Datasets:

tasksource
/

CREPE

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (3)

train · 3.46k rows

id stringlengths 10 10	question stringlengths 18 294	comment stringlengths 28 6.89k	passages sequence	presuppositions sequence	corrections sequence	labels sequence	raw_presuppositions sequence	raw_labels sequence	raw_corrections sequence
2018-01798	How do scientists accurately reconstruct the faces of archeologically recovered skulls?	Well generally speaking they use the same techniques as forensic facial reconstruction which is part art and part science. They compare it to the closest thing they know of and they extrapolate facial features from there (at the most basic level). [Here]( URL_0 ) is a good write-up in Wikipedia.	[ "Reconstructions only reveal the type of face a person \"may\" have exhibited because of artistic subjectivity. The position and general shape of the main facial features are mostly accurate because they are greatly determined by the skull.\n\nSection::::Dog's head forensic reconstruction.\n\nAn image of the forensic model of a dog skull found at Cuween Hill Chambered Cairn was published by Sci-News.com on April 22, 2019.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nHermann Welcker in 1883 and Wilhelm His, Sr. in 1895, were the first to reproduce three-dimensional facial approximations from cranial remains. Most sources, however, acknowledge His as the forerunner in advancing the technique. His also produced the first data on average facial tissue thickness followed by Kollmann and Buchly who later collected additional data and compiled tables that are still referenced in most laboratories working on facial reproductions today.\n", "The method for cranial sutures was developed by Owen Lovejoy and Richard Meindl in 1985. (Lovejoy and Meindl 1985). This technique looks at the degree of closure for each cranial suture and then adds them together to get a composite score that will give an age range. This technique can be difficult when working with remains that have had cranial modification. \n", "Because a standard method for creating three-dimensional forensic facial reconstructions has not been widely agreed upon, multiple methods and techniques are used. The process detailed below reflects the method presented by Taylor and Angel from their chapter in Craniofacial Identification in Forensic Medicine, pgs 177-185. This method assumes that the sex, age, and race of the remains to undergo facial reconstruction have already been determined through traditional forensic anthropological techniques.\n", "Using a skull casting, Taylor also revealed, for the first time, the sculpted face of the Red Queen of Palenque, a Mayan queen who lived 1000 years ago. Teamed with a bioarchaeologist, Taylor's work on this historical case is documented in a video entitled \"Mesoamerica: Forensic Artist Gives the Red Queen a Face\".\n", "A similar case is the \"Olmec-style\" face mask in jade; hardstone carvings of a face in a mask form. Curators and scholars refer to these as \"Olmec-style\", as to date no example has been recovered in an archaeologically controlled Olmec context, although they appear Olmec in style. However they have been recovered from sites of other cultures, including one deliberately deposited in the ceremonial precinct of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), which would presumably have been about 2,000 years old when the Aztecs buried it, suggesting these were as valued and collected as Roman antiquities were in Europe.\n\nSection::::Individual skulls.\n", "Through the thousands of years from the time that Arago XXI died, changes occurred to the structure of the bone known as \"taphonomic transformations\", modifying the shape of skull. These had caused parts of the bone to become slightly bent, including the front of the skull to lose symmetry. Three-dimensional imaging using computers allowed a morphometric analysis of the skull and this was used to compare with skull dimensions of \"Homo sapiens sapiens\" and also to obtain a computer generated image of the hominins face.\n", "After the cast is set, colored plastics or the colored ends of safety matches are attached at twenty-one specific \"landmark\" areas that correspond to the reference data. These sites represent the average facial tissue thickness for persons of the same sex, race, and age as that of the remains. From this point on, all features are added using modeling clay.\n", "Most commonly, however, only the bony skull and minimal or no other soft tissues are present on the remains presented to forensic artists. In this case, a thorough examination of the skull is completed. This examination focuses on, but is not limited to, the identification of any bony pathologies or unusual landmarks, ruggedness of muscle attachments, profile of the mandible, symmetry of the nasal bones, dentition, and wear of the occlusal surfaces. All of these features have an effect on the appearance of an individual's face.\n", "There are two different types of methods that researchers use for aging an individual: phase and component. The phase method looks at various traits on a bone and lumps them together into a phase. These methods include the pubic symphysis and first and fourth rib. The component method looks and scores each trait individually, assuming that degradation follows a set pattern. Cranial sutures is a good example of this method. The auricular surface displays both types of methods, where the traits are placed in a phase to create a composite score to be placed in an overall phase.\n", "The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children has developed methods to estimate the likenesses of the faces of UIDs whose remains were too deteriorated to create a two-dimensional sketch or reconstruction due to the lack of tissue on the bones. A skull would be placed through a CT scanner and the image would then be manipulated with a software that was intended for architecture design, to add digital layers of tissue based on the UID's age, sex and race.\n\nSection::::Identification process.:Reconstructions.:Examples.\n\nThe following gallery depicts various ways UIDs have been reconstructed. None of those shown have been identified.\n", "In 2009 the C2RMF researchers published results of further investigations to establish when the Paris skull had been carved. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis indicated the use of lapidary machine tools in its carving. The results of a new dating technique known as quartz hydration dating (QHD) demonstrated that the Paris skull had been carved later than a reference quartz specimen artifact, known to have been cut in 1740. The researchers conclude that the SEM and QHD results combined with the skull's known provenance indicate it was carved in the 18th or 19th century.\n\nSection::::Individual skulls.:Smithsonian Skull.\n", "Facial reconstruction originated in two of the four major subfields of anthropology. In biological anthropology, they were used to approximate the appearance of early hominid forms, while in archaeology they were used to validate the remains of historic figures. In 1964, Mikhail Gerasimov was probably the first to attempt paleo-anthropological facial reconstruction to estimate the appearance of ancient peoples\n", "Premiering in 2012, Taylor acted as part of the \"Texas Team\" for the television series \"The Decrypters\", produced by Shine Television of London. In the US, the show aired on the National Geographic Channel. For each episode, the team, primarily composed of anthropologists from the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State University (FACTS), examined historically interesting skeletal cases using modern investigative methods. Taylor's task was to assess the various skulls and artistically determine how the individual would have appeared in life.\n", "Facial reconstruction has been featured as part of an array of forensic science methods in fictional TV shows like \"\" and \"NCIS\" and their respective spinoffs in the \"CSI\" and \"NCIS\" franchises.\n\nIn \"Bones\", a long-running TV series centered around forensic analysis of decomposed and skeletal human remains, facial reconstruction is featured in the majority of episodes, used much like a police artist sketch in police procedurals. Regular cast character Angela Montenegro, the Bones team's facial reconstruction specialist, employs 3D software and holographic projection to \"give victims back their faces\" (as noted in the episode, \"A Boy in a Bush\").\n", "The second reconstruction is by Michael Brassell, who was trained in forensic facial imaging by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. He works with the Department of Justice/Maryland State Police Missing Persons Unit on the project dubbed NamUs, a database organized by the National Institute of Justice and the Department of Justice that allows smaller police departments and families of missing persons to try to identify skeletal remains.\n", "In 2004 it was for Dr. Andrew Nelson of the University of Western Ontario, Department of Anthropology that noted Canadian artist Christian Corbet created the first forensic facial reconstruction of an approximately 2,200-year-old mummy based on CT and laser scans. This reconstruction is known as the Sulman Mummy project.\n\nSection::::Technique for creating a three-dimensional clay reconstruction.\n", "Recently, facial reconstruction has been part of the process used by researchers attempting to identify human remains of two Canadian Army soldiers lost in World War I. One soldier was identified through DNA analysis in 2007, but due to DNA deterioration, identifying the second using the same techniques failed. In 2011, the second of the soldiers' remains discovered at Avion, France were identified through a combination of 3-D printing software, reconstructive sculpture and use of isotopic analysis of bone.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Burns, Karen Ramey. \"Forensic Anthropology Training Manual\". New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999\n", "Like the face, the skull and teeth can also indicate a person's life history and origin. Forensic scientists and archaeologists use metric and nonmetric traits to estimate what the bearer of the skull looked like. When a significant amount of bones are found, such as at Spitalfields in the UK and Jōmon shell mounds in Japan, osteologists can use traits, such as the proportions of length, height and width, to know the relationships of the population of the study with other living or extinct populations.\n", "A reconstruction of a model of a \"H. naledi\" head was made by measuring the bones of the head, the eye sockets, and where the jaw muscles insert to the skull. The measurements were used to make the model, including skin, eyes, and hair.\n\nIn May 2018, anthropologists provided evidence that the brain of \"H. naledi\" was small, but nonetheless complex, sharing structural similarities with the modern human brain.\n\nSection::::Fossils.:Diet.\n", "After these different views of the remains have been obtained, it is possible to create a three-dimensional reconstruction of the body. This brings into focus details which may have been missed on the axial imagining. Algorithm manipulation is used to create the rotational 3D images. In paleoradiology, the 3D images provide a greater understanding of the remains themselves. For example, in 2002, a study of nine Egyptian mummies found that by using the 3D reconstructions they could see the preservation of soft tissues, such as the penis on one male body and braided hair on female remains. The 3D modelling also illustrated discrepancies between the remains, as some had their internal organs removed while others had not. \n", "The first researchers to look at the skull for estimating sex was Gy Acsadi and J. Nemerskeri. Philip Walker revised their method because it only looked at individuals of European descent. Walker looked at individuals from the Hamann-Todd collection as well as the Terry collection. The two collections included European, American, Native Americans, and African descent. Walker looked at five different features on the skull. Each trait is be placed into a range of one (gracile) to five (robust), with individuals ranking at a three to be more indeterminate. All traits are averaged together to see if an individual is female or male.\n", "The idea of the anatomical method was first introduced by Thomas Dwight in 1894. However, in 1956, G. Fully was the first one to create and apply this type of method. In his method, Fully adds together all components that contribute to statue and a soft-tissue correction. (Fully 1965). Michelle Raxter, Benjamin Auerbach, and Christoper Ruff revised Fully’s method adding an age correction factor to the combined components and soft-tissue correction.\n", "The muscles of facial expression and the soft tissue around the eyes are added next. Additional measurements are made according to race (especially for those with eye folds characteristic of Asian descent) during this stage. Next, tissues are built up to within one millimeter of the tissue thickness markers and the ears (noted as being extremely complicated to reproduce) are added. Finally, the face is \"fleshed,\" meaning clay is added until the tissue thickness markers are covered, and any specific characterization is added (for example, hair, wrinkles in the skin, noted racial traits, glasses, etc.). The skull of Mozart was the basis of his facial reconstruction from anthropological data. The bust was unveiled at the \"Salon du Son\", Paris, in 1991.\n", "In March 2007, a team led by Timothy Bromage, an anthropologist at New York University, reconstructed the skull of KNM-ER 1470. The new construction looked very ape-like (possibly due to an exaggerated rotation of the skull) and the cranial capacity based on the new construction was reported to be downsized from 752 cm³ to about 526 cm³, although this seemed to be a matter of some controversy. Bromage said his team's reconstruction included biological knowledge not known at the time of the skull's discovery, of the precise relationship between the sizes of eyes, ears, and mouth in mammals. A newer publication by Bromage has since increased the cranial capacity estimate back up, from 526 cm³ to 700 cm³.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05015	Why does spicy food mess with our stomachs?	Capsaicin is a chemical compound that makes food spicy. In our digestive tract, capsaicin attaches to pain receptors and signals the body to get rid of whatever is causing the pain.. so you end up with cramps and other reactions. People with higher levels of pain receptors in their intestines have a greater reaction to spicy foods.	[ "One of the most causes of chronic stomach problems is use of medications. Use of aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to treat various pain disorders can damage lining of the stomach and cause ulcers. Other medications like narcotics can interfere with stomach emptying and cause bloating, nausea, or vomiting.\n", "Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n", "BULLET::::- Drug solubility: The absorption of some drugs can be drastically reduced if they are administered together with food with a high fat content. This is the case for oral anticoagulants and avocado.\n\nBULLET::::- Formation of non-absorbable complexes:\n\nBULLET::::- Chelation: The presence of di- or trivalent cations can cause the chelation of certain drugs, making them harder to absorb. This interaction frequently occurs between drugs such as tetracycline or the fluoroquinolones and dairy products (due to the presence of Ca).\n", "Certain drugs require an acid stomach pH for absorption. Others require the basic pH of the intestines. Any modification in the pH could change this absorption. In the case of the antacids, an increase in pH can inhibit the absorption of other drugs such as zalcitabine (absorption can be decreased by 25%), tipranavir (25%) and amprenavir (up to 35%). However, this occurs less often than an increase in pH causes an increase in absorption. Such as occurs when cimetidine is taken with didanosine. In this case a gap of two to four hours between taking the two drugs is usually sufficient to avoid the interaction.\n", "The distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produces compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols (sulfur-containing compounds), as well as the inorganic gas hydrogen sulfide. These are the same compounds responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of spicy foods may result in the spices being undigested and adding to the odor.\n", "BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n", "BULLET::::- Chinese style sauces such as black bean and chili.\n\nSection::::Heat.\n\nThe heat, or burning sensation, experienced when consuming hot sauce is caused by capsaicin and related capsaicinoids. The burning sensation is not \"real\" in the sense of damage being wrought on tissues. The mechanism of action is instead a chemical interaction with the neurological system.\n", "The World Health Organization says care should be taken in the preparation and storage of salsas and any other types of sauces, since many raw-served varieties can act as growth media for potentially dangerous bacteria, especially when unrefrigerated.\n\nIn 2002 a study by the University of Texas–Houston, found sauces contaminated with \"E. coli\" in:\n\nBULLET::::- 66% of the sauces from restaurants tested in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- 40% of those from restaurants tested in Houston, Texas\n", "Because they tend to have strong flavors and are used in small quantities, spices tend to add few calories to food, even though many spices, especially those made from seeds, contain high portions of fat, protein, and carbohydrate by weight. However, when used in larger quantity, spices can also contribute a substantial amount of minerals and other micronutrients, including iron, magnesium, calcium, and many others, to the diet. For example, a teaspoon of paprika contains about 1133 IU of Vitamin A, which is over 20% of the recommended daily allowance specified by the US FDA.\n", "BULLET::::- Binding with proteins. Some drugs such as sucralfate binds to proteins, especially if they have a high bioavailability. For this reason its administration is contraindicated in enteral feeding.\n\nBULLET::::- Finally, another possibility is that the drug is retained in the intestinal lumen forming large complexes that impede its absorption. This can occur with cholestyramine if it is associated with sulfamethoxazol, thyroxine, warfarin or digoxin.\n", "BULLET::::- Allicin, the active piquant flavor chemical in uncooked garlic, and to a lesser extent onions (see those articles for discussion of other chemicals in them relating to pungency, and eye irritation)\n\nBULLET::::- Allyl isothiocyanate (also allyl mercaptan), the active piquant chemical in mustard, radishes, horseradish, and wasabi\n\nBULLET::::- Capsazepine, capsaicin antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerol and shogaol, the active piquant flavor chemicals in ginger\n\nBULLET::::- Iodoresiniferatoxin, an ultrapotent capsaicin antagonist found in \"Euphorbia resinifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- List of investigational analgesics\n\nBULLET::::- Naga Viper pepper, Bhut Jolokia Pepper, Carolina Reaper, Trinidad Moruga Scorpion; some of the world's most capsaicin-rich fruits\n", "Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n", "BULLET::::- Gastrointestinal tract: Approximately 90% of all patients have abdominal pain or cramps with or without nausea and vomiting. Diarrhea may develop and may be severe with colic. Sweating, fever, and sometimes bloody stools may occur together with diarrhea.\n\nBULLET::::- Liver: Asymptomatic and transient increases of liver enzymes (AST and ALT) are noted frequently (up to 27%). No case of symptomatic liver damage has ever been seen so far.\n\nBULLET::::- Sensitivity reactions: Urticaria, rash, pruritus and eosinophilia in white blood cell counts\n\nBULLET::::- Other locations/body as a whole: Lower back pain, myalgia, arthralgia, fever, sweating, various cardiac arrhythmias, and hypotension\n", "As of 2007 there was no evidence showing that weight loss is directly correlated with ingesting capsaicin. Well-designed clinical studies had not been performed because the pungency of capsaicin in prescribed doses under research prevents subject compliance. A 2014 meta-analysis of further trials that had been run, found weak, uneven evidence suggesting that consuming capsaicin before a meal might slightly reduce the amount of food that people eat and might drive food choice toward carbohydrates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The primary treatment is removal from exposure. Contaminated clothing should be removed and placed in airtight bags to prevent secondary exposure.\n", "Early research showed capsaicin to evoke a long-onset current in comparison to other chemical agonists, suggesting the involvement of a significant rate-limiting factor. Subsequent to this, the TRPV1 ion channel has been shown to be a member of the superfamily of TRP ion channels, and as such is now referred to as . There are a number of different TRP ion channels that have been shown to be sensitive to different ranges of temperature and probably are responsible for our range of temperature sensation. Thus, capsaicin does not actually cause a chemical burn, or indeed any direct tissue damage at all, when chili peppers are the source of exposure. The inflammation resulting from exposure to capsaicin is believed to be the result of the body's reaction to nerve excitement. For example, the mode of action of capsaicin in inducing bronchoconstriction is thought to involve stimulation of C fibers culminating in the release of neuropeptides. In essence, the body inflames tissues as if it has undergone a burn or abrasion and the resulting inflammation can cause tissue damage in cases of extreme exposure, as is the case for many substances that cause the body to trigger an inflammatory response.\n", "A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. However, with newly developed radiation sterilization methods, the risk of Salmonella contamination is now lower.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n", "The majority of side effects develop due to the release of the contents of the parasites as they are killed and the consequent host immune reaction. The heavier the parasite burden, the heavier and more frequent the side effects normally are.\n", "BULLET::::- Diarrhoea (oral, 1% to 8% ; IM, less than 4%)\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive Salivation (oral, 1% to 10% ; IM, 1% to 4%)\n\nBULLET::::- Increased appetite (oral, adult, more than 5%; pediatric, 4% to 47% ; IM, 4%)\n\nBULLET::::- Indigestion (oral, 2% to 10% ; IM, 6%)\n\nBULLET::::- Nausea (oral, 4% to 16% ; IM, 3% to 4%)\n\nBULLET::::- Vomiting (oral, 10% to 25% ; IM, less than 4%)\n\nBULLET::::- Upper abdominal pain (oral, adult, more than 5%; pediatric, 13% to 16%)\n\nBULLET::::- Xerostomia (oral, 4% to 15% ; IM, up to 7%)\n", "Section::::Toxicity.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Acute health effects.\n\nCapsaicin is a strong irritant requiring proper protective goggles, respirators, and proper hazardous material-handling procedures. Capsaicin takes effect upon skin contact (irritant, sensitizer), eye contact (irritant), ingestion, and inhalation (lung irritant, lung sensitizer). in mice is 47.2 mg/kg.\n\nPainful exposures to capsaicin-containing peppers are among the most common plant-related exposures presented to poison centers. They cause burning or stinging pain to the skin and, if ingested in large amounts by adults or small amounts by children, can produce nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and burning diarrhea. Eye exposure produces intense tearing, pain, conjunctivitis, and blepharospasm.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Treatment after exposure.\n", "Some flavor elements in spices are soluble in water; many are soluble in oil or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to herbs which are usually added late in preparation.\n\nSection::::Handling spices.:Salmonella contamination.\n", "Simeprevir also inhibits intestinal (but not liver) CYP3A. For instance, midazolam, an anticonvulsant, gets metabolized by intestinal CYP3As and taking it with simeprevir can lead to increased midazolam levels that can be toxic.\n", "Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.\n", "BULLET::::- Other ingredients - heat is also affected by other ingredients. Mustard oil and wasabi can be added to increase the sensation of heat but generally, more ingredients in a sauce dilute the effect of the chilis, resulting in a milder flavor. Many sauces contain tomatoes, carrots, onions, garlic or other vegetables and seasonings. Vinegar or lemon juice are also common ingredients in many hot sauces because their acidity will help keep the sauce from oxidizing, thus acting as a preservative.\n\nSection::::Remedies.\n", "Some drugs, such as the prokinetic agents increase the speed with which a substance passes through the intestines. If a drug is present in the digestive tract's absorption zone for less time its blood concentration will decrease. The opposite will occur with drugs that decrease intestinal motility.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00297	Why did Britain and France declared war on Germany over the invasion of Poland, but not the USSR?	Although the English and French were not on the best terms with the Soviet Union, the Soviets had not been acting aggressively for the last few years, unlike the Germans. Before the Polish invasion, the Germans broke the Treaty of Versailles, militarized the Rhineland, annexed Austria, invade the Sudetenland (a German part of Czechoslovakia), and then the rest of Czechoslovakia. The British and French had a valid cause to declare war on Germany for each of these transgressions, but they didn't. The final act that finally pushed the world into war was the German invasion of Poland. The Soviet invasion of western Poland was their first act. The English and French had to no agreement to protect Poland from the Soviet Union, nor did they warn the Soviet Union against expansion, nor was the Soviet Union bound by treat not to take up arms. Also, fighting a war against Germany made geographic sense, but not a war against the Soviet Union. The soldiers could attack Germany from France with support from across the English channel. However, attacking the Soviet Union would first require going through German, then through Poland, and into the heart of Russia. The English and French did not want to go to war at all, so spreading themselves across Europe was not going to happen. In fact, the English and French did do anything during the Polish invasion, which showed how unwilling they were to fight at that point in time.	[ "Further, neither the British Empire, nor the French, ever declared war upon the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland on 17 September 1939 (16 days after Nazi Germany invaded from the West) and held sway over the former-Polish territory at the war's conclusion, having become a part of the Allied front in the course of World War II. At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the post-war Yalta Conference in 1945 sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London.\n", "The USSR may not declare war on Germany prior to 1942, provided Germany maintains a sufficient garrison on the Eastern Front (i.e. Finland, East Prussia and occupied Poland). The USA may declare war on Germany (sic - in reality Hitler declared war on the USA) in Spring 1942.\n", "BULLET::::- Italy and Romania also declared war on the Soviet Union.\n", "On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September, surprising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbentrop, \"Now what?\" France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17 September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.\n", "That changed, however, in the course of the political crisis of 1939, when two military and political blocs were formed: Anglo-French and German-Italian, both of which were interested in an agreement with the USSR. Moscow then had the opportunity to choose with whom and under what conditions to negotiate.\n", "On August 25, surprising Hitler, Britain entered into a defense pact with Poland. Consequently, Hitler postponed his planned August 26 invasion of Poland to September 1. In accordance with the defense pact, Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3.\n\nSection::::Consequences in Finland, Poland, the Baltic States and Romania.\n\nSection::::Consequences in Finland, Poland, the Baltic States and Romania.:Initial invasions.\n", "BULLET::::- A conference was held at the Berghof between Hitler, Keitel, Jodl, Raeder, Brauchitsch, Halder and Puttkamer. Raeder reported that the navy would not be ready for Operation Sea Lion until mid-September, if then, so discussion turned to attacking the Soviet Union instead. Hitler believed that defeating Russia would make Germany unbeatable and force Britain to come to terms, so an invasion of the Soviet Union was set for spring 1941.\n\nBULLET::::- The British began the action codenamed Operation Hurry, with the goal of ferrying fourteen aircraft to Malta for the garrison's defence.\n", "Section::::Britain.:Britain and France.\n\nIn spring 1939 both Britain and France formally announced they would defend the integrity of Poland. Hitler did not believe they would fight in such a faraway hopeless cause, and he invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Britain and France declared war on September 3, 1939. But there was little they could or did do to help Poland.\n\nSection::::Britain.:Britain and France.:Plans for intervention in the Winter War against USSR.\n", "Even though Japan had been invading in China since 1937, the conventional view is that the war began on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the Drang nach Osten. Within two days the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union joined with Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and to divide Eastern Europe.\n", "Starting in mid-March 1939, the Soviet Union, Britain and France traded a flurry of suggestions and counterplans regarding a potential political and military agreement. The Soviet Union feared Western powers and the possibility of a \"capitalist encirclements\", had little faith either that war could be avoided or in the Polish army, and wanted guaranteed support for a two-pronged attack on Germany. Britain and France believed that war could still be avoided and that the Soviet Union, weakened by purges, could not serve as a main military participant. France, as a continental power, was more anxious for an agreement with the USSR than Britain, which was more willing to make concessions and more aware of the dangers of an agreement between the USSR and Germany. On April 17, Soviet foreign minister Maxim Litvinov outlined a French–British–Soviet mutual assistance pact between the three powers for five to 10 years, including military support, if any of the powers were the subject of aggression.\n", "Even before Trianon, Hungary had begun to plan its secret air force and lay the administrative groundwork. In the 1920s, however, the victorious powers' Aviation Supervisory Committee quashed every effort to circumvent disarmament. In 1932, a plan for a future air force of forty-eight squadrons was approved. In March 1935, the Director of the Aviation Office, who was \"de facto\" commander of the secret air force, urged \"set[ting] the goal that we become a serious opponent towards at least one of the surrounding Little Entente states.\" By 1 October 1937, the secret air force reached a strength of 192 planes.\n", "On May 26, German officials feared a potential positive result to come from the Soviets talks regarding proposals by Britain and France. On May 30, fearing potential positive results from a British and French offer to the Soviets, Germany directed its diplomats in Moscow that \"we have now decided to undertake definite negotiations with the Soviet Union.\" The ensuing discussions were channelled through the economic negotiation, because the economic needs of the two sides were substantial and because close military and diplomatic connections had been severed in the mid-1930s, leaving these talks as the only means of communication.\n", "Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.\n", "BULLET::::1. Moscow had been captured by the Axis\n\nBULLET::::2. The Kwantung Army was three times the size of the Soviets' Far Eastern forces\n\nBULLET::::3. A civil war had started in Siberia.\n\nThe decision to declare war on the United States allowed the United States to enter the European war in support of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union without much public opposition.\n", "On 21 August 1939, Hitler received a message from Stalin reading, \"The Soviet Government has instructed me to say they agree to Herr von Ribbentrop's arrival on 23 August\". That same day, Hitler ordered German mobilization. The extent that Hitler was influenced by Ribbentrop's advice can be seen in Hitler's orders for a limited mobilization against Poland alone. Weizsäcker recorded in his diary throughout the spring and summer of 1939 repeated statements from Hitler that any German–Polish war would be only a localized conflict and that there was no danger of a general war as long as the Soviet Union could be persuaded to stay neutral. Hitler believed that British policy was based upon securing Soviet support for Poland, which led him to perform a diplomatic U-turn and support Ribbentrop's policy of rapprochement with the Soviet Union as the best way of ensuring a local war. This was especially the case as decrypts showed the British military attaché to Poland arguing that Britain could not save Poland in the event of a German attack, and only Soviet support offered the prospect of Poland holding out.\n", "Section::::World War II.:1939: Poland.\n\nOn 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, sixteen days after Germany invaded Poland from the west. Subsequent military operations lasted for the following 20 days and ended on 6 October 1939 with the two-way division and annexation of the entire territory of the Second Polish Republic by Germany and the Soviet Union. The Soviet invasion of Poland was secretly approved by Germany following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 23 August 1939.\n", "The day after the Pact was signed, the French and British military negotiation delegation urgently requested a meeting with Voroshilov. On August 25, Voroshilov told them \"[i]n view of the changed political situation, no useful purpose can be served in continuing the conversation.\" That day, Hitler told the British ambassador to Berlin that the pact with the Soviets prevented Germany from facing a two front war, changing the strategic situation from that in World War I, and that Britain should accept his demands regarding Poland. Surprising Hitler, Britain signed a mutual-assistance treaty with Poland that day, causing Hitler to delay the planned August 26 invasion of western Poland.\n", "The Invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, started the war in Europe, and the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. Poland fielded the third biggest army among the European Allies, after the Soviet Union and United Kingdom, but before France. The country never officially surrendered to the Third Reich, nor to the Soviet Union, primarily because neither of the totalitarian powers requested an official surrender, and continued the war effort under the Polish government in exile. However, the Soviet Union unilaterally considered the flight to Romania of President Ignacy Mościcki and Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły on 17 September as an evidence of \"debellatio\" causing the extinction of the Polish state, and consequently declared itself allowed to invade (according to the Soviet position: \"to protect\") Eastern Poland starting from the same day. It must be noted that the Red Army had invaded the Second Polish Republic several hours before the Polish president fled to Romania. The Soviets invaded on 17 September at 3 a.m., while president Mościcki crossed the Polish-Romanian border at 21:45 on the same day. The Polish military continued to fight, and the last major battle of the war, the Battle of Kock, ended at 1 a.m. on 6 October 1939 with the Independent Operational Group \"Polesie,\" a field army, surrendering due to lack of ammunition.