone reamed from the anterior superior iliac spine. In this case there is an osteoinductive and osteogenic action, however there is no osteoconductive action, as there is no solid bony structure.\n", "Bone transplants have proven successful in filling the lesions caused by OFC. A report showed that in 8 out of 11 instances where cavities caused by OFC were filled with transplanted bone, the lesion healed and the transplanted bone blended rapidly and seamlessly with the original bone.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Guided bone regeneration is similar to guided tissue regeneration, but is focused on development of hard tissues in addition to the soft tissues of the periodontal attachment. At present, guided bone regeneration is predominantly applied in the oral cavity to support new hard tissue growth on an alveolar ridge to allow stable placement of dental implants. Bone grafting used in conjunction with sound surgical technique, guided bone regeneration is a reliable and validated procedure.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Vacanti and his brother Joseph successfully used the same technique to grow a chest plate for a 12-year-old boy, Sean McCormack, who had been born without cartilage or bone over his heart and left lung. In 1998, the team at Massachusetts led by Vacanti grew a replacement thumb bone using a scaffold of coral for a man, Raul Murcia, whose thumb had been crushed. The work was approved by the FDA, but they did not approve also growing cartilage and tendons. Vacanti also grew a new trachea for a 14-year-old girl.\n", "Section::::Method.:Alloplastic grafts.:Temporary spacer.\n\nA synthetic material may be used as a temporary antibiotic spacer before being replaced by a more permanent material. For example, the \"Masquelet procedure\" consists of initially using PMMA mixed with an antibiotic (vancomycin or gentamicin) for 4–12 weeks, and then replacing the space with an autologous bone graft. It can be used to treat posttraumatic bone defects.\n\nSection::::Method.:Xenografts.\n", "The GBR principle was first examined by Dahlin et al. in 1988 on rats.\n\nThe selective ingrowth of bone-forming cells into a bone defect region could be improved if the adjacent tissue is kept away with a membrane; this was confirmed in a study by Kosopoulos and Karring in 1994.\n", "Bone generally has the ability to regenerate completely but requires a very small fracture space or some sort of scaffold to do so. Bone grafts may be autologous (bone harvested from the patient’s own body, often from the iliac crest), allograft (cadaveric bone usually obtained from a bone bank), or synthetic (often made of hydroxyapatite or other naturally occurring and biocompatible substances) with similar mechanical properties to bone. Most bone grafts are expected to be reabsorbed and replaced as the natural bone heals over a few months’ time.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nResearchers in Japan have successfully regrown fully functional teeth in mice. Epithelial and mesenchymal cells were extracted from the mice, cultured to produce a tooth \"germ\", and the germ was then implanted into the bone at the space of a missing tooth. A tooth of the correct external and internal structure, hardness, strength, and sensitivity later erupted in the space, eventually meeting the opposing tooth in a manner similar to an original natural tooth. This technique may be a possible future treatment for replacement of missing teeth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Teeth cleaning\n\nBULLET::::- Tooth brushing\n\nBULLET::::- Flossing\n", "Dental bone grafting is a specialized oral surgical procedure that has been developed to reestablish lost jawbone. This loss can be a result of dental infection of abscess, periodontal disease, or trauma. There are various reasons for replacing lost bone tissue and encouraging natural bone growth, and each technique tackles jawbone defects differently. Reasons that bone grafting might be needed include sinus augmentation, socket preservation, ridge augmentation, or regeneration.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Fibular shaft.\n", "Dentin bone, made from extracted teeth, Dentin comprises more than 85% of tooth structure, the enamel consists of HA mineral and comprises 10% of tooth structure. Dentin is similar to bone in its chemical composition, by volume 70-75% is HA mineral and 20% organic matrix, mostly fibrous type I collagen. Dentin, like bone, may release growth and differentiating factors while being resorbed by osteoclasts.\n\nIn order to make the dentin graft usable and bacteria-free some companies have developed clinical procedures which include grinding, sorting and cleaning of the teeth for immediate or future use.\n", "In 2013 it was proven in pig tissue that full thickness micro columns of tissue, less than 0.5mm in diameter could be removed and that the replacement tissue, was regenerative tissue, not scar. The tissue was removed in a fractional pattern, with over 40% of a square area removed; and all of the fractional full thickness holes in the square area healed without scarring. In 2016 this fractional pattern technique was also proven in human tissue.\n\nSection::::History of human tissue regeneration.:History of regeneration techniques.:Regeneration with materials.\n", "If the fracture gap is 800 μm to 1 mm, the fracture is filled by osteoclasts and then by lamellar bone oriented perpendicular to the axis of the bone. This orientation of lamellar bone is weak, thus a secondary osteonal reconstruction is required to re-orient the lamellar bone longitudinally. This process takes three to eight weeks.\n\nSection::::Secondary healing.\n", "The biological method of osteopromotion by exclusion is good for predicting ridge growth or defect regeneration.\n\nResorbable membranes:\n", "Another common bone graft, which is more substantial than those used for dental implants, is of the fibular shaft. After the segment of the fibular shaft has been removed normal activities such as running and jumping are permitted on the leg with the bone deficit. The grafted, vascularized fibulas have been used to restore skeletal integrity to long bones of limbs in which congenital bone defects exist and to replace segments of bone after trauma or malignant tumor invasion. The periosteum and nutrient artery are generally removed with the piece of bone so that the graft will remain alive and grow when transplanted into the new host site. Once the transplanted bone is secured into its new location it generally restores blood supply to the bone in which it has been attached.\n", "Ridge resorption may also alter the form of the ridges to less predictable shapes, such as bulbous ridges with undercuts or even sharp, thin, knife-edged ridges, depending of which of many possible factors influenced the resorption.\n\nBone loss with missing teeth, partials and complete dentures is progressive. According to Wolff's law, bone is stimulated, strengthened and continually renewed directly by a tooth or an implant. Teeth and implants provide this direct stimulation which develops stronger bone around them.\n" ]	[ "Bones regrow after laser dental surgery.", "Bones regrow after laser dental surgery." ]	[ "Holes are filled with cadaver bone which assists with proportional growth, not the creation of new cells.", "Holes are filled with cadaver bone which assists with proportional growth, not the creation of new cells." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bones regrow after laser dental surgery.", "Bones regrow after laser dental surgery.", "Bones regrow after laser dental surgery." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Holes are filled with cadaver bone which assists with proportional growth, not the creation of new cells.", "Holes are filled with cadaver bone which assists with proportional growth, not the creation of new cells.", "Holes are filled with cadaver bone which assists with proportional growth, not the creation of new cells." ]
2018-14601	How do gears in a car/bicycle work?	The larger the wheel the greater its circumference, and the greater distance it covers turning once. If you take two wheels and put them together such that their edges touch and do not slip, if you turn one the other will turn as well. Now imagine the second wheel has a circumference twice as long as the first. This means you will need to turn the first wheel twice in order to make the second wheel turn once. Gears then can be used to increase or decrease the speed of a turning motion but they don't change the force; if you speed it up then it won't be turning as powerfully, but if you slow it down it becomes much more powerful.	[ "In many epicyclic gearing systems, one of these three basic components is held stationary; one of the two remaining components is an \"input\", providing power to the system, while the last component is an \"output\", receiving power from the system. The ratio of input rotation to output rotation is dependent upon the number of teeth in each gear, and upon which component is held stationary.\n", "Section::::Shifting of gears.\n\nIn some machines (e.g., automobiles) it is necessary to alter the gear ratio to suit the task, a process known as gear shifting or changing gear. There are several ways of shifting gears, for example:\n\nBULLET::::- Manual transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Derailleur gears, which are actually sprockets in combination with a roller chain\n\nBULLET::::- Hub gears (also called epicyclic gearing or sun-and-planet gears)\n", "Section::::Measuring gear ratios.\n\nSection::::Measuring gear ratios.:Methods.\n", "Bicycle gearing\n\nBicycle gearing is the aspect of a bicycle drivetrain that determines the relation between the cadence, the rate at which the rider pedals, and the rate at which the drive wheel turns.\n", "Derailleur gears\n\nDerailleur gears are a variable-ratio transmission system commonly used on bicycles, consisting of a chain, multiple sprockets of different sizes, and a mechanism to move the chain from one sprocket to another. Although referred to as \"gears\" in the bike world, these bicycle \"gears\" are technically \"sprockets\" since they drive or are driven by a chain, and are not driven by one another.\n", "Alternatively, if the number of teeth on each gear meets the relationship formula_7, this equation can be re-written as the following:\n\nwhere\n\nThese relationships can be used to analyze any epicyclic system, including those, such as hybrid vehicle transmissions, where two of the components are used as \"inputs\" with the third providing \"output\" relative to the two inputs.\n", "BULLET::::- Retro-direct drivetrains used on some early 20th century bicycles have been resurrected by bicycle hobbyists. These have two possible gear ratios but no gear lever; the operator simply pedals forward for one gear and backward for the other. The chain path is quite complicated, since it effectively has to do a figure of eight as well as follow the normal chain path.\n", "BULLET::::- Path of contact : Path followed by the point of contact between two meshing gear teeth.\n", "Section::::Types of gear change mechanisms.:Internal (bottom bracket).\n", "Section::::Types of gear change mechanisms.:External (derailleur).:Alpine gearing.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n", "When two toothed gears mesh, an imaginary circle, the \"pitch circle\", can be drawn around the centre of either gear through the point where their teeth make contact. The curves of the teeth outside the pitch circle are known as the \"addenda\", and the curves of the tooth spaces inside the pitch circle are known as the \"dedenda\". An addendum of one gear rests inside a dedendum of the other gear.\n", "BULLET::::- It is possible to design gear teeth for gears that are non-circular, yet still transmit torque smoothly.\n\nBULLET::::- The speed ratios of chain and belt drives are computed in the same way as gear ratios. See bicycle gearing.\n\nSection::::Mechanical advantage.\n", "Bicycles usually have a system for selecting different gear ratios. There are two main types: derailleur gears and hub gears. The derailleur type is the most common, and the most visible, using sprocket gears. Typically there are several gears available on the rear sprocket assembly, attached to the rear wheel. A few more sprockets are usually added to the front assembly as well. Multiplying the number of sprocket gears in front by the number to the rear gives the number of gear ratios, often called \"speeds\".\n", "Section::::Types of gear change mechanisms.:Internal and external combined.\n\nIt is sometimes possible to combine a hub gear with deraileur gears. There are several commercially available possibilities:\n", "Gear teeth are designed so the number of teeth on a gear is proportional to the radius of its pitch circle, and so the pitch circles of meshing gears roll on each other without slipping. The speed ratio for a pair of meshing gears can be computed from ratio of the radii of the pitch circles and the ratio of the number of teeth on each gear.\n\nThe velocity \"v\" of the point of contact on the pitch circles is the same on both gears, and is given by\n", "Section::::Types of gear change mechanisms.\n\nThere are two main types of gear change mechanisms, known as derailleurs and hub gears. Both systems have advantages and disadvantages, and which is preferable depends on the particular circumstances. There are a few other relatively uncommon types of gear change mechanism which are briefly mentioned near the end of this section. Derailleur mechanisms can only be used with chain drive transmissions, so bicycles with belt drive or shaft drive transmissions must either be single speed or use hub gears.\n\nSection::::Types of gear change mechanisms.:External (derailleur).\n", "Modern front and rear derailleurs typically consist of a moveable chain-guide that is operated remotely by a Bowden cable attached to a shifter mounted on the down tube, handlebar stem, or handlebar. When a rider operates the lever while pedalling, the change in cable tension moves the chain-guide from side to side, \"derailing\" the chain onto different sprockets.\n\nFor more information about the choice of particular gear ratios and sprocket sizes, see Bicycle gearing.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "BULLET::::- Base pitch, normal pitch, formula_17 : In involute gears, distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the same gear, measured along the base circle\n\nBULLET::::- Interference : Contact between teeth other than at the intended parts of their surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- Interchangeable set : A set of gears, any of which mates properly with any other\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.:Helical gear nomenclature.\n", "The number of teeth on a gear is proportional to the radius of its pitch circle, which means the ratios of the gears' angular velocities, radii, and number of teeth are equal. Where \"N\" is the number of teeth on the input gear and \"N\" is the number of teeth on the output gear, the following equation is formed:\n\nThis shows that a simple gear train with two gears has the gear ratio \"R\" given by:\n", "\"Epicyclic gearing\" or \"planetary gearing\" is a gear system consisting of one or more outer, or \"planet\", gears or pinions, revolving about a central \"sun gear\" or \"sun wheel\". Typically, the planet gears are mounted on a movable arm or \"carrier\", which itself may rotate relative to the sun gear. Epicyclic gearing systems also incorporate the use of an outer \"ring\" gear or \"annulus\", which meshes with the planet gears. Planetary gears (or epicyclic gears) are typically classified as simple or compound planetary gears. Simple planetary gears have one sun, one ring, one carrier, and one planet set. Compound planetary gears involve one or more of the following three types of structures: meshed-planet (there are at least two more planets in mesh with each other in each planet train), stepped-planet (there exists a shaft connection between two planets in each planet\n", "BULLET::::- Harmonic drive\n\nBULLET::::- Hub gear\n\nBULLET::::- NuVinci Continuously Variable Transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Ravigneaux planetary gearset\n\nBULLET::::- Rohloff Speedhub – 14-ratio bicycle hub gearbox\n\nBULLET::::- Simpson planetary gearset\n\nBULLET::::- Sturmey Archer – First major manufacturer of bicycle hubs using planetary gears\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL), movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Epicyclic gearing animation in SVG\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Animation of Epicyclic gearing\"\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Power Split Device\"\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Interactive Planetary Gearset tutorial\"\n\nBULLET::::- Prius Gearbox\n\nBULLET::::- Planetary Gearbox\n\nBULLET::::- Ph.D. Dissertation on Compound Planetary Gears\n", "Bicycle drivetrain systems\n\nBicycle drivetrain systems are used to transmit power on bicycles, tricycles, quadracycles, unicycles, or other human-powered vehicles from the riders to the drive wheels. Most also include some type of a mechanism to convert speed and torque via gear ratios.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Path of action : The locus of successive contact points between a pair of gear teeth, during the phase of engagement. For conjugate gear teeth, the path of action passes through the pitch point. It is the trace of the surface of action in the plane of rotation.\n\nBULLET::::- Line of action : The path of action for involute gears. It is the straight line passing through the pitch point and tangent to both base circles.\n", "BULLET::::- One standard option for the Brompton folding bicycle is to use a 3-speed hub gear (roughly a 30% difference between gear ratios) in combination with a 2-speed deraileur gear (roughly a 15% difference) to give 6 distinct gear ratios; this is an example of half-step gearing. Some Brompton suppliers offer a 2-speed chainring 'Mountain Drive' as well, which results in 12 distinct gear ratios with a range exceeding 5:1; in this case, the change from 6th to 7th gear involves changing all three sets of gears simultaneously.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02004	How does cold weather effect health	I would think it’s no problem, fresh air is always good and as long as you’re not sick you should be fine.	[ "Possible complications may include: infection, bleeding, dysrhythmias and high blood sugar. One review found an increased risk of pneumonia and sepsis but not the overall risk of infection. Another review found a trend towards increased bleeding but no increase in severe bleeding. Hypothermia induces a \"cold diuresis\" which can lead to electrolyte abnormalities - specifically hypokalemia, hypomagnesaemia, and hypophosphatemia, as well as hypovolemia.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Case series looking at large groups of patients report that some patients develop takotsubo cardiomyopathy after an emotional stress, while others have a preceding clinical stressor (such as an asthma attack or sudden illness). Roughly one-third of patients have no preceding stressful event. A 2009 large case series from Europe found that takotsubo cardiomyopathy was slightly more frequent during the winter season. This may be related to two possible/suspected pathophysiological causes: coronary spasms of microvessels, which are more prevalent in cold weather, and viral infections – such as Parvovirus B19 – which occur more frequently during the winter.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Ventilation: Inadequate ventilation, either through natural or mechanical means, can allow for excess moisture in the house which can lead to mold growth or pests. Mold and by-products of pest infestations can exacerbate symptoms of allergies and asthma for sensitive individuals.\n\nBULLET::::- Heating & cooling: Inadequate temperature control is directly related to heat injuries. The elderly and the young are especially sensitive to over-heating. Each summer, people living in housing with no or poor cooling facilities are hospitalized or die. Conversely, extreme cold temperatures can contribute to an increased use of medical services.\n", "Cold spells are associated with increased mortality rates in populations around the world. Both cold waves and heat waves cause deaths, though different groups of people may be susceptible to different weather events. In developed countries, more deaths occur during a heat wave than in a cold snap, though the mortality rate is higher in undeveloped regions of the world. Globally, more people die during hot weather than cold weather. Extreme winter cold often causes poorly insulated water pipelines and mains to freeze. Even some poorly protected indoor plumbing ruptures as water expands within them, causing much damage to property and costly insurance claims. Demand for electrical power and fuels rises dramatically during such times, even though the generation of electrical power may fail due to the freezing of water necessary for the generation of hydroelectricity. Some metals may become brittle at low temperatures. Motor vehicles may fail when antifreeze fails or motor oil gels, producing a failure of the transportation system. To be sure, such is more likely in places like Siberia and much of Canada that customarily get very cold weather.\n", "Section::::Necessary impact factors.\n", "The economic impact of the common cold is not well understood in much of the world. In the United States, the common cold leads to 75–100 million physician visits annually at a conservative cost estimate of $7.7 billion per year. Americans spend $2.9 billion on over-the-counter drugs and another $400 million on prescription medicines for symptom relief. More than one-third of people who saw a doctor received an antibiotic prescription, which has implications for antibiotic resistance. An estimated 22–189 million school days are missed annually due to a cold. As a result, parents missed 126 million workdays to stay home to care for their children. When added to the 150 million workdays missed by employees suffering from a cold, the total economic impact of cold-related work loss exceeds $20 billion per year. This accounts for 40% of time lost from work in the United States.\n", "Section::::Impact on humans.\n", "A cold wave can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. Exposure to cold mandates greater caloric intake for all animals, including humans, and if a cold wave is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to reach necessary food and water, and die of hypothermia or starvation. Cold waves often necessitate the purchase of fodder for livestock at considerable cost to farmers. Human populations can be inflicted with frostbites when exposed for extended periods of time to cold and may result in the loss of limbs or damage to internal organs.\n", "BULLET::::- Respiratory changes due to extreme cold in the arctic environment P. Bandopadyay and W. Selvamurthy Int J Biometeorol, 37: 32–35, 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Responses of Arctic and Tropical men to a standard cold test and peripheral vascular responses to local cold stress at Arctic S. S. Purkayastha, G. Ilavazhagan, U. S. Ray and W. Selvamurthy Aviat Space Environ Med, 64(12): 1113–1119, 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Biomedical application of simulated environment W. Selvamurthy Def Sci J, 43(3): 253–258, 1993\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nTTM has been studied in several use scenarios where it has not been found to be helpful, or is still under investigation.\n\nSection::::Research.:Stroke.\n", "Additionally, high temperatures have a significant effect on income. A study of counties in the United States found that economic productivity of individual days declines by about 1.7% for each degree Celsius above .\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Power outages.\n", "The exact cause of northern vigor is not known, but there are many theories. Some believe it has to do with the length of the days in northern latitudes, or that it has to do with the combination of cold nights and hot days. Others believe that the cold may kill off any disease that would otherwise affect plants from the south. Still others think that the switch from a colder climate to a warm, less harsh environment makes it easier for the plants to thrive. Researchers in Saskatchewan discovered that tubers raised in the cold and then moved to a warm environment undergo a series of physiological changes that may trigger more vigorous growth.\n", "A sustained wet-bulb temperature exceeding 35°C is a threshold at which the resilience of human systems is no longer able to adequately cool the skin. A study by NOAA from 2013 concluded that heat stress will reduce labor capacity considerably under current emissions scenarios. There is evidence to show that high temperatures can increase mortality rates among fetuses and children. Although the main focus is often on the health impacts and risks of higher temperatures, it should be remembered that they also reduce learning and worker productivity, which can impact a country's economy and development.\n\nSection::::Environment.:Temperature.:Low temperature.\n", "The most direct effect of climate change on humans might be the impacts of hotter temperatures themselves. Extreme high temperatures increase the number of people who die on a given day for many reasons: people with heart problems are vulnerable because one's cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during hot weather, heat exhaustion, and some respiratory problems increase. Global warming could mean more cardiovascular diseases, doctors warn. Higher air temperature also increase the concentration of ozone at ground level. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It damages lung tissues and causes problems for people with asthma and other lung diseases.\n", "Warmer temperatures may also lead an increase in aggression levels. Research has shows links between higher temperatures and increased aggressive and criminal behaviour. Which can be seen by the rise in the rate of criminality during the warmer summer months.\n\nSection::::Impact on disease.:Impact on infectious diseases.:Impact of warmer oceans.\n", "It has been suggested that energy intake also increases during conditions of extreme or prolonged cold temperatures. Relatedly, researchers have posited that reduced variability of ambient temperature indoors could be a mechanism driving obesity, as the percentage of US homes with air conditioning increased from 23 to 47 percent in recent decades. In addition, several human and animal studies have shown that temperatures above the thermoneutral zone significantly reduce food intake. However, overall there are few studies indicating altered energy intake in response to extreme ambient temperatures and the evidence is primarily anecdotal.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Lighting.\n", "Section::::Necessary impact factors.:Size.\n", "Various studies have been performed on the effects of the Christmas and holiday season, which encompasses several feast days, on health. They have concluded that the health changes that occur during the Christmas and holiday season are not reversed during the rest of the year and have a long-term cumulative effect over a person's life, and that the risks of several medical problems increase during the Christmas and holiday season.\n\nSection::::Medical analyses.:Nutrition.\n", "A cold wave can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. Exposure to cold mandates greater caloric intake for all animals, including humans, and if a cold wave is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to reach needed food and die of hypothermia or starvation. They often necessitate the purchase of foodstuffs to feed livestock at considerable cost to farmers.\n", "Impact on \"heat-related illnesses\" \n", "Body temperature, which is systematically measured and reported as a vital sign, contributes to maintenance of normal physiology and affects the processes that lead to recovery after illness. Complete and proper functioning of the body is dependent on maintaining a core temperature between . A core temperature above 41.5 °C or below 33.5 °C causes a fast decline in proper functioning of the body and may result in injury or death. Intentional manipulation of body temperature has been studied as a treatment strategy for head injuries since the 1900s. In the 1980s, the use of hypothermia on dogs after cardiac arrest demonstrated positive outcomes including neurological status and survival. In 2005, the American Heart Association implemented recommendations and guidelines for mild hypothermia in post-resuscitation support after cardiac arrest with return of spontaneous circulation.\n", "The raising of livestock is also an important agricultural activity, particularly in terms of cattle. Hog production is becoming increasingly important. As well, operations are diversifying with the introduction of buffalo and elk because they are more accustomed to Saskatchewan's climate. The main effects of climate change on livestock from increased temperature and decreased precipitation is distress. Warmer conditions in the summer can lead to stress on livestock since dry pastures, poor hay and feed production and shortages of water all lead to worse conditions. On the other hand, increased temperatures during the winter can reduce cold stress for livestock living outdoors and reduced energy requirement to heat facilities for those living indoors. Increased temperature could have a positive effect on the growth of pastures and provide better feed for livestock, assuming the pastures receive adequate moisture. Warmer conditions in the summer can also suppress appetite, leading to lower weight gains.\n", "The health effects that result from extreme weather include exacerbation of chronic diseases and acute illnesses. Pre-existing conditions can be greatly exacerbated by extreme heat and cold, including cardiovascular, respiratory, skin and renal disease, often resulting in higher morbidity and mortality during extreme weather. Acute conditions such as sunburn, dehydration, heat stroke and allergic reactions are also common. In addition, a rise in insect bites can lead to vector-borne infections. Mental health conditions can also be impacted by extreme weather events as a result of lack of sleep, increased alcohol consumption, reduced access to resources and reduced ability to adjust to the environmental changes. In fact, pre-existing psychiatric illness has been shown to triple the risk of death from extreme heat. Overall, extreme weather events appear to have a “magnifying effect” in exacerbating the underlying prevalent mental and physical health conditions of homeless populations.\n", "In a Chinese study, epidemic Erythromelalgia appears quite common in southern China, most likely due to a sharp decline in temperature following by a rapid increase of temperature and the effects this has on the body. The acral small superficial arteries intensely constrict and dilate during the sharp decline of temperature, whereas a sharp increase of temperature, the intense expansion of capillaries irritate the nerve endings around, and thus lead to symptoms including burning pain, increased temperature, erythema and swelling.\n", "Climate change can affect humans' respiratory health by aggravating respiratory disease or increasing exposure to potential risks of the disease. Climate change can affect the respiratory system by the amount of pollen and allergens in the air, mold proliferation, and the effects of the ozone layer. The increase of temperatures results in putting a strain on the respiratory system often causing asthma and other lung diseases. Some of the health risks that are closely related to the respiratory system are asthma, rhnosinusitis, respiratory tract infections, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n\nSection::::Perspectives.\n\nSection::::Perspectives.:Municipal level.\n\nSection::::Perspectives.:Municipal level.:Hamilton, Ontario (Canada).\n" ]	[ "Cold weather affects your health.", "Cold weather affects health" ]	[ "Cold weather does not affect your health.", "Cold weather doesn't directly affect your health." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cold weather affects your health.", "Cold weather affects health" ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cold weather does not affect your health.", "Cold weather doesn't directly affect your health." ]
2018-10031	why does washing produce reduce its shelf life?	Produce is often shipped with a thin layer of food grade wax on it. This wax helps inhibit oxygen absorption to slow rotting, and also acts as a barrier to keep out pests. Once you wash this wax off and the produce is allowed to absorb oxygen it begins to rot quicker. Also, certain things like tomatoes, peppers, and cucumbers give off ethylene gases which can cause surrounding produce to rot quicker.	[ "The most important goals of post-harvest handling are keeping the product cool, to avoid moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes, and avoiding physical damage such as bruising, to delay spoilage. Sanitation is also an important factor, to reduce the possibility of pathogens that could be carried by fresh produce, for example, as residue from contaminated washing water.\n", "After use, organic matter that is still in the food packaging needs to be separated from the packaging. This may also require rinsing of the food packaging.\n", "Losses can be avoided by following good practices as indicated above. There is also a wide range of post-harvest technologies that can be adopted to improve losses throughout the process of pre-harvest, harvest, cooling, temporary storage, transport, handling and market distribution. Recommended technologies vary depending on the type of loss experienced. However, all interventions must meet the principle of cost-effectiveness. In theory it should be possible to reduce losses substantially but in practice this may be prohibitively expensive. Especially for small farms, for which it is essential to reduce losses, it is difficult to afford expensive and work-intensive technologies.\n", "Postharvest\n\nIn agriculture, postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Postharvest treatment largely determines final quality, whether a crop is sold for fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient in a processed food product.\n\nSection::::Goals.\n", "There are no reliable methods for evaluating post-harvest losses of fresh produce. Any assessment can only refer to a particular value chain on a particular occasion and, even then, it is difficult to account for quality loss or to differentiate between unavoidable moisture loss and losses due to poor post-harvest handling and other factors described above. Accurate records of losses at various stages of the marketing chain are rarely kept, particularly in tropical countries where losses can be highest, making reliable assessment of the potential cost-effectiveness of interventions at different stages of the chain virtually impossible. The lack of such information may lead to misplaced interventions by governments and donors.\n", "Section::::On-farm causes of loss.\n", "Section::::Assessing losses.\n", "BULLET::::- Produce Degradation: Pathways and Prevention - Google Books\n\nBULLET::::- Decontamination of Fresh and Minimally Processed Produce - Google Books\n\nBULLET::::- Microbiology of Fresh Produce - Google Books\n\nBULLET::::- Slow food: A Passion for Produce - Google Books\n\nBULLET::::- Melissa's Everyday Cooking with Organic Produce - Google Books\n\nBULLET::::- Procurement and Marketing of Minor Forest Produce in Tribal Areas - Google Books\n\nBULLET::::- Public Produce: The New Urban Agriculture - Google Books\n\nBULLET::::- Global standard for food safety: guideline for category 5 fresh produce (North American version) - Google Books\n", "At the retail marketing stage losses can be significant, particularly in poorer countries. Poor-quality markets often provide little protection for the produce against the elements, leading to rapid produce deterioration. Sorting of produce to separate the saleable from the unsaleable can result in high percentages being discarded, and there can be high weight loss from the trimming of leafy vegetables. Arrival of fresh supplies in a market may lead to some existing, older stock being discarded, or sold at very low prices.\n\nSection::::Avoiding loss.\n", "Section::::Attempts at loss reduction.\n", "Initial post-harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an optimum range of storage temperature and humidity. Also, certain crops cannot be effectively stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions can result. Various methods of high-speed cooling, and sophisticated refrigerated and atmosphere-controlled environments, are employed to prolong freshness, particularly in large-scale operations.\n\nRegardless of the scale of harvest, from domestic garden to industrialised farm, the basic principles of post-harvest handling for most crops are the same: handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing, bruising), cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions, and cull (remove damaged items).\n", "Section::::Damage in the marketing chain.\n", "Section::::In sugarcane.:Why a ratoon crop ripens earlier than its corresponding plant crop.\n\nA ratoon crop ripens earlier, in general, by at least one to one and a half months or so due to: early development of shoots, maintenance of relatively lesser N content in index tissues and rapid run-out of N during grand growth phase and relatively higher inorganic non-sugars in its juice.\n\nSection::::In sugarcane.:Poor ratoon crops due to low temperature harvest.\n", "The most common management practice for grains and legumes is the use of aeration systems. Air is pushed through the storage bins at low flow rates, which removes excess moisture and heat. Regulation of air flow allows the moisture content in harvested products to remain at a constant level and decreases the temperature within the bins. Temperature levels can decrease enough so insects and mites are dormant, which reduces rapid growth of the pathogen.\n", "Post-harvest losses (vegetables)\n\nThe post-harvest sector includes all points in the value chain from production in the field to the food being placed on a plate for consumption. Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing.\n", "Fruits and vegetables are very susceptible to mechanical injury. This can occur at any stage of the marketing chain and can result from poor harvesting practices such as the use of dirty cutting knives; unsuitable containers used at harvest time or during the marketing process, e.g. containers that can be easily squashed or have splintered wood, sharp edges or poor nailing; overpacking or underpacking of containers; and careless handling of containers. Resultant damage can include splitting of fruits, internal bruising, superficial grazing, and crushing of soft produce. Poor handling can thus result in development of entry points for moulds and bacteria, increased water loss, and an increased respiration rate.\n", "Since many fruits and vegetables are eaten raw, the produce industry‚ from farmer to retailer, works diligently to protect these foods from contamination. Despite their best efforts, foreign matter can occasionally contaminate produce in the field or orchard, in packing or processing, in transit or storage.\n\nBecause traceability systems can provide information on the source, location, movement and storage conditions of produce, they also allow growers, packers, processors and distributors to identify factors affecting quality and delivery.\n\nBeginning in 2008, an industry-led effort to enhance traceability throughout the entire produce supply chain was launched as the Produce Traceability Initiative.\n", "In the food industry of the United States, the food supply of which is the most diverse and abundant of any country in the world, waste occurs from the beginning of food production chain. From planting, crops can be subjected to pest infestations and severe weather, which cause losses before harvest. Since natural forces (e.g. temperature and precipitation) remain the primary drivers of crop growth, losses from these can be experienced by all forms of outdoor agriculture. On average, farms in the United States lose up to six billion pounds of crops every year because of these unpredictable conditions. The use of machinery in harvesting can cause waste, as harvesters may be unable to discern between ripe and immature crops, or collect only part of a crop. Economic factors, such as regulations and standards for quality and appearance, also cause food waste; farmers often harvest selectively, preferring to leave crops not to standard in the field (where they can be used as fertilizer or animal feed), since they would otherwise be discarded later. This method of removing undesirable produce from harvest collection, distribution sites and grocery stores is called Culling. The USDA defines culling as “the individual removal of genetically undesirable, inferior, weak, diseased, or infested plants from a planting in order to ensure the level of genetic purity or vigor of the crop”. However, usually when culling occurs at the production, food processing, retail and consumption stages, it is to remove or dispose of produce with a strange or imperfect appearance rather than produce that is spoiled or unsafe to eat. In urban areas, fruit and nut trees often go unharvested because people either don't realize that the fruit is edible or they fear that it is contaminated, despite research which shows that urban fruit is safe to consume.\n", "A number of methods of prevention can be used that can either totally prevent, delay, or otherwise reduce food spoilage. A food rotation system uses the first in first out method (FIFO), which ensures that the first item purchased is the first item consumed.\n", "In short, while these crops may be profitable for the farm, they are nutrient depleting. Crop rotation practices exist to strike a balance between short-term profitability and long-term productivity.\n\nSection::::Crop choice.:Legumes.\n", "There are numerous factors affecting post-harvest losses, from the soil in which the crop is grown to the handling of produce when it reaches the shop. Pre-harvest production practices may seriously affect post-harvest returns. Plants need a continuous supply of water for photosynthesis and transpiration. Damage can be caused by too much rain or irrigation, which can lead to decay; by too little water; and by irregular water supply, which can, for example, lead to growth cracks. Lack of plant food can affect the quality of fresh produce, causing stunted growth or discoloration of leaves, abnormal ripening and a range of other factors. Too much fertilizer can harm the development and post-harvest condition of produce. Good crop husbandry is important for reducing losses. Weeds compete with crops for nutrients and soil moisture. Decaying plant residues in the field are also a major loss factor.\n", "Produce can be damaged when exposed to extremes of temperature. Levels of tolerance to low temperatures are importance when cool storage is envisaged. All produce will freeze at temperatures between 0 and -2 degrees Celsius. Although a few commodities are tolerant of slight freezing, bad temperature control in storage can lead to significant losses.\n\nSome fruits and vegetables are also susceptible to contaminants introduced after harvest by use of contaminated field boxes; dirty water used for washing produce before packing; decaying, rejected produce lying around packing houses; and unhealthy produce contaminating healthy produce in the same packages.\n", "Food-borne outbreaks of bacterial, viral or parasitic infections are caused by consumption of microorganism-contaminated raw fruits, vegetables, or other plant foods. As a 2018 example, rinsing may not sufficiently clean romaine lettuce of microorganisms, particularly when the water supply used to grow it is contaminated, with consequences that resulted in hospitalization and death.\n", "Fresh produce continues to lose water after harvest. Water loss causes shrinkage and loss of weight. The rate at which water is lost varies according to the product. Leafy vegetables lose water quickly because they have a thin skin with many pores. Potatoes, on the other hand, have a thick skin with few pores. But whatever the product, to extend shelf or storage life the rate of water loss must be minimal. The most significant factor is the ratio of the surface area of the fruit or vegetable to its volume. The greater the ratio the more rapid will be the loss of water. The rate of loss is related to the difference between the water vapour pressure inside the produce and in the air. Produce must therefore be kept in a moist atmosphere.\n", "Some of the food waste produced by processing can be difficult to reduce without affecting the quality of the finished product. Food safety regulations are able to claim foods which contradict standards before they reach markets. Although this can conflict with efforts to reuse food waste (such as in animal feed), safety regulations are in place to ensure the health of the consumer; they are vitally important, especially in the processing of foodstuffs of animal origin (e.g. meat and dairy products), as contaminated products from these sources can lead to and are associated with microbiological and chemical hazards.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Retail.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20375	How and why does blood feel sticky when there's large amounts of it?	When blood is exposed to air, it tries to coagulate (clump and solidify). The viscosity (thickness of the liquid) also contributes to it feeling 'sticky'.	[ "In early theoretical work, blood was treated as a non-Newtonian viscous fluid. Initial studies had evaluated blood during steady flow and later, using oscillating flow. Professor George B. Thurston, of the University of Texas, first presented the idea of blood being viscoelastic in 1972. The previous studies that looked at blood in steady flow showed negligible elastic properties because the elastic regime is stored in the blood during flow initiation and so its presence is hidden when a flow reaches steady state. The early studies used the properties found in steady flow to derive properties for unsteady flow situations. Advancements in medical procedures and devices required a better understanding of the mechanical properties of blood.\n", "The general structure of albumin is characterized by several long α helices allowing it to maintain a relatively static shape, which is essential for regulating blood pressure.\n\nSerum albumin contains eleven distinct binding domains for hydrophobic compounds. One hemin and six long-chain fatty acids can bind to serum albumin at the same time.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSerum albumin is widely distributed in mammals. \n\nBULLET::::- The human version is human serum albumin.\n", "Section::::Forensic procedure.:Finding and documenting blood residue.\n\nFreshly dried bloodstains are a glossy reddish-brown in color. Under the influence of sunlight, the weather or removal attempts, the color eventually disappears and the stain turns gray. The surface on which it is found may also influence the stain's color.\n", "When a key to a hotel room is delivered to the Miami Metro PD inside a jar of blood, Debra and Doakes visit the hotel and find a room completely covered in blood. Dexter is sent in first to investigate, but seeing the blood-covered room brings back a repressed memory from his childhood—sitting in a pool of blood at the age of three—causing him to run from the scene. The forensics team surmises that the blood came from at least five different bodies, although none were in the room. Since there were only one set of footprints in the room, they assume that the victims were killed elsewhere and their blood spread around the room by the killer. Debra suggests that the Ice Truck Killer, who has had five bloodless victims, may have been responsible.\n", "BULLET::::- hair – hair is absent in peripheral vascular disease (PVD)\n\nBULLET::::- shiny skin – seen in PVD\n\nBULLET::::- Haemosiderin deposits\n\nBULLET::::- Lipodermatosclerosis\n\nSection::::Palpation.\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature – cool suggest poor circulation, sides should be compared\n\nBULLET::::- Pitting edema – should be tested for in dependent locations – dorsum of foot, if present then on the shins. If the patient has been in bed for a longer period of time one should check the sacrum.\n\nBULLET::::- Capillary refill – should be less than 3 seconds.\n\nSection::::Palpation.:Arterial pulses.\n", "Section::::Blood viscosity.:Clinical significance.\n\nMany conventional cardiovascular risk factors have been independently linked to whole blood viscosity. \n\nAnemia can reduce blood viscosity, which may lead to heart failure.\n\nFurthermore, elevation of plasma viscosity correlates to the progression of coronary and peripheral artery diseases.\n\nSection::::Blood viscosity.:Normal level.\n\nIn pascal-seconds (Pa·s), the viscosity of blood at 37 °C is normally 3 × 10 to 4 × 10, respectively 3 - 4 centipoise (cP) in the centimetre gram second system of units.\n\nformula_1\n\nformula_2\n\nBlood viscosity can be measured by viscometers capable of measurements at various shear rates, such as a rotational viscometer.\n\nSection::::Blood viscoelasticity.\n", "\"MKWVTFISLL FLFSSAYSRG VFRR\"DAHKSE VAHRFKDLGE ENFKALVLIA FAQYLQQCPF EDHVKLVNEV TEFAKTCVAD ESAENCDKSL HTLFGDKLCT VATLRETYGE MADCCAKQEP ERNECFLQHK DDNPNLPRLV RPEVDVMCTA FHDNEETFLK KYLYEIARRH PYFYAPELLF FAKRYKAAFT ECCQAADKAA CLLPKLDELR DEGKASSAKQ RLKCASLQKF GERAFKAWAV ARLSQRFPKA EFAEVSKLVT DLTKVHTECC HGDLLECADD RADLAKYICE NQDSISSKLK ECCEKPLLEK SHCIAEVEND EMPADLPSLA ADFVESKDVC KNYAEAKDVF LGMFLYEYAR RHPDYSVVLL LRLAKTYETT LEKCCAAADP HECYAKVFDE FKPLVEEPQN LIKQNCELFE QLGEYKFQNA LLVRYTKKVP QVSTPTLVEV SRNLGKVGSK CCKHPEAKRM PCAEDYLSVV LNQLCVLHEK TPVSDRVTKC CTESLVNRRP CFSALEVDET YVPKEFNAET FTFHADICTL SEKERQIKKQ TALVELVKHK PKATKEQLKA VMDDFAAFVE KCCKADDKET CFAEEGKKLV AASQAALGL\n", "Crime scenes are normally carefully searched for blood residue. Flashlights held at an angle to the surfaces under examination assist in this, as do luminol sprays which can detect even trace amounts of blood. Presumptive tests exist with which blood can be distinguished from other reddish stains, such as of ketchup or rust, found at the scene. The search includes areas beyond the immediate crime scene where blood might have been wiped off or bloody fingerprints left, such as towels or doorknobs. At outdoor crime scenes, bloodstains may be recovered from the ground or from plant surfaces.\n", "One of the characteristics of blood that affects the work required to cause the blood to flow through the arteries is the viscosity of blood. The viscosity of blood is in the range of 3 to 6 cP, or 0.003 to 0.006 Ns/m2. Blood is a non-Newtonian fluid, which means that the viscosity of blood is not a constant with respect to the rate of shearing strain. In addition to the rate of shearing strain, the viscosity of blood is also dependent on temperature and on the volume percentage of blood that consists of red blood cells. If blood is made stationary for several seconds then clotting begins in the blood, as a result of which the viscosity of the blood increases. When the stationary state is disturbed with increasing shear rate, the clot formation is destroyed and the viscosity decreases. Moreover, the orientation of red blood cells present in the blood also affects the viscosity of blood. Thus, we can say that blood is a shear thinning fluid, i.e., viscosity decreases with increase in shear rate. Beyond a shear rate of about 100s^-1, the viscosity is nearly constant and the blood behaves like a Newtonian fluid. Blood is a viscoelastic material, i.e., viscous and elastic because the effective viscosity of blood not only depends on the shear rate but also on the history of shear rate.It is also important to note that the normal blood flows much more easily compared to rigid particles, for the same particle volume fraction. This is due to the fact that red blood cells can accommodate by deforming in order to pass by one another.\n", "BULLET::::- Newtonian fluid model where has a constant viscosity at all shear rates. This approach is valid for high shear rates (formula_47) where the vessel diameter is much bigger than the blood cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Bingham fluid model takes into account the aggregation of red blood cells at low shear rates. Therefore, it acts as an elastic solid under threshold level of shear stress, known as yield stress.\n", "When such a serum is treated with that of blood of monkeys or apes, a clear white precipitate is formed. When the serum is treated with the blood of any other animal like dogs, cats, or cows, no precipitate appears. It can thus be concluded that humans are more closely related to monkeys and apes. As a result, it has been determined that lizards are closely related to snakes, horses to donkeys, dogs to cats, etc. This systematic position of Limulus was controversial for a long time, but has been found to show that human serum is more closely related to arachnids than to crustaceans.\n", "More recently developed technology detects human serum albumin (HSA) through the use of liquid crystals (LCs). The presence of HSA molecules disrupts the LCs supported on the AHSA-decorated slides thereby producing bright optical signals which are easily distinguishable. Using this assay, concentrations of HSA as low as 15 µg/mL can be detected.\n", "It is also important to note that unless directed by a doctor, some patients should avoid taking blood thinners and foods that contain salicylates, such as cranberry-containing products until the clot has healed (1–2 weeks).\n\nSection::::Recovery.:Complications.\n", "Relationships between hematocrit, viscosity, and shear rate are important factors to put into consideration. Since blood is non-Newtonian, the viscosity of the blood is in relation to the hematocrit, and as a function of shear rate. This is important when it comes to determining shear force, since a lower hematocrit level indicates that there is a need for more force to push the red blood cells through the system. This is because shear rate is defined as the rate to which adjacent layers of fluid move in respect to each other. Plasma is a more viscous material than typically red blood cells, since they are able to adjust their size to the radius of a tube; the shear rate is purely dependent on the amount of red blood cells being forced in a vessel.\n", "Normal blood plasma behaves like a Newtonian fluid at physiological rates of shear. Typical values for the viscosity of normal human plasma at 37 °C is 1.4 mN·s/m. The viscosity of normal plasma varies with temperature in the same way as does that of its solvent water; a 5 °C increase of temperature in the physiological range reduces plasma viscosity by about 10%.\n\nSection::::Blood.:Osmotic pressure of plasma.\n", "BULLET::::- The drug causes hepatocellular injury, generally defined as an elevated ALT or AST by 3-fold or greater above the upper limit of normal. Often with aminotransferases much greater (5-10x) the upper limit of normal.\n\nBULLET::::- Among subjects showing such aminotransferase elevations, they also have elevation of their serum total bilirubin of greater than 2× the upper limit of normal, without findings of cholestasis (defined as serum alkaline phosphatase activity less than 2× the upper limit of normal).\n", "Inside the bathroom, a character in the mirror begins talking to Boxer . He keeps asking Boxer: ‘Do You Bleed?...Not Like we Do Future-Man’. Boxer asks who the Indian is. The man says that the Indian is a natural bleeder and that it took long to make contact, he took a shot of Fluid Karma (The name of the substance inside the syringes), The Indian is a natural bleeder (he sees forward in time) and the man in the mirror and Boxer are Chemical Bleeders (they see back in time) but when Chemical Bleeders take Fluid Karma too much, they begin to see both ways...this is why the man in the mirror is seeing into the future-at Boxer. He is 6 months behind in January 2008.\n", "If a small cubical volume of blood is considered, with forces being acted upon it by the heart pumping and shear forces from boundaries. The change in shape of the cube will have 2 components:\n\nBULLET::::- Elastic deformation which is recoverable and is stored in the structure of the blood.\n\nBULLET::::- Slippage which is associated with a continuous input of viscous energy.\n", "BULLET::::6. Fibrinoid necrosis is a special form of necrosis usually caused by immune-mediated vascular damage. It is marked by complexes of antigen and antibodies, sometimes referred to as \"immune complexes\" deposited within arterial walls together with fibrin.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Other clinical classifications of necrosis.\n\nBULLET::::1. There are also very specific forms of necrosis such as gangrene (term used in clinical practices for limbs which have suffered severe hypoxia), gummatous necrosis (due to spirochaetal infections) and hemorrhagic necrosis (due to the blockage of venous drainage of an organ or tissue).\n", "Viscoelasticity is a property of human blood that is primarily due to the elastic energy that is stored in the deformation of red blood cells as the heart pumps the blood through the body. The energy transferred to the blood by the heart is partially stored in the elastic structure, another part is dissipated by viscosity, and the remaining energy is stored in the kinetic motion of the blood. When the pulsation of the heart is taken into account, an elastic regime becomes clearly evident. It has been shown that the previous concept of blood as a purely viscous fluid was inadequate since blood is not an ordinary fluid. Blood can more accurately be described as a fluidized suspension of elastic cells (or a sol).\n", "A Bingham plastic is neither a fluid nor a solid. A Bingham plastic can withstand a finite shear load and flow like a fluid when that shear stress is exceeded. Toothpaste and mayonnaise are examples of Bingham plastics. Blood is also a Bingham plastic and behaves as a solid at shear rates very close to zero. The yield stress for blood is very small, approximately in the range from 0.005 to 0.01 N/m2.\n\nReynolds number of the flow is defined as the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces. Mathematically it is written as \n", "BULLET::::- \"Schmerber v. California\", 384 U.S. 757 (1966) (5-4): “Destruction of evidence” exception to the warrant requirement allows police to draw blood from a DUI suspect without a warrant because the officer reasonably believes the blood alcohol percentage will diminish in evidentiary value in the time it will take to secure a warrant.\n", "BULLET::::- Uric acid crystals and/or cholesterol plaques: Microscopic splinters of glass are often present when the slide is not cleaned thoroughly. Observation of such shards is claimed by the LBA practitioners to be uric acid crystals or cholesterol plaques, and thus to be indicative of ‘acid imbalance, stress or poor lymphatic circulation’ among other vague ailments. Uric acid crystals and cholesterol plaques, if present, are not visible in the blood samples.\n", "Other evidence supported this theory. During the investigation of Mrs. Muncey's murder, the doctor who performed the autopsy passed the vials to two local law enforcement officers who transported it to the FBI, where further testing occurred. The blood was contained in four vials, evidently with neither preservative nor a proper seal. The vials, in turn, were stored in a foam box, but nothing indicates the box was kept cool. Rather, in violation of proper procedure, the foam box was packed in the same cardboard box as other evidence, including House's pants and other clothing. The cardboard box was carried in the officers' car, and transported while they made the 10-hour journey from Tennessee to the FBI lab. Blood vials in hot conditions (such as a car trunk in the summer) can blow open. By the time the blood reached the FBI it had hemolyzed, or spoiled, due to heat exposure. By the time the blood passed from the FBI to a defense expert, roughly a vial and a half were empty, though the agent who had analyzed it testified he used at most a quarter of one vial. Blood, moreover, was found to have seeped onto one corner of the foam box and onto packing gauze inside the box below the vials.\n", "BULLET::::3. Gangrenous necrosis can be considered a type of coagulative necrosis that resembles mummified tissue. It is characteristic of ischemia of lower limb and the gastrointestinal tracts. If superimposed infection of dead tissues occurs, then liquefactive necrosis ensues (wet gangrene)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01345	Why build tanks to drive on tracks instead of wheels?	Tracks spread out the weight of the vehicle, which helps it not sink in soft ground. Tracks are also a lot more durable than wheels, which is important on a vehicle designed to be shot at. Light vehicles can travel on wheels because they are relatively light and so their ground pressure isn't very high. A modern tank weighs upwards of 140,000 lbs (65,000kg). Even with huge wheels its ground pressure would be far too high to travel on anything but the hardest surfaces.	[ "When World War I broke out, with the problem of trench warfare and the difficulty of transporting supplies to the front, the pulling power of crawling-type tractors drew the attention of the military. With tanks coming onto the scene, however, the combination of tracks and wheels seemed impractical when fully tracked or six-wheel, four-wheel drive vehicles were available.\n", "The welded track was to be laid on six to twelve inches (15 to 30 centimetres) of crushed stone ballast, although this was not always achieved, and the bearing capacity of the formation was not always taken into account, leading to some spectacular formation failures.\n", "In the years before the Great War, two practical tank-like designs were proposed but not developed. In 1911, the Austrian engineering officer Günther Burstyn submitted a proposal for a fighting vehicle that had a gun in a rotating turret. In 1912, the Australian civil engineer Lancelot de Mole's proposal included a scale model of a functional fully tracked vehicle. Both of these were rejected by their respective governmental administrations.\n\nSection::::Development.:American tracked tractors in Europe.\n", "Section::::History.:World War I.:France.\n\nWhilst several experimental machines were investigated in France, it was a colonel of artillery, J.B.E. Estienne, who directly approached the Commander-in-Chief with detailed plans for a tank on caterpillar tracks, in late 1915. The result was two largely unsatisfactory types of tank, 400 each of the Schneider and Saint-Chamond, both based on the Holt Tractor.\n", "Instead of choosing to use the Holt tractor, the British government chose to involve a British agricultural machinery firm, Foster and Sons, whose managing director and designer was Sir William Tritton. \n\nAfter all these projects failed by June 1915, ideas of grandiose landships were abandoned, and a decision was taken to make an attempt with US \"Bullock Creeping Grip\" caterpillar tracks, by connecting two of them together to obtain an articulated chassis deemed necessary for manoeuvring. Experiments failed in tests made in July 1915.\n", "France started studying caterpillar continuous tracks from January 1915, and actual tests started in May 1915, two months earlier than the \"Little Willie\" experiments. At the Souain experiment, France tested an armoured tracked tank prototype, the same month \"Little Willie\" was completed.Ultimately however, the British were the first to put tanks on the battlefield, at the battle of the Somme in September 1916.\n", "The first combinations of the three principal components of the tank appeared in the decade before World War One. In 1903, Captain Léon René Levavasseur of the French Artillery proposed mounting a field gun in an armoured box on tracks. Major William E. Donohue, of the British Army's Mechanical Transport Committee, suggested fixing a gun and armoured shield on a British type of track-driven vehicle. The first armoured car was produced in Austria in 1904. However, all were restricted to rails or reasonably passable terrain. It was the development of a practical caterpillar track that provided the necessary independent, all-terrain mobility.\n", "In 1915, attempts were also made to develop vehicles with powerful armour and armament, mounted on the cross-country chassis of agricultural tractors, with large wheels having coarse treads, such as the Aubriot-Gabet \"Fortress\" (\"Fortin Aubriot-Gabet\"). The vehicle was powered by electricity (complete with a supply cable), and armed with a Navy cannon of 37mm, but it too proved impractical.\n", "In January 1915, the French arms manufacturer Schneider & Co. sent out its chief designer, Eugène Brillié, to investigate tracked tractors from the American Holt Manufacturing Company, at that time participating in a test programme in England, for a project of mechanical wire-cutting machines. On his return Brillié, who had earlier been involved in designing armoured cars for Spain, convinced the company management to initiate studies on the development of a \"Tracteur blindé et armé\" (armoured and armed tractor), based on the \"Baby Holt\" chassis, two of which were ordered.\n", "Section::::History.:Military application.\n\nContinuous track was first applied to a military vehicle on the British prototype tank Little Willie. British Army officers, Colonel Ernest Swinton and Colonel Maurice Hankey, became convinced that it was possible to develop a fighting vehicle that could provide protection from machine gun fire.\n", "After these experiments, the Committee decided to build a smaller experimental landship, equivalent to one half the articulated version, and using lengthened US-made \"Bullock Creeping Grip\" caterpillar tracks. This new experimental machine was called the \"No1 Lincoln Machine\": construction started on 11 August 1915, with the first trials starting on 10 September 1915. These trials failed however because of unsatisfactory tracks.\n", "In a memorandum of 1908, Antarctic explorer Robert Falcon Scott presented his view that man-hauling to the South Pole was impossible and that motor traction was needed. Snow vehicles did not yet exist however, and so his engineer Reginald Skelton developed the idea of a caterpillar track for snow surfaces. These tracked motors were built by the Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company in Birmingham, tested in Switzerland and Norway, and can be seen in action in Herbert Ponting's 1911 documentary film of Scott's Antarctic Terra Nova Expedition (at minute 50, here). Scott died during the expedition in 1912, but expedition member and biographer Apsley Cherry-Garrard credited Scott's \"motors\" with the inspiration for the British World War I tanks, writing: \"Scott never knew their true possibilities; for they were the direct ancestors of the 'tanks' in France\".\n", "From 1904 to 1909, David Roberts, the engineer and managing director of Hornsby & Sons of Grantham, built a series of tractors using his patented 'chain-track' which were put through their paces by the British Army, a (small) section of which wanted to evaluate artillery tractors. At one point in 1908, Major William E. Donohue of the Mechanical Transport Committee remarked to Roberts that he should design a new machine with armour, capable of carrying its own gun. But, disheartened by years of ultimately fruitless tinkering for the Army, Roberts did not take up the idea. In later years he expressed regret at not having pursued it.\n", "With such tractors, the tactical use of heavier guns to supplement the light horse drawn field guns became feasible. For example, in the British Army it allowed the heavy guns of the Royal Garrison Artillery to be used flexibly on the battlefield. In England, starting in 1905, David Roberts of Richard Hornsby & Sons had attempted to interest British military officials in a tracked vehicle, but failed.\n", "Other designs dramatically increase surface area to provide more traction than wheels can, for example in continuous track and half-track vehicles. A tank or similar tracked vehicle uses tracks to reduce the pressure on the areas of contact. A 70-ton M1A2 would sink to the point of high centering if it used round tires. The tracks spread the 70 tons over a much larger area of contact than tires would and allow the tank to travel over much softer land.\n", "Section::::Use in Belgium.\n\nThe FN-Kégresse 3T was a half-track vehicle used by the Belgian armed forces as an artillery tractor between 1934-1940. 130 FN Kégresse 3T's were built, with some 100 actually in use with the Belgian armed forces on 10 May 1940, the start of the battle of Belgium.\n\nSection::::Use in the United States.\n", "The United States adopted half-tracks in large numbers as they could be built more quickly and cheaply by civilian vehicle producers than vehicles from the established armored vehicle manufacturers. The M2 half-track car had first been intended as an artillery tractor, but was also used for carrying the machine gun squads of armored infantry regiments and for reconnaissance units until faster and better-armed M8 Greyhound armored cars were available.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nWorld War I generated new demands for armoured self-propelled weapons which could navigate any kind of terrain, and this led to the development of the tank. The great weakness of the tank's predecessor, the armoured car, was that it required smooth terrain to move upon, and new developments were needed for cross-country capability.\n", "H. G. Wells, in his short story \"The Land Ironclads\", published in \"The Strand Magazine\" in December 1903, had described the use of large, armed, armoured cross-country vehicles equipped with pedrail wheels (an invention which he acknowledged as the source for his inspiration), to break through a system of fortified trenches, disrupting the defence and clearing the way for an infantry advance:\n", "The main limitation was the wheels, which gave a high ground pressure for the vehicle's weight. This could be solved by adding more wheels, but unless they also were driven, the effect was to reduce traction on the powered wheels. Driving extra wheels meant more drive train weight, in turn requiring a larger and heavier engine to maintain performance. Even worse, none of this extra weight was put into an improvement of armor or armament carried, and the vehicles were still incapable of crossing very rough terrain.\n", "Experiments on the Holt caterpillar tracks started in May 1915 at the Schneider plant with a 75-hp wheel-directed model and the 45-hp integral caterpillar Baby Holt, showing the superiority of the latter. On 16 June, new experiments followed, which were witnessed by the President of the Republic, and on 10 September, by Commander Ferrus. The first complete chassis with armour was demonstrated at Souain on 9 December 1915, to the French Army, with the participation of Colonel Estienne.\n", "The adoption of caterpillar tracks offered a new solution to the problem. The tracks spread the weight of the vehicles over a much greater area, which was all used for traction to move the vehicle. The limitation on armor and firepower was no longer ground pressure but the power and weight of the power-plant.\n", "In France, on 1 December 1914, Paul Frot, an engineer constructing canals for the \"Compagnie Nationale du Nord\", proposed to the French Ministry a design for a \"landship\" with armour and armament based on the motorisation of a compactor with heavy wheels or rollers. The Frot-Laffly was tested on 18 March 1915, and effectively destroyed barbed wire lines, but was deemed lacking in mobility. The project was abandoned in favour of General Estienne's development using a tractor base, codenamed \"Tracteur Estienne\".\n", "In May 1915, the War Office made new tests on a trench-crossing machine: the Tritton Trench-Crosser. The machine was equipped with large tractor wheels, in diameter, and carried girders on an endless chain which were lowered above a trench so that the back wheels could roll over it. The machine would then drag the girder behind until on flat terrain, so that it could reverse over them and set them back in place in front of the vehicle. The machine proved much too cumbersome and was abandoned.\n", "This relatively complicated approach has not been used since World War II ended. This may be related more to maintenance than to original cost. The torsion bars and bearings may stay dry and clean, but the wheels and tread work in mud, sand, rocks, snow, and other surfaces. In addition, the outer wheels (up to nine of them, some double) had to be removed to access the inner ones. In WWII, vehicles typically had to be maintained for a few months before being destroyed or captured, but in peacetime, vehicles must train several crews over a period of decades.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Tanks should use wheels." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Wheels are less durable and would cause tanks to sink in soft ground." ]
2018-02212	Once oil runs out how will we build plastics, rubbers, and roads that use oil or one of it's by products.	Oil won't "run out", exactly. Our oil supply isn't like a big tank that runs empty one day. It's a huge variety of mineral deposits in a variety of places, and some are more expensive to drill and produce than others. As we use oil, the cheap-and-easy deposits get used up first, and so the price gradually rises as we have to spend more money to drill the more difficult deposits. (This is already happening.) Eventually we'll reach a point where oil is so expensive that it's too expensive to burn it for fuel. Other energy sources will be cheaper, so we'll switch to those. But there's still oil left in the ground at that point, it just costs more. And while nobody wants to buy gasoline at $20/gallon, manufacturers will probably be happy to pay $20 for that amount of rubber or plastic. So oil will shift from being mostly a fuel to mostly a feedstock for making materials. But today, only about 3% of crude oil is used as a feedstock, the rest as fuel, so if it gets too expensive to burn, the stuff still underground will last us a very very long time.	[ "Section::::Bioplastics.\n\nAnother major factor in petroleum demand is the widespread use of petroleum products such as plastic. These could be partially replaced by bioplastics, which are derived from renewable plant feedstocks such as vegetable oil, corn starch, hemp plants, pea starch, or microbiota. They are used either as a direct replacement for traditional plastics or as blends with traditional plastics. The most common end use market is for packaging materials. Japan has also been a pioneer in bioplastics, incorporating them into electronics and automobiles.\n\nSection::::US government debate over mitigation strategies.\n", "There are two serious problems driving the emergence of Transition Engineering; the exponential growth in the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere and the lack of growth and imminent decline of conventional oil production known as peak oil. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere recently exceeded 400ppm, a level that Earth has not known for 800,000 years. Transition engineering aims to take advantage of the current access to the remaining lower cost and higher EROI energy resources to re-develop all aspects of urban and industrial engineered systems to adapt as fossil fuel use is dramatically reduced.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "Section::::Transportation fuel use.:Fuel substitution.:Mobile applications.\n\nDue to its high energy density and ease of handling, oil has a unique role as a transportation fuel. There are, however, a number of possible alternatives. Among the biofuels the use of bioethanol and biodiesel is already established to some extent in some countries.\n", "The United States Energy Information Administration predicted in 2006 that world consumption of oil will increase to (mbd) in 2015 and 118 million barrels per day in 2030. With 2009 world oil consumption at 84.4 mbd, reaching the projected 2015 level of consumption would represent an average annual increase between 2009 and 2015 of 2.7% per year.\n\nSection::::Resource availability.\n", "An alternative considered likely by some is that oil will be replaced with renewable energy during the first half of the 21st century. The replacement fuel would likely be hydrogen. A hydrogen economy would then replace the current oil-based economy. Another possible replacement fuel is biogas, which is composed of methane. Methane has boiling point of −161 °C, rather than hydrogen's -252.87 °C, making methane a much easier fuel to condense.\n", "There is a limited amount of fossil fuel inside the Earth. Since the current world energy resources and consumption is mainly fossil fuels, we are very dependent on them for both transportation and electric power generation. The Hubbert peak theory predicts that oil depletion will result in oil production dropping off in the not too distant future. As time goes on our economy will have to transition to some alternative fuels. Fossil fuels have solved two problems which could be separately solved in the future: the problem of a source of primary energy and of energy storage. Along with straight vegetable oil and biodiesel, some energy technologies that could play an important part in the future include:\n", "Section::::Possible mitigations.:Bioplastics and bioasphalt.\n\nAnother major factor in petroleum demand is the widespread use of petroleum products such as plastic. These could be partially replaced by bioplastics, which are derived from renewable plant feedstocks such as vegetable oil, cornstarch, pea starch, or microbiota. They are used either as a direct replacement for traditional plastics or as blends with traditional plastics. The most common end use market is for packaging materials. Japan has also been a pioneer in bioplastics, incorporating them into electronics and automobiles.\n\nBioasphalt can also be used as a replacement of petroleum asphalt.\n", "If the feedstock is plant matter which fixed atmospheric carbon dioxide, and part of its carbon becomes fertiliser which will not be burnt to re-release the carbon into the atmosphere, the net result is a reduction in atmospheric carbon, \"i.e.\". an overall carbon-negative process.\n\nOil and Gas Assets \n\nPetroSun wholly owned company M&M Production and Operation, Inc asset base includes the following:\n\n61 producing oil and/or gas wells\n\n9,480.85 acres of leasehold consisting of Federal, State of New Mexico, Jicarilla Tribal and Navajo Nation\n", "When alternative fuels are not available, the development of more energy efficient vehicles becomes an important mitigant. Some ways of decreasing the oil used in transportation include increasing the use of bicycles, public transport, carpooling, electric vehicles, and diesel and hybrid vehicles with higher fuel efficiency.\n", "The Transition Engineering method involves 7 steps to help engineers develop projects to deal with changing unsustainable activities. As a discipline, Transition Engineering recognizes that \"Business as Usual\" projections of future scenarios from past trends are not valid because the underlying conditions have changed sufficiently from the conditions of the past. For example, the projection of future oil supply in 2050 from data prior to 2005 would give an expectation of a 50% increase in demand over that time-frame. However, the actual production rate of conventional oil has not increased since 2005 and is projected to decline by more than 50% by 2050.\n", "Current worldwide production of vegetable oil and animal fat is not sufficient to replace liquid fossil fuel use. Furthermore, some object to the vast amount of farming and the resulting fertilization, pesticide use, and land use conversion that would be needed to produce the additional vegetable oil. The estimated transportation diesel fuel and home heating oil used in the United States is about 160 million tons (350 billion pounds) according to the Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy. In the United States, estimated production of vegetable oil for all uses is about 11 million tons (24 billion pounds) and estimated production of animal fat is 5.3 million tonnes (12 billion pounds).\n", "There is ongoing research into finding more suitable crops and improving oil yield. Other sources are possible including human fecal matter, with Ghana building its first \"fecal sludge-fed biodiesel plant.\" Using the current yields, vast amounts of land and fresh water would be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage. It would require twice the land area of the US to be devoted to soybean production, or two-thirds to be devoted to rapeseed production, to meet current US heating and transportation needs. \n", "One variation of the cold production method is called Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand (CHOPS). CHOPS creates a wormhole or void where oil gets pulled from the surrounding rocks towards the wellbore. These methods are termed \"cold production,\" since they are used at reservoir ambient temperature. When natural lift pressure does not generate sufficient underground pressure or when the pressure declines and is no longer sufficient to move oil through the wellbore, primary production has reached its extraction limit, to be succeeded by secondary recovery.\n\nSection::::Oil production techniques.:Secondary recovery.\n", "The use of fossil fuels allows humans to participate in takedown, which is the consumption of energy at a greater rate than it is being replaced. The industrial economy is currently heavily dependent on oil as a fuel and chemical feedstock. For example, over 90% of transportation in the United States relies on oil.\n", "Because most oil is consumed for transportation most mitigation discussions revolve around transportation issues.\n\nSection::::Transportation fuel use.:Fuel substitution.\n\nWhile there is some interchangeability, the alternative energy sources available tend to depend on whether the fuel is being used in static or mobile applications.\n\nSection::::Transportation fuel use.:Fuel substitution.:Biofuel.\n", "The theory that petroleum derives from biogenic processes is held by the overwhelming majority of petroleum geologists. However, abiogenic theorists, such as the late professor of astronomy Thomas Gold, assert that oil may be a continually renewing abiotic product, rather than a “fossil fuel” in limited supply. They hypothesize that if abiogenic petroleum sources are found and are quick to replenish, petroleum production will not decline. Gold was not able to prove his theories in experiments\n", "Residual oil is oil found in low concentrations naturally or in exhausted oil fields. Often mixed with water, it cannot be recovered by conventional techniques. However, part of it can be recovered using carbon dioxide-enhanced oil recovery (CO2 EOR) which involves injecting carbon dioxide into the well reducing viscosity and enhancing flow of the oil. The technique is not new but has not been used extensively on residual oil zones, low-grade deposits of petroleum such as the 40 square miles in the Permian Basin of Texas leased by Tiny Kamalabo . The technique is limited by availability of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is injected and recycled as many times as possible, and stored in the depleted reservoir at the end of the life for the field. United States reserves of residual oil are estimated to be 100 billion barrels.\n", "Secondary recovery methods also use cold production, but employ external sources of pressure to generate the required internal pressure, still at reservoir temperature. Secondary recovery methods involve the creation of artificial pressure through the injection of elements to create artificial pressure. Water, natural gas or carbon dioxide are the primary injectates. The pressure forces oil up the production well. Over time the artificial pressure loses efficacy because the remaining (heavy) oil is too viscous to flow and is held by sandstone in the reservoirs. The two cold production recovery methods have a combination recovery factor of between 10 and 20 percent depending on the oil properties and types of rocks.\n", "The largest consumer of fossil fuels in modern agriculture is ammonia production (for fertilizer) via the Haber process, which is essential to high-yielding intensive agriculture. The specific fossil fuel input to fertilizer production is primarily natural gas, to provide hydrogen via steam reforming. Given sufficient supplies of renewable electricity, hydrogen can be generated without fossil fuels using methods such as electrolysis. For example, the Vemork hydroelectric plant in Norway used its surplus electricity output to generate renewable ammonia from 1911 to 1971.\n", "Section::::Production methods.:Volatile fatty acids from anaerobic digestion of waste streams.\n\nLipids have been drawing considerable attention as a substrate for biodiesel production owing to its sustainability, non-toxicity and energy efficient properties. However, due to cost reasons, attention must be focused on the non-edible sources of lipids, in particular oleaginous microorganisms. Such microbes have the ability to assimilate the carbon sources from a medium and convert the carbon into lipid storage materials. The lipids accumulated by these oleaginous cells can then be transesterified to form biodiesel.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biodiesel from CO2\n\nBULLET::::- Dehulling\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable oil fuel\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Energy demand is distributed amongst four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial. In terms of oil use, transportation is the largest sector and the one that has seen the largest growth in demand in recent decades. This growth has largely come from new demand for personal-use vehicles powered by internal combustion engines. This sector also has the highest consumption rates, accounting for approximately 71% of the oil used in the United States in 2013. and 55% of oil use worldwide as documented in the Hirsch report. Transportation is therefore of particular interest to those seeking to mitigate the effects of peak oil.\n", "Another possible effect would derive from modern transportation and housing infrastructure. A large proportion of the developed world's population live in suburbs, a type of low-density settlement designed with the automobile in mind. A movement to deal with this problem early, called \"New Urbanism,\" seeks to develop the suburbs into higher density neighborhoods and use high density, mixed-use forms for new building projects.\n\nSection::::Implications of a world peak.:Recession.\n", "It involves both thermal and non-thermal methods. Non-thermal methods include the use of chemicals and microbes to loosen trapped heavy oil and carbon dioxide under pressure. However, thermal methods - mainly steam injection - are the most efficient way of reducing viscosity and mobilizing heavy oil.\n\nSection::::Oil production techniques.:Steam injection.\n", "Several firms have successfully created petroleum products in the lab using either solid catalysts or genetically modified microorganisms. As of July, 2008, such firms are producing petroleum products in very small quantities, but hope to increase production over the next few years.\n\nSection::::Transportation fuel use.:Fuel substitution.:Static installations.\n", "Most or all of the uses of fossil fuels in agriculture can be replaced with alternatives. For example, by far the biggest fossil fuel input to agriculture is the use of natural gas as a hydrogen source for the Haber-Bosch fertilizer-creation process. Natural gas is used simply because it is the cheapest currently available source of hydrogen; were that to change, other sources, such as electrolysis powered by solar energy, could be used to provide the hydrogen for creating fertilizer without relying on fossil fuels.\n" ]	[ "Oil can just run out.", "Oil can potentially eventually run out at one point. " ]	[ "Oil will not just run out, it will become more expensive over time and eventually be replaced when it is more expensive than other forms of fuel. ", "There are a multitude of oil deposits around the world where oil can be obtained, therefore the US doesn't exactly, run out of oil as if they take it all from a set container." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Oil can just run out.", "Oil can potentially eventually run out at one point. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Oil will not just run out, it will become more expensive over time and eventually be replaced when it is more expensive than other forms of fuel. ", "There are a multitude of oil deposits around the world where oil can be obtained, therefore the US doesn't exactly, run out of oil as if they take it all from a set container." ]
2018-23970	If gravity is always pulling everything closer how is the universe constantly expanding?	Short answer is that we dont actually know. All we know is that everything in the universe is red shifting and the rate of the expansion is increasing. Currently we just chalk it up to dark energy, but we have no idea what this dark energy actually is, what produces it, where it is, if it exist, or how to measure it.	[ "In addition to slowing the overall expansion, gravity causes local clumping of matter into stars and galaxies. Once objects are formed and bound by gravity, they \"drop out\" of the expansion and do not subsequently expand under the influence of the cosmological metric, there being no force compelling them to do so.\n\nThere is no difference between the inertial expansion of the universe and the inertial separation of nearby objects in a vacuum; the former is simply a large-scale extrapolation of the latter.\n", "Metric expansion is a key feature of Big Bang cosmology, is modeled mathematically with the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric and is a generic property of the universe we inhabit. However, the model is valid only on large scales (roughly the scale of galaxy clusters and above), because gravitational attraction binds matter together strongly enough that metric expansion cannot be observed at this time, on a smaller scale. As such, the only galaxies receding from one another as a result of metric expansion are those separated by cosmologically relevant scales larger than the length scales associated with the gravitational collapse that are possible in the age of the universe given the matter density and average expansion rate.\n", "Inflation answers this question by postulating that all the regions come from an earlier era with a big vacuum energy, or cosmological constant. A space with a cosmological constant is qualitatively different: instead of moving outward, the cosmological horizon stays put. For any one observer, the distance to the cosmological horizon is constant. With exponentially expanding space, two nearby observers are separated very quickly; so much so, that the distance between them quickly exceeds the limits of communications. The spatial slices are expanding very fast to cover huge volumes. Things are constantly moving beyond the cosmological horizon, which is a fixed distance away, and everything becomes homogeneous.\n", "The situation changes somewhat with the introduction of dark energy or a cosmological constant. A cosmological constant due to a vacuum energy density has the effect of adding a repulsive force between objects which is proportional (not inversely proportional) to distance. Unlike inertia it actively \"pulls\" on objects which have clumped together under the influence of gravity, and even on individual atoms. However, this does not cause the objects to grow steadily or to disintegrate; unless they are very weakly bound, they will simply settle into an equilibrium state which is slightly (undetectably) larger than it would otherwise have been. As the universe expands and the matter in it thins, the gravitational attraction decreases (since it is proportional to the density), while the cosmological repulsion increases; thus the ultimate fate of the ΛCDM universe is a near vacuum expanding at an ever-increasing rate under the influence of the cosmological constant. However, the only locally visible effect of the accelerating expansion is the disappearance (by runaway redshift) of distant galaxies; gravitationally bound objects like the Milky Way do not expand and the Andromeda galaxy is moving fast enough towards us that it will still merge with the Milky Way in 3 billion years time, and it is also likely that the merged supergalaxy that forms will eventually fall in and merge with the nearby Virgo Cluster. However, galaxies lying farther away from this will recede away at ever-increasing speed and be redshifted out of our range of visibility.\n", "In the approximation that the expansion is exactly exponential, the horizon is static and remains a fixed physical distance away. This patch of an inflating universe can be described by the following metric:\n", "Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any \"larger\", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n\nSection::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Density of universe during expansion.\n", "Dark energy is believed to act like a cosmological constant - a scalar field that exists throughout space. Unlike gravity, the effects of such a field do not diminish (or only diminish slowly) as the universe grows. While matter and gravity have a greater effect initially, their effect quickly diminishes as the universe continues to expand. Objects in the universe, which are initially seen to be moving apart as the universe expands, continue to move apart, but their outward motion gradually slows down. This slowing effect becomes smaller as the universe becomes more spread out. Eventually, the outward and repulsive effect of dark energy begins to dominate over the inward pull of gravity. Instead of slowing down and perhaps beginning to move inward under the influence of gravity, from about 9.8 billion years of cosmic time, the expansion of space starts to slowly accelerate \"outward\" at a gradually \"increasing\" rate.\n", "Despite being extremely dense when very young and during part of its early expansion - far denser than is usually required to form a black hole - the universe did not re-collapse into a black hole. This is because commonly-used calculations for gravitational collapse are usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not apply to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang.\n\nSection::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Effects of expansion on small scales.\n", "This exponentially expanding spacetime is called a de Sitter space, and to sustain it there must be a cosmological constant, a vacuum energy density that is constant in space and time and proportional to Λ in the above metric. For the case of exactly exponential expansion, the vacuum energy has a negative pressure \"p\" equal in magnitude to its energy density \"ρ\"; the equation of state is \"p=−ρ\".\n\nInflation is typically not an exactly exponential expansion, but rather quasi- or near-exponential. In such a universe the horizon will slowly grow with time as the vacuum energy density gradually decreases.\n", "In cosmology, we cannot use a ruler to measure metric expansion, because our ruler internal forces easily overcome the extremely slow expansion of space leaving the ruler intact. Also any objects on or near earth that we might measure are being held together or pushed apart by several forces which are far larger in their effects. So even if we could measure the tiny expansion that is still happening, we would not notice the change on a small scale or in everyday life. On a large intergalactic scale, we can use other tests of distance and these \"do\" show that space is expanding, even if a ruler on earth could not measure it.\n", "The expansion of the universe is the increase of the distance between two distant parts of the universe with time. It is an intrinsic expansion whereby \"the scale of space itself changes\". The universe does not expand \"into\" anything and does not require space to exist \"outside\" it. Technically, neither space nor objects in space move. Instead it is the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changes in scale. Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, this limitation does not restrict the metric itself. To an observer it appears that space is expanding and all but the nearest galaxies are receding into the distance.\n", "Once objects are bound by gravity, they no longer recede from each other. Thus, the Andromeda galaxy, which is bound to the Milky Way galaxy, is actually falling \"towards\" us and is not expanding away. Within the Local Group, the gravitational interactions have changed the inertial patterns of objects such that there is no cosmological expansion taking place. Once one goes beyond the Local Group, the inertial expansion is measurable, though systematic gravitational effects imply that larger and larger parts of space will eventually fall out of the \"Hubble Flow\" and end up as bound, non-expanding objects up to the scales of superclusters of galaxies. We can predict such future events by knowing the precise way the Hubble Flow is changing as well as the masses of the objects to which we are being gravitationally pulled. Currently, the Local Group is being gravitationally pulled towards either the Shapley Supercluster or the \"Great Attractor\" with which, if dark energy were not acting, we would eventually merge and no longer see expand away from us after such a time.\n", "Section::::Inflationary model.\n\nThe theory of cosmic inflation has attempted to address the problem by positing a 10 second period of exponential expansion in the first second of the history of the universe due to a scalar field interaction. According to the inflationary model, the universe increased in size by a factor of more than 10, from a small and causally connected region in near equilibrium. Inflation then expanded the universe rapidly, isolating nearby regions of spacetime by growing them beyond the limits of causal contact, effectively \"locking in\" the uniformity at large distances.\n", "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n", "Until the theoretical developments in the 1980s no one had an explanation for why this seemed to be the case, but with the development of models of cosmic inflation, the expansion of the universe became a general feature resulting from vacuum decay. Accordingly, the question \"why is the universe expanding?\" is now answered by understanding the details of the inflation decay process which occurred in the first 10 seconds of the existence of our universe. During inflation, the metric changed exponentially, causing any volume of space that was smaller than an atom to grow to around 100 million light years across in a time scale similar to the time when inflation occurred (10 seconds).\n", "At a fundamental level, the expansion of the universe is a property of spatial measurement on the largest measurable scales of our universe. The distances between cosmologically relevant points increases as time passes leading to observable effects outlined below. This feature of the universe can be characterized by a single parameter that is called the scale factor which is a function of time and a single value for all of space at any instant (if the scale factor were a function of space, this would violate the cosmological principle). By convention, the scale factor is set to be unity at the present time and, because the universe is expanding, is smaller in the past and larger in the future. Extrapolating back in time with certain cosmological models will yield a moment when the scale factor was zero; our current understanding of cosmology sets this time at 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago. If the universe continues to expand forever, the scale factor will approach infinity in the future. In principle, there is no reason that the expansion of the universe must be monotonic and there are models where at some time in the future the scale factor decreases with an attendant contraction of space rather than an expansion.\n", "The expansion of space is sometimes described as a force which acts to push objects apart. Though this is an accurate description of the effect of the cosmological constant, it is not an accurate picture of the phenomenon of expansion in general. For much of the universe's history the expansion has been due mainly to inertia. The matter in the very early universe was flying apart for unknown reasons (most likely as a result of cosmic inflation) and has simply continued to do so, though at an ever-decreasing rate due to the attractive effect of gravity.\n", "BULLET::::- Accelerating expansion: The metric expansion of space seems to be speeding up. Dark energy has been proposed to explain this. A recent alternative explanation is that the geometry of space is not homogeneous (due to clusters of galaxies) and that when the data are reinterpreted to take this into account, the expansion is not speeding up after all, however this conclusion is disputed.\n\nBULLET::::- Anomalous increase of the astronomical unit: Recent measurements indicate that planetary orbits are widening faster than if this were solely through the Sun losing mass by radiating energy.\n", "Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as \"metric expansion\". In mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\".\n", "As the inflationary field slowly relaxes to the vacuum, the cosmological constant goes to zero and space begins to expand normally. The new regions that come into view during the normal expansion phase are exactly the same regions that were pushed out of the horizon during inflation, and so they are at nearly the same temperature and curvature, because they come from the same originally small patch of space.\n", "The modern explanation for the metric expansion of space was proposed by physicist Alan Guth in 1979, while investigating the problem of why no magnetic monopoles are seen today. He found that if the universe contained a field in a positive-energy false vacuum state, then according to general relativity it would generate an exponential expansion of space. It was very quickly realized that such an expansion would resolve many other long-standing problems. These problems arise from the observation that to look like it does \"today\", the Universe would have to have started from very finely tuned, or \"special\" initial conditions at the Big Bang. Inflation theory largely resolves these problems as well, thus making a universe like ours much more likely in the context of Big Bang theory.\n", "Theory and observations suggest that very early in the history of the universe, there was an inflationary phase where the metric changed very rapidly, and that the remaining time-dependence of this metric is what we observe as the so-called Hubble expansion, the moving apart of all gravitationally unbound objects in the universe. The expanding universe is therefore a fundamental feature of the universe we inhabit — a universe fundamentally different from the static universe Albert Einstein first considered when he developed his gravitational theory.\n\nSection::::Overview of metrics and comoving coordinates.:Comoving coordinates.\n", "Taken together, these phenomena overwhelmingly support models that rely on space expanding through a change in metric. It was not until the discovery in the year 2000 of direct observational evidence for the changing temperature of the cosmic microwave background that more bizarre constructions could be ruled out. Until that time, it was based purely on an assumption that the universe did not behave as one with the Milky Way sitting at the middle of a fixed-metric with a universal explosion of galaxies in all directions (as seen in, for example, an early model proposed by Milne). Yet before this evidence, many rejected the Milne viewpoint based on the mediocrity principle.\n", "No field responsible for cosmic inflation has been discovered. However such a field, if found in the future, would be scalar. The first similar scalar field proven to exist was only discovered in 2012 - 2013 and is still being researched. So it is not seen as problematic that a field responsible for cosmic inflation and the metric expansion of space has not yet been discovered.\n", "During the inflationary epoch about 10 of a second after the Big Bang, the universe suddenly expanded, and its volume increased by a factor of at least 10 (an expansion of distance by a factor of at least 10 in each of the three dimensions), equivalent to expanding an object 1 nanometer (10 m, about half the width of a molecule of DNA) in length to one approximately 10.6 light years (about 10 m or 62 trillion miles) long. A much slower and gradual expansion of space continued after this, until at around 9.8 billion years after the Big Bang (4 billion years ago) it began to gradually expand more quickly, and is still doing so.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Because gravity is always pulling everything closer, the universe should not be expanding." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "We don't know about the relationship between gravity and universe expansion, however we do know that the universe's rate of expansion is increasing." ]