\n", "BULLET::::- Died: William Demaine, 80, Australian newspaper editor and politician\n\nSection::::August 19, 1939 (Saturday).\n\nBULLET::::- Hitler received a message from his ambassador in Moscow reporting that the Russians were prepared to meet with Joachim von Ribbentrop on August 27 or 28 to negotiate and sign a non-aggression pact. Hitler welcomed the news but wanted the date of von Ribbentrop's visit to be brought forward.\n", "In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran. Roosevelt told Stalin that he hoped that Britain and America opening a second front against Germany could initially draw 30–40 German division from the Eastern Front. Stalin and Roosevelt, in effect, ganged up on Churchill by emphasizing the importance of a cross-channel invasion of German-held northern France, while Churchill had always felt that Germany was more vulnerable in the \"soft underbelly\" of Italy (which the Allies had already invaded) and the Balkans. The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of Southern France. Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled.\n", "Poland had a million-man army, but fell far short in terms of leadership, training, and equipment. The Polish military budget was about 2% of Germany's; its commanding general, Marshal Smigly-Rydz was not well prepared for the challenge. The Soviet Red Army then invaded Poland without a formal declaration of war on 17 September 1939, immediately after the undeclared war between the Soviet Union and the Empire of Japan at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan) in the Far East had ended. Poland was then partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union.\n\nSection::::Axis.:Germany.:Worldwide Fascist groups.\n", "On the same day, Soviet party leader Joseph Stalin received a telegram from German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, suggesting that German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop fly to Moscow for diplomatic talks. (After receiving a lukewarm response throughout the spring and summer, Stalin abandoned attempts for a better diplomatic relationship with France and the United Kingdom.)\n", "BULLET::::- December 15 – The epic historical romance film \"Gone with the Wind\", starring Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable, Olivia de Havilland and Leslie Howard, premieres at Loew's Grand Theatre in Atlanta. Based on Margaret Mitchell's best-selling novel of 1936, it is the longest American film made up to this date (at nearly four hours) and rapidly becomes the highest-grossing film up to this time.\n\nBULLET::::- December 18 – WWII – Battle of the Heligoland Bight: RAF Bomber Command, on a daylight mission to attack \"Kriegsmarine\" ships in the Heligoland Bight, is repulsed by Luftwaffe fighter aircraft.\n", "During the summer of 1939, the Soviet Union discussed the entry of a political and military pact with contingents representing France and Britain, while also discussing a potential deal with Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- The Finnish government asks the United Kingdom and France to send 100 bombers with crews and bombs to Finland at once to assist in the war with the Soviet Union.\n\nSection::::Events.:March.\n\nBULLET::::- The United States begins construction of a U.S. Navy seaplane base at Midway Atoll.\n\nBULLET::::- March 2 – The United Kingdom and France promise to send 100 bombers with crews and bombs to assist Finland at once, but do not follow through on the promise.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04565	When someone has a heart attack while eating, lets say, a triple bypass burger, is it due to the food being eaten at that moment? Or is it just prior health issues with unlucky timing?	It is possible for a heart attack to occur as a sudden reaction to something else. For example, it is possible to scare someone, causing their body to release a substance called adrenaline, which at high enough levels could disrupt the heart's ability to function properly. I suppose that if someone was so excited by a burger, that could theoretically cause a heart attack. However, when it comes to absorbing nutrients and other materials from food, that requires the food to travel through various parts of your digestive system, which typically takes hours. It's unlikely that anyone could eat food and before they're done with the meal, they absorbed enough of something like cholesterol to kill them.	[ "On April 21, 2012, a woman fell unconscious while eating a Double Bypass Burger, drinking alcohol, and smoking.\n\nIn February 2013, an official spokesman and daily patron, 52-year-old John Alleman, died of an apparent heart attack while waiting at a bus stop in front of the restaurant.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nHeart Attack Grill has deliberately courted controversy as a marketing strategy. The restaurant has been criticized and drawn complaints for its breastaurant-style portrayal of nurses.\n", "The Quadruple Bypass Burger with has been identified as one of the \"world's worst junk foods.\" It consists of four half-pound beef patties, twenty strips of bacon, eight slices of American cheese, a whole tomato and half an onion served in a bun coated with lard.\n", "On February 11, 2012, a customer suffered what was reported to be an apparent heart attack while eating a \"Triple Bypass Burger\" at the restaurant. Restaurant owner Jon Basso called 9-1-1 and the customer was taken to the hospital. Reportedly patrons thought it was a stunt and started taking photos. Basso later said, \"I actually felt horrible for the gentleman because the tourists were taking photos of him as if it were some type of stunt. Even with our own morbid sense of humor, we would never pull a stunt like that.\"\n", "Section::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery.\n\nAlthough the passage of food into the gastrointestinal tract results in increased blood flow to the stomach and intestines, this is achieved by diversion of blood primarily from skeletal muscle tissue and by increasing the volume of blood pumped forward by the heart each minute. The flow of oxygen and blood to the brain is extremely tightly regulated by the circulatory system and does not drop after a meal.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Turkey and tryptophan.\n", "BULLET::::- In Las Vegas, Nevada at the Heart Attack Grill there is a Quadruple Bypass Burger. The burger weighs two pounds and the name is derived from the fact that the burger is unhealthy. The restaurant is known for being honest about the fact that their food is unhealthy. They allow people that weigh over to eat free.\n", "Diagnosis is often made based on symptoms in the absence of heart abnormalities. A gastroenterologist will perform a colonoscopy, endoscopy, and ultrasound to locate or eliminate problems in the abdomen.\n\nDetermining the cause of Roemheld syndrome is still not an exact science. If you have an ultrasound or sleep study, ensure that you know how to reproduce the symptoms, as it is difficult to detect any abnormalities when symptoms have subsided.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment of the primary gastroenterological distress is the first concern, mitigation of gastric symptoms will also alleviate cardiac distress.\n", "The cranium dysfunction mechanical changes in the gut can compress the vagus nerve at any number of locations along the vagus, slowing the heart. As the heart slows, autonomic reflexes are triggered to increase blood pressure and heart rate.\n", "In people with heart failure, those with a body mass index between 30.0–34.9 had lower mortality than those with what would normally be considered an ideal weight. This has been attributed to the fact that people often lose weight as they become progressively more ill. Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. People with class I obesity and heart disease do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight who also have heart disease. In people with greater degrees of obesity, however, risk of further events is increased. Even after cardiac bypass surgery, no increase in mortality is seen in the overweight and obese. One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more aggressive treatment obese people receive after a cardiac event. Another found that if one takes into account COPD in those with peripheral artery disease, the benefit of obesity no longer exists.\n", "The risk factors associated with steatosis are varied, and include diabetes mellitus, protein malnutrition, hypertension cell toxins, obesity, anoxia, and sleep apnea. As the liver is the primary organ of lipid metabolism it is most often associated with steatosis (fatty liver disease); however, it may occur in any organ, commonly the kidneys, heart, and muscle.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "Since most cases of AF are secondary to other medical problems, the presence of chest pain or angina, signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid gland) such as weight loss and diarrhea, and symptoms suggestive of lung disease can indicate an underlying cause. A history of stroke or TIA, as well as high blood pressure, diabetes, heart failure, or rheumatic fever may indicate whether someone with AF is at a higher risk of complications. The risk of a blood clot forming in the left atrial chamber of the heart, breaking off, and then traveling in the bloodstream can be assessed using the CHADS2 score or CHA2DS2-VASc score.\n", "Heart Attack Grill\n\nThe Heart Attack Grill is an American hamburger restaurant in downtown Las Vegas, Nevada (formerly located in Chandler, Arizona). It makes a point of serving food that is high in fat, sugar and cholesterol; in other words, food that, if eaten regularly, would cause a heart attack, hence the name.\n\nSection::::Theme and menu.\n", "High blood glucose levels or repeated glycemic \"spikes\" following a meal may promote type 2 diabetes by increasing systemic glycative stress other oxidative stress to the vasculature and also by the direct increase in insulin levels, while individuals who followed a low-GI diet over many years were at a significantly lower risk for developing both type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and age-related macular degeneration than others.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Functional characteristics.:Antihyperglycemic effect.\n", "As with any procedure involving the heart, complications can sometimes, though rarely, cause death. The mortality rate during angioplasty is 1.2%. Sometimes chest pain can occur during angioplasty because the balloon briefly blocks off the blood supply to the heart.\n\nThe risk of complications is higher in:\n\nBULLET::::- People aged 65 and older\n\nBULLET::::- People who have kidney disease or diabetes\n\nBULLET::::- Women\n\nBULLET::::- People who have poor pumping function in their hearts\n\nBULLET::::- People who have extensive heart disease and blockages\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "BULLET::::- Liver injury: elevated serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) (also known as aspartate transaminase, AST) and lactic acid dehydrogenase (LDH)\n\nBULLET::::- Kidney injury: elevated serum creatinine\n\nBULLET::::- Intestinal injury: signs of necrotizing enterocolitis, such as bloody stools\n\nCHARGE syndrome, a specific, rare pattern of genetic abnormalities, commonly features conotruncal and aortic arch heart defects, which can include an interrupted aortic arch.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nThere are three primary classifications for an interrupted aortic arch, on the basis of the specific, anatomic anomaly. They are:\n\nBULLET::::- Type A: The aortic arch is interrupted after the left subclavian artery.\n", "Many risk factors for myocardial infarction are potentially modifiable, with the most important being tobacco smoking (including secondhand smoke). Smoking appears to be the cause of about 36% and obesity the cause of 20% of coronary artery disease. Lack of physical activity has been linked to 7–12% of cases. Less common causes include stress-related causes such as job stress, which accounts for about 3% of cases, and chronic high stress levels.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Diet.\n", "The most serious risks are death, stroke, ventricular fibrillation (non-sustained ventricular tachycardia is common), myocardial infarction (heart attack, MI), and aortic dissection. A heart attack during or shortly after the procedure occurs in 0.3% of cases; this may require emergency coronary artery bypass surgery. Heart muscle injury characterized by elevated levels of CK-MB, troponin I, and troponin T may occur in up to 30% of all PCI procedures. Elevated enzymes have been associated with later clinical outcomes such as higher risk of death, subsequent MI, and need for repeat revascularization procedures. Angioplasty carried out shortly after an MI has a risk of causing a stroke, but this is less than the risk of a stroke following thrombolytic drug therapy.\n", "Family studies are necessary to determine if Caroli disease is due to inheritable causes. Regular follow-ups, including ultrasounds and liver biopsies, are performed.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nMortality is indirect and caused by complications. After cholangitis occurs, patients typically die within 5–10 years.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nCaroli disease is typically found in Asia, and diagnosed in persons under the age of 22. Cases have also been found in infants and adults. As medical imaging technology improves, diagnostic age decreases.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nJacques Caroli, a gastroenterologist, first described a rare congenital condition in 1958 in Paris, France.\n", "In a case where a young woman had been stabbed to death, witnesses reported that she had eaten her last meal at a particular fast food restaurant. However, her stomach contents did not match the limited menu of the restaurant, leading investigators to conclude that she had eaten at some point after being seen in the restaurant. The investigation led to the apprehension of a man whom the victim knew, and with whom she had shared her actual final meal (Dickison, 2000).\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nChest pain that occurs regularly with activity, after eating, or at other predictable times is termed stable angina and is associated with narrowings of the arteries of the heart.\n\nAngina that changes in intensity, character or frequency is termed unstable. Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction. In adults who go to the emergency department with an unclear cause of pain, about 30% have pain due to coronary artery disease.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n", "In a Japanese study, also in 2016, Hamada et al., studied 8328 patients hospitalised with severe acute pancreatitis. In-hospital mortality rates were not significantly different: 5.9% vs 5.4% for weekend and weekday admissions, respectively (OR = 1.06; 95% CI 0.83-1.35).\n\nIn summary, there is reasonable evidence (from larger studies) of a ‘weekend effect’ in UGIB (including bleeding gastroduodenal angiodysplasia) and paracentesis for cirrhosis and ascites; but little effect in AVH alone, and none in ERCP for cholangitis, or pancreatitis.\n\nSection::::Published research: Disease-specific (selected) patients: Gastroenterology, nephrology and other medical specialties.:Nephrology and transplantation.\n", "Binge eating symptoms include high blood pressure, which can cause heart disease if it is not treated. Many patients recognize an increase in the levels of cholesterol. The chance of being diagnosed with gallbladder disease increases, which affects an individual's digestive tract.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nEating disorders result in about 7,000 deaths a year as of 2010, making them the mental illnesses with the highest mortality rate.\n\nOne study in the United States found a higher rate in college students who are transgender.\n\nSection::::Economics.\n", "Section::::Health concerns.\n\nGoff told the Associated Press that his restaurant served more healthy alternatives, like salads and sandwiches that were not deep-fried. Dr. Nicholas Lang, professor of surgery at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, advised against ever consuming a hamdog at any point in one's lifetime. \"If you choke that down, you might as well find a heart surgeon because you are going to need one,\" he added.\n", "The leading cause of unexpected death after otherwise routine surgery is myocardial infarction. Worldwide, 9% of surgical inpatients over the age of 45 years have a postoperative myocardial infarction — making infarctions by far the leading cause of unexpected death after otherwise routine surgery.\n\nOnly 15% of postoperative infarctions present with chest pain, and 65% are entirely clinically silent which means that they will not be detected without routine blood testing for troponin (a sensitive biomarker for myocardial injury). Thirty-day mortality in patients with elevated postoperative troponin (with or without symptoms) is 10% which represents a factor-of-five increase.\n", "High trans-fat intake has adverse effects on blood lipids and circulating inflammatory markers, and elimination of trans-fat from diets has been widely advocated. In 2018 the World Health Organization estimated that trans fats were the cause of more than half a million deaths per year.\n\nThere is evidence that higher consumption of sugar is associated with higher blood pressure and unfavorable blood lipids, and sugar intake also increases the risk of diabetes mellitus. High consumption of processed meats is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, possibly in part due to increased dietary salt intake.\n", "Risk factors indicating an increased risk of death include older age, female gender, a history of liver cirrhosis, biliary narrowing due to cancer, acute kidney injury and the presence of liver abscesses. Complications following severe cholangitis include kidney failure, respiratory failure (inability of the respiratory system to oxygenate blood and/or eliminate carbon dioxide), abnormal heart rhythms, wound infection, pneumonia, gastrointestinal bleeding and myocardial ischemia (lack of blood flow to the heart, leading to heart attacks).\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02829	How does Caffeine keep you alert?	As your neurons fire throughout the day, a neurochemical called adenosine builds up in your body. Adenosine is responsible for making you tired. Caffiene molecules have the same size and shape as adenosine and block the neuroreceptors fooling your body into thinking you aren't tired. We interpret this as a jolt of energy. But it's just a temporary fix. Caffeine doesn't eliminate adenosine, it just blocks the signal. So when the caffeine wears off the withdrawal causes you to become increasingly tired, can cause headaches, etc due to the sudden increase of adenosine reaction in your nervous system. So caffeine isn't giving you energy so much as fooling your body into not being tired.	[ "In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in (CNS) neurons. With a continued wakeful state, over time adenosine accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness. When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it. As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness.\n", "Caffeine is the most widely consumed stimulant in North America. Caffeine causes the release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla. In small doses, caffeine can improve endurance. Recently, it has also been shown to delay the onset of fatigue in exercise. The most probable mechanism for the delay of fatigue is through the obstruction of adenosine receptors in the central nervous system. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that decreases arousal and increases sleepiness. By preventing adenosine from acting, caffeine removes a factor that promotes rest and delays fatigue.\n\nSection::::Manipulation.:Carbohydrates.\n", "Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that reduces fatigue and drowsiness. At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and the desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours.\n", "Caffeine\n\nCaffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system.\n", "One neurochemical indicator of sleep debt is adenosine, a neurotransmitter that inhibits many of the bodily processes associated with wakefulness. Adenosine levels increase in the cortex and basal forebrain during prolonged wakefulness, and decrease during the sleep-recovery period, potentially acting as a homeostatic regulator of sleep. Coffee and caffeine temporarily block the effect of adenosine, prolong sleep latency, and reduce total sleep time and quality.\n\nSection::::Timing.:Social timing.\n", "Caffeine dependence\n\nCaffeine is a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature as part of the coffee, tea, yerba mate and other plants. It is also an additive in many consumer products, most notably beverages advertised as energy drinks and colas.\n", "Tablets offer several advantages over coffee, tea, and other caffeinated beverages, including convenience, known dosage, and avoidance of concomitant intake of sugar, acids, and fluids. Manufacturers of caffeine tablets claim that using caffeine of pharmaceutical quality improves mental alertness. These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours.\n\nSection::::Products.:Other oral products.\n", "Section::::Interactions.:Tobacco.\n\nSmoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Birth control.\n\nBirth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Medications.\n\nCaffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for headaches. Caffeine was determined to increase the potency of some over-the-counter analgesic medications by 40%.\n\nThe pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of methylxanthines like caffeine.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n", "Caffeine's mechanism of action is somewhat different from that of cocaine and the substituted amphetamines; caffeine blocks adenosine receptors A and A2A. Adenosine is a by-product of cellular activity, and stimulation of adenosine receptors produces feelings of tiredness and the need to sleep. Caffeine's ability to block these receptors means the levels of the body's natural stimulants, dopamine and norepinephrine, continue at higher levels.\n\nThe \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" describes four caffeine-related disorders including intoxication, withdrawal, anxiety, and sleep.\n\nSection::::Dependence.\n", "Effect of caffeine on memory\n\nCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a psychoactive stimulant drug. It can have both positive and negative effects on different aspects of memory.\n\nSection::::Short-term memory.\n", "Until its identification in plants in 1987, melatonin was for decades thought to be primarily an animal neurohormone. When melatonin was identified in coffee extracts in the 1970s, it was believed to be a byproduct of the extraction process. Subsequently, however, melatonin has been found in all plants that have been investigated. It is present in all the different parts of plants, including leaves, stems, roots, fruits, and seeds, in varying proportions. Melatonin concentrations differ not only among plant species, but also between varieties of the same species depending on the agronomic growing conditions, varying from picograms to several micrograms per gram. Notably high melatonin concentrations have been measured in popular beverages such as coffee, tea, wine, and beer, and crops including corn, rice, wheat, barley, and oats. In some common foods and beverages, including coffee and walnuts, the concentration of melatonin has been estimated or measured to be sufficiently high to raise the blood level of melatonin above daytime baseline values.\n", "Because caffeine is both water- and lipid-soluble, it readily crosses the blood–brain barrier that separates the bloodstream from the interior of the brain. Once in the brain, the principal mode of action is as a nonselective antagonist of adenosine receptors (in other words, an agent that reduces the effects of adenosine). The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to adenosine, and is capable of binding to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them, thereby acting as a competitive antagonist.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:Receptor and ion channel targets.\n", "Caffeine is also an ingredient of several medications, many of them over-the-counter and prescription drugs. The consensus is to consider caffeine a drug with pharmacological effects acting throughout the body.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Section::::Long-term memory.\n\nCaffeine has been shown to have positive, negative, and no effects on long-term memory. When studying the effects of this and any drug, potential ethical restraints on human study procedures may lead researchers to conduct studies involving animal subjects in addition to human subjects.\n", "Caffeine is a stimulant compound belonging to the xanthine class of chemicals naturally found in coffee, tea, and (to a lesser degree) cocoa or chocolate. It is included in many soft drinks, as well as a larger amount in energy drinks. Caffeine is the world's most widely used psychoactive drug and by far the most common stimulant. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily. A few jurisdictions restrict its sale and use. Caffeine is also included in some medications, usually for the purpose of enhancing the effect of the primary ingredient, or reducing one of its side-effects (especially drowsiness). Tablets containing standardized doses of caffeine are also widely available.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of caffeine.\n\nCaffeine enters the bloodstream through the stomach and small intestine and can have a stimulating effect as soon as 15 minutes after consumption. Once it is in the body, caffeine will persist for several hours, and takes about six hours for one half of the caffeine consumed to be eliminated. When caffeine reaches the brain, it increases the secretion of norepinephrine which is related to the “fight or flight” response. The rise in norepinephrine levels increases activity of neurons in areas of the brain and the symptoms resemble those of a panic attack.\n", "Naturally-occurring melatonin has been reported in foods including tart cherries to about 0.17–13.46 ng/g, bananas and grapes, rice and cereals, herbs, plums, olive oil, wine and beer. When birds ingest melatonin-rich plant feed, such as rice, the melatonin binds to melatonin receptors in their brains. When humans consume foods rich in melatonin, such as banana, pineapple, and orange, the blood levels of melatonin increase significantly.\n", "Caffeine can delay or prevent sleep and improves task performance during sleep deprivation. Shift workers who use caffeine make fewer mistakes due to drowsiness.\n\nA systematic review and meta-analysis from 2014 found that concurrent caffeine and -theanine use has synergistic psychoactive effects that promote alertness, attention, and task switching; these effects are most pronounced during the first hour post-dose.\n\nSection::::Use.:Enhancing performance.:Physical.\n", "Section::::Treatments/countermeasures.:Caffeine.\n\nCaffeine is a xanthine derivative that can cross the blood-brain barrier. The caffeine present in coffee or tea exerts its stimulating action by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain. By antagonizing the adenosine receptors caffeine limits the effects of adenosine buildup in the brain and increases alertness and attentiveness. Previous research has shown that coupled with a short nap, consuming caffeine prior to the nap can alleviate the effects of sleep inertia. Nonetheless, individual degree of consumption and tolerance to caffeine may be responsible for variation in its efficacy to reduce sleep inertia symptoms.\n\nSection::::Treatments/countermeasures.:Light.\n", "Light is the strongest stimulus for realigning a person's sleep–wake schedule, and careful control of exposure to and avoidance of bright light to the eyes can speed adjustment to a new time zone. The hormone melatonin is produced in dim light and darkness in humans, and it is eliminated by light.\n\nSection::::Management.:Direction of travel.\n", "Melatonin\n\nMelatonin is a hormone that regulates the sleep–wake cycle. It is primarily released by the pineal gland. As a supplement, it is often used for the short-term treatment of trouble sleeping such as from jet lag or shift work. Evidence of benefit, however, is unclear. One review found onset of sleep occurred 6 minutes faster with use but found no change in total time asleep. It may work as well as the medication ramelteon. It is typically taken by mouth.\n", "Section::::Role in plants.:Abiotic stress response in plants.\n", "Most microsleeps are not clinically significant, however. Individuals who feel sleepy and wish to maintain alertness often consume over-the-counter stimulants such as caffeine in coffee. More specifically, it has been shown that high-frequency low-dose caffeine intake is effective at countering poor work performance effects due to extended wakefulness, confirming the hypothesis that adenosine is a mediator of performance decrements associated with extended wakefulness. Other stimulants that could decrease microsleep frequency include Adderall, amphetamine, cocaine, and tobacco.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Section::::Short-term memory.:Time-of-day effects.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00523	Why are billet parts structurally stronger than cast parts? And why are forged parts stronger than both?	It's all about the grain structure of the metal. Billets have a uniform grain structure from the extrusion operation that formed them before machining. However the grain structure is not oriented to the shape of the part. The act of forging will reshape the grain structure so that it follows the shape of the part thereby increasing its strength. Cast parts have no grain structure.	[ "A billet is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section, with an area less than . Billets are created directly via continuous casting or extrusion or indirectly via hot rolling an ingot or bloom. Billets are further processed via profile rolling and drawing. Final products include bar stock and wire.\n", "In large castings and forgings it is common to add extra material, which is designed to be removed from the casting so that test specimens can be made from it. These specimens may not be exact representation of the whole workpiece because the grain structure may be different throughout. In smaller workpieces or when critical parts of the casting must be tested, a workpiece may be sacrificed to make the test specimens. For workpieces that are machined from bar stock, the test specimen can be made from the same piece as the bar stock.\n", "In many cases the strand may continue through additional rollers and other mechanisms which may flatten, roll or extrude the metal into its final shape.\n\nSection::::Equipment and process.:Casting machines for aluminium and copper.\n\nAluminium and copper can be cast horizontally and can be more easily cast into near net shape, especially strip, due to their lower melting temperatures.\n\nSection::::Equipment and process.:Range of continuously cast sections.\n\nBULLET::::- Casting machines are designated to be billet, bloom or slab casters.\n\nBULLET::::- Slab casters tend to cast sections that are much wider than thick:\n", "Castings may also have large residual stresses due to uneven cooling. Residual stress is often a cause of premature failure of critical components, and was probably a factor in the collapse of the Silver Bridge in West Virginia, United States in December 1967. The eyebar links were castings which showed high levels of residual stress, which in one eyebar, encouraged crack growth. When the crack reached a critical size, it grew catastrophically, and from that moment, the whole structure started to fail in a chain reaction. Because the structure failed in less than a minute, 46 drivers and passengers in cars on the bridge at the time were killed as the suspended roadway fell into the river below.\n", "BULLET::::- Adequate draft is provided; usually at least 3° for aluminium and 5° to 7° for steel.\n\nBULLET::::- Generous fillets and radii are used.\n\nBULLET::::- Ribs are low and wide.\n\nBULLET::::- The various sections are balanced to avoid extreme difference in metal flow.\n\nBULLET::::- Full advantage is taken of fiber flow lines.\n\nBULLET::::- Dimensional tolerances are not closer than necessary.\n", "Carbide, cermet and ceramic tips are plated and then joined to steel to make tipped band saws. The plating acts as a braze alloy.\n\nSection::::Common techniques.:Cast iron \"welding\".\n\nThe \"welding\" of cast iron is usually a brazing operation, with a filler rod made chiefly of nickel being used although true welding with cast iron rods is also available.\n", "The presence of such crack-like entrainment in solid metal articles constitutes a metalworking defect. The continuous casting process used in the initial forming of most wrought alloys is also susceptible to entrainment. Any entrainment defects thus formed are inherited by the wrought products.\n", "Sizing of all openings has significant impact upon the adherence to the certification listing requirements. Therefore, communication between all affected trades is of great importance \"before\" any openings are made, to ensure proper sizing of the openings for cost control and conformance with listing and approval use and compliance.\n", "Section::::Designation.:Cast alloys.\n\nMagnesium casting proof stress is typically 75-200 MPa, tensile strength 135-285 MPa and elongation 2-10%. Typical density is 1.8 g/cm and Young's modulus is 42 GPa. Most common cast alloys are:\n\nSection::::Designation.:Wrought alloys.\n\nMagnesium wrought alloy proof stress is typically 160-240 MPa, tensile strength is 180-440 MPa and elongation is 7-40%. The most common wrought alloys are:\n", "Within the twin-belt continuous casting machine, molten metal progressively solidifies on the mold surfaces as it moves through the mold region, with a sump of molten metal present between the solidifying outer surfaces. Belt coatings, texture, and gas layer modifications are used to fine tune the heat transfer rate from the cast metal to the belt. Full thickness solidification can occur as early as 30% of the way through the mold for thin strip, or up to 2 m beyond the mold exit for large bar where exit water spray cooling and roller support are required.\n", "The potentially detrimental phases may be distributed evenly through the volume of the alloy, or be concentrated on the braze-base interface. A thick layer of interfacial intermetallics is usually considered detrimental due to its commonly low fracture toughness and other sub-par mechanical properties. In some situations, e.g. die attaching, it however does not matter much as silicon chips are not typically subjected to mechanical abuse.\n", "BULLET::::- Symmetrical cross sections are always preferred to nonsymmetrical cross sections because it contains unbalances stresses which lead to warpage in the part and causes damage to the tools. Sometimes if a part cannot be converted into symmetric shape then two of them are clubbed together to form a symmetric shape and they are cut off in two after extrusion.