2018-02649	Why can’t you click the iPhone button when the phone is dead?	I assume you have a newer iPhone. On older ones, the home button is a physical button (like the power/lock button) that can be pressed when it's off. New iPhones: that's not actually a button! It's a touch-sensitive area that provides "haptic feedback": a little vibration at just the right time that convinces you that something was pressed. Look carefully and it's just an indentation the glass surface. That obviously won't work when there's no power or the phone is off.	[ "BULLET::::- Erase iPhone – completely erases all content and settings, which is useful if the device contains sensitive information, but the device cannot be located after this action is performed. Starting with iOS 7 or later, after the erase is complete, the message can still be displayed and the device will be activation locked. This makes it hard for someone to use or sell the device. An Apple ID password will be required to turn off Find My iPhone, sign out of iCloud, erase the device, or reactivate a device after a remote wipe.\n", "In the iPhone 7, Apple added a software lock that prevents individuals from attempting to replace the home button on their own. Users are now required to go to an Apple Store to have repairs done, with \"recalibration\" of the button being necessary. This is a step further than Apple went with iPhone 5S, 6 and 6S, where only Touch ID functionality would get disabled but the \"return-to-home\" functionality still worked.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Failure to connect to cellular service.\n", "There are four physical switches on the iPad, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the main menu, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: \"wake/sleep\" and \"volume up/down\", plus a software-controlled switch whose function has changed with software updates. Originally the switch locked the screen to its current orientation, but the iOS 4.2 changed it to a mute switch, with rotation lock now available in an onscreen menu. In the iOS 4.3 update, released with the iPad 2, a setting was added to allow the user to specify whether the side switch was used for rotation lock or mute.\n", "Directly above the volume controls is a ring/silent switch that when engaged mutes telephone ringing, alert sounds from new & sent emails, text messages, and other push notifications, camera shutter sounds, Voice Memo sound effects, phone lock/unlock sounds, keyboard clicks, and spoken auto-corrections. This switch does not mute alarm sounds from the Clock application, and in some countries or regions it will not mute the camera shutter or Voice Memo sound effects. All buttons except Home were made of plastic on the original first generation iPhone and metal on all later models. The touchscreen furnishes the remainder of the user interface.\n", "According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involve the theft of a cellular phone. Police data in San Francisco show that half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones. An online petition on Change.org, called \"Secure our Smartphones\", urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable if stolen. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers. On 10 June 2013, Apple announced that it would install a \"kill switch\" on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Lost mode (iOS 6 or later) – flags the device as lost or stolen, allowing the user to lock it with a passcode. If the device is an iPhone and someone finds the device, they can call the user directly on the device.\n", "Smartphones are expensive devices with high resale value, and are therefore often the target of theft, with thieves selling them to cartels for resale. One attempt to address this is a \"kill switch\" which would deter theft. In the United States, Minnesota was the first state to pass a bill requiring smartphones to have such a feature, and California was the first to require that the feature be turned on by default. The California law requires the kill switch to be resistant to reinstallation of the phone's operating system. The CTIA initially resisted the legislation, fearing that it would make phones easier to hack, but later supported kill switches. There is evidence that this legislation has been effective, with smartphone theft declining by 50% between 2013 and 2017 in San Francisco.\n", "Seizing mobile devices is covered by the same legal considerations as other digital media. Mobiles will often be recovered switched on; as the aim of seizure is to preserve evidence, the device will often be transported in the same state to avoid a shutdown, which would change files. In addition, the investigator or first responder would risk user lock activation.\n", "If the iPhone 6 home button is repaired or modified by a third party, the device will fail security checks related to Touch ID as the components have not been \"re-validated\" for security reasons—a process which can only be performed by an authorized Apple outlet. Failing these checks disables all features related to Touch ID. Such effects have sometimes happened as a result of damage as well.\n", "With the unveiling of the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus at a keynote event on September 9, 2014, Touch ID was expanded from being used to unlock the device and authenticating App Store purchases to also authenticating Apple Pay. The iPhone 6S incorporates a second-generation Touch ID sensor that is up to twice as fast as the first-generation sensor found in the 5S, 6, and SE phones. As of October 2018, the iPhone 6S, 6S Plus, 7, 7 Plus, 8, 8 Plus, 2016 and 2017 MacBook Pro, iPad Pro 10.5 and 12.9 (second generation), and 2018 MacBook Air are the Apple devices which use the second generation sensor. The new Touch ID unlocks almost instantly and posed an issue as it unlocks too fast to read notifications on the lock screen. This is remedied with the iOS 10 update in which a user must press the home button to have the home screen appear, however this can be changed in the iOS settings to where users can just rest their finger on the sensor to unlock the user's device and go directly to the home screen, similar to previous versions of iOS. Solely placing a finger on the sensor will only unlock the iPhone unless said setting is enabled, and no notifications are currently being displayed on the lock screen.\n", "The iPhone has a minimal hardware user interface, with most models featuring five buttons. The only physical menu button is situated directly below the display, and is called the \"Home button\" because its primary function is to close the active app and navigates to the home screen of the interface. Earlier models included a rounded square, reminiscent of the shape of icons on the home screen, however, new models which include Apple's fingerprint recognition feature Touch ID (which use the Home button as the fingerprint sensor) have no symbol. The iPhone X and later doesn't have a Home button but instead Face ID, a facial recognition authentication method.\n", "Mobile operating system that run on smartphones and tablets typically use a gesture based lock-screen. Phones manufactured by Neonode were unlocked by swiping to the right on its touchscreen. Apple's iOS, used by the iPhone and iPad lines, utilized a similar unlock mechanism until iOS 10, with an on-screen slider slid to the right. Beginning on iOS 5, sliding in the other direction sends the user directly to the camera app. On iOS 7, the slider widget was removed as part of a larger overhaul of the iOS interface, and users could now swipe from any point of the screen. The lock screen also displays a clock, notifications, and provides audio playback controls. iOS 10 made major changes to the lock screen by removing the swiping gesture for accessing the home screen (requiring a touch of the home button). Swiping is still used to access the camera, as well as an additional page to the left with widgets. The iPhone X uses a swipe up gesture to access the home screen once authenticated, as it does not have a physical home button.\n", "The first-generation iPad features an Apple A4 SoC, which comprises a 1 GHz processor, 256 MB of RAM and a PowerVR SGX535 GPU. There are four physical switches on the iPad, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the main menu, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: \"wake/sleep\" and \"volume up/down\", plus a software-controlled switch whose function has changed with software updates. Originally the switch locked the screen to its current orientation, but iOS 4.2 changed it to a mute switch, moving the rotation lock function to an onscreen menu. In the iOS 4.3 update, a setting was added to allow the user to specify whether the side switch was used for rotation lock or mute. Unlike its successors, the first-generation iPad has no cameras.\n", "Apple iOS in combination with their specific hardware uses crypto-shredding when activating the \"Erase all content and settings\" by obliterating all the keys in 'effaceable storage'. This renderes all user data on the device cryptographically inaccessible.\n\nSection::::Restrictions.\n\nApple tightly controls certain aspects of the iPhone. According to Jonathan Zittrain, the emergence of closed devices like the iPhone have made computing more proprietary than early versions of Microsoft Windows.\n", "As part of Continuity, a new \"Continuity Keyboard\" feature allows users to type text on an iPhone and have the text appear on an Apple TV running tvOS 10, avoiding the Siri Remote for text input.\n\nSection::::System features.:Other changes.\n\niOS 10 features new sound effects for locking the device and for keyboard clicks.\n\nWhenever a device detects liquid in the Lightning port, a notice warns the user to disconnect the Lightning cable and allow the port to dry.\n\niOS 10 also allows TTY calls to be made without any additional hardware.\n", "The iPhone allows audio conferencing, call holding, call merging, caller ID, and integration with other cellular network features and iPhone functions. For example, if music is playing when a call is received, the music fades out, and fades back in when the call has ended.\n", "iPhone lets the user know when an alert is sent to the it, in a variety of notice methods. It delivers both visual and vibrating alerts for incoming phone and FaceTime calls, new text messages, new and sent mail, and calendar events. Users can set an LED light flash for incoming calls and alerts or have incoming calls display a photo of the caller. Users can choose from different vibration patterns or even create their own.\n", "Since iOS 7, it also included an integrated flashlight function to operate the reverse camera's flash LED as a flashlight. The flashlight feature is only available on iPhone and iPod Touch, and iPad Pro. Beginning with iOS 9.3, a Night Shift toggle became available through the Control Center on all iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad models that have an Apple A7 chip or later.\n", "Apple iOS, in combination with their specific hardware, uses crypto-shredding when activating the \"Erase all content and settings\" by obliterating all the keys in 'effaceable storage'. This renders all user data on the device cryptographically inaccessible.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Cellular connectivity.\n", "Section::::Restrictions.:SIM unlocking.\n\nSection::::Restrictions.:SIM unlocking.:United States.\n\nMost iPhones were and are still sold with a SIM lock, which restricts the use of the phone to one particular carrier, a common practice with subsidized GSM phones. Unlike most GSM phones, however, the phone cannot be officially unlocked by entering a code. The locked/unlocked state is maintained on Apple's servers per IMEI and is set when the iPhone is activated.\n", "A bug was discovered in May 2015 where users pasted a certain set of characters and Unicode in a set order, causing the SpringBoard to crash and relaunch, which displays a black or white screen and white or black Apple logo (depending on the user's device) that looks identical to the boot screen. The phenomenon was later narrowed down to it only happening when the message was shown via the notification drop-down or the lock screen; it can be fixed by disabling this. If the message is unread and the victim opens the iMessage app or any other app that received the message it can crash the iOS device again. Further problems can include the device resetting to its factory settings, the device no longer receiving text messages or calls and the device frequently losing Internet connection.br\n", "Apple's own headset has a multipurpose button near the microphone that can play or pause music, skip tracks, and answer or end phone calls without touching the iPhone. Some third-party headsets designed for the iPhone also include the microphone and control button. The current headsets also provide volume controls, which are only compatible with more recent models. A fourth ring in the audio jack carries this extra information.\n", "Since 2010, users have been reporting the 6th generation iPod Nano's sleep/wake button remains stuck after months of use, making it impossible to activate the device without the help of a computer or a dock accessory. According to a technical inspection, the device uses double-sided tape to hold the button in place, indicating a possible design fault.\n", "Roose also noted that complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensors, such as those found on Touch ID, generally wear out and become unusable after some period of time, and while Apple may have found a way to manufacture the sensors better, if the sensors stop working, users may just switch back to using their passcode, making fingerprint recognition a non-starter once again. Roose also noted that fingerprint technology still has some issues, such as the potential to be hacked, or of the device's not recognizing the fingerprint (for example, when the finger has been injured).\n", "The iPhone includes a visual voicemail (in some countries) feature allowing users to view a list of current voicemail messages on-screen without having to call into their voicemail. Unlike most other systems, messages can be listened to and deleted in a non-chronological order by choosing any message from an on-screen list.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "iPhone button should be clickable even when the phone is dead." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The click feeling is just a haptic feedback. There is no actual button to be clicked. It just feels like it. " ]
2018-18800	How can you tell the difference between 3D animation and 2D animation?	[Video that explains it]( URL_0 ). In general, 3D animation uses (3D) models that are animated, possibly using motion capture in order to simulate realistic movement, and then rendered into the scenes. The animation engine (the computer) also calculates and renders perspective, occlusion, shadows, and shades of color. The artist has to be talented at creating good-looking models. 2D animation, on the other hand, is like drawing each frame of a video, as a painting or hand drawing. The "animation" comes from the slight differences between each frame, and the "dimensions" come from cues like perspective, relative size, shadows, and color shades (which are drawn by the artist). The artist has to be talented at drawing scenes / paintings. EDIT: How can you tell the difference: because of the large number of frames that must be drawn, it's very rare that a 2D artist takes the time to do a [realistic drawing]( URL_2 ) with all the gradients required to give the impression of a 3D surface like a person's face. For example, [Aladdin]( URL_1 ) has a flat-tone for his face, no nose gradient, etc. On the other hand, for 3D animation, once the model is created in 3D, the computer automatically takes care of the [lighting]( URL_3 ) gradients that give the impression of 3D. Even without final colors and textures, you can still see light reflection and different shades on the surface of the face.	[ "Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Computer animation.:2D animation.\n\n2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics and 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping.\n", "Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Computer animation.:3D animation.:3D terms.\n\nBULLET::::- Cel-shaded animation is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include \"Skyland\" (2007, France), \"The Iron Giant\" (1999, United States), \"Futurama\" (Fox, 1999) \"Appleseed Ex Machina\" (2007, Japan), \"\" (2002, Japan), \"\" (2017, Japan)\n", "BULLET::::- 2D computer animation- Creation of the seeming movement of pictures in a 2D environment, aided by specialty computer programs, is known as 2D computer animation. This can also be used for the branch of computer science that enables the creation of software for this technique or the models being manipulated. Companies including Disney (using the CAPS technique for digital ink and paint) and Pixar (which usually makes 3D animated films, but sometimes employs this technique).\n", "Morph target animation\n\nMorph target animation, per-vertex animation, shape interpolation, shape keys, or blend shapes is a method of 3D computer animation used together with techniques such as skeletal animation. In a morph target animation, a \"deformed\" version of a mesh is stored as a series of vertex positions. In each key frame of an animation, the vertices are then interpolated between these stored positions.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "The Animator is used to add loop animations and effects to models used with dim3. The Animator is used to add bones, setup poses for the bones, and to combine those poses into animations. The Animator uses a skeletal animation system. This makes character movement simplistic yet very realistic.\n\nSetup is a utility that is used to change all other settings in the project, for example, the HUD, network, or particle settings.\n", "For 3D animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing. Finally, the animation is rendered.\n", "2D animation has many applications, including analog computer animation, Flash animation, and PowerPoint animation. Cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is animated.\n\nFinal line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation, to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. Speaking about using this approach in \"Paperman\", John Kahrs said that \"Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm.\"\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Computer animation.:3D animation.\n", "Animation\n\nAnimation is a method in which pictures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets or clay figures.\n", "3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The animator usually starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh to manipulate. A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with keyframes to create movement.\n", "Computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Most frequently, sophisticated mathematics is used to manipulate complex three-dimensional polygons, apply \"textures\", lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally rendering the complete image. A sophisticated graphical user interface may be used to create the animation and arrange its choreography. Another technique called constructive solid geometry defines objects by conducting boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution.\n\nSection::::Computer-assisted vs. computer-generated.\n", "Skeletal animation is a technique in computer animation in which a character (or other articulated object) is represented in two parts: a surface representation used to draw the character (called \"skin\" or \"mesh\") and a hierarchical set of interconnected bones (called the \"skeleton\" or \"rig\") used to animate (\"pose\" and \"keyframe\") the mesh. While this technique is often used to animate humans or more generally for organic modeling, it only serves to make the animation process more intuitive, and the same technique can be used to control the deformation of any object—such as a door, a spoon, a building, or a galaxy. When the animated object is more general than, for example, a humanoid character, the set of bones may not be hierarchical or interconnected, but it just represents a higher level description of the motion of the part of mesh or skin it is influencing.\n", "There are mainly three types of 3D CAD models. Wire frame is one of them and it is the most abstract and least realistic. Other types of 3D CAD models are surface and solid. This method of modelling consists of only lines, points and curves defining the edges of an object.\n\nSection::::Introduction.\n", "There are two main types of sketch-based modeling. In the first, the user draws a shape in the workspace using a mouse or a tablet. The system then interprets this shape as a 3D object. Users can then alter the object by cutting off or adding sections. The process of adding sections to a model is generally referred to as overdrawing. The user is never required to interact directly with the vertices or Nurbs control points.\n", "Not all computer graphics that appear 3D are based on a wireframe model. 2D computer graphics with 3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wireframe modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers. Visual artists may also copy or visualize 3D effects and manually render photorealistic effects without the use of filters.\n\nSection::::Differences with other types of computer graphics.:Pseudo-3D and \"true 3D\".\n", "Modeling can be performed by means of a dedicated program (e.g., Cinema 4D, Maya, 3ds Max, Blender, LightWave, Modo) or an application component (Shaper, Lofter in 3ds Max) or some scene description language (as in POV-Ray). In some cases, there is no strict distinction between these phases; in such cases modeling is just part of the scene creation process (this is the case, for example, with Caligari trueSpace and Realsoft 3D).\n", "Section::::Developmental animation.\n\nWith the resurgence of 2D animation, free and proprietary software packages have become widely available for amateurs and professional animators. The principal issue with 2D animation is labor requirements. With software like RETAS UbiArt Framework and Adobe After Effects, coloring and compositing can be done in less time.\n\nVarious approaches have been developed to aid and speed up the process of digital 2D animation. For example, by generating vector artwork in a tool like Adobe Flash an artist may employ software-driven automatic coloring and in-betweening.\n", "The modeling stage consists of shaping individual objects that are later used in the scene. There are a number of modeling techniques, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Constructive solid geometry\n\nBULLET::::- Implicit surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- Subdivision surfaces\n", "To learn more about Animation:Master's features, see .\n\nSection::::Version history.\n\nAnimation:Master is the successor program to Martin Hash's (1987) and (1990)\n\nVersion 1 (1992) was marketed as \"Will Vinton's Playmation\" in conjunction with the Will Vinton Studio. The Mac version was released in 1993.\n\nVersion 2 (1993) was released as Martin Hash's 3D Animation. The pro version was named Animation:Master.\n\nVersion 3 (1994) introduced full 3D inverse kinematics (IK).\n", "Animations are created by \"playing\" a scene as in video games within a simulated virtual world. This is different to software like Autodesk 3ds Max or Autodesk Maya where you create animations mainly by hand-animating all individual movements.\n\nBy recording different characters and objects in different tracks, the animator can create a full scene in multiple iterations. For example, the animator can first play one virtual actor, and then play another while replaying the first one. Recording is physics based, so that a character or vehicle controlled live can physically interact with previously recorded characters and objects.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Computer-assisted animation is usually classed as two-dimensional (2D) animation. Drawings are either hand drawn (pencil to paper) or interactively drawn (on the computer) using different assisting appliances and are positioned into specific software packages. Within the software package, the creator places drawings into different key frames which fundamentally create an outline of the most important movements. The computer then fills in the \"in-between frames\", a process commonly known as Tweening. Computer-assisted animation employs new technologies to produce content faster than is possible with traditional animation, while still retaining the stylistic elements of traditionally drawn characters or objects.\n", "Section::::2D to 3D conversion.\n\nIn the case of 2D films that were generated from 3D models (as with CGI animated films), it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version.\n", "Two approaches to stereo conversion can be loosely defined: quality semiautomatic conversion for cinema and high quality 3DTV, and low-quality automatic conversion for cheap 3DTV, VOD and similar applications.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Re-rendering of computer animated films.\n", "A few examples of computer-generated animation movies are \"Toy Story\", \"Frozen\", and \"Shrek\". \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Animation\n\nBULLET::::- Animation database\n\nBULLET::::- Autodesk\n\nBULLET::::- Avar (animation variable)\n\nBULLET::::- Computer-generated imagery (CGI)\n\nBULLET::::- New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab\n\nBULLET::::- Computer representation of surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- Hand-Over\n\nBULLET::::- Humanoid animation\n\nBULLET::::- List of animation studios\n\nBULLET::::- List of computer-animated films\n\nBULLET::::- List of computer-animated television series\n\nBULLET::::- Medical animation\n\nBULLET::::- Morph target animation\n\nBULLET::::- Machinima (recording video from games and virtual worlds)\n\nBULLET::::- Motion capture\n\nBULLET::::- Procedural animation\n\nBULLET::::- Ray tracing\n\nBULLET::::- Rich Representation Language\n\nBULLET::::- Skeletal animation\n", "Character animation is often contrasted with creature animation, in which specialised animators bring to life realistic animals and creatures, such as dinosaurs and fantasy creatures. Visual effects animators specialise in animating vehicles, machinery, and natural phenomena such as rain, snow, lightning and water, as well as the \"non-natural\" effects often seen in science fiction films. There is a good deal of overlap between these areas. Sometimes, visual effects animators will use the same principles of character animation; an early example is the pseudopod in \"The Abyss\".\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Producing 3D films.:2D to 3D conversion.\n\nIn the case of 2D CGI animated films that were generated from 3D models, it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version.\n\nFor all other 2D films, different techniques must be employed. For example, for the 3D re-release of the 1993 film \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", Walt Disney Pictures scanned each original frame and manipulated them to produce left-eye and right-eye versions. Dozens of films have now been converted from 2D to 3D. There are several approaches used for 2D to 3D conversion, most notably depth-based methods.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05028	How come animals can drink from any water source(excluding salt water obviously) while we can’t drink it unless we purify most of the contaminants?	Animals can drink from any water sources. They can also die from doing so. We have stricter guidelines for humans because we don't want humans to die unnecessarily.	[ "Both agriculture and sewage treatment produce inputs into rivers with very high concentrations of bacteria and viruses including a wide range of pathogenic organisms. Even in areas with little human activity significant levels of bacteria and viruses can be detected originating from fish and aquatic mammals and from animals grazing near rivers such as deer.\n", "In terms of mineral nutrients intake, it is unclear what the drinking water contribution is. However, inorganic minerals generally enter surface water and ground water via storm water runoff or through the Earth's crust. Treatment processes also lead to the presence of some minerals. Examples include calcium, zinc, manganese, phosphate, fluoride and sodium compounds. Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of Maternal Transfer.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of Maternal Transfer.:Lactation.\n\nThe transfer of contaminants from mother to pup through lactation is most likely the largest mass transfer of contaminants, greater than that of in-utero transfers. When the mother begins lactation, blubber lipids are converted into milk lipids to feed her offspring. During this process, toxicants that were stored in blubber lipids are moved into the milk and subsequently are transferred to the nursing pup.\n", "Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human sewage in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006, waterborne diseases were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water. In parts of the world, the only sources of water are from small streams that are often directly contaminated by sewage.\n", "Survival of pathogens in waste materials, soil, or water, depends on many environmental factors including temperature, pH, organic matter content, moisture, exposure to light, and the presence of other organisms. Fecal material can be directly deposited, washed into waters by overland runoff, transported through the ground, or discharged to surface waters via sewer lines, pipes, or drainage tiles. Risk of exposure to humans requires: (1) pathogens to survive and be present; (2) pathogens to recreate in surface waters; and (3) individuals to come in contact with water for sufficient time, or ingest sufficient volumes of water to receive an infectious dose. Die-off rates of bacteria in the environment are often exponential, therefore, direct deposition of fecal material into waters generally contribute higher concentrations of pathogens than material that must be transported overland or through the subsurface.\n", "Animal (non-human) reservoirs consist of domesticated and wild animals infected by pathogens. For example, the bacterium \"Vibrio cholerae\", which causes cholera in humans, has natural reservoirs in copepods, zooplankton, and shellfish. Parasitic blood-flukes of the genus \"Schistosoma\", responsible for schistosomiasis, spend part of their lives inside freshwater snails before completing their life cycles in vertebrate hosts. Viruses of the taxon \"Ebolavirus\", which causes Ebola virus disease, are thought to have a natural reservoir in bats or other animals exposed to the virus. Other zoonotic diseases that have been transmitted from animals to humans include: rabies, blastomycosis, psittacosis, trichinosis, cat scratch disease, histoplasmosis, coccidiomycosis and salmonella.\n", "As the health effects of most toxic chemicals arise after prolonged exposure, risk to health from chemicals is generally lower than that from pathogens. Thus, the quality of the source protection measures is an important component in controlling whether pathogens may be present in the final drinking-water.\n", "By necessity, terrestrial animals in captivity become accustomed to drinking water, but most free-roaming animals stay hydrated through the fluids and moisture in fresh food. When conditions impel them to drink from bodies of water, the methods and motions differ greatly among species. Many desert animals do not drink even if water becomes available, but rely on eating succulent plants.\n", "Spillover is a common event; in fact, more than two thirds of human viruses are zoonotic . Most spillover events result in self-limited cases with no further human to human transmission, as occurs, for example, with rabies, antrax, histoplasmosis or hidatidosis. Other zoonotic pathogens are able to be transmitted by humans to produce secondary cases and even to establish limited chains of transmission. Some examples are the Ebola and Marburg filoviruses, the MERS and SARS coronaviruses or some avian flu viruses. Finally some few spillover events can result in the final adaptation of the microbe to the humans, who became a new stable reservoir, as occurred with the HIV virus resulting in the AIDS pandemic. In fact, most of the pathogens which are presently exclusive of humans were probably transmitted by animals sometime in the past . If the history of mutual adaptation is long enough, permanent host-microbe associations can be established resulting in co-evolution, and even on permanent integration of the microbe genome in the human genome, as it is the case of endogenous viruses. The closer the two species are in phylogenetic terms, the easier it is for microbes to overcome the biological barrier to produce successful spillovers. For this reason, other mammals are the main source of zoonotic agents for humans.\n", "BULLET::::1. Pollutants are discharged directly into waters of the United States which originate outside of and pass over, across, or through the facility or otherwise come into direct contact with the animals confined in the operation.\n", "Modes of acquiring infection from these causes are limited to fecal-oral transmission, and contaminated water and food. The major factor governing pathogen content of surface water is human and animal activity in the watershed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Most of the bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that contaminate well water comes from fecal material from humans and other animals, for example from on-site sanitation systems (such as pit latrines and septic tanks). Common bacterial contaminants include \"E. coli\", \"Salmonella\", \"Shigella\", and \"Campylobacter jejuni\". Common viral contaminants include \"norovirus\", \"sapovirus\", \"rotavirus\", enteroviruses, and hepatitis A and E. Parasites include \"Giardia lamblia\", \"Cryptosporidium\", \"Cyclospora cayetanensis\", and microsporidia.\n\nSection::::Contamination.:Chemical contamination.\n", "Upland waters draining areas frequented by sheep, goats or deer may also harbour a variety of opportunistic human parasites such as liver fluke. Consequently, there are very few rivers from which the water is safe to drink without some form of sterilisation or disinfection. In rivers used for contact recreation such as swimming, safe levels of bacteria and viruses can be established based on risk assessment.\n", "\"Cryptosporidium muris\" infects dogs, rabbits, lambs, cats, humans, and non-human primates. This type of \"cryptosporidium\" infects people and animals by the oocyst acquired in water. If people or animals drink the water, then they could become infected and then complete the cycle by passing oocysts. People and animals can also become infected by being in water that has the oocysts present. The area where \"Cryptosporidium muris\" most commonly occurs is in Kenya, France, Thailand, and Indonesia. It also occurs in the western hemisphere but to a far lower amount.\n\nSection::::Diagnostics and prevention.\n", "Transmission of pathogens occurs through many different routes, including airborne, direct or indirect contact, sexual contact, through blood, breast milk, or other body fluids, and through the fecal-oral route. One of the primary pathways by which food or water become contaminated is from the release of untreated sewage into a drinking water supply or onto cropland, with the result that people who eat or drink contaminated sources become infected. In developing countries, most sewage is discharged into the environment or on cropland; even in developed countries, periodic system failures result in sanitary sewer overflows.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Persistently infected animals did not have a competent immune system at the time of BVDV transplacental infection. The virus therefore entered the fetal cells and, during immune system development, was accepted as self. In PIs the virus remains present in a large number of the animal’s body cells throughout its life and is continuously shed. PIs are often ill-thrifty and smaller than their peers, however they can appear normal. PIs are more susceptible to disease, with only 20% of PIs surviving to two years of age. If a PI dam is able to reproduce they always give birth to PI calves.\n", "Thus, leptospirosis is transmitted by the urine of an infected animal and is contagious as long as the urine is still moist. Although \"Leptospira\" have been detected in reptiles and birds, only mammals are able to transmit the bacteria to humans and other animals. Rats, mice, and moles are important primary hosts, but a wide range of other mammals including dogs, deer, rabbits, hedgehogs, cows, sheep, swine, raccoons, opossums, skunks, and certain marine mammals carry and transmit the disease as secondary hosts. In Africa, a number of wildlife hosts have been identified as carriers, including the banded mongoose, Egyptian fox, Rusa deer, and shrews. Dogs may lick the urine of an infected animal off the grass or soil, or drink from an infected puddle. House-bound domestic dogs have contracted leptospirosis, apparently from licking the urine of infected mice in the house. Leptospirosis can also be transmitted via the semen of infected animals. In some animals such as cows, the bacterial shedding can persists for one year.\n", "Many treatment plants that take raw water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs for public drinking water production use conventional filtration technologies. Direct filtration, which is typically used to treat water with low particulate levels, includes coagulation and filtration but not sedimentation. Other common filtration processes including slow sand filters, diatomaceous earth filters, and membranes will remove 99% of \"Cryptosporidium\". Membranes and bag- and cartridge-filter products remove \"Cryptosporidium\" specifically.\n", "BULLET::::- Parasitic worms (helminths) - Conditions associated with intestinal helminth infection include intestinal obstruction, insomnia, vomiting, weakness, and stomach pains.\n\nSection::::Basis for controls and regulations.:Environment.\n\nThe environment is impacted by nonpoint source pollution through the input of sediment and nutrients from multiple sources directly into the water system.\n\nSection::::Basis for controls and regulations.:Environment.:Toxic contaminants and chemicals.\n", "Many treatment plants that take raw water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs for public drinking water production use conventional filtration technologies. This involves a series of processes, including coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration. Direct filtration, which is typically used to treat water with low particulate levels, includes coagulation and filtration, but not sedimentation. Other common filtration processes, including slow sand filters, diatomaceous earth filters and membranes will remove 99% of \"Cryptosporidium\". Membranes and bag and cartridge filters remove \"Cryptosporidium\" product-specifically.\n", "The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly placed wells, can lead to drinking water contaminated with pathogens carried in feces and urine. Such fecal-oral transmitted diseases include cholera and diarrhea. Of the four pathogen types that are present in feces (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths or helminth eggs), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater, whereas the relatively large helminth eggs are usually filtered out by the soil matrix.\n", "Because groundwater and surface water are closely linked, water pollution from CAFOs can affect both sources if one or the other is contaminated. Surface water may be polluted by CAFO waste through the runoff of nutrients, organics, and pathogens from fields and storage. Waste can be transmitted to groundwater through the leaching of pollutants. Some facility designs, such as lagoons, can reduce the risk of groundwater contamination, but the microbial pathogens from animal waste may still pollute surface and groundwater, causing adverse effects on wildlife and human health.\n", "The sharing of water between livestock and humans is one of the most common factors in the transmission of non-tuberulosis mycobacteria (NTM). NTM is carried in cattle and pig feces, and if this contaminates the drinking water supply, it can result in pulmonary disease, disseminated disease or localized lesions in humans with both compromised and competent immune systems. During drought, water supplies are even more susceptible to harmful algal blooms and microorganisms. Algal blooms increase water turbidity, suffocating aquatic plants, and can deplete oxygen, killing fish. Some kinds of blue-green algae create neurotoxins, hepatoxins, cytotoxins or endotoxins that can cause serious and sometimes fatal neurological, liver and digestive diseases in humans. Cyanobacteria grow best in warmer temperatures (especially above 25 degrees Celsius), and so areas of the world that are experiencing general warming as a result of climate change are also experiencing harmful algal blooms more frequently and for longer periods of time. During times of intense precipitation (such as during the “wet season” in much of the tropical and sub-tropical world, including Australia and Panama), nutrients that cyanobacteria depend on are carried from groundwater and the earth's surface into bodies of water. As drought begins and these bodies gradually dry up, the nutrients are concentrated, providing the perfect opportunity for algal blooms.\n", "Biota are an essential component of most sewage treatment processes and many water purification systems. Most of the organisms involved are derived from the waste, wastewater or water stream itself or from the atmosphere or soil water. However some processes, especially those involved in removing very low concentrations of contaminants, may use engineered eco-systems created by the introduction of specific plants and sometimes animals. Some full scale sewage treatment plants also use constructed wetlands to provide treatment\n\nSection::::Pollutants in wastewater.\n\nSection::::Pollutants in wastewater.:Pathogens.\n", "When manure runoff or percolation enters a water system, the infecting agents thrive in that environment. Previous studies found that a private well in Idaho contained high levels of veterinary antibiotics as well as additive chemicals. The areas surrounding concentrated animal feeding operations are at particular risk for groundwater or soil water sources of contamination. When manure enters a water source, either underground or above ground, the pathogens and agents that inhabit the manure enters the water as well. Pathogens can survive longer in groundwater than surface water due to lower temperatures and protection from the sun and other harsher elements. Additionally, this water will not be treated until far later in the process, allowing bacterial colonies to grow.\n" ]	[ "Animals can safely drink from any water source.", "Animals can drink any water without risk whilst humans can cause harm to themselves by drinking water that isn't purified. " ]	[ "Animals can't drink safely from anywhere. They could die from bad water just like us.", "Animals can also be harmed by drinking unpurified water. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Animals can safely drink from any water source.", "Animals can drink any water without risk whilst humans can cause harm to themselves by drinking water that isn't purified. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Animals can't drink safely from anywhere. They could die from bad water just like us.", "Animals can also be harmed by drinking unpurified water. " ]
2018-13417	Why would Apple want to make their own chips for Macs? What is wrong with using Intel chips?	Part of it is that Intel is profiting from chips that Apple buys from them. If they have the up-front money to invest and technical skill to produce them as cheaply as Intel can, they can keep the money that would otherwise be profit for Intel. Intel chips also use the x86-64 architecture which has been the standard for decades for Windows, and over a decade for Macs. It’s highly flexible and powerful, but many of its features are overkill for day-to-day use and drive up cost and power consumption unnecessarily. This is why almost no phones use Intel chips. ARM-type designs, which can be produced by multiple companies to their own specifications, are way more power efficient. Another way to look at this is if you’re limited by the amount of power available... they can actually be more powerful. Considering Apple focuses their computer efforts in the laptop market, especially thin, portable laptops... that could make ARM based processors better than Intel for a lot of Macs, not only cheaper. These factors already make them very good for iPhones. Now, you need to significantly rewrite code to work on those CPUs at all, which is why portable Windows phones/tablets ARM CPUs perform worse-than-expected, and don’t run existing Windows software (which would have been the main advantage of a Windows phone compared to Android for example). It’s also why iPhones do not currently run Mac software, or visa-versa. But if Apple pulled this switch off well, took advantage of the performance potential ARM CPUs offer and make sure that plenty of software is available right away to make the computers useful— they could really make Macs better than they are now, especially in the area of making battery life better or trying to keep performance high without sacrificing battery life.	[ "On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, announced that Apple would be transitioning from its long favored PowerPC architecture to the Intel x86 architecture because the future PowerPC road map was unable to satisfy Apple's needs. The first Macintosh computers containing Intel CPUs were announced on January 10, 2006, and Apple had its entire line of consumer Macs running on Intel processors by early August 2006. The Apple Xserve server was updated to Intel Xeon processors from November 2006 and was offered in a configuration similar to Apple's Mac Pro.\n", "There were also fears that Intel, which took part in the development and implementation of the USB, would force Apple to drop all development and support of its FireWire serial bus on all Intel Macs. This did not occur, as FireWire ports continued to be included on all Macs, except certain notebook configurations beginning with the MacBook Air in 2008, until being replaced by the faster Thunderbolt port.\n", "On February 24, 2011, Apple became the first company to bring to market a computer that utilized Intel's new Thunderbolt (codename Light Peak) I/O interface. Using the same physical interface as a Mini DisplayPort, and backwards compatible with that standard, Thunderbolt boasts two-way transfer speeds of 10 Gbit/s.\n\nIn April 2018, Bloomberg reported that Apple intends to drop Intel chips and replace them with an \"In-house\" version, which caused Intel's shares to fall 6%. According to the report, the switch might happen as early as the year 2020.\n", "BULLET::::- June 6, 2005: Apple announces its plans to switch to Intel processors at the Worldwide Developer Conference and released a Developer Transition System, a PC running an Intel build of Mac OS X 10.4.1 with a Trusted Platform Module in a modified Power Mac G5 case, to all Select and Premier members of the Apple Developer Connection at a price of $999.\n", "It was also feared that it may be possible for Windows and Windows applications to run natively on Mac hardware, possibly killing off Mac OS X and/or applications developed for it. There was concern that the early announcement of the change would cause an Osborne effect, and there was the possibility that Intel could force Apple to use the Intel Inside branding. In addition, Apple had nurtured a feeling of animosity toward Intel among its loyal base. It would take time and money to convince Apple's most loyal customers that Intel was acceptable.\n", "Apple does not authorize the use of Mac OS X on any x86 PC other than the ones it has developed itself. The company used technical means (although not the Trusted Platform Module, or TPM, as has been widely mis-reported), to tie Mac OS to the systems it distributed to developers after announcing its switch to Intel's chips.\n", "There were questions over the extent to which Apple would retain control over the non-processor components of the system design. Apple is traditionally a systems builder, and some feared that Apple's industrial design philosophy may be affected if the company switched to commodity parts. Others noted that Apple has slowly been switching to standard parts since the introduction of the PCI Power Mac in 1995, and said that using a non-Apple chipset in itself would not harm the Mac's image.\n", "The first Macs with Intel processors were the iMac and the 15-inch MacBook Pro, both announced at the Macworld Conference and Expo in January 2006. Throughout the year the Mac mini was transitioned to the Intel architecture, with users having choice of either Core Solo or Core Duo CPUs. The iBook product line was phased out by the MacBook and on August 7, 2006, the Power Mac G5 was discontinued in favor of the Mac Pro, based on the new Intel Xeon \"Woodcrest\". The Xserve was also transitioned to an Intel Xeon \"Woodcrest\". In the second half of 2006 Apple launched new iMac and MacBook lines using the Core 2 Duo processor.\n", "Classic is not supported on the x86 architecture. This means that pre-Mac OS X software does not run on Mac OS X out of the box, to which some users running older applications (such as QuarkXPress 4 and 5) objected. However, third-party emulators, such as Mini vMac, Basilisk II, and SheepShaver, have been ported to Intel-based Macs, allowing some pre-Mac OS X software to run.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- OSx86\n\nBULLET::::- Star Trek project\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Universal Binary Programming Guidelines\n\nBULLET::::- Can Developers Give Mactel an Enterprise Boost?\n", "Intel-based Mac computers use very similar hardware to PCs from other manufacturers which ship with Microsoft Windows or Linux operating systems. In particular, CPUs, chipsets and GPUs are entirely compatible. However, Apple computers also include some custom hardware and design choices not found in competing systems:\n", "Also in April 2018, The Verge made an article about how Intel is stagnating and not making any significant improvements to its lineup and could not compete for battery life with ARM chips, commonly found in smartphones.\n\nSection::::Hardware.\n", "Fears of an Osborne effect were dismissed after sales of Macs for the Christmas 2005 quarter saw an increase over the previous Christmas. Unlike Windows-based PC counterparts \"Intel Inside\" stickers have never been included on any Apple product.\n\nSection::::Drawbacks.:Hardware-oriented.\n", "Jobs revealed at the 2005 WWDC, that every version of Mac OS X had been secretly developed and compiled for Intel processors (as well as PowerPC) as they were developed; the portability of its predecessor NeXTSTEP had been maintained. It is not publicly known whether Apple maintains current builds for any other architectures although the related iOS runs on the iPhone's ARM architecture.\n\nSection::::Reasons.\n", "Support for the PowerPC platform was dropped following the transition. In 2009, Apple announced at its Worldwide Developers Conference that Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard would drop support for PowerPC processors and be Intel-only. Rosetta continued to be offered as an optional download or installation choice in Snow Leopard before it was discontinued with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion. In addition, new versions of Mac OS X first- and third-party software increasingly required Intel processors, including new versions of iLife, iWork, Aperture and Logic Pro.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nSection::::Features.:Aqua user interface.\n", "The performance of Intel's chipsets was a concern, along with the x86 architecture itself, and whether it would affect system performance and application quality. Other problems include endianness and reduced floating point performance in real world applications relative to equivalent or contemporary PowerPC processors.\n", "There were rumors that P. A. Semi had a relationship with Apple that suggested Apple would be the premier user of the PWRficient processors. That relationship supposedly ended with the Apple–Intel transition when Apple switched from the PowerPC to Intel's Core processors for their entire line of computers.\n\nSection::::Acquisition by Apple.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Mac OS X v10.4 \"Tiger\".\n\nOn June 6, 2005, Apple announced their plans to switch to Intel processors at their Worldwide Developers Conference and released a Developer Transition Kit to selected developers at a cost of $999 (). Efforts immediately began to attempt to run Mac OS X on non-Apple hardware, but developers quickly found themselves with an error message saying that the PC hardware configurations were not supported.\n", "BULLET::::- January 10, 2006: Jobs announces the first two computers in this series, the 15\" MacBook Pro and iMac Core Duo line, both using an Intel Core Duo chip and offers to trade in the Developer Transition Kits for iMacs.\n\nBULLET::::- February 28, 2006: Jobs announces that the Mac mini now also comes with an Intel Core chip, in either the Solo or Duo varieties.\n\nBULLET::::- April 5, 2006: Apple announced the release of Boot Camp, which allowed users of Intel-based Macs to run Windows XP (and later versions of Boot Camp allow later versions of Windows).\n", "Apple's initial press release indicated the transition would begin by June 2006, and finish by the end of 2007, but it actually proceeded much more quickly. The first generation Intel-based Macintoshes were released in January 2006 with Mac OS X 10.4.4 Tiger, and Steve Jobs announced the last models to switch in August 2006, with the Mac Pro available immediately and with the Intel Xserve available by October 2006. The Xserve servers were available in December 2006.\n", "Applications native to both PPC and Intel-based Macs such as Safari web browser were found to perform better on the Intel-based Mac than on the PPC-based Mac. However, classic Mac OS applications will not run directly on Intel Macs. Pre-Mac OS X applications can only be run on Intel Macs by using emulators such as vMac, Basilisk II, and SheepShaver, though the lack of stability of these emulators severely limits their functionality.\n", "The Macintosh line underwent a similar transition between 1994 and about 1996, when Apple switched from Motorola's 68k series of chips to IBM/Motorola PowerPC processors, developed jointly by Motorola, Apple, and IBM. This took several years, during which Apple produced versions of the classic Mac OS that could run on either platform, introduced fairly low-level emulation of the 68k architecture by the PowerPC models, and encouraged third-party developers to release fat binaries that could run natively on either architecture.\n", "In a keynote address on June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs officially announced that Apple would begin producing Intel-based Macintosh computers beginning in 2006. Jobs confirmed rumors that the company had secretly been producing versions of its current operating system Mac OS X for both PowerPC and Intel processors over the past 5 years, and that the transition to Intel processor systems would last until the end of 2007. Rumors of cross-platform compatibility had been spurred by the fact that Mac OS X is based on OpenStep, an operating system that was available for many platforms. In fact, Apple's own Darwin, the open source underpinnings of Mac OS X, was also available for Intel's x86 architecture.\n", "Clover and Chameleon were updated to be compatible with Sierra. UniBeast, Pandora Box and MacPwn were updated to support it and a distribution of Sierra Zone (10.12.3) was released with AMD processor support.\n\nSection::::History.:macOS High Sierra (10.13-10.13.6).\n\nClover, MacPwn and UniBeast were updated to support it. A distro of High Sierra Zone by Hackintosh Zone (10.13) was released with AMD Processor support including Ryzen CPUs.\n\nSection::::History.:macOS Mojave (10.14).\n\nClover was updated to support Mojave with revision 4514. UniBeast also received Mojave support for Intel-based machines.\n\nSection::::Legal issues and Apple objections.\n", "Section::::Models.:CHIP \"v2\" (unreleased).\n\nFew details were available in regard to CHIP's would-be successor or successors except it would have used Next Thing's own SiP GR8 instead of Allwinner's original R8. In addition to feature-sharing with CHIP Pro, the company wanted to \"take advantage of CHIP Pro's much more stable supply chain\" in order to address the uneasiness in its user base about the future of the product. In responding to user concerns, Next Thing also disclosed that more than one successor product line was in the works.\n", "BULLET::::- August 28, 2009: Apple ships Mac OS X 10.6 \"Snow Leopard\" exclusively for Intel Macs. PowerPC Macs cannot boot this OS. This is also the final release with Rosetta, allowing PowerPC software to run on an Intel Mac.\n\nBULLET::::- March 1, 2011: The beta version of the then-upcoming Mac OS X Lion drops \"Rosetta\" and will not be able to run PowerPC based software.\n\nBULLET::::- July 20, 2011: The release of Mac OS X 10.7 Lion formally ends Apple's support of PowerPC-based software.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04319	How do scientists know which dinosaur bones belong to which dinosaur?	It's extremely rare to find a complete, intact skeleton. Frequently, archaeologists will find only a few fossils and will have to make educated guesses about how the parts once fit together. In the past, many dinosaur skeletons on display in museums were assembled incorrectly. Younger dinosaurs are also often misidentified as a separate species rather than an adolescent version of a known dinosaur species. There are many thousands of bones or bone fragments in custody that remain unidentified. Since the bones are fossilized (all organic material replaced with mineral deposits), there is no way to identify bones based on DNA.	[ "BULLET::::- A study of the bone histology of \"Tenontosaurus tilletti\" is published by Sarah Werning (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A study of the bone histology of \"Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki\" is published by Tom R. Hübner (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A study questioning the interpretation of \"Torosaurus\" as a junior synonym and a growth stage of \"Triceratops\" was published by Nicholas R. Longrich and Daniel J. Field (2012).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the ornithomimosaur fossils from the Lower Cretaceous Arundel Clay (Maryland, United States) published by Brownstein (2017), interpreting the fossils as indicative of the presence of two ornithomimosaur taxa in the Arundel, is criticized by McFeeters, Ryan & Cullen (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the diversity of ornithomimosaur dinosaurs from the Upper Cretaceous Nemegt Formation (Mongolia) as indicated by the morphology of their manus bones is published by Chinzorig \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "Section::::Episodes.\n\nSection::::Episodes.:Episode one: \"Central England\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Philip Wilby of the British Geological Survey in Nottingham examines soft-tissue, preserved by the \"Medusa effect\", from a recently re-excavated Victorian fossil discovery.\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Phil Manning compares a T-Rex with William Buckland’s Megalosaurus (the first scientifically identified dinosaur and the inspiration for Charles Dickens’ opening paragraph in \"Bleak House\").\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Derek Siveter of Oxford University Museum and Dr. Mark Sutton of Imperial College London demonstrate virtual dissection that produces computer-models of microfossils.\n", "Section::::Biochronology.\n\nBecause species of aetosaurs typically have restricted fossil ranges and are abundant in the strata they are found in, they are useful in biochronology. Osteoderms are the most common remains associated with aetosaurs, so a single identifiable scute can accurately date the layer it is found in.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the bone histology of sauropod dinosaurs and birds, looking for histological correlates indicative of the presence of bird-like air sacs, is published by Lambertz, Bertozzo & Sander (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the Middle Jurassic flora from Yorkshire (United Kingdom) as indicated by pollen and spores, and on the possible dinosaur-plant interactions in the area is published by Slater \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Description and analysis of insect borings on hadrosaur bones from the late Campanian Cerro del Pueblo Formation (Mexico) is published by Serrano-Brañas, Espinosa-Chávez & Maccracken (2018).\n", "Section::::Identification.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the anatomy of the skeleton of \"Coahomasuchus chathamensis\" and on the phylogenetic relationships of aetosaurs is published by Hoffman, Heckert & Zanno (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A restudy of the referred material of \"Stagonolepis robertsoni\" housed at the Natural History Museum, London, evaluating the utility of this material for examining the phylogenetic relationships of \"S. robertsoni\", is published by Parker (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Description of the forelimbs of \"Stagonolepis olenkae\" and a study on the probable use of the forelimbs by members of this species is published by Dróżdż (2018).\n", "BULLET::::- A study of the forearm orientation in hadrosaurids is published by Phil Senter (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- Skin impressions of two different species of \"Saurolophus\" are described by Phil Bell (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A new description of \"Eolambia caroljonesa\" is published by Andrew T. McDonald \"et al.\" (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A study of anatomy and relationships of \"Bolong yixianensis\" is published by Wu Wenhao and Pascal Godefroit (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- An overview of Early Cretaceous iguanodontian ornithopod dinosaurs of England and Belgium is published by David B. Norman (2012).\n", "BULLET::::- A new specimen of \"Haya griva\" is described from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia by Norell & Barta (2016).\n\nBULLET::::- A reassessment of the holotype locality of \"Leaellynasaura amicagraphica\" is published by Herne, Tait & Salisbury (2016), who argue that several fossils traditionally referred to \"L. amicagraphica\" cannot be confidently attributed to this species.\n", "1998\n\nBULLET::::- Scott Donald Sampson and others realized that \"Majungatholus atopus\" was actually a theropod.\n", "BULLET::::- Description of the ornamentation of clavicles and skull bones of \"Metoposaurus krasiejowensis\" is published by Antczak & Bodzioch (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Redescription of \"Regalerpeton weichangensis\" based on eight new specimens and a study on the phylogenetic relationships of the species is published by Rong (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- An incomplete vertebra of a member of Caudata is described from the Algerian part of the Cretaceous Kem Kem Beds by Alloul \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "Determination of geographic origin: Determining the origin of a certain species aids research in population numbers and lineage data. Phylogenetic studies are most often used to find the broad geographic area of which a species reside. For example, in California seahorses were being sold for traditional medicinal purposes and the phylogenetic data of those seahorses led researchers to find their origin and from which population they came from and what species they were. In addition to phylogenetic data, assignment tests are used to find the probability of a species belonging to or originating from a specific population and genetic markers of a specimen are utilized. These types of tests are most accurate when all potential population's data have been gathered. Statistical analyses are used in assignment tests based on an individual's microsatellites or Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs). Using microsatellites in these studies is more favorable than AFLPs because the AFLPs required non-degraded tissue samples and higher errors have been reported when using AFLPs.\n", "1995 in paleontology\n\nSection::::Archosauromorphs.\n\nSection::::Archosauromorphs.:Newly named Non-Avian Dinosaurs.\n\nBULLET::::- Fossil hunters working on behalf of the Royal Saskatchewan Museum discover a large coprolite from a theropod dinosaur in Maastrichtian strata. In 1997 it is sent to coprolite specialist Karen Chin, who determines that this specimen of fossilized feces was attributable to \"Tyrannosaurus rex\". One year later, in 1998, Karen Chin and others publish a joint paper in \"Nature\" announcing the finding.\n", "Section::::Disciplines.:Forensic ornithology.\n\nBird remains can be identified, first and foremost from feathers (which are distinctive to a particular species at both macroscopic and microscopic levels).\n\nSection::::Disciplines.:Forensic odontology.\n\nOdontologists or dentists can be used in order to aid in an identification of degraded remains. Remains that have been buried for a long period or which have undergone fire damage often contain few clues to the identity of the individual. Tooth enamel, as the hardest substance in the human body, often endures and as such odontologists can in some circumstances compare recovered remains to dental records.\n\nSection::::Disciplines.:Forensic pathology.\n", "BULLET::::- Owen described the species now known as \"Eretmosaurus rugosus\" and \"Microcleidus homalospondylus\".\n\nBULLET::::- Seeley described the species now known as \"Microcleidus macropterus\".\n\nBULLET::::- Owen described the species now known as \"Archaeonectrus rostratus\".\n\n1867\n", "BULLET::::- O’Connor \"et al.\" (2018) propose criteria for identifying medullary bone in fossils, and report probable medullary bone from a pengornithid enantiornithine specimen from the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation (China).\n\nBULLET::::- A specimen of \"Archaeorhynchus spathula\" with extensive soft tissue preservation, revealing a tail morphology previously unknown in Mesozoic birds and an exceptional occurrence of fossilized lung tissue, is described from the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation (China) by Wang \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the morphology of the braincase of the phytosaur \"Wannia scurriensis\" is published by Lessner & Stocker (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- A description of the morphology of the sacrum of \"Smilosuchus adamanensis\" is published by Griffin \"et al.\" (2017).\n\nSection::::Other reptiles.\n\nSection::::Other reptiles.:Research.\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the red blood cell size in fossil tetrapods, especially archosauromorph reptiles and synapsids, as indicated by bone microstructure, is published by Huttenlocker & Farmer (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the morphological and histological features of the skeleton that can be used to determine maturity in diplodocid sauropods is published by Woodruff, Fowler & Horner (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- Five partial vertebrae of a subadult specimen of \"Barosaurus\" are described from the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) Morrison Formation (the Carnegie Quarry of Dinosaur National Monument; Utah, United States) by Hanik, Lamanna & Whitlock (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- Polcyn, M.J. and Everhart, M.J. 2008. Description and phylogenetic analysis of a new species of Selmasaurus (Mosasauridae: Plioplatecarpinae) from the Niobrara Chalk of western Kansas. Proceedings of the Second Mosasaur Meeting, Fort Hays Studies Special Issue 3, Fort Hays State University, Hays, Kansas, pp. 13–28.\n", "BULLET::::- Description of the anatomy of partially articulated forelimbs and isolated forelimb bones of \"Drepanosaurus\" recovered from the Late Triassic (Norian) Hayden Quarry (Chinle Formation) of New Mexico, USA is published by Pritchard \"et al.\" (2016).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the femoral and tibial histology of the rhynchosaur \"Stenaulorhynchus stockleyi\" is published by Werning & Nesbitt (2016).\n", "From the 1980s onwards, in Alaska more than six thousand bones of hadrosaurid dinosaurs have been uncovered, at the Colville River. They were found north of Umiat in the Liscomb bonebed. At first they were identified as belonging to some member of the Lambeosaurinae. Later, they were referred to \"Edmontosaurus\", more specifically \"Edmontosaurus regalis\", a member of the Saurolophinae. A definite identification was hampered by the fact that most of the bones were of juveniles. In 2014, Hirotsugu Mori solved this problem by statistically determining size classes within the fossil material and comparing the Alaskan bones with known \"Edmontosaurus annectens\" specimens of the same size. He concluded that they represented two separate species.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the forelimb posture of four articulated specimens of \"Chilesaurus diegosuarezi\" from the Late Jurassic Toqui Formation (Chile) is published by Chimento \"et al.\" (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- Closely associated theropod and probable hadrosaur eggs are described from the Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) St. Mary River Formation (Montana, United States) by Jackson & Varricchio (2017), who name a new theropod ootaxon \"Tetonoolithus nelsoni\".\n\nSection::::Birds.\n\nSection::::Birds.:Research.\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the method allowing estimation of wing loading and aspect ratio in Mesozoic birds and on flight modes that were possible for Mesozoic birds is published by Serrano \"et al.\" (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- A femur of a very large specimen of \"\"Struthio\" dmanisensis\" is described from the Early Pleistocene of the Crimean Peninsula by Zelenkov \"et al.\" (2019), who transfer this species to the genus \"Pachystruthio\" and estimate body mass of this species.\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the microstructure of the bones of \"Vegavis iaai\" is published by Garcia Marsà, Agnolín & Novas (2019).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the nature of the fluvial systems of Laramidia during the Late Cretaceous, as indicated by data from vertebrate and invertebrate fossils from the Kaiparowits Formation of southern Utah, and on the behavior of hadrosaurid dinosaurs over these landscapes, will be published by Crystal \"et al.\" (2019).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the osteology and phylogenetic relationships of \"\"Tanius laiyangensis\"\" is published by Zhang \"et al.\" (2019).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the bone histology of tibiae of \"Maiasaura peeblesorum\", focusing on the composition, frequency and cortical extent of localized vascular changes, is published by Woodward (2019).\n", "BULLET::::- NC State Paleontologist Discovers Soft Tissue In Dinosaur Bones, March 25 2005, North Carolina State University\n\nBULLET::::- Stephanie Pappas (November 26, 2013 07:01pm ET) – Controversial T. Rex Soft Tissue Find Finally Explained\n\nBULLET::::- Robert F. Service (September 13, 2017) – Defying conventional wisdom, Mary Schweitzer works to transform dinosaur paleontology into a molecular science, American Association for the Advancement of Science, (photograph Cynthia Matty-Huber)\n\nSection::::Bibliography.:W.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01600	How do voice actors match their voices perfectly to the mouths of the characters in animation movies? Do animators animate the mouth movements after the voice actors finish recording their parts?	For western animation, audio tends to be recorded first, for anime, the audio is usually recorded after the animation is complete due to differing production schedules. Note that this is no more than a rule of thumb, it does not apply to any and all cases. Akira is a notable example where the audio was recorded first. Of course, this changes with non-traditional animation. When working with 3D CGI it's generally easier to animate everything but the mouth movements then can fine tune them as needed (or even mo-cap the facial expressions) for the final product.	[ "Voice by\n\nBULLET::::- Jul Kohler (A Day in the Life of Tayo (2010) - Tayo's Christmas (2014), Thanks Gani (2018) - The Little Dinosaur Friend: Part 2 (2019)\n\nBULLET::::- Robyn Slade (A Day in the Life of Tayo (2010) - Hana's Special Day (2014)\n\nBULLET::::- Carol Tyler (Nice to Meet You Peanut (2016) - The Little Buses' Play (2016)\n", "Taylor explained the process of recording an episode in an interview with \"Animerica Magazine\"; first, the script is translated from Japanese into English, it is then adapted to fit the lip flap (movement of the mouth). Taylor said that she is the only one in the recording booth when she works, as they record each voice separately throughout each episode. Taylor added that she is often the first one to record so she has to imagine how the previous line would be said. \"Luckily, I work with a great director who helps with the interpretation of the line, matching of the lip flap, and consistency of the voice,\" she said.\n", "Section::::Concept and creation.:Voice acting.\n", "Section::::Creation and conception.:Voice actors.\n", "Section::::Voice acting by country.:United States.\n\nIn television and radio commercials and movie trailers, voice actors are often recruited through voice acting agencies. Ernie Anderson, David Mark, Don LaFontaine, Miguel Ferrer, Billy West, Ashton Smith and others have made careers in this field.\n\nSection::::Voice acting by country.:Brazil.\n", "Section::::Voice actors.\n", "\"When I was writing \"Animal Crackers\" I had specific voices in my head. Certain characters I wrote with actors in mind. Horatio was always Sir Ian McKellen. Brock was totally Patrick Warburton. Bullet-Man could be no one else but Stallone! To find out that each and every one of these actors have agreed to come on board this film and bring these characters to life... I'm flipping out,\" said Sava.\n", "Timing is important for the animators drawing these frames; each frame must match exactly what is going on in the soundtrack at the moment the frame will appear, or else the discrepancy between sound and visual will be distracting to the audience. For example, in high-budget productions, extensive effort is given in making sure a speaking character's mouth matches in shape the sound that character's actor is producing as he or she speaks.\n", "Section::::Production.:Casting.\n\nBluth described the process of voice casting as \"sometimes you can select a 'name' voice [i.e., a well-known actor] because it fits the essence of the character so well. Other times, you need to seek an obscure voice, close your eyes, and just listen to it. If it has the highs and lows in the deliverance of lines and it captures the focus of the character, it allows the animators to get a true fix on the action.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Glasser (Fievel) was discovered by accident when Bluth and his crew overheard him auditioning for an Oscar Mayer commercial.\n", "Voice actors interviewed in this DVD are:\n\nVoice actors featured in sample clips, except:\n\nBULLET::::- Todd Haberkorn as Kimihiro Watanuki in \"xxxHOLiC\"\n\nBULLET::::- Keith Ferguson as Bloo in \"Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phil LaMarr as Wilt in \"Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends\"\n\nSection::::Casting directors and producers.\n\nProducers and casting directors interviewed are:\n\nBULLET::::- Sean Akins\n\nBULLET::::- Jason DeMarco\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Fletcher\n\nBULLET::::- Norman J. Grossfeld\n\nBULLET::::- Sean Molyneaux\n\nBULLET::::- John O'Donnell\n\nBULLET::::- Kaeko Sakamoto\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Seymour\n\nSection::::Workshops.\n", "For live action production, voice acting often involves reading the parts of computer programs (Douglas Rain; Majel Barrett), radio dispatchers (Shaaron Claridge), or characters who never actually appear on screen but who give instructions by telephone (John Forsythe in \"Charlie's Angels\"), or mailed recording (Bob Johnson in \"\"). \"Stunt double\" voice actors are sometimes employed; if a voice actor or actress loses his or her voice, someone who sounds similar can step in. For example, when Jeremy Irons' vocal cords became strained during the recording of \"The Lion King\" song \"Be Prepared\", Jim Cummings was called in to finish the song.\n", "Producers and agencies are on the look out for many styles of voices such as booming voices, which may be perfect for more dramatic productions or cute, young sounding voices that are perfect for trendier markets.\n\nSome just sound like regular, natural, everyday people and all of these voices have their place in the Voiceover world, provided they are used correctly and in the right context.\n\nSection::::Types.:Narration.\n", "Zarak's voice is supplied by Stan Jones. Scorponok speaks only one line of dialogue - \"Autobots! Die!\" - provided by Stephen Keener.\n\nSection::::Transformers: Generation 1.:Animated series.:Transformers: Headmasters.\n", "Voicelugger\n\nSection::::Story.\n\nThe evil of the planet seeks to use the of four children to control , but his plans are foiled by Voicelugger Gold who takes the children to Earth. Years later, the now grown up children use the power of the Voistones to fight the Muon Empire and protect the Earth.\n\nSection::::Characters.\n\nSection::::Characters.:The Voiceluggers.\n\nBULLET::::- A fan of tokusatsu series of the 1970s, particularly \"Kamen Rider\". She is the first to remember the events on Tsedua.\n\nBULLET::::- She had been living in Los Angeles. She does not remember much about Tsedua, but her memory is slowly returning.\n", "BULLET::::- Lyon Smith (Corey Riffin from \"Grojband\", Rally from \"The Adventures of Chuck and Friends\")\n\nBULLET::::- Matt Smith\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Smith\n\nBULLET::::- Ruby Smith-Merovitz (Nanette Manoir from \"Angela Anaconda\")\n\nBULLET::::- David Sobolov (Drax the Destroyer in \"Guardians of the Galaxy\")\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Soles\n\nBULLET::::- Shoshana Sperling (Mrs. Melba from \"Ella the Elephant\")\n", "Section::::Notable Character TDs.:Jason Osipa.\n\nAn EA and LucasArts Character TD Known for pioneering and disseminating (through his book \"\") a type of facial-rigging that did not rely on phonemes and pre-built expressions, but rather the blending of more generic poses using simplified controls often referred to as Osipa-Style controls.\n\nSection::::Notable Character TDs.:Jason Schleifer.\n\nA Weta and Dreamworks Creature TD Known for his video series \"Animator Friendly Rigging\", wherein he discusses techniques for building complex rigging control systems that are intuitive and easy to use (thus the term \"Animator Friendly\").\n\nSection::::Notable Character TDs.:Dick Walsh.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Little Prince\" (2016) - Production Designer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Boxtrolls\" (2014) - Additional Character Designer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paperman\" (2012) - Visual Development Artist\n\nBULLET::::- \"ParaNorman\" (2012) - Thanks\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2012) - voice of Alfredo Linguini\n\nBULLET::::- \"Up\" (2009) - Art Director: Lighting\n\nBULLET::::- \"Your Friend the Rat\" (2007) - voice of Alfredo Linguini\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ratatouille\" (2007) - voice of Alfredo Linguini\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wilbur\" (2007-2008) - Ramoni, Ray (singing)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cars\" (2006) - voice of Snot Rod\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jack-Jack Attack\" (2005) - Art Director: Lighting\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Incredibles\" (2004) - Production Designer, voice of Bernie Kropp\n", "Section::::Secondary characters.:Masako Masako.\n\nVoiced by: Lex Woutas\n\nTokyo's most beloved red-carpet fashion critic in \"Battle of the Bands\", her first appearance, and motherly talk show host in \"Script Assassin\". Her voice is low enough to be voiced by a man, which is indeed the case. She appears again as a news correspondent in \"The Karaoke Episode: Part II\".\n\nLex Woutas has a more prominent role in \"Three Delivery\" as the villain, Kong Li.\n\nSection::::Secondary characters.:The Chums.\n", "BULLET::::- Millie Davis – Daisy Wheel Doozer\n\nBULLET::::- Jacob Ewaniuk – Spike Doozer\n\nBULLET::::- Lisa Norton as Peg Bolt and Pinball Gimbal\n\nBULLET::::- Jenna Warren – Molly Bolt Doozer\n\nThe voice director is Merle Ann Ridley.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "From puppeteer Mark Ritts: \"I taped the puppet bits separately, perhaps a half dozen at a time, on a day when the main cast was off learning their lines. So I don't remember even meeting them ... Krikles's voice was a simple, light character voice that I have used years, variously adapted, for a string of characters, including Storytime's \"Kino\" (PBS). Zornad's voice was a bit of a steal from a favorite comic of mine who used to be a regular on the old Steve Allen Show—Dayton Allen, whose signature line was \"Whyyyyy not??!\"\"\n", "BULLET::::- David Castaneda: lighting\n\nBULLET::::- Nikolay Levin: sets\n\nBULLET::::- Deb O: costumes\n\nBULLET::::- Gwen Orel: dramaturg\n\nBULLET::::- Matthew Tennie: projection\n\nBULLET::::- Seth Bedford: music\n\nBULLET::::- Peculiar Works Project: archival video\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Holsopple: sound\n\nBULLET::::- Marte Johanne Ekhoougen: props\n\nBULLET::::- Cathy Carlton: production associate/swing actor\n\nSet and light crew included: Christoper Hurt, Janet Bryant, Dror Shnayer, Diana Byrne, Tricia Byrne, and Skip LaPlante.\n\nSection::::Production details.:Theatrical runs.:Details of 2010 theatrical run.:Cast (in order of speaking).\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Kopit: Frank, Bill\n\nBULLET::::- Derek Jamison: Davis, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Catherine Porter: Ann, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Hurt: Wardell, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Glickfield: Sam, Congressman Bagehot\n", "BULLET::::- 2010: \"\": French voice of adult Ray\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: \"Allez raconte !\" directed by Jean-Christophe Roger: Éric\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: \"Animals United\": French voice of Billy the Meerkat\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: \"Émilie Jolie\" directed by Francis Nielsen and Philippe Chatel: voices of Belzébuth and Prince Charming\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: \"\" : French voice of Sid\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: \"Sammy's Great Escape\" directed by Ben Stassen : French voice of adult Ray\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: \"The Mansions of the Gods\" directed by Alexandre Astier : voice of the chief of the Roman cohort\n\nSection::::Voice Work.:Television.\n\nSection::::Voice Work.:Television.:Series.\n", "Christian Hoffman, the film's character supervisor, said that all of the details in Mama Coco's face were not modeled. Instead, his team used special software to design separate layers of detail, which were then added to her face with a shader. The character's model was made with higher resolution to get all the wrinkles right, according to Hoffman. Pixar used some Xolo dogs to use as reference for the character Dante, while a tentacle from \"Finding Dory\"'s Hank was used for his tongue.\n", "The puppeteer might speak in the role of the puppet's character, synchronising the movements of the puppet's \"mouth\". However, there is much puppetry which does not use the moving mouth (which is a lip-sync innovation created originally for television where close-up \"headshots\" are popular). Often, in theatre, a moveable mouth is used only for gestural expression, or speech might be produced by a non-moving mouth. In traditional glove puppetry often one puppeteer will operate two puppets at a time out of a cast of several.\n\nMuch work is produced without any speech at all with all the emphasis on movement\n", "BULLET::::- Joanne Vannicola (One from \"Seven Little Monsters\", Claude from \"Timothy Goes to School\", Koji Karakuchi from \"Medabots\", Johnny McGregor and Doctor K from \"Beyblade\", Willy Zilla from \"My Dad the Rock Star\", Kajetan from \"Wunderkind Little Amadeus\", Maurcho from \"Bakugan Battle Brawlers\", Huckle from \"Busytown Mysteries\", Puppy/Woofster 3.0 from \"Super Why!\", Toot from \"Toot & Puddle\", Biggs from \"The Adventures of Chuck and Friends\", Jake from \"Crash Canyon\")\n\nBULLET::::- John Vernon\n" ]	[ "Voice actors must match their words to the action on screen." ]	[ "Most time s the audio is recorded first and then the CGI is done to make it look realistic. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Voice actors must match their words to the action on screen." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most time s the audio is recorded first and then the CGI is done to make it look realistic. " ]
2018-02216	why train rail tracks have rocks between them	They don't just have rocks between them, they have rocks under them. The rails sit on thick wooden blocks called "ties". The ties are set into gravel which allows water to drain while supporting the enormous weight of the train without shifting. They spread out the weight so the rest of the ground can support it.	[ "BULLET::::- CSX offered to allow NJ Transit use of the ROW if the agency constructed sound barriers along the entire length of track for commuter operations.\n", "British Rail conducted research, in 1976, to determine the suitability of Sandite for use as an adhesion improver.\n\nSection::::Application.\n\nSandite is usually applied by a special train which first clears fallen leaves from the rails using high-pressure water, then sprays the sandite onto the rail surface. To assist the staff on the Sandite train in locating the sites concerned, in England and Wales black on yellow lineside markers were installed:\n\nBULLET::::- The first sign, with three stripes gives advance warning of a Sandite application site\n\nBULLET::::- The second sign, with two stripes points where application should begin\n", "BULLET::::- providing consolidated ballast around the sides of the sleepers to provide additional friction\n\nBULLET::::- heating the rails when they are installed and fastened in cool or cold weather, so that the expansion on the hottest days is less than otherwise\n\nBULLET::::- making sure that any rail added if rail breaks during cold weather is removed before warm weather returns.\n\nBULLET::::- making sure that curves do not line themselves inward during cold weather sufficiently to make buckling more likely when warm weather returns\n", "BULLET::::- taking precautions when track maintenance work is performed in hot weather, and making sure ballast is sufficiently consolidated before full-speed operation is resumed.\n", "In the UK, the cess is used by track repair crews to walk to a work site, and as a safe place to stand when a train is passing. This helps when doing minor work, while needing to keep trains running, by not needing a Hi-railer or transport vehicle blocking the line to transport crew to get to the site.\n\nSection::::Bed and foundation.\n", "The joint where the ends of two rails are connected to each other is the weakest part of a rail line. The earliest iron rails were joined by a simple fishplate or bar of metal bolted through the web of the rail. Stronger methods of joining two rails together have been developed. When sufficient metal is put into the rail joint, the joint is almost as strong as the rest of the rail length. The noise generated by trains passing over the rail joints, described as \"the clickity clack of the railroad track\", can be eliminated by welding the rail sections together. Continuously welded rail has a uniform top profile even at the joints.\n", "The ballast was usually some locally available mineral product, such as gravel or reject material from coal and iron mining activities. The Great North of Scotland Railway used river gravel – round pebbles. In later years the ash from steam engines was used and slag (a by-product of steel making).\n\nSection::::Gauges.\n\nSection::::Gauges.:Early track gauges.\n", "BULLET::::- The first major application of train tracks was given in the original 1992 paper of Bestvina and Handel where train tracks were introduced. The paper gave a proof of the \"Scott conjecture\" which says that for every automorphism \"α\" of a finitely generated free group \"F\" the fixed subgroup of \"α\" is free of rank at most \"n\".\n", "Railroad land grants split the land surrounding the area where train tracks were to be laid into a checkerboard pattern. The land was already divided into 640-acre numbered sections according to the Public Land Survey System; odd-numbered plots were given to private railroad companies and the federal government kept even-numbered plots.\n", "Guard rail (rail)\n\nIn rail transport use, guard rails or check rails are placed parallel to regular running rail along areas of restricted clearance, such as a bridge, trestle, tunnel, or level crossing. These have the effect of keeping the wheels of rolling stock in alignment in case of derailment. It also helps to minimize damage to the structure and allow easier post-accident cleanup.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Railroad construction.\n\nSection::::Railroad construction.:Asylum Railroad.\n", "The shape of the ballast is also important. Stones must be irregularly cut, with sharp edges, so that they properly interlock and grip the ties in order to fully secure them against movement; spherical stones cannot do this. In order to let the stones fully settle and interlock, speed limits are often lowered on sections of track for a period of time after new ballast has been laid.\n\nSection::::Maintenance.\n", "BULLET::::- That a stone structure would result in an unstable and high-maintenance bridge, the thick structure of which would create additional compressed wind flow around the rail tracks, resulting in a possible safety hazard for passengers and train crew.\n", "Section::::Associated features.:Rail fastenings.\n", "Section::::Associated features.:Ballast.\n\nThe track was originally laid direct on the ground, but this quickly proved unsatisfactory and some form of ballast was essential, to spread the load and to retain the track in its proper position. The natural ground is rarely strong enough to accept the loading from locomotives without excessive settlement, and a layer of ballast under the sleeper reduces the bearing pressure on the ground. The ballast surrounding the sleepers also tends to keep them in place and resists displacement.\n", "Most purchase of railway land is dictated by the free market value of the land, so that land in urban and industrial cores is often impractical to purchase and convert. Therefore, rail trails may end on the fringes of urban areas or near industrial areas and resume later, as discontinuous portions of the same rail line, separated by unaffordable or inappropriate land.\n", "One effect that can cause crack propagation is the presence of water and other liquids. When a fluid fills a small crack and a train passes over, the water becomes trapped in the void and can expand the crack tip. Also, the trapped fluid could freeze and expand or initiate the corrosion process.\n\nParts of a rail where defects can be found:\n\nBULLET::::- head\n\nBULLET::::- web\n\nBULLET::::- foot\n\nBULLET::::- switchblades\n\nBULLET::::- welds\n\nBULLET::::- bolt holes\n", "The welded track was to be laid on six to twelve inches (15 to 30 centimetres) of crushed stone ballast, although this was not always achieved, and the bearing capacity of the formation was not always taken into account, leading to some spectacular formation failures.\n", "Redstone granite can be found in many old station buildings of the Boston & Maine Railroad. In its heyday, the quarry at Redstone had more than twenty derricks in operation. Huge slabs of red, pink, or green granite were shipped near and far with the Boston & Maine railroad, whose cars went directly into the quarry for loading. You could say the growth of the quarry matched the growth of the railroad line, as each new train station was built with Redstone granite.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2006, CSX installed a full flange-bearing diamond at Shelby, Ohio, the first application of this technology on a North American freight railroad. In 2008, BNSF Railway installed two such diamonds at Moorhead, Minnesota. Both installations are currently under FRA-mandated inspection, as described above.\n\nSection::::Results.\n", "Section::::Twentieth century and beyond.:Long welded rails.\n", "Palmer wrote in the study presenting his system: \"the charge of carrying the raw material to the manufacturing district, and the manufactured article to the market, forming no small proportion of its price to the consumer.[...] The leading problem in our present subject is, to convey any given quantity of weight between two points at the least possible expense.[...] In order to retain a perfectly smooth and hard surface, unencumbered with extraneous obstacles to which the rails near the ground are exposed, \"it appeared desirable to elevate the surface from the reach of those obstacles and at the same time be released from the impediments occasioned by snows in the winter season.\"\"\n", "Rail trail conversions can be complex for legal, social, and economic reasons. Railroads in North America were often built with a mix of purchased land, government land grants, and easements. The land deeds can be over a hundred years old, land grants might be conditional upon continuous operation of the line, and easements may have expired, all expensive and difficult issues to determine at law.\n", "Section::::Preventive rail grinding.\n", "Where one or more of the lines meeting at the junction are multi-track, the presence of a triangular junction does introduce a number of potential conflicting moves. For this reason, where traffic is heavy, the junction may incorporate flying junctions on some, or all, or the legs of the triangle.\n\nSection::::Considerations.:For turning equipment.\n" ]	[ "Rocks are between rail tracks.", "Train rail tracks have rocks in between them." ]	[ "Rocks are under the rail tracks and are used for drainage and support.", "Train rail tracks have rocks underneath them, not so much between them. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Rocks are between rail tracks.", "Train rail tracks have rocks in between them." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Rocks are under the rail tracks and are used for drainage and support.", "Train rail tracks have rocks underneath them, not so much between them. " ]
2018-10909	if mountain ranges occur from tectonic or volcanic activity on plate boundaries, how do mountain ranges like the Urals and the Alps exist far away from any tectonic boundary?	Plates move away from faults as new plate material is created and drive to the surface. You can see this clearly in North America where there are several parallel rows of mountains. The Sierras in California are young and jagged. The Rockies are moderately jagged but are still huge. The Appalachians to the East are old and well worn down, since they were created much earlier.	[ "The erosion of the mountains exposed numerous mineral resources e.g. silver and iron ore in the Harz as well as copper (the Rammelsberg is a type locality for SEDEX deposits), or uranium in the Ore Mountains.\n\nEven older are the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland and the rest of the plateaux and coastal mountains in Scandinavia, which were formed about 500 million years ago.\n", "Section::::Types of mountains.:Fold mountains.\n\nWhen plates collide or undergo subduction (that is – ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros mountains.\n\nSection::::Types of mountains.:Block mountains.\n", "In the past it was believed that source area of the clastic sediments supplied to the basins was built by system of linear island elevations which were parallel to the axis of the mountain chain. Although such conceptions still remains, recent interpretations assume that material was supplied by submarine canyons from the adjacent shelf areas (e.g. Nesvačilka canyon).\n", "Section::::Dominant rocks and mountain forms.\n\nNappe or fold mountains, with their roughly parallel mountain chains, generally have a common geological age, but may consist of various types of rock. For example, in the Central Alps, granitic rocks, gneisses and metamorphic slate are found, while to the north and south, are the Limestone Alps. The Northern Limestone Alps are, in turn, followed by soft flysch mountains and the molasse zone. \n", "Mountains can also be “islands” and harbors of paleoendemism because species that live on mountain peaks are geographically isolated. For example, in the Maritime Alps, \"Saxifraga florulenta\", is an endemic plant that evolved in the Late Miocene and was once widespread across the Mediterranean Basin. Additionally, Piper’s bellflower (\"Campanula piperi\") in the Olympic Mountains in Northern Washington is suspected to be a paleoendemic because the closest related species is located over 1,000 km away. Another example is \"Stroganowia tiehmii\" which is endemic to a single mountain range in Nevada and all other members of the genus are in Central Asia.\n", "Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys. Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types.\n\nSection::::Major ranges.\n", "Many of the intermontane plains, occurring mostly in the north, appear to be heavily aggraded with mountain waste. Others, mostly in the south, are valleys also heavily aggraded by mountain erosion. The structure of the region previous to faulting was dependent on long antecedent processes of accumulation and deformation and the surface of the region then was dependent on the amount of erosion suffered in the prefaulting cycle.\n", "Lifted type block mountains have two steep sides exposing both sides scarps, leading to the horst and graben terrain seen in various parts of Europe including the Upper Rhine valley, a graben between two horsts - the Vosges mountains (in France) and the Black Forest (in Germany), and also the Rila - Rhodope Massif in Bulgaria, Southeast Europe, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain - a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.\n", "Section::::Tectonic history.\n\nIn the Late Paleozoic, when the Cimmerian blocks were still located on the northern margin of Gondwana, they were far away from any active margins and orogenic belts, but they had been affected by thermal subsidence since the Siluran opening of Paleo-Tethys. Carboniferous to Permian ophiolites along suture zones in Tibet and north-eastern Iran indicate that the active margin of Paleo-Tethys was located here.\n", "According to the \"Handbook of Natural Region Divisions of Germany\", the Alpine Foreland is commonly subdivided into three natural regions:\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Alpine Foreland:\n\nBULLET::::- Iller-Lech Plateau (D64) south of the Swabian Jura range\n\nBULLET::::- Lower Bavarian Upland (D65) south of the Franconian Jura and Bavarian Forest (Bohemian Massif)\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Alpine Foreland (D66) at the foot of the Northern Limestone Alps\n", "One-quarter of the Soviet Union consisted of mountains or mountainous terrain. With the significant exceptions of the Ural Mountains and the mountains of eastern Siberia, the mountains occupy the southern periphery of the Soviet Union. The Urals, because they have traditionally been considered the natural boundary between Europe and Asia and because they are valuable sources of minerals, were the most famous of the country's nine major ranges. In terms of elevation (comparable to the Appalachians) and vegetation, however, they are far from impressive, and they do not serve as a formidable natural barrier.\n\nSection::::Topography and drainage.:Alpine terrain.\n", "The range is being continually built up and decreasing in width by mountain building, accommodating the compression from alpine folding as the main Alpine orogenic front moves roughly northwards. The deformation becomes less pervasive away from the younger, more active Alpine mountain building.\n", "Mountain formation\n\nMountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates). Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building. The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the geological structures found on it.\n\nThe understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called \"tectonic geomorphology\", and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called \"neotectonics\".\n", "Section::::Rivers and lakes.\n", "An example of this is the Sierra Nevada Range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.\n\nAnother good example is the Rila - Rhodope mountain Massif in Bulgaria, Southeast Europe, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain - a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.\n", "Elongated mountain chains occur most frequently in the orogeny of fold mountains, (that are folded by lateral pressure), and nappe belts (where a sheetlike body of rock has been pushed over another rock mass). Other types of range such as horst ranges, fault block mountain or truncated uplands rarely form parallel mountain chains. However, if a truncated upland is eroded into a high table land, the incision of valleys can lead to the formations of mountain or hill chains.\n\nSection::::Formation of parallel mountain chains.\n", "In relation to the total age of the Earth, which is about 4,500 million years, the rocks of the Mieminger Mountains come mainly from two relatively small windows of time. One of these began about 250 million years ago and ended 130 million years ago (during the Triassic and Jurassic Periods), whilst the second window is the last 10,000 years since the end of the Würm glaciation (part of the Cenozoic). There are no older rocks that predate those from in the first window, and the more recent ones have been eroded by wind, weather and water since the Alpine orogeny about 35 million years ago.\n", "Mountain ranges are known to take many millions of years to erode to the degree they effectively cease to exist. Scholars Pitman and Golovchenko estimate that it takes probably more than 450 million years to erode a mountain mass similar to the Himalaya into an almost-flat peneplain if there are no major sea-level changes. Erosion of mountains massifs can create a pattern of equally high summits called summit accordance. It has been argued that extension during post-orogenic collapse is a more effective mechanism of lowering the height of orogenic mountains than erosion.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "An orogeny is underway when mountains begin to grow in the collision zone. There are other modes of mountain formation and orogeny but certainly continental collision is one of the most important. Rainfall and snowfall increase on the mountains as these rise, perhaps at a rate of a few millimeters per year (at a growth rate of 1 mm/year, a 5,000 m tall mountain can form in 5 million years, a time period that is less than 10% of the life of a typical collision zone). River systems form, and glaciers may grow on the highest peaks. Erosion accelerates as the mountains rise, and great volumes of sediment are shed into the rivers, which carry sediment away from the mountains to be deposited in sedimentary basins in the surrounding lowlands. Crustal rocks are thrust faulted over the sediments and the mountain belt broadens as it rises in height. A crustal root also develops, as required by isostasy; mountains can be high if underlain by thicker crust. Crustal thickening may happen as a result of crustal shortening or when one crust overthrusts the other. Thickening is accompanied by heating, so the crust becomes weaker as it thickens. The lower crust begins to flow and collapse under the growing mountain mass, forming rifts near the crest of the mountain range. The lower crust may partially melt, forming anatectic granites which then rise into the overlying units, forming granite intrusions. Crustal thickening provides one of two negative feedbacks on mountain growth in collision zones, the other being erosion. The popular notion that erosion is responsible for destroying mountains is only half correct - viscous flow of weak lower mantle also reduces relief with time, especially once the collision is complete and the two continents are completely sutured. Convergence between the continents continues because the crust is still being pulled down by oceanic lithosphere sinking in the subduction zone to either side of the collision as well as beneath the impinging continent. \n", "Cenozoic eclogites do occur in the Penninic nappes, which contain material that has been through blueschist or eclogite facies. These nappes show a Barrovian field gradient. This type of metamorphism can only occur when a rock is in pressure–temperature conditions that normally occur in the Earth's mantle. This means the Penninic nappes consist of material that was subducted into the mantle and was later obducted onto the crust.\n\nAlpine (Cenozoic) contact- or Buchan metamorphism is rare in the Alps, because intrusions are rare.\n\nSection::::Tectonic history.\n", "The southernmost persistent glacial masses in Europe are mainly small glaciers, glacierets, and perennial firn fields and patches, located in the highest mountains of the three big southern European peninsulas - the Balkan, the Apennine, and the Iberian, with the exception of the glaciers in the southernmost ranges of the Alps and the much bigger glaciers on the european northwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountains in Russia. There are summer lasting snow patches in Sierra Nevada (Corral de la Veleta glacier (37°03′24″) disappeared completely for a first time in 1913), in Mount Olympus (40°05′08″) (Kazania cirque), in Mount Korab (41°47′28″), in Rila Mountain (the cirque of the Seven Rila Lakes, Musala and Malyovitsa (42°10′25″) ridges), in Picos de Europa (43°11′51″) in the Cantabrian Mountains, in Mount Maglić (43°16′52″) and others. However, none of them have both persistency and indications of dynamic motion. In southern direction, some 4000 km away, are the glaciers in Africa in Rwenzori Mountains (00°23′09″N), Mount Kenya (00°09′03″S) and Mount Kilimanjaro (03°04′33″S).\n", "An orogeny produces an \"orogen\", but a (mountain) range-\"foreland basin\" system is only produced on passive plate margins. The \"foreland basin\" forms ahead of the orogen due mainly to loading and resulting flexure of the lithosphere by the developing mountain belt. A typical foreland basin is subdivided into a wedge-top basin above the active orogenic wedge, the foredeep immediately beyond the active front, a forebulge high of flexural origin and a back-bulge area beyond, although not all of these are present in all foreland-basin systems. The basin migrates with the orogenic front and early deposited foreland basin sediments become progressively involved in folding and thrusting. Sediments deposited in the foreland basin are mainly derived from the erosion of the actively uplifting rocks of the mountain range, although some sediments derive from the foreland. The fill of many such basins shows a change in time from deepwater marine (\"flysch\"-style) through shallow water to continental (\"molasse\"-style) sediments.\n", "Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, creating characteristic recumbent folds, or \"nappes\", and thrust faults. As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger nappes (folds) as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse. The molasse regions in Switzerland and Bavaria were well-developed and saw further upthrusting of flysch.\n", "Although the fold mountains, chain mountains and nappe belts around the world were formed at different times in the earth's history, all during their initial mountain building phases, they are nevertheless morphologically similar. Harder rock forms continuous arêtes or ridges that follow the strike of the beds and folds. The mountain chains or ridges therefore run approximately parallel to one another. They are only interrupted by short, usually narrow, transverse valleys, which often form water gaps. During the course of earth history, erosion by water, ice and wind carried away the highest points of the mountain crests and carved out individual summits or summit chains. Between them, notches were formed that, depending on altitude and rock-type, form knife-edged cols or gentler mountain passes and saddles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03641	Why do eggs only have that egg smell when they are hard boiled?	It’s actually only if they are boiled too long or too high. Do the quick boil — > reduce heat — > cover and steam for 10-15 minutes thing. Problem solved and no green yolks! edit: Didn’t really explain! When iron from the yolk reacts with hydrogen sulfide from the whites, it creates a sulfury smell because of the ferrous sulfide that builds up. Also, it’s why it turns green then gray.	[ "BULLET::::- Sous vide: Rather than cooking in boiling water, boiled eggs can be made by cooking/coddling in their shell \"sous vide\" in hot water at steady temperatures anywhere from . It turns out that the outer egg white cooks at and the yolk and the rest of the white sets from .\n", "BULLET::::- Vinegar: Some add vinegar to the water (as is sometimes done with poached eggs) to prevent the white from billowing in case of cracking. For this purpose, table salt can also be used.\n", "BULLET::::- Cooling: After eggs are removed from heat, some cooking continues to occur, particularly of the yolk, due to residual heat, a phenomenon called carry over cooking, also seen in roast meat. For this reason some allow eggs to cool in air or plunge them into cold water as the final stage of preparation. If time is limited, adding a few cubes of ice will quickly reduce the temperature for easy handling.\n", "Once the liquid has mostly set, additional ingredients such as ham, herbs, cheese or cream may be folded in over low heat until incorporated. The eggs are usually slightly undercooked when removed from heat, since the eggs will continue to set. If any liquid is seeping from the eggs (syneresis), this is a sign of undercooking, overcooking or adding undercooked high-moisture vegetables.\n", "The words of William Gilson Farlow, published in 1890, serve as a warning to those who might be inclined to consume \"Clathrus columnatus\": \"The odor of fully grown specimens of the order Phalloidea is so repulsive that the question as to their poisonous character when eaten by men has not often been the subject of experiment.\" Farlow described two cases of poisoning, one involving a young girl \"who ate a small piece of the fungus, and was seized with violent convulsions followed by loss of speech and a deep sleep lasting 52 hours\"; the other case involved hogs that ate the fungus found in patches in oak woods, and died 12–15 hours later. Despite this early report of poisoning, Orson K. Miller, Jr. notes that the taste of the egg is mild, and lists the species as edible.\n", "Although the age of the egg and the conditions of its storage have a greater influence, the bird's diet affects the flavor of the egg. For example, when a brown-egg chicken breed eats rapeseed (canola) or soy meals, its intestinal microbes metabolize them into fishy-smelling triethylamine, which ends up in the egg. The unpredictable diet of free-range hens will produce likewise, unpredictable egg flavors. Duck eggs tend to have a flavor distinct from, but still resembling, chicken eggs.\n", "Poached egg\n\nA poached egg is an egg that has been cooked, outside the shell, by poaching (or sometimes steaming), as opposed to simmering or boiling liquid. This method of preparation is favored for eggs, as it can yield more delicately cooked eggs than cooking at higher temperatures such as with boiling water.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Hard-boiled eggs should be used within two hours if kept at room temperature or can be used for a week if kept refrigerated and in the shell.\n", "Heavy metals were used to speed up the process to turn more profit for less time and artificially increase the quality of the preserved egg. It was an unscrupulous practice in some small factories but it became rampant in China and forced many honest manufacturers to label their boxes \"Lead Free\" after the scandal went mainstream in 2013. Many production factories in China were using industrial quality copper sulphate which was contaminated with arsenic, lead, cadmium, and other heavy metals and toxic chemicals, to make eggs more translucent, lessen odor, provide smoother texture and encourage faster curing.\n", "Section::::Peeling.\n", "Hard-boiled eggs are boiled long enough for the yolk to solidify. They can be eaten warm or cold. Hard-boiled eggs are the basis for many dishes, such as egg salad, Cobb salad and Scotch eggs, and may be further prepared as deviled eggs.\n", "Eggs may be soaked in mixtures to absorb flavor. Tea eggs, a common snack sold from street-side carts in China, are steeped in a brew from a mixture of various spices, soy sauce, and black tea leaves to give flavor.\n\nSection::::Culinary properties.:Storage.\n\nCareful storage of edible eggs is extremely important, as an improperly handled egg may contain elevated levels of \"Salmonella\" bacteria that may cause severe food poisoning. In the US, eggs are washed. This cleans the shell, but erodes its cuticle. The USDA thus recommends refrigerating eggs to prevent the growth of \"Salmonella\".\n", "BULLET::::- Serving temperature: Room temperature (for more even cooking and to prevent cracking) or from a refrigerator; eggs may be left out overnight to come to room temperature.\n", "In Japan, soft-boiled eggs are commonly served alongside ramen. The eggs are typically steeped in a mixture of soy sauce, mirin, and water after being boiled and peeled. This provides the egg a brownish color that would otherwise be absent from boiling and peeling the eggs alone. Once the eggs have finished steeping, they are served either in the soup or on the side.\n\nSection::::Hard-boiled eggs.\n", "If a boiled egg is overcooked, a greenish ring sometimes appears around egg yolk due to changes to the iron and sulfur compounds in the egg. It also may occur with an abundance of iron in the cooking water. Overcooking harms the quality of the protein. Chilling an overcooked egg for a few minutes in cold water until it is completely cooled may prevent the greenish ring from forming on the surface of the yolk.\n", "Boiled egg\n\nBoiled eggs are eggs, typically from a chicken, cooked with their shells unbroken, usually by immersion in boiling water. Hard-boiled eggs are cooked so that the egg white and egg yolk both solidify, while soft-boiled eggs may leave the yolk, and sometimes the white, at least partially liquid and raw. Boiled eggs are a popular breakfast food around the world.\n", "Yolks, particularly from free-range eggs, can be of a wide range of colors, ranging from nearly white, through yellow and orange, to practically red, or even olive green, depending on the pigments in their feed. Feeding fowl large amounts of capsicum peppers, for example, tends to result in red or deep orange yolks. This has nothing to do with adding colors such as cochineal to eggs in cooking.\n\nSection::::In fish.\n", "After the eggs are hard boiled, the shell is removed and they are submerged in a solution of vinegar, salt, spices, and other seasonings. Recipes vary from the traditional brine solution for pickles, to other solutions, which can impart a sweet or spicy taste.\n", "The immature egg-forms of \"Mutinus elegans\" are edible, but \"not recommended\". One field guides notes that the eggs of the stinkhorn fungi \"taste like the seasonings that are added to them.\" The fetid odor of mature specimens would probably be repellent to most, although they are not considered poisonous.\n\nSection::::Description.:Similar species.\n", "A century egg or hundred-year-old egg is preserved by coating an egg in a mixture of clay, wood ash, salt, lime, and rice straw for several weeks to several months, depending on the method of processing. After the process is completed, the yolk becomes a dark green, cream-like substance with a strong odor of sulfur and ammonia, while the white becomes a dark brown, transparent jelly with a comparatively mild, distinct flavor. The transforming agent in a century egg is its alkaline material, which gradually raises the pH of the egg from approximately 9 to 12 or more. This chemical process breaks down some of the complex, flavorless proteins and fats of the yolk into simpler, flavorful ones, which in some way may be thought of as an \"inorganic\" version of fermentation.\n", "When eggs are cooked for a long time, the yolk's surface may turn green. This color change is due to iron(II) sulfide, which forms as iron from the yolk reacts with hydrogen sulfide released from the egg white by the heat. This reaction occurs more rapidly in older eggs as the whites are more alkaline.\n", "The egg is cracked into a cup or bowl of any size, and then gently slid into a pan of water at approximately 75° C (167 °F) and cooked until the egg white has mostly solidified, but the yolk remains soft. The \"perfect\" poached egg has a runny yolk, with a hardening crust and no raw white remaining. In countries which mandate universal salmonella vaccination for hens, eating eggs with a runny yolk is perfectly safe.\n\nBroken into water at the poaching temperature, the white will cling to the yolk, resulting in cooked egg white and runny yolk.\n", "BULLET::::- Placing in water:There are various ways to place the eggs in the boiling water and remove: one may place the eggs in the pan prior to heating, lower them in on a spoon, or use a specialized cradle to lower them in. A cradle is also advocated as reducing cracking, since the eggs do not then roll around loose. To remove, one may allow the water to cool, pour off the boiling water, or remove the cradle.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Modern.\n\nEven though the traditional method is still widely practiced, modern understanding of the chemistry behind the formation of century eggs has led to many simplifications in the recipe. For instance, soaking raw eggs in a solution of table salt, calcium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate for 10 days, followed by several weeks of aging while wrapped in plastic, is said to achieve the same effect as the traditional method. This is because the reaction needed to produce century eggs is accomplished by introducing hydroxide and sodium ions into the egg, regardless of the method used.\n", "The result is very similar to the traditional coddled egg, although these steamed eggs are often cooked for longer, and hence are firmer. Eggs so prepared are often served on buttered toast.\n\nSection::::Dishes with poached eggs.\n\nPoached eggs are used in the traditional American breakfast/brunch dish Eggs Benedict.\n\nPoached eggs are the basis for many dishes in Louisiana Creole cuisine, such as Eggs Sardou, Eggs Portuguese, Eggs Hussarde and Eggs St. Charles. Creole poached egg dishes are typically served for brunches.\n" ]	[ "Eggs possess a unique smell when they are hard boiled. " ]	[ "Eggs only possess said smell when they are hard boiled for way too long, when hard boiled correctly the smell isn't there." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Eggs possess a unique smell when they are hard boiled. ", "Eggs possess a unique smell when they are hard boiled. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Eggs only possess said smell when they are hard boiled for way too long, when hard boiled correctly the smell isn't there.", "Eggs only possess said smell when they are hard boiled for way too long, when hard boiled correctly the smell isn't there." ]
2018-12816	How does an inhaler work, how is the relief so quick.	Inhalers can have different types of medications, all of which have an effect on the airways in the lungs. The typical rescue inhaler prescribed for quick and short-term relief contains albuterol. Albuterol binds to receptors on the surface of smooth muscle cells lining the small airways in the lungs causing the muscles to relax and the airways become less constricted.	[ "Section::::Other substances – deliberate.:Medical use.:Therapeutic.\n\nGases and other drugs used in anaesthesia include oxygen, nitrous oxide, helium, xenon, volatile anaesthetic agents. Medication for asthma, croup, cystic fibrosis and some other conditions.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Section::::Surfactant lipids.\n\nPhospholipids are important natural surfactant lipids used in enhancing penetration and bioavailability. Phospholipids act by reducing the high surface tension forces at the air-water interface within the alveoli, thereby reducing the pressure needed to expand the lungs, Thus, commercially available formulations of phospholipids have been designed to spread rapidly over an air-aqueous interface, thereby reducing what is otherwise a very high surface tension of water.\n\nSection::::Colours.\n\nFor ease of identification, many MDI's are colour-coded\n\nEpinephrine in the United States is brown and beclometasone is light green\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Inhaler\n\nBULLET::::- Dry powder inhaler\n\nBULLET::::- Asthma\n", "The most common type of inhaler is the pressurized metered-dose inhaler (MDI) which is made up of 3 standard components- a metal canister, plastic actuator, and a metering valve. H&T Presspart, based in Blackburn, UK, provide over 75% of the world's can and actuator components to the pharmaceutical market. The metering valve is supplied by a number of companies including Aptar and Coster. In MDIs, medication is typically stored in solution in a pressurized canister that contains a propellant, although it may also be a suspension. The MDI canister is attached to a plastic, hand-operated actuator. On activation, the metered-dose inhaler releases a fixed dose of medication in aerosol form. The correct procedure for using an MDI is to first fully exhale, place the mouth-piece of the device into the mouth, and having just started to inhale at a moderate rate, depress the canister to release the medicine. The aerosolized medication is drawn into the lungs by continuing to inhale deeply before holding the breath for 10 seconds to allow the aerosol to settle onto the walls of the bronchittus and other airways of the lung. Some inhalers are made to act instantly in case of an asthma attack, and others are made to act later.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Treatment strategies.\n", "Because of the simplicity of the Analgizer and the pharmacological characteristics of methoxyflurane, it was easy for patients to self-administer the drug and rapidly achieve a level of conscious analgesia which could be maintained and adjusted as necessary over a period of time lasting from a few minutes to several hours. The 15 milliliter supply of methoxyflurane would typically last for two to three hours, during which time the user would often be partly amnesic to the sense of pain; the device could be refilled if necessary.\n", "Nitrous oxide (NO) is itself active (does not require any changes in the body to become active), and so has an onset in roughly the lung–brain circulation time. This gives it a peak action 30 seconds after the start of administration; Entonox should thus be used accordingly, i.e. inhalation should start 30 seconds before a contraction becomes painful in labour. It is removed from the body unchanged via the lungs, and does not accumulate under normal conditions, explaining the rapid offset of around 60 seconds. It is effective in managing pain during labor and delivery.\n", "Inhaler\n\nAn inhaler (puffer or pump) is a medical device used for delivering medication into the body via the lungs. It is mainly used in the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Zanamivir, used to treat influenza, must be administered via inhaler.\n\nTo reduce deposition in the mouth and throat, and to reduce the need for precise synchronization of the start of inhalation with actuation of the device, MDIs are sometimes used with a complementary spacer or holding chamber device.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Metered-dose inhaler.\n", "Section::::Inhaler technique and use.\n\nWhile MDIs are commonly used in the treatment of lung-based disorders, their use requires dexterity to complete the required sequential steps to achieve application of these devices. Incorrect completion of one or more steps in the use of an MDI can substantially reduce the delivery of the administrated medication and consequently its effectiveness and safety. Numerous studies have demonstrated that between 50-100% of patients do not use their inhaler devices correctly, with patients often unaware that they are using their inhaled medication incorrectly. Incorrect inhaler technique has been associated with poorer outcomes.\n\nSection::::Propellants.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dry powder inhalers\" involve micronised powder often packaged in single dose quantities in blisters or gel capsules containing the powdered medication to be drawn into the lungs by the user's own breath. These systems tend to be more expensive than the MDI, and patients with severely compromised lung function, such as occurs during an asthma attack, may find it difficult to generate enough airflow to get good function from them.\n\nBULLET::::- Metered-dose inhalers can be used to treat COPD, both in stable state and during lung attacks.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Gases.\n", "BULLET::::- Phenylephrine - This drug is administered to those with hypotension post intubation as a result of lidocaine, midazolam, fentanyl, propofol, and ketamine. The dosages range from 50 to 200 μg in adults. It has quick onset and quick elimination. The common side effect is reflex bradycardia.\n\nSection::::Common medications.:Paralytics.\n", "Section::::Types.:Dry powder inhalers.\n\nDry powder inhalers (DPI) release a metered or device-measured dose of powdered medication that is inhaled through a DPI device.\n\nSection::::Types.:Nebulizers.\n\nNebulizers — supply the medication as an aerosol created from an aqueous formulation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Nasal.\n\nNasal inhalers contain decongestant drugs to relieve nasal congestion in the upper respiratory tract. The active ingredient in most decongestants is either pseudoephedrine or phenylephrine. Many are sold over-the-counter without a prescription.\n\nSection::::Propellants.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Dermot Mulroney as Paul Stanton\n\nBULLET::::- Diane Kruger as Diane Stanton\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Shepard as James Harrison\n\nBULLET::::- Jordi Mollà as Aguilar\n\nBULLET::::- Vincent Perez as Dr. Martínez\n\nBULLET::::- Rosanna Arquette as Dr. Rubin\n\nBULLET::::- Kristyan Ferrer as Miguel\n\nBULLET::::- Mia Stallard as Chloe\n\nBULLET::::- Abraham Chaidez as Luis Ruiz\n\nBULLET::::- Arlin Alcala as receptionist.\n\nSection::::Release.\n\n\"Inhale\" was featured at the Hamptons International Film Festival and had a limited wide release in the United States in October 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- Racemic Epinephrine (Asthmanefrin, Primatene Mist Replacement)\n\nBULLET::::- Ephedrine (Bronkaid)\n\nBULLET::::- Terbutaline\n\nLong-acting bronchodilators include\n\nBULLET::::- Salmeterol (Serevent or Seretide)\n\nBULLET::::- Clenbuterol (Spiropent)\n\nBULLET::::- Formoterol\n\nBULLET::::- Bambuterol\n\nBULLET::::- Indacaterol\n\nSection::::Experimental bronchodilator.\n", "Section::::Hyperbaric anaesthesia.\n", "Metered-dose inhalers are only one type of inhaler, but they are the most commonly used type. The replacement of chlorofluorocarbons propellants with hydrofluoroalkanes (HFA) resulted in the redesign of metered-dose inhalers in the 1990s. For one variety of beclomethasone inhaler, this redesign resulted in considerably smaller aerosol particles being produced, and led to an increase of potency by a factor of 2.6.\n\nBULLET::::- Asthma inhalers contain a medication that treats the symptoms of asthma.\n", "The band hit the road right out of the gate of the release of their first album, touring with many acts such as August Burns Red, The Chariot, Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, Oh Sleeper, Project 86 and more.\n", "List of medical inhalants\n\nSection::::Drugs and therapeutic agents administered by inhalation.\n\nSection::::Drugs and therapeutic agents administered by inhalation.:Inhalational anesthetic agents.\n\nBULLET::::- aliflurane\n\nBULLET::::- chloroform\n\nBULLET::::- cyclopropane\n\nBULLET::::- desflurane\n\nBULLET::::- diethyl ether\n\nBULLET::::- halothane\n\nBULLET::::- isoflurane\n\nBULLET::::- methoxyflurane\n\nBULLET::::- methoxypropane\n\nBULLET::::- nitrous oxide\n\nBULLET::::- roflurane\n\nBULLET::::- sevoflurane\n\nBULLET::::- teflurane\n\nBULLET::::- trichloroethylene\n\nBULLET::::- vinyl ether\n\nBULLET::::- xenon\n\nSection::::Drugs and therapeutic agents administered by inhalation.:Bronchodilators.\n\nBULLET::::- Arformoterol\n\nBULLET::::- Bitolterol\n\nBULLET::::- Epinephrine\n\nBULLET::::- Fenoterol\n\nBULLET::::- Formoterol\n\nBULLET::::- Ipratropium\n\nBULLET::::- Isoetharine\n\nBULLET::::- Isoproterenol\n\nBULLET::::- Levalbuterol\n\nBULLET::::- Metaproterenol\n\nBULLET::::- Pirbuterol\n\nBULLET::::- Procaterol\n\nBULLET::::- Racepinephrine (racemic epinephrine)\n\nBULLET::::- Salbutamol\n\nBULLET::::- Salmeterol\n\nBULLET::::- Terbutaline\n\nBULLET::::- Tiotropium\n", "Most general anaesthetics are induced either intravenously or by inhalation. Intravenous injection works faster than inhalation, taking about 10–20 seconds to induce total unconsciousness. This minimizes the excitatory phase (Stage 2) and thus reduces complications related to the induction of anaesthesia. Commonly used intravenous induction agents include propofol, sodium thiopental, etomidate, methohexital, and ketamine. Inhalational anaesthesia may be chosen when intravenous access is difficult to obtain (e.g., children), when difficulty maintaining the airway is anticipated, or when the patient prefers it. Sevoflurane is the most commonly used agent for inhalational induction, because it is less irritating to the tracheobronchial tree than other agents.\n", "To use the inhaler the patient presses down on the top of the canister, with their thumb supporting the lower portion of the actuator. Actuation of the device releases a single metered dose of the formulation which contains the medication either dissolved or suspended in the propellant. Breakup of the volatile propellant into droplets, followed by rapid evaporation of these droplets, results in the generation of an aerosol consisting of micrometer-sized medication particles that are then inhaled.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "BULLET::::- The abdominal muscles contract to accentuate the action of the relaxing diaphragm; simultaneously, the other expiratory muscles contract. These actions increase the pressure of air within the lungs.\n\nBULLET::::- The vocal cords relax and the glottis opens, releasing air at over 100 mph.\n\nBULLET::::- The bronchi and non-cartilaginous portions of the trachea collapse to form slits through which the air is forced, which clears out any irritants attached to the respiratory lining.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Taies Farzan\n\nBULLET::::- Narges Rashidi\n\nBULLET::::- Jasmin Wagner\n\nBULLET::::- Tina Mcervale\n\nBULLET::::- Souzan Alavi\n\nBULLET::::- Barbara Kowa\n\nBULLET::::- Marina Welsch\n\nBULLET::::- Monika Schubert\n\nBULLET::::- Daryush Shokof\n\nSection::::Art Design.\n\nBULLET::::- Daryush Shokof\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Inhale (film)\n\nInhale is a 2010 American thriller film directed by Baltasar Kormákur. It stars Dermot Mulroney and Diane Kruger.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Nitrous oxide (medication)\n\nNitrous oxide, sold under the brand name Entonox among others, is an inhaled gas used as a pain medication and together with other medications for anesthesia. Common uses include during childbirth, following trauma, and as part of end of life care. Onset of effect is typically within half a minute and lasts for about a minute.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01348	What exactly happens to a muscle when it’s pulled?	> A muscle strain, or pulled muscle, occurs when your muscle is overstretched or torn. This usually occurs as a result of fatigue, overuse, or improper use of a muscle. Strains can happen in any muscle, but they’re most common in your lower back, neck, shoulder, and hamstring, which is the muscle behind your thigh.	[ "Section::::Form.:Insertion and origin.:Insertion.\n\nThe \"insertion\" of a muscle is the structure that it attaches to and tends to be moved by the contraction of the muscle. This may be a bone, a tendon or the subcutaneous dermal connective tissue. Insertions are usually connections of muscle via tendon to bone. The insertion is a bone that tends to be distal, have less mass, and greater motion than the origin during a contraction.\n\nSection::::Form.:Muscle fibres.\n\nMuscles may also be described by the direction that the muscle fibres run in.\n", "BULLET::::6. The muscle fiber is now prepared for the next contraction.\n\nSection::::Function.:Response to exercise.\n\nThe changes that occur to the myofilament in response to exercise have long been a subject of interest to exercise physiologists and the athletes who depend on their research for the most advanced training techniques. Athletes across a spectrum of sporting events are particularly interested to know what type of training protocol will result in maximal force generation from a muscle or set of muscles, so much attention has been given to changes in the myofilament under bouts of chronic and acute forms of exercise.\n", "Section::::Testing.\n", "The \"origin\" of a muscle is the bone, typically proximal, which has greater mass and is more stable during a contraction than a muscle's insertion. For example, with the latissimus dorsi muscle, the origin site is the torso, and the insertion is the arm. When this muscle contracts, normally the arm moves due to having less mass than the torso. This is the case when grabbing objects lighter than the body, as in the typical use of a lat pull down machine. This can be reversed however, such as in a chin up where the torso moves up to meet the arm.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nWhen the muscle generates force, the sensory terminals are compressed. This stretching deforms the terminals of the Ib afferent axon, opening stretch-sensitive cation channels. As a result, the Ib axon is depolarized and fires nerve impulses that are propagated to the spinal cord. The action potential frequency signals the force being developed by 10 to 20 of the many motor units within the muscle. This is representative of whole muscle force.\n", "Each muscle in the body is supplied by one or more levels or segments of the spinal cord and by their corresponding spinal nerves. A group of muscles innervated by the motor fibres of a single nerve root is known as a myotome.\n\nSection::::Function.:List of myotomes.\n\nMyotome distributions of the upper and lower extremity are as follows;\n\nBULLET::::- C1/C2: neck flexion/extension\n\nBULLET::::- C3: neck lateral flexion\n\nBULLET::::- C4: shoulder elevation\n\nBULLET::::- C5: shoulder abduction\n\nBULLET::::- C6: elbow flexion\n\nBULLET::::- C7: elbow extension/wrist flexion/finger extension\n\nBULLET::::- C8: finger flexion\n\nBULLET::::- T1: finger abduction\n\nBULLET::::- L2: hip flexion\n\nBULLET::::- L3: knee extension\n", "An abdominal muscle strain, also called a pulled abdominal muscle, is an injury to one of the muscles of the abdominal wall. A muscle strain occurs when the muscle is stretched too far. When this occurs the muscle fibers are torn. Most commonly, a strain causes microscopic tears within the muscle, but occasionally, in severe injuries, the muscle can rupture from its attachment.\n", "In humans myotome testing can be an integral part of neurological examination as each nerve root coming from the spinal cord supplies a specific group of muscles. Testing of myotomes, in the form of isometric resisted muscle testing, provides the clinician with information about the level in the spine where a lesion may be present. During myotome testing, the clinician is looking for muscle weakness of a particular group of muscles. Results may indicate lesion to the spinal cord nerve root, or intervertebral disc herniation pressing on the spinal nerve roots.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dermatome (anatomy)\n\nBULLET::::- Somite\n\nSection::::References.\n", "\"Agonist\" muscles cause a movement to occur through their own activation. For example, the triceps brachii contracts, producing a shortening contraction, during the up phase of a push-up (elbow extension). During the down phase of a push-up, the same triceps brachii actively controls elbow flexion while producing a lengthening contraction. It is still the agonist, because while resisting gravity during relaxing, the triceps brachii continues to be the prime mover, or controller, of the joint action. Agonists are also interchangeably referred to as \"prime movers,\" since they are the muscles considered primarily responsible for generating or controlling a specific movement.\n", "Section::::Types.:Isometric contraction.\n\nAn isometric contraction of a muscle generates tension without changing length. An example can be found when the muscles of the hand and forearm grip an object; the joints of the hand do not move, but muscles generate sufficient force to prevent the object from being dropped.\n\nSection::::Types.:Isotonic contraction.\n\nIn isotonic contraction, the tension in the muscle remains constant despite a change in muscle length. This occurs when a muscle's force of contraction matches the total load on the muscle.\n\nSection::::Types.:Isotonic contraction.:Concentric contraction.\n", "Muscle action that moves the axial skeleton work over a joint with an origin and insertion of the muscle on respective side. The insertion is on the bone deemed to move towards the origin during muscle contraction. Muscles are often present that engage in several actions of the joint; able to perform for example both flexion and extension of the forearm as in the biceps and triceps respectively. This is not only to be able to revert actions of muscles, but also brings on stability of the actions though muscle coactivation.\n\nSection::::Muscles.:Agonist and antagonist muscles.\n", "Pennate muscles, in which the muscle fibers are oriented at an angle to the line of action, typically have two aponeuroses. Muscle fibers connect one to the other, and each aponeurosis thins into a tendon which attaches to bone at the origin or insertion site.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nLike tendons, aponeuroses attached to pennate muscles can be stretched by the forces of muscular contraction, absorbing energy like a spring and returning it when they recoil to unloaded conditions. Also serving as an origin or insertion site for certain muscles e.g latissimus dorsi.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aponeurosis of the obliquus externus abdominis\n", "A muscle that fixes or holds a bone so that the agonist can carry out the intended movement is said to have a neutralising action. A good famous example of this are the hamstrings; the semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles perform knee flexion and knee internal rotation whereas the biceps femoris carries out knee flexion and knee external rotation. For the knee to flex while not rotating in either direction, all three muscles contract to stabilize the knee while it moves in the desired way.\n\nSection::::Actions of skeletal muscle.:Neutralizer Action.:Composite muscle.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Quantification.\n\nA CT scan can distinguish muscle tissue from other tissues and thereby estimate the amount of muscle tissue in the body.\n", "The pain is caused by the inadequate blood flow to the muscle tissue, the inflammation from the resulting cell damage, and the release of cell contents. Muscle spasms, caused by the lack of blood to the muscle tissue, are also painful.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "The \"flexor\" and \"extensor\"; \"abductor\" and \"adductor\"; \"levator\" and \"depressor\"; \"supinator\" and \"pronator\"; \"sphincter\", \"tensor\", and \"rotator\" muscles.\n\nA flexor muscle decreases the anterior angle at a joint; an extensor increases the anterior angle at a joint.\n\nAn abductor moves a bone away from the midline; an adductor moves a bone closer to the midline.\n\nA levator raises a structure; a depressor moves a structure down.\n\nA supinator turns the palm of the hand up; a pronator turns the palm down.\n", "All muscle fibres in a motor unit are of the same fibre type. When a motor unit is activated, all of its fibres contract. In vertebrates, the force of a muscle contraction is controlled by the number of activated motor units.\n", "A strong contraction indicates a 'brisk' reflex, and a weak or absent reflex is known as 'diminished'. Brisk or absent reflexes are used as clues to the location of neurological disease. Typically brisk reflexes are found in lesions of upper motor neurons, and absent or reduced reflexes are found in lower motor neuron lesions.\n\nA change to the biceps reflex indicates pathology at the level of musculocutaneous nerve, segment C5/6 or at some point above it in the spinal cord or brain.\n", "Smooth muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the digestive and urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food, chyme, and feces in the former and urine in the latter. Other places smooth muscle can be found are within the uterus, where it helps facilitate birth, and the eye, where the pupillary sphincter controls pupil size.\n\nSection::::Types.:Cardiac muscle.\n", "BULLET::::- Interneuronal injury—when dysfunction occurs at one joint or segment, the related agonist muscles are also affected. If uncorrected, the antagonistic muscles eventually become involved as well, leading to dysfunction of both muscle groups. This presents as decreased range of motion with pain and/or tenderness in the area.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action for muscle energy techniques.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Types.\n\nThere are three types of efferent fibers: general somatic efferent fibers (GSE), general visceral efferent fibers (GVE) and special visceral efferent fibers (SVE).\n\nSubtypes of general somatic efferent fibers include: alpha motor neurons (α) – these target extrafusal muscle fibers, and gamma motor neurons (γ) that target intrafusal muscle fibers. Beta motor neurons target both types of muscle fiber and there are two types known as \"static\" and \"dynamic\".\n\nSection::::Etymology and mnemonics.\n", "A new treatment for acute strains is the use of platelet rich plasma (PRP) injections which have been shown to accelerate recovery from non surgical muscular injuries.\n\nIt is recommended that the person injured should consult a medical provider if the injury is accompanied by severe pain, if the limb cannot be used, or if there is noticeable tenderness over an isolated spot. These can be signs of a broken or fractured bone, a sprain, or a complete muscle tear.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Repetitive strain injury\n\nBULLET::::- Pulled hamstring\n\nBULLET::::- Sprain\n\nBULLET::::- Achilles tendon rupture\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Golgi tendon reflex\n\nThe Golgi tendon reflex is a normal component of the reflex arc of the peripheral nervous system. In a Golgi tendon reflex, skeletal muscle contraction causes the antagonist muscle to simultaneously lengthen and relax. This reflex is also called the inverse myotatic reflex, because it is the inverse of the stretch reflex. Though muscle tension is increasing during the contraction, alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord supplying the muscle are inhibited. However, antagonistic muscles are activated.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Another example is the dumbbell curl at the elbow. The \"elbow flexor\" group is the agonist, shortening during the lifting phase (elbow flexion). During the lowering phase the \"elbow flexor\" muscles lengthen, remaining the agonists because they are controlling the load and the movement (elbow extension). For both the lifting and lowering phase, the \"elbow extensor\" muscles are the antagonists (see below). They lengthen during the dumbbell lifting phase and shorten during the dumbbell lowering phase. Here it is important to understand that it is common practice to give a name to a muscle group (e.g. elbow flexors) based on the joint action they produce during a shortening (concentric) contraction. However, this naming convention does not mean they are only agonists during shortening. This term typically describes the function of skeletal muscles.\n", "The contraction of these adductor/extensor muscles can indirectly depress and downwardly rotate the scapulae; this is only required when they are pulled into elevation and upward rotation by the contraction of muscles that attach to the scapulae. If the weight were being pulled solely by the lats, for example, the scapulae would simply be pulled down by gravity, along for the ride.\n\nSection::::Muscles.:Scapular.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13127	If companies keep lowering wages for workers and pump their product prices, aren't they shooting them selves in the foot?	1. are they? lots of companies that are famous for this like amazon, walmart etc are actually making things cheaper by reducing labour costs - look at the relative cost of food now to 50 years ago for example 2. Assuming you're right, it depends on what they sell. doesn't really matter if my chandelier engineers can't afford my chandeliers since they never could anyway. 3. Businesses are incentivised to what makes them money in the next 5 years, what happens after that is anyone's guess anyway so they aren't that bothered about the company existing then.	[ "Finally, it is important to notice that, while the gray-area redistribution effect could be reversed by fiscal policy (i.e., taxing employers and transferring the tax revenue to the workers), this is not so for the yellow-area deadweight loss. The market failure can only be addressed in one of two ways: either by breaking up the monopsony through anti-trust intervention, or by regulating the wage policy of firms. The most common kind of regulation is a binding minimum wage higher than the monopsonistic wage.\n\nSection::::Static monopsony in a labour market.:Minimum wage.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wages are low\" – When low wages are prevalent in the economy, say formula_12, a firm which faces demand formula_13 will need to employ formula_14 workers if it wants to modernize. This will cost the firm formula_15.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wages are high\" – When high wages are prevalent in the economy, say formula_19, a firm which faces demand formula_13 will make losses if no other firms choose to modernize.\n\nSection::::Indivisibilities and external economies.\n", "One possible consequence is that as developing country wages rise, U.S. companies may decide to automate the jobs but return the activity to the U.S., a phenomenon some refer to as \"re-shoring\" (as opposed to \"off-shoring\").\n\nAlthough U.S. manufacturing employment declined from 17 million workers to 12 million from 2000 to 2011, production has returned to 2000 levels. In other words, productivity, supported by significant automation or process improvements, may be a significant driver of job losses in that industry, along with off-shoring.\n", "Because there is a large supply of workers, especially in rural sector, wage growth for unskilled labor will grow slowly. At the same time, “wage growth for skilled labor will also likely taper off because of the convergence of college wage premiums to international standards in recent years and the anticipated robust supply of university graduates and professionals returning from overseas”. Therefore, overall wage will slowly grow in the near future.\n", "Section::::21st century Marxist controversies.:Pollution.:Clean technology.\n\nThirdly, the new technologies may be cleaner and cheaper, rather than more expensive and more polluting. For example, in 2014, the municipal authorities in the Dutch townships of Beverwijk, Heemskerk, Uitgeest and Velsen offered residents a subsidy of up to €1,050 (US$1,300) if they traded in their old petrol-driven scooter for an electric scooter.\n\nSection::::21st century Marxist controversies.:Pollution.:No consensus.\n", "However, other forces may mitigate these processes. Some observe that a growing number of multinationals, especially from wealthier areas, are starting to see the benefits of keeping more of their operations close to home. For many products, labor is a small and diminishing fraction of total costs. Long, complex supply chains, it turns out, are likely riskier than many firms may have realized. For example, when an epidemic such as SARS hits Asia or when an earthquake hits Japan, supply chains are disrupted. Also, as emerging economies boom, wages there are rising. The benefits of global labor arbitrage may disappear, particularly in basic manufacturing and especially in China, where wages have been rising the fastest.\n", "BULLET::::- Which workers to include in the calculation... Employees this year might not be in the labour market next year or changed to different jobs. This method doesn't show accurate data of wage growth of the people as it is unclear if the wage has become higher or different people have joined in the labour market.\n\nBULLET::::- Calculating low-paid and high-paid workers equally... Although it estimates the living standards of an average worker, it is hard to determine the real wage growth due to the possible correlation with the inflation rate.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Has Consumption Inequality Mirrored Income Inequality?\" (with Mark Aguiar), Manuscript, December 2013\n\nBULLET::::- \"Testing for Keynesian Labor Demand\" (with Pete Klenow and Benjamin Malin), NBER Macroeconomics Annual, January 2013\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reset Price Inflation and the Impact of Monetary Policy Shocks\" (with Pete Klenow and Benjamin Malin), American Economic Review, October 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Comparative Advantage and Unemployment\" (with Yongsung Chang and Sun-Bin Kim), Journal of Monetary Economics, March 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Worker Heterogeneity and Endogenous Separations in a Matching Model of Unemployment Fluctuations\" (with Yongsung Chang and Sun-Bin Kim), American Economic Journal of Macroeconomics, January 2011\n", "In an unpublished working paper released in March 2019, jointly written with economists Pablo Fajgelbaum, Patrick J. Kennedy, and Amit Khandelwal, Goldberg analyzed the effects of the 2018 Trump tariffs and China–United States trade war on the US economy and estimated losses of $68.8 billion to consumers and producers due to higher prices. The total effect, which also accounts for the benefits of higher prices to US producers and government revenue from tariffs, was estimated to be $7.8 billion. The authors further analyzed the distribution of losses across sectors and counties, finding that workers in tradeable sectors in heavily Republican counties were especially worse off.\n", "Critics have warned of not just an increase in unemployment but also price increases and a lack of entry level jobs due to ‘labor substitutions effects’. The voluntary undertaking of a living wage is criticized as impossible due to the competitive advantage other businesses in the same market would have over the one adopting a living wage. The economic argument would be that, ceteris paribus (all other things being equal), a company that paid its workers more than required by the market would be unable to compete with those that pay according to market rates. See competitive advantage for more information.\n", "Studies have produced mixed results as to whether the U.S. operates under a profit-led or wage-led demand regime. However, recent political movements in the U.S. have increased the chances that the minimum wage there will nearly double, which raises the possibility that the U.S. will develop more distinctly under a wage-led demand regime.\n", "If the figures shown are real wages, then wages have increased by 2% after inflation has been taken into account. In effect, an individual making this wage actually has more ability to buy goods and services than the previous year. However, if the figures shown are nominal wages then real wages are not increasing at all. In absolute dollar amounts, an individual is bringing home more money each year, but the increases in inflation actually zeroes out the increases in their salary. Given that inflation is increasing at the same pace as wages, an individual cannot actually afford to increase their consumption in such a scenario.\n", "The case for increasing the minimum wage has problems in both dimensions: the losses in total income are typically underestimated (when they are not being dismissed out of hand) and the putative reductions in income inequality are almost certainly being overstated. Let’s examine total incomes first. Labour demand curves slope down: everything else being equal, higher wages reduce the quantity of labour employers demand. And fewer people with jobs means less total income. If the theoretical point is clear — and I’m not aware of a compelling theoretical argument suggesting that employers will react to higher minimum wage by hiring more workers — the empirical evidence is not.\n", "\"Rising wages are most significant to primary producers and services industries, as labor takes the major share of total costs in these sectors,\". Apart from labor, capital - still relatively cheap in China - will also become more expensive as policymakers move the country toward interest rate liberalization.\n\nMaterial costs, too, will continue to rise and will reach global levels. As the economy slows down, it becomes harder and harder for companies to pass on the costs to customers. China's rising labor costs will help other South Asian countries gain a foothold in low-end manufacturing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Global sourcing\n", "A wage-led growth strategy aims at establishing a full-employment growth model in which sustained wage growth drives demand growth via consumption growth and via accelerator effects of investment growth, as well as productivity growth via labor-saving-induced technological change. Due to this strategy's repeating itself in a cyclical manner, this theory is thought to be more stable in the long run than profit-led growth because a wage-led growth strategy will result in stable or rising wage shares if it follows the circular cumulative causation behavior. This theory commands slower paced growth and is more viable in the long run, however, it relies heavily on technological change to redistribute wages and labor in order to continue along the cumulative causation trend. A wage-led growth strategy includes measures to restrict financial speculation, encourage a more long-term view in corporate governance, strengthen the role of stakeholders, and rein in excessive pay in the financial sector. A restructuring of the financial sector is needed to prevent or reduce the frequency and severity of financial crises. Such measures are likely to include restrictions on bank bonuses, financial transactions taxes, pro-cyclical credit management, regulation of the shadow banking industry, and closing of secrecy jurisdictions (tax havens), as well as the establishment of a sizable not-for-profit segment within the banking industry and a strengthening of stakeholders within corporate governance that will also lead to an improvement in labor's bargaining power and the wage share.\n", "The rise of wages in jobs without productivity gains is from the requirement to compete for employees with jobs that have experienced gains and so can naturally pay higher salaries, just as classical economics predicts. For instance, if the retail sector pays its managers 19th-century-style salaries, the managers may decide to quit to get a job at an automobile factory, where salaries are higher because of high labor productivity. Thus, managers' salaries are increased not by labor productivity increases in the retail sector but by productivity and corresponding wage increases in other industries.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "With the low unemployment rates, one of the factors for the recent rise in wage growth includes more employment of disabled people and people in high skilled occupations, constructing a strong labour market. By bringing more people into the workforce in high-paid occupations, it produces more competitiveness in the workforce resulting in the creation of higher labour productivity hence a high wage growth. Since self-employment has increased its employment by 15% in 2017, more flexibility in employment, entrepreneurship and more labour participation became available to workers. However, since the weakness of self-employment produces relatively less labour productivity compared to bigger businesses, it could also contribute to the weak wage growth so that fiscal policies to secure the growth need to be conducted for long-term growth. \n", "During the Singapore Budget 2013 debate in parliament, Members-of-Parliament such as Inderjit Singh of Ang Mo Kio GRC and Nominated MP Laurence Lien expressed concerns that wages at the bottom of the economic ladder are not increasing quickly enough to help workers cope with a rising cost of living.\n", "The Economic Policy Institute has blamed \"intentional policy choices\" by governments for real wage stagnation in this period. Stating \"the abandonment of full employment as a main objective of economic policymaking, declining union density, various labor market policies and business practices, policies that have allowed CEOs and finance executives to capture ever larger shares of economic growth, and globalization policies\" have resulted in stagnant real wages in a time of increasing productivity.\n\nSection::::Trends.:United States.\n", "So \"wages chase prices and prices chase wages,\" persisting even in the face of a (mild) recession. This price/wage spiral interacts with inflationary expectations to produce long-lived inflationary process. Some argue that incomes policies or a severe recession is needed to stop the spiral.\n\nThe first element of the price/wage spiral does not apply if markets are relatively competitive.\n", "For example, should the companies providing the technology platform be liable for the actions of the suppliers in their network? If consumers tend to be higher income persons while the suppliers are lower-income persons, will the lower cost of the services (and therefore lower compensation of the suppliers) worsen income inequality? These are among the many questions the on-demand economy presents.\n\nSection::::Immigration.\n\nSection::::Immigration.:Effects on wages and income inequality.\n\nEconomist Paul Krugman summarized his views of the literature on the economic impact of immigrants on the U.S. economy as follows in March 2006:\n", "The simpler explanation of monopsony power in labour markets is barriers to entry on the demand side. Such barriers to entry would result in a limited number of companies competing for labour (oligopsony). If the hypothesis was generally true, one would expect to find that wages decreased as firm size increased or, more accurately, as industry concentration increased. However, numerous statistical studies document significant positive correlations between firm or establishment size and wages. These results are often explained as being the result of cross-industry competition. For example, if there were only one fast food producer, that industry would be very consolidated. But that company wouldn't be able to drive down wages via monopsonistic power if it were also competing against retail stores, construction, and other jobs utilizing the same labour skill set. This finding is both intuitive (low-skilled labour can move more fluidly through different industries) and supported by the data which found that monopsony effects are limited to professional sports, and perhaps nursing, fields where skill sets limit moving to comparably paid other industries. \n", "Section::::Labour costs.:Situation in China.\n\nLabor shortage is not yet a major problem in China, as there are still governmental measures to free up the pool of rural labor, such as the further easing of the hukou, or household registration, system. “However, these are unlikely to reverse the trend of increasing labor costs\". They will continue to rise as minimum wages and social welfare improve, adding that on top of the 13 percent annual increase in the minimum wage as set in the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–15), mandatory social welfare will add another 35 to 40 percent to the payroll cost.\n", "Once dislocated workers obtain a new job, they suffer significant wage reductions. About two thirds of dislocated workers have lower wages in the new job and one quarter of displaced workers from manufacturing who find a new full-time job suffer earning losses of 30% or more. The reason is that many workers find jobs in services sector where salaries are lower. Ebenstein et al. (2009) find that displaced workers from manufacturing who find a job in the services sector suffer a wage decline of between 6 and 22%. They conclude that a 1 percentage point increase in occupation-specific import competition is associated with a 0.25 percentage point decline in real wages.\n", "Another consequence of digitization is that it has drastically reduced the costs of communication between workers across different organizations and locations. This has led to a change in the geographic and contractual organization of production. Economists are interested in the magnitude of this change and its effect on local labor markets. A recent study found that the potential of manufacturing sector jobs to be offshored did not reduce wages in the US. However, survey evidence suggests that 25% of American jobs are potentially offshorable in the future.\n" ]	[ "Companies are shooting themselves in the foot by lowering wages and increasing prices.", "Companies that reduce worker wages while increasing prices are destined to fail." ]	[ "They are not. Many companies are actually famous for doing this. It is porfitable for them to do so they do it. ", "Companies like Amazon have become successful by reducing labor costs and having the cheapest product prices." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Companies are shooting themselves in the foot by lowering wages and increasing prices.", "Companies that reduce worker wages while increasing prices are destined to fail." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They are not. Many companies are actually famous for doing this. It is porfitable for them to do so they do it. ", "Companies like Amazon have become successful by reducing labor costs and having the cheapest product prices." ]
2018-04869	How do genetic and ancestry tests claim to be so accurate when their results seem to be based on nationality and not necessarily on ethnicity?	In general, they have analyzed the average genetics of a resident from that part of the world, and are using "Irish" as short hand for "This percentage of your ancestry likely came from people who lived in this part of the world, as certain genetic traits are common to them."	[ "Many companies offer a percentage breakdown by ethnicity or region. Generally the world is specified into about 20–25 regions, and the approximate percentage of DNA inherited from each is stated. This is usually done by comparing the frequency of each Autosomal DNA marker tested to many population groups. The reliability of this type of test is dependent on comparative population size, the number of markers tested, the ancestry informative value of the SNPs tested, and the degree of admixture in the person tested. Earlier ethnicity estimates were often wildly inaccurate, but as companies receive more samples over time, ethnicity estimates have become more accurate. Testing companies such as Ancestry.com will often regularly update their ethnicity estimates, which has caused some controversy from customers as their results update. Usually the results at the continental level are accurate, but more specific assertions of the test may turn out to be incorrect. \n", "A common component of many autosomal tests is a prediction of biogeographical origin. A company offering the test uses computer algorithms and calculations to make a prediction of what percentage of an individual's DNA comes from particular ancestral groups. A typical number of populations is at least 20. Despite this aspect of the tests being heavily promoted and advertised, many genetic genealogists have warned consumers that the results may be inaccurate, and at best are only approximate.\n", "Genealogical DNA test\n\nA genealogical DNA test is a DNA-based test which looks at specific locations of a person's genome, in order to find or verify ancestral genealogical relationships or (with lower reliability) to estimate the ethnic mixture of an individual. Since different testing companies use different ethnic reference groups and different matching algorithms, ethnicity estimates for an individual will vary between tests, sometimes dramatically. \n", "both of which have carried out language analyses for UK Visas and Immigration (formerly UK Border Agency) and for the Dutch Immigration Service, as well as other countries around the world.\n\nSection::::Language analysts.\n", "With the increasing popularity of the use of DNA tests for ethnicity tests, uncertainties and errors in ethnicity estimates are a drawback for Genetic genealogy. While ethnicity estimates at the continental level should be accurate (with the possible exception of East Asia and the Americas), sub-continental estimates, especially in Europe, are often inaccurate. Customers may be misinformed about the uncertainties and errors of the estimates.\n\nSome have recommended government or other regulation of ancestry testing to ensure its performance to an agreed standard.\n\nA number of law enforcement agencies took legal action to compel\n", "Results of AIMs are extremely sensitive to where this bar is set. Given that many genetic traits are found very similar amid many different populations, the rate of frequency which is taken to be enough for being part of a reference population is very important. This can also lead to mistakes, given that many populations may share the same patterns, if not exactly the same genes. \"This means that someone from Bulgaria whose ancestors go back to the fifteenth century could (and sometime does) map as partly ‘Native American’\". This happens because AIMs rely on a '100% purity' assumption of reference populations. That is, they assume that a pattern of traits would ideally be necessary and sufficient condition for assigning an individual to an ancestral reference populations.\n", "The most obvious way to control for birthplace is to include a measure of the effect of birthplace in the equation above. Exclusion of birthplace, together with the assumption that formula_17 is uncorrelated with education produces a misspecified model. Another technique is to include in the equation additional set of measured covariates which are not instrumental variables, yet render formula_12 identifiable. An overview of econometric methods used to study this problem were provided by Card (1999).\n\nSection::::Journals.\n", "Section::::Malaysia.\n\nPeople in Malaysia were enumerated by ethnicity/race from 1871 to the present day.\n\nSection::::Mali.\n\nMali enumerated people in some parts of the country by ethnicity in 1950.\n\nSection::::Mauritius.\n\nMauritius enumerated its population by ethnicity in 1952, 1962, and 1972.\n\nSection::::Mexico.\n\nMexico enumerates people on whether or not they speak Spanish or indigenous languages. Mexico does not enumerate its population by race and ethnicity directly.\n\nSection::::Moldova.\n", "Section::::Methodology.:External parameters and sources.:Diversity of Settlement Freedom.\n", "(Schibeci & Sorensen, 1982; Hill, 1991; Warren, 1990; Flick, 1990), \n\nSection::::History.:Ethnicity and country.\n", "Many commercial companies use data from the International HapMap Project (HapMap)'s initial phrase, where population samples were collected from four ethnic groups in the world: Han Chinese, Japanese, Yoruba Nigerian, and Utah residents of Northern European ancestry. If a person has ancestry from a region where the computer program does not have samples, it will compensate with the closest sample that may have nothing to do with the customer's actual ancestry: \"Consider a genetic ancestry testing performed on an individual we will call Joe, whose eight great-grandparents were from southern Europe. The HapMap populations are used as references for testing Joe's genetic ancestry. The HapMap's European samples consist of \"northern\" Europeans. In regions of Joe's genome that vary between northern and southern Europe (such regions might include the lactase gene), the genetic ancestry test is using the HapMap reference population is likely to incorrectly assign the ancestry of that portion of the genome to a non-European population because that genomic region will appear to be more similar to the HapMap's Yoruba or Han Chinese samples than to Northern European samples. Likewise, a person having Western European and Western African ancestries may have ancestors from Western Europe and West Africa, or instead be assigned to East Africa where various ancestries can be found. \"Telling customers that they are a composite of several anthropological groupings reinforces three central myths about race: that there are pure races, that each race contains people who are fundamentally the same and fundamentally different from people in other races, and that races can be biologically demarcated.\" Many companies base their findings on inadequate and unscientific sampling methods. Researchers have never sampled the world's populations in a systematic and random fashion.\n", "Pilots have been conducted by the UK, Ireland, and Norway. The UK legitimised the process in 2003; it has subsequently been criticised by immigration lawyers (see response by the Immigration Law Practitioners' Association), and also Craig 2012); and social scientists (e.g. Campbell 2013), as well as linguists (e.g. Patrick 2011).\n", "In the context of genealogy, for example medical genetics or genealogical DNA tests, ethnicity is defined based on biological rather than cultural heritage. However, various genealogical DNA tests result in contradictory and insecure estimates of the ethnic mix of a person, since the result of each test depends on the reference group and how it is divided into ethnic groups. Thus, it is typically not possible to securely determine if a person belongs to the ethnic majority or not using genetic tests. \n", "Section::::Audience.:Tests for ethnicity and membership of other groups.\n\nAs discussed above, autosomal tests usually report the ethnic proportions of the individual. These attempt to measure an individual's mixed geographic heritage by identifying particular markers, called ancestry informative markers or AIM, that are associated with populations of specific geographical areas. Geneticist Adam Rutherford has written that these tests \"don’t necessarily show your geographical origins in the past. They show with whom you have common ancestry today.\"\n", "The underlying assumption leading to government immigration and asylum bureaux's use of LADO is that a link exists between a person's nationality and the way they speak. To linguists, this assumption is flawed: instead, research supports links between the family and community in which a person learns their native language, and enduring features of their way of speaking it. The notion that linguistic socialization into a speech community lies at the heart of LADO has been argued for by linguists since 2004, and is now accepted by a range of government agencies (e.g. Switzerland, Norway), academic researchers (e.g. Eades 2009, Fraser 2011, Maryns 2006, and Patrick 2013), as well as some commercial agencies (e.g. De Taalstudio, according to Verrips 2010).\n", "Autosomal tests may result in a large amount of DNA matches (other test persons that the individual may be related to), along mixed male and female lines, each match with an estimated distance in the family tree. However, due to the random nature of which and how much DNA is inherited by each tested person from their common ancestors, precise conclusions can only be made for close relations. Traditional genealogical research, and the sharing of family trees, is typically required for interpretation of the results. Autosomal tests are also used in estimating ethnic mix.\n", "Since 1850, the United States enumerated its population by their country of birth of its population. The whole U.S. population was enumerated by country of birth between 1850 and 1930 and again from 1960 to the present day. Meanwhile, only the White population of the United States was enumerated by their country of birth in 1940 and 1950.\n\nSection::::Uzbekistan.\n", "Paschou et al. found \"essentially perfect\" agreement between 51 self-identified populations of origin and the population's genetic structure, using 650,000 genetic markers. Selecting for informative genetic markers allowed a reduction to less than 650, while retaining near-total accuracy.\n", "Section::::Where it is used.\n\nSince the mid-1990s, language analysis has been used to help determine the geographical origin of asylum seekers by the governments of a growing number of countries (Reath, 2004), now including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.\n", "Section::::Costa Rica.\n\nCosta Rica enumerated people by ethnicity in 1950.\n\nSection::::Croatia.\n\nThe people of Croatia have been enumerated by ethnicity/nationality from at least 1953, including the censuses of 2001 and 2011.\n\nSection::::Cyprus.\n\nThe people of Cyprus were enumerated by ethnicity in 1960.\n\nSection::::Czech Republic.\n\nCzechoslovakia (of which the territory of the Czech Republic was a part) enumerated people by ethnicity in 1921 and 1930, and the Czech Republic did the same thing from 1991 to the present day.\n\nSection::::Dominica.\n\nThe people in Dominica were enumerated by ethnicity in 1960 and 1981.\n\nSection::::Dominican Republic.\n", "Y-DNA and mtDNA cannot be used for ethnicity estimates, but can be used to find one's haplogroup, which is unevenly distributed geographically. Direct-to-consumer DNA test companies have often labeled haplogroups by continent or ethnicity (e.g., an \"African haplogroup\" or a \"Viking haplogroup\"), but these labels may be speculative or misleading.\n\nSection::::Types of tests.:Autosomal DNA (atDNA) testing.\n\nSection::::Types of tests.:Autosomal DNA (atDNA) testing.:Testing.\n", "Commercial ancestry testing companies, who use genetic clustering data, have been also heavily criticized. Limitations of genetic clustering are intensified when inferred population structure is applied to individual ancestry. The type of statistical analysis conducted by scientists translates poorly into individual ancestry because they are looking at difference in frequencies, not absolute differences between groups. Commercial genetic genealogy companies are guilty of what Pillar Ossorio calls the \"tendency to transform statistical claims into categorical ones\". Not just individuals of the same local ethnic group, but two siblings may end up beings as members of different continental groups or \"races\" depending on the alleles they inherit.\n", "In retrospective CAA studies, a classifier is trained with machine learning algorithms using existing data. The performance of the classifier is then assessed using the same data. Different approaches are used to do this (e.g., k-Fold cross-validation, leave-one-out cross-validation).\n", "People in Estonia were enumerated by ethnicity/nationality from 1922 to the present day. People in Estonia were also enumerated by native tongue in the 1897 Russian Empire Census. During this time period Estonia was under the control of the Russian Empire, then independent, then (excluding World War II) under the control of the Soviet Union, and then independent again since 1991. There were 192 different ethnicity/nationality options in the 2011 Estonian census.\n\nSection::::Ethiopia.\n\nEthiopia enumerated people by ethnicity in 1994.\n\nSection::::Fiji.\n", "The Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group of the National Human Genome Research Institute notes that \"although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person's ancestors coming from various continental populations, these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history.\"\n\nSection::::Racial makeup of the U.S. population.:Members of other races.\n" ]	[ "Genetic and ancestry tests can't be very accurate if results are based on nationality and not ethnicity." ]	[ "The tests are accurate because they take the average genetics of residents within the world, certain genetic traits are quite common. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Genetic and ancestry tests can't be very accurate if results are based on nationality and not ethnicity.", "Genetic and ancestry tests can't be very accurate if results are based on nationality and not ethnicity." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The tests are accurate because they take the average genetics of residents within the world, certain genetic traits are quite common. ", "The tests are accurate because they take the average genetics of residents within the world, certain genetic traits are quite common. " ]
2018-01015	How do smelling salts work. Is it as fast as shown in movies?	Basically, smelling salts release ammonia (NH3)- a not-so-nice substance which irritates the nose and lungs. This triggers an inhalation reflex, restarting breathing. As such, it acts as fast as in movies (or something similar). Menthol works differently- rather than irritating the membranes in your nose, it "cools" them and causes the blood vessels to contract, reducing inflamation.	[ "Ammonia gas is toxic in large concentrations for prolonged periods and can be fatal. Since smelling salts produce only a small amount of ammonia gas, no adverse health problems from their situational use have been reported. If a high concentration of ammonia is inhaled too close to the nostril, it might burn the nasal or oral mucosa. The suggested distance is .\n", "Historically, smelling salts have been used on people feeling faint, or who have fainted. They are usually administered by others, but may be self-administered; some at-risk groups, such as pregnant women, may be advised to keep them close to hand.\n\nSmelling salts are often used on athletes (particularly boxers) who have been dazed or knocked unconscious to restore consciousness and mental alertness. Smelling salts are now banned in most boxing competitions, but are not harmful.\n", "Smelling salts have been used since Roman times and are mentioned in the writings of Pliny as \"Hammoniacus sal\". Evidence exists of use in the 13th century by alchemists as sal ammoniac. In the 14th century's \"The Canterbury Tales\", a character purports to use \"sal armonyak\". In the 17th century, the distillation of an ammonia solution from shavings of harts' (deer) horns and hooves led to the alternative name for smelling salts as spirit or salt of hartshorn.\n", "They were widely used in Victorian Britain to revive fainting women, and in some areas constables would carry a container of them for the purpose. During this time, smelling salts were commonly dissolved with perfume in vinegar or alcohol and soaked onto a sponge, which was then carried on the person in a decorative container called a vinaigrette.\n\nThe use of smelling salts was widely recommended during the Second World War, with all workplaces advised by the British Red Cross and St. John Ambulance to keep smelling salts in their first aid boxes.\n\nSection::::Physiological action.\n", "They are also used as a form of stimulant in athletic competitions (such as powerlifting, strong man and ice hockey) to \"wake up\" competitors to perform better. In 2005, Michael Strahan estimated that 70–80% of National Football League players were using smelling salts as stimulants.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "CS incapacitant spray has been used routinely by the British police since its introduction in 1996. It is issued as an item of equipment to police officers for protection and to assist in dealing with violent incidents.\n\nA six-month trial by sixteen police forces in England began on 1 March 1996.\n\nOn 16 March 1996, a Gambian asylum seeker, Ibrahima Sey, was taken to Ilford Police Station in east London. Whilst incapacitating Sey, who was suffering from excited delirium, police sprayed him with CS spray and held him on the ground for approximately 15 minutes, and he subsequently died.\n", "BULLET::::- Phase I: Characterized by hyperventilation resulting from direct respiratory center stimulation, leading to respiratory alkalosis and compensatory alkaluria. Potassium and sodium bicarbonate are excreted in the urine. This phase may last as long as 12 hours.\n\nBULLET::::- Phase II: Characterized by paradoxic aciduria in the presence of continued respiratory alkalosis occurs when sufficient potassium has been lost from the kidneys. This phase may begin within hours and may last 12–24 hours.\n", "BULLET::::- The Washington D.C. Post, 29 November 1960\n\nBULLET::::- Keeping Up with the Universe--5 Pittsburgh Contributors to the Britannica Assist in the Complex Job of Revising Its 27,247 pages,\" by John Warren Pg. 6, Pittsburgh Press, 8 June 1958\n\nBULLET::::- Pioneer Scientist: The Story of James Bert Garner, Gas Mask Inventor -\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Reference to James B. Garner's gas mask being used in WWI - pg. 4\n", "The detonation velocity of ammonal is approximately 4,400 metres per second or 9,842 miles per hour.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Officers may carry either a CS or PAVA (also known as Captor) incapacitant spray. Their effects are designed to be short-lived and exposure to fresh moving air will normally result in a significant recovery within 15–20 minutes. The CS spray issued by UK police services contains a 5% solution of CS whilst Captor sprays contain a 0.3% solution of PAVA. PAVA is significantly more potent than CS.\n", "Smelling salts release ammonia (NH) gas, which triggers an inhalation reflex (that is, causes the muscles that control breathing to work faster) by irritating the mucous membranes of the nose and lungs.\n\nFainting can be caused by excessive parasympathetic and vagal activity that slows the heart and decreases perfusion of the brain. The sympathetic irritant effect is exploited to counteract these vagal parasympathetic effects and thereby reverse the faint.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "Clothing should be left outside overnight, exposed to air before being washed.\n\nUse a strong detergent. Clothes should be placed in a dryer equipped with a vent outside; take caution that the exhaust is away from pedestrians, especially children.\n\nSection::::Use.\n\nCS is used in spray form by many police forces as a temporary incapacitant and to subdue attackers or persons who are violently aggressive. Officers who are trained in the use and application of CS spray are routinely exposed to it as part of their training.\n", "The use of ammonia smelling salts to revive people injured during sport is not recommended because it may inhibit or delay a proper and thorough neurological assessment by a healthcare professional, such as after concussions when hospitalization may be advisable, and some governing bodies recommend specifically against it. The irritant nature of smelling salts means that they can exacerbate any pre-existing cervical spine injury by causing reflex withdrawal away from them.\n", "In a 2015 a \"MythBusters\" episode, the hosts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman used an extract of dead sharks, and were able to drive away 10-20 Caribbean reef sharks and nurse sharks in only a few seconds on two separate occasions. The repellent used consisted of extracts from other species of shark bodies, and sharks did not return for over 5 minutes on both occasions.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1989, police in Minneapolis, Minnesota, conducted a drug raid at the home of an elderly couple, Lloyd Smalley and Lillian Weiss, after receiving inaccurate information from an informant. The flashbang grenades police used in the raid set the home on fire. Police said they were certain no one was inside, and so, at first, made no attempt at rescue. Smalley and Weiss died of smoke inhalation.\n", "BULLET::::- Succinylcholine - This drug has rapid onset of action and fast duration. It dosages is between 1 and 2 mg/kg body weight with common dosages of 100 mg. The drug can only be kept under room temperature for 14 days. Therefore, for longer shelf life, it has to be kept under temperatures from to When the intravenous access is not obtainable, the 3 to 4 mg/kg of intramuscular doses can be given (usual doses of 300 mg). However, duration of onset will be delayed to 3 to 4 minutes. Repetitive dosages of succinylcholine is discouraged to prevent vagal stimulation which lead to bradycardia.\n", "\"Jargon File\" reports that the millifortnight (about 20 minutes) and nanofortnight have been occasionally used.\n\nSection::::Notable multiples and derived units.:Furlongs per fortnight.\n\nOne furlong per fortnight is a speed which would be barely noticeable to the naked eye. It converts to: \n\nBULLET::::- 1.663 m/s, (i.e. 0.1663 mm/s),\n\nBULLET::::- roughly 1 cm/min (to within 1 part in 400),\n\nBULLET::::- 5.987 km/h,\n\nBULLET::::- roughly 3/8 in/min,\n\nBULLET::::- 3.720 mph.\n\nSection::::Notable multiples and derived units.:Speed of light.\n\nThe speed of light is furlongs per fortnight (1.8026 megafurlongs per microfortnight). By mass–energy equivalence, 1 firkin is equal to (≈ , or ).\n", "BULLET::::- - Royal Thai Navy\n\nBULLET::::- - Maritime Squadron of the Armed Forces of Malta\n\nBULLET::::- - SENAN\n\nBULLET::::- - Vietnam People's Army, taken from the former South Vietnam Navy\n\nSection::::Current.\n", "details of his discovery. Wayne Mason, a reporter for the Tulsa World wrote “It was on Easter\n\nSunday in 1941 when the great moment came in Goodhue’s life. He had just sprayed a few\n\ndozen American roaches with the new aerosol. In his words, “In less than 10 minutes all were\n\non their backs. No one else was in the building. I yelled at the top of my voice and danced\n\naround wildly. As soon as I could regain my composure, I drove home like a mad man and\n", "Smelling salts\n\nSmelling salts, also known as ammonia inhalants, spirit of hartshorn or sal volatile, are chemical compounds often used to arouse consciousness.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nThe usual active compound is ammonium carbonate—a colorless-to-white, crystalline solid ((NH)CO). Because most modern solutions are mixed with water, they should properly be called \"aromatic spirits of ammonia\". Modern solutions may also contain other products to perfume or act in conjunction with the ammonia, such as lavender oil or eucalyptus oil.\n", "BULLET::::- Philippe Uchan as Aubert\n\nBULLET::::- Patrick Ligardes as Bruno Frachon\n\nBULLET::::- Olivier Pasquier as Arsène Weber\n\nBULLET::::- Isabelle de Hertogh as Corinne Zacharria\n\nBULLET::::- Gustave Kervern as Kermarec\n\nBULLET::::- Pablo Pauly as Charles-Joseph Oudin\n\nBULLET::::- Myriam Azencot as Catherine Haynes\n\nBULLET::::- Eddie Chignara as Christophe Laugier\n\nBULLET::::- Raphaël Ferret as Fred\n\nBULLET::::- Christophe Meynet as David\n\nBULLET::::- Gilles Treton as Yannick Jobic\n\nBULLET::::- Élise Lucet as Herself\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Modern history.:Moscow theater hostage crisis.\n\nIn 2012, a team of researchers at the British chemical and biological defence laboratories at Porton Down found carfentanil and remifentanil in clothing from two British survivors of the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis and in the urine from a third survivor. The team concluded that the Russian military used an aerosol mist of carfentanil and remifentanil to subdue Chechen hostage takers.\n", "BULLET::::- Alison Moyet, English singer, in Billericay\n\nBULLET::::- Andrés Galarraga, Venezuelan-born Major League Baseball star, in Caracas\n\nBULLET::::- Died: Eddie Gaedel, 36, the shortest player in Major League Baseball history, after being mugged. On August 19, 1951, the 3'7\", Gaedel had appeared for the St. Louis Browns in a game against the Detroit Tigers, as a stunt for Browns' owner Bill Veeck.\n\nSection::::June 19, 1961 (Monday).\n", "BULLET::::- When using sunscreen, apply sunscreen first and then repellent. Repellent should be washed off at the end of the day before going to bed.\n\nBULLET::::- Wear long-sleeve shirts, which should be tucked in, long trousers, socks, and hats to cover exposed skin (although most fabrics do not totally protect against bites). Insect repellents should be applied over top of protective clothing for greater protection. Do not apply insect repellents underneath clothing.\n", "BULLET::::- Snatch (black) - Black redeco of original Snatch. Can combine with Karnoid land vehicles.\n\nBULLET::::- Sneak (black) - Black redeco of original Sneak. Can combine with Karnoid land vehicles.\n\nBULLET::::- Stinkjet - Silver UFO for the vile Stinkhorn.\n\nBULLET::::- Stenchoid - Included a Stenchoid, M.A.N.T.A men, and a Stench Egg.\n\nBULLET::::- Stench Refill - included a large green Stench refill and several M.A.N.T.A. men.\n\nSection::::Literature.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23353	How does rolling a tennis ball under your foot tone its muscles?	Muscle tone is a sort of "default state" of contraction which muscles are in without being ordered to contract by the nerves. If a sudden pull or stretch is applied to the muscles they will automatically increase tension, something which helps with balance. As you probably also know muscles are usually paired with an extensor and a flexor. A flexor bends a joint to decrease the angle between the parts of a limb, an example being the bicep. An extensor extends the joint, increasing the angle of the parts of the limb. An example is the triceps. The bicep and tricep are paired muscles, and if the muscle tone is completely lost in one it is likely there will be a cramp in the other. Rolling the ball under the foot is aimed to increase the muscle tone in those muscles, reducing the chances of cramping.	[ "Spasticity can be in the form of the clasp-knife response, in which there is increased resistance only at the beginning or at the end of the movement. Rigidity can be of the leadpipe type, in which there is resistance throughout to passive movement, or it may be of cogwheel type, in which the resistance to passive movement is in a jerky manner.\n\nSection::::Pathological tonus.:Tonus in surgery.\n\nIn ophthalmology, tonus may be a central consideration in eye surgery, as in the manipulation of extraocular muscles to repair strabismus. Tonicity aberrations are associated with many diseases of the eye (e.g. Adie syndrome).\n", "What muscle builders refer to as a \"toned physique\" or \"muscle firmness\" is one that combines reasonable muscular size with moderate levels of body fat, qualities that may result from a combination of diet and exercise.\n\nMuscle tone or firmness is derived from the increase in actin and myosin cross filaments in the sarcomere. When this occurs the same amount of neurological input creates a greater firmness or tone in the resting continuous and passive partial contraction in the muscle.\n", "There are three types of muscles—cardiac, skeletal, and smooth. Smooth muscles are used to control the flow of substances within the lumens of hollow organs, and are not consciously controlled. Skeletal and cardiac muscles have striations that are visible under a microscope due to the components within their cells. Only skeletal and smooth muscles are part of the musculoskeletal system and only the skeletal muscles can move the body. Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and are used only to circulate blood; like the smooth muscles, these muscles are not under conscious control. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and arranged in opposing groups around joints. Muscles are innervated, to communicate nervous energy to, by nerves, which conduct electrical currents from the central nervous system and cause the muscles to contract.\n", "Section::::Pathological tonus.:Cramps.\n", "Section::::Excitation-contraction coupling.:Contraction.:Sustained maintenance.\n", "When a deformation is imposed on a muscle, changes in cellular and molecular conformations link the mechanical forces with biochemical signals, and the close integration of mechanical signals with electrical, metabolic, and hormonal signaling may disguise the aspect of the response that is specific to the mechanical forces.\n\nSection::::Cartilage.\n", "Crossbridge cycling causes contraction of myosin and actin complexes, in turn causing increased tension along the entire chains of tensile structures, ultimately resulting in contraction of the entire smooth muscle tissue.\n\nSection::::Excitation-contraction coupling.:Contraction.:Phasic or tonic.\n", "Section::::Excitation-contraction coupling.:Relaxation.\n", "Section::::Excitation-contraction coupling.:Spread of impulse.\n\nTo maintain organ dimensions against force, cells are fastened to one another by adherens junctions. As a consequence, cells are mechanically coupled to one another such that contraction of one cell invokes some degree of contraction in an adjoining cell. Gap junctions couple adjacent cells chemically and electrically, facilitating the spread of chemicals (e.g., calcium) or action potentials between smooth muscle cells. Single unit smooth muscle displays numerous gap junctions and these tissues often organize into sheets or bundles which contract in bulk.\n\nSection::::Excitation-contraction coupling.:Contraction.\n", "Section::::Muscle tone.\n\nAlthough muscles can be in a relaxed state, muscles have a general resting level of tension. This is termed muscle tone and is maintained by the motor neurons innervating the muscle. Its purpose is to maintain posture and assist in quicker movements, since if muscles were completely loose, then more neuronal firing would need to take place. \n", "The word tone derives from the Latin \"tonus\" (meaning \"tension\"). In anatomy and physiology, as well as medicine, the term \"muscle tone\" refers to the continuous and passive partial contraction of the muscles, or the muscles' resistance to passive stretching during resting state as determined by a deep tendon reflex. Muscle tonus is dependent on neurological input into the muscle. In medicine, observations of changes in muscle tonus can be used to determine normal or abnormal states which can be indicative of pathology. The common strength training term \"tone\" is derived from this use.\n", "Section::::Sport.\n\nSeveral studies tried to demonstrate whether there are some advantages to apply the progressive muscle relaxation technique into the sports field. Professional sports require constant tension from athletes both physically and mentally, therefore the progressive muscle relaxation technique may help athletes achieve optimal performance and optimize functioning in daily life.\n\nH.A. Hashim and H. Hanafi conducted an experiment with adolescent soccer players to understand the effects of progressive muscle relaxation on athletes. Results obtained in this experiment suggested reductions in the confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension subscale scores following progressive muscle relaxation.\n\nSection::::Schizophrenia.\n", "Section::::Testing.\n", "Another way of saying this is that the faster the switching from the eccentric to the concentric contraction, the greater will be the force produced and the greater the return movement. The speed of the switching is extremely fast, 0.20 seconds or less. For example, high-level sprinters execute the switch from the eccentric contraction that occurs when the foot hits the ground to the concentric contraction when the foot breaks contact with the ground in less than 0.10 seconds. In world-class sprinters, the time is approximately 0.08 seconds.\n", "Section::::Physiological response.\n", "While the exact mechanism of myofilament alteration in response to exercise is still being studied in mammals, some interesting clues have been revealed in Thoroughbred race horses. Researchers studied the presence of mRNA in skeletal muscle of horses at three distinct times; immediately before training, immediately after training, and four hours after training. They reported statistically significant differences in mRNA for genes specific to production of actin. This study provides evidence of the mechanisms for both immediate and delayed myofilament response to exercise at the molecular level.\n", "The sound created by muscle movement can be heard with the ear pressed up to a contracting muscle, but most of the energy is low frequency, below 20 Hz, making it inaudible infrasound.\n\nElectromyography signals are typically bandpass filtered from 10 Hz to 500 Hz, by comparison. PMG signals are limited to 5 Hz to 100 Hz in some experiments. Orizio states that the low-frequency response of the sensor is the most important feature, and should go as low as 1 Hz.\n\nImages of PMG waves are available in this creative commons-licensed document, \"\"Mechanomyographic amplitude and frequency responses during dynamic muscle actions: a comprehensive review\"\".\n", "Section::::Excitation-contraction coupling.:Contraction.:Other contractile mechanisms.\n", "Another function of bones is the storage of certain minerals. Calcium and phosphorus are among the main minerals being stored. The importance of this storage \"device\" helps to regulate mineral balance in the bloodstream. When the fluctuation of minerals is high, these minerals are stored in bone; when it is low it will be withdrawn from the bone.\n\nSection::::The different muscles.:Muscular.\n", "Section::::Functional systems explored.\n\nMicroneurography recordings have elucidated the organization as well as normal and pathological function of a fair number of neural systems in man, whereas the technique is not useful in clinical routine for diagnostic purposes to clarify the condition of the individual patient. Three main groups of neural systems have been explored, i.e. proprioception, cutaneous sensibility, and sympathetic efferent activity.\n\nSection::::Proprioception and motor control.\n", "More recently, myofilament protein changes have been studied in humans in response to resistance training. Again, researchers are not completely clear about the molecular mechanisms of change, and an alteration of fiber-type composition in the myofilament may not be the answer many athletes have long assumed. This study looked at the muscle specific tension in the quadriceps femoris and vastus lateralis of forty-two young men. Researchers report a 17% increase in specific muscle tension after a period of resistance training, despite a decrease in the presence of MyHC, myosin heavy-chain. This study concludes that there is no clear relationship between fiber-type composition and in vivo muscle tension, nor was there evidence of myofilament packing in the trained muscles.\n", "Normally, people are unaware of their muscle tone in their daily activities. The body maintains the balance between the tone of flexor and extensor muscle groups. Sometimes, in normal, healthy people, that tone is lost either in flexors or extensor muscle groups in isolation, temporarily and intermittently resulting in \"muscle cramps\". Treating these extensor or flexor group of muscles in isolation to relax can be difficult. Generally, muscle relaxants or quinine can help with cramps and is warranted when they become troublesome. But these medication cause their relaxing effect in both groups by moderating their tone. The cause of disproportionate intermittent contractions of either flexors or extensors or the cause of cramps is unknown. The stimulus for these \"cramps\" may originate in the cerebral cortex, the spinal cord, or the muscle itself. This could indicate developing pathology or other problems in the future.\n", "\"Dynamic Tension\" is a registered trademark of Charles Atlas, Ltd.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAfter being bullied as a child, Charles Atlas joined the YMCA and began to do numerous exercise routines. He became obsessed with strength. He said that one day he watched a tiger stretching in the zoo and asked himself, \"How does Mr. Tiger keep in physical condition? Did you ever see a tiger with a barbell?\" He concluded that lions and tigers became strong by pitting muscle against muscle.\n", "Biomaterials are classified in two groups, hard and soft tissues. Mechanical deformation of hard tissues (like wood, shell and bone) may be analysed with the theory of linear elasticity. On the other hand, soft tissues (like skin, tendon, muscle and cartilage) usually undergo large deformations and thus their analysis rely on the finite strain theory and computer simulations. The interest in continuum biomechanics is spurred by the need for realism in the development of medical simulation.\n\nSection::::Subfields.:Plant biomechanics.\n", "Section::::Display.\n\nBoth methods measures the same physiological phenomena (deformation), and results can in principle be displayed the same way.\n\nSection::::Display.:Curves.\n\nThe most common way is by displaying curves of the strain and strain rate, typically the time course during one heart cycle. Each curve will then represent the deformation in one region of the myocardium, but acquisition of a full sector allows display of multiple curves simultaneously in the same image for comparison.\n\nSection::::Display.:Colour display.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23727	Why does handedness matter for scissors?	Scissors work by creating shear force between the two blades, and to do this the sides of the blades must be pressed against each other. Due to the way our hands work the closing motion on the handles of the scissors will press the blades together when properly handed, but press them apart when used with the reversed handedness. When pushed apart a substance such as paper can just bend aside into the gap and avoid being cut.	[ "Most scissors are best-suited for use with the right hand, but \"left-handed\" scissors are designed for use with the left hand. Because scissors have overlapping blades, they are not symmetric. This asymmetry is true regardless of the orientation and shape of the handles: the blade that is on top always forms the same diagonal regardless of orientation. Human hands are also asymmetric, and when closing, the thumb and fingers do not close vertically, but have a lateral component to the motion. Specifically, the thumb pushes out from the palm and the fingers pull inwards. For right-handed scissors held in the right hand, the thumb blade is closer to the user's body, so that the natural tendency of the right hand is to force the cutting blades together. Conversely, if right-handed scissors are held in the left hand, the natural tendency of the left hand would be to force the cutting blades laterally apart. Furthermore, with right-handed scissors held by the right hand, the shearing edge is visible, but when they are used with the left hand, the cutting edge of the scissors is behind the top blade, and one cannot see what is being cut.\n", "Some scissors are marketed as ambidextrous. These have symmetric handles so there is no distinction between the thumb and finger handles, and have very strong pivots so that the blades simply rotate and do not have any lateral give. However, most \"ambidextrous\" scissors are in fact still right-handed in that the upper blade is on the right, and hence is on the outside when held in the right hand. Even if they cut successfully, the blade orientation will block the view of the cutting line for a left-handed person. True ambidextrous scissors are possible if the blades are double-edged and one handle is swung all the way around (to almost 360 degrees) so that the back of the blades become the new cutting edges. has been awarded for true ambidextrous scissors.\n", "For people who do not have the use of their hands, there are specially designed foot-operated scissors. Some quadriplegics can use a motorized mouth-operated style of scissor.\n\nSection::::Right-handed and left-handed scissors.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Edward Scissorhands\" is a 1990 film starring Johnny Depp as a young man who has hands made of multiple pairs of scissors.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Running with Scissors\" is a 2006 film based on the memoir of the same title.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Us\" is a 2019 psychological horror film directed by Jordan Peele about a family confronted by their scissor-wielding doppelgängers.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Games.\n", "In addition, a right-handed person using right-handed scissors can easily see the cutting line, but for a left-handed user the upper blade obscures the view.\n\nMany scissors are offered as \"ambidextrous\" or \"suitable for right- or left-handed use.\" Typically, these are merely right-handed scissors with modified handles to permit use in the left hand with less discomfort, but because the blades are still arranged for right-handed use, they still won't perform quite as well in the left hand.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Household items.:Computer input devices.\n", "Modern scissors are often designed ergonomically with composite thermoplastic and rubber handles which enable the user to exert either a power grip or a precision grip.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n\nThe noun \"scissors\" is treated as a plural noun, and therefore takes a plural verb (e.g., \"these scissors are\"). Alternatively, the tool is referred to by the singular phrase \"a pair of scissors\". The word \"shears\" is used to describe similar instruments that are larger in size and for heavier cutting.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Mechanically, scissors are a first-class double-lever with the pivot acting as the fulcrum. For cutting thick or heavy material, the mechanical advantage of a lever can be exploited by placing the material to be cut as close to the fulcrum as possible. For example, if the applied force (at the handles) is twice as far away from the fulcrum as the cutting location (i.e., the point of contact between the blades), the force at the cutting location is twice that of the applied force at the handles. Scissors cut material by applying at the cutting location a local shear stress which exceeds the material's shear strength.\n", "This mechanism is used in devices such as lift tables and scissor lifts. Modern low-profile computer keyboards make an extensive use of it as well, installing each key on a scissor support to ensure their smooth vertical movement, allowing the use of a cheap and reliable rubber dome contact set, instead of expensive and complex array of mechanical switches.\n", "Some scissors have an appendage, called a finger brace or finger tang, below the index finger hole for the middle finger to rest on to provide for better control and more power in precision cutting. A finger tang can be found on many quality scissors (including inexpensive ones) and especially on scissors for cutting hair (see hair scissors pictured below). In hair cutting, some claim the ring finger is inserted where some place their index finger, and the little finger rests on the finger tang.\n", "Section::::Specialized scissors.\n\nAmong specialized scissors and shears used for different purposes are:\n\nSection::::Culture.\n\nDue to their ubiquity across cultures and classes, scissors have numerous representations across world culture.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Art.\n\nNumerous forms of art worldwide enlist scissors as a tool/material with which to accomplish the art. For cases where scissors appear in or are represented by the final art product, see .\n\nSection::::Culture.:Film.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dead Again\" is a 1991 film starring Kenneth Branagh and Emma Thompson in a thriller revolving around repressed memories of scissors.\n", "For example, (right-handed) scissors are arranged so that, in the right hand, fingers and thumb push the blades together laterally, creating the shearing action essential to scissors' utility. In the left hand, however, fingers and thumb tend to force right-handed blades apart, so that, rather than being sheared, the work-material is merely hacked, as by a knife, or slips between the blades uncut. Left-handers using right-handed scissors will often try to compensate by forcing the handles apart laterally, causing discomfort or injury to the first knuckle of the thumb.\n", "Section::::Play.\n", "The game Rock-paper-scissors involves two or more players making shapes with their hands to determine the outcome of the game. One of the three shapes, 'scissors', is made by extending the index and middle fingers to mimic the shape of most scissors.\n\nIn the horror game series, Clock Tower, there is a character called Scissorman, who has a variety of identities as the main antagonist throughout the series. Scissorman is a demonic serial killer with a giant pair of scissors and will kill anyone without showing even a sign of mercy or remorse.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Literature.\n", "A pair of scissors consists of two pivoted blades. In lower-quality scissors, the cutting edges are not particularly sharp; it is primarily the shearing action between the two blades that cuts the material. In high-quality scissors, the blades can be both extremely sharp, and tension sprung – to increase the cutting and shearing tension only at the exact point where the blades meet. The hand movement (pushing with the thumb, pulling with the fingers) can add to this tension. An ideal example is in high-quality tailor's scissors or shears, which need to be able to perfectly cut (and not simply tear apart) delicate cloths such as chiffon and silk.\n", "Cut resistance has many dimensions such as force, direction, sharpness of the blade, length of the cut and flexibility of object. Different products should be evaluated in relation to the expected type of cut risk and environment that they are expected to face.\n\nSection::::Standards.\n", "BULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- In New Orleans, some believed that putting an open pair of scissors underneath your pillow at night was a sound method for sleeping well, even if one is cursed.\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Europe\n\nBULLET::::- It is believed in some Eastern European countries that leaving scissors open causes fights and disagreement within a household.\n\nBULLET::::- China\n\nBULLET::::- It is believed in China that giving scissors to a friend or loved one is to be cutting ties with them.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Science.\n\nScissors have been used in the sciences for various purposes, including descriptions of animals or natural features.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Nature.\n", "Other variations of this game theme are common, where different objects work as the \"scissors\" with the same solution, or with slightly different solutions — for example, the legs may need to be uncrossed when not passing, or the pass may need to be done so that the passing arm crosses the body. There may also be a combination of actions, such as needing to pass a pair of scissors blade-first to the next player as well as crossing or uncrossing the legs; the player may realize that one part is necessary but not the other.\n", "Section::::The flat scissors.:Counter-maneuvers to the flat scissors.:Horizontal.\n", "Children's scissors are usually not particularly sharp, and the tips of the blades are often blunted or 'rounded' for safety.\n", "Video game controllers often have the action buttons on the right with the directional controls on the left. In first-person shooters, many games default to the right pointer-finger being used to fire, simulating a right-handed person pulling the trigger of the weapon. Certain systems' layouts, such as Nintendo's Wii U and 3DS, have games in which right-handed stylus use is assumed and can cause difficulty for left-handed players.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Household items.:Knives.\n", "Scissors and shears exist in a wide variety of forms depending on their intended uses. Children's scissors, used only on paper, have dull blades to ensure safety. Scissors used to cut hair or fabric must be much sharper. The largest shears used to cut metal or to trim shrubs must have very strong sharp blades.\n\nSpecialized scissors include sewing scissors, which often have one sharp point and one blunt point for intricate cutting of fabric, and nail scissors, which have curved blades for cutting fingernails and toenails.\n", "Section::::Solution.\n\nThe most common solution to this game is that scissors are passed closed if your legs (or even ankles) are crossed, or if the passer's hands are closed, and the scissors are passed open if uncrossed or if the passer has their hands open. At the beginning of the game positions and movements should be natural. Towards the end, they will need to be heavily exaggerated.\n\nSection::::Other variations.\n", "Section::::The rolling scissors.\n", "Section::::Parts.:Handle.\n\nThe handles of knives can be made from a number of different materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. Handles are produced in a wide variety of shapes and styles. Handles are often textured to enhance grip.\n", "Modern tool design includes ergonomics considerations, which means that they are being designed to induce less stress on the human body when used. The most efficient tools keep the body in a neutral position to help reduce the stress on joints and muscles. An advantage of this approach is it requires gardeners to exert less energy whilst using the tools. Some modern patents like US 7,832,125 show an example without hand stop provisions.\n\nSection::::Power tools.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15774	Do animals such as bison or rams experience cte like humans do from repeated head trauma?	If I remember right some animals actually have automated systems that can increase the blood volume around there brain. so that there is more present when they butt heads. It acts like an additional protection. There was actually a studying being done to see if there was a way to replicate it in humans for sports like football. I not sure how valid the science is but it's called the q collar I think.	[ "After the suicide of Ashley Massaro, her lawyer relayed her wish for her brain to be studied by science.\n\nSection::::Mixed martial arts.\n\nIt is believed that former mixed martial artists Gary Goodridge and James Leahy have CTE, as a result of repeated head trauma from their fighting careers. Delayed onset is becoming increasingly common as with Leahy, whose symptoms developed many years after any sporting activity.\n\nIn October 2016, Bennet Omalu announced that CTE had been detected in the brain of Jordan Parsons, a MMA fighter who had been killed the previous day by a drunk driver.\n", "On February 4, 2016, an autopsy report from Massachusetts confirmed discovered CTE in Ken Stabler's brain after his death. Stabler, an NFL MVP and Hall of Famer, was diagnosed with high Stage 3 CTE. Stage 4 is the most aggressive stage of the disease.\n", "Robert A. Stern, one of the scientists at the Boston University CTE Center, said in 2015 that \"he expected a test to be developed within a decade that will be able to diagnose C.T.E. in living people\".\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nInvestigators have demonstrated that immobilizing the head during a blast exposure prevented the learning and memory deficits associated with CTE that occurred when the head was not immobilized. This research represents the first case series of postmortem brains from U.S. military personnel who were exposed to a blast and/or a concussive injury.\n", "There are also theorized research that suggest early CTE might result from damaged blood vessels within the brain. That could trigger brain inflammation and, eventually, the development of proteins such as Tau believed to play a key role in CTE. This hypothesis was tested on adult mice; the researchers state that their brains possess similar attributes to that of human brains. Using a special device, the mice were given precise impacts that would lead to mild brain traumas similar to what an athlete would suffer in contact sports. The mice, whose brains were scanned using a specialized MRI, immediately showed changes to the electrical functions of their brains.\n", "Rick Martin, best known for being part of the Buffalo Sabres' French Connection, was diagnosed with CTE after his brain was posthumously analyzed. Martin was the first documented case of an ice hockey player not known as an enforcer to have developed CTE; Martin was believed to have developed the disease primarily as a result of a severe concussion he received in 1977 while not wearing a helmet. The disease was low-grade and asymptomatic in his case, not affecting his cognitive functions. He died of a heart attack in March 2011 at the age of 59.\n", "In February 2015, Steve Montador died unexpectedly, and the subsequent examination of Montador’s brain by doctors at Krembil Neuroscience Centre at Toronto Western Hospital found a “widespread presence” of CTE. Montador joins the growing list of former ice hockey players discovered to have CTE which includes Rick Martin, Derek Boogaard, and Reg Fleming.\n\nSome researchers have argued that prospective longitudinal studies, following subjects over time, are needed to completely understand the causes and progression of CTE.\n\nSection::::Professional wrestling.\n", "In September 2015, researchers with the United States Department of Veterans Affairs and Boston University announced that they had identified CTE in 96 percent of National Football League players that they had examined and in 79 percent of all football players. By \n", "In July 2010, NHL enforcer Bob Probert died of heart failure. Before his death, he asked his wife to donate his brain to CTE research because it was noticed that Probert experienced a mental decline in his 40s. In March 2011, researchers at Boston University concluded that Probert had CTE upon analysis of the brain tissue he donated. He is the second NHL player from the program at the Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy to be diagnosed with CTE postmortem.\n", "McNeill was married to Tia McNeill and they had two sons, Fred Jr. and Gavin. McNeill was the unnamed individual in a study published online in the journal Neurosurgery, where evidence of CTE was observed during scans while he was still alive and confirmed during an autopsy following his death. These results may help in detecting CTE in living individuals and help to improve understanding and treatment.\n", "As the families of many deceased players wish to keep their medical information private, the following list is incomplete. A brain injury study conducted at the Boston University School of Medicine showed that 33 of 34 players tested post-mortem showed clear signs of CTE, and additional players have so far been confirmed with CTE separately. A new list released in November 2016 mentions CTE in 90 of 94 brains of former and deceased NFL players. In July 2017, a new study showed that 110 of 111 brains examined showed signs of CTE.\n\nBULLET::::- Jovan Belcher\n\nBULLET::::- Forrest Blue\n", "In 2009, Dr. McKee and her team of researchers from Boston University published their first CTE study. This publication discussed 47 instances of neuropathological deterioration determined to be CTE. The study involved former athletes from a wide range of sports. The majority of the reported CTE cases were former boxers (85%), but the study also included cases from former American football players, soccer players, and wrestlers. The study was primarily conducted to develop a more accurate clinical presentation of CTE in the brain. By studying the brains of former athletes whose sports commonly involved blows to the head, the researchers were able to identify how CTE looked in the brain of a former athlete. Through in-depth autopsies, the researchers observed the formation of proteins in the brain that caused initial brain cell decay, ultimately leading to CTE in the brain.\n", "The lack of distinct biomarkers is the reason CTE cannot typically be diagnosed while a person is alive. Concussions are non-structural injuries and do not result in brain bleeding, which is why most concussions cannot be seen on routine neuroimaging tests such as CT or MRI. Acute concussion symptoms (those that occur shortly after an injury) should not be confused with CTE. Differentiating between prolonged post-concussion syndrome (PCS, where symptoms begin shortly after a concussion and last for weeks, months, and sometimes even years) and CTE symptoms can be difficult. Research studies are currently examining whether neuroimaging can detect subtle changes in axonal integrity and structural lesions that can occur in CTE. Recently, more progress in in-vivo diagnostic techniques for CTE has been made, using DTI, fMRI, MRI, and MRS imaging; however, more research needs to be done before any such techniques can be validated.\n", "However, the International Fund for Animal Welfare conducted a study that disputed these findings. This report concludes the Canadian commercial seal hunt results in considerable and unacceptable suffering.\n\nThe veterinarians examined 76 seal carcasses and found that in 17% of the cases, there were no detectable lesions of the skull, leading them to conclude the clubbing likely did not result in loss of consciousness. In 25% of the remaining cases, the carcasses had minimal to moderate skull fractures, indicative of a \"decreased level of consciousness\", but probably not unconsciousness. The remaining 58% of the carcasses examined showed extensive skull fractures.\n", "On September 30, 2014, researchers with Boston University announced that in autopsies of 79 brains of former NFL players, 76 had tested positive for CTE. As of January 2017, that number had grown to 90 out of 94. A study published in \"The Journal of the American Medical Association\" in July 2017 showed that 110 of 111 former NFL players whose brains were examined were found to have suffered from CTE.\n\nSection::::Concussions in the National Football League.:Prevention.\n", "In 2007, neuropathologists from the Sports Legacy Institute (an organization co-founded by Christopher Nowinski, himself a former professional wrestler) examined the brain of Chris Benoit, a professional wrestler with WWE, who killed his wife and son before committing suicide. The suicide and double murder were originally attributed to anabolic steroid abuse, but a brain biopsy confirmed pathognomonic CTE tissue changes: large aggregations of tau protein as manifested by neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads, which cause neurodegeneration.\n\nIn 2009, Bennet Omalu discovered CTE in recently retired wrestler Andrew \"Test\" Martin, who died at age 33 from an accidental drug overdose.\n", "A putative biomarker for CTE is the presence in serum of autoantibodies against the brain. The autoantibodies were detected in football players who experienced a large number of head hits but no concussions, suggesting that even sub-concussive episodes may be damaging to the brain. The autoantibodies may enter the brain by means of a disrupted blood-brain barrier, and attack neuronal cells which are normally protected from an immune onslaught. Given the large numbers of neurons present in the brain (86 billion), and considering the poor penetration of antibodies across a normal blood-brain barrier, there is an extended period of time between the initial events (head hits) and the development of any signs or symptoms. Nevertheless, autoimmune changes in blood of players may consist the earliest measurable event predicting CTE.\n", "More recent research and thinking also looks at the steady accumulation of subconcussive blows, in addition to symptomatic concussions, as a major contribution factor in the development of CTE. For example, a 2018 study found that each year an athlete played tackle football before age 12 predicted earlier onset of CTE symptoms by an average of two-and-a half-years, but not symptom severity. These CTE symptoms include cognitive, behavioral, and mood problems.\n", "On January 10, 2013, Seau's family released the NIH's findings that his brain showed definitive signs of CTE. Russell Lonser of the NIH coordinated with three independent neuropathologists, giving them unidentified tissue from three brains including Seau's. The three experts along with two government researchers arrived at the same conclusion. The NIH said the findings on Seau were similar to autopsies of people \"with exposure to repetitive head injuries.\"\n", "Australian rules football player Greg Williams is thought to have CTE as a result of concussions over a 250-game career.\n", "In 2016, BMX biker and extreme sport icon Dave Mirra was diagnosed post-mortem with CTE. He died of suicide by gunshot on February 4, 2016, and his brain was examined by Dr. Lili-Naz Hazrati of the University of Toronto, who confirmed the diagnosis.\n\nIn 2017, Ty Pozzobon, who at the age of 25 years also committed suicide, became the first professional bull rider diagnosed with the disease. Within ten years, he had received 15 head injuries and his first concussion at the age of 16.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "CTE was originally studied in boxers in the 1920s as \"dementia pugilistica\". DP was first described in 1928 by a forensic pathologist, Dr. Harrison Stanford Martland, who was the chief medical examiner of Essex County in Newark, New Jersey in a \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" article, in which he noted the tremors, slowed movement, confusion, and speech problems typical of the condition.\n", "Study of CTE's relationship with American football began in 2002. Since then, hundreds of players have been diagnosed posthumously with CTE, including a number of players who committed suicide. CTE has affected not only professional football players, but players who only played in college and in high school.\n", "Omalu is lead author in a study published in November 2017 that for the first time confirmed CTE in a living person. A chemical tracer, FDDNP, binds to tau proteins, detectable by positron emission tomography, and associated with the distinctive topographical distributions characteristic of CTE. Tested on at least a dozen former NFL players, it was confirmed postmortem in former linebacker Fred McNeill.\n\nKonstantine Kyros, an attorney who represented over 60 professional wrestlers in a class action lawsuit against WWE, claimed that Omalu posthumously diagnosed six wrestlers he represented with CTE.\n\nSection::::Stephon Clark report.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Pathophysiology.\n\nIn both animals and humans, MTBI can alter the brain's physiology for hours to years, setting into motion a variety of pathological events. As one example, in animal models, after an initial increase in glucose metabolism, there is a subsequent reduced metabolic state which may persist for up to four weeks after injury. Though these events are thought to interfere with neuronal and brain function, the metabolic processes that follow concussion are reversible in a large majority of affected brain cells; however, a few cells may die after the injury.\n", "In July 2011, Colts tight end John Mackey died after several years of deepening symptoms of frontotemporal dementia. BUSM was reported to be planning to examine his brain for signs of CTE. The Brain Bank found CTE in his brain post-mortem.\n\nOn July 27, 2012, an autopsy report concluded that the former Atlanta Falcons safety Ray Easterling, who died from suicide in April 2012, had CTE.\n" ]	[ "Animals experiece CTE like humans do.", "Animals experience CTE like humans do." ]	[ "There are systems in these animals that increase blood volume which adds protection which helps prevent CTE.", "Animals have a natural system in place that sends more blood to the head as a form of increased protection during impacts. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Animals experiece CTE like humans do.", "Animals experience CTE like humans do." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There are systems in these animals that increase blood volume which adds protection which helps prevent CTE.", "Animals have a natural system in place that sends more blood to the head as a form of increased protection during impacts. " ]