\n\nSection::::Geometry based guidelines.:Tolerances.\n", "There are several methods for forming internal cavities in extrusions. One way is to use a hollow billet and then use a fixed or floating mandrel. A fixed mandrel, also known as a German type, means it is integrated into the dummy block and stem. A floating mandrel, also known as a French type, floats in slots in the dummy block and aligns itself in the die when extruding. If a solid billet is used as the feed material then it must first be pierced by the mandrel before extruding through the die. A special press is used in order to control the mandrel independently from the ram. The solid billet could also be used with a spider die, porthole die or bridge die. All of these types of dies incorporate the mandrel in the die and have \"legs\" that hold the mandrel in place. During extrusion the metal divides, flows around the legs, then merges, leaving weld lines in the final product.\n", "The point at which the material cannot flow is called the \"coherency point\". The point is difficult to predict in mold design because it is dependent on the solid fraction, the structure of the solidified particles, and the local shear strain rate of the fluid. Usually this value ranges from 0.4 to 0.8.\n", "Twin-belt continuous casting is a near net shape casting process, which significantly reduces the need for secondary rolling or forming operations. For example, when casting copper anode plate the cast slab is not rolled but rather sheared directly into distinct anode plates.\n", "Cast threads in metal parts may be finished by machining, or may be left in the as-cast state. (The same can be said of cast gear teeth.) Whether or not to bother with the additional expense of a machining operation depends on the application. For parts where the extra precision and surface finish is not strictly necessary, the machining is forgone in order to achieve a lower cost. With sand casting parts this means a rather rough finish; but with molded plastic or die-cast metal, the threads can be very nice indeed straight from the mold or die. A common example of molded plastic threads is on soda (pop) bottles. A common example of die-cast threads is on cable glands (connectors/fittings).\n", "Countertop components fabricated out of granite and other natural stones are sometimes reinforced with metal rods inserted into grooves cut into the underside of the stone, and bonded in place with various resins. This procedure is called \"rodding\" by countertop fabricators. Most commonly, these rods will be placed near sink cutouts to prevent cracking of the brittle stone countertop during transportation and installation. Data published by the Marble Institute of America shows that this technique results in a 600% increase in the deflection strength of the component.\n", "Internal combustion engines use Babbitt metal which is primarily tin-based because it can withstand cyclic loading. Lead-based Babbitt tends to work-harden and develop cracks but it is suitable for constant-turning tools such as sawblades. \n\nSection::::Traditional Babbitt bearings.\n", "BULLET::::- Hollow Kingpin casters: This type of caster has a tubular rivet that holds the caster together. The hole in the rivet can accept a bolt or a customized stem for any type of mounting requirement.\n\nBULLET::::- Plate casters: This is the most common type of means to mount a caster to a unit and is sometimes called the top plate. Most mounting plates contain four holes used to bolt the caster to the unit. Top plates are offered with various hole patterns to match numerous types of mounting requirements.\n", "Much of the tooling is made of hardened steel or tool steel to maintain and prolong the tool's life. However, when there is a concern of scratching or gouging the work piece, a softer material such as aluminum or bronze is utilized. For example, the clamping block, rotating form block and pressure die are often formed from hardened steel because the tubing is not moving past these parts of the machine. The pressure die and the wiping die are formed from aluminum or bronze to maintain the shape and surface of the work piece as it slides by.\n", "BULLET::::- Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of the extrusion. These defects ruin the piece if it needs to be anodized or the aesthetics are important. In order to get around this the billets may be wire brushed, machined or chemically cleaned before being used.\n\nBULLET::::- This process isn't as versatile as direct extrusions because the cross-sectional area is limited by the maximum size of the stem.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Hydrostatic extrusion.\n", "Section::::Allowances.:Finishing or Machining allowance.\n\nThe surface finish obtained in sand castings is generally poor (dimensionally inaccurate), and hence in many cases, the cast product is subjected to machining processes like turning or grinding in order to improve the surface finish. During machining processes, some metal is removed from the piece. To compensate for this, a machining allowance (additional material) should be given in the casting. the amount of finish allowance depends on the material of the casting,size of casting,volume of production, method of molding, and etc..\n\nSection::::Allowances.:Shake allowance.\n", "BULLET::::- Copper, brass and leaden mallets are typically used on machinery to apply force to parts with a reduced risk of damaging them, and to avoid sparks. As these metals are softer than steel, the mallet is deformed by any excessive force, rather than any steel object it is hitting.\n", "Design parameters include type of mill, milling container, milling speed, milling time, type, size, and size distribution of the grinding medium, ball-to-powder weight ratio, extent of filling the vial, milling atmosphere, process control agent, temperature of milling, and the reactivity of the species.\n\nSection::::Process.\n\nThe process of mechanical alloying involves the production of a composite powder particles by:\n\nBULLET::::1. Using a high energy mill to favor plastic deformation required for cold welding and reduce the process times\n", "Closed shrinkage defects, also known as \"shrinkage porosity\", are defects that form within the casting. Isolated pools of liquid form inside solidified metal, which are called \"hot spots\". The shrinkage defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a nucleation point, so impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects are broken up into \"macroporosity\" and \"microporosity\" (or \"microshrinkage\"), where macroporosity can be seen by the naked eye and microporosity cannot.\n\nSection::::Types.:Gas porosity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00514	When someone makes a weld, why are there sometimes colors that show up on the weld itself? What do they mean?	The colors you are seeing are the metal tempering at different temperatures. If you heat iron (not metal in general, just steel really) to a certain degree, it actually changes color. Then you can "set" that color by cooling the metal to room temp. Colors for steel range from straw-purple if I recall correctly. So you get the rainbow effect because a weld causes uneven heating.	[ "Section::::Notation.\n\nFillet welding notation is important to recognize when reading technical drawings. The use of this notation tells the welder exactly what is expected from the fabricator. \n", "Manufacturers also include the strength that the weld must be. This is indicated by a letter and number combination just before the flat line. Examples of this are \"E70\" meaning the arc electrode must have a tensile strength of . \n", "There are many Computer Aided Engineering tools that are available that can predict where these areas could occur, but a skilled designer will be able to predict where such defects can be found by examining the tool or product.\n\nWeld lines are not found in other manufacturing methods such as Rotational moulding, but can exist in extrusion, especially where there are internal metal supports for a die. The defects are then known as spider lines.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nWeld lines can be caused by several different problems:\n\nBULLET::::- Low temperature of injection moulding machine barrel\n\nBULLET::::- Inadequate back pressure\n", "The symbol for a fillet weld is in the shape of a triangle. This triangle will lie either below a flat line or above it with an arrow coming off of the flat line pointing to a joint. The flat line is called \"reference line\". The side on which the triangle symbol is placed is important because it gives an indication on which side of the joint is to be intersected by the weld. It is recognized that there are two different approaches in the global market to designate the arrow side and other side on drawings; a description of the two approaches is contained in International Standard ISO 2553, they are called \"A-System\" (which is more commonly used in Europe) and \"B-System\" (which is basically the ANSI/AWS system used in the US). In \"A-System\" two parallel lines are used as reference line: one is a continuous line, the other is a dashed line. In the \"B-System\", there is only one reference line, which is a continuous line. If there is a single reference line (B-System) and the triangle is positioned below the line, then the weld is going to be on the arrow side. If there is a single reference line (\"B-System\") and the triangle is positioned above the line, then the weld is going to be on the opposite side of the arrow.\n", "BULLET::::5. The dimensions and other numbers such as the length of the weld or number of spot welds go above and below the reference line.\n\nBULLET::::6. Supplementary symbols go at the junction of the reference line and the arrow tip. One such symbol is a circle to indicate an all-around weld, which goes on every side of the joint.\n\nBULLET::::7. Finish symbols go above the reference line to indicate the surface contour or finish of the weld such as flush, convex or concave.\n", "The weld pool must be carried along the joint in a consistent width and depth, and the motion used to carry the weld pool has a direct effect on the quality of the weld bead. A weld made by starting and carrying a weld pool, without the addition of a filler material, is called an autogenous weld.\n", "Rate of heating, hold times and temperatures, and rate of cooling are all important variables that need to be controlled and monitored precisely, or the desired effects may not be achieved. When PWHT is mandatory by a given industry code, requirements for these variables will be specified.\n\nSection::::Application.:Heating.\n", "The idea of using electrical data analyzed by algorithms to assess the quality of the welds produced in robotic manufacturing emerged in 1995 from research by Associate Professor Stephen Simpson at the University of Sydney on the complex physical phenomena that occur in welding arcs. Simpson realized that a way of determining the quality of a weld could be developed without a definitive understanding of those phenomena.\n\nThe development involved:\n", "If the measurements of the drawing are in mm the welds are likewise measured in mm. For example, the weld would be 3 x 10, the mm being understood automatically.\n\nSection::::Intermittent fillet welds.\n", "In engineering drawings, each weld is conventionally identified by an arrow which points to the joint to be welded. The arrow is annotated with letters, numbers and symbols which indicate the exact specification of the weld. In complex applications, such as those involving alloys other than mild steel, more information may be called for than can comfortably be indicated using the symbols alone. Annotations are used in these cases.\n\nSection::::Component elements.\n\nIn the US, the component elements of the weld specification are:\n\nBULLET::::1. The reference line - the body of the arrow which is the baseline for the specification.\n", "When designing a weld joint, multiple factors are considered.. Some examples of those factors include: desired weld strength, geometry of the parts, material being welded, cosmetic of the joint, whether post processing is an option or not. It is important to balance all of these factors to achieve the optimal final part.\n", "In manufacturing, the Weld line or Knit line or Meld line is the line where two flow fronts meet when there is the inability of two or more flow fronts to \"knit\" together, or \"weld\", during the molding process. These lines usually occur around holes or obstructions and cause locally weak areas in the molded part. Knit lines are considered molding defects, and occur when the mold or/and material temperatures are set too low: thus the materials will be cold when they meet, so that they do not bond perfectly. This can cause a weak area in the part which can cause breakage when the part is under stress. Weld lines therefore occur during machine start-up, when equilibrium conditions have not been met. Mouldings made in this setting-up period must be rejected. \n", "For many industries there are codes and standards that need to be followed when being implemented into service. The quality of the welds made on these materials are important in ensuring people receive safe products. There are not codes made specifically for the welding of advanced thermoplastic composite welds, so the codes for adhesive bonding of plastics and metals are slightly altered, and used in order to properly test these materials. Even though the joining method is different these materials have mechanical requirements they need to meet.\n\nSection::::Weld testing and analysis.\n", "BULLET::::1. a method for handling sampled data blocks by treating them as phase-space portrait signatures with appropriate image processing. Typically, one second's worth of sampled welding voltage and current data are collected from GMAW pulse or short arc welding processes. The data is converted to a 2D histogram, and signal-processing operations such as image smoothing are performed.\n", "Titanium alloys are commonly forge welded. Because of titanium's tendency to absorb oxygen when molten, the solid-state, diffusion bond of a forge weld is often stronger than a fusion weld in which the metal is liquefied. \n\nForge welding between similar materials is caused by solid-state diffusion. This results in a weld that consists of only the welded materials without any fillers or bridging materials. Forge welding between dissimilar materials is caused by the formation of a lower melting temperature eutectic between the materials. Due to this the weld is often stronger than the individual metals.\n\nSection::::Processes.\n", "Section::::Weld testing and analysis.:Ultrasonic- and acoustic-based methods.\n\nUltrasonic testing uses the principle that a gap in the weld changes the propagation of ultrasonic sound through the metal. One common method uses single-probe ultrasonic testing involving operator interpretation of an oscilloscope-type screen.\n\nAnother senses using a 2D array of ultrasonic sensors. Conventional, phased array and time of flight diffraction (TOFD) methods can be combined into the same piece of test equipment. \n\nAcoustic emission methods monitor for sound created by the loading or flexing of the weld.\n\nSection::::Weld testing and analysis.:Peel testing of spot welds.\n", "The quality of a weld depends, besides the weld parameters which are important for the welding process (e.g. voltage, current, wire feed and weld speed) also mainly from the type of input of process energy and of the used filler material. The positioning of the torch exerts a direct influence on the material flow. The heat input for the melting of the component edges and the steady heat flow are, furthermore, directly connected with the torch guidance and exert substantical influence on the weld quality and on the resulting residual stresses.\n", "Section::::Weld testing and analysis.:Optical microscopy.\n", "Weld quality assurance\n\nWeld quality assurance is the use of technological methods and actions to test or assure the quality of welds, and secondarily to confirm the presence, location and coverage of welds. In manufacturing, welds are used to join two or more metal surfaces. Because these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, there is a chance they may fail if not created to proper specification.\n\nSection::::Weld testing and analysis.\n", "Section::::Weld testing and analysis.:Imaging-based methods.\n\nSection::::Weld testing and analysis.:Imaging-based methods.:X-ray.\n\nX-ray-based weld inspection may be manual, performed by an inspector on X-ray-based images or video, or automated using machine vision.\n\nSection::::Weld testing and analysis.:Imaging-based methods.:Visible light imaging.\n\nInspection may be manual, conducted by an inspector using imaging equipment, or automated using machine vision. Since the similarity of materials between weld and workpiece, and between good and defective areas, provides little inherent contrast, the latter usually requires methods other than simple imaging.\n\nOne (destructive) method involves the microscopic analysis of a cross section of the weld.\n", "After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The weld itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded by the heat-affected zone, the area that had its microstructure and properties altered by the weld. These properties depend on the base material's behavior when subjected to heat. The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found.\n", "BULLET::::2. The arrow tip which goes at an angle to the reference line, pointing to the joint to be welded.\n\nBULLET::::3. The tail which goes at the other end of the reference line.\n\nBULLET::::4. The basic welding symbol which goes on the reference line to indicate the shape of the weld such as a fillet or plug. The symbol is placed on the arrow side or other side of the line to indicate which side of the joint the weld goes.\n", "Welder certification\n\nWelder certification, (also known as welder qualification) is a process which examines and documents a welder's capability to create welds of acceptable quality following a well defined welding procedure.\n\nSection::::Method.\n", "When joining two parts together with a seal weld, it may be necessary to first hold them together, by making tack welds. This will be carried out by making very short welds at intervals varying according to the size and weight of the two parts. It is very important that the weld purging process should start for the tack welds, so the undersides of those tacks remain clean and shiny, without any oxidation or discolouration.\n\nSection::::Gases.\n", "A study done through the SAE Fatigue Design and Evaluation Committee showed what shot peening can do for welds compared to welds that didn't have this operation done. The study claimed that the regular welds would fail after 250,000 cycles when welds that had been shot peened would fail after 2.5 million cycles, and that failure would occur outside of the weld area. This is part of the reason that shot peening is a popular operation with aerospace parts. However, the beneficial prestresses can anneal out at higher temperatures.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01309	How does compression clothing work and why doesnt it cut off blood circulation, especially on pieces like socks?	I wear compression clothing for health reasons every day and I can answer with certainty. There are two types of compression clothing: one is for athletic performance and the other is for medical necessity. There are distinct differences between the two. Athletic compression is basically a placebo except when lifting heavy weights. It does not get tight enough to produce any effects while the user is wearing the garment. It helps circulation after working out but there has been no scientific evidence to show that it helps during a workout. It makes the muscles feel tight, which DOES help produce short bursts of muscle strength but does not help with running. Medical compression is much tighter. So tight, in fact, that you need a prescription from a doctor to purchase it. What these do is tighten your fat and muscle so that it improves circulation. This helps prevent blood clots and aids the lymphatic system in removing waste. Medical compression socks go to your toes whereas athletic compression only goes to your ankle. If you needed medical compression and only wore athletic compression your feet and ankles would swell up to a dangerous size. By going to your toes, the medical compression makes sure nothing gets "stuck" down there.	[ "Compression garment\n\nCompression garments are pieces of clothing that fit tightly around the skin. In medical contexts, compression garments provide support for people who have to stand for long periods or have poor circulation. These come in varying degrees of compression, and higher degree compression sleeves, such as sleeves that provide compression of 20–30 mmHg or higher, typically require a doctor's prescription. Compression garments worn on the legs can help prevent deep vein thrombosis and reduce swelling, especially while traveling.\n", "Compression garments have been shown to help athletes during the active recovery process. Research shows that following a high intensity treadmill workout, compression garments helped to decrease the heart rate and lactic acid buildup in athletes. According to a study by Duffield R. and M. Portis, although there were few observed changes during their event, cricket players wearing compression garments showed fewer blood markers of muscle damage and reported less soreness during the 24-hour post-workout period. Other studies have supported the idea that compression garments are effective in reducing post-workout declines in jump height, minimizing strength loss, decreasing swelling, and easing muscle soreness after competition.\n", "Stockings became so important to a woman's image that, during World War II, when stockings were not being sold because all nylon was diverted to military use, women began painting their legs with makeup, trying to create the image of nylon stockings.\n\nSection::::Sportswear.\n\nCompression sportswear is usually worn by athletes, including shirts, shorts, tights, sleeves, socks, or underwear. They are form-fitting garments often made from a spandex-type material.\n", "In materials testing, the compressive garment provided increased flexion and extension, which could help reduce hamstring injuries. They also reduced impact by 27% compared to American football pants alone. Studies have shown that compressive garments can improve long term vertical jump height.\n", "Through testing repeat-sprint and throwing performance in cricket players, one study found that there was a significant difference by way of higher mean skin temperature, lower 24-hour post exercise CK values and lower 24-hour post exercise ratings of muscle soreness when wearing compression garments. However, the study failed to find any significant difference in sprint performance, throwing performance, heart rate, or various blood tests.\n", "Other purported benefits of compression sportswear are:\n\nBULLET::::- Keeping the muscles warm to prevent muscle strain.\n\nBULLET::::- Wicking sweat away from the body to prevent chafing and rashes.\n\nBULLET::::- Helping relieve pain from muscle stiffness and soreness.\n\nBULLET::::- Reducing the time taken for muscles to repair themselves.\n\nBULLET::::- When the right amount of compression is used (will vary depending on body area, typically in the range of 10 to 25 mmHg), improving venous return and oxygenation to working muscles.\n\nBULLET::::- Stabilizing joints.\n\nSection::::Sportswear.:Shorts and tights.\n", "Compression stockings are specialized hosiery designed to help prevent the occurrence of and guard against further progression of various medical disorders.\n", "Compression shorts and tights are undergarments usually worn by athletes. They are form-fitting garments and when worn, cover the athlete's waist to mid or lower thigh, similar to cycling shorts.\n\nMany are available with a cup pocket, a sewn-in pocket that can hold a protective cup. It is arguable that compression shorts do not keep cups in the proper position, tight to the body and not moving, as a jockstrap can. Some players wear the compression shorts over the traditional jockstrap.\n", "Once a person is diagnosed with lymphedema, compression becomes imperative in the management of the condition. Garments are often intended to be worn all day, but may be taken off for sleeping unless otherwise prescribed. Elastic compression garments are worn on the affected limb following complete decongestive therapy to maintain edema reduction. Inelastic garments provide containment and reduction. Available styles, options, and prices vary widely. A professional garment fitter or certified lymphedema therapist can help determine the best option for the patient. \n\nSection::::Treatment.:Compression.:Bandaging.\n", "One small study of compression shorts found no change in sprint time, but found some gait changes that might reduce injuries. Another study of calf sleeves found no change in sprint times and gait; larger reviews have found no evidence that compression garments can improve athletic performance beyond the placebo effect.\n", "In general, there is little risk of unravelling the sweater with a steek cut if the sewn or crocheted line has been done with wool yarn that is not superwash. They can be further strengthened by using a sticky hairy animal yarn (Shetland wool, the traditional choice, is a good example), and using frequent color changes (such as a 1x1 rib or a check pattern) to secure the yarn. In addition, the sides of the steek can be reinforced by crocheting or sewing. \n", "Treatment is usually prescribed by a physician to relieve all manifestations of chronic venous disease and prevent venous troubles. Compression stockings are recommended under the following conditions:\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Edema.\n\nEdema is a condition where the opposing forces that occur in the small blood vessels and capillaries cause a net ultrafiltration of plasma water into the soft tissues.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Chronic venous insufficiency.\n\nChronic peripheral venous insufficiency is when the veins cannot pump deoxygenated blood back to the heart.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Varicose veins.\n", "Compression shorts are also popular among female athletes, especially among those who wear skirts or kilts during games. In those situations, athletes wear compression shorts under the skirt so if they fall over and their skirts ride up, their underwear will not be exposed. This is seen particularly in women's lacrosse and field hockey (both being limited contact sports in which players often wear skirts). In this situation, compression shorts are colloquially identified as spandex shorts. Women also wear compression shorts in tennis, where, most recently, compression shorts have been produced with ball pockets for convenience.\n\nSection::::Sportswear.:Post-workout benefit.\n", "The garment is typically a close-fitting non-stretching fabric or a tight-fitting elastic fabric, with flexible tubing sewn onto the fabric. A single layer of fabric may be used, with the tubing either on the inside directly contacting the wearer's skin, or on the outside separated by the fabric. If two layers of fabric are used, stitched channels can be formed which enclose the tubing between the two fabric layers. Where flame resistance is needed, the garment may be constructed out of materials such as nomex.\n", "Unlike traditional dress or athletic stockings and socks, compression stockings use stronger elastics to create significant pressure on the legs, ankles and feet. Compression stockings are tightest at the ankles and gradually become less constrictive toward the knees and thighs. By compressing the surface veins, arteries and muscles, they force circulating blood through narrower channels. As a result, the arterial pressure is increased, which causes more blood to return to the heart and less blood to pool in the feet.\n\nThere are two types of compression stockings, gradient and anti-embolism.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n", "Most MMA fighters used specialized compression shirts, called Rash guards, to train. Rash guards are not regular compression shirts. Ground training techniques have required that these shirts provide reinforced seams and stitching, with additional panels to support the additional stress placed on the shirt during training while continuing to provide the benefits provided by regular compression shirts.\n", "They are worn by those who are ambulatory in most cases, helping calf muscles to perform their pumping action more efficiently to return blood to the heart. In some cases, they are worn by those at increased risk of circulatory problems, such as diabetics, whose legs are prone to excessive swelling. A common indicator for the prescription of such stockings is chronic peripheral venous insufficiency, caused by incompetent perforator veins. Low-pressure compression stockings are available without prescription in most countries, and may be purchased at a pharmacy or medical supply store. Stockings with a higher pressure gradient, say, above 25–30 mmHg, may require a prescription from a doctor.\n", "Many physicians and vein specialists recommend wearing compression stockings after varicose vein stripping, but studies show that wearing an elastic compression stocking has no additional benefit after the application of elastic bandaging for three days in post-operative care following the stripping of the great saphenous vein as assessed by control of limb, edema, pain, complications and return to work.\n\nSection::::Contraindications.\n\nCaution should be used in those with advanced peripheral obstructive arterial disease, heart failure, septic phlebitis, oozing dermatitis and advanced peripheral neuropathy in regard to wearing compression stockings.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "BULLET::::- In the movie \"The Batman vs. Dracula\" (2005), Batman briefly extended the design of his utility belt to his shoulders and chest for carrying a vast number of vampire-fighting gadgetry such as garlic bombs, garlic-treated batarangs, and vials of vaccine made to counteract a vampiric virus spread from the vampire lord Count Vlad Dracula. The extension of the belt would also create a shape of a cross, which is commonly known to be able to ward off vampires as they have an aversion to all of the Christianity icons, including Christian crosses.\n", "Most studies investigating the effects exercise in patients with lymphedema or at risk of developing lymphedema examined patients with breast-cancer-related lymphedema. In these studies, resistance training did not increase swelling in patients with pre-existing lymphedema and decreases edema in some patients, in addition to other potential beneficial effects on cardiovascular health. Moreover, resistance training and other forms of exercise were not associated with an increased risk of developing lymphedema in patients who previously received breast cancer-related treatment. Compression garments should be worn during exercise (with the possible exception of swimming in some patients). Patients who have or risk lymphedema should consult their physician or certified lymphedema therapist before beginning an exercise regimen. Resistance training is not recommended in the immediate post-operative period in patients who have undergone axillary lymph node dissection for breast cancer.\n", "Deep vein thrombosis occurs when blood flow decreases (especially in the lower extremities), causing blood to pool in the legs and leading to blood clot (thrombus) formation. Evidence does not suggest a benefit in post thrombotic syndrome rates following DVT. Compression stockings are beneficial in reducing symptomless deep vein thrombosis among airline passengers flying for 7 hours or more.\n", "Use of compression therapy is not new. As early as the Neolithic period (5000-2500 BCE), images of soldiers with bandaged lower extremities were found in the drawings of the caves of Tassili in Sahara. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, which dates to roughly 1600 BCE, included additional evidence of mechanical compression therapy for legs. Hippocrates treated his patients' leg ulcers with tight bandages, which were described in his \"Corpus Hippocraticum\" (450–350 BCE). Galen (130-200 CE) used wool and linen compression bandages to prevent blood from pooling in the legs and Oribassius (324 CE) used to treat leg ulcers with tight bandages.\n", "The original SAS design was based on two new fabrics: a type of \"powernet\" (or \"girdle fabric\") for high-tension areas, and an elastic bobbinet weave for lower-tension areas. Both were based on a heavy elastic warp thread with a much less elastic weft thread to form a netting. The terms warp and weft are used loosely here, as the material was not woven using traditional means. Powernet used Spandex cord as the warp with nylon cord as the weft, allowing movement primarily along the warp axis. Bobbinet used cotton-wrapped rubber warp and nylon or Dacron weft, and was flexible in both directions. The cotton wrapping limited the maximum stretch to 200% of the rest length. The amount of over-pressure bobbinet could create was about over the torso, the largest volume, and up to over smaller radius curves on the wrist and ankles. Powernet could produce about even on the torso. A minimum of is needed for normal breathing.\n", "Other pressure levels used by manufacturers for custom-made, flat-knitted products in the US and Europe range from 18-21 mmHg to 50mmHg.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Depending on the material used, compression garments can be designed to keep athletes cool or warm depending on the requirements of the sport. For example, speedskaters can wear compression bodysuits on the cold rink, while beach volleyball players can wear a similar-looking piece made out of a more breathable, lightweight blend. Both use moisture wicking materials such as nylon and spandex to keep them lightweight, while cotton would retain moisture and weigh them down in action. In addition, speed skaters take advantage of the aerodynamic advantage they can get from wearing a skintight suit, while a beach volleyball player has the added benefit of SPF 50+ garments to keep them protected on a hot day. The athletes pictured show the diverse range of benefits that make compression garments so popular in a wide range of sports and designs.\n" ]	[ "Compression clothing is possibly unsafe and could cut off blood circulation." ]	[ "Compression clothing can get quite tight, but it actually tightens fat and muscle to the point where it improves circulation." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Compression clothing is possibly unsafe and could cut off blood circulation.", "Compression clothing is possibly unsafe and could cut off blood circulation." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Compression clothing can get quite tight, but it actually tightens fat and muscle to the point where it improves circulation.", "Compression clothing can get quite tight, but it actually tightens fat and muscle to the point where it improves circulation." ]
2018-05969	How can a nuclear bomb detonation in space deflect a meteor if there is no blast/shock wave?	There is a blast and shock wave, just not an air shockwave. The explosion still releases light, high energy particles and will cause the meteor to experience a shock wave. That said you do not want to use nukes to stop meteors, chances are you just turned a slug into a bunch of shot. You want to use lazors or paint to change it's course.	[ "In Cielo simulations conducted in 2011–2012, in which the rate and quantity of energy delivery were sufficiently high and matched to the size of the rubble pile, such as following a tailored nuclear explosion, results indicated that any asteroid fragments, created after the pulse of energy is delivered, would not pose a threat of re-coalescing (including for those with the shape of asteroid Itokawa) but instead would rapidly achieve escape velocity from their parent body (which for Itokawa is about 0.2 m/s) and therefore move out of an earth-impact trajectory.\n\nSection::::Collision avoidance strategies.:Nuclear explosive device.\n", "The use of nuclear explosive devices is an international issue and will need to be addressed by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty technically bans nuclear \"weapons\" in space. However it is unlikely that a nuclear explosive device, fuzed to be detonated only upon interception with a threatening celestial object, with the sole intent of preventing that celestial body from impacting Earth would be regarded as an un-peaceful use of space, or that the explosive device sent to mitigate an Earth impact, explicitly designed to prevent harm to come to life would fall under the classification of a \"weapon\".\n", "Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds, causing mechanical or electrical damage. The average speed of space debris is 10 km/s while the average speed of meteoroids is much greater. For example, the meteoroids associated with the Perseid meteor shower travel at an average speed of 58 km/s. Mechanical damage from debris impacts have been studied through space missions including LDEF, which had over 20,000 documented impacts through its 5.7 year mission. Electrical anomalies associated with impact events include ESA's Olympus spacecraft, which lost attitude control during the 1993 Perseid meteor shower. A similar event occurred with the Landsat 5 spacecraft during the 2009 Perseid meteor shower.\n", "Additional gains in throughput are theoretically possible through the use of real-time steering. The basic concept is to use backscattered signals to pinpoint the exact location of the ion trail and direct the antenna to that spot, or in some cases, several trails simultaneously. This improves the gain, allowing much improved data rates. To date, this approach has not been tried experimentally, so far as is known.\n\nSection::::Scientific use.\n", "After the United States launches numerous nuclear weapons at the approaching asteroid, Imogene discovers a flaw in Dr. Lehman's algorithm and finds that 114 Kassandra had been split in two by the comet that knocked it out of orbit. The second half of Kassandra is larger than the first, and the military's nuclear arsenal is already depleted from destroying the first half, which was believed to be the whole meteor.\n", "In order to have a significant effect on atmospheric escape, the radius of the impacting body must be larger than the scale height. The projectile can impart momentum, and thereby facilitate escape of the atmosphere, in three main ways: (a) the meteroid heats and accelerates the gas it encounters as it travels through the atmosphere, (b) solid ejecta from the impact crater heat atmospheric particles through drag as they are ejected, and (c) the impact creates vapor which expands away from the surface. In the first case, the heated gas can escape in a manner similar to hydrodynamic escape, albeit on a more localized scale. Most of the escape from impact erosion occurs due to the third case. The maximum atmosphere that can be ejected is above a plane tangent to the impact site.\n", "The distance over which communications can be established is determined by the altitude at which the ionization is created, the location over the surface of the Earth where the meteor is falling, the angle of entry into the atmosphere, and the relative locations of the stations attempting to establish communications. Because these ionization trails only exist for fractions of a second to as long as a few seconds in duration, they create only brief windows of opportunity for communications.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Section::::Construction.\n\nThere are two types of meteor hammers: a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Double-headed.\n", "Early estimates of the energy of the air burst ranged from to 30 megatons of TNT (130 PJ), depending on the exact height of burst estimated when the scaling laws from the effects of nuclear weapons are employed. More recent calculations that include the effect of the object's momentum find that more of the energy was focused downward than would be the case from a nuclear explosion and estimate that the airburst had an energy range from 3 to 5 megatons of TNT (13 to 21 PJ). A 2019 paper suggests the explosive power may have been around 20–30 megatons.\n", "Meteoroids also hit other bodies in the Solar System. On such stony bodies as the Moon or Mars that have little or no atmosphere, they leave enduring craters.\n\nSection::::Meteorites.:Frequency of impacts.\n\nThe diameter of the largest impactor to hit Earth on any given day is likely to be about , in a given year about , and in a given century about . These statistics are obtained by the following:\n\nOver at least the range from to roughly , the rate at which Earth receives meteors obeys a power-law distribution as follows:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Futurama\": The episode \"A Big Piece of Garbage\" (1999), features a large space object on a collision course with Earth that turns out to be a giant ball of garbage launched into space by New York City around 2052. Residents of New New York first try blowing up the ball to destroy it but fail as the rocket is absorbed by the ball. They then deflect it using a newly created near-identical garbage ball.\n", "Impact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid objects, typically much greater than the speed of sound in those objects. Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such as melting and vaporization that do not occur in familiar sub-sonic collisions. On Earth, ignoring the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s. The fastest impacts occur at about 72 km/s in the \"worst case\" scenario in which an object in a retrograde near-parabolic orbit hits Earth. The median impact velocity on Earth is about 20 km/s.\n", "If the object is very large but is still a loosely-held-together rubble pile, a solution is to detonate one or a series of nuclear explosive devices alongside the asteroid, at a or greater stand-off height above its surface, so as not to fracture the potentially loosely-held-together object. Providing that this stand-off strategy was done far enough in advance, the force from a sufficient number of nuclear blasts would alter the object's trajectory enough to avoid an impact, according to computer simulations and experimental evidence from meteorites exposed to the thermal X-ray pulses of the Z-machine.\n", "Section::::Collision avoidance strategies.:Nuclear explosive device.:Surface and subsurface use.\n\nIn 2011, the director of the Asteroid Deflection Research Center at Iowa State University, Wie (who had published kinetic impactor deflection studies previously), began to study strategies that could deal with objects when the time to Earth impact was less than one year. He concluded that to provide the required energy, a nuclear explosion or other event that could deliver the same power, are the only methods that can work against a very large asteroid within these time constraints.\n", "The use of nuclear explosive devices is an international issue and will need to be addressed by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty technically bans nuclear weapons in space. However, it is unlikely that a nuclear explosive device, fuzed to be detonated only upon interception with a threatening celestial object, with the sole intent of preventing that celestial body from impacting Earth would be regarded as an un-peaceful use of space, or that the explosive device sent to mitigate an Earth impact, explicitly designed to prevent harm to come to life, would fall under the classification of a \"weapon\".\n", "The classic space mission is the Earth-colliding asteroid interception mission. Using nuclear detonations to split or deflect the asteroid is risky at best. Such a tactic could actually make the problem worse by increasing the amount of asteroid fragments that do end up hitting the Earth. Robert Zubrin writes:\n", "Large meteoroids may strike the earth with a significant fraction of their escape velocity (second cosmic velocity), leaving behind a hypervelocity impact crater. The kind of crater will depend on the size, composition, degree of fragmentation, and incoming angle of the impactor. The force of such collisions has the potential to cause widespread destruction. The most frequent hypervelocity cratering events on the Earth are caused by iron meteoroids, which are most easily able to transit the atmosphere intact. Examples of craters caused by iron meteoroids include Barringer Meteor Crater, Odessa Meteor Crater, Wabar craters, and Wolfe Creek crater; iron meteorites are found in association with all of these craters. In contrast, even relatively large stony or icy bodies like small comets or asteroids, up to millions of tons, are disrupted in the atmosphere, and do not make impact craters. Although such disruption events are uncommon, they can cause a considerable concussion to occur; the famed Tunguska event probably resulted from such an incident. Very large stony objects, hundreds of meters in diameter or more, weighing tens of millions of tons or more, can reach the surface and cause large craters, but are very rare. Such events are generally so energetic that the impactor is completely destroyed, leaving no meteorites. (The very first example of a stony meteorite found in association with a large impact crater, the Morokweng crater in South Africa, was reported in May 2006.)\n", "Analysis of the uncertainty involved in nuclear deflection shows that the ability to protect the planet does not imply the ability to target the planet. A nuclear explosion that changes an asteroid's velocity by 10 meters/second (plus or minus 20%) would be adequate to push it out of an Earth-impacting orbit. However, if the uncertainty of the velocity change was more than a few percent, there would be no chance of directing the asteroid to a particular target.\n\nSection::::Planetary defense timeline.\n", "One computer will send a request for contact and if successfully received by a distant station, a reply will be sent by the receiving stations computer usually via the same ionized meteor trail to confirm the contact. If nothing is received after the request, a new request is transmitted. This continues until a reply is received to confirm the contact or until no contact can be made and no new requests are sent. Using this high speed digital mode, a full two way contact, can be completed in one second or less and can only be validated using a computer. Depending on the intensity of the ionized meteor trail, multiple contacts from multiple stations can be made off the same trail until it dissipates and can no longer reflect VHF signals with sufficient strength. This mode is often called burst transmission and can yield communication distances similar to sporadic E as described above.\n", "A preliminary estimate of the explosive energy by Astronomer Boris Shustov, director of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Astronomy, was , another using empirical period-yield scaling relations and the infrasound records, by Peter Brown of the University of Western Ontario gave a value of and represents a best estimate for the yield of this airburst; there remains a potential \"uncertainty [in the order of] a factor of two in this yield value\". Brown and his colleagues also went on to publish a paper in November 2013 which stated that the \"widely referenced technique of estimating airburst damage does not reproduce the [Chelyabinsk] observations, and that the mathematical relations found in the book \"The Effects of Nuclear Weapons\" which are based on the effects of nuclear weapons—[which is] almost always used with this technique—overestimate blast damage [when applied to meteor airbursts]\". A similar overestimate of the explosive yield of the Tunguska airburst also exists; as incoming celestial objects have rapid directional motion, the object causes stronger blast wave and thermal radiation pulses at the ground surface than would be predicted by a stationary object exploding, limited to the height at which the blast was initiated-where the object's \"momentum is ignored\". Thus a meteor airburst of a given energy is \"much more damaging than an equivalent [energy] nuclear explosion at the same altitude\".\n", "Impacts at these high speeds produce shock waves in solid materials, and both impactor and the material impacted are rapidly compressed to high density. Following initial compression, the high-density, over-compressed region rapidly depressurizes, exploding violently, to set in train the sequence of events that produces the impact crater. Impact-crater formation is therefore more closely analogous to cratering by high explosives than by mechanical displacement. Indeed, the energy density of some material involved in the formation of impact craters is many times higher than that generated by high explosives. Since craters are caused by explosions, they are nearly always circular – only very low-angle impacts cause significantly elliptical craters.\n", "BULLET::::- Throw: A meteor may be thrown, while holding one of the heads to enable its retrieval. This is a highly unpredictable form of attack, often used effectively to catch an opponent off guard. A throw can be initiated quickly and efficiently by a skilled fighter, with a simple pull in the correct direction.\n", "When a near-Earth object impacts Earth, objects up to a few tens of metres across ordinarily explode in the upper atmosphere (usually harmlessly), with most or all of the solids vaporized, while larger objects hit the water surface, forming waves, or the solid surface, forming impact craters.\n", "A proposed means of averting an asteroid impacting with Earth, assuming short lead times between detection and Earth impact, is to detonate one, or a series, of nuclear explosive devices, on, in, or in a stand-off proximity orientation with the asteroid, with the latter method occurring far enough away from the incoming threat to prevent the potential fracturing of the near-Earth object, but still close enough to generate a high thrust laser ablation effect.\n\nA 2007 NASA analysis of impact avoidance strategies using various technologies stated:\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n" ]	[ "There is no blast and shock wave when a nuclear bomb is detonated in space.", "A nuclear bomb has no blast or shock wave in space." ]	[ "There is a blast and shock wave, but it isn't an air shockwave.", "A nuclear bomb does cause a blast and shock wave, just not an air shock wave." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is no blast and shock wave when a nuclear bomb is detonated in space.", "A nuclear bomb has no blast or shock wave in space." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is a blast and shock wave, but it isn't an air shockwave.", "A nuclear bomb does cause a blast and shock wave, just not an air shock wave." ]
2018-01657	How do we know other planets cross sections?	There are a few techniques that we use to see this. The presence of active volcanoes and a magnetic field can let us know whether there is liquid magma beneath the crust or not. Seismic activity is another - large amounts of earthquakes and (or quakes in general on other planets) indicates a more fluid surface, with the possible presence of plate tectonics with a more "fluid" interior. Additionally, analyzing how these seismic waves propagate and resonate (think of it as an echo) can help us get a better idea of what is going on beneath the surface. With regards to gas giants, we can also analyze spectroscopic data (basically light signatures unique to different chemicals) to figure out what it's made of. Using that information, we can infer a lot about the properties and structure of the planet. This is also a technique used in the search for alien life - atmospheres that demonstrate certain patterns associated with life can key us in on potential planets. A lot of it is inference though - we obviously can't cut a planet in half and see what it really looks like. All we can do is use what we know about Earth and physics in general to make a good guess.	[ "Section::::Surface geology of inner solar planets.:Venus.\n\nThe surface of Venus is comparatively very flat. When 93% of the topography was mapped by \"Pioneer Venus\", scientists found that the total distance from the lowest point to the highest point on the entire surface was about 13 kilometres (8 mi), while on the Earth the distance from the basins to the Himalayas is about 20 kilometres (12.4 mi).\n", "The planets are considered to have formed by accretion of larger and larger particles, into asteroids and planetesimals, and into today's bodies. Vesta and Ceres are hypothesized to be the only surviving examples of planetesimals, and thus samples of the formative period of the Solar System.\n\nTransits of Mercury and Venus have been observed as analogues of extrasolar transits. As Mercury and Venus transits are far closer and thus appear \"deeper,\" they can be studied in far finer detail. Similarly, analogues to our asteroid and Kuiper belts have been observed around other star systems, though in far less detail.\n\nSection::::Astrobiology.\n", "Direct information on Mars, Venus and Mercury largely comes from spacecraft missions. Using gamma-ray spectrometers, the composition of the crust of Mars has been measured by the Mars Odyssey orbiter, the crust of Venus by some of the Venera missions to Venus, and the crust of Mercury by the \"MESSENGER\" spacecraft. Additional information on Mars comes from meteorites that have landed on Earth (the Shergottites, Nakhlites, and Chassignites, collectively known as SNC meteorites). Abundances are also constrained by the masses of the planets, while the internal distribution of elements is constrained by their moments of inertia.\n", "The Mariner 10 mission (1974) mapped about half the surface of Mercury. On the basis of that data, scientists have a first-order understanding of the geology and history of the planet. Mercury's surface shows intercrater plains, basins, smooth plains, craters, and tectonic features.\n", "Earth-based radar surveys made it possible to identify some topographic patterns related to craters, and the \"Venera 15\" and \"Venera 16\" probes identified almost 150 such features of probable impact origin. Global coverage from \"Magellan\" subsequently made it possible to identify nearly 900 impact craters. \n", "Section::::Stratigraphy.\n\nSection::::Stratigraphy.:Crater and basin materials.\n\nAs on the Moon and Mars, sequences of craters and basins of differing relative ages provide the best means of establishing stratigraphic order on Mercury. Overlap relations among many large mercurian craters and basins are clearer than those on the Moon. Therefore, we can build up many local stratigraphic columns involving both crater or basin materials and nearby plains materials.\n", "Other bodies, by comparison, may or may not have differentiated, based on their formation history, radioisotope content, further energy input via bombardment, distance from the Sun, size, etc. Studying bodies of various sizes and distances from the Sun provides examples and places constraints on the differentiation process. Differentiation itself is evaluated indirectly, by the mineralogy of a body's surface, versus its expected bulk density and mineralogy, or via shape effects due to slight variations in gravity. Differentiation may also be measured directly, by the higher-order terms of a body's gravity field as measured by a flyby or gravitational assist, and in some cases by librations.\n", "Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with transmission spectroscopy. Mid-infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces, and near-infrared may identify magma oceans or high-temperature lavas, hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice, giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets.\n\nSection::::Surface.:Surface temperature.\n", "Section::::Atmosphere.\n\nAs of February 2014, more than fifty transiting and five directly imaged exoplanet atmospheres have been observed, resulting in detection of molecular spectral features; observation of day–night temperature gradients; and constraints on vertical atmospheric structure. Also, an atmosphere has been detected on the non-transiting hot Jupiter Tau Boötis b.\n\nSection::::Surface.\n\nSection::::Surface.:Surface composition.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Lunar soil\n\nBULLET::::- Martian soil\n\nBULLET::::- Water on terrestrial planets\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- International Astronomical Union\n\nBULLET::::- Solar System Live (an interactive orrery)\n\nBULLET::::- Solar System Viewer (animation)\n\nBULLET::::- Pictures of the Solar System\n\nBULLET::::- Renderings of the planets\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Planet Quest\n\nBULLET::::- Illustration comparing the sizes of the planets with each other, the sun, and other stars\n\nBULLET::::- Q&A: The IAU's Proposed Planet Definition\n\nBULLET::::- Q&A New planets proposal\n\nBULLET::::- Solar system – About Space\n\nBULLET::::- Atlas of Mercury – NASA\n\nBULLET::::- Nine Planets Information\n\nBULLET::::- NASA’s fact sheet\n\nBULLET::::- Planetary Science Research Discoveries\n", "Small bodies such as comets, some asteroid types, and dust grains, on the other hand, serve as counterexamples. Assumed to have experienced little or no heating, these materials may contain (or be) samples representing the early Solar System, which have since been erased from Earth or any other large body.\n\nSome extrasolar planets are covered entirely in lava oceans, and some are tidally locked planets, whose star-facing hemisphere is entirely lava.\n\nSection::::Geology and geochemistry.:Cratering.\n", "As on Earth, a low crater count on other bodies indicates young surfaces. This is particularly credible if nearby regions or bodies show heavier cratering. Young surfaces, in turn, indicate atmospheric, tectonic or volcanic, or hydrological processing on large bodies and comets, or dust redistribution or a relatively recent formation on asteroids (i. e., splitting from a parent body).\n", "Section::::Abundance of elements.:Terrestrial planets.\n\nTerrestrial planets are believed to have come from the same nebular material as the giant planets, but they have lost most of the lighter elements and have different histories. Planets closer to the Sun might be expected to have a higher fraction of refractory elements, but if their later stages of formation involved collisions of large objects with orbits that sampled different parts of the Solar System, there could be little systematic dependence on position.\n", "Additionally, the secondary eclipse (when the planet is blocked by its star) allows direct measurement of the planet's radiation and helps to constrain the planet's orbital eccentricity without needing the presence of other planets. If the star's photometric intensity during the secondary eclipse is subtracted from its intensity before or after, only the signal caused by the planet remains. It is then possible to measure the planet's temperature and even to detect possible signs of cloud formations on it. In March 2005, two groups of scientists carried out measurements using this technique with the Spitzer Space Telescope. The two teams, from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, led by David Charbonneau, and the Goddard Space Flight Center, led by L. D. Deming, studied the planets TrES-1 and HD 209458b respectively. The measurements revealed the planets' temperatures: 1,060 K (790°C) for TrES-1 and about 1,130 K (860 °C) for HD 209458b. In addition, the hot Neptune Gliese 436 b is known to enter secondary eclipse. However, some transiting planets orbit such that they do not enter secondary eclipse relative to Earth; HD 17156 b is over 90% likely to be one of the latter.\n", "Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs, rather than deuterium fusion, formation process or location, is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure with the dividing line at around 5 Jupiter masses.\n\nSection::::Detection methods.\n\nSection::::Detection methods.:Direct imaging.\n", "A planetary system has been inferred to exist around NN Ser by several teams. All of these teams rely on the fact that Earth sits in the same plane as the NN Serpentis binary star system, so humans can see the larger red dwarf eclipse the white dwarf every 0.13 days. Astronomers are then able to use these frequent eclipses to spot a pattern of small but significant irregularities in the orbit of stars, which could be attributed to the presence and gravitational influence of circumbinary planets.\n", "Section::::Observed types.\n\nThe following summarizes known information about the planetary cores of given non-stellar bodies.\n\nSection::::Observed types.:Within the Solar System.\n\nSection::::Observed types.:Within the Solar System.:Mercury.\n", "The main advantage of the transit method is that the size of the planet can be determined from the lightcurve. When combined with the radial-velocity method (which determines the planet's mass), one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the planet's physical structure. The planets that have been studied by both methods are by far the best-characterized of all known exoplanets.\n", "Pluto, with its proportionately largest moon Charon, is also the site of many eclipses. A series of such mutual eclipses occurred between 1985 and 1990. These daily events led to the first accurate measurements of the physical parameters of both objects.\n\nSection::::Other planets and dwarf planets.:Mercury and Venus.\n", "Blending eclipsing binary systems are typically not physically near each other but are rather very far apart. Their blending stems from the fact that they are both lying along the same line of sight from the observer's viewpoint. The blends of extraneous stars with eclipsing binary systems can dilute the measured eclipse depth, with results often resembling the changes in flux measured for transiting exoplanets. In these cases, the target most often contains a large main sequence primary with a small main sequence secondary or a giant star with a main sequence secondary.\n", "Didier Queloz\n\nDidier Queloz (born February 23, 1966) is a Swiss astronomer with a prolific record in finding extrasolar planets in the Astrophysics Group of the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, and also at the University of Geneva.\n", "Apart from their distance to the Sun, different bodies show chemical variations indicating their formation and history. Neptune is denser than Uranus, taken as one piece of evidence that the two may have switched places in the early Solar System. Comets show both high volatile content, and grains containing refractory materials. This also indicates some mixing of materials through the Solar System when those comets formed. Mercury's inventory of materials by volatility is being used to evaluate different models for its formation and/or subsequent modification.\n", "Section::::Methods of predicting exoplanet geodynamic regimes.\n\nExoplanets have been directly observed and remotely sensed, but due to their great distance and proximity to obscuring energy sources (the stars they orbit), there is little concrete knowledge of their composition and geodynamic regime. Therefore, the majority of information and conjectures made about them come from alternative sources.\n\nSection::::Methods of predicting exoplanet geodynamic regimes.:Solar system analogues.\n", "Kuiper Belt Objects display very weathered or in some cases very fresh surfaces. As the long distances result in low spatial and spectral resolutions, KBO surface chemistries are currently evaluated via analogous moons and asteroids closer to Earth.\n\nSection::::Aeronomy and atmospheric physics.\n", "Section::::Planetary mineralogy.\n\nThe fundamental principle of comparative planetary geology is that geological processes on other planets or moons operate in much the same manner as they do on Earth, at least for planetary bodies of similar size and composition. This has been the cornerstone of comparative planetary exploration, and has been the primary method of data interpretation for the current exploration of Mars.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00348	How do birds know which way south is when winter comes?	They can sense the magnetic poles of the Earth. They use this sense to orient themselves and fly the appropriate direction during seasonal migrations.	[ "In a pioneering experiment, Lockley showed that warblers placed in a planetarium showing the night sky oriented themselves towards the south; when the planetarium sky was then very slowly rotated, the birds maintained their orientation with respect to the displayed stars. Lockley observes that to navigate by the stars, birds would need both a \"sextant and chronometer\": a built-in ability to read patterns of stars and to navigate by them, which also requires an accurate time-of-day clock.\n", "Experiments with Manx shearwaters showed that when released \"under a clear sky\" far from their nests, the seabirds first oriented themselves and then flew off in the correct direction. But if the sky was overcast at the time of release, the shearwaters flew around in circles.\n\nMonarch butterflies use the sun as a compass to guide their southwesterly autumn migration from Canada to Mexico.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Orientation by the night sky.\n", "The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s, a Manx shearwater released in Boston in the United States returned to its colony in Skomer, in Wales within 13 days, a distance of . Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods. For diurnal migrants, the sun is used to navigate by day, and a stellar compass is used at night. Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an internal clock. Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the constellations surrounding Polaris. These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth's geomagnetism through specialised photoreceptors.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Distribution and movements.:Navigation.\n\nMany species in the order travel long distances over open water but return to the same nest site each year, raising the question of how they navigate so accurately. The Welsh naturalist Ronald Lockley carried out early research into animal navigation with the Manx shearwaters that nested on the island of Skokholm. In release experiments, a Manx shearwater flew from Boston to Skokholm, a distance of in 12 days.\n", "Griscom's \"Birds of the New York City Region\" and his works on the faunistics of Massachusetts birds were some of the first books in a new genre: birdfinding guides rather than identification guides. Working from a growing volume of sightings by skilled observers, Griscom provided in these books the details of exactly where a bird could be found in a region (for instance, a specific park or beach), at what time of year (in spring migration, for example), and in what numbers.\n", "Monarchs are known to use their time-compensated sun compass during both the southern migration in the fall and the northern remigration in the spring. The change in directionality necessary to re-orient the monarchs has been shown to depend on the cold temperatures that the monarchs experience while overwintering in the coniferous forests of Mexico. The change in sun compass direction does not depend on the change in photoperiod experienced during the winter months, but this change is likely to affect the timing of the northern remigration in the spring.\n", "Small populations winter in southeastern Florida and along the Texas coast, probably having failed to find the way south around the Gulf of Mexico. Individuals reported north of these areas in winter (for example, on Christmas Bird Counts) are almost invariably misidentified buteos of other species. Immature Swainson's hawks winter on the pampas of South America in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. It is not known with certainty where most of the adults spend the winter.\n", "Many birders occupy themselves with observing local species (birding in their \"local patch\"), but may also make specific trips to observe birds in other locales. The most active times of the year for birding in temperate zones are during the spring or fall migrations when the greatest variety of birds may be seen. On these occasions, large numbers of birds travel north or south to wintering or nesting locations. Early mornings are typically better as the birds are more active and vocal making them easier to spot.\n", "The migration of this bird is nocturnal and they are able to detect the geomagnetic field of the earth in order to guide themselves to their breeding and overwinter territory. The orientation of the snow bunting during migration is independent of any type of visual cue. Furthermore, studies have shown that only those individuals with adequate energy storage will be able to select seasonally appropriate directions during their migration.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Diet.\n", "Many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south. Of course, in the southern hemisphere the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration.\n", "Section::::Habitat.:Foraging habitat.\n\nWestern tanagers forage in many habitats. Western tanager forages in all successional stages from grass-forb communities to stands of large trees with greater than 70% cover. In western Oregon, western tanagers were not observed using the grass and forb successional stages, but were observed foraging in areas not used for nesting, such as shrub/sapling and young 2nd growth (16–40 years old) stands typically made up of Douglas-fir.\n", "In autumn, some young birds, instead of heading to their usual wintering grounds, take \"incorrect\" courses and migrate through areas which are not on their normal migration path. For example, Siberian passerines which normally winter in Southeast Asia are commonly found in Northwest Europe, e.g. Arctic warblers in Britain. This is reverse migration, where the birds migrate in the opposite direction to that expected (say, flying north-west instead of south-east). The causes of this are unknown, but genetic mutation or other anomalies relating to the bird's magnetic sensibilities is suspected.\n", "In the Pacific, traditional landfinding techniques used by Micronesians and Polynesians suggest that bird migration was observed and interpreted for more than 3000 years. In Samoan tradition, for example, Tagaloa sent his daughter Sina to Earth in the form of a bird, Tuli, to find dry land, the word tuli referring specifically to landfinding waders, often to the Pacific golden plover. Records of bird migration were also known in Europe from at least 3,000 years ago as indicated by the Ancient Greek writers Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus and Aristotle. The Bible also notes migrations, as in the Book of Job, where the inquiry is made: \"Is it by your insight that the hawk hovers, spreads its wings southward?\" The author of Jeremiah wrote: \"Even the stork in the heavens know its seasons, and the turtle dove, the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival.\"\n", "Occasionally, \"S. u. caparoch\" can extend its territory as far south as northern Minnesota and many other states in the northern United States including more central states such as West Virginia, New York, and South Dakota. These southern forays into the northern United States are rare and generally occur during winter, or following an explosion in a population of prey. \"S. u. caparoch\" can occasionally be found in more southern areas such as Great Britain, southern Russia and Scandinavia, following explosions of prey.