2018-13896	How do we know how much people Genghis Khan or Josef Stalin killed?	This can be done in a variety of ways, and while I can't tell you specifically for Genghis or Stalin, here are some examples of ways you could go about it: 1. A survey of survivors to get the names of the missing and presumed dead. 2. A few mass graves can help make a statistical model for the dead. 3. If demographics are targeted (like homosexuals or Jews), surveys of populations before and after the event can shed light on it. 4. Economic output decrease can be correlated to loss of manpower, so GDP and similar numbers will suffer if a bunch of workers suddenly die. 5. If the birth rate doesn't recover after the event, it might be a good guess to say that lots of women died. 6. If the death rate afterwards gets too low, you might guess that lots of old people died earlier than expected. With enough data and some clever math, you can put together a model of death during the event. If multiple models agree roughly with the number of the dead, that number might become the accepted estimate.	[ "The title of each year's record is not always consistent, depending on incidents occurred in each year. Each annal firstly recorded the era of the King, the date and the member of the discussion in each month's council and then, the contents could be published. Therefore, the reader can find out what kinds of incidents happened and how the council legislated the aftermaths.\n", "Chapter 10 elaborates, saying that \"In the CIIDH project, participating popular organizations collected many of the testimonies long after the time of the killings, when people were less clear about details, especially the identities of all the victims.\" And says, \"Typically, during the collection of testimonies, a surviving witness might provide the names of one or two victims, perhaps close relatives, while estimating the number of other neighbors in the community without giving their names.\"\n\nThey report in chapter 7:\n", "BULLET::::- Lang, Hans-Joachim, The names of the numbers. How I succeeded in identifying the 86 victims of a NAZI crime. Hoffmann & Campe, Hamburg 2004, .\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Struthof official site\n\nBULLET::::- Natzweiler: German Concentration Camp near the French Border\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Names of the Numbers\" - A Project of Hans-Joachim Lang. List of all 86 victims of the Jewish Skeleton Collection (in German - also in English, French, Greek, Hebrew, Dutch, Norwegian and Polish)\n\nBULLET::::- Independent researcher Diana Mara Henry's site\n\nBULLET::::- KLNA Survivor Joseph Scheinmann Aka Andre Peulevey's memoirs\n\nBULLET::::- Images by Henri Gayot\n", "The register is based on analysis of documents including newspaper reports from the period, publications, court documents (ICTY and regional courts), associations of veterans and families of the dead, etc. and interviews with eyewitnesses or family members of individuals who lost their lives. By the end of 2010 HLC researchers had interviewed a total of 411 witnesses and family members and analysed 5,381 documents and from these sources had compiled a list of 2,321 citizens of Serbia and Montenegro who were killed or disappeared in the wars of the former Yugoslavia between 1991 and 1995.\n\nSection::::Kosovo Memory Book.\n", "This is one of UCDP's core dataset and it is the most disaggregated one. The GED covers individual events of organized violence (the phenomena of lethal violence occurring at a given time and place). These events are sufficiently fine-grained to have several spatial and temporal locators, such as place name, administrative division, and geographic coordinates down to the level of individual villages, as well as start and end dates, disaggregated to single, individual days. The dataset is updated annually by UCDP. \n\nSection::::UCDP Data.:UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset.\n", "\"The Lancet\" reference used is to Patrick Ball, Paul Kobrak, and Herbert F. Spirer and their 1999 book, \"State Violence in Guatemala, 1960-1996: A Quantitative Reflection\". From the introduction: \"The CIIDH database consists of cases culled from direct testimonies and documentary and press sources.\"\n", "Generally, the Border defense council published one annal each year, while depending on several incidents, the annals can be more than two. The starting date of publishment remains not sure, however. The most convincing period when the records might officially start is in 1555 - official establishment of the council. Under the assumption, the perfect remnants of the records should be 276 books until 1892. 54 years' records does not exist in the current time.\n", "BULLET::::- \"SS-Hauptsturmführer\" Max Blancke\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Obersturmführer\" Franz von Bodmann\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Obersturmführer\" Hans Eisele\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Obersturmführer\" Herbert Graefe\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Sturmbannführer\" Richard Krieger\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Obersturmführer\" Georg Meyer\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Hauptsturmführer\" Heinrich Plaza\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Hauptsturmführer\" Elimar Precht\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Untersturmführer\" Andreas Rett\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Untersturmführer\" Werner Rohde\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Hauptsturmführer\" Gerhard Schiedlausky\n\nBULLET::::- \"SS-Obersturmführer\" Siegfried Schwela\n\nSection::::Jewish skeleton collection.\n", "BULLET::::- Jewish Skeleton Collection, Harvard Law School - Nuremberg Trials Project\n\nBULLET::::- Names and information on the 46 Greek-Jewish victims from Theassaloniki, Greece\n\nBULLET::::- the Struthof album - study of the gassing at Natzweiler-Struthof of 86 jews whose bodies were to constitute a collection of skeletons\n\nBULLET::::- The Struthof-Natzweiler camp by Miloslav Bilik at The Holocaust History Project\n\nBULLET::::- \"The names of the 86\" (\"Le nom des 86\"), documentary film directed by Emmanuel Heyd and Raphael Toledano (Dora films, 2014, Fr) - in French, English and German\n", "Section::::Records.\n\nAs the council concerned almost every single sector of affairs since mid-Joseon, the records share highly important value in terms of legislative processes, politics and history of Joseon.\n", "Two global databases of mass killings are currently available. The first compilation, by Rudolph Rummel, covers a time period from the beginning of the 20th century till 1977, and the second compilation, by Barbara Harff, combines all mass killing events since 1955. The Harff database is the most frequently used by genocide scholars. These data are intended mostly for statistical analysis of mass killings in attempt to identify the best predictors for their onset. According to Harff, these data are not necessarily the most accurate for a given country, since some sources are general genocide scholars and not experts on local history. A comparative analysis of these two databases revealed a significant difference between the figures of killed per years and low correlation between Rummel's and Harff's data sets. Tomislav Dulić criticized Rummel's generally higher numbers as arising from flaws in Rummel's statistical methodology.\n", "Dogra carried out numbers of exhumations in various states of India. He exhumed mass graves in Gujrat following 2002 communal riots and recovered large numbers of skeletal remains, the anthropometric & anatomical examination and DNA profiling established Identity of many of missing individuals. He always encouraged a collaborative approach in such situation. Dogra used Anthropometric and anatomical examination in variety of cases from different part of country including Bhanwari Devi (2011 case) & 2006 Noida serial murders.\n\nSection::::Publications and research.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kehilla (Jewish community) records: 1933–1935 (Registry of local Zionist organization)\" – stored at the Central State Historical Archives of Ukraine, in Lviv, Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holocaust records: 1941–1944\" – stored at the State Archive of Ivano-Frankovsk Oblast, in Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Property records: 1785–1788; 1819–1820; 1847–1879\" – stored at the Central State Historical Archives of Ukraine, in Lviv, Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Police and KGB records: 1920–1932\" – stored at the State Archive of Ivano-Frankovsk Oblast, in Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine\n", "BULLET::::- Arthur Hans Weiss, one of the Ritchie Boys. As a United States military counter intelligence figure, who found Adolf Hitler's last will and political testament in autumn 1945. He later became a lawyer.\n\nBULLET::::- Gunther (Guy) Stern was one of the Ritchie Boys, like Ambassador Ritcher (above). He then had a distinguished career as a university professor and Holocaust Museum director.\n\nBULLET::::- Harry Eckstein (born Horst Eckstein) became a political science professor at Princeton University and the University of California, Irvine.\n\nSection::::Emotional and Practical Effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Soviet Prisoners of War: Forgotten Nazi Victims of World War II\n\nBULLET::::- Top 100 aviation disasters on AirDisaster.com\n\nBULLET::::- Maritime disasters of World War II\n\nBULLET::::- List of Maritime disasters sorted by number of casualties\n\nBULLET::::- The Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre: English Publication \"Body Count\" This publication quantifies the human death toll of religious and political violence throughout the last two millennia and relates these to religio-cultural civilizations.\n", "According to Eyal the 'village files' gathered three types of information:\n\nBULLET::::- They \"answered the need of combat intelligence [reporting] the number of men in the village, the number of weapons, the topography and so on\";\n\nBULLET::::- Other items had to do with the needs of \"hasbara\", the research of traces of ancient Jews in the villages;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Another interest was buying land from the villagers and settling it\".\n", "The 2006 Lancet study also states: \"In several outbreaks, disease and death recorded by facility-based methods underestimated events by a factor of ten or more when compared with population-based estimates. Between 1960 and 1990, newspaper accounts of political deaths in Guatemala correctly reported over 50% of deaths in years of low violence but less than 5% in years of highest violence.\"\n", "There have been rankings of the significance of major historical figures. For example, Cesar A. Hidalgo and colleagues at the MIT Media Lab has calculated the memorability of historical figures using data such as the number of language editions for which there are articles for each person, the pageviews received, and other factors. These lists are available at MIT's Pantheon project.\n\nSection::::Historical truth.\n", "BULLET::::- Quarter of the Victims of Nazi Genocide\n\nBULLET::::- Quarter of the Soldiers of the Red Army\n\nBULLET::::- Quarter of Jewish Victims\n\nBULLET::::- The Grave of the Victims of Stalin's Genocide\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Derbyshire Church Notes of Sir Stephen Glynne 1825-1873\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Derbyshire Directories 1781-1824\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Derbyshire Feet of Fines 1323-1546\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Derbyshire Gentry in the Fifteenth Century\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Derbyshire Papist Returns of 1705-6\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Derbyshire Pedigrees An Index to the holdings of Derby Local Studies Library\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Derbyshire Returns to the 1851 Religious Census\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Derbyshire Tithe Files 1836-50\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Derbyshire Wills proved in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury 1393-1574\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Derbyshire Wills proved in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury 1575-1601\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Diary of Joseph Jenkinson of Dronfield, 1833-43\"\n", "When the level of violence increased dramatically in the late 1970s and early 1980s, numbers of reported violations in the press stayed very low. In 1981, one of the worst years of state violence, the numbers fall towards zero. The press reported almost none of the rural violence.\n\nThere is a list of figures, tables, and charts in the book that can be used to calculate what percentage of their cases of killings by state forces were reported by 13 Guatemalan newspapers for each year when compared to the testimonies of witnesses (as previously described from chapter 10).\n", "Working with the Red Cross' records at their headquarters in Geneva, Barton has examined records that have lain virtually untouched since 1918, and estimates that there could be 20 million sets of details, carefully entered on card indexes, or written into ledgers. Barton has also worked alongside Glasgow University Archaeology Research Division to locate and explore mass graves at the Pheasant Wood site at Fromelles. The Australian Government commissioned him to carry out research into the identities of the casualties discovered. \n", "From 1 September 2007 until 31 August 31st 2009, 4874 records were created documenting the fate of 8752 victims. The total number of victims recorded in HLC’s database of victims is 13,790, including 3,562 victims of documented mass crimes. To date HLC recorded and described the fate of 7,636 Albanians, 845 Serbs, 109 Roma, 64 Bosniaks, 34 Montenegrins, 22 Ashkali, six Gorani, 13 Kosovo Egyptians, six Turks, two Russians, one Croat, two Hungarians, one Macedonian, one Bulgarian, one Ruthenian, two Slovenians, one Yugoslav, and six victims of undetermined nationality.\n\nSection::::Supporters.\n", "BULLET::::- Piece details WO 208/4300, Papers recovered from Lt Col A P Scotland: miscellaneous papers; Catalogue of The National Archives\n\nBULLET::::- Item details WO 208/4300/1; Catalogue of The National Archives\n\nBULLET::::- Piece details WO 208/4301, Papers recovered from Lt Col A P Scotland: shooting of RAF officers at Stalag III; Catalogue of The National Archives\n\nBULLET::::- Piece details WO 309/1813, Report on Wormhoudt case by Lt Col A P Scotland, OC War Crimes Interrogation Unit; Catalogue of The National Archives\n", "The lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 \"legal\" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of \"The Great Terror\", Conquest claimed that he had been \"correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million\". Getty and Naumov write \"the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims...in any event, the data available at this point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years [1937-38] was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "There's no way to know how many people were killed by Genghis Khan or Josef Stalin." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There's a number of ways to estimate through statistical models and indirect economic impacts how many people were killed." ]
2018-21878	How does going outside without a jacket make us ill?	It doesn't. You have to be exposed to the influenza virus to get a cold. You cant just get a cold from being in the cold. However exposure to cold temperatures can supress the immune system, so you will be more susceptible to any bacteria or viruses if you are cold. There is also just hypothermia if you are too cold which is when your core body temperature drops to dangerous levels. Tho it would have to be VERY cold for this to happen.	[ "BULLET::::- Place bedding in sunshine, which is related to a study done in a high-humidity area where damp bedding was common and associated with SBS.\n\nBULLET::::- Increased ventilation rates that are above the minimum guidelines.\n\nBULLET::::- Lighting in the workplace should be designed to give individuals control, and be natural when possible.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::High-risk categories.:Alcoholism.\n\nAlcoholics represent around 24% of individuals presenting with \"C. canimorsus\" infections. Alcoholism has been shown to result in decreased superoxide production in neutrophils, as well as declines in neutrophil elastase activity. This results in an increase in predisposition to bacteremia (bacteria in the blood). As a result, people suffering from alcoholism are more likely to suffer from the more dangerous aspects of \"C. canimorsus\" invasions. Finally, alcoholics are associated with increased blood iron content.\n\nSection::::High-risk categories.:Immunosuppression.\n", "Section::::Cold Adaptation.\n", "Section::::Human health effects.\n", "One of the most common diseases caused by door handle bacteria is the common cold. Since the virus is spread mostly by direct contact with an object or surface that has been contaminated by the infection and then touching our face, the everyday dangers are obvious. The symptoms become apparent a few days after the patient is infected and the following ones are the most recognizable: sore throat, runny nose, cough and sneezing. A statistic shows that on average 13,738,175 people in the United Kingdom suffer from common cold. By this number Britain has the largest number of infections of all countries in Western Europe.\n", "There has been sufficient evidence that damp indoor environments are correlated with upper respiratory tract symptoms such as coughing, and wheezing in people with asthma.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Flood specific mold health effects.\n", "Infectious diseases risks from contaminated clothing etc. can increase significantly under certain conditions, e.g., in healthcare situations in hospitals, care homes and the domestic setting where someone has diarrhoea, vomiting, or a skin or wound infection. It increases in circumstances where someone has reduced immunity to infection.\n", "Bacteremia frequently evokes a response from the immune system called Sepsis, which consists of symptoms such as fever, chills, and hypotension. Severe immune responses to bacteremia may result in septic shock and \"multiple organ dysfunction syndrome\", which are potentially fatal.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "The hygiene hypothesis has difficulty explaining why allergic diseases also occur in less affluent regions. Additionally, exposure to some microbial species actually increases future susceptibility to disease instead, as in the case of infection with rhinovirus (the main source of the common cold) which increases the risk of asthma.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Jay (Ed O' Neill) asks Claire to meet a client for lunch, which she agrees despite her being sick and suffering. Until she gets to meet the client, she regrets her decision when she begins to suffer from vertigo. She manages to meet the client but she passes out when he asks her for a lunch, which will take place in the revolving rooftop of the hotel.\n", "Pathogen transmission. Many pathogens are transmitted in the built environment and may also reside in the built environment for some period of time. Good examples include influenza, Norovirus, Legionella, and MRSA. The study of the transmission and survival of these pathogens is a component of studies of microbiomes of the built environment.\n\nIndoor Air Quality \n\nThe study of Indoor air quality and the health impact of such air quality is linked at least in part to microbes in the built environment since they can impact directly or indirectly indoor air quality.\n", "Adverse reactions include decreased appetite, vomiting, insomnia, nausea, dizziness, somnolence, and headache. Many patients report increased alertness with the drug.\n\nTwo rare but very serious effects include aplastic anemia and serious liver damage. The risk of aplastic anemia is between 1:3,600 and 1:5,000, of which 30% of cases are fatal. The risk of liver damage is between 1:24,000 to 1:34,000, of which 40% of cases are fatal. \n\nSection::::Drug interactions.\n", "Section::::Health risks.\n", "state of Florida. As of 1990, about 200 cases of PAM had been reported worldwide; as of 2007, 132 cases had been reported in the U.S. PAM occurs throughout the world, including colder climates, such as the UK and Belgium. In 2007, PAM cases were also reported in Texas and Arizona. Water-borne diseases investigated by the Orange County Health Department, the Florida Department of Health and the CDC have also included Giardia, Cyclosporiasis and Cryptosporidiosis. Techniques for identifying Cyclosporiasis were first developed in central Florida. The Florida Department of Health in Orange County, the Florida Department of Health and the CDC advise swimmers and water sports enthusiasts to wear nose plugs when the ambient temperatures exceed 80 degrees when choosing to participate in freshwater activities. However, these have not been shown to prevent the disease. Avoiding fresh water during the hot season appears to be the safest practice. Naegleria fowlerii infection of young teenagers is best described as one of a number of very rare, \"orphan diseases\".\n", "Gram negative bacterial species are responsible for approximately 24% of all cases of healthcare-associated bacteremia and 45% of all cases of community-acquired bacteremia. In general, gram negative bacteria enter the bloodstream from infections in the respiratory tract, genitourinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, or hepatobiliary system. Gram-negative bacteremia occurs more frequently in elderly populations (65 years or older) and is associated with higher morbidity and mortality in this population.\n", "BULLET::::- Vlad III. Vlad III was also said to have had acute porphyria, which may have started the notion that vampires were allergic to sunlight.\n\nBULLET::::- Vincent van Gogh. Other commentators have suggested that Vincent van Gogh may have had acute intermittent porphyria.\n\nBULLET::::- King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. The description of this king in Daniel 4 suggests to some that he had porphyria.\n\nBULLET::::- Physician Archie Cochrane. He was born with porphyria, which caused health problems throughout his life.\n", "\"Enterococci\" are an important cause of healthcare-associated bacteremia. These bacteria commonly live in the gastrointestinal tract and female genital tract. Intravenous catheters, urinary tract infections and surgical wounds are all risk factors for developing bacteremia from enterococcal species. Resistant enterococcal species can cause bacteremia in patients who have had long hospital stays or frequent antibiotic use in the past.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Gram negative bacteremia.\n", "Human exposure to bioaerosols has been documented to give rise to a variety of adverse health effects. Building occupants complain of symptoms such as sensory irritation of the eyes, nose, or throat; neurotoxic or general health problems; skin irritation; nonspecific hypersensitivity reactions; infectious diseases; and odor and taste sensations. Exposure to poor lighting conditions has led to general malaise.\n", "Engineering controls such as air conditioning and ventilation, training to build up a level of tolerance to work in extreme heat conditions and use of cooled protective clothing can help to reduce heat-related illnesses.\n\nSection::::Electricity.\n", "The health effect of chronic exposure to airborne fungi in indoor environment is known to be associated with both allergens and inflammatory compounds. Exposure to \"Wallemia sebi\" is suspected to cause allergic sensitization. One study found twenty percent of children between age of 3 to 14 express IgE sensitization to \"W. sebi\". There are also reports suggest the increase the risk of respiratory symptoms, asthma exasperation, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, rhinosinusitis, bronchitis and respiratory infections associate the exposure of building and house fungi, including \"W.sebi\".\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Effects on the body.:Treatment.\n", "Extrinsic allergic alveolitis has been associated with the presence of fungi and bacteria in the moist air of residential houses and commercial offices. A very large 2017 Swedish study correlated several inflammatory diseases of the respiration tract with objective evidence of damp-caused damage in homes.\n\nThe WHO has classified the reported symptoms into broad categories, including: mucous membrane irritation (eye, nose, and throat irritation), neurotoxic effects (headaches, fatigue, and irritability), asthma and asthma-like symptoms (chest tightness and wheezing), skin dryness and irritation, gastrointestinal complaints and more.\n", "In 2004, microbiologist Edward McSweegan suggested that the disease may have been an outbreak of anthrax poisoning. He hypothesized that the victims could have been infected with anthrax spores present in raw wool or infected animal carcasses, and he suggested exhuming the victims for testing.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:15th century.\n", "Section::::Consequences.\n\nAbsence of effective splenic function or absence of the whole spleen (asplenia) is associated with increased risks of overwhelming post splenectomy infection, especially from polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria and organisms that invade erythrocytes. People without a spleen have a weakened immune system, although other immune organs compensate for the missing spleen. Vaccination against encapsulated bacteria and prophylactic antibiotics can be used to counteract lowered immunity in asplenic patients. Specifically, people without a spleen are recommended to be vaccinated against pneumonia, influenza, \"Haemophilus influenzae\" type b and meningococci.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Testing for autosplenectomy.\n" ]	[ "Going outside without a jacket causes one to be ill. " ]	[ "Going outside without a jacket does not cause illness, one needs to be exposed to influenza virus in order to catch a cold." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Going outside without a jacket causes one to be ill. ", "Going outside without a jacket causes one to be ill. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Going outside without a jacket does not cause illness, one needs to be exposed to influenza virus in order to catch a cold.", "Going outside without a jacket does not cause illness, one needs to be exposed to influenza virus in order to catch a cold." ]
2018-00179	What is the significance of copy/pasting some random text during a captcha test?	It used to be really difficult for computers to read handwritten text- imagine trying to program that? How would you even start? You'd have to figure out how everyone writes every letter, not to mention distinguishing a print m and a cursive n. Of course, you can't just have people sitting around writing out words all day, so what do you do? You pick a random word, print it, and twist the image around, like someone with a really shaky hand did it. You can also add some random lines and dots to throw off the computer even more. Now, computers are a lot better, and basically anyone can get themselves set up with a neural network. Basically, a program that learns how to read captchas by having a huge list of captchas and their solutions, and figuring out what to look for. With enough training data, they can get pretty reliable. The new captchas with the single checkbox do something different. They monitor how you enter data into the form, how your mouse moves, etc. The reasoning goes, a bot's mouse would skip around quickly, land perfectly on each checkbox, write out an entire address in maybe a tenth of a second- not possible for a human. I believe this is how some games detect cheating, too.	[ "Note that \"CAPTCHA\" is an acronym for \"Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart\" so that the original designers of the test regard the test as a Turing test to some degree.\n\nSection::::Judgement of sufficient input.\n", "TVT does not compare the words seen on the monitor but rather the unicodes that generate the words seen. It compares, for example, the original manuscript with the artwork to be printed, or any two or more documents, and indicates all deviations in text and graphic content between the compared documents. Deviations are clearly marked and include, among others, deviations in spelling, font, formatting, style, type size, order of words and paragraphs and missing text. \n", "Additionally, TVT supports QRD & SPL-format and the exception list of the ANSM. Since the launch of TVT 8.0 in 2016, users can compare live to non-live text as well as complete an entire inspection with hot keys (shortcuts) - saving even more time compared to manual proofreading.\n\nSection::::How it works.\n", "One of the earliest commercial uses of CAPTCHAs was in the Gausebeck–Levchin test. In 2000, idrive.com began to protect its signup page with a CAPTCHA and prepared to file a patent on this seemingly novel technique. In 2001, PayPal used such tests as part of a fraud prevention strategy in which they asked humans to \"retype distorted text that programs have difficulty recognizing.\" PayPal cofounder and CTO Max Levchin helped commercialize this early use.\n", "BULLET::::- Podec, a trojan discovered by the security company Kaspersky, forwards CAPTCHA requests to an online human translation service that converts the image to text, fooling the system. Podec targets Android mobile devices.\n\nSection::::Alternative CAPTCHAs schemas.\n\nWith the demonstration that text distortion based \n", "BULLET::::- Chew et al. published their work in the 7th International Information Security Conference, ISC'04, proposing three different versions of image recognition CAPTCHAs, and validating the proposal with user studies. It is suggested that one of the versions, the anomaly CAPTCHA, is best with 100% of human users being able to pass an anomaly CAPTCHA with at least 90% probability in 42 seconds.\n", "Section::::Relation to AI.\n\nWhile used mostly for security reasons, CAPTCHAs also serve as a benchmark task for artificial intelligence technologies. According to an article by Ahn, Blum and Langford, \"any program that passes the tests generated by a CAPTCHA can be used to solve a hard unsolved AI problem.\"\n", "CAPTCHA is a form of reverse Turing test. Before being allowed to perform some action on a website, the user is presented with alphanumerical characters in a distorted graphic image and asked to type them out. This is intended to prevent automated systems from being used to abuse the site. The rationale is that software sufficiently sophisticated to read and reproduce the distorted image accurately does not exist (or is not available to the average user), so any system able to do so is likely to be a human.\n", "During this evaluation, three different automatic tests were given to the principal investigators without human intervention:\n\nBULLET::::1. The large gallery test, which served to baseline how algorithms performed against a database when it has not been properly tuned.\n\nBULLET::::2. The false-alarm test, which tested how well the algorithm monitored an airport for suspected terrorists.\n\nBULLET::::3. The rotation test, which measured how well the algorithm performed when the images of an individual in the gallery had different poses compared to those in the probe set.\n", "The term was coined in 2003 by Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas J. Hopper, and John Langford. The most common type of CAPTCHA (displayed as Version 1.0) was first invented in 1997 by two groups working in parallel. This form of CAPTCHA requires that the user type the letters of a distorted image, sometimes with the addition of an obscured sequence of letters or digits that appears on the screen. Because the test is administered by a computer, in contrast to the standard Turing test that is administered by a human, a CAPTCHA is sometimes described as a reverse Turing test.\n", "Software that could reverse CAPTCHA with some accuracy by analysing patterns in the generating engine started being developed soon after the creation of CAPTCHA.\n\nIn 2013, researchers at Vicarious announced that they had developed a system to solve CAPTCHA challenges from Google, Yahoo!, and PayPal up to 90% of the time.\n\nIn 2014, Google engineers demonstrated a system that could defeat CAPTCHA challenges with 99.8% accuracy.\n\nIn 2015, Shuman Ghosemajumder, former click fraud czar of Google, stated that there were cybercriminal sites that would defeat CAPTCHA challenges for a fee, to enable various forms of fraud.\n", "CAPTCHA\n\nA CAPTCHA (, an acronym for \"completely automated public Turing test to tell computers and humans apart\") is a type of challenge–response test used in computing to determine whether or not the user is human.\n", "BULLET::::- CAPTCHA (visual confirmation) routines on forum registration pages can help prevent spambots from carrying out automated registrations. Simple CAPTCHA systems which display alphanumeric characters have proven vulnerable to optical character recognition software but those that scramble the characters appear to be far more effective.\n\nBULLET::::- Textual confirmation is an alternative to CAPTCHA in which the user answers one or more random questions to prove that he/she is not a spambot.\n\nBULLET::::- Confirmation e-mails to registering users prior to allowing the user a first log in, either containing a site-generated password or an activation code/link.\n", "Another aspect of this technique with negative connotations are its experimental features: the matched guise technique is usually used with groups in classrooms or laboratories and has thus been qualified as artificial or not very 'natural'; Robinson (1978) also believes that\n", "Section::::History.:Inventorship claims.\n", "BULLET::::- Delayed recall: After a longer delay (20–30 minutes), the examinee may again be asked to draw the figure from memory. Examinees are not told beforehand that they will be asked to draw the figure from memory; the Immediate and Delayed Recall conditions are therefore tests of incidental memory. Each copy is scored for the accurate reproduction and placement of 18 specific design elements. Additionally, the test administrator can note their qualitative observations regarding the examinee's approach to the task and the effectiveness of any apparent strategy use.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:André Rey.\n", "The first group to use the expression in this regard can be found below from Indiana University. Their work explains in detail an attempt to detect inauthentic texts and identify pernicious problems of inauthentic texts in cyberspace. The site has a means of submitting text that assesses, based on supervised learning, whether a corpus is inauthentic or not. Many users have submitted incorrect types of data and have correspondingly commented on the scores. This application is meant for a specific kind of data; therefore, submitting, say, an email, will not return a meaningful score.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Scraper site\n", "Section::::Criticism and commendation of the FEAST test.\n", "This strategy ensures that the application is not prone to the Probe Effect. Sources of errors that cause the Probe Effect can range from task creation issues to synchronization and communication problems. Requirements of timing related tests:\n\nBULLET::::- Delay duration must vary\n\nBULLET::::- Delay points must cover appropriate program locations\n\nBULLET::::- Delay statements must be inserted, removed or relocated to induce Probe Effect\n\nThe number of test cases per input data set is: \n", "This user identification procedure has received many criticisms, especially from people with disabilities, but also from other people who feel that their everyday work is slowed down by distorted words that are difficult to read. It takes the average person approximately 10 seconds to solve a typical CAPTCHA.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The term \"reverse Turing test\" has also been applied to a Turing test (test of humanity) that is administered by a computer. In other words, a computer administers a test to determine if the subject is or is not human. As of 2004, such procedures, called CAPTCHAs, are used in some anti-spam systems to prevent automated bulk use of communications systems.\n\nThe use of captchas is controversial. Circumvention methods exist that reduce their effectiveness. Also, many implementations of captchas (particularly ones desired to counter circumvention) are inaccessible to humans with disabilities, and/or are difficult for humans to pass.\n", "Scanned text is subjected to analysis by two different optical character recognition programs. Their respective outputs are then aligned with each other by standard string-matching algorithms and compared both to each other and to an English dictionary. Any word that is deciphered differently by both OCR programs or that is not in the English dictionary is marked as \"suspicious\" and converted into a CAPTCHA. The suspicious word is displayed, out of context, sometimes along with a control word already known. If the human types the control word correctly, then the response to the questionable word is accepted as probably valid. If enough users were to correctly type the control word, but incorrectly type the second word which OCR had failed to recognize, then the digital version of documents could end up containing the incorrect word. The identification performed by each OCR program is given a value of 0.5 points, and each interpretation by a human is given a full point. Once a given identification hits 2.5 points, the word is considered valid. Those words that are consistently given a single identity by human judges are later recycled as control words. If the first three guesses match each other but do not match either of the OCRs, they are considered a correct answer, and the word becomes a control word. When six users reject a word before any correct spelling is chosen, the word is discarded as unreadable.\n", "BULLET::::- Segmentation, or the ability to separate one letter from another, is also made difficult in CAPTCHAs, as characters are crowded together with no white space in between.\n\nBULLET::::- Context is also critical. The CAPTCHA must be understood holistically to correctly identify each character. For example, in one segment of a CAPTCHA, a letter might look like an \"m\". Only when the whole word is taken into context does it become clear that it is a \"u\" and an \"n\".\n", "BULLET::::- Oral Expression: assesses general ability to use oral language effectively (repeating sentences, generating lists, describing scenes and pictured activities).\n", "Text Verification Tool\n\nThe Text Verification Tool (TVT) is a computer-based software program for proofreading developed by Schlafender Hase GmbH, headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. It was originally designed to meet the needs of the global pharmaceutical industry for consistency and accuracy in product information and documentation. While most effectively used in highly regulated environments, it can be used in any proofreading situation where the text and graphic contents of a finalized document should be identical with the original document, regardless of file size, layout or format.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03127	how is it possible for someone to refuse to use the toilet for 37 days and not die?	There's no way a human who was still eating and drinking could go for that length of time without eliminating waste. So the real question is, what did he do with it? (Or perhaps the question is, how diligent were they?) I have no idea. Used the toilet in another prisoner's cell would be my guess. But maybe he came up with something even more innovative.	[ "Section::::In fiction.\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia Lass, the protagonist of comedy-drama television series \"Dead Like Me\", is hit and killed in the pilot episode by a toilet seat falling from the deorbiting Mir space station.\n\nBULLET::::- The character Tywin Lannister in the book \"A Storm of Swords\", a novel from the A Song of Ice and Fire series written by George R.R. Martin, is killed while using the toilet.\n\nBULLET::::- Lawyer Donald Gennaro is devoured by a Tyrannosaurus Rex while sitting on the toilet of a destroyed restroom cabin in the 1993 movie \"Jurassic Park\".\n", "In May 2016, an 11 ft snake, a reticulated python, emerged from a squat toilet and bit the man using it on his penis at his home in Chachoengsao Province, Thailand. Both victim and python survived.\n\nSection::::Self-induced injury.\n", "Quality of life is very poor for patients with aHUS, who are burdened with fatigue, renal complications, hypertension, neurological impairment, gastrointestinal distress, clotting at the site of venous access, and ultimately, death. PE/PI is also reported to be associated with significant safety risks and is highly disruptive to patients’ lives due to the requirements for extensive vascular access and frequent administration.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Historical deaths.:Possible occurrences.\n\nBULLET::::- Duke Jing of Jin (Ju), ruler of the State of Jin during the Spring and Autumn period of ancient China, died after falling into the toilet pit in summer 581 BC.\n\nBULLET::::- Edmund II of England died of natural causes on November 30, 1016, though some report that he was stabbed in the bowels while attending the outhouse. Similarly, Uesugi Kenshin, a warlord in Japan, died on April 19, 1578, with some reports stating that he was assassinated on the toilet.\n", "A 2001 \"Sopranos\" episode \"He is Risen\" shows a fictional depiction of the risk, when the character Gigi Cestone has a heart attack on the toilet of his social club while straining to defecate.\n\nSection::::Exploding toilets.\n", "List of people who died on the toilet\n\nList of people who died on the toilet where individuals have died while using a toilet facility or in the process of defecation or urination. This includes all confirmed historical figures and more modern recent notable cases of deaths.\n\nSection::::Fictional deaths.\n\nBULLET::::- The character Tywin Lannister in the book \"A Storm of Swords\", a novel from the \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" series written by George R. R. Martin, is killed by his son, Tyrion Lannister, while using the toilet.\n", "Section::::Discovery.:Autopsy.\n", "There are also injuries caused by animals. Some black widow spiders like to spin their web below the toilet seat because insects abound in and around it. Therefore, several persons have been bitten while using a toilet, particularly an outhouse toilet. Although there is immediate pain at the bite site, these bites are rarely fatal. The danger of spiders living beneath toilet seats is the subject of Slim Newton's comic 1972 country song \"The Redback on the Toilet Seat\".\n", "Urine that leaves the body of a healthy person is close to being sterile and requires much less treatment for pathogen removal than feces or fecal sludge. However, a contamination of urine with fecal pathogens is possible if the UDDT is not used correctly, i.e. when some fecal matter finds its way into the urine compartment. Also, for a few specific diseases, the relevant pathogens may be found in the urine; for example: Leptospira interrogans, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Schistosoma haematobium, BK virus or Simian virus. The Ebola virus may also be found in urine from an infected person. The exact survival time of this particular virus in human urine outside of the human body is unclear but probably \"up to several days\" like with other body fluids at room temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- A collision between a disabled Cessna 182 and a row of portable toilets on May 2, 2009 at Thun Field (south-east of Tacoma), despite an engine failure at altitude, ended without fatalities; the toilets \"kind of cushioned things\" for the 67-year-old pilot.\n\nBULLET::::- British businessman and Conservative politician Christopher Shale was found dead in a portable toilet at the Glastonbury Festival on June 26, 2011. It is suspected he died of a heart attack.\n", "In immunocompromised individuals, such as AIDS patients, cryptosporidiosis resolves slowly or not at all, and frequently causes a particularly severe and persistent form of watery diarrhea coupled with a greatly decreased ability to absorb key nutrients through the intestinal tract. As a result, infected individuals may experience severe dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, malnutrition, wasting, and potentially death. In general, the mortality rate for infected AIDS patients is based on CD4+ marker counts. Patients with CD4+ counts over 180 cells/mm³ recover with supportive hospital care and medication; but, in patients with CD4+ counts below 50 cells/mm³, the effects are usually fatal within 3 to 6 months. During the Milwaukee cryptosporidiosis epidemic (the largest of its kind), 73% of AIDS patients with CD4+ counts lower than 50 cells/mm³ and 36% of those with counts between 50 and 200 cells/mm³ died within the first year of contracting the infection.\n", "Cats with the condition are known as 'Janus cats', after the Roman god. In July 2006, a 6-year-old male Janus cat called \"Frank and Louie\" from Millbury, Massachusetts, USA, received publicity. In their case, only one esophagus (and possibly only one trachea) were functional; this aided survival. In September 2011, when Frank and Louie were 12 years old, it was announced that they would appear in the 2012 Guinness Book of World Records as the longest-surviving Janus cat on record. In 2014, Frank and Louie died at the age of 15.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Conjoined twins\n", "In 2004, a 63 year old man developed left thigh pain and swelling, which evolved into fevers, rigors, and skin rash. Two days, he experienced vertigo and vomiting, and was emitted into the hospital where he was treated with acute labyrinthitis, followed by meningococcal sepsis. Hypertension ensued, and edema of the left thigh muscle was discovered during surgery. These treatments were continued, but the patient went into progressive organ failure, followed by muscle necrosis, and ventricular tachycardia. The patient later went into circulatory and respiratory failure, before passing away less than 48 hours after being emitted into the hospital.\n", "Diarrhea is most commonly caused by a myriad of viral infections but is also often the result of bacterial toxins and sometimes even infection. In sanitary living conditions and with ample food and water available, an otherwise healthy patient typically recovers from the common viral infections in a few days and at most a week. However, for ill or malnourished individuals diarrhea can lead to severe dehydration and can become life-threatening without treatment.\n\nSection::::Diseases and conditions.:Constipation.\n", "Persistently infected animals did not have a competent immune system at the time of BVDV transplacental infection. The virus therefore entered the fetal cells and, during immune system development, was accepted as self. In PIs the virus remains present in a large number of the animal’s body cells throughout its life and is continuously shed. PIs are often ill-thrifty and smaller than their peers, however they can appear normal. PIs are more susceptible to disease, with only 20% of PIs surviving to two years of age. If a PI dam is able to reproduce they always give birth to PI calves.\n", "There have been five main cholera outbreaks and pandemics since 1825. In London alone, the second killed 14,137 people in 1849, and the third took 10,738 lives in 1853–54. In 1849 the English physician John Snow published a paper \"On the Mode of Communication of Cholera\", in which he suggested that cholera might be waterborne. During the 1854 epidemic, he collected and analyzed data establishing that people who drank water from contaminated sources such as the Broad Street pump died of cholera at much higher rates than those who got water elsewhere.\n\nSection::::Toilets in developing countries.\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Anderson Godwin, a convicted murderer in South Carolina who had his sentence reduced from death by the electric chair, sat on the metal toilet in his cell while fixing his television. When he bit one of the wires, the resultant electric shock killed him. Another convicted murderer, Laurence Baker in Pittsburgh, was electrocuted while listening to the television on home-made earphones while sitting on a metal toilet.\n", "The inability to satisfy essential physiological needs because no toilet is available contributes to health issues such as urinary tract infections, kidney infections, and digestive problems which can later develop into severe health problems. Inadequate access to a public toilets when required can lead to substantial problems for men with prostate problems, women who are menstruating or going through the menopause and anyone with urinary and fecal incontinence.\n", "Other infectious agents, such as parasites or bacterial toxins, may exacerbate symptoms. In sanitary living conditions where there is ample food and a supply of clean water, an otherwise healthy person usually recovers from viral infections in a few days. However, for ill or malnourished individuals, diarrhea can lead to severe dehydration and can become life-threatening.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Infections.:Sanitation.\n\nOpen defecation is a leading cause of infectious diarrhea leading to death.\n", "In thermophilic composting bacteria that thrive at temperatures of oxidize (break down) waste into its components, some of which are consumed in the process, reducing volume and eliminating potential pathogens. To destroy pathogens, thermophilic composting must heat the compost pile sufficiently, or enough time (1–2 years) must elapse since fresh material was added that biological activity has had the same pathogen removal effect.\n", "During the dehydration process moisture is evaporating from the feces and microbes are degrading the organic material. It is the dry conditions together with the storage time itself that lead to the decline of pathogens in the feces. The goal of the dehydration process is to exceed the pathogens' desiccation tolerance (or dryness tolerance) and therefore to significantly reduce their numbers and viability, for example with respect to helminth eggs which are responsible for causing helminth infections in people in developing countries, particularly children.\n", "\"S. haematobium\", the infectious agent responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis, infects over 112 million people annually in Sub-Saharan Africa alone. It is responsible for 32 million cases of dysuria, 10 million cases of hydronephrosis, and 150,000 deaths from renal failure annually, making \"S. haematobium\" the world’s deadliest schistosome.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Deaths.\n", "Toilets are one important element of a sanitation system, although other elements are also needed: transport, treatment, disposal, or reuse. Diseases, including Cholera, which still affects some 3 million people each year, can be largely prevented when effective sanitation and water treatment prevents fecal matter from contaminating waterways, groundwater, and drinking water supplies.\n\nSection::::Public health aspects.:Example of cholera in England.\n", "Chief complaints: suffering from acute dysentery, later experiencing deliriousness\n\nOutcome: Died within the three days following his admission.\n\nMajor Findings:\n", "Some instances of toilet-related deaths are attributed to the drop in blood pressure due to the parasympathetic nervous system during bowel movements. This effect may be magnified by existing circulatory issues. It is further possible that people succumb on the toilet to chronic constipation, because the Valsalva maneuver is often dangerously used to aid in the expulsion of feces from the rectum during a bowel movement. According to Sharon Mantik Lewis, Margaret McLean Heitkemper and Shannon Ruff Dirksen, the \"Valsalva maneuver … occurs during straining to pass a hardened stool. If defecation is suppressed over long periods, problems can occur, such as constipation or stool impaction. Defecation can be facilitated by the Valsalva maneuver. This maneuver involves contraction of the chest muscles on a closed glottis with simultaneous contraction of the abdominal muscles.\" This means that people can die while \"straining at stool.\" In chapter 8 of their \"Abdominal Emergencies\", David Cline and Latha Stead wrote that \"autopsy studies continue to reveal missed bowel obstruction as an unexpected cause of death\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04700	How come when skulls are found, the nose is often missing?	No bones in the nose. It’s all cartilage. That decomposes and leaves just the bone of the skull.	[ "Section::::Desecration of remains.:Rediscovery.\n", "The left base of the skeleton's skull was missing. The cranium was broken near to the left middle-ear but this did not appear to be due to violence. The head and torso had become detached at some point through movement. A small amount of hair was found still adhered to the skull.\n", "Ridges on the inside of the skull of \"Karenites\" form a series of sinuses. These sinuses may have been associated with improvements in the sense of smell of therocephalians, but they are not thought to be olfactory structures.\n", "Among the nasal bones of \"Europasaurus\", several are known, but few are complete or undistorted. The nasals are overlapped posteriorly by the frontal bones, and towards the side, they articulate bluntly with the prefrontals. Unlike the nasals of \"Giraffatitan\", those in \"Europasaurus\" project horizontally forwards, forming a small portion of the skull roof over the antorbital fenestrae. Four frontals are known from \"Europasaurus\", three being from the left and one being from the right. Because of their disarticulation, it is likely that the frontals never fused during growth, unlike in \"Camarasaurus\". The frontals form a portion of the skull roof, articulating with other bones such as the nasals, parietals, prefrontals and postorbitals, and they are longer antero-posteriorly than they are wide, a unique character among a eusauropodan. Like in diplodocoids (\"Amargasaurus\", \"Dicraeosaurus\" and \"Diplodocus\"), as well as \"Camarasaurus\", the frontals are excluded from the frontoparietal fenestra (or parietal fenestra when frontals are excluded). The frontals are also excluded from the supratemporal fenestra margin (a widespread character in sauropods more derived than \"Shunosaurus\"), and they only have a small, unornamented participation in the orbit. Several parietal bones are known in \"Europasaurus\", which show a rectangular shape much wider than long. the parietals are also wide when viewed from the back of the skull, being slightly taller than the foramen magnum (spinal cord opening). The parietals contribute to about half the post-temporal fenestra (opening above the very back of the skull) border, with the other region enclosed by the squamosal bones and some braincase bones. Parietals also form part of the edge of the supratemporal fenestra, which is wider than long in \"Europasaurus\", like in \"Giraffatitan\", \"Camarasaurus\" and \"Spinophorosaurus\". Besides the before mentioned fenestra, the parietals also have a \"postparietal fenestra\", something rarely seen outside of Dicraeosauridae. A triradiate postorbital bone is present in \"Europasaurus\", which evolved as the fusion of the postfrontal and postosbital bone of more basal taxa. Between the anterior and ventrally projecting processes the postorbital forms the margin of the orbit, and between the posterior and ventral processes it borders the infratemporal fenestra.\n", "BULLET::::- The occipital condyle is small, approximately 16% of basal skull length\n\nBULLET::::- The orbit, eye socket, is relatively large\n\nBULLET::::- The rump osteoderms are basally excavated with a smooth, weakly ornamented external surface texture; and steeply-pitched, triangular caudal, tail, osteoderms are present\n\nSection::::Paleoecology.\n\nSection::::Paleoecology.:Provenance and occurrence.\n", "Section::::Description.:Post-cranial skeleton.\n", "Besides this, the additional anomalies seen in FND can be subdivided by region. None of these anomalies are specific for the syndrome of FND, but they do occur more often in patients with FND than in the population. The anomalies that may be present are:\n\nBULLET::::- Nasal: mild anomalies to nostrils that are far apart and a broad nasal root, a notch or cleft of the nose and accessory nasal tags.\n", "On top of the skull, behind the snout proper, above the \"fenestra\" a longitudinal low bony crest is present. It consists of fibrous bone, vertically directed, which might have formed the base for a much higher crest of soft tissue. The crest starts above the twelfth tooth position; its limit at the back is unknown because of damage but it is considered unlikely that it extended as far as the eyes, the roof of the skull not showing any trace of it. The crest is highest in the (preserved) middle.\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n", "In all, 32 of those plaster figures were found in two caches, 15 of them full figures, 15 busts, and 2 fragmentary heads. Three of the busts were two-headed.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Burial practices.\n\nConsiderable evidence for mortuary practices during the PPNB period have been described in recent years. Post-mortem skull removal, commonly restricted to the cranium, but on occasion including the mandible, and apparently following preliminary primary interments of the complete corpse. Such treatment has commonly been interpreted as representing rituals connected with veneration of the dead or some form of \"ancestor worship\".\n", "Skeletonized UIDs are often forensically reconstructed if searching dental records and DNA databases is unsuccessful.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Traumatic injuries.\n", "As is typical for reptiles, the lower rear portion of the braincase is formed by a bone known as the basioccipital, although this bone is unusually long and low in \"Vancleavea\". The rear portion of the bone has a single large knob, known as an occipital condyle, which attaches the skull to the neck. A pair of bones outwards-angled known as exoccipitals attach to the upper surface of the basioccipital. In most archosauriforms, the exoccipitals form the upper surface of the occipital condyle, but \"Vancleavea\" is unique in lacking this contact. The bases of the exoccipitals are elongated and diverge towards the rear of the basioccipital. They also converge towards the front, although they do not contact each other. In addition, a small ridge runs between the bases on the upper surface of the basioccipital. Thus, when seen from above, the bases of the exoccipitals resemble a forward-pointing arrow with a small gap at the apex. A ridge and a small pit are present on each side of the basioccipital under the contact with the exoccipital. An additional pit believed to be the opening for the hypoglossal canal lies on the outer side of each exoccipital.\n", "Skull fractures occur more easily at the thin squamous temporal and parietal bones, the sphenoid sinus, the foramen magnum (the opening at the base of the skull that the spinal cord passes through), the petrous temporal ridge, and the inner portions of the sphenoid wings at the base of the skull. The middle cranial fossa, a depression at the base of the cranial cavity forms the thinnest part of the skull and is thus the weakest part. This area of the cranial floor is weakened further by the presence of multiple foramina as a result this section is at higher risk for basilar skull fractures to occur. Other areas more susceptible to fractures are the cribriform plate, the roof of orbits in the anterior cranial fossa, and the areas between the mastoid and dural sinuses in the posterior cranial fossa.\n", "The heads of diplodocids have been widely depicted with the nostrils on top due to the position of the nasal openings at the apex of the skull. There has been speculation over whether such a configuration meant that diplodocids may have had a trunk. A 2006 study surmised there was no paleoneuroanatomical evidence for a trunk. It noted that the facial nerve in an animal with a trunk, such as an elephant, is large as it innervates the trunk. The evidence suggests that the facial nerve is very small in diplodocids. Studies by Lawrence Witmer (2001) indicated that, while the nasal openings were high on the head, the actual, fleshy nostrils were situated much lower down on the snout.\n", "Section::::Description and interpretation.:Nostrils.\n", "The second species, \"Bauria robusta\" is known from a skull that is as much as twenty percent larger than the largest know specimen of \"Bauria cynops\", which is about fifteen percent larger than the average of all other specimens of this genotype. The skull was unfortunately not well preserved, due to exposure to weathering. The only tangible evidence of a feature which is quite apparent to the eye is the fact that the snout appears to stouter, higher and shorter than in \"Bauria cynops\". The cheek bulges in other \"Bauria\" specimens are below the anterior borders of the orbits, while in the new species they rise to a position more directly in from of the orbits.\n", "Section::::Description and paleobiology.:Skull.\n", "Section::::Morphology.\n\nSection::::Morphology.:Fossil.\n\nThe holotype is missing the mandible, upper canines, and zygomatic arch. The remainder of the skull is damaged, but relatively intact.\n\nSection::::Morphology.:Teeth.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Presence of Turbinates.\n\nThe skull of \"Brasilitherium\" provides useful information when discerning the emergence of a true nose in mammals. \"Brasilitherium\" was not a mammal but indeed a synapsida tetrapod that served as a close predecessor to the first mammaliaforms. The emergence of turbinates can be recognized through the observation of this 227 million year old protomammal.\n", "All Dmanisi hominin remains were suggested to have been buried quickly after death. D2700 was found with four upper teeth, while D2735 contained eight teeth. As both fossil hominin remains are jointed, it is found that they ultimately fit one another. D2700’s narrow nasal bones were found inferiorly broken from the orbital margins. Because the cranium’s upper molars were partially erupted, D2700 is believed to have been the skull of a 13 to 15-year-old individual. It is considered that the skull was of a teenager.\n\nSection::::Species controversy.\n", "Proboscis (anomaly)\n\nIn teratology, proboscis is a blind-ended, tubelike structure, commonly located in the middle of the face.\n\nProboscis formation are classified in four general types: holoprosencephalic proboscis, lateral nasal proboscis, supernumerary proboscis, and disruptive proboscis.\n", "The skull of \"Counillonia\" is short and relatively slender in construction, with the typically broad temporal fenestra of most dicynodonts at the back (although they are relatively reduced for a dicynodont) and a short, narrow snout that comes to a squared-off beak tip. The caniniform process of the maxilla is short and directed anteriorly so that the tusks point somewhat forward as well as down, and sits entirely in front of the eyes. The upper jaw is completely toothless apart from these two tusks. The interorbital region between the eyes is narrow, and so the large orbits are characteristically directed upwards. The nostrils are large, occupying approximately 1/3 of the snout's surface, and sit low at the front of the snout above the short and fused premaxillae. The nasal bones near the front of the snout sport a single well-developed boss that sits almost right above the nostrils and the premaxilla. This boss is bordered on each side by wide, elongate depressions that extend up on to the frontal bones behind the nasals. The boss has a roughened, rugose texture, but the surface of the rest of the snout is too weathered to determine if they were similarly rugose. Contacts between the bones are difficult to discern, and sutures are hardly visible on the surface of the skull, mostly between the contacts of the frontals and the surrounding bones. The pineal foramen (the opening for the \"third eye\") is oval and lies across the parietal bones just behind the preparietal and is positioned relatively far back in the last quarter of the skull. The braincase and rear of the skull is somewhat weathered, but they appear similarly constructed to those of other dicynodonts. The secondary palate formed by the premaxilla is unusually short and reduced, and their contact with the palatine bones is not visible. The palatines themselves preserve expanded, roughly textured pads that indicate the front of the roof of the mouth was covered in keratinous horn like the beak.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Crest function.\n\nOnly five relatively complete \"Nyctosaurus\" skulls have been found. Of those, one is juvenile and does not possess a crest (specimen FMNH P 25026), and two are more mature and may show signs of having had a crest but are too badly crushed to say for sure (FHSM 2148 and CM 11422). Two specimens (KJ1 and KJ2) described in 2003, however, preserved an enormous double-pronged crest.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Function of the nasal horn and osteoderms.\n", "Section::::Palaeobiology.:Nasal passages.\n", "Skull defects should be closed in order to protect the brain. The occipital and temporal regions bear the most pressure while sleeping and therefore need to be reconstructed. Frontal bone defects cause a contour defect; therefore, aesthetic considerations are often taken into account to reconstruct this area. Midsagittal defects are of lower importance, as they allow only penetrating trauma. When the reconstruction cannot be performed immediately, wearing a helmet is advised.\n\nSkull deformities can result in high intracranial pressure which can cause complaints ranging from headaches to epilepsy-like seizures.\n" ]	[ "Nose is a missing bone." ]	[ "Nose is not a bone. It is cartilage and decomposes." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Nose is a missing bone." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Nose is not a bone. It is cartilage and decomposes." ]
2018-16714	Does anyone know why these 'Metal soaps' that remove odour work?	The molecules in the steel bind with the sulfur molecules left on your fingers from things like garlic and onions, and when you rub your hands against the steel under cold water, the molecules are washed away.	[ "Stainless steel soap\n\nStainless steel soap is a piece of stainless steel, in the form of a soap bar or other hand-held shape. Its purported purpose is to neutralize or reduce strong odors such as those from handling garlic, onion, durian, guava, salami, or fish.\n", "All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless.\n", "Closed-cell metal foam was first reported in 1926 by Meller in a French patent where foaming of light metals, either by inert gas injection or by blowing agent, was suggested. Two patents on sponge-like metal were issued to Benjamin Sosnik in 1948 and 1951 who applied mercury vapor to blow liquid aluminium.\n", "Since they are salts of fatty acids, soaps have the general formula (RCO)M (Where R is an alkyl, M is a metal and n is the charge of the cation). The major classification of soaps is determined by the identity of M. When M is Na or K, the soaps are called toilet soaps, used for handwashing. Many metal dications (Mg, Ca, and others) give metallic soap. When M is Li, the result is lithium soap (e.g., lithium stearate), which is used in high-performance greases.\n\nSection::::Kinds of soaps.:Non-toilet soaps.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn the early 1900s, in New York, a cookware peddler and a jeweller (his brother-in-law), were working on a solution to the blackened cookware. Using jewellers' rouge, with soap and fine steel wool from Germany, they developed a method to scour the backsides of cooking utensils when they began to blacken. The method worked, and the peddler added this new product, soap with steel wool, into his line of goods for sale.\n", "The Peerless odorizer was the first example of this type of odorizer. The Peerless natural-gas odorizer was recognized as a Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1992. This odorizer was said to have been developed in response to the New London School explosion that occurred in March 1937. It was first shipped in July 1937, the Peerless odorizer overcame two of the major problems of previous devices:\n\nBULLET::::1. Peerless avoided problems with leaky shaft seals, by encapsulating the entire unit within a pressure vessel.\n", "Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners. Greases are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil.\n\nMetal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier.\n\nSection::::Kinds of soaps.:Non-toilet soaps.:Production of metallic soaps.\n\nMost heavy metal soaps are prepared by neutralization of purified fatty acids:\n", "Section::::Applications.:Lithium soaps.\n\nLithium derivatives of 12-hydroxystearate and other fatty acids are important constituents of lubricating greases. In lithium-based greases, lithium carboxylates are thickeners. \"Complex soaps\" are also common, these being combinations of metallic soaps, such as lithium and calcium soaps.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Fire extinguishers.\n", "Most dishwasher detergents are incompatible for use with silver, brass, cast iron, bronze, pewter, and goldleaf. They can also harm disposable plastic, anything wood, knives with hollow handles, and fine glassware.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "The electrical connections of high-pressure sodium vapour lamps, the yellow lamps for street lighting, are made of niobium alloyed with 1% of zirconium.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nLithopone is produced by coprecipitation of barium sulfate and zinc sulfide. Most commonly coprecipitation is effected by combining equimolar amounts of zinc sulfate and barium sulfide:\n\nThis route affords a product that is 29.4 wt % ZnS and 70.6 wt % BaSO. Variations exist, for example, more ZnS-rich materials are produced when zinc chloride is added to the mixture of zinc sulfate and barium sulfide.\n\nBarium sulfide is produced by carbothermic reduction of barium sulfate. Zinc sulfate is obtained from a variety of zinc products, often waste, by treatment with sulfuric acid.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Closed-cell foams retain the fire resistance and recycling potential of other metal foams, but add the property of flotation in water.\n\nSection::::Closed-cell.:Manufacturing.\n", "Compared to polymer foams in vehicles, metallic foams are stiffer, stronger, more energy absorbent, and resistant to fire and the weather adversities of UV light, humidity, and temperature variation. However, they are heavier, more expensive, and non-insulating.\n\nMetal foam technology has been applied to automotive exhaust gas. Compared to traditional catalytic converters that use cordierite ceramic as substrate, metal foam substrate offers better heat transfer and exhibits excellent mass-transport properties (high turbulence) and may reduce the quantity of platinum catalyst required.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Mechanical.:Energy absorption.\n", "Modern scavenger sachets use a mixture of iron powder and sodium chloride. Often activated carbon is also included as it adsorbs some other gases and many organic molecules, further preserving products and removing odors.\n", "One study proposes the creation of hydrogen gas sensors using polyaniline nanofibers. It shows that both doped and dedoped polyaniline nanofibers can be used for detection of hydrogen gas through resistance changes, but the dedoped nanofibers were more stable and had better reproducibility.\n\nAnother study shows the potential of polyaniline nanofibers as NO gas sensors. NO gas acts as a strong oxidizing agent to the emeraldine form of polyaniline nanofibers, which causes resistance changes greater than three orders of magnitude at 100 ppm.\n", "Section::::Usage of low-pressure lamps for surface cleaning.\n\nLow-pressure mercury-vapor lamps usually have a quartz bulb in order to allow the transmission of short wavelength light. If synthetic quartz is used, then the transparency of the quartz is increased further and an emission line at 185 nm is observed also. Such a lamp can then be used for the cleaning or modification of surfaces. The 185 nm line will create ozone in an oxygen containing atmosphere, which helps in the cleaning process, but is also a health hazard.\n\nSection::::Light pollution considerations.\n", "Section::::Tools and products.:Coating materials.:Sealants, lacquers and corrosion inhibitors.\n\n\"Incralac\"\n\nIncralac was developed by the International Copper Research Association. It is made of a synthetic resin with what is often referred to as a corrosion inhibitor (benzotriazole) that is very durable in outdoor conditions. Benzoltriazole has also been referred to as a UV stabilizer rather than a corrosion inhibitor.\n\n\"Cobratec 99\"\n\nCobratec 99 is manufactured by Sherwin Williams Chemical Company. Cobratec 99 is a commercial grade of benzotriazole. Care needs to be taken (protective gloves and masks should be worn) because it is toxic if ingested.\n\nSection::::Tools and products.:Brushes.\n", "Section::::Controversies.\n\nIn December 2010, St. Jude Medical voluntarily stopped selling its Riata and Riata ST line of defibrillator leads over concerns that the leads were susceptible to insulation abrasion. The Food and Drug Administration issued a recall of the leads in November 2011.\n", "Another widespread use for such lamps is in photographic lighting and stage lighting fixtures, where they are commonly known as MSD lamps and are generally used in 150, 250, 400, 575 and 1,200 watt ratings, especially intelligent lighting.\n\nBecause of their wide spectrum and good efficiency, they are used for indoor growing applications and are quite popular with reef aquarists, who need a high intensity light source for their corals.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "The older bells which were made from cast iron were susceptible to rusting in certain environments. The new bells made from 316 spun steel have no problem with rust and are ideal for sterile environments such as found in the food industry or in pharmaceutical plants.\n", "The soap comes packaged in paper similar to bar body soap and is most often found in the laundry section of a supermarket or grocery store. It is intended for the pre-treatment of stains by rubbing the dampened product on a soiled area prior to laundering. The manufacturer claims it to be most effective in removing chocolate, baby formula, perspiration, and make-up.\n", "Section::::Composites.\n\nComposite metal foam (CMF) is formed from hollow beads of one metal within a solid matrix of another, such as steel within aluminium, show 5 to 6 times greater strength to density ratio and more than 7 times greater energy absorption than previous metal foams.\n", "Section::::Nazi era and post World War II.\n", "Samsung’s description of the Ag nanoparticle generating process seems to contradict its advertisement of silver nanoparticles. Instead, the statement indicates that laundry cycles. When clothes are run through the cycle, the intended mode of action is that bacteria contained in the water are sterilized as they interact with the silver present in the washing tub. As a result, these washing machines can provide antibacterial and sterilization benefits on top of conventional washing methods. \n", "Neutralization of fatty acids, i.e. saponification, is a widely practiced route to metallic soaps.\n\nSection::::Reactions of fatty acids.:Hydrogenation and hardening.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16589	Why does every movie trailer announcer sound the same? Are they all the same guy?	They're all trying emulate Don LaFontaine, who sadly passed away in 2008. Dude made over 5,000 movie trailers. Also, see John Facenda from NFL Films: URL_0	[ "BULLET::::- Eddie Palladino – Boston Celtics\n\nBULLET::::- Shawn Parker – Minnesota Timberwolves\n\nBULLET::::- Pat Pieper – Chicago Cubs\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Pritt – Cleveland Indians\n\nBULLET::::- John Ramsey – Los Angeles Dodgers, Los Angeles Kings, Los Angeles Lakers, Los Angeles Rams, Los Angeles Angels, USC Trojans\n\nBULLET::::- Andy Redmond – Frederick Keys\n\nBULLET::::- Eric Smith – Los Angeles Clippers, Los Angeles Chargers, Los Angeles Dodgers\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Roach – Colorado Avalanche, Colorado Rapids, Minnesota Vikings, Super Bowl, Pro Bowl, NFL International Series, Olympic Hockey, Olympic Boxing\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Roberts – Utah Jazz\n\nBULLET::::- Justin Roberts – World Wrestling Entertainment\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Hutyler – Seattle Mariners\n\nBULLET::::- Dwight Isenhoward - Winston Salem Dash, Catawba Indians, Elkin Buckin Elks\n\nBULLET::::- Andy Jick – Boston Celtics\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Johnson – horse racing\n\nBULLET::::- Wes Johnson – Washington Capitals\n\nBULLET::::- Stan Kelly – San Antonio Spurs\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Lagana – Los Angeles Rams\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Lennon, Jr. – boxing\n\nBULLET::::- Todd Leitz – Los Angeles Dodgers\n\nBULLET::::- Budd Lynch – Detroit Red Wings\n\nBULLET::::- John Magrino – Tampa Bay Buccaneers, NFL International Series, College Football Playoff National Championship, Orange Bowl, Outback Bowl\n\nBULLET::::- John Mason – Detroit Pistons\n", "BULLET::::- Carrie McCrossen: John, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Tonya Canada: Doscher, Harriet\n\nBULLET::::- Rebecca Servon: Rose, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Mick Hilgers: Drdla, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Patricia Drozda: Purcell, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Sarah Elizondo: Hilda, ensemble\n\nSection::::Production details.:Theatrical runs.:Details of 2010 theatrical run.:Orchestra.\n\nBULLET::::- Aaron Dai: piano\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Mark: clarinet\n\nBULLET::::- Samuel C. Nedel: bass\n\nSection::::Production details.:Reviews.\n\nSection::::Production details.:Reviews.:1930s Reviews.\n\nFlanagan's changes (cited under \"Differences,\" above) are reflected in critical responses in the press:\n", "Section::::Commercial voice-over.\n", "Section::::Career.:Voice work.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Theater Online\" (undated): \"PWP’s production of Voices in the vacant storefront at 2 Great Jones Street in Noho fits perfectly with the company’s long-standing mission to “wake up” non-theater sites for theatrical performance.\"\n\nSection::::Production details.:Characters.\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Wardell, farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Wardell, his wife\n\nBULLET::::- John Wardell, 14-year-old son\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Wardell, 12-year-old son\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Francis, a young farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Hilda Francis, his wife\n\nBULLET::::- Mort Davis, an old farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Dirdla, a Russian farmer\n\nBULLET::::- Rose, his 18-year-old daughter\n\nBULLET::::- Ms. Smythe, radio announcer\n\nBULLET::::- Mr. Wordsworth, radio commentator\n\nBULLET::::- Purcell, a rich local businessman\n", "Section::::Production.:Sound design.\n", "Section::::Dialect, Accent and Voice Work.\n", "BULLET::::- David Castaneda: lighting\n\nBULLET::::- Nikolay Levin: sets\n\nBULLET::::- Deb O: costumes\n\nBULLET::::- Gwen Orel: dramaturg\n\nBULLET::::- Matthew Tennie: projection\n\nBULLET::::- Seth Bedford: music\n\nBULLET::::- Peculiar Works Project: archival video\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Holsopple: sound\n\nBULLET::::- Marte Johanne Ekhoougen: props\n\nBULLET::::- Cathy Carlton: production associate/swing actor\n\nSet and light crew included: Christoper Hurt, Janet Bryant, Dror Shnayer, Diana Byrne, Tricia Byrne, and Skip LaPlante.\n\nSection::::Production details.:Theatrical runs.:Details of 2010 theatrical run.:Cast (in order of speaking).\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Kopit: Frank, Bill\n\nBULLET::::- Derek Jamison: Davis, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Catherine Porter: Ann, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Hurt: Wardell, ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Glickfield: Sam, Congressman Bagehot\n", "BULLET::::- Poughkeepsie \"Sunday Courier\" (May 3, 1931): \"If a certain crusading congressman could have seen last night's production he would have probably branded the whole company as dangerous, if not Red agitators.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Charlie Brotman – U.S. presidential inauguration parades, Washington Senators, Washington Nationals\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Buffer – boxing\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Callahan – Oakland Athletics, and Saint Mary's College of California\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Carlucci – Los Angeles Dodgers, Anaheim Ducks, Los Angeles Kings, Summer Olympics Baseball & Winter Olympics hockey\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Carnegie – Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Indiana high school basketball\n\nBULLET::::- Joshua Carroll – University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Arkansas high school basketball, football, baseball, track & field\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Casey – Minnesota Twins\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Chimel – World Wrestling Entertainment\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Clapper – Washington Mystics\n", "BULLET::::- The Announcer - A voice over the loudspeaker who announces the cast for the performances and instructs the audience not to use flash photography (a warning which is ignored). When Ellen's character hears the announcer in the \"Checkmate\" scene, she comments \"Oh listen, Willie, a voice! Maybe there is a God!\"\n", "BULLET::::- Howard Finkel – World Wrestling Entertainment\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Ford – Houston Astros, University of Houston football\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Friedman – Chicago Cubs\n\nBULLET::::- Lilian Garcia – World Wrestling Entertainment\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Georgeff – horse racing\n\nBULLET::::- Marty Glickman – (sports announcer)\n\nBULLET::::- Halsey Hall – Minnesota Twins\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Hall – New York Giants football team, New York Yankees\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Heilbronner – Greensboro Swarm\n\nBULLET::::- Gene Honda – Chicago White Sox, Chicago Blackhawks, DePaul University, NCAA Final Four, and Chicago PBS WTTW\n\nBULLET::::- Byron Hudtloff – Washington Valor, George Washington University Men's Basketball\n", "Section::::Voice-over career.\n", "The technology of the AAs at Disney's theme parks around the world vary in their sophistication. They range from the blinking and mouth movements at Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room to full body movement, from the mouth to the tip of the fingers at Stitch's Great Escape! at the Magic Kingdom. \n", "For many years, until the early 1980s, the announcer for all of ABC's movie shows was network staff announcer Joel Crager. Afterwards, the duties would be handled first by Ernie Anderson, and then others.\n\nSection::::History.:Decline due to the advent of cable networks.\n", "Section::::Sports announcing.\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Hoffarth, \"Los Angeles Daily News\": \"\"Does that mean ESPN's Chris Berman, good enough to do the Super Bowl commercial for the awful Disney remake of \"The Shaggy Dog,\" wasn't synergetic enough to voice his own car? Is it because they couldn't come up with a catchy nickname for him? If only \"Chris Airbag\" could have been cast for the role, so Waltrip could have told him: 'You're with me, Leather.'\"\"\n", "BULLET::::- Douglas Spotted Eagle, Frances, Mannie (Directors) Fisher, Jeffrey P., Hogan, Harlan (Writers) (2005) \"Voice Over Success - What You Must Know to Compete in Today's Vo Market\" VASST Training DVD-Video\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official Site\n\nBULLET::::- Trailer for IBase Entertainment\n\nBULLET::::- Announcement of alliance with VoiceMarketer.com\n\nBULLET::::- Who's Who in Entertainment and Who's Who in America, VIP # 3953564\n\nBULLET::::- Voice-over for Septerra Core: Legacy of the Creator Game\n\nBULLET::::- Featured in Rodney Saulsberry's upcoming book \"Step up to the Mic!\", Chapter 11, Words of Wisdom from the Pros, Page 121\n", "BULLET::::- Sunday doubleheader: Dave Sims, Mark Malone\n\nBULLET::::- Sunday doubleheader: Tom McCarthy, Rod Woodson\n\nBULLET::::- Sunday Night Football: Kevin Kugler, James Lofton\n\nBULLET::::- Monday Night Football: Kevin Harlan, Boomer Esiason or Dan Fouts, Jim Gray\n\nBULLET::::- Thursday Night Football: Ian Eagle, Trent Green\n\nBULLET::::- Thanksgiving Day: Tom McCarthy, Rod Woodson, Hub Arkush (Green Bay vs. Detroit); Kevin Kugler, Mark Malone, Tim Brown (Oakland vs. Dallas); Ian Eagle, Trent Green, Laura Okmin (Pittsburgh vs. Baltimore)\n", "List of American public address announcers\n\nThis is a list of notable American public address announcers.\n\nBULLET::::- Chic Anderson – horse racing (best known for work at Belmont Park)\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Anthony – New York Jets and New York Mets\n\nBULLET::::- Pete Arbogast – Los Angeles Dodgers\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Baiamonte – Miami Heat\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Baker – Philadelphia Phillies\n\nBULLET::::- Rex Barney – Baltimore Orioles\n\nBULLET::::- Carl Beane – Boston Red Sox\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Binkowski – San Diego Chargers, San Diego Clippers, San Diego Padres, and San Diego State Aztecs\n\nBULLET::::- Renel Brooks-Moon – San Francisco Giants\n", "BULLET::::- Thanksgiving Day: Kevin Kugler, Mark Malone, Hub Arkush (Houston vs. Detroit); Tom McCarthy, Tony Boselli, Scott Kaplan (Washington vs. Dallas); Ian Eagle, Boomer Esiason, Laura Okmin (New England vs. New York Jets)\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Card Weekend: Tom McCarthy, Tony Boselli, Steve Tasker (Cincinnati vs. Houston); Kevin Harlan, Dan Fouts, Mark Malone (Minnesota vs. Green Bay); Ian Eagle, Trent Green, Laura Okmin (Indianapolis vs. Baltimore); Dave Sims, James Lofton, Hub Arkush (Seattle vs. Washington)\n", "Section::::Live sound engineering.\n", "While located in San Anselmo, Sprocket Systems came into contact with the local residents from time to time. For instance, Kentfield resident Pat Welsh was \"discovered\" while shopping at a camera store and went on to provide the voice for E.T.. During the sound recording of \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\", Harrison Ford could be spotted practicing his bullwhip technique in the parking lot.\n\nSprocket Systems moved from San Anselmo following a disastrous flood in January 1982 and changed its name to Skywalker Sound in 1987 after the company moved to Skywalker Ranch.\n", "BULLET::::- Dave McHugh – Baltimore Brigade\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Melton - Dallas Cowboys, Super Bowls VI, VIII and IX; 1996 Olympic Soccer; Texas Rangers; Cotton Bowl Classic; Texas Relays; SMU Football and Basketball; 1994 Men's World Cup Soccer; 2003 Women's World Cup Soccer; 2002 FIBA World Basketball Championships; Dallas Chaparrals Basketball; 2001 and 2005 Presidential Inaugural Parade and Ceremonies\n\nBULLET::::- Wayne Messmer – Chicago Cubs\n\nBULLET::::- Joel Meyers – St. Louis Cardinals\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Morris – Toronto Maple Leafs\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Nickson – Los Angeles Dodgers\n\nBULLET::::- Lou Nolan – Philadelphia Flyers\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Olden – New York Yankees\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06956	How does diet coke and Coke 0 have 0 calories?	I don’t remember exactly how but artificial sugars and sugar alcohols count as having no calories cause there’s like, no legitimate energy in them? But they still trigger your receptors the same way. Source: Chemistry classes and a vSauce and Mythbusters video	[ "Though sucralose contains no calories, products that contain fillers, such as maltodextrin and/or dextrose, add about 2–4 calories per teaspoon or individual packet, depending on the product, the fillers used, brand, and the intended use of the product. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allows for any product containing fewer than five calories per serving to be labeled as \"zero calories\".\n", "\"High-intensity sweeteners\" – one type of sugar substitute – are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds (the \"sweetness profile\") is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most intense sweet sensation.\n", "Diet Coke does not use a modified form of the Coca-Cola recipe, but instead an entirely different formula based on the Tab formula. The controversial New Coke, introduced in 1985, used a version of the Diet Coke recipe that contained high fructose corn syrup and had a slightly different balance of ingredients. In 2005, the company introduced Coca-Cola Zero (renamed \"Coca-Cola Zero Sugar\" in 2017), a sugar-free more closely based on original Coca-Cola.\n", "Additional variations of Diet Pepsi have been introduced over the years, wherein other flavors (such as wild cherry, vanilla, lemon, and lime) have been added to the cola. A caffeine-free version of Diet Pepsi is also produced. The availability and brand identification of Diet Pepsi flavor variants varies by country. In addition to Diet Pepsi, PepsiCo also produces the low-calorie cola Pepsi Max.