\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "Circadian Migration is where birds utilize circadian rhythm (CR) to regulate migration in both the fall and the spring. In circadian migration clocks of both circadian (daily) and circannual (annual) patterns are utilized to determine the birds’ orientation in both time and space as they migrate from one destination to the next. This type of migration is advantageous in birds that during the winter remain close to the equator, and also allows the monitoring of the auditory and spatial memory of the birds’ brain to remember an optimal site of migration. These birds also have timing mechanisms that provide avians with the distance required to travel in order to reach their destination. To regulate the migration patterns of these birds, the mammalian circadian clock is utilized. This clock allows the avians to determine when the appropriate time is to migrate, which location will best help the birds regulate their metabolism, and whether land or water travel will be most advantageous for these migrating species.\n", "BULLET::::- An indigo bunting on Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire in October is Britain's first\n\nBULLET::::- A cedar waxwing in Nottingham in February is Britain's second, but the first to be seen by large numbers of observers\n\nBULLET::::- A great knot on Teesside in October is Britain's second, but the first to be seen by large numbers of observers\n\nBULLET::::- A Caspian plover on Shetland in June is Britain's fourth\n\nBULLET::::- A calandra lark on the Isles of Scilly in April is Britain's fifth\n\nBULLET::::- During October, the Isles of Scilly also hosted two black-and-white warblers and Britain's sixth buff-bellied pipit\n", "The tracking of a tagged bird from Fetlar unexpectedly revealed that it wintered with a North American population in the tropical Pacific Ocean; it took a round trip across the Atlantic via Iceland and Greenland, then south down the Eastern seaboard of America, across the Caribbean and Mexico, before ending up off the coast of Ecuador and Peru. For this reason, it is suspected that the Shetland population could be an offshoot of a North American population rather than the geographically closer Scandinavian population that is believed to winter in the Arabian Sea.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe program began in 1881 by Wells W. Cooke, who wanted to broaden knowledge and understanding of bird migration. While teaching on the White Earth Indian Reservation in Minnesota, Cooke began noting the arrival dates of migratory birds. He later coordinated volunteers throughout the Mississippi Flyway to collect arrival and departure data.\n", "Birds seen at or very near the Pole include the snow bunting, northern fulmar and black-legged kittiwake, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the tendency of birds to follow ships and expeditions.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Magnetoreception.\n\nSome animals, including mammals such as blind mole rats (\"Spalax\") and birds such as pigeons, are sensitive to the earth's magnetic field.\n", "Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines. Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders.\n\nSection::::Study techniques.\n\nEarly studies on the timing of migration began in 1749 in Finland, with Johannes Leche of Turku collecting the dates of arrivals of spring migrants.\n", "Migratory birds may use two electromagnetic tools to find their destinations: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to short wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the sun in any way. At this stage the bird is in the position of a Boy Scout with a compass but no map, until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other capabilities to use. With experience it learns various landmarks and this \"mapping\" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination. There is a neural connection between the eye and \"Cluster N\", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to \"see\" the magnetic field of the earth.\n", "Section::::Patterns In Reverse Migration.:Solitary reverse migration during the night.\n\nIt was found that solitary birds migrating during the night are more likely to reverse migrate West, when East is the regular migratory path. This West to East reverse migration was observed more often than a reverse migration to the North rather than the normal South migration. To only examine single species this study examined birds solitarily migrating during the night so that they do not group-migrate and influence other species to follow or follow other species.\n\nSection::::Patterns In Reverse Migration.:Reverse migration due to inadequate fat stores.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Migration.\n\nSpring migration commences around late February with birds arriving on breeding grounds by May. Sparrows arrive on their wintering grounds as early as late October, though mostly during November and early December. Records from Banff National Park suggest Harris's sparrows use mountain valleys as migration routes. Apparently, fall migration is less strict than spring migration as Harris's sparrows regularly wander about prairie providences in Canada until harsh weather forces them south.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Feeding ecology.\n", "Lockley's experiments with Manx shearwaters (\"Puffinus puffinus\") showed that when released \"under a clear sky\" far from their nests (in Skokholm), the seabirds first oriented themselves and then \"flew off in a direct line for Skokholm\", making the journey rapidly. For example, one of the birds, released at Boston airport, arrived in Skokholm 12½ days later; Lockley calculated that if the birds flew for 12 hours per day, they must have travelled at 20 miles per hour, their full normal speed, so they could not have deviated significantly from a straight line course or searched at random for their destination. The birds behaved like this regardless of whether the direct heading took the birds over sea or land. But if the sky was overcast at the time of release, the shearwaters flew around in circles \"as if lost\" and returned slowly or not at all. Lockley therefore concluded that it was essential for the birds that \"at the moment of release the sun was visible by day, or the stars by night\". Lockley did not claim to understand how the birds knew their position relative to their destination, but merely observed that they behaved as if they did know it.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02507	How do we calculate the estimated life expectancy of the sun and is there only one way for it to expire?	Basically, we know roughly the rate at which the sun is burning hydrogen and other elements, and we know its composition (what proportion is made up of each element) size, and age. From observations of other stars, and calculations, we can work out roughly how long it will be until our sun collapses into a white dwarf - corrected by the chap below.	[ "Section::::Lifetime sun exposure.\n\nThere are currently no recommendations on a safe level of total lifetime sun exposure. According to epidemiologist Robyn Lucas at Australian National University, analysis of lifespan versus disease shows that far more lives worldwide could be lost to diseases caused by lack of sunlight than to those caused by too much, and it is inappropriate to recommend total avoidance of sunlight.\n", "Prior to the minimum between the end of Solar Cycle 23 and the beginning of Solar Cycle 24, two theories predicted how strong Solar Cycle 24 would be. One camp postulated that the Sun retained a long memory (Solar Cycle 24 would be active) while the other asserted that it had a short memory (quiet). Prior to 2006, the difference was substantial with a minority of researchers predicting \"the smallest solar cycle in 100 years.\" Another group of researchers, including one at NASA, predicted that it \"looks like its going to be one of the most intense cycles since record-keeping began almost 400 years ago.\"\n", "When going further back in time, one has to rely on irradiance reconstructions, using sunspots for the past 400 years or cosmogenic radionuclides for going back 10,000 years.\n\nSuch reconstructions show that solar irradiance varies with distinct periodicities. These cycles are: 11 years (Schwabe), 88 years (Gleisberg cycle), 208 years (DeVries cycle) and 1,000 years (Eddy cycle).\n", "Since 1978, solar irradiance has been directly measured by satellites, with very good accuracy. These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar irradiance fluctuates by +-0.1% over the ~11 years of the solar cycle, but that its average value has been stable since the measurements started in 1978. Solar irradiance before the 1970s is estimated using proxy variables, such as tree rings, the number of sunspots, and the abundances of cosmogenic isotopes such as Be, all of which are calibrated to the post-1978 direct measurements.\n", "Section::::History.:Success.\n", "The effect of this is that a clock running at a constant rate – e.g. completing the same number of pendulum swings in each hour – cannot follow the actual Sun; instead it follows an imaginary \"mean Sun\" that moves along the celestial equator at a constant rate that matches the real Sun's average rate over the year. This is \"mean solar time\", which is still not perfectly constant from one century to the next but is close enough for most purposes. Currently a mean solar day is about 86,400.002 SI seconds.\n", "List of solar cycles\n\nThe following is a list of solar cycles (sometimes called sunspot cycles), tracked since 1755 following the original numbering proposed by Rudolf Wolf in the mid-19th century The source data are the revised International Sunspot Numbers (ISN v2.0), as available at SILSO.\n\nSunspot number counts exist since 1610 but the cycle numbering is not well defined during the Maunder minimum. It was proposed that one cycle might have been lost in the late 18th century, but this still remains not fully confirmed.\n", "N is the number of days since midnight UT as January 1 begins (i.e. the days part of the ordinal date −1) and can include decimals to adjust for local times later or earlier in the day. The number 2, in (N-2), is the approximate number of days after January 1 to the Earth's perihelion. The number 0.0167 is the current value of the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. The eccentricity varies very slowly over time, but for dates fairly close to the present, it can be considered to be constant. The largest errors in this equation are less than ± 0.2°, but are less than ± 0.03° for a given year if the number 10 is adjusted up or down in fractional days as determined by how far the previous year's December solstice occurred before or after noon on December 22. These accuracies are compared to NOAA's advanced calculations which are based on the 1999 Jean Meeus algorithm that is accurate to within 0.01°.\n", "BULLET::::2. Solar output - Direct measurements of solar irradiance, or solar output, have been available from satellites only since the late 1970s. These measurements show a very small peak-to-peak variation in solar irradiance (roughly 0.1 percent of the 1,366 watts per square metre received at the top of the atmosphere, for approximately 0.12 watt per square metre). Encyclopædia Britannica\n\nBULLET::::- Solar brightness = solar luminosity\n\nBULLET::::- Solar flux = Radiant flux\n\nBULLET::::- Solar disk = Photosphere\n\nBULLET::::- Aurora borealis = Aurora (astronomy)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- G-type main-sequence star\n\nBULLET::::- Solar irradiance\n", "Over billions of years, the Sun is gradually expanding, and emitting more energy from the resultant larger surface area. The unsolved question of how to account for the clear geological evidence of liquid water on the Earth billions of years ago, at a time when the sun's luminosity was only 70% of its current value, is known as the faint young Sun paradox.\n\nSection::::Variations due to atmospheric conditions.\n", "While uniform density is not correct, one can get a rough order of magnitude estimate of the expected age of our star by inserting known values for the mass and radius of the Sun, and then dividing by the known luminosity of the Sun (note that this will involve another approximation, as the power output of the Sun has not always been constant):\n", "Section::::Radiation precautions and public policy.\n\nRadiation precautions have led to sunlight being listed as a carcinogen at all sun exposure rates, due to the ultraviolet component of sunlight, with no safe level of sunlight exposure being suggested, following the precautionary LNT model. According to a 2007 study submitted by the University of Ottawa to the Department of Health and Human Services in Washington, D.C., there is not enough information to determine a safe level of sun exposure at this time.\n", "Their non-linear character makes predictions of solar activity very difficult. The solar minimum is characterized by a period of decreased solar activity with few, if any, sunspots. Scientists from the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) also developed a computer model of solar dynamics (Solar dynamo) for more accurate predictions and have confidence in the forecast based upon a series of test runs with the newly developed model simulating the strength of the past eight solar cycles with more than 98% accuracy.\n\nIn hindsight the prediction proved to be wildly inaccurate and not representative of the observed sunspot numbers.\n", "A recent theory claims that there are magnetic instabilities in the core of the Sun that cause fluctuations with periods of either 41,000 or 100,000 years. These could provide a better explanation of the ice ages than the Milankovitch cycles.\n\nSection::::Life phases.\n\nThe Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable part of its life. It has not changed dramatically for over four billion years, and will remain fairly stable for more than five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo dramatic changes, both internally and externally.\n\nSection::::Life phases.:Formation.\n", "A star is considered to be at zero age (protostellar) when it is assumed to have a homogeneous composition and to be just beginning to derive most of its luminosity from nuclear reactions (so neglecting the period of contraction from a cloud of gas and dust). To obtain the SSM, a one solar mass () stellar model at zero age is evolved numerically to the age of the Sun. The abundance of elements in the zero age solar model is estimated from primordial meteorites. Along with this abundance information, a reasonable guess at the zero-age luminosity (such as the present-day Sun's luminosity) is then converted by an iterative procedure into the correct value for the model, and the temperature, pressure and density throughout the model calculated by solving the equations of stellar structure numerically assuming the star to be in a steady state. The model is then evolved numerically up to the age of the Sun. Any discrepancy from the measured values of the Sun's luminosity, surface abundances, etc. can then be used to refine the model. For example, since the Sun formed, some of the helium and heavy elements have settled out of the photosphere by diffusion. As a result, the Solar photosphere now contains about 87% as much helium and heavy elements as the protostellar photosphere had; the protostellar Solar photosphere was 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% metals. A measure of heavy-element settling by diffusion is required for a more accurate model.\n", "NOAA reported that the number of sunspots was the lowest since 2009, and that recent activity matched that of the low activity in 2007 and 2008. Should this prove to be the solar minimum, Solar Cycle 24 would uniquely become a short (10 year) and weak cycle. Sunspots were observed on only 5 days that month.\n\nSection::::Events.:2019.\n\nSection::::Events.:2019.:July.\n\nNASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory records a sunspot from Solar Cycle 25. This sunspot is significant compared to previous sunspots from Solar Cycle 25 due to the fact that it lasted long enough to get a designation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Thai solar calendar\n\nThe Thai solar calendar (, , \"solar calendar\") was adopted by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) in 1888 CE as the Siamese version of the Gregorian calendar, replacing the Thai lunar calendar as the legal calendar in Thailand (though the latter is still also used, especially for traditional and religious events). Years are now counted in the Buddhist Era (B.E.): , () which is 543 years ahead of the Gregorian calendar.\n\nSection::::Years.\n", "The Glory/TIM and PICARD/PREMOS flight instrument absolute scales are now traceable to the TRF in both optical power and irradiance. The resulting high accuracy reduces the consequences of any future gap in the solar irradiance record.\n\nSection::::Irradiation at the top of the atmosphere.:Measurement.:2011 reassessment.\n", "The Sun, in this respect as in many others, is relatively benign: the variation between its maximum and minimum energy output is roughly 0.1% over its 11-year solar cycle. There is strong (though not undisputed) evidence that even minor changes in the Sun's luminosity have had significant effects on the Earth's climate well within the historical era: the Little Ice Age of the mid-second millennium, for instance, may have been caused by a relatively long-term decline in the Sun's luminosity. Thus, a star does not have to be a true variable for differences in luminosity to affect habitability. Of known solar analogs, one that closely resembles the Sun is considered to be 18 Scorpii; unfortunately for the prospects of life existing in its proximity, the only significant difference between the two bodies is the amplitude of the solar cycle, which appears to be much greater for 18 Scorpii.\n", "The solar \"constant\" is not a physical constant in the modern CODATA scientific sense; that is, it is not like the Planck constant or the speed of light which are absolutely constant in physics. The solar constant is an average of a varying value. In the past 400 years it has varied less than 0.2 percent. Billions of years ago, it was significantly lower.\n\nThis constant is used in the calculation of radiation pressure, which aids in the calculation of a force on a solar sail.\n\nSection::::Calculation.\n", "In 2006, NASA predicted that the next sunspot maximum would reach between 150 and 200 around the year 2011 (30–50% stronger than cycle 23), followed by a weak maximum at around 2022. Instead, the sunspot cycle in 2010 was still at its minimum, when it should have been near its maximum, demonstrating its unusual weakness.\n", "where \"n\" is a number of a day of the year.\n\nSection::::Irradiation at the top of the atmosphere.:Variation.\n\nTotal solar irradiance (TSI) changes slowly on decadal and longer timescales. The variation during solar cycle 21 was about 0.1% (peak-to-peak). In contrast to older reconstructions, most recent TSI reconstructions point to an increase of only about 0.05% to 0.1% between the Maunder Minimum and the present.\n\nUltraviolet irradiance (EUV) varies by approximately 1.5 percent from solar maxima to minima, for 200 to 300 nm wavelengths. However, a proxy study estimated that UV has increased by 3.0% since the Maunder Minimum.\n", "Blood levels of folate, a nutrient vital for fetal development, can be degraded by UV radiation, raising concerns about sun exposure for pregnant women. Lifespan and fertility can be adversely affected for individuals born during peaks of the 11-year solar cycle, possibly because of UV-related folate deficiency during gestation.\n\nSection::::Safe level of sun exposure.\n", "No star is completely static, but stars stay on the main sequence (burning hydrogen in the core) for long periods. In the case of the Sun, it has been on the main sequence for roughly 4.6 billion years, and will become a red giant in roughly 6.5 billion years for a total main sequence lifetime of roughly 11 billion (10) years. Thus the assumption of steady state is a very good approximation. For simplicity, the stellar structure equations are written without explicit time dependence, with the exception of the luminosity gradient equation:\n", "During 2008–09 NASA scientists noted that the Sun is undergoing a \"deep solar minimum,\" stating: \"There were no sunspots observed on 266 of [2008's] 366 days (73%). Prompted by these numbers, some observers suggested that the solar cycle had hit bottom in 2008. Sunspot counts for 2009 dropped even lower. As of September 14, 2009 there were no sunspots on 206 of the year's 257 days (80%). Solar physicist Dean Pesnell of the Goddard Space Flight Center came to the following conclusion: \"We're experiencing a very deep solar minimum.\" His statement was confirmed by other specialists in the field. \"This is the quietest sun we've seen in almost a century,\" agreed sunspot expert David Hathaway of the National Space Science and Technology Center NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05542	How is linear algebra used in machine learning algorithms?	We use matrices to represent data and relationships between data. We do all kinds of matrix stuff; we multiply them, add them, find covariance, find eigenvectors etc. Multiplying two matrices with say 1000 entries each helps relate 2000 units of data in just one operation, multiplication. Matrices make organization in ML easy. Operations just work if you know the algorithm. For a Machine Learning student, matrices are just a way to list stuff basically, but if you can understand the mathematical implication behind matrices and how they affect space, aka Linear Transformations, and other Linear Algebra intuitions, like what exactly are you doing to your data units when you find their eigenvectors, it can help you understand your ML algos better. Other than this, ML tools have highly optimised algos for matrices and if you were to use normal non matrix operations, it'll be much slower. These are the main reasons I think Linear Algebra is used in ML.	[ "Some active learning algorithms are built upon support-vector machines (SVMs) and exploit the structure of the SVM to determine which data points to label. Such methods usually calculate the margin, , of each unlabeled datum in and treat as an -dimensional distance from that datum to the separating hyperplane.\n", "An autoencoder neural network with a linear hidden layer is similar to PCA. Upon convergence, the weight vectors of the \"K\" neurons in the hidden layer will form a basis for the space spanned by the first \"K\" principal components. Unlike PCA, this technique will not necessarily produce orthogonal vectors, yet the principal components can easily be recovered from them using singular value decomposition.\n", "This discussion is restricted to the case of the square loss, though it can be extended to any convex loss. It can be shown by an easy induction that if formula_79 is the data matrix and formula_80 is the output after formula_54 steps of the SGD algorithm, then,\n\nwhere formula_83 and the sequence formula_84 satisfies the recursion:\n\nNotice that here formula_88 is just the standard Kernel on formula_89, and the predictor is of the form \n\nNow, if a general kernel formula_91 is introduced instead and let the predictor be \n", "PCA is a linear feature learning approach since the \"p\" singular vectors are linear functions of the data matrix. The singular vectors can be generated via a simple algorithm with \"p\" iterations. In the \"i\"th iteration, the projection of the data matrix on the \"(i-1)\"th eigenvector is subtracted, and the \"i\"th singular vector is found as the right singular vector corresponding to the largest singular of the residual data matrix.\n", "The vector space associated with these vectors is often called the feature space. In order to reduce the dimensionality of the feature space, a number of dimensionality reduction techniques can be employed.\n", "The complexity for formula_41 steps of this algorithm is formula_57, which is an order of magnitude faster than the corresponding batch learning complexity. The storage requirements at every step formula_31 here are to store the matrix formula_59, which is constant at formula_39. For the case when formula_44 is not invertible, consider the regularised version of the problem \n\nloss function formula_62. Then, it's easy to show that the same algorithm works with formula_63, and the iterations proceed to give formula_64.\n\nSection::::Statistical view of online learning.:Stochastic gradient descent.\n\nWhen this \n\nis replaced by\n", "Section::::Statistical view of online learning.:Online learning: recursive least squares.\n\nThe recursive least squares algorithm considers an online approach to the least squares problem. It can be shown that by initialising formula_50 and formula_51, the solution of the linear least squares problem given in the previous section can be computed by the following iteration:\n\nThe above iteration algorithm can be proved using induction on formula_54. The proof also shows that formula_55. \n\nOne can look at RLS also in the context of adaptive filters (see RLS).\n", "The simple example of linear least squares is used to explain a variety of ideas in online learning. The ideas are general enough to be applied to other settings, for e.g. with other convex loss functions.\n\nSection::::Statistical view of online learning.:Batch learning.\n\nIn the setting of supervised learning with the square loss function, the intent is to minimize the empirical loss,\n\nLet formula_2 be the formula_28 data matrix and formula_3 is the formula_30 matrix of target values after the arrival of the first formula_31 data points.\n", "This figure depicts such a decomposition of formula_36, with dependencies between variables indicated by arrows. These can be interpreted in two ways.\n\nThe first view is the functional view: the input formula_37 is transformed into a 3-dimensional vector formula_38, which is then transformed into a 2-dimensional vector formula_39, which is finally transformed into formula_36. This view is most commonly encountered in the context of optimization.\n", "From 2010 to 2015, ELM research extended to the unified learning framework for kernel learning, SVM and a few typical feature learning methods such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Non-negative Matrix Factorization (NMF). It is shown that SVM actually provides suboptimal solutions compared to ELM, and ELM can provide the whitebox kernel mapping, which is implemented by ELM random feature mapping, instead of the blackbox kernel used in SVM. PCA and NMF can be considered as special cases where linear hidden nodes are used in ELM.\n", "While representing input data as vectors has been emphasized in this article, any kind of object which can be represented digitally, which has an appropriate distance measure associated with it, and in which the necessary operations for training are possible can be used to construct a self-organizing map. This includes matrices, continuous functions or even other self-organizing maps.\n\nSection::::Learning algorithm.:Variables.\n\nThese are the variables needed, with vectors in bold,\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2 is the current iteration\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3 is the iteration limit\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4 is the index of the target input data vector in the input data set formula_5\n", "BULLET::::- Update weight according to the result of evaluation. There are two cases: predicted positive on negative example (formula_23 and targets are not in the list of active features) and predicted negative on positive example(formula_24 and targets are in the list of active features).\n\nBULLET::::- SNoW-Evaluation\n\nBULLET::::- Evaluate the each target using same function as introduced above\n\nBULLET::::- Prediction: Make a decision to select the dominant active target node.\n\nBULLET::::- 2. support vector machines\n", "From representing the six special cases, we see a clear advantage of the moment matrix representation, i.e., it allows a unified representation for seemingly diverse types of knowledge, including linear equations, joint and conditional distributions, and ignorance. The unification is significant not only for knowledge representation in artificial intelligence but also for statistical analysis and engineering computation. For example, the representation treats the typical logical and probabilistic components in statistics — observations, distributions, improper priors (for Bayesian statistics), and linear equation models — not as separate concepts, but as manifestations of a single concept. It allows one to see the inner connections between these concepts or manifestations and to interplay them for computational purposes.\n", "In the field of environment science, Prada-Sanchez used partially linear model to predict the sulfur dioxide pollution in 2000 (Prada-Sanchez, 2000), and in the next year, Lin and Carroll applied partially linear model for clustered data (Lin and Carroall, 2001). \n\nSection::::Partially Linear Model.:Development of partially linear model.\n", "The first theoretical analysis of linear probing, showing that it takes constant expected time per operation with random hash functions, was given by Knuth. Sedgewick calls Knuth's work \"a landmark in the analysis of algorithms\". Significant later developments include a more detailed analysis of the probability distribution of the running time, and the proof that linear probing runs in constant time per operation with practically usable hash functions rather than with the idealized random functions assumed by earlier analysis.\n", "The paradigm of online learning has different interpretations depending on the choice of the learning model, each of which has distinct implications about the predictive quality of the sequence of functions formula_147. The prototypical stochastic gradient descent algorithm is used for this discussion. As noted above, its recursion is given by\n", "Section::::Algorithms.:Least squares optimisation.\n", "In this case, it is assumed that each query-document pair in the training data has a numerical or ordinal score. Then the learning-to-rank problem can be approximated by a regression problem — given a single query-document pair, predict its score.\n\nA number of existing supervised machine learning algorithms can be readily used for this purpose. Ordinal regression and classification algorithms can also be used in pointwise approach when they are used to predict the score of a single query-document pair, and it takes a small, finite number of values.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Pairwise approach.\n", "Section::::Iterative methods.\n", "A number of single-instance algorithms have also been adapted to a multiple-instance context under the standard assumption, including\n\nBULLET::::- Support vector machines\n\nBULLET::::- Artificial neural networks\n\nBULLET::::- Decision trees\n\nBULLET::::- Boosting\n\nPost 2000, there was a movement away from the standard assumption and the development of algorithms designed to tackle the more general assumptions listed above.\n", "Linear algebra is one of the central tools to modern engineering. Central to linear algebra is the notion of an orbit of vectors, with the matrices forming groups (matrices with inverses and identity) which act on the vectors. In linear algebra the equations describing the orbit elements the vectors are linear in the vectors being acted upon by the matrices. In computational anatomy the space of all shapes and forms is modeled as an orbit similar to the vectors in linear-algebra, however the groups do not act linear as the matrices do, and the shapes and forms are not additive. In computational anatomy addition is essentially replaced by the law of composition.\n", "formula_15\n\nStep 3\n\nNote that at this point there are two equations but three unknowns. The missing equation comes from the fact that\n\nformula_16\n\nand so finally we have three equations and three unknowns, that leads to a solvable linear system.\n\nSection::::Example.:Modified Nodal Analysis and DAEs.\n\nIf the vector formula_17 is defined, then the above equations can be put in the form\n\nformula_18\n\nwhere formula_19, formula_20 and formula_21.\n", "which implies that the function \"f\" is entirely determined by the vectors \"f\"(v), …, \"f\"(v). Now let be a basis for \"W\". Then we can represent each vector \"f\"(v) as\n\nThus, the function \"f\" is entirely determined by the values of \"a\". If we put these values into an matrix \"M\", then we can conveniently use it to compute the vector output of \"f\" for any vector in \"V\". To get \"M\", every column \"j\" of \"M\" is a vector\n", "Given a sequence of surveillance video frames, it is often required to identify the activities that stand out from the background. If we stack the video frames as columns of a matrix M, then the low-rank component L naturally corresponds to the stationary background and the sparse component S captures the moving objects in the foreground.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Face recognition.\n", "Section::::Statistical view of online learning.\n\nIn statistical learning models, the training sample formula_14 are assumed to have been drawn from the true distribution formula_4 and the objective is to minimize the expected \"risk\"\n\nA common paradigm in this situation is to estimate a function formula_17 through empirical risk minimization or regularized empirical risk minimization (usually Tikhonov regularization). The choice of loss function here gives rise to several well-known learning algorithms such as regularized least squares and support vector machines.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03294	Why do car manufacturers allow cars to go way faster than speed limits?	You are allowed to go faster in order to overtake. Different speed limits in different countries. Top speed limits change over time (in NZ we just changed ours to 110 km/hr). Marketing and bragging rights. The customer is always right.	[ "On December 12 - Need For Speed No Limits Christmas 2018 Update - Get behind the wheel of 3 incredible cars: the iconic BMW M3 GTR from Need for Speed Most Wanted in the Urban Legend which will begin on December 12\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1985, the Texas's State Department of Highways and Public Transportation surveyed motorist speeds at 101 locations on six types of urban and rural roads. It found that 82.2% of motorists violated the speed limit on rural interstates, 67.2% violated speed limits on urban interstates, and 61.6% violated speed limits on all roads.\n\nBULLET::::- Western states began to reduce fines in the 1980s, effectively minimizing the impact of the 55 mph (90 km/h) limit:\n", "BULLET::::- Some law enforcement officials openly questioned the speed limit. In 1986, Jerry Baum, director of the South Dakota Highway Patrol, said \"Why must I have a trooper stationed on an interstate, at 10 in the morning, worried about a guy driving 60 mph (100 km/h) on a system designed to be traveled at 70? He could be out on a Friday night watching for drunken drivers.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Even organizations supporting the NMSL, such as the American Automobile Association (AAA) provided lists of locations where the limit was strictly enforced.\n", "Section::::1973—55 mph National Speed Limit.\n\nAs of November 20, 1973, several states had modified speed limits:\n\nBULLET::::- Rhode Island, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Vermont, and Washington\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina and Oregon\n\nBULLET::::- California lowered some limits to .