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nIn the United States, Diet Pepsi is marketed as having zero calories, as FDA guidelines categorize products with fewer than five calories per serving to be labeled as containing \"zero calories\".\n", "Section::::Composition.:Songs.\n", "BULLET::::- In No Game No Life, Sora's little sister Shiro eats one, stating that it provides all the vitamins and nutrients she requires to grow bigger.\n\nBULLET::::- In No One Can Stop Mr. Domino!, on the level \"Shop Til You Drop!\", the player walks over a box of CalorieMate Blocks to reach higher ground.\n\nBULLET::::- In Charlotte (anime), while the protagonist Yu Otosaka is preparing to leave Japan, you see several boxes of a parody version of CalorieMate called \"Calorie Made\" amongst other items that he will be taking with him.\n", "In addition to \"diet\" other words or phrases are used to identify and describe these foods including \"light\", \"zero calorie\", \"low calorie\", \"low fat\", \"no fat\" and \"sugar free\". In some areas use of these terms may be regulated by law. For example, in the U.S. a product labeled as \"low fat\" must not contain more than 3 grams of fat per serving; and to be labeled \"fat free\" it must contain less than 0.5 grams of fat per serving.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "In countries outside of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, the term \"light\" is often used instead of \"diet\"; sometimes, even in countries that do not speak English, the word \"light\" in English is used (e.g., \"Coca-Cola Light\" in Spain). The formulation of these is slightly different than the \"diet\"-named versions and thus the taste is slightly different.\n\nSection::::Reduced-calorie drinks.\n", "Section::::Promotion.\n", "On December 10, 2008, the United States Food and Drug Administration wrote a Warning Letter to The Coca-Cola Company that Diet Coke Plus violates the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The term \"plus\" is a regulated term on food and beverages. A food may be labeled \"plus\" to describe its nutrients only if it contains at least 10% more of the Reference Daily Intake or Daily Reference Value compared to the usual amount. Because Diet Coke Plus labeling does not indicate the increased amount of nutrients, it cannot use the word \"plus\" on its label. Regardless, snack foods, such as carbonated soda, may never use the word \"plus\" because the FDA does not consider it appropriate to fortify snack foods. The FDA required The Coca-Cola Company to detail corrective action within 15 days.\n", "The song was first teased in Grande's \"No Tears Left to Cry\" music video, along with other songs. Grande posted a picture of herself listening to the song on her instagram story. On July 21, 2018, a paparazzi leaked a snippet of Grande playing the song in her car, later that day Grande confirmed the snippet on her Twitter.\n\nSection::::Composition and lyrics.\n", "All versions of Coca-Cola Zero Sugar sold in various countries are based on the same flavoring formula, and all are carbonated. One liter of Coca-Cola Zero contains 96 mg caffeine. Additionally, artificial sweeteners are used. In the U.S., this includes aspartame and acesulfame potassium. However, the exact combination of sweeteners and preservatives used varies from market to market.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Sweeteners and health concerns.\n", "In the US, Kraft Singles is manufactured in regular, 2% Milk, and Fat Free. In Australia, a short-lived product called Vegemite Singles combined Kraft Singles and Vegemite.\n", "Since 1997 the group has not used \"per-cent fat free\" health claims. The Co-op introduced calorie labelling for alcoholic drinks in 2002 and they also list the caffeine content of products which contain more than 1.6 mg in a single serving.\n", "Each pack weighs 15–18 g and contains about 38 Tic Tacs. New packs in Australia and Canada weigh 24 g and contain 50 Tic Tacs, and the Tic Tac \"100 pack\" weighs 49 g and contains 100 Tic Tacs. The \"Big Pack\" weighs 29 grams (1 ounce) and contains 60 pieces. The \"Bottle Pack\" weighs 98 grams (3.4 ounce) and contains 200 pieces.\n\nEach Tic Tac weighs just under 0.5 g. US Federal regulations state that if a single serving contains less than 0.5 g of sugars it is allowable to express the amount of sugar in a serving as zero.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Smint\n\nBULLET::::- Certs\n", "In an effort to profit on the surging popularity of low-carbohydrate diets, Coca-Cola and Pepsico both released reduced-calorie versions of their flagship colas in 2004. The products contain approximately half the sugar of the regular versions. The Pepsi variant, Pepsi Edge, is sweetened with sucralose and corn syrup. The sweetening of the Coca-Cola variant, Coca-Cola C2, is a combination of corn syrup, aspartame, acesulfame potassium and sucralose. Pepsi discontinued Edge in 2005, citing lackluster sales. Coca-Cola soon followed suit. Pepsi then released Pepsi Max in 2012.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Music and lyrics.\n", "A can of Enviga has 5 calories, 100 mg of caffeine, 35 mg of sodium, and 20% of the daily recommended calcium based on a 2,000 calorie diet. It is sweetened with aspartame and has no carbohydrates, fat, or protein.\n\nSection::::Lawsuits over health claims.\n", "Diet Coke Plus\n\nDiet Coke Plus (also known as Coca Cola Light Plus) was a formulation of Diet Coke fortified with vitamins and minerals. It is sweetened with a blend of aspartame and acesulfame potassium.\n\nThe drink was released in the United Kingdom in October 2007, available in two variants, one with vitamins B, B, and vitamin C, and the other containing antioxidants with added green tea and vitamin C. Although Diet Coke Plus Antioxidants is labeled as sugar free, it actually contains 0.1 grams of sugar in the green tea powder per 100ml.\n\nSection::::Warning letter.\n", "With regard to the ad's assertion that \"all calories count, no matter where they come from,\" critics have pointed out that \"calories from soda are entirely empty calories from added sugar and contain no nutritional value.\" This led The Atlantic's Ruth Faden to declare that this specific assertion was \"inappropriately misleading,\" as well as claiming that there is \"considerable research\" linking sugary drinks to obesity. It was also highlighted in a story by the Medill School of Journalism, which quoted Brenda Murray, a bariatric dietitian, who said, “They’re saying a calorie is just a calorie. But it’s not the amount of calories you take in, it’s the kind of calories, too.\" The ad was also criticized by outspoken critic of sugar David Ludwig, who wrote that \"I’d like to see the big beverage companies market less sugar not sugarcoat their marketing.\" He also stated that \"Consuming sugary drinks increases the risk of obesity more than any other food that we know of, based on recent research (by which he means a September 2012 study in the NEJM)\n", "Pepsi Zero Sugar\n\nPepsi Zero Sugar (sold under the names Diet Pepsi Max until early 2009 and then Pepsi Max until August 2016), is a zero-calorie, sugar-free, ginseng-infused cola sweetened with aspartame, marketed by PepsiCo. In Fall 2016, PepsiCo renamed the drink Pepsi Zero Sugar from Pepsi Max. It has nearly twice the caffeine of Pepsi's other cola beverages. Pepsi Zero Sugar contains 69 milligrams of caffeine per 355ml (12 fl oz), versus 36 milligrams in Diet Pepsi.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Coke Zero was originally specifically marketed to men, who are shown to associate \"diet\" drinks with women. It was primarily marketed towards young adult males and it has been nicknamed \"Bloke Coke\" in the UK. In the U.S., advertising has been tailored to its targeted market by describing the drink as \"calorie-free\" rather than \"diet\", since young adult males are said to associate diet drinks with women. U.S. marketing also emphasized its similarity in taste to sugared Coca-Cola; an advertising campaign for the beverage focused on Coca-Cola executives who were so angry over the drinks' similarities, they were considering suing their co-workers for \"taste infringement\". Continuing the theme, a Coca-Cola Zero ad aired during Super Bowl XLIII parodied Coke's iconic \"Hey Kid, Catch!\" commercial, which is interrupted by two Coca-Cola \"brand managers\" accusing Troy Polamalu of \"stealing\" their commercial.\n", "According to the Coca-Cola Company, \"[t]he sweetener blend used for Diet Coke/Coca-Cola Light is formulated for each country based on consumer preference.\" In countries in which cyclamates are not banned (as they were in the US in 1970), Diet Coke or Coca-Cola Light may be sweetened with a blend containing aspartame, cyclamates, and acesulfame potassium.\n\nSection::::Brand portfolio.\n\nSection::::Brand portfolio.:Product timeline.\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 – Diet Coke is introduced, becoming the largest-selling low-calorie soft drink in America.\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 – Diet Coke is introduced in the UK.\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – Diet Cherry Coke is introduced in American markets.\n", "In addition to its web site, the company also produces personal computer software and several popular books. Many of its products are based on the CalorieKing food database, which claims to contain over 100,000 foods in the American version and 20,000 foods in the Australian version.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Diet Pepsi Max was introduced in the United States on June 1, 2007, and in Canada in March 2008. \"Diet\" was dropped from the name in early 2009.\n\nOn June 29, 2015, PepsiCo announced several product changes which, among other changes, announced that Pepsi Max would be renamed in North America as Pepsi Zero Sugar. It is not known if it will come into trademark conflict with Coca-Cola, which uses the \"zero\" moniker for Pepsi Max's primary competitor Coca-Cola Zero, as well as Sprite Zero. The unrelated international drink will retain the Pepsi Max name.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18665	Do space crafts have to be aerodynamic to fly through space, since there’s no wind in space?	Not in space since it's in the word "aero"... aerodynamic is to reduce air resistance, it doesn't have to anything with wind per se. Getting it into space though is a different story.	[ "Section::::Atmospheric flight testing of launch vehicles and reusable spacecraft.\n\nAll launch vehicles, as well as a few reusable spacecraft, must necessarily be designed to deal with aerodynamic flight loads while moving through the atmosphere.\n", "The initial concept study was produced by Aerospatiale in 1998, called Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator (ARD). ARES envisioned a delta wing spaceplane with a mass of and a wingspan of . Aerodynamic studies in wind tunnels were performed between 2005 and 2009 when engineers tested some phases of the reentry trajectory at several Mach numbers and angles of attack. The results obtained characterized the drag, lift, and pitching moment coefficients as functions of the angle of attack and Reynolds number.\n", "Gliders could carry more scientific instrumentation, but cover less area. Hydrazine has been proposed as a fuel for Mars aircraft. At one point, NASA was developing plans for a wok-sized airplane \"micromission\", which would piggyback on a separate Mars bound payload. Mach 1 on Mars can be about 240 meters per second (537 mph) while it is about 332 m/s (743 mph) on Earth.\n\nThe Daedalus proposal in the canceled Mars Scout program designed a Mars glider that would fly over 400 km along the Coprates Chasma\n\nProposed Mars Airplane concepts include:\n\nBULLET::::- ARES (Aerial Regional-scale Environmental Survey)\n\nBULLET::::- MAGE (Mars Airborne Geophysical Explorer)\n", "Section::::Challenges.:Air-breathing orbital spaceplane concept.\n\nAn air-breathing orbital spaceplane would have to fly what is known as a 'depressed trajectory,' which places the vehicle in the high-altitude hypersonic flight regime of the atmosphere for an extended period of time. This environment induces high dynamic pressure, high temperature, and high heat flow loads particularly upon the leading edge surfaces of the spaceplane, requiring exterior surfaces to be constructed from advanced materials and/or use active cooling.\n\nSection::::Orbital spaceplanes.\n\nSection::::Orbital spaceplanes.:Space Shuttle.\n", "On 4 May 2011, the first test on the SpaceShipTwo of the feathering mechanism was made during a glideflight after release\n\nfrom the White Knight Two.\n\nThe feathered reentry was first described by Dean Chapman of NACA in 1958. In the section of his report on \"Composite Entry\", Chapman described a solution to the problem using a high-drag device:\n\nThe North American X-15 used a similar mechanism.\n\nSection::::Inflatable heat shield reentry.\n", "Because wind-powered vehicles typically sail at apparent wind angles aligned with the leading edge of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. Low forward resistance to motion, high speeds over the surface, and high lateral resistance help create high apparent wind speeds—with closer alignment of the apparent wind to the course traveled for most points of sail—and allow wind-powered vehicles to achieve higher speeds than conventional sailing craft.\n\nSection::::Sail-powered.:Land yacht.\n", "Aerodynamic forces, present near a body with significant atmosphere such as Earth, Mars or Venus, are analyzed as: lift, defined as the force component perpendicular to the direction of flight (not necessarily upward to balance gravity, as for an airplane); and drag, the component parallel to, and in the opposite direction of flight. Lift and drag are modeled as the products of a coefficient times dynamic pressure acting on a reference area:\n\nwhere:\n", "Section::::Instruments.:\"Wind\"/WAVES.:Thermal Noise Receiver.\n", "Section::::Science highlights in the news.\n\nBULLET::::- An April 2012 paper makes NASA's homepage news.\n\nBULLET::::- A March 2013 paper using data from the \"Wind\" spacecraft was highlighted as a \"Physical Review Letters\" Spotlight article and a NASA Feature Article.\n\nBULLET::::- An April 2013 paper was highlighted on the NASA website.\n\nBULLET::::- A September 2014 paper was highlighted on the NASA website and at \"Popular Science\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wind\" celebrates the 20th anniversary of its launch on November 1, 2014, highlighted on NASA's homepage.\n", "An endo-atmospheric tether uses the long cable within the atmosphere to provide some or all of the velocity needed to reach orbit. The tether is used to transfer kinetics (energy and momentum) from a massive, slow end (typically a large subsonic or low supersonic aircraft) to a hypersonic end through aerodynamics or centripetal action. The \"Kinetics Interchange TEther (KITE) Launcher\" is one proposed endo-atmospheric tether.\n\nSection::::Dynamic structures.\n\nSection::::Dynamic structures.:Space fountain.\n", "In June 1939, Kurt Patt of the Peenemünde Design Office, proposed wings for converting rocket speed and altitude into aerodynamic lift and range. As the rocket encountered thicker atmosphere on its descent phase, it would execute a pullout and enter a shallow glide, trading speed for distance. Patt also proposed the \"Flossengeschoss\" (fin projectile). Both concepts were utilized by Walter Dornberger when he drafted a memo for presentation to Hitler regarding the \"America rocket\" on July 31, 1940.\n", "The accounts of Magellan's crew were the first to describe the Chamorro proas as \"flying.\" The subsequent colonization of the Micronesia and the Philippines provided further references to proas in Spanish records. They also described double-outrigger ships from the Philippines, like the account of the \"karakoa\" in Francisco Ignacio Alcina's \"Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas\" (1668) which describes them as \"sailing like birds.\"\n", "Further applications of developments of MORABA in space flight missions included experiments aboard the Russian space station Mir and the DLR satellite BIRD.\n\nSection::::History.:Latest trend: Hypersonic research - the flying wind tunnel.\n\nSimilar to the novel use of the rocket platform for microgravity research, the use of sounding rockets as a flying hypersonic wind tunnel has increased steadily. With the help of sounding rockets, large flight models are brought to speeds of above Mach 12 and reentry periods of up to one minute can be achieved.\n", "Section::::Boundary.\n\nThere is no clear boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the density of the atmosphere gradually decreases as the altitude increases. There are several standard boundary designations, namely:\n\nBULLET::::- The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has established the Kármán line at an altitude of as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at an altitude of about , as Theodore von Kármán calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than orbital velocity to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself.\n", "In January 2014, the European Space Agency (ESA) agreed to be a partner on the DC4EU project, and will also investigate whether the Dream Chaser can use ESA avionics and docking mechanisms. ESA will also study launching options for the \"Europeanized\" Dream Chaser, particularly whether it can be launched within the Ariane 5's large aerodynamic cargo fairing – or, like the Atlas V, without it. In order to fit within the fairing, the Dream Chaser's wing length will have to be reduced slightly, which is thought to be easier than going through a full aerodynamic test program to evaluate and prove it along with the Ariane for flight without the fairing.\n", "LASRE was a small, half-span model of the X-33's lifting body with eight thrust cells of an aerospike engine, rotated 90 degrees and mounted on the back of a Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird aircraft, to operate like a kind of \"flying wind tunnel.\" The experiment focused on determining how a reusable launch vehicle's engine plume would affect the aerodynamics of its lifting body shape at specific altitudes and speeds reaching about 750 miles/hour (335 meter/second or 1207 km/h). Design refinements looked to minimize the interaction of the aerodynamic flow with the engine plume, which could create drag.\n", "In World War II, the Germans deployed the Me 163 Komet rocket-powered aircraft. The first plane to break the sound barrier in level flight was a rocket plane – the Bell X-1. The later North American X-15 broke many speed and altitude records and laid much of the groundwork for later aircraft and spacecraft design. Rocket aircraft are not in common usage today, although rocket-assisted take offs are used for some military aircraft. Recent rocket aircraft include the SpaceShipOne and the XCOR EZ-Rocket.\n\nThere are many rocket-powered aircraft/spacecraft planes, the spaceplanes, that are designed to fly outside Earth's atmosphere.\n", "During the first six decades of spaceflight, fairings were expended by atmospheric reentry and allowed to drop into the ocean as debris/flotsam.\n\nIn 2018, SpaceX began flight test experiments with fairings descending from orbital trajectories above the atmosphere on its Falcon 9 rockets.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe ship was originally built in 2014 for SeaTran as a platform supply vessel to support fast crew transport operations. The vessel was named \"Mr. Steven\" after Steven Miguez, the father of SeaTran CEO Blake J. Miguez. \n", "Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.\n\nSection::::Phases.:Leaving orbit.\n", "Rocket-powered aircraft consume their fuel quickly and so most must land unpowered unless there is another power source. The first rocket plane was the Lippisch Ente, and later examples include the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered interceptor. The American series of research aircraft starting with the Bell X-1 in 1946 up to the North American X-15 spent more time flying unpowered than under power. In the 1960s research was also done on unpowered lifting bodies and on the X-20 Dyna-Soar project, but although the X20 was cancelled, this research eventually led to the Space Shuttle.\n", "Gaining the kinetic energy is awkward as the airdrag tends to slow the spacecraft, so rocket-powered spacecraft generally fly a compromise trajectory that leaves the thickest part of the atmosphere very early on, and then fly on for example, a Hohmann transfer orbit to reach the particular orbit that is required. This minimises the airdrag as well as minimising the time that the vehicle spends holding itself up. Airdrag is a significant issue with essentially all proposed and current launch systems, although usually less so than the difficulty of obtaining enough kinetic energy to simply reach orbit at all.\n", "The development of Soviet rockets and satellites was the driving force behind the development of NASA's space program. In the early 1960s, American research into the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar spaceplane was cancelled due to lack of purpose; later the studies contributed to the Space Shuttle, which in turn motivated the Russian Buran. Another similar program was ISINGLASS which was to be a rocket plane launched from a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress carrier, which was intended to achieve Mach 22, but this was never funded. ISINGLASS was intended to overfly the USSR. No images of the vehicle configuration have been released.\n", "There are two classes of atmosat, respectively gaining their lift through either aerostatic (e.g., balloons) or aerodynamic (e.g., airplanes) forces. In order to remain aloft for long periods, the NASA and Titan Aerospace designs use propeller-driven electric airplanes powered by solar cells, in contrast to Google's Project Loon which envisions using helium-filled high-altitude balloons.\n\nSection::::Design principles.:Airplanes.\n", "Currently, the only spacecraft to use a solar sail as the main method of propulsion is IKAROS which was launched by JAXA on May 21, 2010. It has since been successfully deployed, and shown to be producing acceleration as expected. Many ordinary spacecraft and satellites also use solar collectors, temperature-control panels and Sun shades as light sails, to make minor corrections to their attitude and orbit without using fuel. A few have even had small purpose-built solar sails for this use (for example Eurostar E3000 geostationary communications satellites built by EADS Astrium).\n\nSection::::Improved technologies and methodologies.:Cyclers.\n", "Section::::Instruments.:\"Wind\"/3DP.:Electrostatic analyzers.\n" ]	[ "Space crafts should not need to be aerodynamic since there is no wind in space." ]	[ "This is true in space, but there are aerodynamic concerns getting one into space." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Space crafts should not need to be aerodynamic since there is no wind in space." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "This is true in space, but there are aerodynamic concerns getting one into space." ]
2018-11211	Why is prolong learning or extreme usage of brainpower, such as math, so mentally (And sometimes physically) exhausting?	Our brain actually accounts for a lot of our energy consumption. Thinking requires neurons to send a lot of signals, and each of those is a small electric current being made and then transformed into a chemical signal and then back to an electrical signal in the next cell. (This is the way a signal gets from one signal to the next, now imagine a signal that has to go further) All of this requires energy, and when energy gets used you get tired	[ "Section::::Application.\n\nOne example of how ingenuity is used conceptually can be found in the analysis of Thomas Homer-Dixon, building on that of Paul Romer, to refer to what is usually called \"instructional capital\". In this case, Homer-Dixon used the phrase 'ingenuity gap' denotes the space between a challenge and its solution. His particular contribution is to explore the social dimensions of ingenuity. Typically we think of ingenuity being used to build faster computers or more advanced medical treatments.\n", "Research on humans suggests that lack of stimulation delays and impairs cognitive development. Research also finds that attaining and engaging in higher levels of education, environments in which people participate in more challenging cognitively stimulating activities, results in greater cognitive reserve.\n\nSection::::Early research.\n", "Physical exertion of the proper level can lead to an increase in performance of a mental task, like doing mental calculations, performed afterward. It has been shown that during high levels of physical activity there is a negative effect on mental task performance. This means that too much physical work can decrease accuracy and output of mental math calculations. Physiological measures, specifically EEG, have been shown to be useful in indicating mental workload. Using an EEG as a measure of mental workload after different levels of physical activity can help determine the level of physical exertion that will be the most beneficial to mental performance. Previous work done at Michigan Technological University by Ranjana Mehta includes a recent study that involved participants engaging in concurrent mental and physical tasks. This study investigated the effects of mental demands on physical performance at different levels of physical exertion and ultimately found a decrease in physical performance when mental tasks were completed concurrently, with a more significant effect at the higher level of physical workload. The Brown-Peterson procedure is a widely known task using mental arithmetic. This procedure, mostly used in cognitive experiments, suggests mental subtraction is useful in testing the effects maintenance rehearsal can have on how long short-term memory lasts.\n", "The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is that the quality of instructional design will be raised if greater consideration is given to the role and limitations, of working memory. \n\nWith increased distractions, particularly from cell phone use, students are more prone to experiencing high cognitive load which can reduce academic success.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "In education, the concept of overlearning plays a role in a student's ability to achieve flow. Csíkszentmihályi states that overlearning enables the mind to concentrate on visualizing the desired performance as a singular, integrated action instead of a set of actions. Challenging assignments that (slightly) stretch one's skills lead to flow.\n", "In 2005, Dr. Glenn Wilson conducted an experimental study which described effects of information overload on problem solving ability. The 80 volunteers carried out problem solving tasks in a quiet space and then while being bombarded with new emails and phone calls that they could not answer. Results showed a reduction in IQ by an average of 10 points during the bombardment session, but not everyone was affected to the same extent; men were distracted more than women. In 2010, Dr. Glenn Wilson published a clarifying note about the study in which he documented the limited size of the study and stated the results were \"widely misrepresented in the media\".\n", "Extreme levels of mental fatigue lead to incompetence and irritability. Studies that require participants to carry out attention-demanding tasks under conditions of high distraction reveal how unpleasant a mentally fatigued person can be. After exposure to such an experience, individuals are less likely to help someone in need. They are also more aggressive, less tolerant, and less sensitive to socially important cues. Fatigue that is experienced by participants of these kinds of studies is induced by attention-intensive tasks, and the observed effects of such fatigue are correlated with decline in inhibitory control. Signs of Directed Attention Fatigue include temporarily feeling unusually distractible, impatient, forgetful, or cranky when there is no associated illness. In more severe forms, it can lead to bad judgment, apathy, or accidents, and can contribute to increased stress levels.\n", "Section::::Successful and unsuccessful instances.:Presence allocator.\n\nThere are limits to our working memory that in turn restrict our cognitive information processing capabilities. Performance deteriorates when these limits are exceeded. Because of these limits, performing two tasks at the same time or rapidly switching between two tasks results in decreased task performance in terms of accuracy and response time. These problems can be partially alleviated (but not eliminated) by practice and physical compatibility of the tasks being performed, but they increase with task complexity.\n", "Wickens’ theory views performance decrement as a shortage of these different resources and describes humans as having limited capability for processing information. Cognitive resources are limited and a supply and demand problem occurs when the individual performs two or more tasks that require a single resource (as indicated by one box on the diagram). Excess workload caused by a task using the same resource can cause problems and result in errors or slower task performance. For example, if the task is to dial the phone then no excess demands are being placed on any one component. However, if another task is being performed at the same time that makes demands on the same component(s), the result may be excess workload.\n", "The executive system of the human brain provides for the cross-temporal organization of behavior towards goals and the future and coordinates actions and strategies for everyday goal-directed tasks. Essentially, this system permits humans to self-regulate their behavior so as to sustain action and problem solving toward goals specifically and the future more generally. Dysexecutive syndrome is defined as a \"cluster of impairments generally associated with damage to the frontal lobes of the brain\" which includes \"difficulties with high-level tasks such as planning, organising, initiating, monitoring and adapting behaviour\". Such executive deficits pose serious problems for a person's ability to engage in self-regulation over time to attain their goals and anticipate and prepare for the future.\n", "Other studies have suggested a relationship between workload and cognitive abilities. It was found that low ability participants are generally outperformed by high ability participants. Under demanding conditions of workload, low ability participants do not show improvement in performance in either training or test trials. Evidence shows that low ability participants use more heuristics particularly when the task demands faster trials or time pressure and this happens both during training and test conditions.\n\nSection::::Research topics in dynamic decision-making.:DDM in the real world.\n", "While most important decisions are made over a longer period of time involving more in-depth cognitive analysis, usually we have limited time in which to assimilate a large amount of information into an informed decision. Lack of sleep appears to negatively affect our ability to appreciate and respond to increasing complexity, as was found in performance deficits after 1 night of sleep deprivation on a simulated marketing game.\n", "Twenty-four hours of continuous sleep deprivation results in the choice of less difficult math tasks without decreases in subjective reports of effort applied to the task. Naturally caused sleep loss affects the choice of everyday tasks such that low effort tasks are mostly commonly selected. Adolescents who experience less sleep show a decreased willingness to engage in sports activities that require effort through fine motor coordination and attention to detail.\n\nGreat sleep deprivation mimics psychosis: distorted perceptions can lead to inappropriate emotional and behavioral responses.\n", "Task loading represents an elevated risk when a new activity is undertaken by a diver. A diver learning how to use a dry suit, or starting underwater photography, or learning to operate a rebreather or manage multiple gas decompression will need to dedicate considerably more attention to the proper functioning of the new and unfamiliar piece of equipment which increases the risk of neglecting other critical responsibilities. Those risks will normally diminish with experience, provided that the experience is sufficiently concentrated and repeated to allow overlearning of skills and develop muscle memory.\n", "\"Intrinsic cognitive load\" is the inherent level of difficulty associated with a specific instructional topic. The term was first used in the early 1990s by Chandler and Sweller. According to them, all instruction has an inherent difficulty associated with it (e.g., the calculation of 2 + 2, versus solving a differential equation). This inherent difficulty may not be altered by an instructor. However, many schemas may be broken into individual \"subschemas\" and taught in isolation, to be later brought back together and described as a combined whole.\n\nSection::::Types.:Extraneous.\n", "One example from fictional literature is Heinrich Hoffmann's character of \"Johnny Head-in-Air\" (\"Hanns Guck-in-die-Luft\"), in \"Struwwelpeter\" (1845). (Some researchers see several characters in this book as showing signs of child psychiatric disorders).\n\nThe Canadian pediatrician Guy Falardeau, besides working with hyperactive children, also wrote about very dreamy, quiet and well-behaved children that he encountered in his practice.\n\nSection::::History.:First research efforts.\n", "the authors point out, are often juggling different tasks and are not consistently able to attend the trainings at the same weekly time. The authors recommend that simply offering a secondary meeting time, where the content of the missed meeting is taught, allows participants to remain involved and decreases the likelihood of participant attrition from missing sessions.\n", "Pondering is less effective than normal thinking. For example, if the program guesses 25% of the opponent's moves correctly, the use of pondering is on average equivalent to increasing the normal calculating time by a factor of 1.25.\n", "According to the International Study of Education in 12 countries, if the top 5% of students are omitted, the ratio of the time needed for slower and faster learners of a subject such as mathematics is 6 to 1 while there is zero or slightly negative relationship between the final grades and the amount of time spent on homework. Thus, the amount of time spent on homework is not a good indicator of mastery in a subject. Bloom postulates that the time required for a learner to achieve mastery in a specific subject is affected by various factors such as:\n", "Task-invoked pupillary response is a reliable and sensitive measurement of cognitive load that is directly related to working memory. Information may only be stored in long term memory after first being attended to, and processed by, working memory. Working memory, however, is extremely limited in both capacity and duration. These limitations will, under some conditions, impede learning. Heavy cognitive load can have negative effects on task completion, and it is important to note that the experience of cognitive load is not the same in everyone. The elderly, students, and children experience different, and more often higher, amounts of cognitive load. \n", "Later in her career, Beilock's research focused on why people perform poorly in stressful academic situations, such as taking a high-stakes mathematics exam. Beilock found that worries during those situations rob individuals of the working memory or cognitive horsepower they would normally have to focus. Because people with more working memory rely on their brainpower more, they can be affected to a greater extent in stressful academic situations. Beilock's work demonstrated that stressful situations during tests might diminish meaningful differences between students that, under less-stressful situations, might exhibit greater differences in performance.\n", "Train Your Brain\n\nTrain Your Brain: 60 Days to a Better Brain is an English-language version of a Japanese book written by Ryuta Kawashima. The original book sold over a million copies in Japan. Dr. Kawashima found that by performing simple mathematical calculations and reading books aloud, one could retain mental clarity and stave off the mental effects of aging. The book is based on this research.\n", "One study involved 600 Scottish students with one group of students who played twenty minutes of Brain Age before class daily for nine weeks and a control group that studied regularly. The students were tested at the beginning and end of the study. In the end, the group that played Brain Age improved test scores by 50%. The time to complete the tests in the Brain Age group dropped by five minutes, and this improvement doubled that of the control group.\n", "The cool tasks are neutrally affective and measure executive function abilities such as cognitive flexibility and working memory. In other words, there is nothing to be gained or lost by performing these tasks. The hot tasks also measure executive function, but these tasks result in emotionally significant consequences.\n\nSection::::Assessment.:Cold function tasks.:Self Ordered Pointing.\n", ". The study not only shows that sex hormones could reduce stress in women but also that stress can have a negative effect on declarative learning. This could affect the capability of students learning and passing their classes and also the ability to be able to complete tasks in the work place.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02675	Why is seemingly every book in existence a "New York Times Bestseller"?	You'll note they don't say "The New York Times Bestseller of [date]." The bestseller list contains a bunch of books and comes out multiple times a year, so many books can claim to be on the list.	[ "Bestseller reports from companies such as Amazon.com, which appear to be based strictly on auditable sales to the public, may be at odds with bestseller lists compiled from more casual data, such as \"The New York Times\" lists' survey of retailers and publishers. The exact method for ranking \"The New York Times\" bestseller lists is a closely guarded secret.\n", "This situation suggests a similar one in the area of popular music. In 1991, \"Billboard\" magazine switched its chart data from manual reports filed by stores, to automated cash register data collected by a service called SoundScan. The conversion saw a dramatic shake-up in chart content from one week to the next.\n", "Bestseller lists may vary widely, depending on the method used for calculating sales. The Indie bestseller lists, for example, use only sales numbers, provided by independently owned (non-chain) bookstores, while \"The New York Times\" list includes both wholesale and retail sales from a variety of sources. A book that sells well in gift shops and grocery stores may hit a \"The New York Times\" list without ever appearing on an Indie list. USA Today has only one list, not hardcover/paperback, so that relative sales of these categories cannot be ascertained from it.\n", "Section::::Description and types of bestseller.:Unread bestsellers.\n\nBestsellers have gained such great popularity that it has sometimes become fashionable to purchase them. Critics have pointed out that just because a book is purchased doesn't mean it will be read. The rising length of bestsellers may mean that more of them are simply becoming bookshelf decor. In 1985 members of the staff of \"The New Republic\" placed coupons redeemable for $5 cash inside 70 books that were selling well, and none of them were sent in.\n\nSection::::Major publishers.\n", "In everyday use, the term \"bestseller\" is not usually associated with a specified level of sales, and may be used very loosely indeed in publishers' publicity. Books of superior academic value tend not to be bestsellers, although there are exceptions. Lists simply give the highest-selling titles in the category over the stated period. Some books have sold many more copies than current \"bestsellers\", but over a long period of time.\n", "Category structure affects the positioning of a book in other ways. A book that might be buried on the Indie hardcover fiction list could be positioned very well on \"The New York Times\" hardcover advice list or the \"Publishers Weekly\" religion hardcover list.\n\nSection::::Description and types of bestseller.:Verifiability.\n", "The use of the marketing phrase, \"underground bestseller\" further illustrates the independent-from-sales, self-defining aspect of the term. For example, publisher HarperCollins suggested the bestseller potential of \"Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood: A Novel\" by announcing \"...four years after her award-winning, underground bestseller, \"Little Altars Everywhere\"...\" in the promotion. The book went on to achieve bestseller status in the 1990s. In reviews of the 2002 film of the same name, the novel's bestseller status was cited routinely, as in \"compelling adaptation of Rebecca Wells' bestseller\".\n", "Bestsellers play a significant role in the mainstream movie industry. There is a long-standing Hollywood practice of turning bestsellers into feature films. Many, if not the majority, of modern movie \"classics\" began as bestsellers. On the \"Publishers Weekly\" fiction bestsellers of the year charts, we find: #1: \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" (2003), #3. \"Jaws\" (1974); #2. \"The Exorcist\" (1971); #1. \"Love Story\" (1970); #2. \"The Godfather\" (1969); among many others. Several of each year's fiction bestsellers ultimately are made into high-profile movies. Being a bestseller novel in the U.S. during the last forty years has guaranteed consideration for a big budget, wide-release movie.\n", "Section::::Description and types of bestseller.\n\nBestsellers are usually separated into fiction and non-fiction categories. Different list compilers have created a number of other subcategories. \"The New York Times\" was reported to have started its \"Children's Books\" section in 2001 just to move the Harry Potter books out of the No. 1, 2, and 3 positions on their fiction chart, which the then three-book series had monopolized for over a year.\n", "In 2013, \"Forbes\" published a story titled \"Here's How You Buy Your Way Onto \"The New York Times\" Bestsellers List.\" The article discusses how ResultSource, a San Diego-based marketing consultancy, specializes in ensuring books make a bestseller list, even guaranteeing a No. 1 spot for those willing to pay enough. \"The New York Times\" was informed of this practice and responded: \"\"The New York Times\" comprehensively tracks and tabulates the weekly unit sales of all titles reported by book retailers as their general interest bestsellers. We will not comment beyond our methodology on the other questions.\" \"The New York Times\" did not alert its readers to this, unlike \"The Wall Street Journal,\" which admitted that books had landed on its bestseller list due to ResultSource's campaign. Soren Kaplan, the source who admitted he had paid ResultSource to land his book, \"Leapfrogging\", on \"The Wall Street Journal\"s bestseller list, revealed the methodology on his blog; he posted: \"If I could obtain bulk orders before Leapfrogging was released, ResultSource would purchase the books on my behalf using their tried-and-true formula. Three thousand books sold would get me on \"The Wall Street Journal\" bestseller list. Eleven thousand would secure a spot on the biggest prize of them all, \"The New York Times\" list.\" \n", "Nielsen BookScan U.S. is perhaps the most aggressive attempt to produce a completely automatic and trusted set of bestseller lists. They claim to be gathering data directly from cash registers at more than 4,500 retail locations, including independent bookstores, large chains such as Barnes & Noble, Powell's Books, and Borders, and the general retailer Costco. Unlike the consumer-oriented lists, BookScan's data is extremely detailed and quite expensive. Subscriptions to BookScan cost up to $75,000 per year, but it can provide publishers and wholesalers with an accurate picture of book sales with regional and other statistical analyses.\n", "BULLET::::- Manipulation by retailers and wholesalers. It happens with regularity that wholesalers and retailers deliberately or inadvertently manipulate the sales data they report to the \"Times\". Since being on the \"Times\" best-seller list increases the sales of a book, bookstores and wholesalers may report a book is a best-seller before it actually is one, in order that it might later become a \"legitimate\" best-seller through increased sales due to its inclusion on the best-seller list, leading to the best-seller list becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy for the booksellers.\n", "BULLET::::- Self-fulfilling. Once a book makes it onto the list it is heavily marketed as a \"best-seller\", purchased by readers who seek out best-sellers, given preferential treatment by retailers, online and offline, who create special best-seller categories including special in-store placement and price discounts, and is carried by retailers that generally don't carry other books (e.g., supermarkets). Thus, the list can become self-fulfilling in determining which books have high sales and remain on the list.\n", "Section::::Studies.\n\nA Stanford Business School analysis suggests that the \"majority of book buyers seem to use the \"Times\" list as a signal of what's worth reading\". The study concluded that lesser-known writers get the biggest benefit from being on the list, while perennial best-selling authors, such as John Grisham or Danielle Steel, see no benefit of additional sales.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bestseller\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of \"The New York Times\" Fiction Best Sellers\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of \"The New York Times\" Non-Fiction Best Sellers\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of \"The New York Times\" Manga Best Sellers\n\nBULLET::::- Oprah's Book Club\n", "All of the stories (except for \"Events Concerning ...\") in this collection were printed the previous year in \"Stories by Mama Lansdale's Youngest Boy\", but this collection had a larger print run. These collections are the only collections which include \"Pentecostal Punk Rock\", and \"The White Rabbit\" has only subsequently been printed in the extremely limited edition \"A Little Green Book of Monster Stories\".\n", "Evolving technology have also forced the development of orthogonal measures. As early as 855, the success of texts was measured by print runs. In 1942, The New York Times began publishing a list of best-selling books, which has been shown to influence the purchases of the majority of American book buyers. The NYT Bestseller list is divided into section, including fiction, non-fiction, and children's literature. With the advent of e-book technology, the NYT added an orthogonal e-book section to the list.\n\nSection::::Comparison to existing models of performance.\n", "BULLET::::- Double counting. By including wholesalers in the polls along with retail bookstores, books may be double-counted. Wholesalers report how much they sell to retailers, and retailers report how much they sell to customers, thus there can be overlap with the same reported book being sold twice within a given time frame. In addition, retailers may return books to wholesalers months later if they never sell, thus resulting in a \"sale\" being reported that never came to fruition. For example, mass-market paperbacks can see as high as 40% return rates from the retailer back to the wholesaler.\n", "While the basic dictionary definition of \"bestseller\" is self-evident, \"a popular, top-selling book\", the practical cultural definition is somewhat more complex. As consumer bestseller lists generally do not detail specific criteria, such as numbers sold, sales period, sales region, and so forth, a book becomes a bestseller mainly because an \"authoritative\" source says it is. Calling a book a \"top-selling\" title is not so impressive as calling it \"\"The New York Times\" bestseller\". Although the former phrase is assumed to be derived from sales figures, the latter benefits from the high profile of the particular list. A book that is identified as a \"bestseller\" greatly improves its chance of selling to a much wider audience. In this way, \"bestseller\" has taken on its own popular meaning, rather independent of empirical data, by becoming a compromised product category and, in effect, attempting to create a marketing image. For example, a \"summer bestseller\" is usually determined long before the summer is over, and signals a book's suitability for millions of lounging pool-side readers.\n", "Publishers Weekly list of bestselling novels in the United States in the 2010s\n\nThis is a list of bestselling novels in the United States in the 2010s (decade), as determined by \"Publishers Weekly\". The list features the most popular novels of each year from 2010 through to 2016.\n\nAfter 2012 \"Publisher's Weekly\" used the lists from Nielsen BookScan for print, supplemented by the Amazon.com lists for Kindle and print.\n", "BULLET::::- Conflicts of interest. Due to high financial impact of making the list, since the 1970s publishers have created escalator clauses for major authors stipulating that if a book makes the list the author will receive extra money, based on where it ranks and for how long. Authors may also be able to charge higher speaking fees for the status of being a best-seller. As \"Book History\" said, \"With so much at stake then, it is no wonder that enormous marketing effort goes into getting a book access to this major marketing tool.\"\n\nSection::::Controversies.\n", "The weight and price of a book may affect its positioning on lists. The Amazon.com list tends to favor hardcover, more expensive books, where the shipping charge is a smaller percentage of the overall purchase price or is sometimes free, and which tend to be more deeply discounted than paperbacks. Inexpensive mass market paperbacks tend to do better on \"The New York Times\" list than on Amazon's. Indie and \"Publishers Weekly\" separate mass market paperbacks onto their own list.\n", "\"The New York Times\" reported in 2013 that \"we [generally do not] track the sales of classic literature,\" and thus, for example, new translations of Dante's \"Inferno\" would not be found on the bestseller list.\n", "The term \"Best seller\" is first known to have been recorded in print in 1889 in the Kansas City, Missouri, newspaper \"The Kansas Times & Star\", but the phenomenon of immediate popularity goes back to the early days of mass production of printed books. For earlier books, when the maximum number of copies that would be printed was relatively small, a count of editions is the best way to assess sales. Since effective copyright was slow to take hold, many editions were pirated well into the period of the Enlightenment, and without effective royalty systems in place, authors often saw little, if any, of the revenues for their popular works.\n", "Bestsellers also may be ranked separately for hardcover and paperback editions. Typically, a hardcover edition appears first, followed in months or years by the much less expensive paperback version. Hardcover bestseller status may hasten the paperback release of the same, or slow the release, if hardcover sales are brisk enough. Some lists even have a third category, trade paperback bestsellers.\n", "Lists from Amazon.com, the dominant on-line book retailer, are based only on sales from their own Web site, and are updated on an hourly basis. Wholesale sales figures are not factored into Amazon's calculations. Numerous Web sites offer advice for authors about a temporary method to boost their book higher on Amazon's list using carefully timed buying campaigns that take advantage of the frequent adjustments to rankings. For example, faith healing author Zhi Gang Sha has used this method to create a number of #1 bestsellers. The brief sales spike allows authors to tout that their book was an \"Amazon.com top 100 seller\" in marketing materials for books that actually have relatively low sales. Eventually book buyers may begin to recognize the relative differences among lists and settle upon which lists they will consult to determine their purchases.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06447	The physiological difference between tablet, gel-cap, chewable, and liquid medicines?	There really isn't a ton of difference. There is a reason that over-the-counter meds generally come in more forms than prescription meds, and the reason is that consumers like variety while doctors just like to pick the one that works. Over-the-counter meds have more bells and whistles because the average person likes bells and whistles, so companies can sell multiple versions of the same product in the guise of choice. To get to the nitty gritty: Tablet - medication in a base that dissolves at a steady rate. Gel cap - medication in a gel with a coating. The coating dissolves at a slower rate, then the gel dissolves at a faster rate. Generally a little easier to swallow than tablets. Chewable - medication in a gummy base that gets broken up into small pieces and then dissolved. Good for kids or people who hate swallowing pills. Liquid - dissolves the fastest. Good for people who want fast relief, kids, or people who hate pills. Bad for people who suck at pouring out the right dose. The faster dissolving methods are going to give you relief a little faster and wear off a little sooner. But really, assuming you take the same dose of each version you probably won't notice a ton of difference. So just buy the one that's the cheapest or whatever your personal preference is.	[ "The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it is usually taken orally, but can be administered sublingually, buccally, rectally or intravaginally. The tablet is just one of the many forms that an oral drug can take such as syrups, elixirs, suspensions, and emulsions. Medicinal tablets were originally made in the shape of a disk of whatever color their components determined, but are now made in many shapes and colors to help distinguish different medicines. Tablets are often stamped with symbols, letters, and numbers, which enable them to be identified. Sizes of tablets to be swallowed range from a few millimeters to about a centimeter.\n", "Formulation studies involve developing a preparation of the drug which is both stable and acceptable to the patient. For orally administered drugs, this usually involves incorporating the drug into a tablet or a capsule. It is important to make the distinction that a tablet contains a variety of other potentially inert substances apart from the drug itself, and studies have to be carried out to ensure that the encapsulated drug is compatible with these other substances in a way that does not cause harm, whether direct or indirect.\n", "Lubricants prevent ingredients from clumping together and from sticking to the tablet punches or capsule filling machine. Lubricants also ensure that tablet formation and ejection can occur with low friction between the solid and die wall, as well as between granules, which helps in uniform filling of the die.\n\nCommon minerals like talc or silica, and fats, e.g. vegetable stearin, magnesium stearate or stearic acid are the most frequently used lubricants in tablets or hard gelatin capsules.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Manufacture of the tableting blend.\n", "Compressed tablets can be round, oblong, or unique in shape; thick or thin; large or small in diameter; flat or convex; unscored or scored in halves, thirds, or quadrants; engraved or imprinted with an identifying symbol and/or code number; coated or uncoated; colored or uncolored; one, two, or three layered.\n", "A tablet is a pharmaceutical oral dosage form (OSD). Tablets may be defined as the solid unit dosage form of medicament or medicaments with suitable excipients and prepared either by molding or by compression. It comprises a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted from a powder into a solid dose. The excipients can include diluents, binders or granulating agents, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to promote tablet break-up in the digestive tract; sweeteners or flavours to enhance taste; and pigments to make the tablets visually attractive or aid in visual identification of an unknown tablet. A polymer coating is often applied to make the tablet smoother and easier to swallow, to control the release rate of the active ingredient, to make it more resistant to the environment (extending its shelf life), or to enhance the tablet's appearance.\n", "In ancient Greece, such medicines were known as \"katapotia\" (\"something to be swallowed\"), and the Roman scholar Pliny, who lived from 23-79 AD, first gave a name to what we now call pills, calling them \"pilula\".\n", "Section::::Enteral formulations.\n\nOral drugs are normally taken as tablets or capsules.\n\nThe drug (active substance) itself needs to be soluble in aqueous solution at a controlled rate. Such factors as particle size and crystal form can significantly affect dissolution. Fast dissolution is not always ideal. For example, slow dissolution rates can prolong the duration of action or avoid initial high plasma levels. Treatment of active ingredient by special ways such as spherical crystallization can have some advantages for drug formulation.\n\nSection::::Enteral formulations.:Tablet.\n\nA tablet is usually a compressed preparation that contains:\n\nBULLET::::- 5-10% of the drug (active substance);\n", "In the tablet pressing process, the appropriate amount of active ingredient must be in each tablet. Hence, all the ingredients should be well-mixed. If a sufficiently homogenous mix of the components cannot be obtained with simple blending processes, the ingredients must be granulated prior to compression to assure an even distribution of the active compound in the final tablet. Two basic techniques are used to granulate powders for compression into a tablet: wet granulation and dry granulation. Powders that can be mixed well do not require granulation and can be compressed into tablets through direct compression.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Wet granulation.\n", "Tablets are simple and convenient to use. They provide an accurately measured dosage of the active ingredient in a convenient portable package, and can be designed to protect unstable medications or disguise unpalatable ingredients. Colored coatings, embossed markings and printing can be used to aid tablet recognition. Manufacturing processes and techniques can provide tablets with special properties, for example, sustained release or fast dissolving formulations.\n", "Often, an ingredient is also needed to act as a \"disintegrant\" to aid tablet dispersion once swallowed, releasing the API for absorption. Some binders, such as starch and cellulose, are also excellent disintegrants.\n\nSection::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n", "Formulation scientists and technologists need tools to select ingredients for new formulations. Tablets contain multiple ingredients beyond the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) such as fillers, tableting agents, disintegrants, and absorption enhancers or agents that slow down and control absorption. Choice of materials is important to assure the flow characteristics, potency, and absorption of specific formulations. In addition, proper particle size grades of the ingredients must be selected to produce an optimum blend for capsule filling.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "Tableting\n\nTableting is a method of pressing medicine or candy into tablets. Confectionery manufacture shares many similarities with pharmaceutical production. \n\nA powder or granule mixture is prepared, a dye mold is filled, and then the mixture is compressed and ejected. While drug tablets are constrained to shapes that can be swallowed easily, candy tablets are chewable.\n\nSection::::Introduction.\n\nThe manufacture of oral solid dosage forms such as tablets is a complex multi-stage process under which the starting materials change their physical characteristics a number of times before the\n\nfinal dosage form is produced.\n", "BULLET::::- 80% of fillers, disintegrants, lubricants, glidants, and binders; and\n\nBULLET::::- 10% of compounds which ensure easy disintegration, disaggregation, and dissolution of the tablet in the stomach or the intestine.\n\nThe dissolution time can be modified for a rapid effect or for sustained release.\n\nSpecial coatings can make the tablet resistant to the stomach acids such that it only disintegrates in the duodenum, jejunum and colon as a result of enzyme action or alkaline pH.\n\nPills can be coated with sugar, varnish, or wax to disguise the taste.\n\nSection::::Enteral formulations.:Capsule.\n", "A pill was originally defined as a small, round, solid pharmaceutical oral dosage form of medication. The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes, and were found aboard a Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino which wrecked in 140 BC. Today, pills include tablets, capsules, and variants thereof like caplets — essentially, any solid form of medication colloquially falls into the pill category.\n\nSection::::Types.:Caplet.\n", "Some APIs may be tableted as pure substances, but this is rarely the case; most formulations include excipients. Normally, a pharmacologically inactive ingredient (excipient) termed a \"binder\" is added to help hold the tablet together and give it strength. A wide variety of binders may be used, some common ones including lactose, dibasic calcium phosphate, sucrose, corn (maize) starch, microcrystalline cellulose, povidone polyvinylpyrrolidone and modified cellulose (for example hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and hydroxyethylcellulose).\n", "After granulation, a final lubrication step is used to ensure that the tableting blend does not stick to the equipment during the tableting process. This usually involves low shear blending of the granules with a powdered lubricant, such as magnesium stearate or stearic acid.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Manufacture of the tablets.\n", "Section::::Tablet properties.\n\nTablets can be made in virtually any shape, although requirements of patients and tableting machines mean that most are round, oval or capsule shaped. More unusual shapes have been manufactured but patients find these harder to swallow, and they are more vulnerable to chipping or manufacturing problems.\n", "BULLET::::3. Solvent property\n\nBULLET::::4. Irritant effects\n\nBULLET::::5. Ease of application and removal\n\nBULLET::::- Methods of preparation of ointments\n\nTrituration: In this finely subdivided insoluble medicaments are evenly distributed by grinding with a small amount of the base followed by dilution with gradually increasing amounts of the base.\n\nFusion: In this method the ingredients are melted together in descending order of their melting points and stirred to ensure homogeneity.\n\nSection::::Classes.:Gel.\n", "Formulation studies then consider such factors as particle size, polymorphism, pH, and solubility, as all of these can influence bioavailability and hence the activity of a drug. The drug must be combined with inactive ingredients by a method which ensures that the quantity of drug present is consistent in each dosage unit e.g. each tablet. The dosage should have a uniform appearance, with an acceptable taste, tablet hardness, and capsule disintegration.\n", "The sizing (size reduction, milling, crushing, grinding, pulverization) is an important step in the process of tablet manufacturing.\n\nIn manufacturing of compressed tablets, the mixing or blending of several solid pharmaceutical ingredients is easier and more uniform if the ingredients are about the same size. This provides a greater uniformity of dose. A fine particle size is essential in case of lubricant mixing with granules for its proper function.\n\nAdvantages of smaller tablets are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased surface area, which may enhance an active ingredient's dissolution rate and hence bioavailability\n", "Softgels can be an effective delivery system for oral drugs, especially poorly soluble drugs. This is because the fill can contain liquid ingredients that help increase solubility or permeability of the drug across the membranes in the body. Liquid ingredients are difficult to include in any other solid dosage form such as a tablet. Softgels are also highly suited to potent drugs (for example, where the dose is 100 µg), where the highly reproducible filling process helps ensure each softgel has the same drug content, and because the operators are not exposed to any drug dust during the manufacturing process.\n", "BULLET::::- Soft-shelled capsules, primarily used for oils and for active ingredients that are dissolved or suspended in oil.\n\nBoth of these classes of capsules are made from aqueous solutions of gelling agents, such as animal protein (mainly gelatin) or plant polysaccharides or their derivatives (such as carrageenans and modified forms of starch and cellulose). Other ingredients can be added to the gelling agent solution including plasticizers such as glycerin or sorbitol to decrease the capsule's hardness, coloring agents, preservatives, disintegrants, lubricants and surface treatment.\n", "There are a number of methods by which tablets and capsules can be modified in order to allow for sustained release of the active compound as it moves through the digestive tract. One of the most common methods is to embed the active ingredient in an insoluble porous matrix, such that the dissolving drug must make its way out of the matrix before it can be absorbed. In other sustained release formulations the matrix swells to form a gel through which the drug exits.\n", "Mathematically corrected punch motions can be programmed to simulate any type and model of production tablet press. Initial quantities of active pharmaceutical ingredients are very expensive to produce, and using a Compaction Simulator reduces the amount of powder required for product development.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Tablet presses.\n", "Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the \"first pass effect\"), making them unsuitable for oral use. Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosa, so that they bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to be given in very high doses or by injection. For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects, the oral route may not be suitable. For example, salbutamol, used to treat problems in the respiratory system, can have effects on the heart and circulation if taken orally; these effects are greatly reduced by inhaling smaller doses direct to the required site of action. A proportion of the population have difficulties swallowing tablets either because they just don't like taking them or because their medical condition makes it difficult for them (dysphagia, vomiting). In such instances it may be better to consider alternative dosage form or administration route.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20195	Why does drinking alcohol affect a man's ability to get an erection?	Erectile tissue works by constricting blood vessels so less blood leaves the tissue than enters it. Alcohol makes blood vessels dilate, counteracting the erectile tissue's function.	[ "In the presence of mechanical stimulation, erection is initiated by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system with minimal input from the central nervous system. Parasympathetic branches extend from the sacral plexus into the arteries supplying the erectile tissue; upon stimulation, these nerve branches release acetylcholine, which in turn causes release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells in the trabecular arteries. Nitric oxide diffuses to the smooth muscle of the arteries (called \"trabecular smooth muscle\"), acting as a vasodilating agent. The arteries dilate, filling the \"corpus spongiosum\" and \"corpora cavernosa\" with blood. The ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles also compress the veins of the corpora cavernosa, limiting the venous drainage of blood. Erection subsides when parasympathetic stimulation is discontinued; baseline stimulation from the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the penile arteries and cavernosal sinosoids, forcing blood out of the erectile tissue via erection-related veins which include one deep dorsal vein, a pair of cavernosal veins, and two pairs of para-arterial veins between Buck's fascia and the tunica albuginea. Erection rigidity is mechanically controlled by reduction blood flow via theses veins, and thereby building up the pressure of the corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum, an integral instructure, the distal ligament, buttresses the glans penis. \n", "It is normal to correlate the erection of the penis with male sexual arousal. Physical or psychological stimulation, or both, leads to vasodilation and the increased blood flow engorges the three spongy areas that run along the length of the penis (the two corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum). The penis grows enlarged and firm, the skin of the scrotum is pulled tighter, and the testes are pulled up against the body. However, the relationship between erection and arousal is not one-to-one. After their mid-forties, some men report that they do not always have an erection when they are sexually aroused. Equally, a male erection can occur during sleep (nocturnal penile tumescence) without conscious sexual arousal or due to mechanical stimulation (e.g. rubbing against the bed sheet) alone. A young man — or one with a strong libido — may experience enough sexual arousal for an erection to result from a passing thought, or just the sight of a passerby. Once erect, his penis may gain enough stimulation from contact with the inside of his clothing to maintain and encourage it for some time.\n", "Physiologically, erection is triggered by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, causing nitric oxide (a vasodilator) levels to rise in the trabecular arteries and smooth muscle of the penis. The arteries dilate causing the corpora cavernosa of the penis (and to a lesser extent the corpus spongiosum) to fill with blood; simultaneously the ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles compress the veins of the corpora cavernosa restricting the egress and circulation of this blood. Erection subsides when parasympathetic activity reduces to baseline.\n", "An elephant's penis is S-shaped when fully erect and has a Y-shaped orifice.\n\nGiven the small amount of erectile tissue in a bull's penis, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.\n\nA male fossa's penis reaches to between his forelegs when erect.\n", "Bulls have a fibro-elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.\n", "Erection can be induced by injecting 10-20 µg of prostaglandin E1, with evaluations of the arterial flow every five minutes for 25-30 min (see image). The use of prostaglandin E1 is contraindicated in patients with a predisposition to priapism (e.g., those with sickle cell anemia), as well as in those with an anatomical deformity of the penis or a penile implant. Phentolamine (2 mg) is often added. Visual and tactile stimulation produces better results. Some authors recommend the use of sildenafil by mouth to replace the injectable drugs in cases of contraindications, although the efficacy of such medication is controversial.\n", "After ejaculation or cessation of stimulation, erection usually subsides, but the time taken may vary depending on the length and thickness of the penis.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Voluntary and involuntary control.\n\nThe cerebral cortex can initiate erection in the absence of direct mechanical stimulation (in response to visual, auditory, olfactory, imagined, or tactile stimuli) acting through erectile centers in the lumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord. The cortex may suppress erection, even in the presence of mechanical stimulation, as may other psychological, emotional, and environmental factors.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Nocturnal erection.\n", "Erection\n\nAn erection (clinically: penile erection or penile tumescence) is a physiological phenomenon in which the penis becomes firm, engorged, and enlarged. Penile erection is the result of a complex interaction of psychological, neural, vascular, and endocrine factors, and is often associated with sexual arousal or sexual attraction, although erections can also be spontaneous. The shape, angle, and direction of an erection varies considerably in humans.\n", "The goal of nocturnal penile tumescence testing is to determine whether a man can experience an erection while sleeping after reporting he is unable to experience an erection while awake. If a man does obtain an erection while sleeping, but cannot obtain one while awake, a psychological cause or a medication side effect is usually suspected. Otherwise, if a man does not obtain an erection in either state, a physiological cause is usually suspected. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Swelling (medical)\n\nBULLET::::- Intumescent, a substance that swells up when heated\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Female Response\" – \"Humboldt Universität zu Berlin\"\n", "An erection is the stiffening and rising of the penis, which occurs during sexual arousal, though it can also happen in non-sexual situations. Spontaneous erections frequently occur during adolescence due to friction with clothing, a full bladder or large intestine, hormone fluctuations, nervousness, and undressing in a nonsexual situation. It is also normal for erections to occur during sleep and upon waking. (See nocturnal penile tumescence.) The primary physiological mechanism that brings about erection is the autonomic dilation of arteries supplying blood to the penis, which allows more blood to fill the three spongy erectile tissue chambers in the penis, causing it to lengthen and stiffen. The now-engorged erectile tissue presses against and constricts the veins that carry blood away from the penis. More blood enters than leaves the penis until an equilibrium is reached where an equal volume of blood flows into the dilated arteries and out of the constricted veins; a constant erectile size is achieved at this equilibrium. The scrotum will usually tighten during erection.\n", "Erectile dysfunction can occur due to both physiological and psychological reasons, most of which are amenable to treatment. Common physiological reasons include diabetes, kidney disease, chronic alcoholism, multiple sclerosis, atherosclerosis, vascular disease -including arterial insufficiency and venogenic erectile dysfunction-, and neurologic disease which collectively account for about 70 percent of ED cases. Some drugs used to treat other conditions, such as lithium and paroxetine, may cause erectile dysfunction.\n", "One of the first steps is to distinguish between physiological and psychological ED. Determining whether involuntary erections are present is important in eliminating the possibility of psychogenic causes for ED. Obtaining full erections occasionally, such as nocturnal penile tumescence when asleep (that is, when the mind and psychological issues, if any, are less present), tends to suggest that the physical structures are functionally working. Similarly, performance with manual stimulation, as well as any performance anxiety or acute situational ED, may indicate a psychogenic component to ED.\n", "The most obvious response involved with sexual behaviour in males is penile erection. The use of the volume (or circumference) change during penile erection as a convenient measure of sexual arousal was first developed by Kurt Freund. This measurement of blood flow to the male genitals is known as penile plethysmography. This is commonly measured using a strain gauge, a simple mercury strain gauge encompassed in a ring of rubber. The ring surrounds the penis, but does not constrict or cause discomfort. The measure has been found by some to be a reliable and valid measurement of male arousal. More recently, thermography has been developed to measure the physiological measurements of sexual arousal. Studies have found temperature change specific to the genitals during sexual arousal, which supports the validity of this measure.\n", "Erectile dysfunction occurs for a variety of reasons. Please see below and also refer to the separate entry on erectile dysfunction and the references therein. Ultimately, the cause for erectile dysfunction is that not enough Nitric oxide (NO) is released by the vascular endothelium of the branches of the perineal artery, a branch of the internal pudendal artery. \n", "Erectile dysfunction from vascular disease is usually seen only amongst elderly individuals who have atherosclerosis. Vascular disease is common in individuals who have diabetes, peripheral vascular disease, hypertension and those who smoke. Any time blood flow to the penis is impaired, erectile dysfunction is the end result.\n", "A chemical is accidentally released into the world's water supply rendering all men impotent. Percy is unaware that he is the only man on earth who can achieve an erection because he was in hiding from the law at sea, drinking nothing but champagne.\n", "In males, the expulsion of urine from the body is done through the penis. The urethra drains the bladder through the prostate gland where it is joined by the ejaculatory duct, and then onward to the penis.\n\nAn erection is the stiffening and rising of the penis, which occurs during sexual arousal, though it can also happen in non-sexual situations. Ejaculation is the ejecting of semen from the penis, and is usually accompanied by orgasm. A series of muscular contractions delivers semen, containing male gametes known as sperm cells or spermatozoa, from the penis.\n", "BULLET::::- Erectile dysfunction is the inability to develop and maintain an erection sufficiently firm for satisfactory sexual performance. Diabetes is a leading cause, as is natural aging. A variety of treatments exist, most notably including the phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor drugs (such as \"sildenafil citrate\", marketed as Viagra), which work by vasodilation.\n", "As an autonomic nervous system response, an erection may result from a variety of stimuli, including sexual stimulation and sexual arousal, and is therefore not entirely under conscious control. Erections during sleep or upon waking up are known as nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT). Absence of nocturnal erection is commonly used to distinguish between physical and psychological causes of erectile dysfunction and impotence.\n\nThe state of a penis which is partly, but not fully, erect is sometimes known as semi-erection (clinically: partial tumescence); a penis which is not erect is typically referred to as being flaccid, or soft.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "The penis may erect during sleep or be erect on waking up. Such an erection is medically known as nocturnal penile tumescence (informally: \"morning wood\" or \"morning glory\").\n\nSection::::Socio-sexual aspects.\n\nSection::::Socio-sexual aspects.:Social.\n\nErection is a common indicator of sexual arousal and is required for a male to effect vaginal penetration and sexual intercourse.\n", "Regularly, men who experience erectile dysfunction are given a nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT) test, usually over a three-day period. Such a test detects the presence of an erection occurring during sleep using either:\n\nBULLET::::1. a small portable computer connected to two bands placed around the shaft of the penis which records penile tumescence,\n\nBULLET::::2. a band of paper tape with perforations (similar to coil postage stamps) that is fit snugly around the shaft of the penis and will break at the perforations during penile tumescence.\n", "Penile erection is managed by two mechanisms: the reflex erection, which is achieved by directly touching the penile shaft, and the psychogenic erection, which is achieved by erotic or emotional stimuli. The former uses the peripheral nerves and the lower parts of the spinal cord, whereas the latter uses the limbic system of the brain. In both cases, an intact neural system is required for a successful and complete erection. Stimulation of the penile shaft by the nervous system leads to the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), which causes the relaxation of smooth muscles of corpora cavernosa (the main erectile tissue of penis), and subsequently penile erection. Additionally, adequate levels of testosterone (produced by the testes) and an intact pituitary gland are required for the development of a healthy erectile system. As can be understood from the mechanisms of a normal erection, impotence may develop due to hormonal deficiency, disorders of the neural system, lack of adequate penile blood supply or psychological problems. Spinal cord injury causes sexual dysfunction including ED. Restriction of blood flow can arise from impaired endothelial function due to the usual causes associated with coronary artery disease, but can also be caused by prolonged exposure to bright light.\n", "A common societal belief is that a male must be aroused if he gets an erection or has an orgasm, therefore that means that they are willing and enjoying any sexual activity. Roy J. Levin and Willy Van Berlo wrote in an article in the Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine that slight genital stimulation or stress can create erections \"even though no specific sexual stimulation is present\". An erection does not mean that the men consent to sex. Males can get erections even in traumatic or painful sexual situations, and this does not indicate consent.\n", "As testosterone is critical for libido and physical arousal, alcohol tends to have deleterious effects on male sexual performance. Studies have been conducted that indicate increasing levels of alcohol intoxication produce a significant degradation in male masturbatory effectiveness (MME). This degradation was measured by measuring blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and ejaculation latency. Alcohol intoxication can decrease sexual arousal, decrease pleasureability and intensity of orgasm, and increase difficulty in attaining orgasm.\n\nSection::::In women.\n", "Spontaneous erection, also known as involuntary, random or unwanted erection, is commonplace and a normal part of male physiology. Socially, such erections can be embarrassing if they happen in public or when undesired. Erections can occur spontaneously at any time of day, and if clothed may cause a bulge which (if required) can be disguised or hidden by wearing close-fitting underwear, a long shirt, or baggier clothes.\n\nSection::::Socio-sexual aspects.:Size.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19615	How do executives hold board of director positions at multiple fortune 500 companies?	The Board only meets occasionally to vote on more important matters. They don't really deal with day to day affairs like the CEO does.	[ "BULLET::::- The CEO may also hold the title of chairperson, in which case the board frequently names an independent member of the board as a lead director. This position is equivalent to the position of président-directeur général in France.\n\nSection::::Public corporations.:Executive chairperson.\n", "BULLET::::- Boards should consider formally designating an independent director as chairman or lead director. If they do not make such a designation, they should designate, regardless of title, an independent member to lead the board in its most critical functions, including setting board agendas with the CEO, evaluating CEO and board performance, holding executive sessions, and anticipating and responding to corporate crises.\n\nBULLET::::- Boards should regularly and formally evaluate the performance of the CEO, other senior managers, the board as a whole, and individual directors. Independent directors should control the methods and criteria for this evaluation.\n", "6. Many start-ups and high growth businesses tend to operate in a vacuum without looking at outside forces\n\n7. Outside directors introduce a fresh, and usually innovative, perspective\n\n8. They may compensate in some of the key areas where management may be weak\n\n9. The outside director may act a bit like a consultant\n\n10. They bring input and the ability to assist with objectivity \n", "BULLET::::- Representatives of other stakeholders such as labor unions, major lenders, or members of the community in which the organization is located\n\nAn inside director who is employed as a manager or executive of the organization is sometimes referred to as an executive director (not to be confused with the title executive director sometimes used for the CEO position in some organizations). Executive directors often have a specified area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources, or production.\n\nSection::::Directors.:Outside director.\n", "Independent directors often have some prior social connection to, or are even friends with the CEO or other senior executives. CEOs are often involved in bringing a director onto the board.\n", "While absence of the YE/FL council the chair manages the main tasks, which are to guide the committee through its work, take care of administrative YE/FL responsibilities in between official meetings, to moderate official meetings, and set mile stones to help handle matters on time.\n\nSection::::In YE/FL represented nations.\n\nBULLET::::- Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Bahrain\n\nBULLET::::- Bangladesh\n\nBULLET::::- Belize\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- Costa Rica\n\nBULLET::::- China\n\nBULLET::::- Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Honduras\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- Italy\n\nBULLET::::- Kenya\n\nBULLET::::- Kuwait\n\nBULLET::::- Lebanon\n\nBULLET::::- Nigeria\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Peru\n\nBULLET::::- Sierra Leone\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Switzerland\n", "The benefits of having an advisory board over board of directors may include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Distance control\n", "In the case of a celebrity board director and corporate governance practice, the shareholders’ wealth potential is at stake. Effective corporate governance requires leadership in addition to influence. Many U.S. companies have long stocked the company’s board with a number of influential directors (see Table 1). A company’s leadership expects the celebrity component of a celebrity director to bring perceived value, press, and investor interest.\n\nTable 1 - Notable Celebrity Board Directors\n\nCelebrity Board Director or Not?\n\nLeadership\n\nOther Celebrity Board Director Characteristics\n\nRelated Articles on Celebrity Board Directors\n\nSEC Turns Newly Opened Eye to Celebrity Board Directors \n", "In addition to the above five key qualities an effective non-executive director would influence the achievement of balance of the board of directors as a whole as well as commitment, perception and a broad perspective of the area or industry. More key responsibilities may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Contributing to the strategic direction of the company;\n\nBULLET::::- Efficiently solving problems that arise;\n\nBULLET::::- Communicating with third parties;\n\nBULLET::::- Ensuring all the audit requirements are satisfied;\n\nBULLET::::- Remuneration of the executive directors;\n\nBULLET::::- Appointing the board of directors.\n\nSection::::Key responsibilities.\n", "Individual directors often serve on more than one board. This practice results in an interlocking directorate, where a relatively small number of individuals have significant influence over a large number of important entities. This situation can have important corporate, social, economic, and legal consequences, and has been the subject of significant research.\n\nSection::::Process and structure.\n", "It is vitally important that all non-executive directors are aware of their duties and liabilities as well as developing the softer skills associated with the role such as board behaviour and effective challenge. There are a number of organisations who provide this type of training such as the Institute of Directors and Financial Times, who offer a fully accredited Level 7 Masters Diploma qualification and a series of shorter workshops, for those who wish to embark on a successful portfolio career.\n\nSection::::Types of organisation.\n\nA non-executive director can be appointed in different organisations:\n\nBULLET::::- The Private Sector\n", "Typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the \"chairman\" (often now called the \"chair\" or \"chairperson\"), who holds whatever title is specified in the by-laws or articles of association. However, in membership organizations, the members elect the president of the organization and the president becomes the board chair, unless the by-laws say otherwise.\n\nSection::::Directors.\n\nThe directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board. Several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization.\n\nSection::::Directors.:Inside director.\n", "Members of the compensation committee may be independent but are often other well-paid executives. In 2002, 41 percent of the directors on compensation committees were active executives, 20 percent were active CEOs, another 26 percent of the members of compensation committees were retirees, \"most of them retired executives.\" Interlocking directorates—where the CEO of one firm sits on the board of another, and the CEO of \"that\" firm sits on the board of the first CEO—is a practice found in about one out of every twelve publicly traded firms.\n", "Section::::Audit.\n\nIt is the duty of the whole board to ensure that the company accounts properly to its shareholders by presenting a true and fair reflection of its actions and financial performance and that the necessary internal control systems are put into place and monitored regularly and rigorously. A non-executive director has an important part to play in fulfilling this responsibility whether or not a formal audit committee (composed of non-executive directors) of the board has been constituted.\n\nSection::::Training and education.\n", "According to the UK Institute of Directors, non-executive directors are expected to focus on board matters and not stray into ‘executive direction,’ thus providing an independent view of the company that is removed from day-to-day running. Non-executive directors, then, are appointed to bring to the board: \n\nBULLET::::- Independence;\n\nBULLET::::- Impartiality;\n\nBULLET::::- Wide experience;\n\nBULLET::::- Special knowledge;\n\nBULLET::::- Personal qualities.\n", "The role of the chairperson in a private equity-backed board differs from the role in non-profit or publicly listed organizations in several ways, including the pay, role and what makes an effective private-equity chairperson. Companies with both an executive chairperson and a CEO include Ford, HSBC, Alphabet Inc., HP, and Apple.\n\nSection::::Vice-chairperson and deputy chairperson.\n", "Section::::Public corporations.:Examples.\n\nMany US companies have an executive chairperson; this method of organization is sometimes called the American model. Having a non-executive chairperson is common in the UK and Canada, and is sometimes called the British model. Expert opinion is rather evenly divided over which is the preferable model. There is a growing push by public market investors for companies with an executive chairperson to have a lead independent director to provide some element of an independent perspective.\n", "BULLET::::- Peter Godsoe – Barrick Gold Corporation, Fairmont Hotels and Resorts, Mount Sinai Hospital (Toronto), Onex Corporation, Rogers Communications, and Sobeys\n\nBULLET::::- Irvine O. Hockaday, Jr. – Aquila, Inc., Dow Jones & Company, Ford Motor Company, Kansas City Southern Industries, Sprint Nextel, and Estée Lauder Companies\n\nBULLET::::- Susan Bayh\n\nBULLET::::- Gary L. Wilson – CB Richard Ellis, TruthMD, Keck School of Medicine USC, Millennium Place, NCAA Leadership Advisory Board, NeoSpire Inc Advisory Board, Northwest Airlines (formerly), Yahoo! (formerly), Walt Disney Company (formerly),\n\nSection::::Five boards.\n\nBULLET::::- Elon Musk – SpaceX, Tesla, Hyperloop, SolarCity, OpenAI, PayPal (formerly)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Corporate governance\n\nBULLET::::- Interlocking directorate\n", "In most legal systems, the appointment and removal of directors is voted upon by the shareholders in general meeting or through a proxy statement. For publicly traded companies in the U.S., the directors which are available to vote on are largely selected by either the board as a whole or a nominating committee. Although in 2002 the New York Stock Exchange and the NASDAQ required that nominating committees consist of independent directors as a condition of listing, nomination committees have historically received input from management in their selections even when the CEO does not have a position on the board. Shareholder nominations can only occur at the general meeting itself or through the prohibitively expensive process of mailing out ballots separately; in May 2009 the SEC proposed a new rule allowing shareholders meeting certain criteria to add nominees to the proxy statement. In practice for publicly traded companies, the managers (inside directors) who are purportedly accountable to the board of directors have historically played a major role in selecting and nominating the directors who are voted on by the shareholders, in which case more \"gray outsider directors\" (independent directors with conflicts of interest) are nominated and elected.\n", "Section::::Roles and responsibilities in internal control.:Board of directors.\n", "In membership organizations, such as a society made up of members of a certain profession or one advocating a certain cause, a board of directors may have the responsibility of running the organization in between meetings of the membership, especially if the membership meets infrequently, such as only at an annual general meeting. The amount of powers and authority delegated to the board depend on the bylaws and rules of the particular organization. Some organizations place matters exclusively in the board's control while in others, the general membership retains full power and the board can only make recommendations.\n", "Reforms have attempted to solve this problem and insulate directors from management influence. Following earlier scandals over management accounting fraud and self-dealing, NASDAQ and NYSE stock exchange regulations require that the majority of directors of boards, and all of the directors of the board committees in charge of working out the details of executive pay packages (compensation committees) and nominating new directors (nomination committees), be \"independent\". Independent directors have \"‘no material relationship’ with the listed company, either directly or as a partner, shareholder or officer of an organization that has a relationship with the company.\"\n", "Section::::Impact.\n", "An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, and does not represent any of its stakeholders. A typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry. Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way.\n", "In 2014 eight key staff positions were designated, covering the offices of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Operating Officer (COO), Sentinel Program Architecture (SPA), Sentinel Mission Direction (SMD), Sentinel Program Management (SPM), Sentinel Mission Science (SMS) and the Sentinel Standing Review Team (SSRT), plus Public Relations.\n\nSection::::Staff.:Leadership.:Ed Lu, co-founder and CEO.\n" ]	[ "Executives who hold board of director positions at fortune 500 companies are involved in the day to day affairs." ]	[ "Executives who hold board of director positions only meet occasionally to vote on important matters." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Executives who hold board of director positions at fortune 500 companies are involved in the day to day affairs.", "Executives who hold board of director positions at fortune 500 companies are involved in the day to day affairs." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Executives who hold board of director positions only meet occasionally to vote on important matters.", "Executives who hold board of director positions only meet occasionally to vote on important matters." ]
2018-11880	Why does metal rust if I leave it out in the rain, but not when it's in jewelry that I wear in the shower?	Depends on the metal and also on the process that they receive to be able to withstand the conditions. Usually, jewelry will be coated with some metal that won’t rust or even paint to protect them and will be made of materials that are unlikely to rust.	[ "Moisture has strong effects on nearly all cultural heritage materials, with ceramics and glass being exceptions to these effects in most cases. Metals face the risk of corrosion as RH increases, a risk which is enhanced by surface contaminants and emphasizes the need for proper housing. Additionally, mold growth is far more likely as humidity increases, which not only could cause allergic reactions for viewers but it also weakens the collections afflicted and attracts other pests. In contrast to this requisite for dry conditions, if the atmosphere is not humid enough wooden objects could crack or warp, and many organic materials face embrittlement below 40% RH.\n", "Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will give a British Assay office (the body which gives U.K. jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) the right to destroy the piece, however it is very rare for the assay office to do so.\n", "Wear of metals occurs by plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material and by detachment of particles that form wear debris. The particle size may vary from millimeters to nanometers. This process may occur by contact with other metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids, solid particles or liquid droplets entrained in flowing gasses.\n", "Some metals, such as untreated aluminium, require a primer; others may not. A primer designed for metal is still highly recommended if a part is to be exposed to moisture. Once water seeps through to the bare metal, oxidation will begin (plain steel will simply rust). Metal primers might contain additional materials to protect against corrosion, such as sacrificial zinc. \n", "An essential cause of deterioration is corrosion of metal objects or object deterioration by interaction with the environment. As the most influential factors of deterioration of historical objects should be pointed out as the relative humidity and air pollution while in archaeological objects a crucial role has composition, depth, humidity and amount of gasses in the soil. In cases of marine or fresh water finds the most important factors of decay are the amount and composition of soluble salts, water depth, amount of dissolved gases, the direction of water currents and the role of both microscopic and macroscopic living organisms.\n", "Section::::Metals conservation planning.:Documentation.\n\nSystematic and well-managed documentation is today an essential prerequisite for quality executed conservation and restoration treatments, including documentation of the state of objects before, during and after treatment. Identification of materials and procedures used to produce object and the results of any scientific research must be part of documentation too. Last but not least- an integral part of the documentation must be a recommendation for further care of object.\n\nSection::::Metals conservation planning.:Ethics and ethical problems in metals conservation.\n", "Under elevated temperature and humidity environments, corrosion can be a concern. This is most common in Au-Al metal systems and is driven by galvanic corrosion. The presence of halides such as chlorine can accelerate this behavior. This Au-Al corrosion is often characterized with Peck's law for temperature and humidity. This is not as common in other metal systems.\n", "Prevention of atmospheric corrosion is typically handled by use of materials selection and coatings specifications. The use of zinc coatings also known as galvanization on steel structures is a form of cathodic protection and also a form of coating. Small scratches are expected to occur in the galvanized coating over time. The zinc being more active in the galvanic series corrodes in preference to the underlying steel and the corrosion products fil the scratch preventing further corrosion. As long as the scratches are fine, condensation moisture should not corrode the underlying steel as long as both the zinc and steel are in contact. As long as there is moisture, the zinc will corrode and eventually disappear. \n", "There are four main environmental agents of deterioration which should be monitored on a regular basis as part of maintenance. These are temperature, relative humidity, light and dust. It is important to recognize the type of damage each agent may present as well as ways to mitigate any harm.\n\nSection::::Environmental Control.:Temperature.\n", "A recurring problem for the Tin Woodman in \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\" and afterward was his tendency to rust when exposed to rain, tears, or other moisture. For this reason, in \"The Marvelous Land of Oz\" the character has himself nickel-plated before helping his friend the Scarecrow fight to regain his throne in the Emerald City. Even so, the Tin Woodman continues to worry about rusting throughout the Oz series.\n", "Preventive conservation, also known as collections care, is an important element of museum policy. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an artifact requires conservation work and the services of a qualified conservator.\n\nSection::::Conservation.:Interventive conservation.\n\nSection::::Conservation.:Interventive conservation.:Cleaning.\n", "A brushed finish is susceptible to damage. Brushed finishes also typically have a detrimental effect on corrosion resistance. In particular the brushed texture limits the ability of fluid to bead on the material surface. In the case of stainless steel the grooves of the finish can accumulate chloride ions which break down the chromium oxide passivation layer, enabling rusting to occur.\n", "All metals have a property called hardness, which is the property of the metal that resists bending. Soft metals are pliable and easy to bend while hard metals are stiff and hard to bend. The hardness of metals can be changed by annealing with heat treatment, or by work hardening a wire by bending it.\n", "Section::::Protection from corrosion.\n\nVarious treatments are used to slow corrosion damage to metallic objects which are exposed to the weather, salt water, acids, or other hostile environments. Some unprotected metallic alloys are extremely vulnerable to corrosion, such as those used in neodymium magnets, which can spall or crumble into powder even in dry, temperature-stable indoor environments unless properly treated to discourage corrosion.\n\nSection::::Protection from corrosion.:Surface treatments.\n", "Metals are shiny and lustrous, at least when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured. Sheets of metal thicker than a few micrometres appear opaque, but gold leaf transmits green light.\n", "Similar to wood, interaction with water can also prove detrimental to metal. When contaminants come into contact with metal, they either combine with any present moisture or attract moisture to the metal. This “[...] combination with moisture can produce corrosion.” \n\nSection::::Typical types of damage.:Types of clock damage.:Finish or paint damage.\n", "Section::::Working process.\n\nIn an interview with Susan Cummins for the Art Jewellery Forum, Ann Culy discussed her working process when creating pieces of jewellery, saying, “I do use ancient techniques in my making, they still hold fast. I mix and pour my own ingots. The rings have no solder; they are constructed simply by forging, fusing, filing, burnishing, and stamping. I like that they can easily be returned to the metal they came from with the melt of a flame.”\n\nSection::::Collections.\n", "Slowing this tendency of objects to self-destruct requires an understanding of how materials interact. This includes not just an understanding of the intrinsic qualities of the materials themselves, but also the way that they affect and are affected by the other materials that they come into contact with. For example, leather and metal are two materials which are frequently used in combination with each other, but react to each other over time to cause corrosion on the metal.\n", "Section::::Deterioration of materials associated with metals.\n\nAssociated materials deteriorate depending on the origin whether they are organic or inorganic materials. Organic materials usually fail in a relatively short period of time, primarily due to biodegradation. With inorganic materials are these processes considerably longer and more complex. Amount of gases, humidity, depth and composition of soil are very important. In case of salty and sweet water finds essential are amount of gases dissolved in water, depth of water, direction of currents, and microscopic and macroscopic living organisms.\n\nSection::::Deterioration of materials associated with metals.:Organic materials.\n\nBULLET::::- Leather\n\nBULLET::::- Wood\n\nBULLET::::- Paper\n", "Metalsmiths, beaders, carvers, and lapidaries combine a variety of metals, hardwoods, precious and semi-precious gemstones, beadwork, quillwork, teeth, bones, hide, vegetal fibres, and other materials to create jewellery. Contemporary Native American jewellery ranges from hand-quarried and processed stones and shells to computer-fabricated steel and titanium jewellery.\n\nSection::::History.:Pacific.\n", "Because of the widespread use and importance of iron and steel products, the prevention or slowing of rust is the basis of major economic activities in a number of specialized technologies. A brief overview of methods is presented here; for detailed coverage, see the cross-referenced articles.\n\nRust is permeable to air and water, therefore the interior metallic iron beneath a rust layer continues to corrode. Rust prevention thus requires coatings that preclude rust formation.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Rust-resistant alloys.\n", "BULLET::::- Viegas Wesolowska, C. Conservation of a Jewelled Bouquet, V&A Conservation Journal\n\n2006/ 54\n\nSection::::Further reading.:Articles on metals conservation(gold,tin and pewter,lead,zinc and aluminium).:Tin and pewter.\n\nBULLET::::- H.J. Plenderleith, R.M. Organ, The decay and conservation of\n\nmuseum objects of tin, Studies in Conservation 2 (1953) 63–72.\n\nBULLET::::- C. Worth, D.H. Keith, On the treatment of Pewter plates from the\n\nWreck of La Belle, 1686, The International Journal of Nautical\n", "Durable goods (e.g. automobiles, heavy machinery, mainframe computers, musical instruments, handguns, water heaters) are designed with wear parts that are maintained generally by replacement of parts. One way to determine if a good is durable or not is whether a service technician or repairman would typically attempt repairs on it. A specialist may need to be consulted, such as an auto mechanic, a computer technician, a luthier, a gunsmith, or a plumber. An automobile's engine may be repairable with a simple adjustment or replacement of a single and inexpensive broken part. Similarly, an electric water heater element that fails from years of wear and tear may be replaced rather than the entire water heater. \n", "Brushing gives metal a distinctive look, as it retains some but not all of its metallic lustre and is given a pattern of very fine lines parallel to the brushing direction. For this reason, it is commonly used for decorative items like jewelry and watches.\n", "Durability is the main advantage of metal furniture. For example, not many types of non-metal furniture can remain outside during winter and still look good when spring arrives. If cared for properly, metal furniture can last up to 30 years. Because most metal furniture is treated for rust and heat resistance, it doesn't need much maintenance.\n\nSection::::Types of metals.\n\nUsually metal furniture is made from either steel or aluminum. To tell aluminum from steel, place a magnet on a metal surface and if it is steel it will stick. \n" ]	[ "Metal rusts if left out in the rain or exposed to water, but jewelry does not." ]	[ "The metal that will rust when exposed to water depends on the material of the metal or the coating that shields the metal from water." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Metal rusts if left out in the rain or exposed to water, but jewelry does not." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The metal that will rust when exposed to water depends on the material of the metal or the coating that shields the metal from water." ]
2018-12537	Why do batteries have + and - sides	Electricity is the flow of charged particles (usually electrons). One side of the battery “attracts” electrons and the other side “releases electrons”, so you mark off which side is which with +/-. This is important because some devices only accept electrons in one direction (diodes commonly used in electronics). Putting it in reverse will do nothing or damage the device. You need a full circuit because air is a very good insulator. Electricity is like a river. The + and - terminals are like high ground and Low ground. If you place a Giant Boulder (air) to block it, the current will not flow anymore. Unlike water, it will just stay there instead of pooling at the boulder.	[ "L terminals consist of an L-shaped post with a bolt hole through the vertical side. These are used on some European cars, motorcycles, lawn and garden devices, snowmobiles, and other light duty vehicles.\n\nSome batteries sizes are available with terminals in two different configurations: 1) positive on left and negative on right, 2) negative on left and positive on right. Purchasing the wrong configuration may prevent battery cables from reaching the battery terminals.\n\nSection::::Marine battery terminals.\n\nMarine batteries typically have two posts, a 3/8\"-16 threaded post for the positive terminal, and a 5/16\"-18 threaded post for the negative terminal.\n", "BULLET::::- Category 2: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and protruding or flat negative terminals. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is insulated. \"E.g. CR14250, LR61\"\n", "BULLET::::- Category 3: Cylindrical cells with flat positive and negative terminals. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for any protuberances from the negative terminal). The cell casing is in connection with the positive terminal. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. \"E.g. CR11108, LR9\"\n", "IEC nomenclature classifies batteries according to their general shape and overall physical appearance. These categories, however, are not identified in the IEC battery nomenclature.\n\nBULLET::::- Category 1: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and recessed or flat negative terminals. The positive terminal shall be concentric with the cell overall. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for nubs, recesses and battery casings). The cell casing is insulated. \"E.g. R1 & LR8D425\"\n", "This battery uses a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allowing the battery to be used in different positions without leaking. Gel electrolyte batteries for any position were first used the 1930s, and in the late 1920s, portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell vertical or horizontal (but not inverted) due to valve design (see third Edition of \"Wireless Constructor's Encyclopaedia\" by Frederick James Camm). In the 1970s, the valve-regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA, or \"sealed\") was developed, including modern absorbed glass mat types, allowing operation in any position.\n\nSection::::Electrochemistry.\n\nSection::::Electrochemistry.:Discharge.\n", "BULLET::::- Versions without the pinch at the top and/or with a metal screen might have \"N\" appended, and letters \"A\", \"B\" or \"X\" would sometimes be used for variants (e.g. AL2X, ECH33B, ECH35A, EL3N and EL3NG). The AL2X differs from the AL2 in connecting the control grid to pin 6 instead of the top cap. EL33, EL33A and EL33B are octal power pentodes differing only in whether metallization shielding is connected to pin 1 or 8.\n", "It is common to refer to the negative electrode first in IEC battery definitions.\n\n\"Italics\" indicate a chemical system unlikely to be found in consumer or general-purpose batteries, or withdrawn from the current standard.\n\nSection::::IEC battery nomenclature.:Primary batteries.:Shape.\n\nShape codes are:\n\nThe \"F\" and \"S\" shape codes are still in use but are not to be used for new battery definitions.\n\nSection::::IEC battery nomenclature.:Primary batteries.:Size code.\n", "Section::::Voltage.\n", "CR-V3 battery\n\nA CR-V3 battery (sometimes CRV3) is a type of disposable high-capacity 3-Volt battery used in various electronic appliances, including some digital cameras. It has the shape and size of two side-by-side AA batteries. This allows CR-V3 batteries to function in many (though not all) devices originally designed for only AA batteries. An RCR-V3 battery is a rechargeable 3.7 V lithium-ion battery.\n\nSection::::Disposable CR-V3 batteries.\n", "The battery has both terminals in a snap connector on one end. The smaller circular (male) terminal is positive, and the larger hexagonal or octagonal (female) terminal is the negative contact. The connectors on the battery are the same as on the load device; the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice versa. The same snap-style connector is used on other battery types in the Power Pack (PP) series. Battery polarization is normally obvious, since mechanical connection is usually only possible in one configuration. \n", "BULLET::::- Triodes: triodes cut off when applied grid bias is too low. This will be a negative voltage under ordinary conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Tetrode, pentode etc.: There is some degree of interaction between the grids, and values will vary from one device to another. Anode voltage also affects cutoff voltage.\n\nSection::::Cutoff values.:Valves.:Remote cutoff.\n", "BULLET::::- Lead I — This axis goes from shoulder to shoulder, with the negative electrode placed on the right shoulder and the positive electrode placed on the left shoulder. This results in a 0 degree angle of orientation.\n\nBULLET::::- Lead II — This axis goes from the right arm to the left leg, with the negative electrode on the shoulder and the positive one on the leg. This results in a +60 degree angle of orientation.\n", "The cell is then wrapped in aluminium foil, a plastic film, or rarely, cardboard, which acts as a final layer of leak protection as well as providing a surface on which logos and labels can be printed.\n\nWhen describing AAA, AA, C, sub-C and D size cells, the negative electrode is connected to the flat end, and the positive terminal is the end with the raised button. This is usually reversed in button cells, with the flat ended cylindrical can being the positive terminal.\n\nSection::::Recharging of alkaline batteries.\n", "Section::::Current.\n\nThe amount of current an alkaline battery can deliver is roughly proportional to its physical size. This is a result of decreasing internal resistance as the internal surface area of the cell increases. A rule of thumb is that an AA alkaline battery can deliver 700 mA without any significant heating. Larger cells, such as C and D cells, can deliver more current. Applications requiring currents of several amperes, such as powerful flashlights and portable stereos, will require D-sized cells to handle the increased load.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "Since 1992, International standard IEC 60086 defines an alphanumeric coding system for batteries.\n\nBritish standard 397 for primary batteries was withdrawn and replaced by the IEC standard in 1996.\n\nSection::::History of the ANSI standard.\n\nStandardization of batteries in the United States started in 1919, when the US National Bureau of Standards published recommended test procedures and standard dimensions of cells. American standards were revised several times during the following decades, as new sizes of cells were introduced and new chemistry developed, including chloride, alkaline, mercury and rechargeable types.\n", "BULLET::::- LT (Low Tension (UK usage), low voltage (US usage)) typically 4 or 6.3 volts at high current to power the filaments\n\nBULLET::::- HT (High Tension (UK usage), high voltage (US usage) typically 100 to 300 volts at low current to power the anode circuitry\n\nBULLET::::- Additional voltages were sometimes also required for grid bias.\n", "The lead-acid battery is still used today in automobiles and other applications where weight is not a big factor. The basic principle has not changed since 1859. In the early 1930s, a gel electrolyte (instead of a liquid) produced by adding silica to a charged cell was used in the LT battery of portable vacuum-tube radios. In the 1970s, \"sealed\" versions became common (commonly known as a \"gel cell\" or \"SLA\"), allowing the battery to be used in different positions without failure or leakage.\n", "The first starting and charging systems were designed to be 6-volt and positive-ground systems, with the vehicle's chassis directly connected to the positive battery terminal. Today, almost all road vehicles have a negative ground system. The negative battery terminal is connected to the car's chassis.\n\nThe Hudson Motor Car Company was the first to use a standardized battery in 1918 when they started using Battery Council International batteries. BCI is the organization that sets the dimensional standards for batteries.\n", "BULLET::::- +3.3 V sense should be connected to the +3.3 V on the motherboard or its power connector. This connection allows remote sensing of the voltage drop in the power-supply wiring. Some manufacturers also provided a +5 V sense wire (typically colored pink) connected to one of the red +5 V wires on some models of power supply, however, the inclusion of such wire was a non-standard practice and was never part of any official ATX standard.\n", ", and sometimes are also connected in parallel to provide more current). Due to it's high number of such cells, they are quite heavy, and, together with The counterweight of The forklifts, contributes to a better stability. \n\nLead-acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage, with 2 V common in early vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.\n\nPortable batteries for miners' cap lamps headlamps typically have two or three cells.\n\nSection::::Cycles.\n\nSection::::Cycles.:Starting batteries.\n", "This battery size is most often used in small devices such as laser pointers, LED penlights, powered computer styluses, glucose meters, and small headphone amplifiers. These batteries are not as popular as AAA or AA type batteries, and consequently are not as commonly available.\n\nSome models of alkaline nine-volt battery contain six LR61 cells connected by welded tabs. These cells are similar to AAAA cells and can be used in their place in some devices, even though they are shorter.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Battery (electricity)\n\nBULLET::::- Battery nomenclature\n\nBULLET::::- Battery recycling\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Early editions of the ANSI standard used a letter code to identify the dimensions of the cell. Since at the time there were only carbon-zinc cells, no suffix letters or other notation were required. The letter system was introduced in the 1924 edition of the standard, with letters A through J assigned approximately in order of increasing cell volume, for cells typically manufactured at that time. By 1934, the system had been revised and extended to 17 sizes ranging from NS at inch diameter by inch height, through size J at inches diameter by inches high, to the largest standard cell which retained its old designation of No. 6 and which was inches in diameter and 6 inches high. \n", "Initially, the only such device was a diode with only a filament (cathode) and a plate (anode). Following the direction of electron flow, these electrodes were identified as \"A\" and \"B\", respectively and thus the associated batteries were referred to as the \"A\" battery and \"B\" battery, respectively. Later, when the control grid element was added to create the triode tube, it was logically assigned the letter \"C\" and supplied from a \"C\" battery. Subsequent addition of further internal elements to improve the performance of the triode did not require an extension to this series of batteries – these elements were either resistively-biased from the existing batteries, connected to ground or to the cathode.\n", "This concept is called \"grid bias\". Many early radio sets had a third battery called the \"C battery\" (unrelated to the present-day C cell, for which the letter denotes its size and shape). The C battery's positive terminal was connected to the cathode of the tubes (or \"ground\" in most circuits) and whose negative terminal supplied this bias voltage to the grids of the tubes.\n", "BULLET::::- in the case of Octal (IO) often a \"G\" would be appended to the type number; examples are ECH3G, ECH4G, EK2G, EK2G/GT, EL3G, EL3NG, KF3G, KK2G and KL4G.\n\nBULLET::::- EBF2Gm EBF2GT/G and EBF35 had International Octal bases but European base connection sequences.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14217	Would it be possible for a computer screen to flaah the same code as a remote control and change the channel?	Infra Red waves are not in the visible light spectrum, your monitor probably can not emit radiation in the same frequency as Infra Red "light so No.	[ "A UE searching for a WCDMA Node B will first use the primary and secondary synchronization channels (P-SCH and S-SCH respectively) to determine the slot and frame timing of a candidate P-CCPCH, whether STTD is in use, as well as identifying which one of 64 code groups is being used by the cell. Crucially this allows to UE to reduce the set of possible Primary Scrambling Codes being used for P-CPICH to only 8 from 512 choices. At this point the correct PSC can be determined through the use of a matched filter, configured with the fixed channelisation code C, looking for the known CPICH bit sequence, while trying each of the possible 8 PSCs in turn. The results of each run of the matched filter can be compared, the correct PSC being identified by the greatest correlation result.\n", "The XMOS programming language XC provides a primitive type \"chan\" and two operators \":\" and \":\" for sending and receiving data from a channel.\n\nIn this example, two hardware threads are started on the XMOS, running the two lines in the \"par\" block. The first line transmits the number 42 through the channel while the second waits until it is received and sets the value of x. The XC language also allows asynchronous receiving on channels through a select statement.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Go.\n", "By making use of certificates issued by a trusted certification authority, a secure authenticated channel (SAC) is formed between a CI+ CAM and television receiver (Host). This SAC is used to generate a shared key, unique per a CAM-Host pair, which protects from unauthorized copying the content marked in the associated URI (Usage Rules Info) as a content which needs to be re-encrypted on its way from CAM to Host after removal the original CA or DRM scrambling (in the original CI standard, decrypted content could be sent over the PCMCIA interface only in unscrambled form).\n\nSection::::Standards.:CI+.:Certification.:Revocation.\n", "Since the consumer IR protocols are for the most part not standardized, computers and universal remotes often memorize a bit stream, possibly with compression and possibly without determining the actual bit rate, and play it back. Similarities between remotes are often largely the accidental result of the finite selection of infrared encoder/decoder chips (though now microcontrollers are also used) and IR receiver modules or imitation of the older chips rather than by design. Manufacturers of consumer appliances often reuse the same protocol on many similar devices, though for each manufacturer and device type there are usually multiple protocols in use. The code listings inform about for any universal remote.\n", "Enhancements have been made to the specification of System I's audio capabilities over the years. Starting in the late 1980s and early 1990s it became possible to add a digital signal carrying NICAM sound. This extension to audio capability has completely eaten the guard band between channels, indeed there would be a small amount of analogue-digital crosstalk between the NICAM signal of a transmitter on channel N and the vestigial sideband of a transmission on channel N+1. Good channel planning means that under normal situations no ill effects are seen or heard.\n", "Microsoft's Ted Youmans explained that \"DirectShow was based on the merit system, with the idea being that, using a combination of the filter’s merit and how specific the media type/sub type is, one could reasonably pick the right codec every time. It wasn't really designed for a competing merit nuclear arms race.\"\n", "Sony use the SIRC protocol for remote controls. SIRC is developed in three different versions: 12 bit, 15 bit and 20 bit. After 12 bits have been received, the receiver waits to see if there are more falling edges to know if the SIRC protocol is 15 bit or 20 bit coded.\n", "Section::::Transmitting and receiving serial data.:Application.\n\nTransmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some mismatched settings and set a \"framing error\" flag bit for the host system; in exceptional cases the receiving UART will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and transfer them to the host system.\n", "This method has the advantage of being immune to the \"Mexican Wave\" effect as described above.\n\nThis method has the disadvantage of requiring each ballast to be programmed with the required group numbers and scene information, and has a fixed fade rate which is preset at the time of commissioning.\n\nSection::::Device addressing.:Broadcast.\n\nUsing the DALI Broadcast command all, every ballasts will change to that level, e.g.:\n\nBULLET::::- DALI Broadcast go to 50%\n\nSection::::Brightness control.\n", "Mexicanal Network is also shown on 23-1, however there is no audio, and the call-sign exactly as described above for the test-pattern appears centered over the screen.\n", "Remote controls send signals in code. When the sending code is the same as the code that is expected by the receiver, then the receiver will actuate the relay, unlock the door, or open the barrier. Remote controls with a fixed code always send the same fixed code. Remote controls with a rolling code (or hopping code) always send out a code that is different from the one previously sent.\n\nSection::::KeeLoq.\n", "A coded video sequence consists of a series of access units that are sequential in the NAL unit stream and use only one sequence parameter set. Each coded video sequence can be decoded independently of any other coded video sequence, given the necessary parameter set information, which may be conveyed \"in-band\" or \"out-of-band\". At the beginning of a coded video sequence is an \"instantaneous decoding refresh\" (IDR) access unit. An IDR access unit contains an \"intra\" picture which is a coded picture that can be decoded without decoding any previous pictures in the NAL unit stream, and the presence of an IDR access unit indicates that no subsequent picture in the stream will require reference to pictures prior to the intra picture it contains in order to be decoded.\n", "This snippet of Go code performs similarly to the XC code. First the channel c is created, then a goroutine is spawned which sends 42 through the channel. When the number is put in the channel x is set to 42. Go allows channels to buffer contents, as well as non blocking receiving through the use of a select block.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Once the scrambling code for a CPICH is known, the channel can be used for measurements of signal quality, usually with RSCP and Ec/No. Timing and phase estimations can also be made, providing a reference that helps to improve reliability when decoding other channels from the same Node B.\n\nPilot signals are not a requirement of CDMA, however, they do make the UE's receiver simpler and improve the reliability of the system.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "The algorithms and settings used in single-channel architecture are delicately balanced. If information regarding AP placement or capabilities is incorrectly reported to the controller, then the controller could make an incorrect determination of which APs can transmit at the same time, which could potentially increase interference rather than decrease it.\n", "The smallest amount of interference on a site is achieved if it is possible to synchronize all channels on the site and separate the channels using the MAIO.\n", "Within each channel, there are two streams of information which might be considered sub-channels: one carries \"captions\" and the other \"text.\" The latter is not in common use due to the lack of hardware support and bandwidth available. Text is signaled by the use of text commands and can be used for a formatted URL string with a 16-bit checksum that designates a web site that the captions relate to or a local station communication channel.\n\nThis layering is based on the OSI Protocol Reference Model:\n\nSection::::DVD GOP User Data Insertion.\n", "About 90% of Smart TVs Vulnerable to Remote Hacking via Rogue TV Signals Rafael Scheel of Oneconsult AG developed a Radio Frequency based remote exploit using HbbTV that provides root access. He provides counter measures in his Feb 22, 2017 presentation to the European Broadcasting Union Media Cybersecurity Seminar.\n", "However, the non-detectability of these covert communication techniques is questionable. For instance, a case where sequence number field of TCP header is manipulated, the encoding scheme is adopted such that every time the same alphabet is covertly communicated, it is encoded with the same sequence number.\n\nMoreover, the usages of sequence number field as well as the acknowledgment field cannot be made specific to the ASCII coding of English language alphabet as proposed, since both fields take into account the receipt of data bytes pertaining to specific network packet(s).\n", "The SCH transmits a Base station identity code and the current value of the TDMA clock.\n\nSCH repeats on every 1st, 11th, 21st, 31st and 41st frames of the 51 frame multi frame. So there are 5 SCH frames in a 51 frame multiframe.\n\nSection::::Um logical channels.:Common Control Channels (CCCHs).:Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH).\n", "However, there were questions whether the COFDM receiver selected for these tests − a transmitter monitor lacking normal front end filtering − colored these results. Retests that were performed using the same COFDM receivers with the addition of a front end band pass filter gave much improved results for the DVB-T receiver, but further testing was not pursued.\n", "There are two ANI schemes; leading-edge and trailing-edge. Leading-edge ANI will transmit the selcall sequence as soon as the user presses the PTT button. Trailing-edge ANI will transmit the selcall sequence as soon as the user releases the PTT button.\n", "BULLET::::- 0x07 - Content is Copy Never for digital content (deleted after 90 minutes) and Macrovision 7 day/24 hour for content recorded from analog channels. Content cannot be transferred via TiVoToGo transfers or MRV, and cannot be saved to VCR or DVD.†\n\n† - Any live stream with a CCI flag set higher than 0x00 is to be encrypted or protected in a way that only trusted platforms that will obey the flag (Such as Microsoft's PlayReady system used in Windows Media center) can access it. \n", "This is a very strict policy, in that a computer system with covert channels may comply with, say, the Bell–LaPadula model, but will not comply with non-interference. The reverse could be true (under reasonable conditions, being that the system should have labelled files, etc.) except for the \"No classified information at startup\" exceptions noted below. However, non-interference has been shown to be stronger than non-deducibility.\n", "The audio data is almost identical to the AES3 payload, though with more channels. Rather than letters, MADI assigns channel numbers from 0–63. Frame synchronization is provided by sync symbols outside the data itself, rather than an embedded preamble sequence, and the first four time slots of each sub-channel are encoded as normal data, used for sub-channel identification:\n\nBULLET::::- Bit 0: Set to 1 to mark channel 0, the first channel in each frame\n\nBULLET::::- Bit 1: Set to 1 to indicate that this channel is active (contains interesting data)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Computer screens can flash codes that a TV can understand. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Computer screens don't emit infrared light, which is required for a TV to understand." ]
2018-01026	How do automatic transmissions "learn the driver's driving habits"? Does this truly increase efficiency(mpg)?	Nothing to do with piston wear. And most automatic transmissions do not have this feature. Instead they have an explicit switch for you to select sportier, medium, or more economical driving. What it really does: changes gear sooner (at lower RPMs) or later (at higher RPMs).	[ "Section::::Transportation.:Driving technique.\n\nMany drivers have the potential to improve their fuel efficiency significantly. These five basic fuel-efficient driving techniques can be effective. Simple things such as keeping tires properly inflated, having a vehicle well-maintained and avoiding idling can dramatically improve fuel efficiency.\n", "BULLET::::- Losses in the transmission. Manual transmissions can be up to 94% efficient whereas older automatic transmissions may be as low as 70% efficient Automatically controlled shifting of gearboxes that have the same internals as manual boxes will give the same efficiency as a pure manual gearbox plus the bonus of added intelligence selecting optimal shifting points\n", "Selespeed was first introduced in 1999 in the Alfa Romeo 156. At that time it was the first car in its class with such a robotized gearbox. This first version had buttons on the steering wheel for changing gear. With the facelift of the 156 in 2002 these buttons were replaced by paddle shifters (first seen in the Alfa Romeo 147) due to a new steering wheel design.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Fiat.\n\nIn the early 2000s, Fiat offered their Speedgear transmissions for some of its cars, like the Fiat Punto. In 2008, a new system came to the market, Dualogic transmission, that equipped a wide range of cars, like the Fiat 500, Fiat Bravo, Fiat Punto, etc. In 2017, Fiat introduced its new generation of semi-automatic transmissions, called GSR (Gear Smart Riding), that was designed to work with their new car models such as the Fiat MOBI and the Fiat Argo.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Ford.\n", "Many of the above AMTs exist in modified states, which were created by racing enthusiasts and their mechanics by systematically re-engineering the transmission to achieve higher levels of performance. These are known as \"performance transmissions\". Example of manufacturers of high performance transmissions are General Motors and Ford.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adapted automobile\n\nBULLET::::- AMC and Jeep transmissions\n\nBULLET::::- Audi multitronic\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic manual transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Dual-clutch transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Cruise-O-Matic and FMX\n\nBULLET::::- Hele-Shaw clutch\n\nBULLET::::- Hydraulics\n\nBULLET::::- Multimode manual transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Park by wire\n\nBULLET::::- Semi-automatic transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Shift by wire\n\nBULLET::::- Torque converter\n\nBULLET::::- Variable force solenoid\n", "Research has shown that mandated speed limits can be modified to improve energy efficiency anywhere from 2% to 18%, depending on compliance with lower speed limits.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Choice of gear (manual transmissions).\n", "The first generation of \"INVECS\" debuted in the seventh generation of the Mitsubishi Galant, which was introduced in 1992. An array of sensors continuously monitored six parameters and, using \"fuzzy logic\", adapted the shift patterns in the automatic gearbox \"on the fly\" according to the driver's style. The four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, traction control system and suspension were all similarly adapted based on the same sensor data. INVECS would, for example, downshift to increase engine braking while travelling downhill, or similarly automate transmission processes which were previously only controlled manually by the driver.\n\nSection::::INVECS-II.\n", "Most luxury vehicles with a tiptronic transmission have two fully automatic modes: the primary mode, identified as \"Drive\", \"Comfort\" or similar; and another, usually called \"Sport,\" which delays upshifts higher up the engine rev range (and will also downchange higher up the rev range) for a sportier driving and enhanced engine braking — at the expense of fuel, wear, comfort, and noise. Furthermore, because modern tiptronic-type transmissions use an electronic control unit (ECU), sometimes specifically referred to as the transmission control unit, the transmissions are able to adapt to the user's driving style through \"fuzzy logic\". Shift points are tailored to the habits of the driver, through an evolutionary process.\n", "The first appearance of the Mitsubishi-designed \"Invecs-II\" semi-automatic Tiptronic style gearbox, based upon similar Porsche technology, was at the launch of this FTO model range. The auto models are, therefore, sometimes referred to as 'Tip' or 'Tiptronic' FTOs. Driven manually, the box 'learns' the driver's style for when motoring in auto mode.\n", "Fuzzy logic controllers have been developed for automatic gearboxes in automobiles. For example, the 2006 Audi TT, VW Touareg and VW Caravell feature the DSP transmission which utilizes Fuzzy Logic. A number of Škoda variants (Škoda Fabia) also currently include a Fuzzy Logic-based controller.\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 Cadillac ATS (China)\n\nBULLET::::- 2010-2016 GMC Terrain \"(LF1, LFW, LFX V6 Option)\"\n\nFord:\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 Ford Edge\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 Lincoln MKX\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Ford Taurus\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Ford Taurus X\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Mercury Sable\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 Ford Flex\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 Lincoln MKS\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 Ford Escape\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 Mercury Mariner\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 Mazda Tribute\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Ford Fusion\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Lincoln MKZ\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Mercury Milan\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Ford Taurus\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Ford Escape\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Ford Explorer\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Ford Mondeo\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Ford Focus with 1.5 EcoBoost\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Ford transmissions\n", "Technically the I-Shift is an unsynchronised manual gearbox, with an electronic control unit, responsible for controlling the pneumatic system that handles the clutch and shifts. It constantly receives information about vehicle speed, acceleration, weight, road grade, torque demand and more, and can adjust revs and engine brake effect. The I-Shift uses different software for different type of application.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Fuel type.\n", "The benefits of electronic throttle control are largely unnoticed by most drivers because the aim is to make the vehicle power-train characteristics seamlessly consistent irrespective of prevailing conditions, such as engine temperature, altitude, and accessory loads. Electronic throttle control is also working 'behind the scenes' to dramatically improve the ease with which the driver can execute gear changes and deal with the dramatic torque changes associated with rapid accelerations and decelerations.\n", "From 2009, revised transmission software enabled smoother and faster gear changes. The software, available via an ECU upgrade, was also made available for 2008 second generation cars, with a new battery as required.\n\nThird generation models receive a five-speed manual transmission or dual clutch automated manual transmission.\n\nSection::::Features.:Parking.\n", "BULLET::::- Nissan Maxima (from 2007, Model SE)\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Micra 1.0 L/1.3 L\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Murano 3.5 L\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Pathfinder (from 2013 and on)\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Qashqai 2.0 L\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Rogue 2.5 L, Model SL\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Sentra (from 2007 and on)\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Serena 2.0 L\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Skyline 350GT-8\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Teana 3.5 L\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan Tiida / Versa\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan X-Trail\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot 4007 2.4 16V\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot 4008\n\nBULLET::::- Proton Exora Bold 1.6 L CFE (2011–present)\n\nBULLET::::- Proton Inspira 2.0 L 4 cyl\n\nBULLET::::- Proton Prevé 1.6 L (CFE Turbo / IAFM+ NA) (2012–present)\n", "Section::::APC boost gauge.\n\nSaab Full Pressure Turbo (FPT) models with this unit include the APC name displayed on a non-numeric boost pressure gauge in the instrument panel. Although knock sensors are common even on non-turbocharged and turbocharged engines today, Saab has continued to use the APC name prominently as a differentiating feature.\n", "As computerized engine control units (ECUs) became more capable, much of the logic built into the transmission's valve body was offloaded to the ECU. Some manufacturers use a separate computer dedicated to the transmission called a transmission control unit (TCU), also known as the transmission control module (TCM), which shares information with the engine management computer. In this case, solenoids turned on and off by the computer control shift patterns and gear ratios, rather than the spring-loaded valves in the valve body. This allows for more precise control of shift points, shift quality, lower shift times, and (on some newer cars) semi-automatic control, where the driver tells the computer when to shift. The result is an impressive combination of efficiency and smoothness. Some computers even identify the driver's style and adapt to best suit it.\n", "BULLET::::- allow for an accurate and effortless shift, even in difficult circumstances, such as if the rider has cold hands or is completely exhausted\n\nBULLET::::- shifting performance is not affected by contaminated, stretched, or worn Bowden cables\n\nBULLET::::- automatic trim function can eliminate chain rub\n\nBULLET::::- shifts can be timed to occur at a particular point in the cassette or chainring rotation, making best and smoothest use of ramps and cutouts in the sprocket teeth\n", "BULLET::::- Following another car on a motorway – \"enhanced\" or \"adaptive\" cruise control, as used by Ford and Vauxhall\n\nBULLET::::- Distance control assist – as developed by Nissan\n\nBULLET::::- Dead man's switch – there is a move to introduce deadman's braking into automotive application, primarily heavy vehicles, and there may also be a need to add penalty switches to cruise controls.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Pulse and glide.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Maintaining an efficient speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Mazda: Driver Attention Alert Activates at speeds above . Learns driving behavior through steering input and position of road during the beginning of the ride and compares the learned data during later stages of the ride. A difference above a certain threshold triggers an audible and visual cue. Debuted on 2015 Mazda CX-5.\n", "The map contains each possible condition, combining rotational speed and mean effective pressure. It shows the result of specific fuel consumption. A typical rotation power output P (linear to formula_1 ) is reached on several locations on the map but differing in the amount of fuel consumption. Automatic transmissions, are designed to keep the engine at the speed with the lowest possible fuel consumption, given the power demand.\n", "In modern systems, much more information can be stored in the vehicle controllers. These now know the layout of the track, speed limits and various other data. This allows the controllers to make much better decisions about setting their speed—speeding up before an incline for instance.\n\nSection::::Product family.\n\nSelTrac is offered in two ways:\n" ]	[ "Automatic transmissions learn the driver's driving habits.", "Automatic transmissions learn a driver's habit." ]	[ "Most automatic transmissions do not learn the driver's driving habits.", "Many automatic transmissions don't offer this feature. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Automatic transmissions learn the driver's driving habits.", "Automatic transmissions learn a driver's habit." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most automatic transmissions do not learn the driver's driving habits.", "Many automatic transmissions don't offer this feature. " ]
2018-19400	Why do chess pieces look like they do?	Chess pieces were designed how they look today because before the design was thought of, people played with pieces that they couldn't easily distinguish. So, in 1849 Howard Staunton invented the chess pieces that we have today.	[ "Chess pieces used for play are usually figurines that are taller than they are wide. For example, a set of pieces designed for a chessboard with squares typically have a king around tall. Chess sets are available in a variety of designs, with the most well-known Staunton design, named after Howard Staunton, a 19th-century English chess player, and designed by Nathaniel Cooke. The first Staunton style sets were made in 1849 by Jaques of London (also known as \"John Jaques of London\" and \"Jaques and Son of London\") .\n", "BULLET::::- The is transposed with the , so that both bishops are on the and both knights are on the , as shown in the diagram. This variant is sometimes called Mongredien chess, after Augustus Mongredien the sponsor of a tournament held in London during 1868 under the auspices of the British Chess Association, in which several strong British players took part, including Joseph Henry Blackburne. According to David Pritchard, this is one of the most popular forms of Displacement chess.\n\nBULLET::::- The knights and bishops are transposed.\n", "The six black and six white game pieces are the main game pieces to be moved around the board, and similar sets of cubic or cuboid game pieces made from ivory, jadeite or rock crystal have been found in several other tombs. In at least one case the game pieces are not distinguished by colour, but by having an engraving of a tiger on the pieces of one set and an engraving of a dragon on the pieces of the other set.\n", "BULLET::::- Boden's mate – checkmating pattern in chess characterized by bishops on two criss-crossing diagonals (for example, bishops on a6 and f4 delivering mate to a king on c8), with possible flight squares for the king being occupied by friendly pieces. Most often the checkmated king has castled queenside, and is mated on c8 or c1.\n\nBULLET::::- Epaulette mate – checkmate where two parallel retreat squares for a checked king are occupied by his own pieces, preventing his escape. The most common Epaulette mate involves the king on his back rank, trapped between two rooks.\n", "Some small magnetic sets, designed to be compact and/or for travel, have pieces more like those used in shogi and xiangqi – each piece being a similar flat token, with a symbol printed on it to identify the piece type.\n\nSection::::Chess sets.:Computer images.\n\nOn computers, chess pieces are often 2D symbols on a 2D board, although some programs have 3D graphics engines with more traditional designs of chess pieces.\n\nUnicode contains symbols for chess pieces in both white and black.\n\nSection::::Relative value.\n", "The pieces, which had been nonrepresentational in Islamic countries (see piece values in shantranj), changed shape in Christian cultures. Carved images of men and animals reappeared. The shape of the rook, originally a rectangular block with a V-shaped cut in the top, changed; the two top parts separated by the split tended to get long and hang over, and in some old pictures look like horses' heads. The split top of the piece now called the bishop was interpreted as a bishop's mitre or a fool's cap.\n", "In the 10th century, chess arrived in Europe and the board acquired its characteristic recognisable chequered pattern used at the time in draughts, which had a smaller 5×5 board. This change proved particularly useful for diagonal movements, now highlighted by the continuous sequence of same-coloured squares in the diagonals, facilitating the movement of the recently-added bishop and queen.\n", "Each player begins with a total of sixteen pieces. The pieces that belong to each player are distinguished by color. The lighter colored pieces are referred to as \"white,\" and the player that owns them, \"White\". The darker colored pieces are referred to as \"black\", and the player that owns them, \"Black\". The word \"piece\" has three meanings, depending on the context. The context should make the intended meaning clear .\n\nBULLET::::1. It may mean any of the physical pieces of the set, including the pawns. When used this way, \"piece\" is synonymous with \"chessman\" or simply \"man\" .\n", "BULLET::::- Battery – two or more pieces that can move and attack along a shared path, situated on the same rank, file, or diagonal; e.g., the queen and a bishop, or the queen and a rook, or both rooks, or the queen and both rooks.\n\nBULLET::::- Alekhine's gun – formation named after the former World Chess Champion, Alexander Alekhine, which consists of placing the two rooks stacked one behind another and the queen at the rear.\n", "Makonde chess set\n\nMakonde chess sets are made by the Makonde tribe of south-west Tanzania and Mozambique who have for centuries been greatly skilled in wood carving and Makonde art is a distinctive style. Chess sets were originally made for export to Europe but the pattern of the pieces follows traditional Makonde designs rather than any established chess pattern.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "After Kirk's death in 1969 a group of carvers who had formerly supplied Kirk continued to carve chess sets. This group was centred on the village of Ziwani near Mtwara. Several new themes were developed by this group including the \"seated smoker\" set, the \"drummer\" set, and the \"bird\" set. Scarification marks tend to be omitted on modern pieces.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- Chess960 – variant created by Bobby Fischer, in which the starting position of the pieces on the 1st and 8th ranks are random, resulting in 960 possible starting positions. White and black starting positions must be mirrored and king must start between rooks allowing castling.\n\nBULLET::::- Transcendental Chess – similar to Chess960, except that there is no castling, starting positions are not necessarily mirrored, and bishops must start in opposite color squares. There are 8,294,400 possible starting positions.\n\nSection::::Chess variants.:Variants with different forces.\n", "The chair the figure sits on has projecting arms. The back of the chair is decorated with a pair of two-legged dragons with backward looking heads. Their tails are fishlike and intertwined. The mouths of the animals are joined by a beaded scroll. The letters S, P and K are written on the back in Lombardic script. \n\nA perforation through the neck seems to have been added at a later date.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In the first context, each of the two players begins with the following sixteen pieces in a standard game:\n\nBULLET::::- 1 king\n\nBULLET::::- 1 queen\n\nBULLET::::- 2 rooks\n\nBULLET::::- 2 bishops\n\nBULLET::::- 2 knights\n\nBULLET::::- 8 pawns\n\nSection::::Moves of the pieces.\n\nThe rules of chess prescribe the types of move a player can make with each type of chess piece. Each piece type moves in a different way. During play, the players take turns moving one of their own chess pieces.\n", "BULLET::::- The rook moves any number of vacant squares forwards, backwards, left, or right in a straight line. It also takes part, along with the king, in a special move called castling.\n\nBULLET::::- The bishop moves any number of vacant squares diagonally in a straight line. Consequently, a bishop stays on squares of the same color throughout a game. The two bishops each player starts with move on squares of opposite colors.\n\nBULLET::::- The queen moves any number of vacant squares in any direction: forwards, backwards, left, right, or diagonally, in a straight line.\n", "BULLET::::- Smothered mate – checkmate delivered by a knight in which the mated king is unable to move because he is surrounded (or smothered) by his own pieces.\n\nBULLET::::- Back rank checkmate – checkmate delivered by a rook or queen along a back rank (that is, the row on which the pieces (not pawns) stand at the start of the game) in which the mated king is unable to move up the board because the king is blocked by friendly pieces (usually pawns) on the second rank (Burgess 2009:16).\n", "In 1989, Martin Gardner proposed another setup, which he called Baby chess. In difference from Gardner minichess, black pieces are mirrored. Paul Jacobs and Marco Meirovitz suggested another starting position for 5×5 chess shown at the right. Jeff Mallett (main developer of Zillions of Games), suggested setup in which white has two knights against two black bishops.\n\nSection::::5×6 chess.\n", "BULLET::::- A pawn moves forward one step edgewise, with the option of two steps on its first move. A pawn captures the \"same\" as it moves. There is no \"en passant\" in Rhombic Chess. A pawn promotes to any piece other than king when reaching \"i\" (for White) and rank \"c\" (for Black).\n\nSection::::Parachess.\n\nCirca 2000, Paletta created Parachess using the same board geometry but introducing additional ways to move:\n\nThese ways to move are highlighted on the board by same-colored cells.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBibliography\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Parachess by Tony Paletta, \"The Chess Variant Pages\"\n", "BULLET::::- Moving a pawn – pawns move straight forward one space at a time, but capture diagonally (within a one-square range). On its first move, a pawn may move two squares forward instead (with no capturing allowed in a two-square move). Also, pawns are subject to the en passant and promotion movement rules (see below).\n", "In the game, a \"phalanx\" is a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal line of two or more stones of the same color, with no empty spaces or enemy stones between them. A stone may belong to more than one phalanx, depending on the direction considered.\n\nSection::::Rules.\n\nSection::::Rules.:Moves.\n\nWhite moves first; then turns alternate.\n\nBULLET::::- A player can move a single piece one space in any direction (the same as a king in chess).\n", "The starting position is essentially obtained from that of orthodox chess by cutting the board in half and bending the two halves to join at the ends. Two lines are marked on opposite sides of the board, and each set of pieces is positioned so as to straddle this line. The king and queen start on the innermost ring, with, as is the case in square chess, the queen on a square of the same colour; the bishops start in the second ring from the centre, the knights on the third and the rooks on the outermost ring. The pawns are positioned in front of the pieces.\n", "BULLET::::- Starting position. Each player starts with 12 pieces on the three rows closest to their own side. The row closest to each player is called the \"crownhead\" or \"kings row\". Usually, the colors of the pieces are black and white, but possible use other colors (one dark and other light). The player with white pieces (lighter color) moves first.\n\nBULLET::::- Pieces. There are two kinds of pieces: \"men\" and \"kings\". Kings are differentiated as consisting of two normal pieces of the same color, stacked one on top of the other or by inverted pieces.\n", "Two players play on a board ruled into a grid of five ranks (rows) by five files (columns). The squares are undifferentiated by marking or color.\n\nEach player begins with a set of 6 wedge-shaped pieces; these are:\n\nBULLET::::- 1 king\n\nBULLET::::- 1 rook\n\nBULLET::::- 1 bishop\n\nBULLET::::- 1 gold general\n\nBULLET::::- 1 silver general\n\nBULLET::::- 1 pawn\n\nTheir movements are identical to those of their namesakes in standard shogi. \n\nSection::::Rules of the game.:Setup.\n\nEach player places his/her pieces in the positions shown below, pointing towards the opponent.\n\nIn the rank nearest to the player: \n", "Another extra bit appears when the number of pieces of the first color is eight or less. It can mark the fact that no pawns are left. In this case the first bit of all pieces can be skipped:\n\nSection::::Types.:Huffman encodings.:Huffman multi-table approach.\n", "BULLET::::- 1 queen – most powerful piece in the game, with a relative value of 9 points. The top of the piece is crown-like. Official tournament chess sets have 2 queens of each color, to deal with pawns being promoted\n\nBULLET::::- 2 rooks – look like castle towers and have a relative value of 5 points each.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 bishops – stylized after mitres (bishops' hats), and have a relative value of 3 points each.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 knights – usually look like horse heads and have a relative value of 3 points each.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02524	Why are stunt performers often necessary in movies? Why can't the actors just do it themselves?	Stunt performers spend years learning how to do dangerous and athletic stunts safely and properly and there is still always a great deal of risk involved. If the stuntman gets injured, they can replace him with another one. If the highly paid star of the movie is injured, filming can be delayed by weeks while they heal, which costs money.	[ "Section::::History.:Action movies.\n", "While modern computer-generated imagery (CGI) technology is considered by many stunt professionals to potentially be curtailing the industry to but a shadow of its former self, the costs of CGI on most films and for most scenes presently far outweigh the benefits. While CGI allows directors to create stunts that would be very expensive, dangerous or simply impossible to perform with real stunt people, the backlash has resulted in a new genre of \"real\" movies marketed on the basis that the scenes are real and that no CGI has been used to create the final production.\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "Although the stories that stuntmen died while filming \"Ben Hur\" and \"Where Eagles Dare\" are apocryphal myths, life-threatening injuries and deaths are not uncommon. Contracts often stipulate that the footage may be used if the performer is injured or dies during filming, and some filmmakers including Jackie Chan, consider it disrespectful not to do so.\n", "From its inception as a professional skill in the early 1900s to the 1960s, stunts were most often performed by professionals who had trained in that discipline prior to entering the movie industry. Current film and television stunt performers must be trained in a variety of disciplines including martial arts and stage combat, and must be a certified trained member of a professional stunt performers organisation first, in order to obtain the necessary insurance to perform on stage or screen. This allows them to better break down and plan an action sequence, physically prepare themselves, and incorporate both the safety and risk factors in their performances. However, even when executed perfectly, there is still strain and performing stunts often results in unplanned injury to the body.\n", "Stunt casting is used to generate media attention. It may also be employed in order to garner studio support or financing for a project; for example, according to DVD featurette commentary, the 1978 version of \"Superman\" received studio support only after the producers were able to enlist A-list actors Marlon Brando and Gene Hackman to appear.\n\nSection::::In musical theatre.\n", "In past Hollywood films it was common for men to double for women and White American stunt performers to double for African-American performers. Veteran stunt man Dave Sharpe, a man of shorter than average height, often doubled for women in film serials of the 1930s and '40s. It is now against union rules for stunt performers to double an actor of a different gender or race unless the stunt is so dangerous that there are no other volunteers, for example when B.J. Worth doubled for the black Jamaican actress Grace Jones who parachuted off the Eiffel Tower in \"A View to a Kill\". The rise of action heroines like Angelina Jolie and African-American stars like Will Smith has offered wider opportunities for stunt performers from diverse backgrounds.\n", "Section::::Types of stunt effects.:Computer-generated effects.\n\nIn the late 20th century stunt men were often placed in dangerous situations less and less as filmmakers turned to relatively inexpensive (and much safer) computer graphics effects using harnesses, fans, blue- or green screens, and a huge array of other devices and digital effects. \"The Matrix\" (1999) is an example for a film that extensively \"enhanced\" real stunts through CGI post production. The \"Lord of the Rings\" film series and the \"Star Wars\" prequel films often display stunts that are entirely computer generated. Examples of computer-generated effects include face replacement and wire removal.\n", "Some actors started out as stunt doubles, such as Dyri Kristjansson, the second actor of \"LazyTown\"'s Sportacus, who started out as original actor Magnús Scheving's stunt double, and voice actress Chantal Strand, best known for voicing \"Dragon Tales\"' Cassie, who started off doing stunts on \"Look Who's Talking Now\" with her twin sister Michelle.\n", "Many stunt doubles have long production careers as part of a star actor's contractual \"support crew\" along with the star's cooks, trainers, dressers, and assistants. Often stunt doubles have to look like their respective actors, in order to keep the character's appearance. Stunt doubles for Eddie Murphy, John Wayne, Harrison Ford, Steve Martin, Salman Khan and Michael Landon have been associated with their lead actors for decades.\n", "Producers also kept pushing the directors calling for riskier stunts using a recurring cast, necessitating the use of dedicated stunt doubles for most movie stars. The directors turned to the current rodeo stars for inspiration for their action scenes, and employed former cowboys as extras who not only brought with themselves the right look and style, but also rodeo techniques that included safe and replicable horse falls.\n", "Some people, such as Buster Keaton, Harry Houdini, Jackie Chan, Akshay Kumar, Pawan Kalyan, Tony Jaa, and Jayan, act as both stunt performers and daredevils at various parts of their career.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Cascadeur.\n\nThe earliest stunt performers were travelling entertainers and circus performers, particularly trained gymnasts and acrobats. The origin of the original name, the French language word \"cascadeur\", may have been derived from the requirement to fall in a sequence of movements during a scene or stunt involving water (\"Cascade\" is the French language term for waterfall)\n", "Some actors are known to have performed their own stunts. Jackie Chan is particularly famous for doing most of his own stunts, as are fellow martial arts star and movie partners Yuen Biao and Sammo Hung. Indian actor Jayan was well known for performing extremely dangerous stunts by himself and was killed while performing a helicopter stunt. Akshay Kumar is also famous for doing all of his own stunts and has done several dangerous stunts. Thai martial artist and actor Tony Jaa performs his own stunts, likewise.\n", "Films such as \"Hooper\" and \"The Stunt Man\" and the 1980s television show \"The Fall Guy\" sought to raise the profile of the stunt performer and debunk the myth that film stars perform all their own stunts. Noted stunt coordinators Hal Needham, Craig R. Baxley, and Vic Armstrong went on to direct the action films \"The Cannonball Run\", \"Action Jackson\", and \"Joshua Tree\". Vic Armstrong became the first stuntman to win both an Academy Award (for developing a descender rig as a safe alternative to airbags) and a BAFTA award (for lifetime achievement in film). But the status of stuntmen in Hollywood is still low; despite the fact that few films of any genre or type could be made without them, stunt performers are still seen as working mainly in action films. Repeated campaigns for a \"Best Stunts\" Academy Award have been rejected.\n", "The first picture which used a dedicated stunt performer is highly debated, but occurred somewhere between 1903 and 1910. The first possible appearance of a stunt-double was Frank Hanaway in \"The Great Train Robbery\", shot in 1903 in Milltown, New Jersey. The first auditable paid stunt was in the 1908 film \"The Count of Monte Cristo\", with $5 paid by the director to the acrobat who had to jump upside down from a cliff into the sea.\n", "Section::::The future of stuntwork.\n", "The preference to employ ready existing professionals from outside the film industry, either as performers or doubles, continued in the period both up to and beyond World War II, when again the industry was awash with young, fit men looking for work. However, in 1958 \"Thunder Road\" starring Robert Mitchum, with stunt coordinator was Cary Loftin and a stunt team including Ray Austin, Neil Castes Sr., Robert Hoy, and Dale Van Sickel, introduced the era of the car chase movie. With the later development of modern action movie, the accident rate of both stunt performers and movie stars started to quickly increase. The stunt performers took resultantly action to professionalise their industry, with the creation of new stunt performer run registration, training, certification, and booking agencies.\n", "Other Hong Kong action movie stars who became known for performing elaborate stunts include Chan's Peking Opera School friends Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao, as well as \"girls with guns\" stars such as Michelle Yeoh and Moon Lee. Other Asian cinema stars also known for performing elaborate stunts including Thai actor Tony Jaa, Indonesian actors Iko Uwais and Yayan Ruhian, and Indian actors Jayan, Akshay Kumar, Vidyut Jammwal and Tiger Shroff.\n\nSection::::Stunt-based television shows.\n\nReality competition television shows such as \"Fear Factor\" and \"Going Straight\" have required contestants to complete stunts to win prize money.\n\nSection::::Recognition of stunt performers.\n", "The terms \"stunt double\" and \"body double\" may be used interchangeably for cases where special skills (sometimes far from dangerous) are needed, such as dancing (dance double), playing the piano, or competitive skiing. Stunt doubles should be distinguished from daredevils, who perform stunts for the sake of the stunt alone, often as a career. Sequences often do not place stunt doubles in the same mortal peril as the characters: for example, harnesses and wires can be digitally edited out of the final film.\n", "Section::::Types of stunt effects.:Mechanical effects.\n\nA physical stunt is usually performed with help of mechanics. For example, if the plot requires the hero to jump to a high place, the film crew could put the actor in a special harness, and use aircraft high tension wire to pull him up. Piano wire is sometimes used to fly objects, but an actor is never suspended from it as it is brittle and can break under shock impacts. \"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon\" (2000) is a kung-fu film that was heavily reliant on wire stunts.\n\nSection::::Types of stunt effects.:Vehicular stunts.\n", "Section::::Stunt work.:Accident.\n", "For the more dangerous motorcycle stunts, the producers hired the professional stuntman Gary Charles Davis. However, Davis' role in the production was kept under wraps to avoid questions about Knievel himself performing his own motorcycle stunts.\n\nThe original footage used for Jessie's failed jump was from Evel Knievel's May 1975 crash at Wembley Stadium.\n\nTo allow for a love interest to occur with Lauren Hutton's character, Evel is apparently single and there is no mention of Knievel's then-wife, Linda, or his (at the time) three children.\n\nSection::::Popular culture reception.\n", "Section::::History.:Hong Kong action cinema.\n", "Stunt casting\n\nStunt casting is a term in casting that refers to the use of a gimmick or publicity stunt to fill a role in a television series, film or theatre production. Stunt casting can take many forms, ranging from a celebrity or famous non-actor cameo appearance to the use of an actor's real-life relatives to play the corresponding fictional character's relatives or younger or older versions of the same character.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n", "Other Hong Kong action movie stars who became known for performing elaborate stunts include Chan's Peking Opera School friends Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao, as well as \"girls with guns\" stars such as Michelle Yeoh and Moon Lee. Other Asian cinema stars also known for performing elaborate stunts including Thai actor Tony Jaa, Indonesian actors Iko Uwais and Yayan Ruhian, and Indian actors Jayan, Akshay Kumar, Vidyut Jammwal and Tiger Shroff.\n\nSection::::Future.\n", "Stunt coordinator\n\nA stunt coordinator, usually an experienced stunt performer, is hired by a TV, film or theatre director or production company for stunt casting that is to arrange the casting (stunt players and stunt doubles) and performance of stunts for a film, television programme or a live audience.\n\nWhere the film requires a stunt, and involves the use of stunt performers, the Stunt Coordinator will arrange the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the Director.\n\nIn many cases, the stunt coordinator budgets, designs and choreographs the stunt sequence to suit the script and the director's vision.\n" ]	[ "Stunt performers aren't exactly necessary and the actors should be capable of completing the stunts that stuntmen do. " ]	[ "Stuntmen spend much time vigorously training in order to perform the stunts they do, it isn't expected of actors to be able to replicate the stunts. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Stunt performers aren't exactly necessary and the actors should be capable of completing the stunts that stuntmen do. ", "Stunt performers aren't exactly necessary and the actors should be capable of completing the stunts that stuntmen do. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Stuntmen spend much time vigorously training in order to perform the stunts they do, it isn't expected of actors to be able to replicate the stunts. ", "Stuntmen spend much time vigorously training in order to perform the stunts they do, it isn't expected of actors to be able to replicate the stunts. " ]
2018-03597	How can we be getting live video and/or images from a spaceship that's hundreds of miles away?	> How can we be getting live video and/or images from a spaceship that's hundreds of miles away? Radio. We have had radios for a fairly long time and have been using them to transmit information. Video is just another kind of information which can be transmitted by radio. Of course we use big dishes to detect the signal, but satellite television has been around since 1962.	[ "On 8 July 2014, Russia launched the METEOR-M No. 2 weather satellite (also known as METEOR-M2) with LRPT on board.\n\nInstructions for receiving LRPT images from this satellite are posted on the\n\nInternet.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- High-resolution picture transmission (HRPT)\n\nSection::::Notes and references.\n\nBULLET::::- Metop HRPT/LRPT User Station Elements Design Specification, document EPS.ASPI.DS.0675, which documents the design specification of an HRPT User Station and an LRPT User Station. To download this, google: EPS.ASPI.DS.0675 site:eumetsat.int\n", "ULTRASAT has been designed to cover an unprecedentedly large field of view with a highly sensitive UV camera, with repeat image times as short as 5 minutes. To maximize the number of detected events, ULTRASAT will point to regions at high celestial latitudes, avoiding the Milky Way with its high concentration of \"nearby\" stars, diffuse background and galactic dust blocking much of the light from distant galaxies where these events occur.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Today, with the advent of personal computers, all that is required is dedicated software (many of which offer \"free\" versions ) and a sound card. The sound card acquires and digitizes the slow scan video (in the audible range) coming from the speaker, phones, or line-out of the receiver, and then the software will process the various visible and infrared channels of the AVHRR sensor. Most software will automatically save every image and publish processed image onto the website of choice, putting up a new image on every pass of an APT satellite.\n\nSection::::Receiving images.:Displaying the images.:Enhanced images.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "On 22 June 2012 it was confirmed that the 10 m mast was fully deployed.\n\nSection::::Optics.\n", "Streaming is a guaranteed delivery style of service. A terminal requests a context of X bandwidth (currently 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, or 256kbit/s) and, if the current spot beam has enough resources available, it is allocated a guaranteed chunk of the available bandwidth. So if it asks for an 8k streaming context, the terminal will at all times be able to send data at 8kbit/s.\n\nStreaming contexts are billed by time.\n\nSection::::Data services.:Background.\n", "On January 24, 2018 Richard Burley of NASA reported that they were trying to establish communication with the satellite using the NASA Deep Space Network. Two days later, Burley reported that engineers at Goddard Space Flight Center successfully acquired the signal, and confirmed on January 30, 2018 that IMAGE is the source. It is not known when the satellite started broadcasting, but re-examination of old data recorded by Tilley and fellow satellite tracker Cees Bassa showed transmissions from the same satellite in October 2016 and May 2017. Bassa hypothesized that while the 2007 eclipse did not manage to reset the satellite, another one did the trick, probably sometime between 2014 and 2016.\n", "The Ground Command and Control Center for \"Astrosat\" is the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) at Bangalore, India. Command and control of the spacecraft, and scientific data downloads is possible during every visible pass over Bangalore. 10 out of 14 orbits per day are visible to the ground station. The satellite is capable of gathering 420 gigabits of data every day that can be downloaded during the 10 visible orbits by the Tracking and Data receiving center of ISRO in Bangalore. A third 11-meter antenna at the Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN) became operational in July 2009 to track \"Astrosat\".\n", "On March 4, 2018 the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University reported detecting the signal from the satellite, but it was too faint to lock onto.\n\nOn May 9, 2018 Scott Tilley again detected a strong signal from IMAGE. Hours later NASA and APL engineers had locked onto the signal and were receiving telemetry. Commands were transmitted to IMAGE, but for unknown reasons the spacecraft only acknowledged receipt of a fraction of those commands.\n", "On November 5, 2014, Arecont Vision announced they would provide video surveillance cameras for SpaceX, a private company that designs, manufactures, and launches advanced rockets and spacecraft for NASA and other organizations. The cameras are being deployed on the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft, which is utilized by NASA to deliver supplies and experiments to the International Space Station.\n", "The position of NASA's fleet of Earth-observing missions is also displayed in real time.\n\nSection::::Deep Space Network Now.\n\nBased on information from the NASA Deep Space Network, Deep Space Network Now is a web application which displays status of live communication with all exploratory spacecraft beyond low Earth orbit. The application displays information about the ground-based antenna in use, the spacecraft communicating and details such as the distance in light hours to the spacecraft.\n\nSection::::Experience Curiosity.\n", "BULLET::::- Demonstrate an Automatic Packet Reporting System Digipeater to communicate with amateur radio stations\n\nBULLET::::- Detect a specific type of solar radiation called \"single event latch-up\"\n\nBULLET::::- Measure magnetic fields through the use of an Anisotropic Magneto Resistance Magnetometer\n\nBULLET::::- Act as an Earth Imaging Camera\n\nSection::::Launch and mission.\n", "Space Imaging – The satellite can point to outer space objects like the Moon and stars for enhancement of the image quality\n\nArea Imaging - Images up to 36 km in width through advanced control system that enables three consecutive imaging in one pass to extend the swath width\n\nSection::::Critical design review.\n", "Satellite operator SES broadcast an 8K television signal via its satellite system for the first time in May 2018. The 8K demonstration content, with a resolution of 7680×4320 pixels, a frame rate of 60 frames per second and 10-bit colour depth, was encoded in HEVC and transmitted at a rate of 80 Mbit/s via the Astra 3B satellite during SES's Industry Days conference in Luxembourg.\n", "Beginning with the Mars Exploration Rovers, landers on the surface of Mars have used orbiting spacecraft as communications satellites for relaying their data to Earth. The landers use UHF transmitters to send their data to the orbiters, which then relay the data to Earth using either X band or Ka band frequencies. These higher frequencies, along with more powerful transmitters and larger antennas, permit the orbiters to send the data much faster than the landers could manage transmitting directly to Earth, which conserves valuable time on the NASA Deep Space Network.\n\nSection::::Satellite orbits.\n", "BULLET::::- Develop and validate various ecosystem functioning models\n\nBULLET::::- Improve and validate global carbon cycle models\n\nBULLET::::- Define theoretical and practical methods for scale transfer\n\nBULLET::::- Collect and analyze data collected by the low spatial resolution sensors\n\nThe satellite is equipped with a Super Spectral Camera comprises a catadioptric optical system, a focal plane assembly with narrow band filters, and 4 detector units with 3 separate CCD-TDI array. Each array with separate operational and thermal control.\n", "Section::::Broadcast partnerships.\n\nNASA has used external companies to provide streaming services for internet viewers, both embedded into NASA's website and through streams branded by those companies. The variety of stream formats used have varied with the available technology and with the popularity of formats, including RealMedia, QuickTime, Windows Media, Flash Video and H.264.\n", "In 2013, NASA's lunar-orbiting Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) carried an optical communications terminal built by Lincoln Laboratory that communicated with a ground terminal at another site at the White Sands Missile Range. This system, the Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration (LLCD) transmitted data in both directions at the fastest speeds ever recorded for deep-space communication. The demonstration is now being followed by a number of optical systems that will allow much higher volumes of data transfer for both scientific discovery and human exploration.\n\nSection::::Directors.\n\nBULLET::::- F. Wheeler Loomis, July 26, 1951 – July 9, 1952\n", "With the exception of Search and Rescue, which is a purely local mission with its own dedicated transmitter, all data from the MetOp Instruments are formatted and multiplexed by the Payload Module and either stored on a solid-state recorder for later transmission via an X-Band antenna, or directly transmitted to local users via High Rate Picture Transmission (HRPT) VHF antenna.\n", "As mobile broadband has developed, broadcast devices using this technology have appeared. These devices are often more compact than previous technology and can aggregate multiple mobile data lines to deliver a high definition-quality content live.\n\nSection::::Broadcast video equipment.\n", "BULLET::::- Nozomi (spacecraft) Thermal Plasma Analyser\n\nBULLET::::- Akebono (satellite) Suprathermal ion Mass Spectrometer\n\nBULLET::::- Freja (satellite) Cold Gas Analyser and Auroral Imager\n\nBULLET::::- Interbol Ultraviolet Auroral Imager\n\nBULLET::::- Viking (satellite) Ultraviolet Imager\n\nBULLET::::- CloudSat\n\nBULLET::::- Meteosat\n\nUpcoming missions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Maritime Monitoring and Messaging Micro-Satellite (M3MSat)\n\nBULLET::::- James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Fine Guidance Sensor and Near Infrared Imaging and Slitless Spectrograph\n", "Section::::Operations.\n\nWeeks following its launch, after the first high-quality images were available was it revealed to the public that a camera was on board.\n\nSection::::Technical specifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Satellite class: 1U CubeSat\n\nBULLET::::- Dimensions: 10 cm × 10 cm ×10 cm\n\nBULLET::::- Mass: 1 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Propulsion: no\n\nBULLET::::- Expected life: minimum 3 months\n\nBULLET::::- Input power: 1.2 – 2.2 W\n\nBULLET::::- Communication type: Half-duplex\n\nBULLET::::- Frequency: 437,345 MHz\n\nBULLET::::- Data rate: 625 or 1250 bps\n\nBULLET::::- Modulation: 2-GFSK\n\nBULLET::::- Transmission power: 100/400 mW\n\nBULLET::::- Telemetry protocol: modified ESA PUS v1\n\nBULLET::::- Callsign: HA5MASAT\n\nBULLET::::- Digital camera: VGA sensor, 640×480 pixels\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "In a move originally planned for December 6, 2005, SuitSat-1 entered its own independent orbit just after 23:05 UTC on February 3, 2006 when it was taken on a spacewalk from the International Space Station by Valeri Tokarev and Bill McArthur as part of an unrelated spacewalk. Voice messages recorded by the teams involved, and by students from around the globe, were continuously broadcast in a number of languages from the SuitSat, along with telemetry data. The signal began transmission approximately 15 minutes after SuitSat-1 was jettisoned and was relayed by equipment on board the ISS. Anyone receiving the transmission could log an entry on the tracker at suitsat.org, detailing when and where they heard it.\n", "BULLET::::- Launch occurred on 12 August 2018, at 3:31 a.m. EDT, 7:31 a.m. GMT. The spacecraft operated nominally after launching. During its first week in space it deployed its high-gain antenna, magnetometer boom, and electric field antennas. The spacecraft performed its first scheduled trajectory correction on 20 August 2018, while it was 5.5 million miles from Earth, and travelling at .\n\nBULLET::::- Instrument activation and testing began in early September 2018. On 9 September, the two WISPR telescopic cameras performed a successful first-light test, transmitting wide-angle images of the background sky towards the galactic center.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02221	Can heat-seeking technology locate a person in 40 degree celcius heat? If so, how?	Same as scales where you can "zero" the scale to weigh the mass added from that point, you can re\-calibrate the devices. The temperature associated with the colours will change, and since body temperature is lower than 40, you will appear blue\-ish $indicated a cold spot$, then the rest which might bee warmer. As long as your temperature is different than the environment, it should be able to locate a person.	[ "In June 2014, the Canadian National Aerial Surveillance Program DHC-8M-100 aircraft mounted with infrared sensors was instrumental in the search for Justin Bourque, a fugitive who had killed three Royal Canadian Mounted Police members in Moncton. The plane's crew used its advanced heat-sensing camera to discover Bourque's heat signature in the deep brushwoods at midnight.\n", "The method is compact enough to be used at the point of cardiac arrest, during ambulance transport, or within the hospital proper. It is intended to reduce rapidly the person's temperature to below while targeting the brain as the first area of cooling. Research into the device has shown cooling rates of per hour in the brain (measured through infrared tympanic measurement) and per hour for core body temperature reduction.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Water blankets.\n", "During emergency response operations, law enforcement and corrections officers are vulnerable to heat strokes or hyperthermia. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States publishes a heat stress \"Quick Card\", that contains a checklist designed to help prevent heat stress.\n\nTo protect users from heat stress, blunt trauma PPE can allow air flows underneath the suit to maximize the body's natural cooling process of perspiration. With good air ventilation, the suit will help cool the user and reduce excess body heat which can contribute to heat stress.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blunt trauma\n\nBULLET::::- Riot control\n\nBULLET::::- Stab vest\n", "Because of the broad variety of operating conditions, these devices must meet specific requirements concerning their rate and duration of cooling, their power source, and their adherence to health and safety regulations. Among other criteria are the user's need for physical mobility and autonomy. For example, active-liquid systems operate by chilling water and circulating it through a garment; the skin surface area is thereby cooled through conduction. This type of system has proven successful in certain military, law enforcement, and industrial applications. Bomb-disposal technicians wearing special suits to protect against improvised explosive devices (IEDs) use a small, ice-based chiller unit that is strapped to one leg; a liquid-circulating garment, usually a vest, is worn over the torso to maintain a safe core body temperature. By contrast, soldiers traveling in combat vehicles can face microclimate temperatures in excess of 65 °C and require a multiple-user, vehicle-powered cooling system with rapid connection capabilities. Requirements for hazmat teams, the medical community, and workers in heavy industry vary further.\n", "Thermal comfort research in clothing is currently being done by the military. New air-ventilated garments are being researched to improve evaporative cooling in military settings. Some models are being created and tested based on the amount of cooling they provide.\n\nIn the last twenty years, researchers have also developed advanced thermal comfort models that divide the human body into many segments, and predict local thermal discomfort by considering heat balance. This has opened up a new arena of thermal comfort modeling that aims at heating/cooling selected body parts.\n\nSection::::Research.:Medical environments.\n", "There is the further difficulty inherent in the devices delivering energy. Regional devices may not uniformly heat a target area, even without taking into account compensatory mechanisms of the body. A great deal of current research focuses on how one might precisely position heat-delivery devices (catheters, microwave and ultrasound applicators, etc.) using ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, as well as developing new types of nanoparticles that can more evenly distribute heat within a target tissue.\n", "Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 °F (54 °C) at a depth of 1/64 of an inch (0.4 mm). The United States Air Force and Marines are currently using this type of Active Denial System.\n\nSection::::Communications.\n", "Cooling vests are also used by persons with multiple sclerosis. In multiple sclerosis, nerve fibers become demyelinated which leads to pain and discomfort when temperature is elevated. Nerve fibers may also be remyelinating or in the process of repairing themselves and still be sensitive to elevated temperatures. The cooling vest keeps the patient's temperature down, reducing the pain symptoms. In 2005, a 12-week study at the University of Buffalo was funded by the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, a division of the U.S. Department of Education, to determine if people with multiple sclerosis could exercise longer with the help of a cooling vest.\n", "The ADS's effect of repelling humans occurs at slightly higher than 44 °C (111 °F), though first-degree burns occur at about 51 °C (124 °F), and second-degree burns occur at about 58 °C (136 °F). In testing, pea-sized blisters have been observed in less than 0.1% of ADS exposures, indicating that second degree surface burns have been caused by the device. The radiation burns caused are similar to microwave burns, but only on the skin surface due to the decreased penetration of shorter millimeter waves. The surface temperature of a target will continue to rise so long as the beam is applied, at a rate dictated by the target's material and distance from the transmitter, along with the beam's frequency and power level set by the operator. Most human test subjects reached their pain threshold within 3 seconds, and none could endure more than 5 seconds.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Nicholas Hoult as R\n\nBULLET::::- Teresa Palmer as Julie Grigio\n\nBULLET::::- Rob Corddry as M / Marcus, a friend of R\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Franco as Perry Kelvin, Julie's boyfriend\n\nBULLET::::- Analeigh Tipton as Nora, a friend of Julie\n\nBULLET::::- Cory Hardrict as Kevin\n\nBULLET::::- John Malkovich as Colonel Grigio, Julie's father and leader of the human survivors\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- A remote cardiovascular and respiratory sensor to measure heart rate and respiration\n\nBULLET::::- A remote eye tracker\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal cameras that provide information on the temperature of the skin in the face\n\nBULLET::::- A high resolution video for looking at facial expressions and body movements\n\nBULLET::::- Audio system for analyzing changes in voice pitch\n\nBULLET::::- Possibly other sensors, perhaps pheromone detection\n\nBULLET::::- Anonymized aggregate results of the scanned information\n", "The measurement of the heat exchange of human beings is of importance for medical studies, and when designing clothing, immersion suits and sleeping bags.\n", "BULLET::::- Cooling was initiated immediately in the emergency department on hospital arrival with ice packs around groin, armpits and neck and infusion of up to 3 L of refrigerated saline\n\nBULLET::::- All patients were \"deeply sedated\"\n\nBULLET::::- No device-specific patient injuries were observed; skin injuries with the Arctic Sun or DVT with Coolgard\n\nBULLET::::- No differences in shivering: \"\n\nBULLET::::- Article quote: \"Skin temperature is known to influence thermoregulatory control, and it previously has been speculated that core cooling could result in less shivering.\n", "Three security scanners using millimeter waves were put into use at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam on 15 May 2007, with more expected to be installed later. The passenger's head is masked from the view of the security personnel.\n\nAccording to Farran Technologies, a manufacturer of one model of the millimeter wave scanner, the technology exists to extend the search area to as far as 50 meters beyond the scanning area which would allow security workers to scan a large number of people without their awareness that they are being scanned.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Thickness gauging.\n", "The series first premiered on Tuesday, 4 October 2016 at 9:00pm. The second season premiered on Thursday, 31 May 2018 at 8:45pm. The third season premiered on Tuesday, 25 June 2019 at 8:40pm.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n\nFilmed around the world over a period of six months, Todd will take on some of the biggest challenges of his life as he embarks on an epic exploration, investigating some of the world's most extraordinary people. He deconstructs and decodes how these incredible people live, what they do differently from the rest of us and how this impacts the human body.\n", "Firefighters have begun to utilize helmet cams as a tool to assess their responses to fires and allow non-firefighters to see the reality of what occurs inside a burning building. One technological improvement that fire departments would employ would be thermal imaging detection of differences in heat.\n", "The thermal manikin is a human model designed for scientific testing of thermal environments without the risk or inaccuracies inherent in human subject testing. Thermal manikins are primarily used in automotive, indoor environment, outdoor environment, military and clothing research. The first thermal manikins in the 1940s were developed by the US Army and consisted of one whole-body sampling zone. Modern-day manikins can have over 30 individually controlled zones. Each zone (right hand, pelvis, etc.) contains a heating element and temperature sensors within the “skin” of the manikin. This allows the control software to heat the manikin to a normal human body temperature, while logging the amount of power necessary to do so in each zone and the temperature of that zone.\n", "In order to minimise the confounding influence of external factors, patients undergoing infrared thermographic testing must conform to special restrictions regarding the use of certain vasoconstrictors (namely, nicotine and caffeine), skin lotions, physical therapy, and other diagnostic procedures in the days prior to testing. Patients may also be required to discontinue certain pain medications and sympathetic blockers. After a patient arrives at a thermographic laboratory, he or she is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in a 16–20 °C, draft-free, steady-state room wearing a loose fitting cotton hospital gown for approximately twenty minutes. A technician then takes infrared images of both the patient's affected and unaffected limbs, as well as reference images of other parts of the patient's body, including his or her face, upper back, and lower back. After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional-stress-testing to evaluate the function of his or her autonomic nervous system's peripheral vasoconstrictor reflex. This is performed by placing a patient's unaffected limb in a cold water bath (approximately 20 °C) for five minutes while collecting images. In a normal, intact, functioning autonomic nervous system, a patient's affected extremity will become colder. Conversely, warming of an affected extremity may indicate a disruption of the body's normal thermoregulatory vasoconstrictor function, which may sometimes indicate underlying CRPS.\n", "Deep contamination (contamination at depths greater than 1 meter) is handled using a similar method but with a deep penetrating heat source. This is commonly referred to as an in situ thermal desorption (ISTD) thermal well and it uses heater elements that consist of nichrome wires in a ceramic insulator. Like the thermal blankets, the heating temperature could reach as high as 900 °C, heating adjacent regions through heat conduction. Vacuum is also applied to withdraw broken contaminants.\n\nSection::::Concerns.\n", "A typical application for regularly available IR Thermographic equipment is looking for \"hot spots\" in electrical equipment, which illustrates high resistance areas in electrical circuits. These “hot spots” are usually measured in the range of 40 °C to 150 °C (70 to 270 °F) above ambient temperatures. But, when engineers use its patented proprietary systems to locate subsurface targets such as underground storage tanks (USTs), pipelines, pipeline leaks and their plumes, and in this project, hidden tunnels, we are looking for temperature patterns typically in the range of 0.01 °C to 1 °C above or below ambient temperatures. \n", "BULLET::::- Actor DJ Qualls plays a hacker in the 2003 science fiction film \"The Core\" who subsists solely on the microwaveable snack.\n\nSection::::Recall.\n", "The materials needed to make bomb suits protective do not release body heat generated by the wearer. The result can be heat stress, which can lead to illness and disorientation, reducing the wearer’s ability to accomplish the task. The most recent models of bomb suits include battery-operated cooling systems to prevent heat stress. One manufacturer’s study claims that the internal cooling systems on 39 lbs and 81 lbs bomb suits helped the wearer stay at workable temperatures for up to an hour, even in a hot environment.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-handling device\n\nBULLET::::- Clearance diver\n\nBULLET::::- Counter-IED efforts\n\nBULLET::::- Fuse (explosives)\n", "A different form of taking input data for face recognition is by using thermal cameras, by this procedure the cameras will only detect the shape of the head and it will ignore the subject accessories such as glasses, hats, or makeup. Unlike conventional cameras, thermal cameras can capture facial imagery even in low-light and nighttime conditions without using a flash and exposing the position of the camera. However, a problem with using thermal pictures for face recognition is that the databases for face recognition is limited. Diego Socolinsky and Andrea Selinger (2004) research the use of thermal face recognition in real life and operation sceneries, and at the same time build a new database of thermal face images. The research uses low-sensitive, low-resolution ferroelectric electrics sensors that are capable of acquiring longwave thermal infrared (LWIR). The results show that a fusion of LWIR and regular visual cameras has greater results in outdoor probes. Indoor results show that visual has a 97.05% accuracy, while LWIR has 93.93%, and the Fusion has 98.40%, however on the outdoor proves visual has 67.06%, LWIR 83.03%, and fusion has 89.02%. The study used 240 subjects over a period of 10 weeks to create a new database. The data was collected on sunny, rainy, and cloudy days.\n", "In the case of sensor strategies under development, such as the Radiometric Scanner, these are unable to penetrate skin and cannot detect a BCB. These could eventually detect a device used to ignite one, if interpreted correctly. Several other methods can also be considered and for example include:\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal Scanner (passive infrared): The BCB would most likely obstruct heat transfer to the body surface and could therefore be detected by a thermal scanner. However, for some reason, this technique does not seem to be discussed for airport security screening, but is only applied in medical imaging.\n", "Infrared vision\n\nInfrared vision is the capability of biological or artificial systems to detect infrared radiation. The terms thermal vision and thermal imaging, are also commonly used in this context since infrared emissions from a body are directly related to their temperature: hotter objects emit more energy in the infrared spectrum than colder ones.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09664	What property in substances cause light to speed up or slow down	Light is an electromagnetic wave. The atoms in a substance act as barriers to the propagation of the wave. At each barrier, the wave bends and interferes with other parts of the wave. All-in-all the wave will interfere with itself in such a way as to bend AND slow down the resulting wave crests, even though each part of the wave propagates at c (300,000 km/s). It's similar to the "bouncing around between atoms" explanation, but fundamentally has to do with wave propagation and interference rather than particle behavior.	[ "The phase velocity is important in determining how a light wave travels through a material or from one material to another. It is often represented in terms of a \"refractive index\". The refractive index of a material is defined as the ratio of \"c\" to the phase velocity \"v\" in the material: larger indices of refraction indicate lower speeds. The refractive index of a material may depend on the light's frequency, intensity, polarization, or direction of propagation; in many cases, though, it can be treated as a material-dependent constant. The refractive index of air is approximately 1.0003. Denser media, such as water, glass, and diamond, have refractive indexes of around 1.3, 1.5 and 2.4, respectively, for visible light. In exotic materials like Bose–Einstein condensates near absolute zero, the effective speed of light may be only a few metres per second. However, this represents absorption and re-radiation delay between atoms, as do all slower-than-\"c\" speeds in material substances. As an extreme example of light \"slowing\" in matter, two independent teams of physicists claimed to bring light to a \"complete standstill\" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium, one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass., and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge. However, the popular description of light being \"stopped\" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrarily later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had \"stopped,\" it had ceased to be light. This type of behaviour is generally microscopically true of all transparent media which \"slow\" the speed of light.\n", "BULLET::::- Electroluminescent wires\n\nBULLET::::- Field-induced polymer electroluminescent\n\nBULLET::::- Laser\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical laser\n\nBULLET::::- Dye laser\n\nBULLET::::- Free-electron laser\n\nBULLET::::- Gas dynamic laser\n\nBULLET::::- Gas laser\n\nBULLET::::- Ion laser\n\nBULLET::::- Laser diode\n\nBULLET::::- Laser flashlight\n\nBULLET::::- Metal-vapor laser\n\nBULLET::::- Nonlinear optics\n\nBULLET::::- Quantum well laser\n\nBULLET::::- Ruby laser\n\nBULLET::::- Solid-state laser\n\nSection::::Luminescence.:Mechanoluminescence.\n\nMechanoluminescence is light resulting from a mechanical action on a solid.\n\nBULLET::::- Triboluminescence, light generated when bonds in a material are broken when that material is scratched, crushed, or rubbed\n\nBULLET::::- Fractoluminescence, light generated when bonds in certain crystals are broken by fractures\n", "The simplest picture of light given by classical physics is of a wave or disturbance in the electromagnetic field. In a vacuum, Maxwell's equations predict that these disturbances will travel at a specific speed, denoted by the symbol . This well-known physical constant is commonly referred to as the speed of light. The postulate of the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial reference frames lies at the heart of special relativity and has given rise to a popular notion that the \"speed of light is always the same\". However, in many situations light is more than a disturbance in the electromagnetic field.\n", "Section::::Kinetic or rate equations for trapping and detrapping processes.\n", "Slow light\n\nSlow light is the propagation of an optical pulse or other modulation of an optical carrier at a very low group velocity. Slow light occurs when a propagating pulse is substantially slowed down by the interaction with the medium in which the propagation takes place.\n", "Slow light refers to a very low group velocity of light. If the dispersion relation of the refractive index is such that the index changes rapidly over a small range of frequencies, then the group velocity might be very low, thousands or millions of times less than , even though the index of refraction is still a typical value (between 1.5 and 3.5 for glasses and semiconductors).\n\nSection::::Ways to achieve slow light.\n", "BULLET::::- In some materials where light travels at speed \"c/n\" (where \"n\" is the refractive index) other particles can travel faster than \"c/n\" (but still slower than \"c\"), leading to Cherenkov radiation (see phase velocity below).\n\nNeither of these phenomena violates special relativity or creates problems with causality, and thus neither qualifies as \"FTL\" as described here.\n\nIn the following examples, certain influences may appear to travel faster than light, but they do not convey energy or information faster than light, so they do not violate special relativity.\n\nSection::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Daily sky motion.\n", "When light propagates through a material, it travels slower than the vacuum speed, . This is a change in the phase velocity of the light and is manifested in physical effects such as refraction. This reduction in speed is quantified by the ratio between and the phase velocity. This ratio is called the refractive index of the material. Slow light is a dramatic reduction in the group velocity of light, not the phase velocity. Slow light effects are not due to abnormally large refractive indices, as which will be explained below.\n", "BULLET::::- Light source technology: LEDs do not intrinsically produce temporal modulation; they just reproduce the input current waveform very well, and any ripple in the current waveform is reproduced by a light ripple because LEDs have a fast response; therefore compared to conventional lighting technologies (incandescent, fluorescent), for LED lighting more variety in the TLA properties is seen.\n\nBULLET::::- Power source technology (driver, electrical ballast): Many types and topologies of LED drivers and electrical ballasts are applied; simpler electronics and limited or no buffer capacitors often result in larger residual current ripple and thus larger temporal light modulation.\n", "BULLET::::- 2.57 fs – cycle time for 770-nanometer light, at the transition between red visible light and near-infrared\n\nBULLET::::- 15 fs – the swiftest chemical reaction, such as the absorption of a light photon in the Photosynthetic antenna molecule\n\nBULLET::::- 200 fs – the average chemical reaction, such as the reaction of pigments in an eye to light\n\nBULLET::::- 300 fs – the duration of a vibration of the atoms in an iodine molecule\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Femtochemistry\n\nBULLET::::- Femtosecond pulse shaping\n\nBULLET::::- Ultrafast laser spectroscopy\n\nBULLET::::- Mode-locking\n\nBULLET::::- SI unit\n\nBULLET::::- Second\n\nBULLET::::- Microsecond\n\nBULLET::::- Millisecond\n\nBULLET::::- Nanosecond\n", "Also, slow light can be used in optical quantum memory.\n\nSection::::In fiction.\n\nThe description of \"luminite\" in Maurice Renard's novel, \"Le maître de la lumière\" (\"The Master of Light\", 1933), might be one of the earliest mentions of slow light.\n\nSubsequent fictional works that address slow light are noted below.\n\nBULLET::::- The slow light experiments are mentioned in Dave Eggers's novel \"You Shall Know Our Velocity\" (2002), in which the speed of light is described as a \"Sunday crawl\".\n", "A specific case sometimes used is when the flashes are longer than two seconds. Such a light is sometimes denoted \"long flashing\" with the abbreviation \"L.Fl\".\n\nIf the frequency of flashes is large (more than 30 or 50 per minute) the light is denoted as a \"quick light\", see below.\n\nSection::::Light patterns.:Occulting light.\n", "Chemical clock\n\nA chemical clock (or clock reaction) is a complex mixture of reacting chemical compounds in which the onset of an observable property occurs after a predictable induction time. \n\nIn cases where one of the reagents has a visible color, crossing a concentration threshold can lead to an abrupt color change after a reproducible time lapse. \n", "BULLET::::- The waves of visible light oscillate with a period (reciprocal frequency) of about 2 femtoseconds formula_1. The precise period depends on the energy of the photons, which determines their color. (\"See wave–particle duality\".) This time can be calculated by dividing the wavelength of the light by the speed of light (approximately 3 × 10 m/s) to determine the time required for light to travel that distance.\n\nBULLET::::- 1.3 fs – cycle time for 390-nanometer light, at the transition between violet visible light and ultraviolet\n", "He currently lives in San Francisco, is married to Apple's Monogram co-founder Kristen Slowe, and they have one child.\n\nSection::::Academic publications.\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Slowe, Laurent Vernac, Lene Vestergaard Hau:\n\nA High Flux Source of Cold Rubidium \n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Slowe, Naomi S. Ginsberg, Trygve Ristroph, Anne Goodsell,\n\nand Lene Vestergaard Hau:\n\nBULLET::::- Zachary Dutton, Naomi Ginsberg, Christopher Slowe, and Lene Vestergaard Hau :\n\nThe Art of Taming Light: Ultra-slow and Stopped Light \n\nBULLET::::- Zachary Dutton, Michael Budde, Christopher Slowe, Lene Vestergaard Hau :\n\nObservation of quantum shock waves created with ultra-compressed slow light pulses in a Bose-Einstein Condensate \n", "Temporal light effects\n\nTemporal light effects (TLEs) is the general term for all possible effects resulting from temporal light modulations (TLMs).\n\nSection::::Root cause.\n", "LEDs do not intrinsically produce temporal modulations; they just reproduce the input current waveform very well, and any ripple in the current waveform is reproduced by a light ripple because LEDs have a fast response; therefore, compared to conventional lighting technologies (incandescent, fluorescent), for LED lighting more variety in the TLA properties is seen. Many types and topologies of LED driver circuits are applied; simpler electronics and limited or no buffer capacitors often result in larger residual current ripple and thus larger temporal light modulation.\n", "In chemistry, the path length is defined as the distance that light (UV/VIS) travels through a sample in an analytical cell. Typically, a sample cell is made of quartz, glass, or a plastic rhombic cuvette with a volume typically ranging from 0.1 mL to 10 mL or larger used in a spectrophotometer. For the purposes of spectrophotometry (i.e. when making calculations using the Beer-Lambert law) the path length is measured in centimeters (rather than in meters).\n\nSection::::Computing.\n", "A pulse with different group and phase velocities (which occurs if the phase velocity is not the same for all the frequencies of the pulse) smears out over time, a process known as dispersion. Certain materials have an exceptionally low (or even zero) group velocity for light waves, a phenomenon called slow light, which has been confirmed in various experiments.\n\nThe opposite, group velocities exceeding \"c\", has also been shown in experiment. It should even be possible for the group velocity to become infinite or negative, with pulses travelling instantaneously or backwards in time.\n", "where formula_22 is the group velocity. For a uniform medium, the group velocity is\n\nwhere \"n\" is the index of refraction and \"c\" is the speed of light in a vacuum. This gives a simpler form for the dispersion delay parameter:\n", "Where \"h\" = Planck’s constant, and \"c\" = the speed of light. Typically a large scanning device or CCD is used here to measure the intensity and digitally photograph an image.\n\nSection::::Attributes.:Fluorescent dyes versus proteins.\n", "BULLET::::- One has to illuminate the sample inhomogeneously so that an isolated zero intensity point is created. This can be achieved e.g. by interference.\n\nBULLET::::- At low intensities (lower than the blue line in the image) most marker molecules are in the bright state, if the intensity is above, most markers are in the dark state.\n", "BULLET::::- At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or \"quantized\") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific wavelength or frequency in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible ranges. This is what gives rise to color.\n", "Due to imperfections in the fibre, light degrades as it is transmitted through it. For distances of greater than 100 kilometers, amplifiers or regenerators are deployed. Latency introduced by these components needs to be taken into account.\n\nSection::::Communication latency.:Satellite transmission.\n", "BULLET::::- Another application of autocorrelation is the measurement of optical spectra and the measurement of very-short-duration light pulses produced by lasers, both using optical autocorrelators.\n" ]	[ "Light speeds up or slows down in substances.", "There is some property in substances that causes light to slow down " ]	[ "Light waves moves at the speed of light, but the waves can interfere with each other.", "Light slows down in substances because it is bouncing around in the substance not due to some property the substance has. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Light speeds up or slows down in substances.", "There is some property in substances that causes light to slow down " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Light waves moves at the speed of light, but the waves can interfere with each other.", "Light slows down in substances because it is bouncing around in the substance not due to some property the substance has. " ]