\n", "BMW, Mercedes and others have entered into a gentlemen's agreement to a limit of , but may 'unhook' their speed limited cars in Europe, and Mercedes will provide some vehicles in the USA without limiters for an additional price. There are also third-party companies who will re-flash vehicle computers with new software which will remove the speed limits and improve overall performance.\n", "BULLET::::- From April to June 1982, speed was monitored on New York's Interstate highways, and an 83% noncompliance rate was found despite extreme penalties ranging from $100 (1982 dollars, equal to $ today) or 30 days jail on a first offense to $500 (1982 dollars, equal to $ today), up to 180 days in jail, and a six-month driver's license revocation upon third conviction in 18 months.\n\nBULLET::::- In the fourth quarter of 1988, 85% of drivers violated the speed limits on Connecticut rural interstates.\n", "When a speed limit is used to generate revenue but has no safety justification, it is called a speed trap. The town of New Rome, Ohio was such a speed trap, where speeding tickets raised up to $400,000 per year to fund the police department of a 12-acre village with 60 residents.\n\nSection::::Political considerations.:Environmental concerns.\n\nReduced speed limits are sometimes enacted for air quality reasons. The most prominent example includes Texas' environmental speed limits.\n\nSection::::Political considerations.:Definition of speeding.\n\nEither of the following qualifies a crash as speed-related in accordance with U.S. government rules:\n\nBULLET::::1. Exceeding speed limits.\n", "In 2018, an IRTAD WG published a document which recommended maximum speed limits, taking into account forces the human body can tolerate and survive.\n\nSection::::Justification.:Fuel efficiency.\n", "BULLET::::- A 2008 declaration by the German Automobile Manufacturer's Association calling general limits \"patronizing,\" arguing instead for variable speed limits. The Association also stated that \"raising the speed limits in Denmark (in 2004 from 110 km/h to 130 km/h) and Italy (2003 increase on six-lane highways from 130 km/h to 150 km/h) had no negative impact on traffic safety. The number of accidental deaths even declined\".\n", "In the years since the repeal of the 55/65 mph National Maximum Speed Limit, speedometers on most cars, sport utility vehicles (SUV's) and some light trucks sold in the United States currently display a top speed of up to .\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "BULLET::::- A 2010 German Auto Club report that an autobahn speed limit was unnecessary because numerous countries with a general highway speed limit had worse safety records than Germany (e.g. Denmark, Belgium, Austria, and the United States).\n\nSection::::Advocacy.:Support.\n", "Fuel efficiency sometimes affects speed limit selection. The United States instituted a National Maximum Speed Law of , as part of the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act, in response to the 1973 oil crisis to reduce fuel consumption. According to a report published in 1986 by The Heritage Foundation, a Conservative advocacy group, the law was widely disregarded by motorists and hardly reduced consumption at all. In 2009, the American Trucking Associations called for a 65 mph speed limit, and also national fuel economy standards, claiming that the lower speed limit was not effective at saving fuel.\n\nSection::::Justification.:Environmental considerations.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In western cultures, speed limits predate the use of motorized vehicles. In 1652, the American colony of New Amsterdam passed a law stating, \"No wagons, carts or sleighs shall be run, rode or driven at a gallop.\" The punishment for breaking the law was \"two pounds Flemish,\" the equivalent of US $50 in 2019. The \"1832\" \"Stage Carriage Act\" introduced the offense of endangering the safety of a passenger or person by \"furious driving\" in the United Kingdom (UK).\n", "Section::::Justification.\n\nSpeed limits are set primarily to balance road traffic safety concerns with the effect on travel time and mobility. Speed limits are also sometimes used to reduce consumption of fuel or in response to environmental concerns (e.g. to reduce vehicle emissions or fuel use). Some speed limits have also been initiated to reduce gas-oil imports during the 1973 oil crisis.\n\nSection::::Justification.:Road traffic safety.\n", "BULLET::::1. When speed limits are arbitrary, such as when set through political rather than empirical processes, the speed limit's relationship to the maximum safe speed is weakened or intentionally eliminated. Therefore, a crash can be counted as speed-related even if it occurs at a safe speed, simply because the speed was in excess of a politically determined limit.\n\nBULLET::::2. The effective limit may still be too fast for certain conditions, such as limited visibility or reduced road traction or even low-speed truck rollovers on exit ramps.\n", "Speed limits can also be used to improve local air quality issues or other factors affecting environmental quality (e.g. the \"environmental speed limits\" in an area of Texas). The European Union is also increasingly using speed limits as in response to environmental concerns.\n\nEuropean studies have stated that, whereas the effects of specific speed reduction schemes on particulate emissions from trucks are ambiguous, lower maximums speed for trucks consistently result in lower emissions of CO and better fuel efficiency.\n\nSection::::Advocacy.\n", "BULLET::::5. street-legal in its intended markets, having fulfilled the homologation tests or inspections required under either a) United States of America, b) European Union law, or (c) Japan) to be granted this status\n\nBULLET::::6. sold in more than one national market.\n\nSection::::List rules.:Measurement of top speed.\n", "Section::::Philosophy.\n", "The maximum speed permitted by statute, as posted, is normally based on ideal driving conditions and the basic speed rule always applies. Violation of the statute \n\ngenerally raises a rebuttable presumption of negligence.\n\nOn international European roads, speed should be taken into account during the design stage..\n\nSection::::Regulations.:Minimum speed limits.\n", "Section::::Oregon.:Attempts to raise speed limits.\n", "Speed limits, and especially some of the methods used to attempt to enforce them, have always been controversial. A variety of organisations and individuals either oppose or support the use of speed limits and their enforcement.\n\nSection::::Advocacy.:Opposition.\n\nSpeed limits and their enforcement have been opposed by various groups and for various reasons since their inception. In the UK, the Motorists' Mutual Association (est.1905) was formed initially to warn members about speed traps; the organisation would go on to become the AA.\n", "BULLET::::- It is based on the capabilities of vehicles and roadways that existed at or before the design speed was determined. Vehicular and roadway technologies generally improve over time. Therefore, as time elapses from when a roadway's original design speed was determined, it is increasingly likely that a design speed will underestimate the maximum safe speed.\n\nRecognizing the limitations on the use of the design speed for speed limit determination, \"operating speeds and even posted speed limits can be higher than design speeds without necessarily compromising safety\".\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n", "A successful prima facie defense is rare. Not only does the burden of proof rest upon the accused, a successful defense may involve expenses well in excess of the cost of a ticket, such as an expert witness. Furthermore, because prima facie defenses must be presented in a court, such a defense is difficult for out-of-town motorists.\n\nSection::::Speed limit increase.\n", "BULLET::::- The Legacy Parkway, running between North Salt Lake and Farmington, has posted speed limits of 55 mph along its entire length (of ten miles) due to environmental concerns at the time of its construction.\n\nSection::::Utah.:80 mph speed limit.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18205	what actual, day to day powers does England have over Canada as part of the constitutional monarchy? Is it purely symbolic?	England doesn't have any power over Canada, nor does the United Kingdom (the country you were probably thinking of). While Queen Elizabeth II is the queen of the UK and Canada, those are completely separate governments & the nations are completely independent.	[ "As foreign affairs are a matter of royal prerogative, the power to declare war and deploy the armed forces belongs to the Crown, though only in its federal Cabinet (the federal government), as outlined in sections 9 and 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Neither legislation nor any other type of parliamentary approval, beyond budgetary matters, is required for such actions, though the Cabinet has on occasion consulted parliament before engaging Canada or extending Canada's involvement in a conflict. Additionally, the federal and provincial crowns may ratify treaties, though only so far as they fall within the proper area of jurisdiction, according to sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Again, the endorsement of parliament is not necessary for these agreements to have force in an international sense, but the legislatures must pass treaties in order for them to have domestic effect. Proposed treaties have also occasionally been presented to parliament for debate before ratification. Members of Parliament have tabled bills seeking to curtail the use of the royal prerogative in foreign affairs by legislating a greater role for parliament, as have Senate standing committees, from time to time, called for the same.\n", "Royal Assent is required to enact laws and, as part of the Royal Prerogative, the royal sign-manual gives authority to letters patent and orders in council, though the authority for these acts stems from the Canadian populace and, within the conventional stipulations of constitutional monarchy, the sovereign's direct participation in any of these areas of governance is limited. The Royal Prerogative also includes summoning, proroguing, and dissolving parliament in order to call an election, and extends to foreign affairs: the negotiation and ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and declarations of war; the accreditation of Canadian, and receipt of foreign, diplomats; and the issuance of passports.\n", "In the construct of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the ministerial advice tendered is typically binding, meaning the monarch \"reigns\" but does not \"rule\", the Cabinet ruling \"in trust\" for the monarch. This has been the case in Canada since the Treaty of Paris ended the reign of the territory's last absolute monarch, King Louis XV. However, the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of the ministers and the royal and viceroyal figures may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations (an exercise of the reserve powers), thereby allowing the monarch to make sure \"that the government conducts itself in compliance with the constitution.\" There are also a few duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills that require assent by, the Queen.\n", "All laws in Canada are the monarch's and the sovereign is one of the three components of parliament—formally called the \"Queen-in-Parliament\"—but the monarch and viceroy do not participate in the legislative process save for the granting of Royal Assent, which is necessary for a bill to be enacted as law. Either figure or a delegate may perform this task and the constitution allows the viceroy the option of deferring assent to the sovereign. The governor general is further responsible for summoning the House of Commons, while either the viceroy or monarch can prorogue and dissolve the legislature, after which the governor general usually calls for a general election. The new parliamentary session is marked by either the monarch, governor general, or some other representative reading the Speech from the Throne. Members of Parliament must recite the Oath of Allegiance before they may take their seat. Further, the official opposition is traditionally dubbed as \"Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition\", illustrating that, while its members are opposed to the incumbent government, they remain loyal to the sovereign (as personification of the state and its authority).\n", "Another subject specifically mentioned in the amending formula is the role of the Canadian monarchy. There are two key pre-Confederation documents of the English parliament that continue to govern the powers and the line of succession of the Canadian monarch. In both cases, provisions with regard to the monarchy are to be taken literally. One section of the amending formula, section 41, says that \"the legislature of each province may exclusively make laws amending the constitution of the province\". This might entrench some pre-Confederation legislation concerning the colonies that are now Canadian provinces, but that same section allows the provinces to amend the legislation unilaterally despite them being part of the constitution. Documents affected by reference in the amending formula include:\n", "The Great Seal of Canada \"signifies the power and authority of the Crown flowing from the sovereign to [the] parliamentary government\" and is applied to state documents such as royal proclamations and letters patent commissioning cabinet ministers, senators, judges, and other senior government officials. The \"lending\" of royal authority to the Cabinet is illustrated by the great seal being entrusted by the governor general, the official keeper of the seal, to the Minister of Innovation, Science, and Economic Development, who is \"ex officio\" the Registrar General of Canada. Upon a change of government, the seal is temporarily returned to the governor general and then \"lent\" to the next incoming registrar general.\n", "Under section 41 of the Constitution Act 1982, changes to the office of the monarch require unanimous consent of all the provinces and the federal parliament. If changes to the line of succession to the Canadian throne were found to fall under this provision, it is possible that any single provincial legislature—such as Quebec's—could hinder any attempts at change. In the aforementioned court decision, Justice J. Rouleau determined that \"unilateral changes by Canada to the rules of succession\" would be \"a fundamental change in the office of the Queen\" requiring authorizations pursuant to section 41 of the Constitution Act, 1982. The precedent in question does not specify whether non-unilateral alterations to the rules of succession would also be considered a fundamental change in the office of Queen, requiring a constitutional amendment under the unanimous consent procedure. The judge stated that \"a constitutional monarchy, where the monarch is shared with the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, is, in [his] view, at the root of [Canada's] constitutional structure\".\n", "Canada has no laws allowing for a regency, should the sovereign be a minor or debilitated; none have been passed by the Canadian parliament and it was made clear by successive Cabinets since 1937 that the United Kingdom's Regency Act had no applicability to Canada, as the Canadian Cabinet had not requested otherwise when the act was passed that year and again in 1943 and 1953. As the 1947 Letters Patent issued by King George VI permit the Governor General of Canada to exercise almost all of the monarch's powers in respect of Canada, the viceroy is expected to continue to act as the personal representative of the monarch, and not any regent, even if the monarch is a child or incapacitated.\n", "The sovereign's place in the legislature, formally called the \"Queen-in-Parliament\", is defined by the Constitution Act, 1867, and various conventions. Neither she nor her viceroy, however, participates in the legislative process save for signifying the Queen's approval to a bill passed by both houses of Parliament, known as the granting of Royal Assent, which is necessary for a bill to be enacted as law. All federal bills thus begin with the phrase \"Now, therefore, Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and House of Commons of Canada, enacts as follows ...\" and, as such, the Crown is immune from acts of Parliament unless expressed otherwise in the act itself. The Governor General will normally perform the task of granting Royal Assent, though the monarch may also do so, at the request of either the Cabinet or the viceroy, who may defer assent to the sovereign as per the constitution.\n", "\"Official duties\" involve the sovereign representing the Canadian state at home or abroad, or her relations as members of the Royal Family participating in government organized ceremonies either in Canada or elsewhere; sometimes these individuals are employed in asserting Canada's sovereignty over its territories. The advice of the Canadian Cabinet is the impetus for royal participation in any Canadian event, though, at present, the Chief of Protocol and his staff in the Department of Canadian Heritage are, as part of the State Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Program, responsible for orchestrating any official events in or for Canada that involve the Royal Family.\n", "In Canada, the royal prerogative is, for the most part, the same as that in the United Kingdom, as constrained by constitutional convention, although its exercise is usually through the federal governor general or the lieutenant governors of the provinces in their respective privy councils. The royal prerogative in Canada is largely set out in Part III of the Constitution Act, 1867, particularly section 9.\n", "The Canadian constitution determines that the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the country's sovereign, who, since 1904, has authorized his or her viceroy, the governor general, to exercise the duties ascribed to the post of Commander-in-Chief and to hold the associated title since 1905. All troop deployment and disposition orders, including declarations of war, fall within the royal prerogative and are issued as Orders in Council, which must be signed by either the monarch or governor general. Under the Westminster system's parliamentary customs and practices, however, the monarch and viceroy must generally follow the advice of his or her ministers in Cabinet, including the prime minister and minister of national defence, who are accountable to the elected House of Commons.\n", "Upon the death of the sovereign, the \"Manual of Official Procedure of the Government of Canada\" states the Prime Minister of Canada is responsible for convening the Parliament of Canada, tabling a resolution of loyalty and condolence from the parliament to the next Monarch of Canada, and arranging for the motion to be seconded by the Leader of the Official Opposition. The Prime Minister will then move to adjourn Parliament. The Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom is expected to represent Canada at the Accession Council. The Privy Council for Canada will convene to perform the equivalent function of the Accession Council for the Crown in Right of Canada.\n", "While the governor general is authorised by the Queen to exercise the authority of the Crown on the monarch's behalf, there is no legal impediment to the Queen exercising any of her powers herself, and only the Queen can revoke, alter, or amend the 1947 letters patent. Subsequently, despite the permissions in the \"Letters Patent 1947\", the Canadian sovereign continues to wield \"her prerogative powers in relation to Canada concurrently with the Governor General\". As a matter of law, the Governor General of Canada is not in the same constitutional position as the sovereign and, as such, the Office of Governor General has never been invested with the powers of the Royal Prerogative, a fact the \"Constitution Act, 1867\" leaves unchanged.\n", "This division is illustrated in a number of ways: The sovereign, for example, holds a unique Canadian title and, when she and other members of the Royal Family are acting in public specifically as representatives of Canada, they use, where possible, Canadian symbols, including the country's national flag, unique royal symbols, armed forces uniforms, and the like, as well as Canadian Forces aircraft or other Canadian-owned vehicles for travel. Once in Canadian airspace, or arrived at a Canadian event taking place abroad, the Canadian Secretary to the Queen, officers of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and other Canadian officials will take over from whichever of their other realms' counterparts were previously escorting the Queen or other member of the Royal Family.\n", "Officials at Rideau Hall have attempted to use the Letters Patent of 1947 as justification for describing the governor general as head of state. However, the document makes no such distinction, nor does it effect an abdication of the sovereign's powers in favour of the viceroy, as it only allows the governor general to \"act on The Queen's behalf\". Dr. D. Michael Jackson, former Chief of Protocol of Saskatchewan, argued that Rideau Hall had been attempting to \"recast\" the governor general as head of state since the 1970s and doing so preempted both the Queen and all of the lieutenant governors. This caused not only \"precedence wars\" at provincial events (where the governor general usurped the lieutenant governor's proper spot as most senior official in attendance) and Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to accord herself precedence before the Queen at a national occasion, but also constitutional issues by \"unbalancing ... the federalist symmetry\". This has been regarded as both a natural evolution and as a dishonest effort to alter the constitution without public scrutiny.\n", "State and official visits by Canada are performed by the Monarch of Canada or a representative—the Governor General, a lieutenant governor, or another member of the Royal Family. The first state visit by Canada was to the United States in 1937, when the United States accorded the Governor General the equivalent status given to a visiting head of state. However, the Governor General was not formally empowered to represent Canada for state visits until 1947, when the \"Letters Patent\" came into effect.\n", "Section 9 confirms that all executive powers remain with the Queen, as represented by the Governor General or an administrator of the government, as stated in Section 10. Section 11 creates the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. Section 12 states that the executive branches of the Provinces continue to exist and their power is exercised through the Lieutenant Governors, and that the powers exercised by the federal government must be exercised through the Governor General, either with the advice of the privy council or alone. Section 13 defines the Governor General in Council as the Governor General acting with the advice of the Privy Council. Section 14 allows the Governor General to appoint deputies to exercise his powers in various parts of Canada. The Commander-in-Chief of all armed forces in Canada continues with the Queen under Section 15. Section 16 declares Ottawa the capital of the new federation.\n", "Gary Toffoli and Paul Benoit of the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust outlined how the British and Canadian governments agreed during the abdication crisis in 1936 that whoever is monarch of the UK is not automatically monarch of Canada and, thus, the alteration of the succession in Britain by British law would not extend to Canada without the latter's request and consent that it do so. In line with that, Tofolli argued the term \"Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\" contained in the preamble to the \"Constitution Act, 1867\", should be interpreted at present not as the \"Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\" (the successor to the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland following the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922), as the government has claimed it should be read, but instead as the \"Crown of Canada\", as per both further, post-1922 constitutional development and the \"Interpretation Act, 1985\". (He later wrote \"there is no merit in arguing that there was evolution but that it stopped before the Statute of Westminster... [T]he Crown of Canada must be read as coincident with, not dependent upon, the Crown of the United Kingdom in the \"Constitution Act, 1867\".\") As further evidence of Canada and the UK having separate monarchical offices, Toffoli pointed to the proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II's accession taking place in Canada before she was proclaimed sovereign in the UK.\n", "The person who is monarch of Canada (currently Queen Elizabeth II) is also the monarch of 15 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, though, he or she reigns separately as King or Queen of Canada, an office that is \"truly Canadian\" and \"totally independent from that of the Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms\". On the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister, the sovereign appoints a federal viceregal representative—the Governor General of Canada (currently Julie Payette)—who, since 1947, is permitted to exercise almost all of the monarch's Royal Prerogative, though there are some duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills that require assent by, the king or queen.\n", "The Act was enacted as a schedule to the Canada Act 1982, a British Act of Parliament which was introduced at the request of a joint address to the Queen by the Senate and House of Commons of Canada. As a bilingual act of parliament, the Canada Act 1982 has the distinction of being the only legislation in French that has been passed by an English or British parliament since Norman French (Law French) ceased to be the language of government in England. In addition to enacting the Constitution Act, 1982, the Canada Act 1982 provides that no further British Acts of Parliament will apply to Canada as part of its law, finalizing Canada's legislative independence.\n", "The Crown is the pinnacle of the Canadian Forces, with the constitution placing the monarch in the position of commander-in-chief of the entire force, though the governor general carries out the duties attached to the position and also bears the title of \"Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada\". Further, included in Canada's constitution are the various treaties between the Crown and Canadian First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples, who view these documents as agreements directly and only between themselves and the reigning monarch, illustrating the relationship between sovereign and aboriginals.\n\nSection::::Federal constitutional role.:Executive (Queen-in-Council).\n", "The government's stated position in 2013 was that \"The changes to the laws of succession do not require a constitutional amendment. The laws governing succession are UK law and are not part of Canada's constitution. Specifically, they are not enumerated in the schedule to our \"Constitution Act, 1982\" as part of the Constitution of Canada. Furthermore, the changes to the laws of succession do not constitute a change to the 'office of The Queen', as contemplated in \"the Constitution Act, 1982\". The 'office of The Queen' includes the Sovereign's constitutional status, powers and rights in Canada. Neither the ban on the marriages of heirs to Roman Catholics, nor the common law governing male preference primogeniture, can properly be said to be royal powers or prerogatives in Canada. As the line of succession is therefore determined by UK law and not by the sovereign, the Queen's powers and rights have not been altered by the changes to the laws governing succession in Canada.\"\n", "Once the Government of Canada has been informed of the sovereign's death, all staff of the Governor General of Canada, provincial lieutenant governors, and territorial commissioners will be immediately issued black ties and black armbands. Government Houses in Canada will have portraits of the Queen, and flagpoles draped in black fabric. A book of condolences will be laid out near front entrance of Government Houses, with events previously planned at the Government Houses cancelled. It is also the Governor General's job to recall the Cabinet of Canada to Parliament Hill and proclaim that Canada has a new \"lawful and rightful liege.\"\n", "While the role of the governor general is largely considered a ceremonial one, the powers of the Crown that were delegated to the Office of the Governor General in 1947 are substantial. Increased attention is sometimes brought to these powers by political events, such as the 2008 and 2009 prorogations of the federal parliament, which serve to increasingly highlight the role that the governor general plays within the Canadian constitution. Even though the monarch's delegation of powers put the governor general \"not in quite the same position as the Sovereign in regard to the exercise of certain prerogative powers\", the 1947 Letters Patent serve to allow the Canadian political system a greater amount of flexibility in the exercise of the Canadian Crown's powers.\n" ]	[ "England has power over Canada because Canada is part of the constitutional monarchy.", "England is the country that has a monarch" ]	[ "Queen Elizabeth II is the queen of both England and Canada but they are separate governments and independent nations.", "The United Kingdom is the country that has a monarch." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "England has power over Canada because Canada is part of the constitutional monarchy.", "England is the country that has a monarch" ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Queen Elizabeth II is the queen of both England and Canada but they are separate governments and independent nations.", "The United Kingdom is the country that has a monarch." ]
2018-18781	Why do motorcycles need gear mechanism, but a lot of scooters are gearless ?	Many modern scooters (and some cars) have a continuously variable transmission with a centrifugal clutch. Many older scooters did have gear shifts. Few motorcycles are automatic because riders prefer manual shifting.	[ "Scooter engine sizes range smaller than motorcycles, , and have all-enclosing bodywork that makes them cleaner and quieter than motorcycles, as well as having more built-in storage space. Automatic clutches and continuously variable transmissions (CVT) make them easier to learn on and to ride. Scooters usually have smaller wheels than motorcycles. Scooters usually have the engine as part of the swingarm, so that their engines travel up and down with the suspension.\n", "Motor scooters often have the engine as part of the rear suspension, so the engine is not fixed rigidly to the main frame. Instead, the combined engine-transmission-swingarm assembly is pivoted to follow the road surface and is part of the \"unsprung weight\". The chain final-drive of scooters runs in an oil-bath within the engine casings. \"Step-through\" motorcycles may have a rigidly fixed engine, or may have a scooter-type arrangement.\n\nSection::::Two-stroke and four-stroke.\n\nTwo-stroke engines have fewer moving parts than four-stroke engines, and produce twice the number of power strokes per revolution.\n", "BULLET::::- Tacita Motorcycles, based in Italy, announced in mid 2019 plans for open a U.S. operation in Miami, Florida. It makes street and off-road bikes, unusual with their 5-speed manual transmission.\n\nSection::::Power source.\n\nMost electric motorcycles and scooters as of May 2019 are powered by rechargeable lithium ion batteries, though some early models used nickel-metal hydride batteries.\n", "Today, dedicated off-road motorcycles and many ATVs use kick start systems, due to the increased weight of electric starters. The majority of the inexpensive two-wheelers and sometimes three-wheelers in developing countries, also use kick start levers.\n\nThe first kick start motorcycle was a British Scott Motorcycle two-stroke twin manufactured in 1910.\n\nSome scooters have kick starters with a tendency not to always work, if not performed correctly. Some manufacturers have also included kick starters in their models, only for a purpose of introducing apparent convenience for ignition, as opposed to offering a reliable alternative for an electric starter.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Most jurisdictions do not differentiate between scooters and motorcycles. For all legal purposes in the United States of America, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) recommends using the term motorcycle for all of these vehicles. However, while NHTSA excludes the term \"motor scooter\" from legal definition, it proceeds, in the same document, to give detailed instructions on how to import a small motor scooter.\n\nSection::::Emissions.\n", "Scooter (motorcycle)\n\nA scooter (also referred to as a motor scooter to avoid confusion with kick scooter, but not to be confused with a motorized scooter) is a type of motorcycle with a step-through frame and a platform for the rider's feet. Elements of scooter design were present in some of the earliest motorcycles, and scooters have been made since 1914 or earlier. Scooter development continued in Europe and the United States between the World Wars.\n", "Note there is no single fixed definition of a scooter (also known by the full name motor-scooter), but generally a smaller motorcycle with a step-through frame is considered a scooter, especially if it has a floor for the rider's feet (as opposed to straddling the vehicle like a conventional motorcycle). Other common traits of scooters can include: bodywork (so the mechanicals are not exposed like a conventional motorcycle), motors combined with the suspension or wheel (rather than attached to the frame like a conventional motorcycle), leg shields, smaller wheels than a conventional motorcycle, and an alternative to a chain drive. \n", "Traditionally, scooter wheels are smaller than conventional motorcycle wheels and are made of pressed steel or cast aluminum alloy, bolt on easily, and often are interchangeable between front and rear. Some scooters carry a spare wheel. Many recent scooters use conventional front forks with the front axle fastened at both ends.\n\nSection::::Regulatory classification.\n", "Traditional scooters (such as the Vespa) still have manual gear-changing by a twist grip on the left hand side of the handlebar, with a co-rotated clutch lever. Modern scooters were often fitted with a throttle-controlled continuously variable transmission, thus earning the term twist-and-go.\n\nUnderbone and miniature motorcycles often have a three to five-speed foot change, but the clutch is automatic.\n\nSection::::Clutch.\n", "Glas, a manufacturer of agricultural machinery, made the Goggo scooter from 1951 to 1955. Glas discontinued scooter production to concentrate on its Goggomobil microcar.\n", "The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines a motor scooter is a motorcycle similar to a kick scooter with a seat, a floorboard, and small or low wheels. The United States Department of Transportation defines a scooter as a motorcycle that has a platform for the operator's feet or has integrated footrests, and has a step-through architecture.\n", "Unlike a kick scooter, a bicycle has a seat and drive train, which add speed, cost, weight and bulk. A folding scooter can be more easily carried than a folding bicycle or even a portable bicycle. Even a non-folding scooter is easier to manoeuvre between obstacles, as there are no protruding pedals. Thus a cyclist has advantages in longer journeys and open spaces, and a kick scooter in shorter and more crowded ones. Kick scooters seldom have a luggage rack, so the rider usually carries any cargo on their back.