2018-02873	Why isn’t water a good buffer?	A buffer solution resists a change in pH because the acid and base are present in high enough concentrations that a reaction with any given chemical will not really throw off the balance between the two. if you have 100 moles of base and 100 moles of acid, and react with 1 mole of either, the ratio becomes 99:100. With water, the self ionization results in very small amounts of acid and base, so the opposite happens. Any acid or base, in any appreciable amount, will throw off the balance. Water is a bad buffer because there isn't enough acid and base present in any given amount of water to make a difference when another acid or base is added.	[ "The strong attraction between these surfaces causes an extremely thin water film (a few molecules thick) to form on the mineral surface. These water molecules are much less mobile than the rest of the water in the soil, and have significant effects on soil dielectric permittivity and freezing-thawing.\n\nIn molecular biology and food science, bound water refers to the amount of water in body tissues which are bound to macromolecules or organelles. In food science this form of water is practically unavailable for microbiological activities so it would not cause quality decreases or pathogen increases.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adsorption\n", "BULLET::::2. Solubility: For ease in handling and because biological systems are in aqueous systems, good solubility in water was required. Low solubility in nonpolar solvents (fats, oils, and organic solvents) was also considered beneficial, as this would tend to prevent the buffer compound from accumulating in nonpolar compartments in biological systems: cell membranes and other cell compartments.\n\nBULLET::::3. Membrane impermeability: Ideally, a buffer will not readily pass through cell membranes, this will also reduce the accumulation of buffer compound within cells.\n\nBULLET::::4. Minimal salt effects: Highly ionic buffers may cause problems or complications in some biological systems.\n", "Different Good's buffers fulfill the selection criteria to various degrees. No one buffer is truly and completely inert in biological systems. In Good's own words, \"it may be that the quest for universal biological inertness is futile.\"\n\nOnly three of Good's buffers do not form noticeable complexes with any metals: MES, MOPS and PIPES. Piperazine-containing buffers (PIPES, HEPES, POPSO and EPPS) can form radicals and should be avoided in studies of redox processes in biochemistry.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n", "BULLET::::- Since these co-ions cannot leave the electrodes and because the electroneutrality condition applies for the interparticle pores, extra counter-ions must pass through the ion-exchange membranes, which gives rise to a higher salt adsorption as well.\n\nBULLET::::- Operating MCDI at constant current mode can produce freshwater with a stable effluent concentration (see constant voltage vs. constant current for more information).\n\nBULLET::::- The required energy input of MCDI is lower than of CDI.\n\nSection::::Constant voltage vs. constant current operation mode.\n\nA CDI cell can be operated in either the constant voltage or the constant current mode.\n", "BULLET::::5. Influences on dissociation: There should be a minimum influence of buffer concentration, temperature, and ionic composition of the medium on the dissociation of the buffer.\n\nBULLET::::6. Well-behaved cation interactions: If the buffers form complexes with cationic ligands, the complexes formed should remain soluble. Ideally, at least some of the buffering compounds will not form complexes.\n\nBULLET::::7. Stability: The buffers should be chemically stable, resisting enzymatic and non-enzymatic degradation.\n\nBULLET::::8. Biochemical inertness: The buffers should not influence or participate in any biochemical reactions.\n", "Ions cross the cell membrane under two influences: diffusion and electric fields. A simple example wherein two solutions—A and B—are separated by a porous barrier illustrates that diffusion will ensure that they will eventually mix into equal solutions. This mixing occurs because of the difference in their concentrations. The region with high concentration will diffuse out toward the region with low concentration. To extend the example, let solution A have 30 sodium ions and 30 chloride ions. Also, let solution B have only 20 sodium ions and 20 chloride ions. Assuming the barrier allows both types of ions to travel through it, then a steady state will be reached whereby both solutions have 25 sodium ions and 25 chloride ions. If, however, the porous barrier is selective to which ions are let through, then diffusion alone will not determine the resulting solution. Returning to the previous example, let's now construct a barrier that is permeable only to sodium ions. Now, only sodium is allowed to diffuse cross the barrier from its higher concentration in solution A to the lower concentration in solution B. This will result in a greater accumulation of sodium ions than chloride ions in solution B and a lesser number of sodium ions than chloride ions in solution A.\n", "Properties 1 and 2 are independent of the presence or absence of added buffering agents. They are concentration effects and reflect the fact that pH is related to the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "BULLET::::- The macromolecules on one side of the membrane can bond preferentially to a certain component of the membrane or chemically modify it. In this way, although the concentration of the solute may actually be different on both sides of the membrane, the availability of the solute is reduced in one of the compartments to such an extent that, for practical purposes, no gradient exists to drive transport.\n\nBULLET::::- A membrane electrical potential can exist which can influence ion distribution. For example, for the transport of ions from the exterior to the interior, it is possible that:\n", "An easy way to explain how multiple buffering works is to take a real-world example. It is a nice sunny day and you have decided to get the paddling pool out, only you can not find your garden hose. You'll have to fill the pool with buckets. So you fill one bucket (or buffer) from the tap, turn the tap off, walk over to the pool, pour the water in, walk back to the tap to repeat the exercise. This is analogous to single buffering. The tap has to be turned off while you \"process\" the bucket of water.\n", "Section::::Selection criteria.\n\nGood sought to identify buffering compounds which met several criteria likely to be of value in biological research.\n\nBULLET::::1. p\"K\": Because most biological reactions take place near-neutral pH between 6 and 8, ideal buffers would have p\"K\" values in this region to provide maximum buffering capacity there.\n", "BULLET::::2. At very high pH the second term in the equation dominates and buffer capacity rises exponentially with increasing pH.\n\nBULLET::::3. The buffer capacity of a buffering agent is at a local maximum when pH = p\"K\". It falls to 33% of the maximum value at pH = p\"K\" ± 1 and to 10% at pH = p\"K\" ± 1.5. For this reason the useful range is approximately p\"K\" ± 1. Buffer capacity is proportional to the concentration of the buffering agent, \"C\", so dilute solutions have little buffer capacity.\n", "Since the cell membrane is not able to pass current (except in ion channels), it acts as an electrical capacitor. Subjecting membranes to a high-voltage electric field results in their temporary breakdown, resulting in pores that are large enough to allow macromolecules (such as DNA) to enter or leave the cell.\n", "Section::::Factors.\n\nCoagulation is affected by the type of coagulant used, its dose and mass; pH and initial turbidity of the water that is being treated; and properties of the pollutants present. The effectiveness of the coagulation process is also affected by pretreatments like oxidation.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "As in p–n junctions, the governing principle here is charge neutrality. Let us assume a P-type substrate. If positive charge \"Q\" is placed on the gate, then holes are depleted to a depth \"w\" exposing sufficient negative acceptors to exactly balance the gate charge. Supposing the dopant density to be formula_29 acceptors per unit volume, then charge neutrality requires the depletion width \"w\" to satisfy the relationship:\n", "decreasing water content, or “cell membrane stability (CMS)”. The maintenance of membrane function is assumed to mean that cell activity is also maintained. Measurements of CMS have been used in different crops and are known to be correlated with yields under high temperature and possibly under dehydration stress.\n\nSection::::Drought resistance traits.:Epicuticular wax.\n", "On the other hand, the high resting potential in undifferentiated cells can be a metabolic advantage. This apparent paradox is resolved by examination of the origin of that resting potential. Little-differentiated cells are characterized by extremely high input resistance, which implies that few leakage channels are present at this stage of cell life. As an apparent result, potassium permeability becomes similar to that for sodium ions, which places resting potential in-between the reversal potentials for sodium and potassium as discussed above. The reduced leakage currents also mean there is little need for active pumping in order to compensate, therefore low metabolic cost.\n", "BULLET::::1. After the application of an electrical field, water molecules line up in single file and penetrate the hydrophobic center of the bilayer lipid membrane.\n\nBULLET::::2. These water channels continue to grow in length and diameter and expand into water-filled pores, at which point they are stabilized by the lipid head groups that move from the membrane-water interface to the middle of the bilayer.\n", "Moreover, concentration polarization leads to:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased salt leakage through the membrane\n\nBULLET::::- Increased probability of scale/fouling development\n\nThus, the selectivity of separation and the membrane lifetime are deteriorated.\n", "For a maximum transfer of substance concentration, an equal flowrate of solvents and solutions is required. For maximum heat transfer, the average specific heat capacity and the mass flow rate must be the same for each stream. If the two flows are not equal, for example if heat is being transferred from water to air or vice versa, then, similar to cocurrent exchange systems, a variation in the gradient is expected because of a buildup of the property not being transferred properly.\n\nSection::::Countercurrent exchange in biological systems.\n", "Section::::Ion uptake and release.\n", "The Good's buffers are presented in the table below. The table presents “apparent” p\"K\"s measured by Good's group at 20 °C and concentrations of about 100 mM. The apparent p\"K\" is equal to the buffer's pH when the concentrations of two buffering species are equal, and the buffer solution has the maximum buffering capacity. The apparent p\"K\", and therefore the pH, of any buffer are temperature and concentration dependent. Consequently, the pH of prepared concentrated buffer solutions will change on dilution and with temperature. The apparent p\"K\" at various concentrations and temperatures may be predicted using online calculators.\n", "One of the main complications which arises in studying the vadose zone, is the fact that the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is a function of the water content of the material. As a material dries out, the connected wet pathways through the media become smaller, the hydraulic conductivity decreasing with lower water content in a very non-linear fashion. \n\nA water retention curve is the relationship between volumetric water content and the water potential of the porous medium. It is characteristic for different types of porous medium. Due to hysteresis, different wetting and drying curves may be distinguished.\n\nSection::::In aggregates.\n", "The diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water. The \"bound water\" model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property—or how hydrophilic they are.\n", "Section::::Method essentials.:Capillary relaxation.\n\nBecause the hydraulic conductivity rapidly increases as the water content moves towards saturation, with reference to Fig.1, right-most bins in both capillary groundwater fronts and infiltration fronts can \"out-run\" their neighbors to the left. In the finite water content discretization, these shocks are dissipated by the process of capillary relaxation, which represents a pore-scale free-energy minimization process that produces no advection beyond the REV scale Numerically, this process is a numerical sort that places the fronts in monotonically-decreasing magnitude from left-right.\n\nSection::::Constitutive relations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02271	How do game designers create the logic or on what do they base the logic in sport video games to the deliver the correct commentary in the corresponding situation, e.g. football (soccer)?	My partner is a game dev so from what I've learnt from him: The dev will create a sequence of scenarios and imput them as codes with a yes or no answer to branch off from. for example in a soccer game I would assume it would be something along the lines of; does ball reach goal? If yes trigger audio 1. If no trigger audio 2.	[ "In the first two versions of the game, \"NSS 1\" (2003) and \"NSS 2\" (2004), the action on the field was a running text commentary of key elements of the match, where certain situations required intervention to make a decision on how the player acts, like whether to pass, tackle or shoot.\n\nSince the third version of the game, \"NSS3\", released in 2005, the gamer controls his player with the keyboard, joystick or gamepad. Matches are played out in 2D graphics giving full control of a particular player's actions. \n\nSection::::History.:\"New Star Soccer 4\" (2008).\n", "Once the ball is dead, or immediately when a foul is called after a play is over or prior to a snap (since the ball is dead anyway), the referee, the official(s) who threw the flag(s) and other officials with a view of the play confer to come to a consensus on whether an infraction was actually committed, what it was, and who committed it. The final determination and assessment of the penalty is the sole responsibility of the referee. The referee then makes initial visual body signals to the press box indicating what fouls were committed and the team that committed them, the latter shown by extending the arm toward that team's end zone.\n", "However, from a programming or overall design perspective, basic gameplay can be deconstructed further to reveal constituent game mechanics. For example, the basic gameplay of fighting game can be deconstructed to attack and defense, or punch, kick, block, dodge and throw; which can be further deconstructed to strong/weak punch/kick. For this reason, game mechanics is more of an engineering concept while gameplay is more of a design concept.\n\nSection::::Game mechanics vs. theme.\n", "Former Liverpool player and Spanish television pundit, Michael Robinson was the face and voice of the game, and most of the season analysis inside the updates was signed by him. The game was one of the first licensed games - by the \"Liga de Fútbol Profesional\" - which meant that the developers were able to use real player and team names.\n", "If the formula contains negations or implications, other, more complicated, techniques may be used. For example, a negation should be true if the thing negated is false, so it must have the effect of interchanging the roles of the two players.\n", "The 1980s and 1990s saw researchers struggling to harness the developing technology to ease the problems inherent in gathering and interpreting large amounts of complex data. Hughes (1987) modified the method of Sanderson and Way so that the hand-notated data could be processed on a mainframe computer. Eventually, the manual method was modified so that a match could be notated in-match at courtside directly into a microcomputer. This work was then extended to examine the patterns of play of male squash players at recreational, county and elite levels, thus creating empirical models of performance, although the principles of data stabilisation were not thoroughly understood at the time. This form of empirical modelling of tactical profiles is fundamental to a large amount of the published work in notational analysis. By comparing the patterns of play of successful and unsuccessful teams or players in elite competitions, world cup competitions, for example, enables the definition of those performance indicators that differentiate between the two groups. This research template has been used in a number of sports to highlight the tactical parameters that determine success, and it has been extended in tennis to compare the patterns of play that are successful on the different surfaces on which the major tournaments are played.\n", "Scoring is done by foul. Fouls can be called for:\n\nBULLET::::- statement: player fails to reply with a question\n\nBULLET::::- hesitation: player takes too long to reply or grunts or makes a false start\n\nBULLET::::- repetition: player asks questions identical to or synonymous with one already asked this game (not match)\n\nBULLET::::- rhetoric: player asks a rhetorical question\n\nBULLET::::- non sequitur: player responds with an unrelated question\n\nWhen a foul is called on a player, his opponent is awarded one point. First player to get three points wins a game. Matches are played to best out of three games.\n", "On 13 August 2013 a Goal Decision System by Hawk-Eye was installed in the ground ahead of the 2013–14 Premier League season which requires the use of goal-line technology to indicate if a goal is scored.\n\nSection::::Tenants.\n\nSection::::Tenants.:Hull City.\n", "Through an interactive platform broadcasting LIVE streaming of the game, fans from their computers vote live on tactics such as formation, playing style, what substitutes to bring on, etc. and those decisions are relayed to the Coach on the sidelines to communicate to the players on the pitch.\n", "The opening sequence where soccer is portrayed as the most boring sport imaginable was intended to show that soccer was more boring on television than live, but both Michels and Groening enjoy the game. The referee at the game is a caricature of the janitor at Film Roman, who supplied director Pete Michels with every piece of soccer information he needed to design the episode. Pelé also makes an appearance at the match, although he is voiced by Hank Azaria.\n", "In the CFL and other professional leagues, and in some U Sports football games, the referee announces penalties and the numbers of the players committing them, and clarifies complex and/or unusual rulings over a wireless microphone to both fans and the media.\n\nDuring instant replay reviews in the CFL, the referee confers with a replay official, who is located at the CFL head office, on the play and then announces the final result from the replay official over the wireless microphone.\n", "Each cycle continues until the host presses a buzzer or makes a different sound.\n\nSection::::Historical Headlines.\n\nThe chairman identifies a historical event, such as the assassination of Julius Caesar, and invites the panellists to suggest the headlines that would be used by modern newspapers reporting on the event. Panellists make their suggestions in no particular order, leading to a fluid style of play.\n", "BULLET::::- Alberta\n\nBULLET::::- Regina\n\nBULLET::::- Winnipeg\n\nBULLET::::- Sudbury\n\nBULLET::::- Greater Toronto\n\nBULLET::::- TriCity Area\n\nBULLET::::- Ottawa\n\nBULLET::::- Montreal\n\nBULLET::::- Moncton\n\nBULLET::::- Halifax\n\nBULLET::::- St John's\n\nBULLET::::- (Online tournament)\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nIf a team is provided a suggestion that they do not understand they are allowed to request a definition, which is supplied by either a judge or referee. If a team has used the given suggestion previously, they are given the opportunity to request an alternative.\n\nSection::::Events.:Life.\n", "The players take turns choosing a category for each question, beginning with the call-in player. Feldman reads the questions (often multiple-choice), and the team collaborates to come up with an answer. If correct, the team earns one point. Teams are kept apprised of their point status by the announcer. When the team earns three points, bells signal that they have won the game. To ensure that the team will win, Feldman frequently offers hints or slyly lets them know when they are on the wrong track. As a result, it is rare for a team to lose.\n", "With \"Emlyn Hughes International Soccer\" in 1988 Audiogenic pioneered the concept of a fast-moving sports simulation featuring on-screen commentary, named players and management elements; later with \"World Class Rugby\" and then \"European Champions\" Audiogenic introduced the concept of sports simulations with a choice of viewpoints.\n\nOther titles included \"Exterminator\" (a coin-op conversion), \"Helter Skelter\", \"Impact\", \"Krusty's Fun House\", \"Bubble & Squeak\", \"Exile\", and \"Loopz\".\n", "As a developer tests the game in the built-in interpreter, progress is tracked in the \"skein\" and \"transcript\" views of the IDE. The skein tracks player commands as a tree of branching possibilities. Any branch of the tree can be quickly re-followed, making it possible to retry different paths in a game under development without replaying the same portions of the game. Paths can also be annotated with notes and marked as solutions, which can be exported as text walkthroughs. The transcript, on the other hand, tracks both player commands and the game's responses. Correct responses from the game can be marked as \"blessed.\" On replaying a transcript or a branch of the skein, variations from the blessed version will be highlighted, which can help the developer find errors.\n", "Each official game requires having several referees present as well as an official snitch. The referees are the head ref whose job is to control the field and administer fouls and yellow or red cards to offending players, assistant refs who assist the head referee in watching for illegal plays, the snitch ref who follows the snitch once they enter the field and determine whether or not the catch was clean, and the goal refs whose job is to determine whether the quaffle went through the hoop. Assistant refs are oftentimes called bludger or beater refs, and their job is to call \"beat\" (or, in French, \"touché\") when the beat was clean (meaning hit the opposing player), to help determine whether a goal was scored based on the beat and assist with making calls concerning illegal action or give verbal warnings to players. Assistant referees are also able to communicate to the head ref for a stoppage of play if witness to an action that would result in a yellow card. Snitch refs, whilst the snitch is off field, act as an additional bludger ref.\n", "The players can regulate the pitch's shape in various ways by altering the pitch's dimensions or the placement of the gates. In some variants, one or more special lines may be added to the pitch. This modification is found in computer applications, and expanded variants of this modification are used by PDE Football.\n", "The playout happens in master control in a playout area, which can be either situated in the central apparatus room or in purposely built playout centres, which can be owned by a broadcaster or run by an independent specialist company that has been contracted to handle the playout for a number of channels from different broadcasters.\n", "Many infractions can result in the calling of a technical foul. One of the most common is the use of profane language toward an official or another player. This can be called on either players who are currently active in the play of the game, or seated on a team's bench. It can also be assessed to a coach or another person associated with the team in an official capacity such as a trainer or an equipment manager. Additionally, coaches or players can be assessed a technical foul for disputing an official's call too vehemently, with or without the use of profanity. This verbal unsporting technical foul may be assessed regardless of whether the ball is dead or alive.\n", "Section::::Game Design Principles.:\"Input Agreement Games\".\n\nIn input-agreement games two randomly paired players are each given an input that is hidden from the other player. Player inputs will either match or be different. The goal of these games is for players to tag their input such that the other player can determine whether or not the two inputs match. In 2008, Edith L. M. Law created the input-agreement game called TagATune. In this game, players label sound clips. In TagATune, players describe sound clips and guess if their partner's sound clip is the same as their own given their partner's tags.\n", "As the match is played, the screen is updated if a goal is scored. For versions with animated graphics highlights, attempts on goal are shown in isometric 3D at either end of the pitch with a scoreboard showing the current score. The player can not affect the game while it is in progress.\n", "The central computer takes these readings, the 3D field model and color palette, the knowledge of which camera is on the air, and together using a geometrical calculation determines which pixels in the video frame would make up the first down line. All pixels that are obstructed by a player, a referee, the ball or any other object are identified and not included in the calculation. This will ensure that the 1st & Ten line will be projected only onto the field.\n", "The player chooses a team in the main menu which has the look of an office. As a manager, the player not only elects the football players for the team, but also run a stadium with the price management and the transfer of players. The football games can be presented in different forms. Then there is a text mode were the games is presented and commentated in text form and the last one has the text and some pictures of a game. The tactic of the own team could be changed and players could be switched. The career is limited to ten seasons.\n", "In sport, systems have been developed to provide a high level of task, performance and physiological data to coaches, teams and players. The objective is to improve individual and team performance and/or analyse opposition patterns of play to give tactical advantage. The repetitive and patterned nature of sports games lends itself to video analysis in that over a period of time real patterns, trends or habits can be discerned.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03080	Is it more difficult to be witty in sign language?	> humour relying on subtle linguistic characteristics like homonyms and synonyms wouldn't translate so well. Does this make it more difficult to be witty when signing? It can be a real handful.	[ "Some adjectival and adverbial information is conveyed through non-manual elements, but what these elements are varies from language to language. For instance, in ASL a slightly open mouth with the tongue relaxed and visible in the corner of the mouth means 'carelessly', but a similar non-manual in BSL means 'boring' or 'unpleasant'.\n", "Cued speech is not a signed language, and it does not have any signs in common with ASL. It is a kind of augmented speechreading, making speechreading much more accurate and accessible to deaf people. The handshapes by themselves have no meaning; they only have meaning as a cue in combination with a mouth shape, so that the mouth shape 'two lips together' plus one handshape might mean an 'M' sound, the same shape with a different cue might represent a 'B' sound, and with a third cue might represent a 'P' sound.\n", "ASL has a rich system of verbal inflection. This involves both grammatical aspect—how the action of verbs flows in time—and agreement marking. Aspect can be marked by changing the manner of movement of the verb; for example, continuous aspect is marked by incorporating rhythmic, circular movement, while punctual aspect is achieved by modifying the sign so that it has a stationary hand position. Verbs may agree with both the subject and the object, and are marked for number and reciprocity. Reciprocity is indicated by using two one-handed signs; for example, the sign SHOOT, made with an L-shaped handshape with inward movement of the thumb, inflects to SHOOT, articulated by having two L-shaped hands \"shooting\" at each other.\n", "Cued speech does indeed achieve its goal of distinguishing phonemes received by the learner, but there is some question of whether it is as helpful to expression as it is to reception. An article by Jacqueline Leybaert and Jesús Alegría discusses how children who are introduced to cued speech before the age of one are up to speed with their hearing peers on receptive vocabulary, though expressive vocabulary lags behind. The writers suggest additional and separate training to teach oral expression if such is desired, but more importantly this reflects the nature of cued speech; to adapt the hearing-impaired to a hearing world, as such discontinuities of expression and reception are not as commonly found for hearing-impaired children learning sign language.\n", "BULLET::::2. Clause length in discourse tends to be rather short, so that, for example, clauses with transitive verbs will very rarely have both agent and patient expressed lexically.\n\nBULLET::::3. What would in spoken discourse be called \"co-speech gesture\" in fact is fully integrated into the communicative semiotic of sign language discourse. The same is true of action embodiment (mimed action).\n", "In 2018, Simmonds appeared in a two-episode arc in the third season of the Disney Channel television series \"Andi Mack\". She first appeared as an extra in the first season, and the series creators invited her back for a recurring role. For her arc, Simmonds taught the other actors how to use ASL, and the showrunners decided to show her scenes involving ASL without providing subtitles so viewers could focus on figuring out the sign language. In one of the episodes, Simmonds also spoke for the first time ever on-camera, responding audibly \"I like you\" in response to Asher Angel's character Jonah signing \"I like you\" to her character. Simmonds said of the spoken dialogue, \"I can't even remember how it was brought up or who had the idea, but I remember my mom asking me how I felt about it, and I told her I thought I could try. I was actually pretty nervous about it. I don't use my voice a lot in public.\"\n", "In contrast to American Sign Language (ASL) and British Sign Language (BSL), Warlmanpa (and sign languages in the North Central Territory) makes almost no use of facial action and/or cues in sign formation. In addition, the majority of signs are performed with only one hand and the range of handshapes and body locations used are significantly different.\n\nSection::::Sign Structure.:Parameters.\n", "BULLET::::- A common misconception is the sign for \"bullshit.\" Signed with both arms held out, elbows bent, and folded in front of the signer with the dominant forearm on top, the dominant hand mimics a pair of horns with the index and pinkie finger. The non-dominant hand mimics the \"business end\" with flapping fingers. This sign is not considered part of ASL. It is however part of New Zealand Sign Language. The correct sign in ASL is performed with both the pointer and pinkie finger being extended and thrusting the hand forward to signify \"bullshit\". An alternative is to make a \"C\" around your nose, rotate the \"C\", and then close your hand in a fist and face your palm to your nose. These signs are, however, not used as jokes. To sign the equivalent of a joking \"that's BS,\" you simply sign the letters B-S.\n", "There are three types of non-manual topic markers, all of which involve raised eyebrows. The three types of non-manual topic markers are used with different types of topics and in different contexts, and the topic markings cannot spread over other elements in the utterance. Topics can be moved from and remain null in the main clause of an utterance, or topics can be base-generated and either be co-referential to either the subject or object in the main clause or be related to the subject of object by a semantic property.\n", "ASL is a subject-verb-object (SVO) language. This default word order is sometimes altered by processes including topicalization and null elements; however, this is marked either with non-manual signals like eyebrow or body position, or with prosodic marking such as pausing. These non-manual grammatical markings (such as eyebrow movement or head-shaking) may optionally spread over the c-command domain of the node which it is attached to. However, ASL is a pro-drop language, and when the manual sign that a non-manual grammatical marking is attached to is omitted, the non-manual marking obligatorily spreads over the c-command domain.\n", "Section::::Manual alphabet.\n\nThe manual alphabet used in Icelandic Sign Language is signed using one hand. The manual alphabet is used when a signer does not know the sign for something they are trying to express, or for things like names, street or place names, companies or abbreviations. \n\nSection::::Linguistics.\n\nSection::::Linguistics.:Grammar.\n\nIcelandic Sign Language has somewhat variable word order depending on the verb used. The basic word order is SVO however, with agreement verbs SOV and OSV word order is also accepted.\n\nSection::::Linguistics.:Vocabulary.\n", "In the book \"Choices in Deafness: A Parents' Guide to Communication Options\", Sue Schwartz writes on how Cued Speech helps a deaf child recognize pronunciation. The child can learn how to pronounce words such as \"hors d'oeuvre\" or \"tamale\" or \"Hermione\" that have pronunciations different from how they are spelled. A child can learn about accents and dialects. In New York, coffee may be pronounced \"caw fee\"; in the South, the word friend (\"fray-end\") can be a two-syllable word.\n\nSection::::Debate over cued speech \"vs\" sign language.\n", "Long-term contact with oral languages has generated a large influence on the vocabulary and grammar of sign languages. Loan translations are common, such as the American Sign Language signs BOY and FRIEND, forming a compound meaning \"boyfriend\" or the Auslan partial-calque DON'T MIND, which involves the sign for the noun MIND combined with an upturned palm, which is a typical Auslan negation. When a loan translation becomes fully acceptable and considered as 'native' (rather than Contact Signing) is a matter over which native signers will differ in opinion.\n", "A 2016 study of various English-speaking indigenous North Americans (Slaveys, Standing Rock Lakotas, and diverse Indian students at Dartmouth College) found that they all used uniquely shared prosodic features for occasional emphasis, irony, or playfulness in casual peer interactions, yet rarely in formal interactions. The prosodic choices are presumably a way for these speakers to index (tap into) a shared \"Native\" identity. The documented sounds of this \"Pan-Indian\" identity include: higher pitch on post-stressed syllables (rather than stressed syllables); use of high-rising, mid, or high-falling (rather than simple falling) intonation at the ends of sentences; vowel lengthening at the ends of sentences; and syllable timing (instead of stress timing).\n", "This strategy is commonly used instead of signing the word 'because' for clarity or emphasis. For instance, \"I love to eat pasta because I am Italian\" would be signed,\n\nSection::::Syntax.:Relative clauses.\n\nRelative clauses are signaled by tilting back the head and raising the eyebrows and upper lip. This is done during the performance of the entire clause. There is no change in word order. For example, \"the dog which recently chased the cat came home\" would be signed,\n", "Sign languages convey much of their prosody through non-manual elements. Postures or movements of the body, head, eyebrows, eyes, cheeks, and mouth are used in various combinations to show several categories of information, including lexical distinction, grammatical structure, adjectival or adverbial content, and discourse functions.\n", "In 1985, Marianne Ahlgren proved in her PhD thesis at Victoria University of Wellington that NZSL is a fully-fledged\n\nlanguage, with a large vocabulary of signs and a consistent grammar of space.\n", "Mayberry co-edited the book \"Language Acquisition by Eye\" (with Charlene Chamberlain and Jill Morford).\n\nSection::::Biography.\n\nMayberry received her B.A. degree in English at Drake University and her Masters of Science in Speech and Hearing Science at Washington University in St. Louis in 1973. She attended graduate school at McGill University where she obtained her Ph.D. in 1979 in Communication Sciences & Disorders. Her dissertation was titled \"Facial Expression and Redundancy in American Sign Language.\"\n", "Sign languages do not have a traditional or formal written form. Many deaf people do not see a need to write their own language.\n\nSeveral ways to represent sign languages in written form have been developed.\n\nBULLET::::- Stokoe notation, devised by Dr. William Stokoe for his 1965 \"Dictionary of American Sign Language\", is an abstract phonemic notation system. Designed specifically for representing the use of the hands, it has no way of expressing facial expression or other non-manual features of sign languages. However, his was designed for research, particularly in a dictionary, not for general use.\n", "Sign languages are not mime—in other words, signs are conventional, often arbitrary and do not necessarily have a visual relationship to their referent, much as most spoken language is not onomatopoeic. While iconicity is more systematic and widespread in sign languages than in spoken ones, the difference is not categorical. The visual modality allows the human preference for close connections between form and meaning, present but suppressed in spoken languages, to be more fully expressed. This does not mean that sign languages are a visual rendition of a spoken language. They have complex grammars of their own and can be used to discuss any topic, from the simple and concrete to the lofty and abstract.\n", "In Warlpiri communities, widows also tend to live away from their families, with other widows or young single women. As a result, it is typical for Warlpiri women to have a better command of the sign language than men, and among older women at Yuendumu, Warlpiri Sign Language is in constant use, whether they are under a speech ban or not. However, all members of the community understand it, and may sign in situations where speech is undesirable, such as while hunting, in private communication, across distances, while ill, or for subjects that require a special reverence or respect. Many also use signs as an accompaniment to speech.\n", "The linguistic components of American Sign Language (ASL) can be broken down into four parts; the hand configuration, place of articulation, movement and other minor parameters. Hand configuration is determined by the shape of the hand, fingers and thumbs and is specific to the sign that is being used. It allows the signer to articulate what they are wanting to communicate by extending, flexing, bending or spreading the digits; the position of the thumb to the fingers; or the curvature of the hand. However, there are not an infinite amount of possible hand configurations, there are 19 classes of hand configuration primes as listed by the \"Dictionary of American Sign Language\". Place of articulation is the particular location that the sign is being performed known as the \"signing place\". The \"signing place\" can be the whole face or a particular part of it, the eyes, nose, cheek, ear, neck, trunk, any part of the arm, or the neutral area in front of the signers head and body. Movement is the most complex as it can be difficult to analyze. Movement is restricted to directional, rotations of the wrist, local movements of the hand and interactions of the hands. These movements can occur singularly, in sequence, or simultaneously. Minor parameters in ASL include contacting region, orientation and hand arrangement. They are subclasses of hand configuration.\n", "In the era of the influential linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, it was assumed that the mapping between form and meaning in language must be completely arbitrary. Although onomatopoeia is a clear exception, since words like 'choo-choo' bear clear resemblance to the sounds that they mimic, the Saussurean approach was to treat these as marginal exceptions. ASL, with its significant inventory of iconic signs, directly challenges this theory.\n", "Signing Exact English (SEE-II) is not a language itself but a sign coded version of English, meaning it utilises the vocabulary of ASL with the English grammar. \n\nSection::::Challenges.\n", "American Sign Language is growing in popularity among many states. Many people in high school and colleges desire to take it as a foreign language, but until recently, it was not a creditable foreign language elective. The issue was that many did not consider it a foreign language. ASL users, however, have a very distinct culture and way they interact when talking. Their facial expressions and hand movements reflect what they are communicating. They also have their own sentence structure which sets the language apart.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11296	How are people able to override self preservation and kill/ sacrifice themselves?	Your body is really good at reacting/letting you move away from negative stimuli. If the world and everything around/happening to you is viewed bad enough then suicide is easy because its not nearly as bad as continuing. Plus we have more control than we think, its hard but you can still do things to hurt yourself regardless of instincts.	[ "This dilemma of obedience in conscience to divine or state law, was demonstrated dramatically in Antigone's defiance of King Creon's order against burying her brother an alleged traitor, appealing to the \"unwritten law\" and to a \"longer allegiance to the dead than to the living\".\n", "Section::::Death thought accessibility.\n\nAnother paradigm that TMT researchers use to get at unconscious concerns about death is what is known as the death thought accessibility (DTA) hypothesis. Essentially, the DTA hypothesis states that if individuals are motivated to avoid cognitions about death, and they avoid these cognitions by espousing a worldview or by buffering their self-esteem, then when threatened, an individual should possess more death-related cognitions (e.g., thoughts about death, and death-related stimuli) than they would when not threatened.\n", "But the explanation of how man should live a life of active social service in full harmony with himself as a member of the community of spirit, I found in the writings of those great medieval mystics [Meister Eckhart and Jan van Ruysbroek] for whom 'self-surrender' had been the way to self-realization, and who in 'singleness of mind' and 'inwardness' had found strength to say yes to every demand which the needs of their neighbours made them face, and to say yes also to every fate life had in store for them when they followed the call of duty as they understood it.\n", "On the other hand, death and thoughts of death can serve as a way of empowering the self, not as threats. Researchers, Cooper \"et al.\" (2011) explored TMHM in terms of empowerment, specifically using BSEs under two conditions; when death thoughts were prompted, and when thoughts of death were non-conscious. According to TMHM, people's health decisions, when death thoughts are not conscious, should be based on their motivations to act appropriately, in terms of the self and identity. Cooper \"et al.\" (2011) found that when mortality and death thoughts were primed, women reported more empowerment feelings than those who were not prompted before performing a BSE.\n", "The most well-known forced suicide is that of the philosopher Socrates, who drank hemlock after his trial for allegedly corrupting the youth of Athens. The Stoic philosopher Seneca also killed himself in response to an order by his pupil, the Roman Emperor Nero, who himself was forced to commit suicide at a later date. Other famous forced suicides include those of Brutus, Mark Antony, Emperor Otho, and the Roman General Corbulo.\n\nSection::::In Asia.\n", "I have been spared to see another day, a victim of crime who gives thanks for life itself. My story is unique, but I feel like a brother or sister to many others - those who have walked away from a demolished car, those whose heart stopped and started again, people who lost a breast or colon or were born weighing a pound but came off a ventilator and lived.br\n", "\"When I came back from the war, I had trouble with authority figures\", he recalled in 2001. \"I heard people talking about how it was time to get over the war, I thought, How? When you've seen human beings all around you reduced to rotting flesh, you can't just flip a switch and turn things off.\"\n", "Section::::Summary.\n", "Mass suicides are often performed under social pressure where members give up autonomy to a leader. Mass suicides can take place with as few as two people, often referred to as a suicide pact. In extenuating situations where continuing to live would be intolerable, some people use suicide as a means of escape. Some inmates in Nazi concentration camps are known to have killed themselves by deliberately touching the electrified fences.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "People with low self-esteem, but not high self-esteem, have more negative emotions when reminded of death. This is believed to be because these individuals lack the very defenses that TMT argues protect people from mortality concerns (e.g., solid worldviews). In contrast, positive mood states are not impacted by death thoughts for people of low or high self-esteem.\n\nSection::::Leadership.\n", "But \"abandoning the body\" also covers a broad range of more extreme acts (not all of which necessarily result in death): feeding one's body to insects; slicing off one's flesh; burning one's fingers or arms; burning incense on the skin; starving, slicing, or drowning oneself; leaping from cliffs or trees; feeding one's body to wild animals; self-mummification (preparing for death so that the resulting corpse is impervious to decay); and of course, auto-cremation.\n", "How people respond to their fears and anxiety of death is investigated in TMT. Moreover, Taubman-Ben-Ari and Noy (2010) examine the idea that a person's level of self-awareness and self-consciousness should be considered in relation to their responses to their anxiety and death cognitions. The more an individual is presented with their death or death cognitions in general, the more fear and anxiety one may have; therefore, to combat said anxiety one may implement anxiety buffers.\n", "Before the squad reached their destination they encountered a bunker, and SSG Sims took it upon himself to see if it was empty. As he moved forward a booby trap went off and everybody froze. But SSG Sims shouted a warning then dove on it, fatally wounding him. However he had covered the blast with his own body, and thus saved the lives of those in the area.\"\n", "I was sitting at home and had a profound experience. I experienced, in all of my Being, that someday I was going to die, and it wouldn't be like it had been happening, almost dying but somehow staying alive, but I would just die! And two things would happen right before I died: I would regret my entire life; I would want to live it over again. This terrified me. The thought that I would live my entire life, look at it and realize I blew it forced me to do something with my life.\n", "The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a sutta in the \"Gamani Samyuttam\" rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth. In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.\n", "Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation. In this unlikely scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able fear it. One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes that a person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the future.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n", "Michael had a very strong moral sense and was cool and reasonable. He knew that if he or his allies turn to kill rather than subdue their enemies, they will gradually lose themselves and eventually everything. Bellick, \"T-Bag\", Whistler and overall Gretchen, all people with much blood on their hands are only alive or survived as long as they did because Michael spared them.\n", "Although the survival instinct is powerful, some inmates chose to sacrifice themselves rather than be reduced to brutes or even murderers. Thus, the example of the 400 Greeks who chose to die rather than work in the Sonderkommando is inspirational. In fact, it is these acts of humanity among the carnage which reinforced Olga's will to live and, in her words: \"It is that hope which keeps me alive.\"\n", "I am satisfied that none of the persons whose decisions and actions I later describe ever contemplated that Kelly might take his own life. I am further satisfied that none of those persons was at fault in not contemplating that Kelly might take his own life. Whatever pressures and strains Kelly was subjected to by the decisions and actions taken in the weeks before his death, I am satisfied that no one realised or should have realised that those pressures and strains might drive him to take his own life or contribute to his decision to do so.\n", "Sidney Homan describes \"Quad’s\" world as a \"faceless, emotionless one of the far future, a world where people are born, go through prescribed movements, fear non-being (E) even though their lives are meaningless, and then they disappear or die.\" This raises a philosophical question, one the writer Albert Camus tried to answer in his essay, \"The Myth of Sisyphus\": Face to face with the meaninglessness of existence, what keeps us from suicide? What stops any of the four players from simply hurling themselves into the \"danger zone\"? To a large extent, Camus suggests that our instinct for life is much stronger than our reasons for suicide: \"We get into the habit of living before acquiring the habit of thinking.\" We instinctively avoid facing the full consequences of the meaningless nature of life, through what Camus calls an \"act of eluding.\"\n", "Chen Ta Erh is sent to assassinate an authority, succeeds, and is later killed in a failed suicide bombing attempt on Chiang Kai-shek. After the assassination, he becomes governed by fatality and desires simply to kill, thereby fulfill his duty as a terrorist, a duty which controls his life. This is largely the result of being so close to death since assassinating a man. He is so haunted by death and his powerlessness over inevitability that he wishes to die, just to end his torment.\n", "Section::::Similarity to self-preservation.\n", "Another distinction is that the first case is similar to a pilot in an airplane that has lost power and is about to crash into a heavily populated area. Even if the pilot knows for sure that innocent people will die if he redirects the plane to a less populated area—people who are \"uninvolved\"—he will actively turn the plane without hesitation. It may well be considered noble to sacrifice your own life to protect others, but morally or legally allowing murder of one innocent person to save five people may be insufficient justification.\n\nSection::::Related problems.:The fat villain.\n", "Section::::Factors affecting obedience.:Belief perseverance.\n\nAnother explanation of Milgram's results invokes belief perseverance as the underlying cause. What \"people cannot be counted on is to realize that a seemingly benevolent authority is in fact malevolent, even when they are faced with overwhelming evidence which suggests that this authority is indeed malevolent. Hence, the underlying cause for the subjects' striking conduct could well be conceptual, and not the alleged 'capacity of man to abandon his humanity ... as he merges his unique personality into larger institutional structures.\"'\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nIn humans:\n\nIn animals:\n\nBULLET::::- Animal training\n\nBULLET::::- Obedience training (for dogs)\n", "Sansom said she believed she was \"not brave, not courageous, but just make up my mind about certain things.\" She recalled in a post-war interview that while everyone has a breaking point, her feeling was that if she could \"survive the next minute without breaking up, that is another minute of life. And if I can think that way instead of thinking what is going to happen in a half-hour's time,\" Because of her past illnesses she knew \"I was able to accept this, and survive it.\" By accepting death, she felt that \"they would not win anything. They'll have a dead body, useless to them. They won't have me. I won't let them have me.\" She described it as a \"kind of bargaining.\"\n" ]	[ "People do not have control over self preservation. " ]	[ "People do have control over self preservation, and can hurt themselves. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People do not have control over self preservation. ", "People do not have control over self preservation. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "People do have control over self preservation, and can hurt themselves. ", "People do have control over self preservation, and can hurt themselves. " ]
2018-15392	Why is it so many languages have some form of "mama" and "papa" as one of their words for mother and father?	Way back when (around 5-10 thousand years ago), there was this group of people who lived in Central Asia who spoke a language called Proto-Indo-European. That language and those people became the ancestors of pretty much every language spoken in Europe, India, and parts of the Middle East. Guess what their words for mother and father were? "Mehter" and "Pehter"	[ "Mama and papa\n\nIn linguistics, mama and papa are considered a special case of false cognates. In many languages of the world, sequences of sounds similar to and mean \"mother\" and \"father\", usually but not always in that order. This is thought to be a coincidence resulting from the process of early language acquisition.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "These terms use speech sounds that are among the easiest to produce: bilabials like , , and , and the open vowel . They are, therefore, often among the first word-like sounds made by babbling babies (babble words), and parents tend to associate the first sound babies make with themselves and to employ them subsequently as part of their baby-talk lexicon. Thus, there is no need to ascribe to common ancestry the similarities of !Kung \"ba\", Aramaic \"abba\", Mandarin Chinese \"bàba\", and Persian \"baba\" (all \"father\"); or Navajo \"amá\", Mandarin Chinese \"māma\", Swahili \"mama\", Quechua \"mama\", and Polish \"mama\" (all \"mother\"). For the same reason, some scientists believe that 'mama' and 'papa' were among the first words that humans spoke. However, there is nothing of motherhood or fatherhood inherent in the sounds.\n", "The linguist Roman Jakobson hypothesized that the nasal sound in \"mama\" comes from the nasal murmur that babies produce when breastfeeding:\n\nSection::::Variants.\n", "Variants using other sounds do occur: for example, in Fijian, the word for \"mother\" is \"nana\", the Turkish word is \"ana\", and in Old Japanese, the word for \"mother\" was \"papa\". The modern Japanese word for \"father\", \"chichi\", is from older \"titi\". Very few languages lack labial consonants (this mostly being attested on a family basis, in the Iroquoian and some of the Athabaskan languages), and only Arapaho is known to lack an open vowel /a/. The Tagalog \"-na-\" / \"-ta-\" (\"mom\" / \"dad\" words) parallel the more common \"ma\" / \"pa\" in nasality / orality of the consonants and identity of place of articulation.\n", "Section::::Speculative scenarios.:Twentieth century speculations.:Scenarios involving mother-infant interactions.:Was \"mama\" the first word?\n", "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Language.\n\nIn languages around the world, the word for \"mother\" is something like \"mama\". The linguist Roman Jakobson hypothesized that the nasal sound in \"mama\" comes from the nasal murmur that babies produce when breastfeeding.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Financial considerations.\n\nBreastfeeding is less costly than alternatives, but the mother generally must eat more food than she would otherwise. In the US, the extra money spent on food (about US$ each week) is usually about half as much money as the cost of infant formula.\n", "(b) ta-sawis-anãʔã hiksamañ-ta-latʰa-Ø-wa.\n\n PS1-grandchild-PL long.for-O1-S3-PRS-DECL.\n\n \"I miss my grandchildren.\"\n\n hãi nalik-ka-hensoʔ na-naʔ-Ø-wa.\n\n PN3 remember-OBL-ALWAYS COP-S1-PRS-DECL.\n\n \"I remember (about) them all the time.\"\n\nSection::::Morphology.:Noun Classifiers.\n", " child-PL\n\n\" children\"'\n\n(b) ta-sawis-anãʔã hiksamañ-ta-latʰa-Ø-wa.\n\n PS1-grandchild-PL long.for-O1-S3-PRS-DECL.\n\n\" I miss my grandchildren.\"\n\n hãi nalik-ka-hensoʔ na-naʔ-Ø-wa.\n\n PN3 remember-OBL-ALWAYS COP-S1-PRS-DECL.\n\n\" I remember (about) them all the time.\"\n\n(c) hãi-nãʔã na-set-sa̰ takoʔtakon-latʰa-Ø-wa.\n\n PN3-PL PS3-speak-NCL.SPEECH crooked-S3-PRS-DECL\n\n \"All of them, their speech, it is crooked.\"\n", "The adjective \"maternal\" refers to a mother and comparatively to \"paternal\" for a father. The verb \"to mother\" means to procreate or to sire a child from which also derives the noun \"mothering\". Related terms of endearment are \"mom\" (\"mama\", \"mommy\"), \"mum\", \"mumsy\", mamacita (\"ma\", \"mam\") and \"mammy\". A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a \"mother-figure\".\n\nSection::::Biological mother.\n", "At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers.\n\nMany contemporary movies portray mothers.\n\nSection::::Synonyms and translations.\n\nThe proverbial \"first word\" of an infant often sounds like \"ma\" or \"mama\". This strong association of that sound with \"mother\" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language.\n\nFamiliar or colloquial terms for \"mother\" in English are:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ma\"(মা), \"Amma\" (আম্মা), \"Ammu\" (আম্মু) used in Bangladesh\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aama\", \"Mata\" used in Nepal\n", "The voiceless labial–velar stop is found in Vietnamese and various languages in West and Central Africa. In Yoruba it is written with a simple .\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nFeatures of the voiceless labial–velar stop:\n\nSection::::Rounded variant.\n\nSome languages, especially in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu, combine this voiceless labial–velar stop with a labial–velar approximant release, hence . Thus Mwotlap (Banks Islands, north Vanuatu) has ('my father-in-law').\n\nIn the Banks Islands languages which have it, the phoneme is written in local orthographies.\n\nIn other languages of Vanuatu further south (such as South Efate, or Lenakel), the same segment is spelled .\n", "BULLET::::- Mammes of Caesarea or Mammas (259–275), semi-legendary child-martyr of the 3rd century\n\nBULLET::::- Mami (goddess) or Mama, a goddess in the Babylonian epic Atra-Hasis\n\nBULLET::::- Ninhursag or Mamma, a Sumerian earth goddess\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Mama and papa, in linguistics, the sequences of sounds corresponding to the words for \"mother\" and \"father\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mama or sugar mama, a term for an age disparity in sexual relationships in which the older partner takes care of the younger, usually financially\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mama\" (wasp), a genus of wasps in the tribe Euphorini\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- La Mama (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Baby mama (disambiguation)\n", "Section::::History.:Language Family.\n", "Section::::History.:Work on Nambikwara.\n", "The words 'ma ma' and 'mom', usually regarded as terms of endearment directed towards a mother figure, are generally one of the first words a child speaks. While 'da da' or 'dad' often precede it, this does not reflect a stronger bond between the father and child than that of the mother and child, it is merely simpler to pronounce than 'mummy' or 'mum' which require greater control over the mouth muscles. Children tend to remember 'daddy' more because, according to research, they are more exciting to the child.\n\nSection::::Sociology of fatherhood.:Contemporary theories.\n", "IsiZulu, spoken in South Africa by the Zulu people, distinguishes between maternal and paternal uncles and aunts. Paternal uncles (father's brothers) are designated as 'fathers' where 'baba omkhulu' (meaning 'great father') designates brothers older than the father, and 'baba omncane' meaning 'small father' designates brothers younger than the father. The archaic 'babekazi' meaning 'female father' or the modern 'Anti' borrowed from the English 'aunt' is used for the father's sisters. Likewise, the mother's sisters are also 'mothers' with the mother's older sisters designated as 'mama omkhulu' (meaning 'great mother') and the mother's younger sisters designated as 'mama omncane' (meaning 'small mother'). The mother's brother is called 'malume'- which is the translation of the usual English uncle and is the one used conventionally as in English- to apply to older family friends, respected older males or male peers of the parents. In Zulu culture, a child of the father's brothers or the mother's sisters is 'brother' (or 'mfowethu') or 'sister' (or 'dadewethu') since their parent is a 'father' or 'mother'. 'Mzala' (cousin) is applied to children of one's mother's brother or father's sister.\n", "Baby mama\n\nA baby mama (also baby-mama and baby-mother) is a mother who is not married to her child's father, although the term is often infused with other meanings as well.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "Section::::History.:Work on Mamaindê.\n", "Section::::Phonology.:Vowels.\n\nMamaindê has 20 vowels:\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Consonants.\n\nMamaindê has 33 consonants:\n\nSection::::Morphology.\n", "The term is a combination of the English word \"Mama\" and the Japanese suffix \"-san\" which is a polite honorific attached to a person's name or title, coined by U.S. soldiers in Japan after World War II. This probably has had some influence in its spread to other Southeast Asian countries.\n\nThe term \"mama-san\" in Japanese is not a polite reference to a mother and should never be used as such. Most Japanese children today call their mother \"mama\", but the term does not persist into adulthood. The way to refer to one's mother, in Japanese, is \"okaa-san\".\n", "On the one hand, two utterances \"For Mama!\" and \"For Papa!\" could thus be modelled with the same target points (hence the same macromelodic component) while \"For Mama?\" and \"For Papa?\" would also have the same target points but which would probably be different from those of the first pair.\n\nOn the other hand, the utterances \"For Mama!\" and \"For Mama?\" could be modelled with the same micromelodic profile but with different target point, while \"For Papa!\" and \"For Papa?\" would also have the same micromelodic profile but which would be different from those of the first pair.\n", "When Crazy Horse was a baby, he nursed at the breast of every woman in the tribe. The Sioux raised their children that way. Every warrior called every woman in the tribe \"Mother\". Every older warrior, they called him \"Grandfather\". \n\nSection::::Strategic reasons for milk kinship.\n", "The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children. Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation. The way mothers speak to their children (\"motherese\") is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers.\n", "These ideas might be linked to those of the renowned structural linguist Roman Jakobson, who claimed that \"the sucking activities of the child are accompanied by a slight nasal murmur, the only phonation to be produced when the lips are pressed to the mother's breast ... and the mouth is full\". He proposed that later in the infant's development, \"this phonatory reaction to nursing is reproduced as an anticipatory signal at the mere sight of food and finally as a manifestation of a desire to eat, or more generally, as an expression of discontent and impatient longing for missing food or absent nurser, and any ungranted wish.\" So, the action of opening and shutting the mouth, combined with the production of a nasal sound when the lips are closed, yielded the sound sequence \"Mama\", which may therefore count as the very first word. Peter MacNeilage sympathetically discusses this theory in his major book, The \"Origin of Speech\", linking it with Dean Falk's \"putting the baby down\" theory (see above). Needless to say, other scholars have suggested completely different candidates for \"Homo sapiens\"' very first word.\n", "Call Mama\n\nKalem Mama (\"Call Mama\") is a 2003 Egyptian romantic comedy film written by Mostafa El Sobki and directed by Ahmad Awwadh.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03136	Why does vegetable oil work as a substitute for traditional fuel in a diesel engine?	Diesel engines work by compression ignition; you add a small amount of hydrocarbon fuel during compression, it eventually combusts and the energy of combustion raises the pressure and drives the piston downwards, producing power. However, this autoignition isn't a magical property unique to diesel fuel; every hydrocarbon will autoignite at some temperature, and it just so happens that vegetable oils have similar energy contents, viscosities, and autoignition temperatures to standard ultra-low sulfur diesel. That being said, you typically want to run the vegetable oil through what's known as a transesterification process to lower the viscosity and make the fuel a little more stable, and help with cold-starting the engine. You add either ethanol or methanol to the oil, along with bases like soda ash or lye to keep the acidity down, and then mix it to produce fatty-acid ethyl/methyl esters (so, FAEE or FAME), along with glycerol that must be removed during processing. The FAEE and FAME products are known more popularly as biodiesel.	[ "The list of vegetable oils article discusses which types of vegetable oil are used for fuel and where different types are grown.\n\nSection::::Transportation.\n\nVegetable oil is used for transportation in four different ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable oil blends - Mixing vegetable oil with diesel lets users get some of the advantages of burning vegetable oil and is often done with no modification to the vehicle.\n\nBULLET::::- Biodiesel - If vegetable oil is transesterified it becomes biodiesel. Biodiesel burns like normal diesel and works fine in any diesel engine. The name just indicates that the fuel came from vegetable oil.\n", "Most diesel car engines are suitable for the use of straight vegetable oil (SVO), also commonly called pure plant oil (PPO), with certain modifications. Principally, the viscosity and surface tension of the SVO/PPO must be reduced by preheating it, typically by using waste heat from the engine or electricity, otherwise poor atomization, incomplete combustion and carbonization may result. One common solution is to add a heat exchanger and an additional fuel tank for the petrodiesel or biodiesel blend and to switch between this additional tank and the main tank of SVO/PPO. The engine is started on diesel, switched over to vegetable oil as soon as it is warmed up and switched back to diesel shortly before being switched off to ensure that no vegetable oil remains in the engine or fuel lines when it is started from cold again. In colder climates it is often necessary to heat the vegetable oil fuel lines and tank as it can become very viscous and even solidify.\n", "Vegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel engines that do not use common rail or unit injection electronic diesel injection systems. Due to the design of the combustion chambers in indirect injection engines, these are the best engines for use with vegetable oil. This system allows the relatively larger oil molecules more time to burn. Some older engines, especially Mercedes, are driven experimentally by enthusiasts without any conversion, a handful of drivers have experienced limited success with earlier pre-\"Pumpe Duse\" VW TDI engines and other similar engines with direct injection. Several companies, such as Elsbett or Wolf, have developed professional conversion kits and successfully installed hundreds of them over the last decades.\n", "Section::::Application and usability.:Home heating.:Combined heat and power.\n\nA number of companies offer compressed ignition engine generators optimized to run on plant oils where the waste engine heat is recovered for heating.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n", "Section::::Types.:Straight vegetable oil.\n\nStraight unmodified edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower-quality oil has been used for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and then used as a fuel.\n", "Other methods, like nuclear power, fusion power, wind power and solar power, may provide cheaper electricity, so vegetable oil may only be used in peaking power plants and small power plants, as diesel is limited to today. There is at least one 5 MW power plant that runs on biodiesel. MAN B&W Diesel, Wärtsilä and other companies produce engines suitable for power generation that can be fueled with pure plant oils.\n\nSection::::Market, cost, price, and taxes.\n", "As with 100% biodiesel (B100), to ensure the fuel injectors atomize the vegetable oil in the correct pattern for efficient combustion, vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce its viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils or heat exchangers. This is easier in warm or temperate climates. MAN B&W Diesel, Wärtsilä, and Deutz AG, as well as a number of smaller companies, such as Elsbett, offer engines that are compatible with straight vegetable oil, without the need for after-market modifications.\n", "Despite the widespread use of petroleum-derived diesel fuels, interest in vegetable oils as fuels for internal combustion engines was reported in several countries during the 1920s and 1930s and later during World War II. Belgium, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Germany, Brazil, Argentina, Japan and China were reported to have tested and used vegetable oils as diesel fuels during this time. Some operational problems were reported due to the high viscosity of vegetable oils compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which results in poor atomization of the fuel in the fuel spray and often leads to deposits and coking of the injectors, combustion chamber and valves. Attempts to overcome these problems included heating of the vegetable oil, blending it with petroleum-derived diesel fuel or ethanol, pyrolysis and cracking of the oils.\n", "Section::::Application and usability.:Unmodified indirect injection engines.\n", "Vegetable oils as alternative energy\n\nVegetable oils are increasingly used as a substitute for fossil fuels. Vegetable oils are the basis of biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles, but straight vegetable oil needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity and surface tension. Another alternative is vegetable oil refining.\n\nThe availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing, although still tiny compared to conventional fossil fuel sources. There is significant research in algaculture methods to make biofuel from algae.\n", "Vegetable oil can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. When vegetable oil is used directly as a fuel, in either modified or unmodified equipment, it is referred to as straight vegetable oil (SVO) or pure plant oil (PPO). Conventional diesel engines can be modified to help ensure that the viscosity of the vegetable oil is low enough to allow proper atomization of the fuel. This prevents incomplete combustion, which would damage the engine by causing a build-up of carbon. Straight vegetable oil can also be blended with conventional diesel or processed into biodiesel or bioliquids for use under a wider range of conditions.\n", "Rudolf Diesel was the father of the engine which bears his name. His first attempts were to design an engine to run on coal dust, but later designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers having a source of fuel readily available. In a 1912 presentation to the British Institute of Mechanical Engineers, he cited a number of efforts in this area and remarked, \"The fact that fat oils from vegetable sources can be used may seem insignificant today, but such oils may perhaps become in course of time of the same importance as some natural mineral oils and the tar products are now.\"\n", "Plants use sunlight and photosynthesis to take carbon dioxide (CO) out of the Earth's atmosphere to make vegetable oil. The same CO is then put back after it is burned in an engine. Thus vegetable oil does not increase the CO in the atmosphere, and does not directly contribute to the problem of greenhouse gas. It is really a way of catching and storing solar energy; it is a renewable energy.\n\nHowever, as with other \"renewable\" energy sources, there may be a (relatively small) carbon footprint associated with production or distribution of vegetable oil.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "The transition can start with biodiesel, vegetable oil refining, and vegetable oil blends, since these technologies do not require the capital outlay of converting an engine to run on vegetable oils. Because it costs to convert vegetable oil into biodiesel it is expected that vegetable oil will always be cheaper than biodiesel. After there are production cars that can use straight vegetable oil and a standard type available at gas stations, consumers will probably choose straight vegetable oil to save money. So the transition to vegetable oil can happen gradually.\n\nSection::::Electricity generation.\n", "Vegetable oil is far less toxic than other fuels such as gasoline, petroleum-based diesel, ethanol, or methanol, and has a much higher flash point (approximately 275-290 °C). The higher flash point reduces the risk of accidental ignition. Some types of vegetable oil are edible.\n\nSection::::Generation and storage.\n", ", the United States was producing in excess of 11 billion liters (2.9 billion U.S. gallons) of recycled vegetable oil annually, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants. If all those 11 billion liters could be recycled and used to replace the energy equivalent amount of petroleum (an ideal case), almost 1% of US oil consumption could be offset. Utilizing recycled vegetable oil as a replacement for standard petroleum-derived fuels like gasoline would reduce the price of gasoline by preserving the supply of petroleum.\n\nSection::::Availability.:Virgin vegetable oil.\n", "There is concern that the current growing demand for vegetable oil is causing deforestation, with old forests being replaced with oil palms. When land is cleared it is often burned, which releases large amounts of the greenhouse gas CO. Vegetable oil production would have to increase substantially to replace gasoline and diesel. With current technology such an increase in production would have a substantial environmental impact.\n\nSection::::Food vs fuel debate.\n", "Some Diesel-powered cars can run with minor modifications on 100% pure vegetable oils. Vegetable oils tend to thicken (or solidify if it is waste cooking oil), in cold weather conditions so vehicle modifications (a two tank system with diesel start/stop tank), are essential in order to heat the fuel prior to use under most circumstances. Heating to the temperature of engine coolant reduces fuel viscosity, to the range cited by injection system manufacturers, for systems prior to 'common rail' or 'unit injection ( VW PD)' systems. Waste vegetable oil, especially if it has been used for a long time, may become hydrogenated and have increased acidity. This can cause the thickening of fuel, gumming in the engine and acid damage of the fuel system. Biodiesel does not have this problem, because it is chemically processed to be PH neutral and lower viscosity. Modern low emission diesels (most often Euro -3 and -4 compliant), typical of the current production in the European industry, would require extensive modification of injector system, pumps and seals etc. due to the higher operating pressures, that are designed thinner (heated) mineral diesel than ever before, for atomisation, if they were to use pure vegetable oil as fuel. Vegetable oil fuel is not suitable for these vehicles as they are currently produced. This reduces the market as increasing numbers of new vehicles are not able to use it. However, the German Elsbett company has successfully produced single tank vegetable oil fuel systems for several decades, and has worked with Volkswagen on their TDI engines. This shows that it is technologically possible to use vegetable oil as a fuel in high efficiency / low emission diesel engines.\n", "Since vegetable oil (even as biodiesel) does not contribute to greenhouse gas, governments may tax it much less than gasoline as they have done with ethanol.\n\nThis would help them reach Kyoto protocol targets.\n\nSection::::Production in sufficient quantity.\n", "BULLET::::- Straight vegetable oil - Straight vegetable oil works in diesel engines if it is heated first. Some diesel engines already heat their fuel, others need a small electric heater on the fuel line. How well it works depends on the heating system, the engine, the type of vegetable oil (thinner is easier), and the climate (warmer is easier). Some data is available on results users are seeing. As vegetable oil has become more popular as a fuel, engines are being designed to handle it better. The Elsbett engine is designed to run on straight vegetable oil. However, as of the start of 2007, it seems that there are not any production vehicles warrantied for burning straight vegetable oil, although Deutz offer a tractor and John Deere are known to be in late stages of engine development. There is a German rapeseed oil fuel standard DIN 51605. At this point straight vegetable oil is only a niche market although the market segment in Germany is rapidly growing with large haulage vehicle fleets adopting the fuel, largely for economic reasons. A growing number of decentralised oil mills provide a large part of this fuel.\n", "When liquid fuels made from biomass are used for energy purposes other than transport, they are called bioliquids or biofuels.\n", "It is often reported that Diesel designed his engine to run on peanut oil, but this is not the case. Diesel stated in his published papers, \"at the Paris Exhibition in 1900 (\"Exposition Universelle\") there was shown by the Otto Company a small Diesel engine, which, at the request of the French government ran on arachide (earth-nut or pea-nut) oil (see biodiesel), and worked so smoothly that only a few people were aware of it. The engine was constructed for using mineral oil, and was then worked on vegetable oil without any alterations being made. The French Government at the time thought of testing the applicability to power production of the Arachide, or earth-nut, which grows in considerable quantities in their African colonies, and can easily be cultivated there.\" Diesel himself later conducted related tests and appeared supportive of the idea. In a 1912 speech Diesel said, \"the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today but such oils may become, in the course of time, as important as petroleum and the coal-tar products of the present time.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Vegetable oil refining - Vegetable oil can be used as feedstock for an oil refinery. There it can be transformed into fuel by hydrocracking (which breaks big molecules into smaller ones using hydrogen) or hydrogenation (which adds hydrogen to molecules). These methods can produce gasoline, diesel, or propane. Some commercial examples of vegetable oil refining are NExBTL, H-Bio, and the ConocoPhilips Process.\n", "Virgin vegetable oil, also termed pure plant oil or straight vegetable oil, is extracted from plants solely for use as fuel. In contrast to used vegetable oil, is not a byproduct of other industries, and thus its prospects for use as fuel are not limited by the capacities of other industries. Production of vegetable oils for use as fuels is theoretically limited only by the agricultural capacity of a given economy. However, doing so detracts from the supply of other uses of pure vegetable oil.\n\nSection::::Legal implications.\n\nSection::::Legal implications.:Taxation of fuel.\n", "Section::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12779	why do images of things on a microscopic level not have color?	You are probably referring to electron microscope images which are taken with electron bombardment rather that visible light; indeed some of the structures may be too small to image with visible light because the wavelength is too large. Under such circumstances there is no color in the resulting image because color has no meaning.	[ "Artwork consists of many pigments with a wide range of spectral absorption properties, which determine their color. Due to the broad spectral features of these pigments, the identification of a specific pigment in a mixture is difficult. Pump-probe imaging can provide accurate, high resolution, molecular information and distinguish between pigments that may even have the same visual color.\n", "Section::::Types.:Color.\n\nIn their most common configurations, electron microscopes produce images with a single brightness value per pixel, with the results usually rendered in grayscale. However, often these images are then colorized through the use of feature-detection software, or simply by hand-editing using a graphics editor. This may be done to clarify structure or for aesthetic effect and generally does not add new information about the specimen.\n", "Section::::Analysis.\n\nAnalysis of images will vary considerably according to application. Typical analysis includes determining where the edges of an object are, counting similar objects, calculating the area, perimeter length and other useful measurements of each object. A common approach is to create an image mask which only includes pixels that match certain criteria, then perform simpler scanning operations on the resulting mask. It is also possible to label objects and track their motion over a series of frames in a video sequence.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Image processing\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Jan-Mark Geusebroek, Color and Geometrical Structure in Images, Applications in Microscopy,\n", "The easiest way to get color is to associate to this single number an arbitrary color, using a color look-up table (i.e. each grey level is replaced by a chosen color). This method is known as false color. On a BSE image, false color may be performed to better distinguish the various phases of the sample.\n\nBULLET::::- On textured-surface images:\n", "Additionally, methods such as electron or X-ray microscopy use a vacuum or partial vacuum, which limits their use for live and biological samples (with the exception of an environmental scanning electron microscope). The specimen chambers needed for all such instruments also limits sample size, and sample manipulation is more difficult. Color cannot be seen in images made by these methods, so some information is lost. They are however, essential when investigating molecular or atomic effects, such as age hardening in aluminium alloys, or the microstructure of polymers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Digital microscope\n\nBULLET::::- Köhler illumination\n\nBULLET::::- Microscope slide\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Coloring may be performed manually with photo-editing software, or semi-automatically with dedicated software using feature-detection or object-oriented segmentation.\n\nSection::::Color in SEM.:Color built using multiple electron detectors.\n\nIn some configurations more information is gathered per pixel, often by the use of multiple detectors.\n", "When using a light microscope, unlike the case of fluorescent imaging, images are typically acquired using standard color camera-systems. This reflects partially the history of the field, where humans were often interpreting the images, but also the fact that the sample can be illuminated with white light and all light collected rather than having to excite fluorophores. When more than one dye is used, a necessary preprocessing step is to unmix the channels and recover an estimate of the pure dye-specific intensities.\n\nIt has been shown that the subcellular location of stained proteins can be identified from histology images.\n", "Electron microscopes do not naturally produce color images, as an SEM produces a single value per pixel; this value corresponds to the number of electrons received by the detector during a small period of time of the scanning when the beam is targeted to the (x, y) pixel position.\n\nThis single number is usually represented, for each pixel, by a grey level, forming a \"black-and-white\" image. However, several ways have been used to get color electron microscopy images.\n\nSection::::Color in SEM.:False color using a single detector.\n\nBULLET::::- On compositional images of flat surfaces (typically BSE):\n", "Because of its very small size, picoplankton is difficult to study by classic methods such as optical microscopy. More sophisticated methods are needed.\n\nBULLET::::- Epifluorescence microscopy allows researchers to detect certain groups of cells possessing fluorescent pigments such as \"Synechococcus\" which possess phycoerythrin.\n", "Perception\n\nColor images can be perceived via two means. In the case of computer vision the light incident on the sensor comprises the image. In the case of visual perception, the human eye has a color dependent response to light so this must be accounted for. This is important consideration when converting to grayscale.\n\nImage Formation in Eye\n", "The Hunt color appearance model focuses on color image reproduction (its creator worked in the Kodak Research Laboratories). Development already started in the 1980s and by 1995 the model had become very complex (including features no other color appearance model offers, such as incorporating rod cell responses) and allowed to predict a wide range of visual phenomena. It had a very significant impact on CIECAM02, but because of its complexity the Hunt model itself is difficult to use.\n\nSection::::Color appearance models.:RLAB.\n", "The result of a metameric failure would be for example an image of a green tree which shows a different shade of green than the tree itself, a different shade of red for a red apple, a different shade of blue for the blue sky, and so on. Color management (e.g. with ICC profiles) can be used to mitigate this problem within the physical constraints.\n", "Most modern instruments provide simple solutions for micro-photography and image recording electronically. However such capabilities are not always present and the more experienced microscopist will, in many cases, still prefer a hand drawn image to a photograph. This is because a microscopist with knowledge of the subject can accurately convert a three-dimensional image into a precise two-dimensional drawing. In a photograph or other image capture system however, only one thin plane is ever in good focus.\n", "Image processing for microscopy application begins with fundamental techniques intended to most accurately reproduce the information contained in the microscopic sample. This might include adjusting the brightness and contrast of the image, averaging images to reduce image noise and correcting for illumination non-uniformities. Such processing involves only basic arithmetic operations between images (i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). The vast majority of processing done on microscope image is of this nature.\n", "Section::::Image acquisition methods.:Static imaging particle analysis.\n\nStatic image acquisition is the most common form. Almost all microscopes can be easily adapted to accept a digital camera via a C mount adaptor. This type of set-up is often referred to as a digital microscope, although many systems using that name are used only for displaying an image on a monitor.\n", "Approximate true-color images gathered by spacecraft are an example where images have a certain amount of metameric failure, as the spectral bands of a spacecraft's camera are chosen to gather information on the physical properties of the object under investigation, and are not chosen to capture true-color images.\n\nSection::::Types of color renderings.:False color.\n", "In microscopy, an artifact is an apparent structural detail that is caused by the processing of the specimen and is thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen. In light microscopy, arteficts may be produced by air bubbles trapped under the slide's cover slip.\n\nIn electron microscopy, distortions may be produced in the drying out of the specimen. Staining can cause the appearance of solid chemical deposits that may be seen as structures inside the cell. Different techniques including freeze-fracturing and cell fractionation may be used to overcome the problems of artifacts.\n", "Special high-resolution coating techniques are required for high-magnification imaging of inorganic thin films.\n\nSection::::Scanning process and image formation.\n", "Even in RAW format, however, the sensor and the camera's dynamics can only capture colors within the gamut supported by the hardware. When that image is transferred for reproduction on any device, the widest achievable gamut is the gamut that the end device supports. For a monitor, it is the gamut of the display device. For a photographic print, it is the gamut of the device that prints the image on a specific type of paper. Color gamut or Color space is an abstract term that describes an area where points of color fit in a three-dimensional space.\n", "Moreover, one must also consider the temporal resolution requirements of the application. A lower resolution detector will often have a significantly higher acquisition rate, permitting the observation of faster events. Conversely, if the observed object is motionless, one may wish to acquire images at the highest possible spatial resolution without regard to the time required to acquire a single image.\n\nSection::::2D image techniques.\n", "Only in the past two years have molecules been used in nanoscopic studies which emit the same spectral light frequency (but with different spectral signatures based on the flashing characteristics) but which can be switched on and off by means of light as is necessary for spectral precision distance microscopy. By combining many thousands of images of the same cell, it was possible using laser optical precision measurements to record localization images with significantly improved optical resolution. The application of these novel nanoscopy processes appeared until recently very difficult because it was assumed that only specially manufactured molecules could be switched on and off in a suitable manner by using light.\n", "Also the printing industry is affected by metamerism. Inkjet printers do the mixing of colors under a specific light source, resulting in a modified appearance of original and copy under different light sources. One way to minimize metamerism in printing is by first measuring the spectral reflectance of an object or reproduction using a color measurement device. Then, one selects a set of ink compositions corresponding to the color reflectance factor, which are used by the inkjet printer for the reproduction. The process is repeated until original and reproduction present an acceptable degree of metamerism. Sometimes, however, one reaches the conclusion that an improved match is not possible with the materials available either due to gamut limitations or colorimetric properties.\n", "Monochrome images which have been \"colorized\" by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are \"colored photographs\", not \"color photographs\". Their colors are not dependent on the actual colors of the objects photographed and may be inaccurate.\n", "Today, acquisition is usually done using a CCD camera mounted in the optical path of the microscope. The camera may be full colour or monochrome. Very often, very high resolution cameras are employed to gain as much direct information as possible. Cryogenic cooling is also common, to minimise noise. Often digital cameras used for this application provide pixel intensity data to a resolution of 12-16 bits, much higher than is used in consumer imaging products.\n", "[[Subtractive color]]ing uses dyes, inks, pigments, or filters to absorb some wavelengths of light and not others. The color that a surface displays comes from the parts of the visible spectrum that are not absorbed and therefore remain visible. Without pigments or dye, fabric fibers, paint base and paper are usually made of particles that scatter white light (all colors) well in all directions. When a pigment or ink is added, wavelengths are absorbed or \"subtracted\" from white light, so light of another color reaches the eye.\n" ]	[ "Microscope images do not have color." ]	[ "Only electron microscopes don't have color because it doesn't use visible light. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Microscope images do not have color." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only electron microscopes don't have color because it doesn't use visible light. " ]
2018-17343	How does your body create suction to suck up liquids?	The same way you suck in air. The basic key to it is that pressure always wants to equalize. If you have a higher pressure in one place, and a lower pressure in another, air will move to try and make that equal. Inside your chest, there's a sealed cavity in which your lungs sit. You have a big muscle at the bottom of that cavity called the diaphragm. When you inhale, what you're actually doing is moving that diaphragm muscle downwards. What that does is make that cavity larger. Because it's a fixed amount of air inside there, increasing the space that air occupies reduces the pressure the air is under. This causes the air pressure all around you (which is now at a greater pressure than inside your chest cavity), to rush into your mouth or nose and down into your lungs causing them to expand inside your chest cavity, and equalize the pressure in there again. What you do with a straw is very simple and very similar. You grip the straw between your lips ~~and then inhale~~ and you lower your jaw. That reduces the air pressure inside your mouth, much like lowering the diaphragm lowers the pressure in your chest cavity, which then reduces the pressure in the straw. Atmospheric pressure which is pushing down on the surface of the drink now has an advantage against the pressure in your mouth, and forces the liquid up the straw to attempt to compensate. Edited in response to a correction	[ "Suction feeding is a method of ingesting a prey item in fluids by sucking the prey into the predator's mouth. This is typically accomplished by the predator expanding the volume of its oral cavity and/or throat, resulting in a pressure difference between the inside of the mouth and the outside environment. When the mouth is opened, the pressure difference causes water to flow into the predator's mouth, carrying the prey item in with the fluid flow. \n", "When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid to the stomach; much of the activity is abetted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be performed by acts of inhalation, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a spoon. Infants employ a method of suction wherein the lips are pressed tight around a source, as in breastfeeding: a combination of breath and tongue movement creates a vacuum which draws in liquid. \n", "Suction cup\n\nA suction cup, also known as a sucker, is a device or object that uses the negative fluid pressure of air or water to adhere to nonporous surfaces, creating a partial vacuum.\n\nSuction cups are peripherial traits of some animals such as octopuses and squids, and have been reproduced artificially for numerous purposes.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "BULLET::::2. No air leaks into the gap between the cup and the surface.\n\nBULLET::::3. The pulling force is applied perpendicular to the surface so that the cup does not slide sideways or peel off.\n\nSection::::Artificial use.\n\nArtificial suction cups are believed to have first been used in the third century, B.C., and were made out of gourds. They were used to suction \"bad blood\" from internal organs to the surface. Hippocrates is believed to have invented this procedure.\n", "Most underwater predators combine more than one of these basic principles. For example, a typical generalized predator, such as the cod, combines suction with some amount of protrusion and pivot feeding.\n\nSection::::Suction feeding.\n", "Wangensteen suction\n\nA Wangensteen suction apparatus is a modified siphon that maintains constant negative pressure. Used on a duodenal tube, it relieves gastric and intestinal distention caused by the retention of fluid. It was first created by Owen Harding Wangensteen (1898–1981), the Chief of Surgery at the University of Minnesota. His novel approach to the most important cause of death during gastrointestinal surgery has since been credited with saving more than one hundred thousand lives.\n", "Oncotic pressure, or colloid osmotic pressure, is a form of osmotic pressure induced by proteins, notably albumin, in a blood vessel's plasma (blood/liquid) that displaces water molecules, thus creating a relative water molecule deficit with water molecules moving back into the circulatory system within the lower pressure venous end of capillaries. It has the opposing effect of both hydrostatic blood pressure pushing water and small molecules out of the blood into the interstitial spaces within the arterial end of capillaries and interstitial colloidal osmotic pressure. These interacting factors determine the partition balancing of total body extracellular water between the blood plasma and the larger extracellular water volume outside the blood stream.\n", "Though suction feeding can be seen across fish species, those with more derived characteristics show an increase in the suction force as a result of more complex skull linkages that allow greater expansion of the buccal cavity and thereby create a greater negative pressure. Most commonly, this is achieved by increasing the lateral expansion of the skull. In addition, the derived trait of upper jaw protrusion is acknowledged to increase the force exerted on the prey to be engulfed. Perhaps the best examples of these derived traits belong to fishes in the teleostei clade. However, a common misconception of these fishes is that suction feeding is the only or primary method employed. In \"Micropterus salmoides\" ram feeding is the primary method for prey capture; however, they can modulate between the two methods or use both as with many teleosts. Also, it is commonly thought that fishes belonging to more primitive clades exhibit suction feeding. Although suction may be created upon the mouth opening in such fishes, the criteria for suction feeding includes little or no bodily movement towards their prey. \n", "Again in 2011, Richert and Binder (at the University of Hawaii) examined the siphon and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but relies upon gravity and a pressure differential, writing: \"As the fluid initially primed on the long leg of the siphon rushes down due to gravity, it leaves behind a partial vacuum that allows pressure on the entrance point of the higher container to push fluid up the leg on that side\".\n", "Suction (medicine)\n\nIn medicine, devices are sometimes necessary to create suction. Suction may be used to clear the airway of blood, saliva, vomit, or other secretions so that a patient may breathe. Suctioning can prevent pulmonary aspiration, which can lead to lung infections. In pulmonary hygiene, suction is used to remove fluids from the airways, to facilitate breathing and prevent growth of microorganisms.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Microfluidics.:Examples.\n", "Back-siphonage occurs when higher pressure fluids, gases, or suspended solids move to an area of lower pressure fluids. For example, when a drinking straw is used to consume a beverage, suction reduces the pressure of fluid inside the straw, causing liquid to move from the cup to inside the straw and then into the drinker's mouth. A significant drop of pressure in a water delivery system creates a similar suction, \"pulling\" possibly undesirable material into the system. This is an example of an indirect cross-connection.\n", "Contraction of the ampullae causes the podia to stretch as water is brought into them. This whole process allows for movement, and is quite powerful but extremely slow.\n", "Section::::Vacuum siphons.\n\nExperiments have shown that siphons can operate in a vacuum, via cohesion and tensile strength between molecules, provided that the liquids are pure and degassed and surfaces are very clean.\n\nSection::::\"Oxford English Dictionary\".\n", "For movement, the individual will extend and contract with a mixture of muscle movement and water (hydraulic) pressure. The hydraulic pressure is created inside the digestive cavity. Tiny cells line the digestive system that have flagellea, this creates a current to draw water into the digestive cavity. This can extend the length of the body column. \n\nSection::::Movement.\n", "The large majority of oncotic pressure in capillaries is generated by the presence of high quantities of albumin, a protein that constitutes approximately 80% of the total oncotic pressure exerted by blood plasma on interstitial fluid. The total oncotic pressure of an average capillary is about 28 mmHg with albumin contributing approximately 22 mmHg of this oncotic pressure. Because blood proteins cannot escape through capillary endothelium, oncotic pressure of capillary beds tends to draw water into the vessels. It is necessary to understand the oncotic pressure as a balance; because the blood proteins reduce interior permeability, less plasma fluid can exit the vessel. \n", "The second mechanism of capillary exchange is bulk flow. It is used by small, lipid-insoluble substances in order to cross. This movement depends on the physical characteristics of the capillaries. For example, continuous capillaries (tight structure) reduce bulk flow, fenestrated capillaries (perforated structure) increases bulk flow, and discontinuous capillaries (great intercellular gaps) enable bulk flow. In this case, the exchange of materials is determined by changes in pressure. When the flow of substances goes from the bloodstream or the capillary to the interstitial space or interstitium, the process is called filtration. This kind of movement is favored by blood hydrostatic pressure (BHP) and interstitial fluid osmotic pressure (IFOP). When substances move from the interstitial fluid to the blood in capillaries, the process is called reabsorption. The pressures that favor this movement are blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) and interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (IFHP). Whether a substance is filtrated or reabsorbed depends on the net filtration pressure (NFP), which is the difference between hydrostatic (BHP and IFHP) and osmotic pressures (IFOP and BCOP). These pressures are known as the Starling forces. If the NFP is positive then there will be filtration, but if it is negative then reabsorption will occur.\n", "In 1948, Malcolm Nokes investigated siphons working in both air pressure and in a partial vacuum, for siphons in vacuum he concluded that: \"The gravitational force on the column of liquid in the downtake tube less the gravitational force in the uptake tube causes the liquid to move. The liquid is therefore in tension and sustains a longitudinal strain which, in the absence of disturbing factors, is insufficient to break the column of liquid\". But for siphons of small uptake height working at atmospheric pressure, he concluded that: \"... the tension of the liquid column is neutralized and \"reversed\" by the compressive effect of the atmosphere on the opposite ends of the liquid column.\"\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Another example of point-of-care work involving a capillary pressure-related design component is the separation of plasma from whole blood by filtration through porous membrane. Efficient and high-volume separation of plasma from whole blood is often necessary for infectious disease diagnostics, like the HIV viral load test. However, this task is often performed through centrifugation, which is limited to clinical laboratory settings. An example of this point-of-care filtration device is a packed-bed filter, which has demonstrated the ability to separate plasma and whole blood by utilizing asymmetric capillary forces within the membrane pores.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Petrochemical industry.\n", "where is the total height of the liquid column above the test area to the surface, and is the atmospheric pressure, i.e., the pressure calculated from the remaining integral over the air column from the liquid surface to infinity. This can easily be visualized using a pressure prism.\n\nHydrostatic pressure has been used in the preservation of foods in a process called pascalization.\n\nSection::::Pressure in fluids at rest.:Medicine.\n\nIn medicine, hydrostatic pressure in blood vessels is the pressure of the blood against the wall. It is the opposing force to oncotic pressure.\n\nSection::::Pressure in fluids at rest.:Atmospheric pressure.\n", "Throughout the body, dissolved compounds have an osmotic pressure. Because large plasma proteins cannot easily cross through the capillary walls, their effect on the osmotic pressure of the capillary interiors will, to some extent, balance out the tendency for fluid to leak out of the capillaries. In other words, the oncotic pressure tends to pull fluid into the capillaries. In conditions where plasma proteins are reduced, e.g. from being lost in the urine (proteinuria), there will be a reduction in oncotic pressure and an increase in filtration across the capillary, resulting in excess fluid buildup in the tissues (edema).\n", "Section::::Use in Robotics.\n\nThe self-sealing suction cups have been incorporated in robots to improve their passive grasping capabilities. Due to the design of the suction cups, a central vacuum source can be used to effectively generate suction force from the cups and reduce the number of actuators and sensors for the robot.\n", "The decreased velocity of flow in the capillaries increases the blood pressure, due to Bernoulli's principle. This induces gas and nutrients to move from the blood to the cells, due to the lower osmotic pressure outside the capillary. The opposite process occurs when the blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules, where the blood pressure drops due to an increase in flow rate. Arterioles receive autonomic nervous system innervation and respond to various circulating hormones in order to regulate their diameter. Retinal vessels lack a functional sympathetic innervation.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Stretch.\n", "Section::::In nature.:Circulatory system.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05713	How do Paleontologist and other scientists know what the skin of dinosaurs looked/felt like?	[There are fossils of dinosaur skin]( URL_0 ) and [dinosaur feathers]( URL_1 ). These offer a base from which to work, and for those species that don't have fossils of superficial features scientists don't "know" what their skin was like. Instead, they have theories about what they should have looked like considering the climate, region, and what other dinosaurs looked like in that area around that time.	[ "BULLET::::- Charles Mortram Sternberg described the fossilized skin of \"Chasmosaurus belli\". The skin was preserved as an impression of skin covering the right side of the animal's pelvic region. \"C. belli\" had skin covered in small \"nonimbricating\" polygonal scales interspersed with rows of larger rounded plates up to 5.5 cm across spaced between 5 and 10 cm across.\n\n1928\n\nBULLET::::- Tait and Barnum Brown interpreted ceratopsids as low browsers than fed on herbaceous plants.\n\n1927\n", "BULLET::::- Lull described the fossilized skin of \"Monoclonius cutleri\". The skin was preserved as an impression of skin near the far end of the animal's thigh. The skin of \"M. cutleri\" was similar to that of \"Chasmosaurus belli\", which had skin covered in small \"nonimbricating\" polygonal scales interspersed with rows of larger rounded plates up to 5.5 cm across. The larger plate-like scales of \"M. cutleri\", however, were more widely spaced than the 5–10 cm intervals seen in \"C. belli\".\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Facial sensory system.\n\nBased on comparisons of bone texture of \"Daspletosaurus\" with extant crocodilians, a detailed study in 2017 by Thomas D. Carr \"et al.\" found that tyrannosaurs had large, flat scales on their snouts.\n\nAt the center of these scales were small keratinised patches. In crocodilians, such patches cover bundles of sensory neurons that can detect mechanical, thermal and chemical stimuli. They proposed that tyrannosaurs probably also had bundles of sensory neurons under their facial scales and may have used them to identify objects, measure the temperature of their nests and gently pick-up eggs and hatchlings.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Bony crests.\n", "The texture of \"Eryops\" skin was revealed by a fossilized \"mummy\" described in 1941. This mummy specimen showed that the body in life was covered in a pattern of oval bumps.\n\nSection::::Discovery and species.\n", "Catherine Forster, in 1997, stated that color information can in principle not be derived from the skin impressions of dinosaur mummies. In 2015, Philip Manning and colleagues concluded that skin in dinosaur mummies is not simply preserved as an impression but contains original biomolecules or their derivatives. These researchers inferred the presence of melanin pigments in the skin of another \"Edmontosaurus\" mummy nicknamed Dakota. While clarifying that a reconstruction of the coloration is currently not possible given the many different factors that influence coloration, they remarked that the melanin distribution may potentially allow for deriving a monochrome (black-and-white) picture of the animal's pigmentation pattern. Any chemical analysis of AMNH 5060 would be problematic, however, as consolidating chemicals have been applied to its skin for preservation.\n", "Section::::Certification and subsequent decertification.:After passing tests at United States Test Laboratory.\n", "Section::::Description and interpretation.:Skin frill.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Airspaces and senses.\n", "BULLET::::- Foster, J. R., and Heckert, A. B. 2011. Ichthyoliths and other microvertebrate remains from the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic) of northeastern Wyoming: a screen-washed sample indicates a significant aquatic component to the fauna. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 305:264–279.\n\nBULLET::::- Foster, J. R., and Hunt-Foster, R. K. 2011. New occurrences of dinosaur skin of two types (Sauropoda? and Dinosauria indet.) from the Late Jurassic of North America (Mygatt-Moore Quarry, Morrison Formation). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 31:717–721.\n", "Paleontologists have often studied paleopathologies in individual specimens, often with the intent of inferring genetic conditions or behavior. For example, many Theropod dinosaur individuals show healed fractures and puncture wounds in their bones, suggesting aggressive and/or territorial behavior. Mosasaurs show evidence of getting a version of the decompression syndrome while diving. Ancient rhinos show evidence of osteopathologies related to their weight and possibly activity level or environment. The extinct mammal \"Spinolestes\" displays the earliest possible evidence of dermatophytosis. Recent interest has also been given to the absence of disease. Both naked mole-rats and elephants exhibit extremely low cancer rates today. Ancient DNA from the ancestors of these two lineages might help us understand how cancer resistance evolved.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Skin impressions and footprints.\n\nSkin impressions were recovered from a large skeleton at the Bugiin Tsav locality that was previously destroyed by poachers. These impressions show non-overlapping scales with an average diameter of and pertain to the thoracic region of the individual, although the exact position can not be assessed any longer due to the destruction of the skeleton.\n", "BULLET::::- De Buffrenil and Mazin found a woven texture in the bones of \"Ichthyosaurus\", \"Omphalosaurus\", and \"Stenopterygius\". This texture is found only in the bones of quickly growing animals, suggesting that ichthyosaurs had high metabolic rates and may even have been warm blooded.\n\nBULLET::::- Massare and Callaway observed that Triassic ichthyosaurs had more elongated body plans than their Jurassic successors.\n\n1991\n", "In response to claims made by several U.S. senators, Dragon Skin and special interest groups, on Monday, May 21, 2007, the Army held a press conference where they released the results of the tests they claimed Dragon Skin failed.\n", "Section::::Paleoecology.:Soft tissue.\n", "Section::::Diagnostic tests.:Sporotrichin skin test.\n", "Section::::Sources of material.\n\nThe primary sources of paleoparasitological material include mummified tissues, coprolites (fossilised dung) from mammals or dinosaurs, fossils, and amber inclusions. Hair, skins, and feathers also yield ectoparasite remains. Some archaeological artifacts document the presence of animal parasites. One example is the depiction of what appear to be mites in the ear of a \"hyaena-like\" animal in a tomb painting from ancient Thebes.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Skin, scales and feathers.\n\nMesozoic theropods were also very diverse in terms of skin texture and covering. Feathers or feather-like structures are attested in most lineages of theropods. (See feathered dinosaur). However, outside the coelurosaurs, feathers may have been confined to the young, smaller species, or limited parts of the animal. Many larger theropods had skin covered in small, bumpy scales. In some species, these were interspersed with larger scales with bony cores, or osteoderms. This type of skin is best known in the ceratosaur \"Carnotaurus\", which has been preserved with extensive skin impressions.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Limb function.\n", "Section::::Description and interpretation.:Skin.\n", "In 2018, evidence of blubber was discovered with \"Stenopterygius\".\n\nSection::::Description.:Skin and colouration.\n\nTypically, fossils that preserve it suggest that the skin of ichthyosaurs was smooth and elastic, lacking scales. However, these remains are not impressions \"per se\", but outlines formed from bacterial growth. In one case, a true impression of the skin was reported from a specimen of \"Aegirosaurus\" found in the Solnhofen Plattenkalk, rocks which were capable of preserving even the finest detail. Minuscule scales seemed to be visible in this specimen.\n", "During her time at the University of Washington, Jablonski conducted research at the University of Hong Kong, in both the Department of Anatomy and the Prince Philip Dental Hospital. After completing her PhD, Jablonski was a lecturer in the Department of Anatomy at the University of Hong Kong from 1981 to 1990, where she was able to continue her research into comparative anatomy and paleontology. She began research in cooperation with the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing in 1982 and the Kunming Institute of Zoology in 1984. Additionally, Jablonski was inspired to begin her research on the natural history of human skin during her time in Hong Kong.\n", "In fact the fossilised skin of \"Carnotaurus\" (an abelisaurid and therefore not a coelurosaur) shows an unfeathered, reptile-like skin with rows of bumps. But an adult \"Carnotaurus\" weighed about 1 ton, and mammals of this size and larger have either very short hair or naked skins, so perhaps the skin of \"Carnotaurus\" tells us nothing about whether smaller non-coelurosaurid theropods had feathers.\n", "Section::::Research techniques.:Light microscopy.\n", "BULLET::::- Discovery of fossilised skin in specimens of \"Beipiaosaurus\", \"Sinornithosaurus\", \"Microraptor\" and \"Confuciusornis\" from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota is reported by McNamara \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Two theropod bones, preserving shark and crocodyliform feeding traces and invertebrate traces, are described from the Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Navesink Formation (New Jersey, United States) by Brownstein (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the relationship between bony and muscular features of the tongue in living archosaurs, and on the evolution of the morphology of the bony elements of the tongue in bird-line archosaurs, is published by Li, Zhou & Clarke (2018).\n", "Section::::Used as a lipid biomarker.\n" ]	[ "Paleontologists and other scientists know what the skin of dinosaurs looked/felt like.", "Scientists know what the skin of all dinosaurs looks and felt like. " ]	[ "Scientists get some clues from dinosaur fossils about what their skin looked like, and then they consider a number of other factors, and develop theories of how dinosaur skin is likely to have appeared.", "Scientists only have a theory of what some dinosaurs skin looked like. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Paleontologists and other scientists know what the skin of dinosaurs looked/felt like.", "Scientists know what the skin of all dinosaurs looks and felt like. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scientists get some clues from dinosaur fossils about what their skin looked like, and then they consider a number of other factors, and develop theories of how dinosaur skin is likely to have appeared.", "Scientists only have a theory of what some dinosaurs skin looked like. " ]
2018-02683	How does moving water freeze?	Moving water freezes just like non-moving water does. First, imagine floating in a still pond that's beginning to freeze. Bits of water around you will start turning into small pieces of floating ice. The ice will grow and grow until it covers the surface of the pond. Now imagine floating in a moving stream. Bits of water around you will start turning into small pieces of floating ice, just the same as before. From your perspective as someone floating along with them, it looks identical to ice forming on a still pond. The only difference is that the whole process is moving downstream as it happens.	[ "Section::::How water freezes.\n", "However, even with this definition it is not clear whether \"freezing\" refers to the point at which water forms a visible surface layer of ice; the point at which the entire volume of water becomes a solid block of ice; or when the water reaches . A quantity of water can be at and not be ice; after enough heat has been removed to reach more heat must be removed before the water changes to solid state (ice), so water can be liquid or solid at .\n", "BULLET::::- The most common crystallisation process on Earth is the formation of ice. Liquid water does not freeze at 0° C unless there is ice already present, cooling significantly below 0° C is required to nucleate ice and so for the water to freeze. For example, small droplets of very pure water can remain liquid down to below -30° C although ice is the stable state below 0° C.\n", "Water will freeze at different temperatures depending upon the type of ice nuclei present. Ice nuclei cause water to freeze at higher temperatures than it would spontaneously. For pure water to freeze spontaneously, called homogeneous nucleation, cloud temperatures would have to be . Here are some examples of ice nuclei:\n\nSection::::Ice multiplication.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Water also differs from most liquids in that it becomes less dense as it freezes. The maximum density of water in its liquid form (at 1 atm) is ; that occurs at . The density of ice is . Thus, water expands 9% in volume as it freezes, which accounts for the fact that ice floats on liquid water.\n\nThe details of the exact chemical nature of liquid water are not well understood; some theories suggest that the unusual behaviour of water is due to the existence of 2 liquid states.\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.:Taste and odor.\n", "Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at \"higher\" temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: For some pressures higher than , water freezes at a temperature \"below\" 0 °C, as shown in the phase diagram below. The melting of ice under high pressures is thought to contribute to the movement of glaciers.\n", "Section::::Melting point of ice at various pressures.\n\nData obtained from \"CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics\" 44th ed., p. 2390\n\nSection::::Water with dissolved NaCl.\n\nNote: ρ is density, \"n\" is refractive index at 589 nm, and η is viscosity, all at 20 °C; \"T\" is the equilibrium temperature between two phases: ice/liquid solution for \"T\" 0–0.1 °C and NaCl/liquid solution for \"T\" above 0.1 °C.\n\nSection::::Additional data translated from German \"Wasser (Stoffdaten)\" page.\n", "Flash freezing refers to the process whereby objects are frozen in just a few hours by subjecting them to cryogenic temperatures, or through direct contact with liquid nitrogen at .\n\nWhen water is supercooled to temperatures below , it must freeze.\n", "There are phenomena like supercooling, in which the water is cooled below its freezing point, but the water remains liquid, if there are too few defects to seed crystallization. One can therefore observe a delay until the water adjusts to the new, below-freezing temperature. Supercooled liquid water must become ice at minus 48 C (minus 55 F) not just because of the extreme cold, but because the molecular structure of water changes physically to form tetrahedron shapes, with each water molecule loosely bonded to four others. This suggests the structural change from liquid to \"intermediate ice\". The crystallization of ice from supercooled water is generally initiated by a process called nucleation. Because of the speed and size of nucleation, which occurs within nanoseconds and nanometers.\n", "Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at a standard pressure of 1 atm, water is a liquid between . Increasing the pressure slightly lowers the melting point, which is about at 600 atm and at 2100 atm. This effect is relevant, for example, to ice skating, to the buried lakes of Antarctica, and to the movement of glaciers. (At pressures higher than 2100 atm the melting point rapidly increases again, and ice takes several exotic forms that do not exist at lower pressures.)\n", "BULLET::::- The water, at its freezing point at depth (slightly lower than the freezing point at the surface due to the pressure effect on the freezing point), is advected from under the floating mass of ice and may rise towards the surface due to a variety of factors.\n\nBULLET::::- As the water rises the in-situ freezing point increases, leaving the water slightly supercooled. Supercooling is relieved by the formation of microscopic ice crystals in the water column.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Initial zone: nucleation and growth mechanisms.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Thermal conductivity\": The container of hotter liquid may melt through a layer of frost that is acting as an insulator under the container (frost is an insulator, as mentioned above), allowing the container to come into direct contact with a much colder lower layer that the frost formed on (ice, refrigeration coils, etc.) The container now rests on a much colder surface (or one better at removing heat, such as refrigeration coils) than the originally colder water, and so cools far faster from this point on.\n", "Section::::Supercooling.\n", "Section::::Ice collection and distribution.\n", "Freezing water is a central issue for climate, geology and life. On earth, ice and snow cover 10% of the land and up to 50% of the Northern Hemisphere in winter. Polar ice caps reflect up to 90% of the sun's incoming radiation. The science of freezing water depends on multiple factors, including how water droplets freeze, how much water is in the atmosphere, if water is in a liquid or crystal state, at what temperature it freezes, and whether it crystallizes from within or from the surface.\n", "This is a rate of homogeneous nucleation estimated for a model of water, not real water — in experiments one cannot grow nuclei of water and so cannot directly determine the values of the barrier formula_5, or the dynamic parameters such as formula_10, for real water. However, it may be that indeed the homogeneous nucleation of ice at temperatures near -20 °C and above is \"extremely\" slow and so that whenever water freezes at temperatures of -20 °C and above this is due to heterogeneous nucleation, i.e., the ice nucleates in contact with a surface.\n\nSection::::Description.:Homogeneous nucleation.\n", "In general, the faster a body of water flows beneath ice, the more likely it is to develop jumble ice. Temperatures near the freezing point also tend to cause jumble ice, as the higher temperatures weaken the ice structure, allowing for more pieces to be torn free before refreezing. The Yukon River in Alaska often exhibits jumble ice during the winter.\n\nJumble ice is a hazard for winter travelers, as the broken \"ground\" formed by the jumble ice can cause snowmachine accidents or injuries to sled dogs.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ice jacking\n\nBULLET::::- Ice dam\n\nSection::::References.\n", "If a microscopic droplet of water is cooled very fast, it forms what is called a glass (low-density amorphous ice) in which all the tetrahedrons of water molecules are not lined up, but amorphous. The change in structure of water controls the rate at which ice forms. Depending on its temperature and pressure, water ice has 16 different crystalline forms in which water molecules cling to each other with hydrogen bonds. When water is cooled, its structure becomes closer to the structure of ice, which is why the density goes down, and this should be reflected in an increased crystallization rate showing these crystalline forms.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Steady-state growth zone.\n", "Section::::Suggested explanations.\n\nThe following explanations have been proposed:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Evaporation\": The evaporation of the warmer water reduces the mass of the water to be frozen. Evaporation is endothermic, meaning that the water mass is cooled by vapor carrying away the heat, but this alone probably does not account for the entirety of the effect.\n", "David Auerbach describes an effect that he observed in samples in glass beakers placed into a liquid cooling bath. In all cases the water supercooled, reaching a temperature of typically before spontaneously freezing. Considerable random variation was observed in the time required for spontaneous freezing to start and in some cases this resulted in the water which started off hotter (partially) freezing first.\n", "The compressed ice was then transported to the University of Rochester where it was blasted by a pulse of laser light. The reaction created conditions like those inside of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune by heating up the ice thousands of degrees under a pressure a million times greater than the earth's atmosphere in only ten to 20 billionths of a second. The experiment concluded that the current in the conductive water was indeed carried by ions rather than electrons and thus pointed to the water being superionic. More recent experiments from the same LLNL/Rochester team used x-ray crystallography on laser-shocked water droplets to determine that the oxygen ions enter a face-centered-cubic phase, which was dubbed ice XVIII and reported in the journal \"Nature\" in May 2019.\n", "Icefall\n\nSection::::Ice flow.\n" ]	[ "Moving water can't freeze or freezes differently than other water. " ]	[ "Moving water freezes just like any other water." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Moving water can't freeze or freezes differently than other water. ", "Moving water can't freeze or freezes differently than other water. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Moving water freezes just like any other water.", "Moving water freezes just like any other water." ]
2018-15985	How is movie/theatrical makeup different from consumer makeup? Why don’t actors rub it off or smudge it when they touch their face in a scene?	I don't know if this is true for everything, but I worked at one of those amusement parks where I had to wear scary make up. What they did is put all the make up on me and then spray me with something (Make up setting spray I think?) that would then keep my make up from peeling or rubbing off. It was still possible for me to rub it off, but it was pretty hard to do so without make up wipes. I hope this helps and I hope you have an amazing day!	[ "As the film/television industry continues to grow, so do the capabilities of the technologies behind it. Since the debut of newer technologies, many have feared that CGI (Computer Generated Imagery) will put practical SFX makeup out of business. More can be done with CGI than can be done with makeup as some things simply aren't possible when working in reality. Many views circulate on the subject.\n", "Because stage actors are seen from farther away than actors on screen, it is crucial that their makeup is more dramatic and professionally done. Many higher-learning institutions have drama departments where all aspects of theater are taught, including the art of theatrical makeup. Some independent agencies also provide classes in theatrical makeup, and online courses are also available. Through training, makeup artists learn important techniques such as hand-eye coordination, ability to draw straight lines and consistent shapes, creativity, good grooming and personal hygiene habits, etc. Many makeup artists who specialize in theatrical makeup build portfolios to show their clients and employers. Many of them work as freelance makeup artists or work for cosmetics brands in department stores.\n", "This would be the standard for theatrical make-up until 1914 when makeup artist Max Factor created \"Flexible Greasepaint\" that was more reflective of the lighting on movie sets. Although make-up would evolve dramatically from Baudin’s invention, theatrical make-up is, to this day, not too far removed from the original blend of fats and pigment.\n\nSection::::History.:Pan-Cake.\n", "Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis, two experienced SFX artists from Amalgamated Dynamics near L.A., share what they see as the middle ground on the subject. In an interview, they explain that most movies use (out of necessity) a combination of practical effects and CGI. They see CGI as a tool that can be utilized in a good way or a bad way, just like practical effects. Tom Savini (an SFX artist known for his work in \"Dawn of the Dead\" and \"Creepshow\") states: \"They still use the make-up guys to design the creatures and that’s what they work from. I don’t think you’ll see make-up effects guys hanging out on corners with signs that say: \"WILL DO EFFECTS FOR FOOD\".”\n", "Todd now has a sports column which has been picked up by several papers and Jessica is a cosmetics saleswoman with MYFACEISGREEN.COM, a company which distributes only environmentally-based make-up.\n", "Section::::Makeup and lighting.\n\nLighting controls makeup to a high degree. Makeup can lose its effectiveness due to incorrect stage lighting. Conversely, skillful lighting can greatly aid the art of makeup. Close communication between the lighting director and the makeup artist is crucial for the best possible effect.\n", "One of the hardest parts of prosthetic make-up is keeping the edges as thin as possible. They should be tissue thin so they are easy to blend and cover giving a flawless look.\n\nSection::::Conflict with CGI.\n", "BULLET::::- Purple affects makeup like violet lighting, except reds and oranges will be even more intense, and most blues will look violet.\n\nSection::::Straight makeup.\n\nStraight makeup is a style of makeup that provides a natural, clean and healthy glow.\n\nSection::::Straight makeup.:Skin.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn the 16th century, contouring was used by Elizabethan stage actors, who would apply chalk and soot to their faces to help audience members read their facial expressions.\n\nIn the late 1800s, when electricity was invented and lights were widely used, soot was no longer an option. Instead of soot, actors would use greasepaint to help audience members decipher their emotions. In 1800s-1900s, Queen Victoria deemed makeup as vulgar, as only stage actors and prostitutes wore makeup. Makeup could only be purchased in costume stores.\n", "Skin has four basic tones: brown, fair, pink and olive. Individuals with fair, pink, and olive skin tones use olive, beige, or suntan bases. Makeup artist and performers select shades compatible with the natural skin tone, but the base is one to several shades deeper. Performers with predominately pink or ruddy complexions use base colors with cool undertones. The character, size of the theatre, and light intensity will determine the tone depth of the foundation.\n", "Synthetic bristles are the most common material used in makeup brushes. These brushes are widely found in drugstores and makeup-specific stores. The bristles are made out of plastic, nylon, or other synthetic fibers, and may be dyed. Synthetic bristles are often used with liquid and cream products, as they tend to blend out products more easily and will not absorb product as much as a natural bristle brush. Synthetic brushes are cruelty-free. Synthetic brushes usually last longer than natural haired bristles as they do not degrade and are not as fragile.\n\nSection::::Types of makeup brush bristles.:Natural bristles.\n", "BULLET::::- Primer is used to set the face before makeup is applied. This creates another layer between the skin to prevent acne and makeup clogging up pores. Primer creates an even tone throughout the skin and makes makeup last longer. Primer is applied throughout the face including eyes, lips, and lashes. This product has a creamy texture and applies smoothly.\n", "In June 2014, the Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association (CCMAA) authorised an official protest on the movie set of Bang Bang! in protest of a foreign makeup artist, Daniel Bauer working on the movie for its lead actress, Katrina Kaif. The CCMAA and 15 of its members protested on the movie set as Daniel Bauer was not registered with the Union, despite the Union banning foreign artists working in Bollywood. The issue was resolved with the CCMAA granting Daniel Bauer full membership \n\nSection::::Notable make-up artists.\n\nBULLET::::- Rick Baker\n\nBULLET::::- Way Bandy\n\nBULLET::::- Bobbi Brown\n", "Section::::Results.\n\nSection::::Results.:Long-term results.\n", "Understanding light's effect on makeup and various shades and pigments is important when designing a performer's makeup. The following are among the basic rules of light: nothing has color until light is reflected from it; an object appears black when all of the light is absorbed; an object appears white when all of the light is reflected. If certain rays are absorbed and others are reflected, the reflected rays determine the color.\n\nSection::::Makeup and lighting.:Light's effect on makeup.\n\nBULLET::::- Pink tends to gray the cool colors and intensify the warm ones. Yellow becomes more orange.\n", "A subset of cosmetics is called \"makeup\", refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the user's appearance. Manufacturers may distinguish between \"decorative\" and \"care\" cosmetics.\n\nCosmetics that are meant to be used on the face and eye area are usually applied with a brush, a makeup sponge, or the fingertips, or a beauty blender.\n\nMost cosmetics are distinguished by the area of the body intended for application.\n", "BULLET::::- Water-based transfer-resistant follows the same formulation as oil-free but uses a film former or polymer instead of (or in addition to) the clay to achieve a matte finish that resists being rubbed off. Transfer-resistant make-up was launched in 1993 by Revlon-owned Ultima II with \"Lipsexxxy\", the first lip-colour that included film former to prevent rubbing off. By 1996, \"WonderWear\" foundation and Revlon \"Colorstay\" had been launched, using the same technology as the lipsticks. Transfer-resistant (sometimes called \"transfer-proof\") makeup will last on very oily skin, skin that perspires heavily, or in humid climates longer than any other type of foundation, though it is even more difficult to apply than oil-free makeup. The thick texture dries almost instantly and requires a fair amount of experimentation to master. The most modern versions (such as \"Revlon Colorstay SoftFlex\") have made marked improvements over predecessors in that regard.\n", "Section::::Makeup techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- Fashion\n\nFashion makeup is used in magazine photography as well as on the fashion runway. Avant-garde makeup is also an applicable technique used for projects that require experimental themes. Fashion makeup is also commonly used in television and film ranging for the natural \"prime look\" to more sophisticated applications such as \"color balance\".\n\nBULLET::::- Theatrical makeup\n", "Theatrical makeup\n\nTheatrical makeup is makeup that is used to assist in creating the appearance of the characters that actors portray during a theater production.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "It is essential that technicians use appropriate personal protective equipment to protect the health of the technician and the client particularly in the prevention of transmission of blood borne pathogens.\n", "The use of special effects techniques enhancing physical features to exhibit as well as fantasy makeup. The use of prosthetics and plaster casting are also required for projects that entails non-human appearances. Accents such as theatrical blood and ooze are also techniques applicable to this type of makeup.\n\nBULLET::::- Airbrushing\n", "A generous amount of powder is needed to reduce unwanted shine. If a performer's makeup is under-powdered, his skin oils will break through quickly, producing shine and possibly running. After powder is applied to the entire face, starting under and around the eyes, it is gently pressed for thirty seconds. The excess is brushed off with a large soft brush or piece of cotton. A wet natural sponge or cotton is wiped lightly across the face to set the makeup, to remove any visible powder, and to eliminate the masky feeling.\n\nSection::::Straight makeup.:Lips.\n", "If a performer's skin is perfectly toned, makeup spreads smoothly and adheres easily. Dry skin or oily skin is dealt with prior to makeup application; otherwise, the makeup appears blotchy or smeared due to variations in absorption. Performers with dry skin use a moisturizer daily and after their faces have been cleansed following a performance. Performers with oily complexions use a facial toner wipe or astringent to remove the oil and allow a smooth application.\n", "BULLET::::- Rick Baker (\"An American Werewolf in London\", \"The Nutty Professor\", \"Men in Black\", \"Wild Wild West\", \"How the Grinch Stole Christmas\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Savini (\"Friday the 13th\", \"Dawn of the Dead\", \"Creepshow\")\n\nBULLET::::- Rob Bottin (\"The Howling\", \"The Thing\", \"Total Recall\")\n\nBULLET::::- Stan Winston (\"The Terminator\", \"Predator\", \"Jurassic Park\")\n\nBULLET::::- Gregory Nicotero (\"The Walking Dead\")\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Berger (\"The Chronicles of Narnia\" film series)\n\nSection::::Notable examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Tyra Banks - ABC News: Tyra Banks Experiences Obesity Through Fat Suit - showcased on her eponymous talk show on 4 November 2005\n\nBULLET::::- Jennie Bond: \"Posh Swap: Jennie Bond\" (makeup process)\n", "Section::::Real-World Use.\n\nSpecial Effects Makeup isn't only used in films. A branch of SFX called Moulage is the process in which makeup is used to simulate different wounds and trauma in order to prepare medical, emergency, and military personnel for what they could experience in the field and lessen psychological trauma.\n\nSection::::Notable artists.\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Pierce (\"Frankenstein\" (1931), \"The Mummy\" (1932), \"The Wolf Man\" (1941))\n\nBULLET::::- John Chambers (\"Planet of the Apes\" original film series)\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Smith (\"Little Big Man\", \"The Godfather\", \"The Exorcist\")\n" ]	[ "Movie makeup cannot rub off.", "Consumer makeup is different than theater makeup." ]	[ "The makeup can rub off, but it is hard to do so. Makeup setting spray is sprayed on the makeup to keep it from peeling off.", "It is the same makeup but they add a setting spray that makes it more difficult to come off. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Movie makeup cannot rub off.", "Consumer makeup is different than theater makeup." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The makeup can rub off, but it is hard to do so. Makeup setting spray is sprayed on the makeup to keep it from peeling off.", "It is the same makeup but they add a setting spray that makes it more difficult to come off. " ]
2018-21125	How do flight plan filings work with on-demand or just-in-time domestic flights?	In simple terms once the pilot knows his route and plans out what he intends to do. he calls the local atc center and files said plan. Flight plans are not asking for permission to fly they are informing that you intend to fly l. They also do not require and advance notice to file.	[ "The first step is to compute the modified due date for each flight. Since the current time is 0 and, in our example, we don’t have any flight whose due date is smaller than its processing time, the mdd of each flight is equal to its due date:\n\nThe flight with the smallest MDD (Flight n° 3) is then processed, and the new modified due date is computed. The current time is now 5.\n\nThe operation is repeated until no more flights are left unscheduled.\n\nWe obtain the following results:\n\nIn this order, the total weighted tardiness is 92.\n", "The weight of fuel forms a significant part of the total weight of an aircraft, so any fuel calculation must take into account the weight of any fuel not yet burned. Instead of trying to predict the fuel load not yet burned, a flight planning system can handle this situation by working backward along the route, starting at the alternate, going back to the destination, and then going back waypoint by waypoint to the origin.\n", "The compiled set of fare conditions is called a fare basis code. There are two systems set up for the interchange of fares data — ATPCO and SITA, plus some system to system direct connects. This system distributes the fare tariffs and rule sets to all GDSs and other subscribers. Every airline employs staff who code air fare rules in accordance with yield management intent. There are also revenue managers who watch fares as they are filed into the public tariffs and make competitive recommendations. Inventory control is typically manipulated from here, using availability feeds to open and close classes of service.\n", "Section::::DUATS Functions.:Flight Plan Filing.\n\nOnce a flight plan has been entered, it can be sent directly into the FAA flight plan database using DUATS. After a VFR flight has been completed, DUATS can also be used to report the flight plan as closed to the FAA.\n\nSection::::DUATS Functions.:Stored Routes.\n", "Mid-Office Travel Automation\n\nMid-office automation captures Passenger name record data from a variety of global distribution systems (Sabre, Galileo, Amadeus, and Worldspan) sources and lets travel agencies create custom business rules to validate reservation accuracy, monitor travel policies, perform file finishing, prepare itineraries/invoices and process ticketing.\n", "SMS: A short code can be sent to the TA provided code with specific parameters to receive the required information.\n\nBULLET::::- Example: Cleartrip provides a facility to send an SMS to 667744 with source, destination, date and month. The reply comes with a list of flight codes and time of departure, all sorted by price in ascending order. This service is available to Cleartrip’s customers having Airtel, BPL, Hutch and Reliance connection.\n", "All FMSs contain a navigation database. The navigation database contains the elements from which the flight plan is constructed. These are defined via the ARINC 424 standard. The navigation database (NDB) is normally updated every 28 days, in order to ensure that its contents are current. Each FMS contains only a subset of the ARINC / AIRAC data, relevant to the capabilities of the FMS.\n\nThe NDB contains all of the information required for building a flight plan, consisting of:\n\nBULLET::::- Waypoints/Intersection\n\nBULLET::::- Airways\n", "Section::::Cost reduction.:Reserve reduction.\n", "Although the aircraft are shared, owners are guaranteed access with 4–48 hours notice, depending on the provider and plan. Providers can offer such short call-out periods by having a fleet of similar aircraft, which are interchanged amongst the owners.\n", "Section::::Fare quote and ticketing.\n\nThe Fares data store contains fare tariffs, rule sets, routing maps, class of service tables, and some tax information that construct the price – \"the fare\". Rules like booking conditions (e.g. minimum stay, advance purchase, etc.) are tailored differently between different city pairs or zones, and assigned a class of service corresponding to its appropriate inventory bucket. Inventory control can also be manipulated manually through the availability feeds, dynamically controlling how many seats are offered for a particular price by opening and closing particular classes.\n", "ETOPS-240 and beyond are now permitted on a case-by-case basis, with regulatory bodies in nations ranging from the US, to Australia, to New Zealand adopting said regulatory extension. Authority is only granted to operators of two-engine airplanes between specific city pairs. The certificate holder must have been operating at 180-minute or greater ETOPS authority for at least 24 consecutive months, of which at least 12 consecutive months must be at 240-minute ETOPS authority with the airplane-engine combination in the application.\n", "Section::::Practical example.\n\nIn this example we will schedule flight departures. Each flight is characterized by:\n\nBULLET::::- a due date: The time after which the plane is expected to have taken off\n\nBULLET::::- a processing time: The amount of time the plane takes to take off\n\nBULLET::::- a weight: An arbitrary value to specify the priority of the flight.\n\nWe need to find an order for the flight to take off that will result in the smallest total weighted tardiness. For this example we will use the following values:\n\nIn the default order, the total weighted tardiness is 136.\n", "Producing an accurate optimised flight plan requires millions of calculations, so commercial flight planning systems make extensive use of computers (an approximate unoptimised flight plan can be produced using an E6B and a map in an hour or so, but more allowance must be made for unforeseen circumstances). When computer flight planning replaced manual flight planning for eastbound flights across the North Atlantic, the average fuel consumption was reduced by about 1,000 pounds per flight, and the average flight times were reduced by about 5 minutes per flight. Some commercial airlines have their own internal flight planning system, while others employ the services of external planners.\n", "A reclear flight plan has two destinations. The \"final destination\" airport is where the flight is really going to, while the \"initial destination\" airport is where the flight will divert to if more fuel is used than expected during the early part of the flight. The waypoint at which the decision is made as to which destination to go to is called the \"reclear fix\" or \"decision point\". On reaching this waypoint, the flight crew make a comparison between actual and predicted fuel burn and check how much reserve fuel is available. If there is sufficient reserve fuel, then the flight can continue to the final destination airport; otherwise the aircraft must divert to the initial destination airport.\n", "The flight plan is generally determined on the ground, before departure either by the pilot for smaller aircraft or a professional dispatcher for airliners. It is entered into the FMS either by typing it in, selecting it from a saved library of common routes (Company Routes) or via an ACARS datalink with the airline dispatch center.\n", "BULLET::::- Twitterbots; KLM operates several Twitterbots, including one to request the current status of a flight and one to request the lowest KLM fares to a destination on a specified date or month.\n", "Interactive voice response: A specific number provided by the carrier can be called, and an Interactive Voice Response (IVR) asks questions and guides the user through. The IVR can also take the payment details and process the payment. The e-ticket can be sent as an email or collected over the counter.\n", "BULLET::::2. Integrated Customer Relationship Management System\n\nBULLET::::3. Ability to monitor the booking statistics\n\nBULLET::::4. Schedule Access control\n\nBULLET::::5. Ability to accept online payments\n\nBULLET::::6. Send automated reminders and notifications via Email/SMS\n\nDifferent pricing models are available. While the traditional software licensing model of a one-time licensing fee predominates for desktop applications; subscription-based, advertising-based, per-use, fee-per booking and free web-based systems are also available.\n\nSection::::Customer appointment management software.\n", "As of December 2018 ESTA is no longer approved in real-time to qualifying passengers and passengers are required to apply no later than 72 hours before departure.\n\nSection::::Third-party websites.\n", "EDCT and expect further delays.\n\nWhen conditions improve, or when demand decreases, the ATCSCC begins running compressions. This is when the ATC facility can accept more traffic or users; that is, airlines cancel flight plans, thus causing openings. This causes other EDCT times to change and decrease delays.\n", "BULLET::::- Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals Court Calendar, and dockets via PACER\n\nBULLET::::- Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals; Argument Calendar\n\nBULLET::::- Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals \"Voluntary filing to begin on 1 January 2012\"\n\nBULLET::::- Federal District Courts\n\nBULLET::::- Iowa\n\nBULLET::::- Northern District of Iowa Has Decisions/Verdicts page. Links to PACER\n\nBULLET::::- Northern District of Iowa Bankruptcy\n\nBULLET::::- Southern District of Iowa\n\nBULLET::::- Southern District of Iowa Bankruptcy, Calendars\n\nSection::::United States.:Court docket links.:Unofficial.\n\nBULLET::::- Docket Alarm, Inc. provides a search engine and alerts for Federal Court dockets and bankruptcies, as well as providing programmatic access via an API.\n", "In September 2016, Aireon and FlightAware announced a partnership to provide this global space-based ADS-B data to airlines for flight tracking of their fleets and, in response to Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, for compliance with the ICAO Global Aeronautical Distress and Safety System (GADSS) requirement for airlines to track their fleets.\n\nSection::::Commercial products and services.:APIs.\n\nSection::::Commercial products and services.:APIs.:FlightXML.\n", "The idea of reclear flights was first published in \"Boeing Airliner\" (1977) by Boeing engineers David Arthur and Gary Rose. The original paper contains a lot of magic numbers relating to the optimum position of the reclear fix and so on. These numbers apply only to the specific type of aircraft considered, for a specific reserve percentage, and take no account of the effect of weather. The fuel savings due to reclear depend on three factors:\n\nSection::::Filing suboptimal plans.\n", "There are also long-lived distributed transactions, for example a transaction to book a trip, which consists of booking a flight, a rental car and a hotel. Since booking the flight might take up to a day to get a confirmation, two-phase commit is not applicable here, it will lock the resources for this long. In this case more sophisticated techniques that involve multiple undo levels are used. The way you can undo the hotel booking by calling a desk and cancelling the reservation, a system can be designed to undo certain operations (unless they are irreversibly finished).\n", "On-the-fly computing (OTF computing) is about automating and customizing software tailored to the needs of a user. According to a requirement specification, this software is composed of basic components, so-called basic services, and a user-specific setting of these basic components is made. Accordingly, the requested services are compiled only at the request of the user and then run in a specially designed data center to make the user the functions of the (on-the-fly) created service accessible.\n\nSection::::Restaurant usage.\n" ]	[ "Flight plans require advance notice to fly.", "flight plan filings and on demand flights need to work together." ]	[ "Flight plans do not require advance notice to fly.", "Flight plans are just notices of intent to fly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Flight plans require advance notice to fly.", "flight plan filings and on demand flights need to work together." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Flight plans do not require advance notice to fly.", "Flight plans are just notices of intent to fly." ]
2018-17204	Why are galaxies disc shapped instead of a sphere?	Galaxies, like most celestial bodies spin around. Gravity holds them together, but the speed in which they spin is great enough, and the distance to the edge is great enough, that the material in the arms flattens out into a disc. The same action that causes this disc in a spiral galaxy is what makes the Sun and the Earth bulge out more at the equator, and it is what creates rings around gas giant planets. That said, not all galaxies are spiral, and some of them exist quite happily as a clump of stars, which has their own set of dynamics.	[ "Section::::Formation theories.:Disk growth via accretion.\n", "The discrepancies range from galaxies to clusters of galaxies. \"The main one that has attracted a lot of attention is the cuspy halo problem, namely that CDM models predict halos that have a high density core or have an inner profile that is too steep compared to observations.\"\n\nSection::::Potential solutions.\n", "According to the hierarchy model, the directions of the spin vectors should be distributed randomly. In hierarchy model, galaxies were first formed and then they obtained their angular momenta by tidal force while they were gathering gravitationally to form a cluster. Those galaxies grow by subsequent merging of proto-galactic condensations or even by merging of already fully formed galaxies. In this scheme, one could imagine that large irregularities like galaxies grew under the influence of gravities from small imperfections in the early universe.\n", "The firehose instability is believed to play an important role in determining the structure of both spiral and elliptical galaxies and of dark matter haloes.\n\nBULLET::::- As noted by Edwin Hubble and others, elliptical galaxies are rarely if ever observed to be more elongated than E6 or E7, corresponding to a maximum axis ratio of about 3:1. The firehose instability is probably responsible for this fact, since an elliptical galaxy that formed with an initially more elongated shape would be unstable to bending modes, causing it to become rounder.\n", "The creation of disks in, at least some, lenticular galaxies via the accretion of gas, and small galaxies, around a pre-existing spheroidal structure was first suggested as an explanation to match the high-redshift compact massive spheroidal-shaped galaxies with the equally compact massive bulges seen in nearby massive lenticular galaxies. In a \"down-sizing\" scenario, bigger lenticular galaxies may have been built first - in a younger universe when more gas was available - and the lower-mass galaxies may have been slower to attract their disk-building material, as in the case of the isolated early-type galaxy LEDA 2108986. Of course, within galaxy clusters, ram-pressure stripping removes gas and prevents the accretion of new gas that might be capable of furthering the development of the disk.\n", "Where formula_2 is the galaxy's central brightness and formula_3 is the scale length. The scale length is the radius at which the galaxy is a factor of e (~2.7) less bright than it is at its center. Due to the diversity in the shapes and sizes of galaxies, not all galactic discs follow this simple exponential form in their brightness profiles. Some galaxies have been found to have discs with profiles that become truncated in the outermost regions.\n\nSection::::Stellar Component.:Exponential Surface Brightness Profiles.:Vertical profile.\n", "An alternative suggestion is that dEs could be the remnants of low-mass spiral galaxies that obtained a rounder shape through the action of repeated gravitational interactions with ordinary galaxies within a cluster. This process of changing a galaxy's morphology by interactions, and the removal of much of its stellar disk, has been called \"galaxy harassment\". Evidence for this latter hypothesis has been claimed due to stellar disks and weak spiral arms seen in some dEs. Under this alternative hypothesis, the anaemic spiral arms and disk are a modified version of the original stellar disk of the now transformed spiral galaxy.\n", "As mentioned above, satellite galaxies are generally categorized as dwarf galaxies and therefore follow a similar Hubble classification scheme as their host with the minor addition of a lowercase \"d\" in front of the various standard types to designate the dwarf galaxy status. These types include dwarf irregular (dI), dwarf spheroidal (dSph), dwarf elliptical (dE) and dwarf spiral (dS). However, out of all of these types it is believed that dwarf spirals are not satellites, but rather dwarf galaxies that are only found in the field.\n\nSection::::Classification of satellite galaxies.:Dwarf irregular satellite galaxies.\n", "Section::::Galactic cannibalism (minor mergers).:Minor mergers and the origins of thick disk components.\n", "Section::::Kinematics.\n\nSection::::Kinematics.:Measurement difficulties and techniques.\n", "A 2012 paper that suggests a new classification system, first proposed by the Canadian astronomer Sidney van den Bergh, for lenticular and dwarf spheroidal galaxies (S0a-S0b-S0c-dSph) that parallels the Hubble sequence for spirals and irregulars (Sa-Sb-Sc-Im) reinforces this idea showing how the spiral–irregular sequence is very similar to this new one for lenticulars and dwarf ellipticals.\n\nSection::::Formation theories.:Mergers.\n", "Observations of edge-on galaxies suggest the universal presence of a thin disk, thick disk and halo component of galaxies. Despite the apparent ubiquity of these components, there is still ongoing research to determine if the thick disk and thin disk are truly distinct components. Nevertheless, many theories have been proposed to explain the origin of the thick disk component, and among these theories is one that involves minor mergers. In particular, it is speculated that the preexisting thin disk component of a host galaxy is heated during a minor merger and consequently thin disk expands to form a thicker disk component.\n", "Section::::Kinematics.:Offset Tully–Fisher relation.\n", "Lenticular and spiral galaxies, taken together, are often referred to as disk galaxies. The bulge-to-disk flux ratio in lenticular galaxies can take on a range of values, just as it does for each of the spiral galaxy morphological types (Sa, Sb, etc.).\n\nExamples of lenticular galaxies: M85, M86, NGC 1316, NGC 2787, NGC 5866, Centaurus A.\n\nSection::::Classes of galaxies.:Spirals.\n", "BULLET::::- The disk of satellites problem: Dwarf galaxies around the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are observed to be orbiting in thin, planar structures whereas the simulations predict that they should be distributed randomly about their parent galaxies.\n\nBULLET::::- Galaxy morphology problem: If galaxies grew hierarchically, then massive galaxies required many mergers. Major mergers inevitably create a classical bulge. On the contrary, about 80% of observed galaxies give evidence of no such bulges, and giant pure-disc galaxies are commonplace. That bulgeless fraction was nearly constant for 8 billion years.\n", "It is sometimes said that there are two physical types of ellipticals: the giant ellipticals with slightly \"boxy\"-shaped isophotes, whose shapes result from random motion which is greater in some directions than in others (anisotropic random motion); and the \"disky\" normal and dwarf ellipticals, which contain disks.\n\nDwarf spheroidal galaxies appear to be a distinct class: their properties are more similar to those of irregulars and late spiral-type galaxies.\n", "Section::::Growth.:Dynamical friction.\n", "Lenticular galaxies are often considered to be a poorly understood transition state between spiral and elliptical galaxies, which results in their intermediate placement on the Hubble sequence. This results from lenticulars having both prominent disk and bulge components. The disk component is usually featureless, which precludes a classification system similar to spiral galaxies. As the bulge component is usually spherical, elliptical galaxy classifications are also unsuitable. Lenticular galaxies are thus divided into subclasses based upon either the amount of dust present or the prominence of a central bar. The classes of lenticular galaxies with no bar are S0, S0, and S0 where the subscripted numbers indicate the amount of dust absorption in the disk component; the corresponding classes for lenticulars with a central bar are SB0, SB0, and SB0.\n", "Section::::Halo density profiles.\n\nIn order to accommodate a flat rotation curve, a density profile for a galaxy and its environs must be different than one that is centrally concentrated. Newton's version of Kepler's Third Law implies that the spherically symmetric, radial density profile is:\n", "BULLET::::- 1962 — Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Allan Sandage theorize galaxy formation by a single (relatively) rapid monolithic collapse, with the halo forming first, followed by the disk.\n\nBULLET::::- 1963 — Maarten Schmidt identifies the redshifted Balmer lines from the quasar 3C 273\n\nBULLET::::- 1973 — Jeremiah Ostriker and James Peebles discover that the amount of visible matter in the disks of typical spiral galaxies is not enough for Newtonian gravitation to keep the disks from flying apart or drastically changing shape,\n", "Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky Way has at least a dozen such satellites, with an estimated 300–500 yet to be discovered. Dwarf galaxies may also be classified as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Since small dwarf ellipticals bear little resemblance to large ellipticals, they are often called dwarf spheroidal galaxies instead.\n", "The universe has a variety of morphologies, with irregular, elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger. Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and a distinct halo. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters.\n\nSection::::Within a galaxy.\n", "Section::::Galaxy mergers and the formation of elliptical galaxies.\n\nElliptical galaxies (such as IC 1101) are among some of the largest known thus far. Their stars are on orbits that are randomly oriented within the galaxy (i.e. they are not rotating like disk galaxies). A distinguishing feature of elliptical galaxies is that the velocity of the stars does not necessarily contribute to flattening of the galaxy, such as in spiral galaxies. Elliptical galaxies have central supermassive black holes, and the masses of these black holes correlate with the galaxy's mass.\n", "The various claims that these objects are either \"perfectly round\" or perfect spheres is now known to be incorrect as directly observed by Heinrich. These specimens vary widely in shape, from noticeably flattened spheres to distinct disks. As illustrated by Heinrich, some of the Klerksdorp spheres are intergrown with each other, like a mass of soap bubbles. The observations and figure refute claims that these objects are either always spherical or isolated in their occurrence. As noted by Heinrich, even grooved spheres are not perfect spheres and some consist of intergrown spheres.\n", "As a result of minor mergers and environmental effects, some dwarf galaxies are classified as intermediate or transitional type satellite galaxies. For example, Phoenix and LGS3 are classified as intermediate types that appear to be transitioning from dwarf irregulars to dwarf spheroidals. Furthermore, the Large Magellanic Cloud is considered to be in the process of transitioning from a dwarf spiral to a dwarf irregular.\n\nSection::::Formation of satellite galaxies.\n" ]	[ "Galaxies are disc shapped.", "Galaxies are disc shaped." ]	[ "Some galaxies spin quickly and are disc-shaped, while other galaxies are a clump of stars with different dynamics.", "It is the spiral galaxies that appear disc shaped and not all galaxies are spiral galaxies." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Galaxies are disc shapped.", "Galaxies are disc shaped." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some galaxies spin quickly and are disc-shaped, while other galaxies are a clump of stars with different dynamics.", "It is the spiral galaxies that appear disc shaped and not all galaxies are spiral galaxies." ]
2018-21030	Why can't we explain what water tastes like?	It depends on the water. Some water can be metallic, or full of minerals. If you think about it, you have to compare what you are tasting to what something else tastes like. So water must taste like something else, and if it doesn't, it just tastes like water. Like, explain what salt tastes like without using the word salty. Or explain what the color red looks like without referring to an object.	[ "Pure water is usually described as tasteless and odorless, although humans have specific sensors that can feel the presence of water in their mouths, and frogs are known to be able to smell it. However, water from ordinary sources (including bottled mineral water) usually has many dissolved substances, that may give it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding water that is too salty or putrid.\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.:Color and appearance.\n", "Where the Water Tastes Like Wine\n\nWhere the Water Tastes Like Wine is an adventure game developed by Dim Bulb Games and Serenity Forge, and published by Good Shepherd Entertainment. It was released for Linux, macOS, Windows in February 2018.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Soundtrack.\n\nThe soundtrack of \"Where the Water Tastes Like Wine\" gained praise as an authentic representation of Americana: The 30-track compilation spans folk, jazz, country, blues, bluegrass, and more. The soundtrack was licensed and released by video game music label Materia Collective. A limited edition vinyl was pressed by Laced Records.\n", "Various receptors have also been proposed for salty tastes, along with the possible taste detection of lipids, complex carbohydrates, and water. Evidence for these receptors is, however, shaky at best, and is often unconvincing in mammal studies. For example, the proposed ENaC receptor for sodium detection can only be shown to contribute to sodium taste in \"Drosophilia\".\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Carbonation.\n\nAn enzyme connected to the sour receptor transmits information about carbonated water.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Fat.\n", "The aquatic equivalent to smelling in air is tasting in water. Many larger catfish have chemoreceptors across their entire bodies, which means they \"taste\" anything they touch and \"smell\" any chemicals in the water. \"In catfish, gustation plays a primary role in the orientation and location of food\".\n", "Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours, specialised organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells at very low concentrations.\n\nSection::::Environmental water.\n", "Section::::Taste.\n\nTaste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.\n", "Section::::Development and release.\n\n\"Where the Water Tastes Like Wine\" was developed by Dim Bulb Games and Serenity Forge. The game was published by Good Shepherd Entertainment. The game was released for Linux, macOS and Windows on 28 February 2018.\n\nAccording to the developer, the game was commercially a disaster.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "5. Nature has provided us with a rather narrow quiet band in this best part of the spectrum that seems especially marked for interstellar contact. It lies between the spectral lines of hydrogen (1420 MHz) and the hydroxyl radical (1662 MHz). Standing like the Om and the Um on either side of a gate, these two emissions of the disassociation products of water beckon all water-based life to search for its kind at the age-old meeting place of all species: the water hole.\n", "Kudelski entrusted his son André with the project, a young electronics engineer, and Claude Cellier, electronics engineer and musician. This new instrument, which was based exactly on the system presented in the book was highly elaborated from a technical point of view, and although it had a few shortcomings, it nevertheless enabled Alain Daniélou to advance with his theory inspired from the Indian model, and to test its psychoacoustic applications.\n", "Section::::Non-human senses.:Analogous to human senses.:Taste.\n\nFlies and butterflies have taste organs on their feet, allowing them to taste anything they land on. Catfish have taste organs across their entire bodies, and can taste anything they touch, including chemicals in the water.\n\nSection::::Non-human senses.:Analogous to human senses.:Vision and light sensing.\n\nCats have the ability to see in low light, which is due to muscles surrounding their irides–which contract and expand their pupils–as well as to the tapetum lucidum, a reflective membrane that optimizes the image.\n", "Christened as \"Shiva's organ\" by the journalist Jean Chalon, the instrument aroused a great deal of interest not only in the field of microtonal music, but also amongst music-therapy specialists and in non-European music. Sylvano Bussotti, who had until then never included electronic instruments in his works, became highly interested in the project, and wrote a piece for the instrument, which was played by the pianist Mauro Castellano and directed by the conductor Marcello Panni in a work called \"La Vergine ispirata\".\n\nSection::::Work of reference.:The Semantic Daniélou-36.\n", "Section::::Magic.:Half Creatures.:Quetzal.\n", "In many domains of expertise in the real world, perceptual learning interacts with other forms of learning. Declarative knowledge tends to occur with perceptual learning. As we learn to distinguish between an array of wine flavors, we also develop a wide range of vocabularies to describe the intricacy of each flavor.\n", "From the data and observation, the best water for drinking is the water from a nearby river. However, further data must be collected over a longer period of time. Also, bacterial and microbial tests need to be completed.\n\nSection::::Current developments.\n", "The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system. In humans, the sense of taste is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves. The facial nerve (VII) carries taste sensations from the anterior two thirds of the tongue, the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) carries taste sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue while a branch of the vagus nerve (X) carries some taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity.\n", "The Elements was studied seriously and earnestly during the Renaissance, by theoreticians and musicians, because of the necessary choice which Renaissance intellectuals and thinkers had to make of deciding where to make concordance with, of the reality of the theory on music made by either Pythagoras or Aristoxenus. All the events belonging to the Renaissance Period as an approximate whole occurred within a time some time prior to and including the 15th and 16th centuries \n\nThe work was known to Meibomius, who was born 1611.\n\nSection::::History of scholarship.:Modern.\n", "BULLET::::- Candace Pert, a neuroscientist, who discovered the cellular bonding site for endorphins in the brain, and in 1997 wrote the book \"Molecules of Emotion\" ()\n\nBULLET::::- Fred Alan Wolf, independent physicist, author of \"Taking the Quantum Leap\", winner of the 1982 National Book Award in science, and featured in the documentary film Spirit \"Space\". Wolf has taught at San Diego State University, the University of Paris, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the University of London, and Birkbeck College, London.\n", "It is the opinion of many scientists that eels have developed the finest nose on the planet. They can sense concentrations of one part in 19 trillion. This is the same concentration as one glass of alcohol in the waters of all America's Great Lakes. For the eels the sensory impressions are probably as diverse as the colors visible for us.\n", "Taste or gustation (adjectival form: gustatory) is one of the traditional five senses. It refers to the capability to detect the taste of substances such as food, certain minerals, and poisons, etc. The sense of taste is often confused with the \"sense\" of flavor, which is a combination of taste and smell perception. Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on taste. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. There are five basic tastes: sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami. Other tastes such as calcium and free fatty acids may also be basic tastes but have yet to receive widespread acceptance. The inability to taste is called ageusia.\n", "Taste receptor\n\nA taste receptor is a type of receptor which facilitates the sensation of taste. These receptors are of four types. When food or other substances enter the mouth, molecules interact with saliva and are bound to taste receptors in the oral cavity and other locations. Molecules which give a sensation of taste are considered \"sapid\".\n\nTaste receptors are divided into two families:\n\nBULLET::::- Type 1, sweet, first characterized in 2001: –\n", "Developed by Christian Braut, Jacques Dudon and Arnaud Sicard (from UVI/Univers Sons), upon request of the FIND Foundation (India-Europe Foundation for New Dialogues), the Semantic Daniélou-53 is the first of the Semantic instruments that integrates the entire Daniélou scale. As its name suggests, it includes 53 intervals and offers 72 scales (or tunings).\n\nReleased in 2013, using UVI Workstation technology it is presented in the form of a virtual instrument, which is available for free download for MacOS and Windows.\n", "Section::::Related publications.\n\nBULLET::::- Quality assurance of hydroacoustic surveys: the repeatability of fish-abundance and biomass estimates in lakes within and between hydroacoustic systems (free link to document)\n\nBULLET::::- Hydroacoustics as a tool for assessing fish biomass and size distribution associated with discrete shallow water estuarine habitats in Louisiana\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic assessment of squid stocks\n", "Section::::Plot summary.:\"Dark Quetzal\".\n", "Taste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food and/or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.\n" ]	[ "Humans cannot explain what water tastes like " ]	[ "The taste of the water is dependent on what kind of water it is, for example, the water can be full of minerals and the taste can be compared to other things." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans cannot explain what water tastes like ", "Cannot explain what water tastes like." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The taste of the water is dependent on what kind of water it is, for example, the water can be full of minerals and the taste can be compared to other things.", "You can explain waters taste. Sometimes it tastes metallic, or mineraly. " ]
2018-07996	What information does Newton's first law of motion contain that isn't already contained in Newton's second law?	I believe the other replies are a bit misleading. The first law isn't a special case of the second, at least not at heart. Newton's laws of motion are meant to create a very definitive understanding of how motion works, so while it's common to assume the definition of things like "reference frames" before even talking about Newton's laws, Newton's goal was to create a single consistent theory of motion, with no unspoken assumptions. The second law, F = ma, is only valid in so-called "inertial" reference frames. What is an inertial reference frame? Well... If you just started with the second law, you're stuck. It doesn't say anything about what an inertial reference frame is. The first law is what establishes this, and this is why it is stated before the second law. The first law defines inertial reference frames as frames where you the following properties are true: * Objects observed with no forces acting on them, which are at rest, stay at rest * Objects observed with no forces acting on them, which are moving at some constant speed, stay in motion with the same speed and direction Technically, the second law is useless unless you know in what kinds of reference frames (i.e. coordinates) it is valid in. If I measure forces and accelerations while spinning around on a merry-go-round, then F will not be equal to the mass times the acceleration, in that rotating frame. Of course, by the first law, we can tell that the merry-go-round reference frame isn't inertial. I think this is the closest thing to an explanation of why there are three laws of motion in Newtonian physics rather than just two. If anyone has any disagreement with it, I would be interested to know your thoughts. A longer explanation containing considerably more physics can be found [here]( URL_0 ).	[ "Section::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- According to Polybius, in 211 BC, Lyciscus of Acarnania argued that the Lacedaemonians should abandon their treaty with the Aetolian League because of fundamentally changed circumstances. That is perhaps the earliest recorded example of the principle of \"rebus sic stantibus\" at work.\n\nBULLET::::- Elizabeth I of England sought to amend the 1585 Treaty of Nonsuch on the grounds of fundamentally changed circumstances, but her efforts have not been well regarded by modern jurists.\n", "Newton's laws hold only with respect to a certain set of frames of reference called Newtonian or inertial reference frames. Some authors interpret the first law as defining what an inertial reference frame is; from this point of view, the second law holds only when the observation is made from an inertial reference frame, and therefore the first law cannot be proved as a special case of the second. Other authors do treat the first law as a corollary of the second. The explicit concept of an inertial frame of reference was not developed until long after Newton's death.\n", "According to modern ideas of how Newton was using his terminology, the law is understood, in modern terms, as an equivalent of:\n\nThis may be expressed by the formula F = p', where p' is the time derivative of the momentum p. This equation can be seen clearly in the Wren Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, in a glass case in which Newton's manuscript is open to the relevant page.\n\nMotte's 1729 translation of Newton's Latin continued with Newton's commentary on the second law of motion, reading:\n", "The above statements hint that the second law is merely a definition of formula_4, not a precious observation of nature. However, current physics restate the second law in measurable steps: (1)defining the term 'one unit of mass' by a specified stone, (2)defining the term 'one unit of force' by a specified spring with specified length, (3)measuring by experiment or proving by theory (with a principle that every direction of space are equivalent), that force can be added as a mathematical vector, (4)finally conclude that formula_5. These steps hint the second law is a precious feature of nature.\n", "The sense or senses in which Newton used his terminology, and how he understood the second law and intended it to be understood, have been extensively discussed by historians of science, along with the relations between Newton's formulation and modern formulations.\n\nSection::::Laws.:Newton's second law.:Impulse.\n\nAn impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time Δ\"t\", and it is given by\n\nSince force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that\n\nThis relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of the second law.\n", "De motu corporum in gyrum\n\nDe motu corporum in gyrum (\"On the motion of bodies in an orbit\") is the presumed title of a manuscript by Isaac Newton sent to Edmond Halley in November 1684. The manuscript was prompted by a visit from Halley earlier that year when he had questioned Newton about problems then occupying the minds of Halley and his scientific circle in London, including Sir Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke.\n", "BULLET::::- 3 Definitions:\n\nBULLET::::- 4 Hypotheses:\n\n(Newton's later first law of motion is to similar effect, Law 1 in the \"Principia\".)\n\nThen follow two more preliminary points:\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Lemmas:\n\nThen follows Newton's main subject-matter, labelled as theorems, problems, corollaries and scholia:\n\nSection::::Contents.:Theorem 1.\n", "In \"Little Lost Robot\" several NS-2, or \"Nestor\", robots are created with only part of the First Law. It reads:\n", "I of Newton\n\n\"I of Newton\" is the second segment of the twelfth episode from the first season (1985–86) of the television series \"The Twilight Zone\".\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Newton used the third law to derive the law of conservation of momentum; from a deeper perspective, however, conservation of momentum is the more fundamental idea (derived via Noether's theorem from Galilean invariance), and holds in cases where Newton's third law appears to fail, for instance when force fields as well as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mechanics. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "Newton's laws of motion\n\nNewton's laws of motion are three physical laws that, together, laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it, and its motion in response to those forces. More precisely, the first law defines the force qualitatively, the second law offers a quantitative measure of the force, and the third asserts that a single isolated force doesn't exist. These three laws have been expressed in several ways, over nearly three centuries, and can be summarised as follows:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nemo debet esse iudex in propria\" : \"No one shall be a judge in his own case.\" In the past it was thought that it included just two rules, namely (1) \"nemo debet esse iudex in propria causa\" (no one shall be a judge in his own case).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nemo ius ignoratur censetur\" : \"Not knowing the law is harmful.\" Everyone should know the law. This is used in European Law-countries with a history of Roman law; the 'sentence' was first made by Aristotle.\n", "Section::::Mysticism.:Law’s Admiration for Isaac Newton and Jakob Böhme.\n\nLaw greatly admired both Isaac Newton, whom he called “this great philosopher” and Jakob Böhme, “the illuminated instrument of God”. In part I of The Spirit of Love (1752) Law wrote that in the three properties of desire one can see the “Ground and Reason” of the three great “laws of matter and motion lately discovered [by Sir Isaac Newton]”. Law added that he “need[ed] no more to be told that the illustrious Sir Isaac [had] ploughed with Behmen’s heifer” which had led to the discovery of these laws. \n", "Philosopher James H. Moor says that if applied thoroughly they would produce unexpected results. He gives the example of a robot roaming the world trying to prevent harm from all humans.\n\nMarc Rotenberg, President and Executive Director of the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) and Professor of information privacy law at Georgetown Law, argues that the Laws of Robotics should be expanded to include two new laws:\n\nBULLET::::- a Fourth Law, under which a Robot must be able to identify itself to the public (\"symmetrical identification\")\n", "The correct equation of motion for a body whose mass \"m\" varies with time by either ejecting or accreting mass is obtained by applying the second law to the entire, constant-mass system consisting of the body and its ejected/accreted mass; the result is\n\nwhere u is the velocity of the escaping or incoming mass relative to the body. From this equation one can derive the equation of motion for a varying mass system, for example, the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.\n", "BULLET::::- Another episode of the long-running British SF television show \"Doctor Who\", entitled \"Robot\", explores implications of a robot programmed with a modified zeroth law instead of the first law as part of its Prime Directive.\n", "So long as the force acting on a particle is known, Newton's second law is sufficient to describe the motion of a particle. Once independent relations for each force acting on a particle are available, they can be substituted into Newton's second law to obtain an ordinary differential equation, which is called the \"equation of motion\".\n\nAs an example, assume that friction is the only force acting on the particle, and that it may be modeled as a function of the velocity of the particle, for example:\n", "The entire book is written in an operational way, giving instructions to the reader instead of telling them what \"is\". In accordance with G. Spencer-Brown's interest in paradoxes, the only sentence that makes a statement that something is, is the statement, which says no such statements are used in this book. Except for this one sentence the book can be seen as an example of E-Prime.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed.\n\nLaw II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impress'd.\n\nLaw III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.\n\nSection::::Laws.:Newton's first law.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2003-2008 Comedy/Horror animated TV show \"The Grimm Adventures of Billy and Mandy\" featured a show intro in which the character of Mandy would walk onto an empty screen, say something dire, grim, or creepy, and walk off after which the show would begin. One of these featured Mandy saying \"Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law\", taken from verse I:40.\n\nBULLET::::- The book was part of a cipher published by an enigmatic organization Cicada 3301.\n", "Law added that in the mathematical system of Newton these three properties of desire, i.e. “attraction, equal resistance, and the orbicular motion of the planets as the effect of them”, are treated as facts and appearances, whose ground appears not to be known. However, Law wrote, it is in “our Behmen, the illuminated Instrument of God” that:\n", "He had previously also traced an inventory of Newton's estate at the time of his death in the records of the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, which were kept at Somerset House. de Villamil described the list as \"so complete and so detailed that we could easily re-furnish every room in Newton's house (if it still existed) as it was at the time of his death\". \n\nHe included it in his biography \"Newton, The Man\", which was published in 1931 with a preface by Albert Einstein.\n", "BULLET::::2. A robot must obey the orders by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.\n\nBULLET::::3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.\n\nNear the end of his book \"Foundation and Earth\", a zeroth law was introduced:\n\nAdaptations and extensions exist based upon this framework. As of 2011 they remain a \"fictional device\".\n\nSection::::EPSRC / AHRC principles of robotics.\n", "It took nearly two centuries for the current formulation of Kepler's work to take on its settled form. Voltaire's \"Eléments de la philosophie de Newton\" (Elements of Newton's Philosophy) of 1738 was the first publication to use the terminology of \"laws\". The \"Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers\" in its article on Kepler (p. 620) states that the terminology of scientific laws for these discoveries was current at least from the time of Joseph de Lalande. It was the exposition of Robert Small, in \"An account of the astronomical discoveries of Kepler\" (1814) that made up the set of three laws, by adding in the third. Small also claimed, against the history, that these were empirical laws, based on inductive reasoning.\n", "Around this time, Goddard read Newton's \"Principia Mathematica\", and found that Newton's Third Law of Motion applied to motion in space. He wrote later about his own tests of the Law:\n\nSection::::Education and early studies.:Academics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10792	Why does it seem like so many people hate the sound of other people chewing?	it's called misophonia (which means, literally, the hatred of sound) and it's awful, i know. it's apparently a type of synesthesia. it used to be just chewing for me but now it extends to breathing, sniffling, etc, really any "body sounds" here's a link with more info: [ URL_0 ]( URL_0 )	[ "BULLET::::- When Lois wipes off Stewie's fake pencil mustache, Stewie compares the saliva being cleaned on his upper lip to the time he had dinner with Martin Landau. A cutaway shows Martin Landau having a distinct speech pattern by not chewing up his food as he speaks.\n", "BULLET::::- The Smoking Family: A family of serial smokers who only spend their money on their incredibly heavy addiction to cigarettes. They have all lost their voices (due to throat cancer) so they have to rely on voice boxes to communicate.\n\nBULLET::::- The Sewer Workers: Two sewer workers who find strange ways of amusing themselves in the sewer, including playing with faeces.\n", "Section::::Multimodal perception.:Lip reading.\n\nLip reading is a multimodal process for humans. By watching movements of lips and face, humans get conditioned and practice lip reading. Silent lip reading activates the auditory cortex. When sounds are matched or mismatched with the movements of the lips, temporal sulcus of the left hemisphere becomes more active.\n\nSection::::Multimodal perception.:Integration effect.\n", "Chew and Spit is often associated with and may be a potential gateway to more severe dieting behaviors. Individuals who use CS as a compensatory behavior are more likely to be diagnosed or develop eating disorders. The likelihood is dependent upon the severity of food obsession present. Treatments to eliminate the behavior of chewing and spiting have not yet been developed. However, given the correlation with eating disorders, research suggest treatments that are used for eating disorders such as, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, may also be effective for eliminating Chewing and Spitting behaviors. \n\nSection::::Frequency and tendency.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nChew and Spit has not received much attention in the research industry regarding treatment, long term effects of chewing and spitting, and its associations with other behaviors and eating disorders. More research is needed on his topic to further understand the effect this behavior has on individuals physically and psychologically.\n", "Speech may be affected by a tongue thrust swallowing pattern. Sounds such as /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ are produced by placing the tongue on the upper alveolar ridge, and therefore a tongue thrust may distort these sounds . \n\nChewing and swallowing with dysfunctional muscle patterning (as in a tongue thrust) is not as effective as a normal chewing and swallowing motion. \n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Common restaurant manners include using the knife and fork properly, refraining from burping and placing elbows on a table, placing your napkin on your lap and leaving it folded on the table after use, and eating neatly. Chewing open-mouthed (including chewing gum), slurping loudly, burping and talking with a full mouth are considered very rude. If you do any of these things accidentally, say \"pardon me\" or \"excuse me.\"\n\nBULLET::::- It is considered bad manners to pick one's teeth with the fingers in public.\n\nSection::::Shared expectations.:Driving.\n", "Section::::Standards of pronunciation.\n\nAll speakers must adhere to some standard of pronunciation in order to be understood by others. But standards vary among groups, and the extent to which any group has authority to claim that their standard is better, or even that they have the right to impose such a standard, is often the main source of contention.\n", "Distorting or playing with food is unacceptable. Eating at a moderate pace is important, as eating too slowly may imply a dislike of the food and eating too quickly is considered rude. Generally, it is acceptable to burp, slurp while at the table. \n\nStaring at another diner's plate is also considered rude. It is inappropriate to make sounds while chewing. Certain Indian food items can create sounds, so it is important to close the mouth and chew at a moderate pace.\n", "The following alleged motives found in many works have been claimed (with corresponding argumentation) to be invalid by Grzega (2004): decrease in salience, reading errors, laziness, excessive phonetic shortness, difficult sound combinations, unclear stress patterns, cacophony.\n\nSection::::Lexical change.:Processes.\n", "Benjamin Munson (professor)\n\nBenjamin Munson is a professor and chair of Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences University of Minnesota. His research relates to relationships among speech perception, speech production, and vocabulary growth in children. The bulk of his research has examined how speech perception, production, and word knowledge interact during development in typically developing children, in children with Speech Sound Disorder, in children with Developmental Language Disorder, in adult second-language learners, and in adults with age-related hearing impairment. He has also studied how people convey and perceive sexuality through phonetic variation. \n", "In September 2011, BLR branched out from pop singers to politicians with a \"bad lip-reading\" of Texas governor and US Presidential hopeful Rick Perry. BLR replaced clips of Perry with invented dialogue matched to his lip movements. After airing on \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\", the video was featured by news and media outlets across the United States, leading to a sudden surge in Bad Lip Reading's popularity. Following the Perry spoof, BLR released bad lip-readings of President Obama, Republican presidential candidates Michele Bachmann, Mitt Romney, Herman Cain, Ron Paul, Newt Gingrich, and Rick Santorum.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe earliest record of Aboriginal chewing is found in Joseph Banks's 1770 journal:\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Section::::Critical response.\n", "The lips of the mouth can be used in a similar way to create a similar sound, as any toddler or trumpeter can demonstrate. A rubber balloon, inflated but not tied off and stretched tightly across the neck produces a squeak or buzz, depending on the tension across the neck and the level of pressure inside the balloon. Similar actions with similar results occur when the vocal cords are contracted or relaxed across the larynx.\n\nSection::::Place of articulation (passive).\n", "A similar vacuum activity to tongue rolling is 'vacuum chewing' by pigs. In this behaviour, pigs perform all the activities associated with chewing but with no substrate in their mouth. This abnormal behaviour can represent 52–80% of all stereotyped behaviours.\n", "Kono Oto Tomare! Sounds of Life\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Pronunciation.\n\nThe teeth play a major role in speech. Some letter sounds require the lips and/or tongue to make contact with teeth for proper pronunciation of the sound, and lack of teeth will obviously affect the way in which an edentulous individual can pronounce these sounds.\n\nFor example, the consonant sounds of the English language \"s\", \"z\", \"j\", and \"x\" are achieved with tooth-to-tooth contact; \"d\", \"n\", \"l\", \"t\", and \"th\" are achieved with tongue-to-tooth contact; the fricatives \"f\" and \"v\" are achieved through lip-to-tooth contact. These sounds are very difficult to properly enunciate for the edentulous individual.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Mike Applebee.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "The increased use of sound bites in news media has been criticized, and has led to discussions on journalistic and media ethics. According to the Code of Ethics of the Society of Professional Journalists, journalists should \"make certain that headlines, news teases and promotional material, photos, video, audio, graphics, sound bites and quotations do not misrepresent. They should not oversimplify or highlight incidents out of context.\" \n", "Their 1998 single \"From Your Mouth\" peaked at #17 on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks chart, supported by an unusual music video directed by Roman Coppola, featuring champion hot-dog eater Hirofumi Nakajima removing vast quantities of food 'from his mouth'. The video footage is actually a single take played in reverse, which was achieved after five other takes.\n", "Although speech perception is considered to be an auditory skill, it is intrinsically multimodal, since producing speech requires the speaker to make movements of the lips, teeth and tongue which are often visible in face-to-face communication. Information from the lips and face supports aural comprehension and most fluent listeners of a language are sensitive to seen speech actions (see McGurk effect). The extent to which people make use of seen speech actions varies with the visibility of the speech action and the knowledge and skill of the perceiver.\n\nSection::::Process.:Phonemes and visemes.\n", "Dancing Samburu were included in a MasterCard commercial. Samburu runners were famously portrayed in a late 1980s Nike commercial, in which a Samburu man's words were translated into English as the Nike slogan “Just Do It.” This was corrected by anthropologist Lee Cronk, who seeing the commercial alerted Nike and the media that the Samburu man was saying “I don’t want these. Give me big shoes.” Nike, in explaining the error, admitted to having improvised the dialogue and stated “we thought nobody in America would know what he said.\" \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00810	Why is salt cube shaped?	Because of its crystal atomic structure, crystals arange them selves in a very organized fashion depending on what they are made up of.	[ "One of the more unusually shaped Haloarchaea is the \"Square Haloarchaeon of Walsby\". It was classified in 2004 using a very low nutrition solution to allow growth along with a high salt concentration, square in shape and extremely thin (like a postage stamp). This shape is probably only permitted by the high osmolarity of the water, permitting cell shapes that would be difficult, if not impossible, under other conditions.\n\nSection::::As exophiles.\n", "Two stem from a diapir base, and the third from a sheet base. The sheet becomes a source-fed thrust, not unlike the thrust piercement, it takes advantage of local fault planes to rise. The difference between the two diapir bases, is that one, termed a plug-fed thrust, has a sediment cap over the top, preventing the salt from freely flowing until building pressure forces it through the cap; the other, a plug-fed extrusion, lacks the sediment cap and is allowed to flow freely.\n\nSection::::Types of surface structures.\n", "Salt-wing intrusions are technically underground structures; found in shortening, or compressional, systems, they form radial salt wedges between detached bedding planes. However, the caps on them can be eroded away, revealing the salt and transforming it into an extrusive advance.\n\nSection::::Types of surface structures.:Extrusive advance.\n", "Section::::Evolution histories.\n\nIn order for originally horizontal beds to form the allochthonous salts, they must first break free of their geological restraints. The first base structure can be formed in a combination of six ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. Reactive piercement – a normal fault synrift relieves pressure above the salt layer. This causes the salt to flow into the area of lower pressure to maintain its equilibrium.\n\nBULLET::::2. Active piercement – salt moves through sediments where there are no structures to take advantage of.\n\nBULLET::::3. Erosional piercement – overlying sediments are eroded away, revealing the present salt dome.\n", "In the images above, the star cupolae have been given a consistent colour scheme to aid identifying their faces: the base \"n\"/\"d\"-gon is red, the base 2\"n\"/\"d\"-gon is yellow, the squares are blue, and the triangles are green. The cuploids have the base \"n\"/\"d\"-gon red, the squares yellow, and the triangles blue, as the other base has been withdrawn.\n\nSection::::Anticupola.\n", "The \"tasik\" is poured into special clay pots and hung in walls in a special furnace. These are boiled for a few hours in the furnace, continually replenishing the pots with more \"tasik\" once some evaporate. Eventually, the pots will crack, revealing the solidified mass of salt. The salt mass will be initially very hot, and it usually takes a few hours before it is cool enough to be handled. They are sold along with the broken domed pots which has given them the nickname \"the dinosaur egg\" in international markets due to their appearance.\n\nSection::::Production.:Guimaras and Capiz.\n", "Rather than cubic crystals, kosher salt has a flat plate-like shape and may also have a hollow pyramidal shape. The flat form is usually made when cubic crystals are forced into this shape under pressure, usually between rollers. The pyramidal salt crystals are generally made by an evaporative process called the Alberger process. This salt is usually manufactured with a grain size larger than table salt grains.\n", "Pre-dating the work of Stern, a paper by the American oceanographer Henry Stommel discussed the creation of a large-scale salt finger in which a column of water would be surrounded by a membrane that would allow diffusion of temperature but not salinity. Once primed by the upward movement of the colder and fresher intermediate water, the resultant \"perpetual salt fountain\" would be able to draw energy (heat) from the local ocean water stratification.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- \"M. s. swaynei\" is found in the Jubba Valley region of southern Ethiopia, southern Somalia, and far northern Kenya; its back is brown-grey.\n", "The regular dodecagon features prominently in many buildings. The Torre del Oro is a dodecagonal military watchtower in Seville, southern Spain, built by the Almohad dynasty. The early thirteenth century Vera Cruz church in Segovia, Spain is dodecagonal. Another example is the Porta di Venere (Venus' Gate), in Spello, Italy, built in the 1st century BC has two dodecagonal towers, called \"Propertius' Towers\".\n\nRegular dodecagonal coins include:\n\nBULLET::::- British threepenny bit from 1937 to 1971, when it ceased to be legal tender.\n\nBULLET::::- British One Pound Coin, introduced in 2017.\n\nBULLET::::- Australian 50-cent coin\n\nBULLET::::- Fijian 50 cents\n", "There were two well-known theories as to the origin of the upheaval. One theory was the upheaval is a salt dome, an anticlinal structure which occurs when a salt diapir is pushed up by the weight of overlying rocks.\n", "Salt deformation is the change of shape of natural salt bodies in response to forces and mechanisms that controls salt flow. Such deformation can generate large salt structures such as underground salt layers, salt diapirs or salt sheets at the surface. Strictly speaking, salt structures are formed by rock salt that is composed of pure halite (NaCl) crystal. However, most halite in nature appears in impure form, therefore rock salt usually refers to all rocks that composed mainly of halite, sometimes also as a mixture with other evaporites such as gypsum and anhydrite. Earth's salt deformation generally involves such mixed materials.\n", "The Northern Temple's first recess contains a round stone pillar and a rectangular slab held vertically ahead of the pillar. Resting on the slab are spherical hollows which may have served as holders in which to stand small libation jars. Jars excavated from the site are characterized by a specifically oval base, designed to stand upright when placed in the slab.\n", "Section::::Types of surface structures.:Thrust advance.\n\nThrust advances return to salt sheets as their primary base structure, and form because salt provides a weak detachment layer for faulting systems. When force is applied in such systems, the buried sheet will advance along the hanging wall. There are three driving processes in this type of advance; gravitational pressure of both the salt and overlying sediments, spreading of the margin and general plate tectonics.\n\nSection::::Types of surface structures.:Open-toed advance.\n", "Some famous locations in the United States where columnar jointing can be found are the Devils Tower in Wyoming, the Devils Postpile in California and the Columbia River flood basalts in Oregon, Washington and Idaho. Other famous places include the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland and Fingal's Cave on the island of Staffa, Scotland.\n\nSection::::Places.:Devils Tower.\n", "BULLET::::- The usual Catalan pentakis dodecahedron, a convex hexecontahedron with sixty isosceles triangular faces illustrated in the sidebar figure. It is a Catalan solid, dual to the truncated icosahedron, an Archimedean solid. The critical height of each of the pyramids above the faces of the original unit dodecahedron is\n\nBULLET::::- As the heights of the pentagonal pyramids are raised, at a certain point adjoining pairs of triangular faces merge to become rhombi, and the shape becomes a rhombic triacontahedron.\n", "Other compounds having different elements in the corners, various atoms or groups bonded to the corners are all part of this class of structures.\n\nInorganic cubane-type clusters include selenium tetrachloride, tellurium tetrachloride, sodium silox, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- The kite base is merely two valley folds that bring two adjacent edges of the square together to lie on the square's diagonal.\n\nBULLET::::- The fish base consists of two radial folds against a diagonal reference crease on each of two opposite corners. The flaps that result on the other two corners are carefully folded downwards in the same direction. In other words, it consists of two side-by-side rabbit ears.\n", "When salt extrudes and flows at the surface, it becomes a salt glacier (also known as a salt fountain). Unlike underground salt structures, when rock salt is uncovered, it is exposed to rainwater, wind and heat from the sun that could lead to rapid deformation of salt structure within a short time, which can be daily to seasonal.\n\nSection::::Salt dynamics.:Surface salt structure.:Uplift of salt glaciers.\n", "Being a cube that is a perfect ten feet on each side, it is specifically and perfectly \"adapted\" to its native environment, the standard, by dungeon corridors which were ubiquitous in the earliest \"Dungeons & Dragons\" modules.\n\nSection::::Publication history.\n\nThe gelatinous cube first appeared in the original \"Dungeons & Dragons\" \"white box\" set (1974), and its first supplement, \"Greyhawk\" (1975).\n\nThe gelatinous cube appeared in the \"Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set\" (1977, 1981, 1983). The gelatinous cube also appeared in the \"Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia\" (1991).\n", "Open-toed advances can either evolve from the dissolution of salts from an extrusive advance structure, or it could have evolved from a plug-fed thrust. They are partially buried advances where only the advancing edge, called the toe, is open to flow, which is controlled by a combination of gravitational forces and differential pressure of the overlying sediments. There are three described sediment roof types: synclinal basins – isolated patches of consolidated sediments, prograding roof – a growing sheet of sediments, and salt breakout – where the salt had to force its way through the overlying sediments.\n", "The shape first appears (or survives) as an element in the capitals of columns around the time of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, recurring in some capitals of the 1st century CE. In some of these, as at the Great Chaitya at the Karla Caves, and the verandahs to Caves 3, 10 and 17 at the Pandavleni Caves, the amalaka is \"boxed\" with a rectangular framework cage.\n", "Minyan Ware from the Middle Helladic I period is decorated in the form of grooves on the upper shoulder of kantharoi and bowls. During the Middle Helladic II period, stamped concentric circles and \"festoons\" (or parallel semicircles) became a common characteristic of decoration especially on Black (or Argive) Minyan Ware.\n\nSection::::Areas of production.\n", "Eventually, over millions of years, the salt will pierce and break through the overlying sediment, first as a dome-shaped, and then a mushroom-shaped, fully formed salt diapir. If the rising salt diapir breaches the surface, it can become a flowing salt glacier. In cross section, these large domes may be anywhere from across, and extend as deep as .\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Only a good sun exposure allows the hat to obtain a good roundness.\n\nA delicate meshing of fibers of bamboo, in the method of the weaving of the founds of chairs or rocking chairs, called \"le won\", comes on the main structure and forms the head size.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]

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