\n", "While the engine and suspension layouts described here for scooters and underbones are typical, they are not rigid definitions. There have been scooters with fixed engines and chain drive, and there have been underbones with swingarm-mounted engines. A twenty-first century example of variance from the typical scooter layout is the Suzuki Choinori, which had both its engine and its rear axle rigidly bolted to its frame.\n\nSection::::Popularity.\n", "Scooters usually feature bodywork, including a front leg shield and body that conceals all or most of the mechanicals. There is often some integral storage space, either under the seat, built into the front leg shield, or both. Scooters have varying engine displacements and configurations ranging from 50 cc single-cylinder to 850 cc twin-cylinder models.\n", "Generally excluded from this legal category are electric bicycles (that are considered to be a type of bicycle); electric motorbikes and scooters (that are treated as a type of scooter); and powered mobility aids with 3 or 4 wheels on which the rider sits (which fall within regulations covering powered mobility scooters).\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe first personal transporter was the 1915 Autoped, a stand up scooter with a gasoline engine made from 1915 to 1922. Engine powered scooters and skate boards reappeared in the 1970s and 1980s.\n", "The engine of an underbone typically drives the rear wheel by a chain of the kind used on a conventional motorcycle. This final drive is often concealed by a chain enclosure to keep the chain clean and reduce wear. The final drive of a scooter with a swingarm-mounted engine runs in a sealed oil bath and is shorter.\n", "A new direction in maxi-scooters has the engine fixed to the frame. This arrangement improves handling by allowing bigger wheels and less unsprung weight, also tending to move the centre of gravity forwards. The trend toward larger, more powerful scooters with fully automatic transmissions converges with an emerging trend in motorcycle design that foreshadows automatic transmission motorcycles with on-board storage. Examples include the Aprilia Mana 850 automatic-transmission motorcycle and the Honda NC700D Integra, which is a scooter built on a motorcycle platform.\n\nSection::::Developments.:Enclosed scooter.\n", "A number of FF concepts have been tried, but so far a commercially successful design has not appeared. There has been a revival of interest in the motor scooter as a means of personal transportation, and in some respects these vehicles have some features in common with FF motorcycles.\n\nSection::::Problems faced.\n", "Electric kick scooters have generally surpassed gas-engined scooters in popularity since 2000. They usually have two hard small wheels, with a foldable chassis, usually aluminum. Some kick scooters have three or four wheels, or are made of plastic, or are large, or do not fold. High performance trickster scooters made for adults resemble the 19th-century penny-farthing, with a much larger wheel in front. Electric kick scooters differ from mobility scooters in that they also allow human propulsion, and have no gears. Range typically varies from , and maximum speed is around .\n", "Since the feet are nearer the ground on a scooter, it is easier to step on and off than even a step-through frame bicycle, hence the rider can alternate walking and pushing as energy and route dictate. Large wheel scooters afford a more effective cross training workout than standard bicycles as the whole body is engaged in the effort of kicking. Although the bicycle is a much more effective and efficient long distance machine, in 2001 Jim Delzer propelled a kick scooter across the United States.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Simple chain reduction drives are also used to transfer energy to the rear wheel from the engine. These generally incorporate a type of centrifugal clutch to allow the engine to idle independently.\n\nBelt reduction drives use the combination of wide flat \"cog\" belts and pulleys to transfer power to the rear wheel. Like chain drives, belt drives include a centrifugal clutch. Belt drives are more susceptible to breakage in off-road conditions.\n\nSection::::Mechanics.:Suspension.\n", "Another Vespa partner in India was LML Motors. Beginning as a joint-venture with Piaggio in 1983, LML, in addition to being a large parts supplier for Piaggio, produced the P-Series scooters for the Indian market. In 1999, after protracted dispute with Piaggio, LML bought back Piaggio's stake in the company and the partnership ceased. LML continues to produce (and also exports) the P-Series variant known as the Stella in the U.S. market and by other names in different markets.\n\nSection::::Developments.\n", "Before bicycles became popular among children, steel scooters with two small bicycle wheels had been the most useful vehicles for them. Around 1987, many BMX manufacturers produced BMX-like scooters as Scoot. Those manufacturers discontinued their scooters, but some scooter manufacturers were established after years, and still develop similar scooters today; Some are used in dense urban areas for utility purposes, being faster than a folding scooter and more convenient than a utility bicycle. Some are made for off-road use and are described as Mountain Scooters. Besides commuting, sports competition and off-road use, large wheel scooters are a favorite for dog scootering where single or team dogs such as huskies pull a scooter and rider in the same way that a sled is pulled across snow. Some Amish are not allowed to ride bicycles, so they ride scooters instead. Today variations on the kicksled with scooter design features are also available, such as the Kickspark.\n", "Scooters share traits with mopeds, and some models could even be considered both a moped and a scooter. Adding to the confusion in many areas most scooters are road registered in the same category originally designed for mopeds (and usually still called \"moped\" class), leading to scooters being referred to as \"mopeds\" in such areas. Underbones also share traits with scooters, but are generally not considered scooters as they do not have a floor. \n\nSection::::Scooter brands and manufacturers no longer in scooter production.\n\nBULLET::::- Accumolli (1950), Piaggio powered — Italy\n\nBULLET::::- Achilles (1953—1957) — West Germany\n", "Many mopeds and scooters also carry both a kick start and an electric start, the former being useful in case the latter fails, as scooter and moped batteries tend to be smaller and, as a result, run down much faster than other forms of automotive batteries. Also, it is usually not possible to push start a moped or scooter with automatic transmission.\n\nLarger motorcycles featured a manual compression release mechanism that made starting easier while modern units did this automatically through a cable attached to the kick start lever.\n" ]	[ "Scooters are gearless." ]	[ "Scooters of the past and current times all use gear mechanisms of some sort." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scooters are gearless.", "Scooters are gearless." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scooters of the past and current times all use gear mechanisms of some sort.", "Older scooters did have gear shifts. " ]
2018-04902	Why, as an adult, do you usually wake up to pee in the middle of the night but as a kid it is more common to not wake up and wet the bed?	It's all a matter of getting the neurons which link the signals from the nerves (full bladder) towards the right reaction (wake up). A child’s bladder can fill up two to three times per night. If the nerves that tell the child to wake up when the bladder is full are not fully mature, then the child may not wake up to urinate in the toilet.	[ "After age 5, wetting at night—often called bedwetting or sleepwetting—is more common than daytime wetting in boys. Experts do not know what causes nighttime incontinence. Young people who experience nighttime wetting tend to be physically and emotionally normal. Most cases probably result from a mix of factors including slower physical development, an overproduction of urine at night, a lack of ability to recognize bladder filling when asleep, and, in some cases, anxiety. For many, there is a strong family history of bedwetting, suggesting an inherited factor.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Slower physical development.\n", "\"Urinating in bed is frequently predisposed by deep sleep: when urine begins to flow, its inner nature and hidden will (resembling the will to breathe) drives urine out before the child awakes. When children become stronger and more robust, their sleep is lighter and they stop urinating.\"\n\nPsychological theory through the 1960s placed much greater focus on the possibility that a bedwetting child might be acting out, purposefully striking back against parents by soiling linens and bedding. However, more recent research and medical literature states that this is very rare.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary incontinence\n\nBULLET::::- Nocturnal emission\n", "It has been shown that diet impacts enuresis in children. Constipation from a poor diet can result in impacted stool in the colon putting undue pressure on the bladder creating loss of bladder control (overflow incontinence).\n\nSome researchers, however, recommend a different starting age range. This guidance says that bedwetting can be considered a clinical problem if the child regularly wets the bed after turning 7 years old.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Secondary nocturnal enuresis.\n", "BULLET::::- Waiting: Almost all children will outgrow bedwetting. For this reason, urologists and pediatricians frequently recommend delaying treatment until the child is at least six or seven years old. Physicians may begin treatment earlier if they perceive the condition is damaging the child's self-esteem and/or relationships with family/friends.\n", "Psychologists may use a definition from the DSM-IV, defining nocturnal enuresis as repeated urination into bed or clothes, occurring twice per week or more for at least three consecutive months in a child of at least 5 years of age and not due to either a drug side effect or a medical condition. Even if the case does not meet these criteria, the DSM-IV definition allows psychologists to diagnose nocturnal enuresis if the wetting causes the patient clinically significant distress.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Children with ADHD are 2.7 times more likely to have bedwetting issues.\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine Caffeine increases urine production.\n\nBULLET::::- Constipation Chronic constipation can cause bed wetting. When the bowels are full, it can put pressure on the bladder. Often such children defecate normally, yet they retain a significant mass of material in the bowel which causes bed wetting.\n", "BULLET::::- Secondary enuresis refers to children who have been successfully trained and are continent for at least 6 months but revert to wetting in a response to some sort of stressful situation. This represents a regression.\n\nTypes of enuresis include:\n\nBULLET::::- Nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting) which is wetting that occurs in the night while asleep.\n\nBULLET::::- Diurnal enuresis which is wetting that occurs during the day while the child is awake.\n\nBULLET::::- Mixed enuresis - Includes a combination of nocturnal and diurnal type. Therefore, urine is passed during both waking and sleeping hours.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- DDAVP is most efficient in children with nocturnal polyuria (nocturnal urine production greater than 130% of expected bladder capacity for age) and normal bladder reservoir function (maximum voided volume greater than 70% of expected bladder capacity for age). Other children who are likely candidates for desmopressin treatment are those in whom alarm therapy has failed or those considered unlikely to comply with alarm therapy. It can be very useful for summer camp and sleepovers to prevent enuresis.\n", "Most children continue to wear diapers at night for a period of time following daytime continence. Older children may have problems with bladder control (primarily at night) and may wear diapers while sleeping to control bedwetting. Approximately 16% of children in the U.S. over the age of 5 wet the bed. If bedwetting becomes a concern, the current recommendation is to consider forgoing the use of a diaper at night as they may prevent the child from wanting to get out of bed, although this is not a primary cause of bedwetting. This is particularly the case for children over the age 8.\n", "As mentioned below, current studies show that it is very rare for a child to intentionally wet the bed as a method of acting out.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Punishment for bedwetting.\n\nMedical literature states, and studies show, that punishing or shaming a child for bedwetting will frequently make the situation worse. Doctors describe a downward cycle where a child punished for bedwetting feels shame and a loss of self-confidence. This can cause increased bedwetting incidents, leading to more punishment and shaming.\n", "These first two items are the most common factors in bedwetting, but current medical technology offers no easy testing for either cause. There is no test to prove that bedwetting is only a developmental delay, and genetic testing offers little or no benefit.\n\nAs a result, other conditions should be ruled out. The following causes are less common, but are easier to prove and more clearly treated:\n\nIn some bed wetting children this increase in ADH production does not occur, while other children may produce an increased amount of ADH but their response is insufficient.\n", "Parents become concerned much earlier than doctors. A study in 1980 asked parents and physicians the age that children should stay dry at night. The average parent response was 2.75 years old, while the average physician response was 5.13 years old. \n\nPunishment is not effective and can interfere with treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Effective.\n\nSimple behavioral methods are recommended as initial treatment. Enuresis alarm therapy and medications may be more effective but have potential side effects.\n", "Two physical functions prevent bedwetting. The first is a hormone that reduces urine production at night. The second is the ability to wake up when the bladder is full. Children usually achieve nighttime dryness by developing one or both of these abilities. There appear to be some hereditary factors in how and when these develop.\n", "The second ability that helps people stay dry is waking when the bladder is full. This ability develops in the same age range as the vasopressin hormone, but is separate from that hormone cycle.\n\nThe typical development process begins with one- and two-year-old children developing larger bladders and beginning to sense bladder fullness. Two- and three-year-old children begin to stay dry during the day. Four- and five-year-olds develop an adult pattern of urinary control and begin to stay dry at night.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Diurnal enuresis\n\nDiurnal enuresis is daytime wetting, nocturnal enuresis is nighttime wetting. Enuresis is defined as the involuntary voiding of urine beyond the age of anticipated control. Both of these conditions can occur at the same time, Many children with nighttime wetting will not have wetting during the day. Children with daytime wetting may have frequent urination, have urgent urination or dribble after urinating.\n", "Primary nocturnal enuresis (PNE) is the most common form of bedwetting. Bedwetting becomes a disorder when it persists after the age at which bladder control usually occurs (4–7 years), and is either resulting in an average of at least two wet nights a week with no long periods of dryness or not able to sleep dry without being taken to the toilet by another person.\n\nNew studies show that anti-psychotic drugs can have a side effect of causing enuresis.\n", "Nocturnal urinary continence is dependent on 3 factors: 1) nocturnal urine production, 2) nocturnal bladder function and 3) sleep and arousal mechanisms. Any child will suffer from nocturnal enuresis if more urine is produced than can be contained in the bladder or if the detrusor is hyperactive, provided that he or she is not awakened by the imminent bladder contraction.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Primary nocturnal enuresis.\n", "BULLET::::- Infection/disease Infections and disease are more strongly connected with and with daytime wetting. Less than 5% of all bedwetting cases are caused by infection or disease, the most common of which is a urinary tract infection.\n\nBULLET::::- More severe neurological-developmental issues Patients with intellectual disabilities have a higher rate of bedwetting problems. One study of seven-year-olds showed that \"handicapped and intellectually disabled children\" had a bedwetting rate almost three times higher than \"non-handicapped children\" (26.6% vs. 9.5%, respectively).\n", "At night, moisture alarms, also known as bedwetting alarms, can awaken a person when he or she begins to urinate. These devices include a water-sensitive sensor that is clipped on the pajamas, a wire connecting to a battery-driven control, and an alarm that sounds when moisture is first detected. For the alarm to be effective, the child must awaken or be awakened as soon as the alarm goes off. This may require having another person sleep in the same room to awaken the bedwetter. Bed-wetting alarms have been around since 1938, when O. H. Mowrer and W. M. Mowrer first invented the \"bell and pad\". This behavioral training is one of the safest and more effective treatments.\n", "Mowrer detailed the use of a bedwetting alarm that sounds when children urinate while asleep. This simple biofeedback device can quickly teach children to wake up when their bladders are full and to contract the urinary sphincter and relax the detrusor muscle, preventing further urine release. Through classical conditioning, sensory feedback from a full bladder replaces the alarm and allows children to continue sleeping without urinating.\n", "BULLET::::- Waterproof mattress pads are used in some cases to ease clean-up of bedwetting incidents, however they only protect the mattress, and the sheets, bedding or sleeping partner may be soiled.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Unproven.\n\nBULLET::::- Acupuncture: While acupuncture is safe in most adolescents, studies done to assess its effectiveness for nocturnal enuresis are of low quality.\n", "Doctors frequently consider bedwetting as a self-limiting problem, since most children will outgrow it. Children 5 to 9 years old have a spontaneous cure rate of 14% per year. Adolescents 10 to 18 years old have a spontaneous cure rate of 16% per year.\n\nAs can be seen from the numbers above, a portion of bedwetting children will not outgrow the problem. Adult rates of bedwetting show little change due to spontaneous cure. Persons who are still enuretic at age 18 are likely to deal with bedwetting throughout their lives.\n", "Normally, the body produces a hormone that can slow the making of urine. This hormone is called antidiuretic hormone, or ADH. The body normally produces more ADH during sleep so that the need to urinate is lower. If the body does not produce enough ADH at night, the making of urine may not be slowed down, leading to the bladder overfilling. If a child does not sense the bladder filling and awaken to urinate, then wetting will occur.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Anxiety.\n", "Section::::Types of alarms.:Pad-type alarms.\n\nBell-and pad alarms do not attach to the child in any way. The moisture sensor is in the form of a pad or mat that the child sleeps on top of. The pad detects moisture after urine has leaked onto it. The alarm unit is connected with a cord and usually sits on the bedside stand. This alarm requires a larger amount of urine before the sensor can detect moisture. The person must be on the pad for it to sense moisture.\n\nSection::::Factors of treatment success.\n", "BULLET::::- How much the bedwetting limits social activities like sleep-overs and campouts\n\nBULLET::::- The degree of the social ostracism by peers\n\nBULLET::::- Anger, punishment, refusal and rejection by caregivers\n\nBULLET::::- The number of failed treatment attempts\n\nBULLET::::- How long the child has been wetting\n\nSection::::Impact.:Behavioral impact.\n\nStudies show that bedwetting children are more likely to have behavioral problems. For children who have developmental problems, the behavioral problems and the bedwetting are frequently part of/caused by the developmental issues. For bedwetting children without other developmental issues, these behavioral issues can result from self-esteem issues and stress caused by the wetting.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03946	why is it always most slippery the first hour of rain	Because of all the oil on the road that cars leak out, the water makes it more slick, something along those lines is how it's always been explained to me.	[ "In Japan, most releases of the album included the original cover art.\n\nSection::::Release and reception.\n", "\"I liked what Bryan Adams had done with Tina Turner,\" Bon Jovi explained, \"so I suggested we do something similar: I write a song for someone like her, and then we do the song together. But that got changed, and our A&R guy came up with Desmond's name ... He hasn't tried to change what we are, but to refine it slightly; to suggest extra ways that we could wring a bit more out of what we had.\"\n", "IndyCar and NASCAR do not compete on a wet or moist surface at most oval tracks, and do not compete at all during snowy conditions. They will not start an event unless the surface is dry. If the surface become wet during a race, the event is typically halted, and the cars are pulled off the track. Very light moisture may warrant only a temporary yellow caution period, while heavier rains or lightning usually require a red flag (stopped condition).\n", "When rain has stopped falling, and a track is in the process of drying, it is not unusual to see drivers intentionally driving through wet puddles and damp portions of the course, in order to cool the rubber and stave off tyre deterioration. As soon as possible, drivers will revert to slick tyres to maintain competitive speeds.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Shape.\n", "Some auto racing series do not compete in rain or snow, especially series that race on paved oval tracks. Rain and snow both severely diminish the traction between the slick tires and the surface. Other series, especially those that race on road courses such as Formula One and public roads as in rallying, use special treaded rain tires while the surface is wet but not in excessively heavy rain, snow, standing water, or lightning (which is an automatic cessation of racing because of pit crew, race marshals, and safety). Dirt track racing can be run in a light rain as the vehicles have treaded tires. Rallying can be held in rain or snow.\n", "Some racing series such as Formula One allow an intermediate (inter) tyre. This tyre is designed to be used in conditions too wet for slick tyres and too dry for wet tyres. They are made with rubber compounds slightly softer than slick tyres and are cut with grooves like the rain tyre but shallower to prevent excessive heat build up. Former Formula One tyre supplier Bridgestone referred to the \"intermediate\" tyre as the \"wet\" tyre, and to what are known as \"full wets\" as \"monsoon tyres\".\n", "While January 11, 1981, started out as a typical rainy day on the West Coast during the winter months, the showers had disappeared around the time of the race.\n", "According to Bon Jovi, the band named the album \"Slippery When Wet\" after visiting The No.5 Orange strip club in Vancouver, British Columbia. According to Sambora, \"This woman descended from the ceiling on a pole and proceeded to take all her clothes off. When she got in a shower and soaped herself up, we just about lost our tongues. We just sat there and said, 'We will be here every day.' That energized us through the whole project. Our testosterone was at a very high level back then.\"\n", "Section::::Structure.:Rubber.\n\nRain tyres are also made from softer rubber compounds to help the car grip in the slippery conditions and to build up heat in the tyre. These tyres are so soft that running them on a dry track would cause them to deteriorate within minutes. Softer rubber means that the rubber contains more oils and other chemicals which cause a racing tyre to become sticky when it is hot. The softer a tyre, the stickier it becomes, and conversely with hard tyres.\n", "When the rain stops, a \"drying line\" will start to appear which will provide more grip which will make it easier to drive. If a car strays from the dry line, the tyres will lose grip and it will be harder to drive. Evolving tracks are also featured elsewhere in the game; at the start of a race weekend, the track will be \"green\" and therefore have less grip, but as the weekend progresses, rubber will be laid down onto the track, increasing the grip.\n", "Section::::Motorsport.\n", "Poor road surfaces can lead to safety problems. If too much asphalt or bituminous binder is used in asphalt concrete, the binder can 'bleed' or flush' to the surface, leaving a very smooth surface that provides little traction when wet. Certain kinds of stone aggregate become very smooth or polished under the constant wearing action of vehicle tyres, again leading to poor wet-weather traction. Either of these problems can increase wet-weather crashes by increasing braking distances or contributing to loss of control. If the pavement is insufficiently sloped or poorly drained, standing water on the surface can also lead to wet-weather crashes due to hydroplaning.\n", "BULLET::::- Slick (clay oval): A phenomenon caused by the drying out of the clay surface on short circuit oval tracks. The clay circuits that do not maintain a minimum percentage of moisture on the track surface will cause the clay to dry out. This problem will cause the rubber of the specialized clay circuit tires to prematurely wear much in the same way asphalt or concrete paved circuits do, giving the track surface a noticeably black shade.\n", "The safety car driver will work with race stewards on the proper decision on a red flag when rain falls. In NASCAR, if the race start is delayed, officials may ask a more experienced driver to evaluate if a track is sufficiently dry by having the driver run medium-speed laps around the circuit to evaluate the dryness of the circuit. He then reports the results to his crew chief, who sends a report to a NASCAR official.\n", "Section::::NASCAR.:2005.\n", "F1 2010 features \"the most complicated weather system ever seen in a racing game\" which is integral to F1. When it begins to rain, the track will gradually lose grip, with some areas losing grip faster than others. \"Overhanging trees, for example, will shelter the track, while dips and indentations in the tarmac will hold more standing water and provide a greater risk.\"\n", "Section::::NASCAR.:2010.\n", "BULLET::::- Slicks, for dry track. Slick kart tires come in many different compounds, from very soft (maximum grip) to very hard (amusement and rental karts, less grip but long life span). In international level racing, because the drivers are free to choose their tires and because of the short duration of each round (10 to 20 minutes maximum), these are some of the softest tires found in motorsport.\n\nBULLET::::- Rain tires, or \"wets\", for wet weather. They are grooved, made of soft compound, and are narrower than slicks. Not all racing classes allow rain tires.\n", "Section::::Low adhesion caused by weather.\n\nRailhead contamination caused by weather conditions can occur at any time of year.\n", "Section::::NASCAR.:2009.\n", "Section::::In \"Heavy Rain\".\n", "Winter can provide problems of low adhesion when snow and ice are deposited on running lines. Just as with road vehicles, black ice can cause trains to encounter difficulty when starting away, or can initiate wheel slide during braking.\n\nEven summer can have its problems. A light rain shower following a long period of dry weather can sometimes cause similar low adhesion conditions to those of leaf fall contamination. Although the effect is only short term, its unpredictability can cause a significant incident to occur. A morning dew can have the same effect.\n", "BULLET::::- In higher rainfall areas, the increased camber required to drain water, and open drainage ditches at the sides of the road, often cause vehicles with a high centre of gravity, such as trucks and off-road vehicles, to overturn if they do not keep close to the crown of the road\n\nBULLET::::- Excess dust permeates door-opening rubber moulding breaking the seal\n\nBULLET::::- Lost binder in the form of road dust, when mixed with rain, will wear away the painted surfaces of vehicles\n", "The number of settings provided by the available surfaces may be doubled by wetting them, for which mostly a 1–2 mm thick water coating is used. So-called aquaplaning lanes are also frequently provided for testers. The triggering of the phenomenon of aquaplaning, however, requires the provision of higher water levels. It is also important to provide for the collecting of the water spilled onto the wettable braking surfaces, which is in most cases managed by using ditches.\n", "Section::::Writing and composition.\n\nMuch of the album was written by Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora, whereas \"You Give Love a Bad Name,\" \"Livin' on a Prayer,\" \"Without Love\" and \"I'd Die For You\" were co-written with Desmond Child, and \"Wild in the Streets\" was by Bon Jovi alone. This was the first time Child worked with Jon and Richie. He came to New Jersey, where they worked on the four songs in Sambora's mother's basement.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20391	Why are the Arabic numerals (0-9), unlike languages, consistent and widely recognized among almost all modern cultures?	The Arabic numerals are from India originally and came to Europe from the middle Eastern mathematicians including al-Khwarizmi. He is considered the father of algebra. His books were translated into Latin in 12th century and some were used by universities until 16th century. So basically the numerals are used because they were the ones used when math was invented.	[ "In Christian Europe, the first mention and representation of Hindu-Arabic numerals (from one to nine, without zero), is in the \", an illuminated compilation of various historical documents from the Visigothic period in Spain, written in the year 976 by three monks of the Riojan monastery of San Martín de Albelda.\n", "When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.\n", "BULLET::::- The widespread Western Arabic numerals used with the Latin script, in the table below labelled \"European\", descended from the West Arabic numerals developed in al-Andalus (Andalucía, Spain) and the Maghreb. Spanish scholars, because of the geographic proximity, trade, and constant warfare with the Muslim kingdoms of Southern Spain, saw a potential in the simplicity of Arabic numbers, and decided to adopt those symbols, and later other Europeans followed suit. There are two typographic styles for rendering European numerals, known as lining figures and text figures.\n", "The numeral system came to be known to the court of Baghdad, where mathematicians such as the Persian Al-Khwarizmi, whose book \"On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals\" was written about 825 in Arabic, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes, \"On the Use of the Indian Numerals\" (\"Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi\") about 830, propagated it in the Arab world. Their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West.\n", "BULLET::::- 1549. These are correct format and sequence of the \"\"modern numbers\"\" in titlepage of the Libro Intitulado Arithmetica Practica by Juan de Yciar, the Basque calligrapher and mathematician, Zaragoza 1549.\n\nIn the last few centuries, the European variety of Arabic numbers was spread around the world and gradually became the most commonly used numeral system in the world.\n\nEven in many countries in languages which have their own numeral systems, the European Arabic numerals are widely used in commerce and mathematics.\n\nSection::::Impact on arithmetic.\n", "The Hindu–Arabic numeral system (i.e. decimal) was developed by Indian mathematicians around AD 500. From India, the system was adopted by Arabic mathematicians in Baghdad and passed on to the Arabs farther west. The Arabic numerals developed in North Africa. It was in the North African city of Bejaia that the Italian scholar Fibonacci first encountered the numerals; his work was crucial in making them known throughout Europe. European trade, books, and colonialism helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world.\n", "Section::::Adoption by the Arabs.\n\nBefore the rise of the Caliphate, the Hindu–Arabic numeral system was already moving West and was mentioned in Syria in 662 AD by the Nestorian scholar Severus Sebokht who wrote the following:\n\nAccording to Al-Qifti's \"History of Learned Men\" :\n", "The familiar shape of the Western Arabic glyphs as now used with the Latin alphabet (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are the product of the late 15th to early 16th century, when they enter early typesetting.\n\nMuslim scientists used the Babylonian numeral system, and merchants used the Abjad numerals, a system similar to the Greek numeral system and the Hebrew numeral system. Similarly, 's introduction of the system to Europe was restricted to learned circles.\n", "Hindu–Arabic numeral system\n\nThe Hindu–Arabic numeral system or Indo-Arabic numeral system (also called the Arabic numeral system or Hindu numeral system) is a positional decimal numeral system, and is the most common system for the symbolic representation of numbers in the world. \n", "The \"Western Arabic\" numerals as they were in common use in Europe since the Baroque period have secondarily found worldwide use together with the Latin alphabet, and even significantly beyond the contemporary spread of the Latin alphabet, intruding into the writing systems in regions where other variants of the Hindu–Arabic numerals had been in use, but also in conjunction with Chinese and Japanese writing (see Chinese numerals, Japanese numerals).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Arabic numerals\n\nBULLET::::- Decimal\n\nBULLET::::- Positional notation\n\nBULLET::::- Numeral system\n\nBULLET::::- History of mathematics\n\nBULLET::::- 0 (number)\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "Arabic numeral variations\n\nThere are various stylistic and typographic variations to the Arabic numeral system.\n\nSection::::Old-style numerals.\n\nThe numerals used by Western countries have two forms: \"lining\" (\"in-line\" or \"full-height\") figures as seen on a typewriter and taught in North America, and \"old-style\" figures, in which numerals 0, 1 and 2 are at x-height; numerals 6 and 8 have bowls within x-height, and ascenders; numerals 3, 5, 7 and 9 have descenders from x-height; and the numeral 4 rests along the baseline.\n", "In Chinese numerals, a circle (〇) is used to write zero in Suzhou numerals. Many historians think it was imported from Indian numerals by Gautama Siddha in 718, but some Chinese scholars think it was created from the Chinese text space filler \"□\".\n\nChinese and Japanese finally adopted the Hindu–Arabic numerals in the 19th century, abandoning counting rods.\n\nSection::::History.:Spread of the Western Arabic variant.\n", "BULLET::::- 920 Mathematics: al-Uqlidisi. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Hitherto, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier.\n", "Arabic numerals\n\nArabic numerals, also called Hindu–Arabic numerals, are the ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. The term often implies a decimal number written using these digits, which is the most common system for the symbolic representation of numbers in the world today. However the term can mean the digits themselves, such as in the statement \"octal numbers are written using Arabic numerals.\"\n", "Note that although Arabic is written from right to left, while English is written left to right, in both languages numbers are written with the most significant digit on the left and the least significant on the right.\n\nSection::::Numerals by script.:Hindu-Arabic numerals.:Fractions.\n", "Some of the systems for representing numbers in previous and present cultures are well known. Roman numerals use a few letters of the alphabet to represent numbers up to the thousands, but are not intended for arbitrarily large numbers and can only represent positive integers. Arabic numerals are a family of systems, originating in India and passing to medieval Islamic civilization, then to Europe, and now standard in global culture—and having undergone many curious changes with time and geography—can represent arbitrarily large numbers and have been adapted to negative numbers, fractions, and real numbers.\n", "The most commonly used system of numerals is the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. Two Indian mathematicians are credited with developing it. Aryabhata of Kusumapura developed the place-value notation in the 5th century and a century later Brahmagupta introduced the symbol for zero. The numeral system and the zero concept, developed by the Hindus in India, slowly spread to other surrounding countries due to their commercial and military activities with India. The Arabs adopted and modified it. Even today, the Arabs call the numerals which they use \"Raqam Al-Hind\" or the Hindu numeral system. The Arabs translated Hindu texts on numerology and spread them to the western world due to their trade links with them. The Western world modified them and called them the Arabic numerals, as they learned them from the Arabs. Hence the current western numeral system is the modified version of the Hindu numeral system developed in India. It also exhibits a great similarity to the Sanskrit–Devanagari notation, which is still used in India and neighbouring Nepal.\n", "A system called \"bhūta-sankhya\" (\"object numbers\" or \"concrete numbers\") was employed for representing numerals in Sanskrit verses, by using a concept representing a digit to stand for the digit itself. The Jain text entitled the \"Lokavibhaga\", dated 458 CE, mentions the objectified numeral\n", "The reason the digits are more commonly known as \"Arabic numerals\" in Europe and the Americas is that they were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic-speakers of North Africa, who were then using the digits from Libya to Morocco. Arabs, on the other hand, call the base-10 system (not just these digits) \"Hindu numerals\", referring to their origin in India. This is not to be confused with what the Arabs call the \"Hindi numerals\", namely the Eastern Arabic numerals ( - - - - - - - - - ) used in the Middle East, or any of the numerals currently used in Indian languages (e.g. Devanagari: ).\n", "The numerals came to fame due to their use in the pivotal work of the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, whose book \"On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals\" was written about 825, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes (see [2]) \"On the Use of the Indian Numerals\" (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about 830. They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle-East and the West.\n\nSection::::Development of symbols.\n\nThe development of the numerals in early Europe is shown below:\n\nSection::::Adoption in Europe.\n", "Historians trace modern numerals in most languages to the Brahmi numerals, which were in use around the middle of the 3rd century BC. The place value system, however, developed later. The Brahmi numerals have been found in inscriptions in caves and on coins in regions near Pune, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh in India. These numerals (with slight variations) were in use up to the 4th century. \n", "The modern positional Arabic numeral system was developed by mathematicians in India, and passed on to Muslim mathematicians, along with astronomical tables brought to Baghdad by an Indian ambassador around 773.\n", "BULLET::::- By this century, three systems of counting are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the sexagesimal system, a remnant originating with the Babylonians, with numerals denoted by letters of the arabic alphabet and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the Indian numeral system, which was used with various sets of symbols. Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because \"the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded.\"\n", "According to Al-Beruni, there were multiple forms of numerals in use in India, and \"Arabs chose among them what appeared to them most useful\". Al-Nasawi wrote in the early eleventh century that the mathematicians had not agreed on the form of numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals. The oldest specimens of the written numerals available from Egypt in 260 A.H. (873–874 CE) show three forms of the numeral \"2\" and two forms of the numeral \"3\", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and the (Western) Arabic numerals.\n", "During the Gupta period (early 4th century to the late 6th century), the Gupta numerals developed from the Brahmi numerals and were spread over large areas by the Gupta empire as they conquered territory. Beginning around 7th century, the Gupta numerals developed into the Nagari numerals.\n\nSection::::Development in India.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03690	When completing in luge, what exactly are the athletes doing to control themselves and maximize their speed?	The sled rides on two sharp-bottomed blades known as runners, the only part of the sled that makes contact with the ice. In order to steer the sled, the slider uses his or her calves to apply pressure to one of the runners, or shifts their weight using their shoulders. Considering the extreme speed, athletes only need to make slight adjustments in order to steer.	[ "In a team relay competition, one man, one woman, and a doubles pair form a team. A touchpad at the bottom of the run is touched by a competitor signaling a teammate at the top of the run to start.\n\nRules and procedures for races are very precise:\n", "Section::::Athletic career.\n\nSection::::Athletic career.:Introduction to luge.\n", "BULLET::::- A drawing is held to determine start order for the race. Athletes are assigned a number which is displayed on a bib. During major national and international events, men's singles consists of four runs. Women's singles and doubles competitions consist of two runs. The cumulative time of all runs is used to determine finish order. In all three events, the start order after the first run is determined by the outcome of the previous run, with the last-place slider sliding first, the next-to-last place slider sliding second, and so forth, with the leader of the previous run sliding last.\n", "Section::::Rules.\n", "Section::::Athletic career.\n\nSection::::Athletic career.:Introduction to luge.\n\nWolfgang was nine years old when he tried an artificial luge track for the first time, on a track that had been used for Olympic events in 1964 and 1976. His brother was one of the few other members of their local luge club who tried it. Five years later, when they were both 14, they were allowed to try doubles luge for the first time. Despite competing as individuals or in mixed doubles in some events, the Wolfgang and Andreas have seen their most significant success as a doubles team.\n\nSection::::Athletic career.:2002–2004.\n", "Rules for Olympic luge competitions are set by the International Luge Federation (FIL) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). They entrust 5 officials with making decisions about whether competition rules have been followed: a technical delegate, three jury members from different countries, and an international judge. These decisions are implemented and enforced by a race director, to whom the overall responsibility for running the competition is given, but who is assisted by a start leader who coordinates the starting area, a finish leader who coordinates the finish area, and a Chief of Track who is in charge of track maintenance. Under the rules, competitors were guaranteed a minimum of five official training runs in the days prior to the competition. The competition itself consists of four runs. Athletes begin their runs on their sleds at a starting block, use their hands to push themselves off in the starting area, and then on their backs on the sleds through the remainder of the course. Athletes are ranked by the speed of their times measured between their start and the finish line at the bottom of the track.\n", "During training on February 12, 2010, Georgian luger, Nodar Kumaritashvili was going at over when he crashed in the last turn and hit a steel pole. He was administered CPR at the track, then taken away to hospital where he was later pronounced dead. Training was immediately stopped. As a result, the start of the men's single competition was moved to the women's/doubles' start to reduce speed and the wall at corner where Kumaritashvili crashed was raised.\n", "During training on 12 February 2010, Georgian luger, Nodar Kumaritashvili was going at over when he crashed in the last turn and hit a steel pole. He was administered CPR at the track, then taken away to hospital where he was later pronounced dead. Training was immediately stopped. As a result, the start of the men's single competition was moved to the women's/doubles' start to reduce speed and the wall at corner where Kumaritashvili crashed was raised.\n", "During training on February 12, 2010, Georgian luger, Nodar Kumaritashvili was going at over when he crashed in the last turn and hit a steel pole. He was administered CPR at the track, then taken away to hospital where he was later pronounced dead. Training was immediately stopped. As a result, the start of the men's single competition was moved to the women's/doubles' start to reduce speed and the wall at corner where Kumaritashvili crashed was raised.\n", "Luge at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Qualification\n\nThe following is about the qualification rules and the quota allocation for the luge at the 2018 Winter Olympics.\n\nSection::::Qualification rules.\n", "The sport of luge requires an athlete to balance mental and physical fitness. Physically, a luger must have strong neck, upper body, abdominal, and thigh muscles. Athletes also use Wind Tunnels to train Strength training is essential to withstand the extreme G-forces of tight turns at high speeds. Since lugers have very little protection other than a visor and helmet, they must be able to endure the physical pounding administered by the track when mistakes are made.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "The following athletes had qualified for the doubles event as of 4 February 2010.\n\nSection::::Competition.\n\nThe two-run event took place on 17 February at 17:00 PST and 18:30 PST.\n", "World championships have been held since 1979 while European championships have been held since 1970.\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nThere are five luge disciplines.\n\nBULLET::::- Men's singles\n\nBULLET::::- Men's doubles\n\nBULLET::::- Women's singles\n\nBULLET::::- Women's doubles\n\nBULLET::::- Team relay (Olympic discipline starting in 2014)\n\nThese are further broken into several age classes - multiple youth and junior classes that cover the range of age 7–20, and general class (ages 21 and older). Older competitors may enjoy the sport in masters (age 30–50), and senior masters (age 51+) classes.\n", "Luge at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics\n\nLuge at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics took place at the Olympic Sliding Centre Innsbruck venue in Innsbruck, Austria.\n\nSection::::Qualification system.\n", "Section::::Logistics.:Rules and description of competition.\n", "Two-time Olympic champion Otto commented to Reuters that \"Tatti (Hüfner's nickname) is a very strong slider and still relatively young so she could achieve what I did and win this again.\"\n\nCanada's Gough commented on the 14th in the wake of Kumaritashvili's death two days earlier that \"We’ve got the world championships here in a few years (2013) so hopefully we can actually have a race.\" instead of the start at the Junior start house.\n", "Andreas competed in a number of sports as a child, including skiing and soccer. He was ten years old when he tried an artificial Iuge track for the first time, on a track that had been used for Olympic events in 1964 and 1976. His brother was one of the few other members of their local luge club who tried it. Even at that young age, Andreas did not think of Iuge as being a particularly dangerous sport. Five years later, when they were both 14, they were allowed to try doubles Iuge for the first time. Despite competing as individuals or in mixed doubles in some events, the Wolfgang and Andreas have seen their most significant success as a doubles team.\n", "Section::::Natural track luge.\n\nNatural tracks are adapted from existing mountain roads and paths. Artificially banked curves are not permitted. The track's surface should be horizontal. They are naturally iced. Tracks can get rough from the braking and steering action. Athletes use a steering rein and drag their hands and use their legs in order to drive around the tight flat corners. Braking is often required in front of curves and is accomplished by the use of spikes built on the bottom of the shoes.\n", "Luge at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Qualification\n\nThe following is about the qualification rules and the quota allocation for the luge at the 2014 Winter Olympics.\n\nSection::::Qualification rules.\n", "As a consequence of the training accident that killed Nodar Kumaritashvili on 12 February 2010 officials moved the start of the men's singles competition to the women's/doubles start to reduce the speed of the racers. This change was met with mixed reviews, with some participants saying that the change made them feel safer, while others complained that it gave an advantage to stronger starters.\n\nSection::::Logistics.\n\nSection::::Logistics.:Track.\n", "The athletes ride in a flat, aerodynamic position on the sled, keeping their heads low to minimize air resistance. They steer the sled mainly with their calves by applying pressure on the runners—right calf to turn left, left calf to turn right. It takes a precise mix of shifting body weight, applying pressure with calves and rolling the shoulders. There are also handles for minor adjustments. A successful luger maintains complete concentration and relaxation on the sled while traveling at high speeds. Most lugers \"visualize\" the course in their minds before sliding. Fastest times result from following the perfect \"line\" down the track. Any slight error, such as brush against the wall, costs time. Track conditions are also important. Softer ice tends to slow speeds, while harder ice tends to lead to faster times. Lugers race at speeds averaging around high banked curves while experiencing a centripetal acceleration of up to 5g. Men's Singles have their start locations near where the bobsled and skeleton competitors start at most tracks, while both the Doubles and Women's Singles competition have their starthouse located farther down the track. Artificial track luge is the fastest and most agile sledding sport.\n", "Luge at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Men's singles\n\nThe men's luge at the 2018 Winter Olympics was held between 10 and 11 February 2018 at the Alpensia Sliding Centre near Pyeongchang, South Korea. \n", "BULLET::::- Physical measurements of the sled are taken, and the temperature of the sled's steel blades is checked and may not be more than above that of a previously established control temperature. Additionally, for artificial track races, the athlete must first be weighed. This is to determine whether the athlete is entitled to carry extra weight on their body while sliding. Men may use additional weight amounting to 75% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of . Women may use additional weight amounting to 50% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of . Doubles athletes may use additional weight amounting to 50% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of . Additional weight is not allowed if the body weight of the front person and back person together exceeds . If one of the partners weighs more than , the weight exceeding the mark is added to the lighter partner. If there should still be a difference between the partner's weight and the mark, the difference can be compensated according to an official weight table. Between runs, athletes are randomly selected for additional weight checks. Before each run, the sled (with the athlete, for artificial track races) is weighed at the start ramp.\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 luge men's singles results\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 luge men's singles results\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 luge men's singles results\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 luge men's singles results\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 luge men's singles results\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 luge men's singles results\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 Luge World Championships interview.\n\nBULLET::::- FIL-Luge profile\n\nBULLET::::- Fuzilogik Sports - Winter Olympic results - Men's luge\n\nBULLET::::- Hickoksports.com results on Olympic champions in luge and skeleton.\n\nBULLET::::- Hickok sports information on World champions in luge and skeleton.\n\nBULLET::::- List of European luge champions\n\nBULLET::::- List of men's singles luge World Cup champions since 1978.\n", "Luge\n\nA luge is a small one- or two-person sled on which one sleds supine (face up) and feet-first. A luger steers by using their calf muscles to flex the sled's runners or by exerting opposite shoulder pressure to the seat. Racing sleds weigh for singles and for doubles. Luge is also the name of an Olympic sport.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23962	How were early generation ICBM's guided, and how were they "controlled" from their silos prior to Internet communication?	They are not controlled via internet by the way. That would be a horrendously dangerous setup	[ "Section::::Working environment.\n\nThe missile launch control environment also varied by system. Early missiles such as Thor and Atlas, relied on support facilities above ground, with crews protected in a shelter of some sort. Later systems were buried underground, either with the missiles located nearby (i.e. Titan) or a distance away (Peacekeeper, Minuteman). In the underground environment, crews dealt with artificial lighting, recycled air, loud noises, and intimately close quarters (in Minuteman and Peacekeeper) with equipment racks. The Atlas F was in an underground silo, along with the launch crew quarters, separated by a tunnel.\n\nSection::::Alert tours.\n", "BULLET::::- LGM-25C Titan II (deactivated) ICBMs were in a one ICBM launch control center (LCC) with one LF configuration (1 × 1). Titan missiles (both I and II) were located near their command and control operations personnel. Access to the missile was through tunnels connecting the launch control center and launch facility. An example of this can be seen at the Titan Missile Museum, located south of Tucson, Arizona.\n", "Section::::Siting.\n\nMissile Master radars were usually at a single area with the nuclear bunker (e.g., co-located with a USAF radar station) such as the purchased for the Arlington Heights Army Istallation. Conversely, the Fort MacArthur Direction Center used radars ~ away at San Pedro Hill AFS. The single-site Camp Pedricktown Army Air Defense Base was later reconfigured to use radar data from Gibbsboro AFS away —then closed when the Philadelphia Defense Area was consolidated with the New York Defense Area.\n\nSection::::Nuclear bunker.\n", "There were two types of Titan II sites: standard, and ACP (alternate command post) sites. ACPs had all of the equipment that one would find on a standard site plus additional communication equipment.\n\nSection::::Minuteman facilities.\n\nSection::::Minuteman facilities.:Launch Control Center.\n\nA Minuteman wing consists of either three or four squadrons. Five flights comprise each squadron. Each flight directly controls ten Minuteman missiles remotely. Each flight is commanded from a Launch Control Center, or LCC.\n", "Falling Leaves operations involved the closest radar in Alabama (newly deployed in 1962) sweeping at a lower ballistic missile altitude from Cuba first. \"Then a beam from [the farther] Texas radar swept across the top of [the Alabama beam's altitude]. Finally, a radar in New Jersey was adjusted to sweep over the Texas beam.\" A \"Full Bird Colonel\" of Task Force Able watched each \"sweep go round and round … each of them had a headset, and an open to NORAD.\" Information communicated to the Ent AFB BMEWS Central Computer and Display Facility was synthesized to provide missile warning to display processors at the Pentagon and Strategic Air Command.\n", "At the second Warren site for the 565th SMS and at Offutt AFB, Nebraska, for the 549th SMS, the missiles were based in a 3 x 3 configuration: three launchers and one combined guidance control/launch facility constituted a launch complex, and three complexes comprised a squadron. At these later sites the combined guidance and control facility measured with a partial basement. A dispersal technique of spreading the launch complexes were apart was also employed to reduce the risk that one powerful nuclear warhead could destroy multiple launch sites.\n\nSection::::Operational deployment.:Atlas-E deployment.\n", "The PTS and PS were mounted on a Ford M656 truck for U.S. Army units and a Magirus-Deutz or MAN for German Air Force units. Launch activation was performed from a remote fire box that could be deployed locally or mounted in the battery control central (BCC). One PTS controlled three launchers—when one launch count was complete, ten large cables were unplugged from the PTS and the PTS was moved up and connected to the next launcher.\n\nSection::::Pershing 1a.:Further improvements.\n", "The BMEWS Central Computer and Display Facility (CC&DF) built as an austere facility instead of the planned AICBM control center became operational on September 30, 1960, at Ent AFB when BMEWS' Thule Site J became operational. Site J's computers (e.g., in the Sylvania AN/FSQ-28 Missile Impact Predictor Set) processed 4 RCA AN/FPS-50 Radar Sets' data, and alerts transferred via the BMEWS Rearward Communications System to the CC&DF for NORAD attack assessment and warning to RCA Display Information Processors (DIPs) at the NORAD/CONAD command center (also on Ent AFB), SAC's Offutt AFB nuclear bunker, and The Pentagon's new National Military Command Center. DIPs presented impact ellipses and drove a \"threat summary display\" with a count of incoming missiles and a countdown of \"Minutes Until First Impact\" (cf. later large screen displays such as the Iconorama.) In July 1961 separate from the CC&DF, the surveillance center in New Hampshire \"was discontinued as the new SPADATS Center became operational at Ent AFB\" with the 496L Space Detection and Tracking System (i.e., NORAD began aerospace operations). In 1962 the Army's LIM-49 Nike Zeus program was assigned the \"satellite\" intercept mission (Program 505's \"Operation Mudflap\" conducted a test), and the 1962 SECDEF assigned the USAF to develop the Satellite Intercept System which would use orbit data from a Space Defense Center. By December 15, 1964, NORAD had an implementation plan for a \"Single Integrated Space Defense Center\" for NORAD/CONAD to centralize both missile warning and space surveillance.\n", "From December 1971 to March 1973, the 321st converted to LGM-30G Minuteman III missiles. These missiles represented a significant technological advancement, having multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs).\n", "In 1979 and 1980, there were a few instances when false missile warnings were generated by the Cheyenne Mountain complex systems. For instance, a computer chip \"went haywire\" and issued false missile warnings, which raised the possibility that a nuclear war could be started accidentally, based upon incorrect data. Staff analyzed the data and found that the warnings were erroneous and the systems were updated to identify false alarms. Gen. James V. Hartinger of the Air Force stated that \"his primary responsibility is to provide Washington with what he calls 'timely, unambiguous, reliable warning' that a raid on North America has begun.\" He explained that there are about 6,700 messages generated on average each hour in 1979 and 1980 and all had been processed without error. An off-site testing facility was established in Colorado Springs by NORAD in late 1979 or early 1980 so that system changes could be tested off-line before they were moved into production. Following another failure in 1980, a bad computer chip was updated and staff and commander processes were improved to better respond to warnings.\n", "Strategic Defense System, or SDS, was largely the Smart Rocks concept with an added layer of ground-based missiles in the US. These missiles were intended to attack the enemy warheads that the Smart Rocks had missed. In order to track them when they were below the radar horizon, SDS also added a number of additional satellites flying at low altitude that would feed tracking information to both the space-based \"garages\" as well as the ground-based missiles. The ground-based systems operational today trace their roots back to this concept.\n", "On October 1, 1979, Thule and Clear transferred to Strategic Air Command when ADCOM was broken up then to Space Command in 1982. By 1981 Cheyenne Mountain had been averaging 6,700 messages per hour compiled via sensor inputs from BMEWS, the JSS, the 416N SLBM \"Detection and Warning System, COBRA DANE, and PARCS as well as SEWS and PAVE PAWS\" for transmission to the NCA. To replace AN/FSQ-28 predictors, a late 1970s plan for processing returns from MIRVs installed in new Missile Impact Predictor computers was complete by September 1984.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Main Centre for Missile Attack Warning (Russia)\n", "The Ground Air Transmitting Receiving (GATR) Site for communications was located at , approximately 1,1 mile southwest from the main site. Normally the GATR site was connected by a pair of buried telephone cables, with a backup connection of dual telephone cables overhead. The Coordinate Data Transmitting Set (CDTS) (AN/FST-2) at the main site converted each radar return into a digital word which was transmitted by the GATR via microwave to the Control center.\n", "Section::::History.:1960 Ent AFB CC&DF.\n", "Each Titan II ICBM wing was equipped with eighteen missiles; nine per squadron with one each at dispersed launch silos in the general area of the assigned base. See squadron article for geographic locations and other information about the assigned launch sites.\n\nBULLET::::- 308th Strategic Missile Wing 1 April 1962 – 18 August 1987\n\nBULLET::::- 381st Strategic Missile Wing 1 March 1962 – 8 August 1986\n\nBULLET::::- 390th Strategic Missile Wing 1 January 1962 – 31 July 1984\n\nBULLET::::- 1st Strategic Aerospace Division\n", "BULLET::::- Lake Charles (later Chennault) AFB, Louisiana 1 August 1951 – 15 June 1960\n\nBULLET::::- Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, 24 November 1961 – 5 July 1994\n\nSection::::History.:Aircraft and missiles.\n\nBULLET::::- TB-29 Superfortress, 1951; B-29 Superfortress, 1951–1953\n\nBULLET::::- B-47 Stratojet, 1953–1960\n\nBULLET::::- KC-97 Stratotanker, 1953–1957, 1957–1960\n\nBULLET::::- HGM-25A Titan I, 1962–1965\n\nBULLET::::- LGM-30B Minuteman I, 1963–1973\n\nBULLET::::- Airborne Launch Control System, 1967-1970\n\nBULLET::::- LGM-30F Minuteman II, 1971–1994\n\nLGM-30F Minuteman III Missile Alert Facilities (MAF) (each controlling 10 missiles) are located as follows:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of B-29 units of the United States Air Force\n", "BULLET::::- The fourth version were stored vertically in underground silos, for the Atlas F ICBM. They were fueled in the silo, and then since they could not be launched from within the silo, were raised to the surface to launch. The Titan I missile used a similar silo basing of the fourth version.\n\nSection::::History.:United States.:Configurations.\n\nLaunch facility (LF) configurations varied by U.S. missile systems.\n", "BULLET::::- E-6B Mercury - performs Looking Glass, ALCC, and TACAMO mission for United States Strategic Command (1998-Present)\n\nBULLET::::- E-6B\n\nSection::::Operational Information.:ICBMs Remotely Controlled.\n\nBULLET::::- LGM-30A/B Minuteman I (1967-1975)\n\nBULLET::::- LGM-30F Minuteman II (1967-1992)\n\nBULLET::::- LGM-30G Minuteman III (1971-Present)\n\nBULLET::::- LGM-118A Peacekeeper (1987-2005)\n\nSection::::Operational Information.:Units.\n\nSection::::Operational Information.:Units.:Units With ALCS Crewmembers Assigned.\n\nBULLET::::- 68th Strategic Missile Squadron (Ellsworth AFB, SD: 1967-1970)\n\nBULLET::::- 91st Strategic Missile Wing (Minot AFB, ND: 1967-1969)\n\nBULLET::::- 4th Airborne Command and Control Squadron (Ellsworth AFB, SD: 1970-1992)\n\nBULLET::::- 2nd Airborne Command and Control Squadron (Offutt AFB, NE: 1970-1994)\n", "BULLET::::- Det 2 – Vandenberg Tracking Station, California (1 Oct 1979 – 1 Oct 1987)\n\nBULLET::::- Det 3 – Thule Tracking Station, Greenland (1 Oct 1979 – 1 Oct 1987)\n\nBULLET::::- Det 4 – Mahé, Seychelles (15 Jul 1972 – 1 Oct 1987)\n\nBULLET::::- Det 5 – Guam Tracking Station, Guam (1 Oct 1979 – 1 Oct 1987)\n\nBULLET::::- Det 6 – Hawaii Tracking Station, Hawaii (1 Oct 1979 – 1 Oct 1987)\n", "Needless to say, this was the heyday of ALCS operations. Around-the-clock, there were three dedicated ALCCs on ground alert, one ALCS capable Looking Glass SAC ABNCP airborne at all times, and at least two ALCS-capable Auxiliary ABNCPs on ground alert. Airborne missileers, along with all other Cold Warriors kept the peace for several decades.\n\nSection::::History.:Post-Cold War Era.\n", "BULLET::::- The LGM-30 LFs and LCCs are separated by several miles, connected only electronically. This distance ensures that a nuclear attack could only disable a very small number of ICBMs, leaving the rest capable of being launched immediately.\n", "Since the guidance computer would be inactive while the missile sat in the silo, the same computer was also used to run a program that monitored the various sensors and test equipment. With older designs this had been handled by external systems, requiring miles of extra wiring and many connectors. In order to store multiple programs, the computer, the D-17B, was built in the form of a drum machine but used a hard disk in place of the drum.\n", "In November 1972, SAC initiated the Minuteman Integrated Improvement Program. The program entailed silo hardening and upgrading command data buffers, which allowed for quicker missile retargeting. In addition to receiving upgraded silos and launcher control facilities, Warren also received new missiles, with the Minuteman I being replaced with LGM-30G Minuteman III between 1973-1975.\n", "The Ballistic Missile Defense Center (BMDC) BW 1.2 release was installed in February 1974 in the Combat Operations Center, under the command of CONAD. The Safeguard command and control system, operated by the commander, communicated warnings, observation data, and attack assessment to the Combat Operations Center. It was also designed to release nuclear weapons.\n\nSection::::History.:Operations and improvements.:Combat Operations Center.\n", "Beginning in 1967, all Minuteman I A and B models were replaced by the Minuteman II. The upgrade was completed by June 1969. In 1975, the 564th SMS switched from the Minuteman II to the LGM-30G Minuteman III model.\n" ]	[ "ICBM's are guided using the Internet,", "Early ICBMs were guided by internet from the silos." ]	[ "The Internet is not used to control ICMBs.", "They were not guided in this way as that would be very dangerous. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "ICBM's are guided using the Internet,", "Early ICBMs were guided by internet from the silos." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The Internet is not used to control ICMBs.", "They were not guided in this way as that would be very dangerous. " ]
2018-12827	Is our moon moving away from Earth? If so, what's causing it?	The moon recedes from Earth at about 4 centimeters per year. In other words, Apollo 11 would need to travel about 2 meters (6.5 feet) farther if it were launched today. It has to do with tides. Earth's gravity pulls on the moon, but the moon's gravity also pulls on the earth. So the moon doesn't really orbit the earth: both bodies orbit around a center of mass. This center happens to be inside the earth, but since it's not directly in the middle of the planet, Earth "bulges" as it rotates. This makes the oceans slosh around, which is what tides are. It also has the effect of slowing down the rotations of both the earth and the moon: the moon has already slowed down so much that it's "locked" with Earth...it still rotates, but at the same rate it orbits, so we always see the same side. This is happening to Earth too, but at a much slower rate. The other effect of this tidal dance is that the moon is pulling so hard that it's pulling itself away from Earth...again, very, very slowly. It'll be a couple hundred million years before it will no longer be able to cover the sun during an eclipse. It will never break free of its orbit around Earth, however...the sun will have expanded to engulf both our planet and our moon long before then.	[ "From the observed change in the Moon's orbit, the corresponding change in the length of the day can be computed:\n\nHowever, from historical records over the past 2700 years the following average value is found:\n\nThe corresponding cumulative value is a parabola having a coefficient of T (time in centuries squared) of:\n", "The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around to at perigee (closest) and apogee (farthest), respectively. On 14 November 2016, it was closer to Earth when at full phase than it has been since 1948, 14% closer than its farthest position in apogee. Reported as a \"supermoon\", this closest point coincided within an hour of a full moon, and it was 30% more luminous than when at its greatest distance because its angular diameter is 14% greater and formula_1. At lower levels, the human perception of reduced brightness as a percentage is provided by the following formula:\n", "The notional tidal bulges are carried ahead of the Earth–Moon orientation by the continents as a result of Earth's rotation. The eccentric mass of each bulge exerts a small amount of gravitational attraction on the Moon, with the bulge on the side of Earth closest to the Moon pulling in a direction slightly forward along the Moon's orbit (because Earth's rotation has carried the bulge forward). The bulge on the side furthest from the Moon has the opposite effect, but because the gravitational attraction varies inversely with the square of distance, the effect is stronger for the near-side bulge. As a result, some of Earth's angular (or rotational) momentum is gradually being transferred to the rotation of the Earth–Moon pair around their mutual centre of mass, called the barycentre. This slightly faster rotation causes the Earth–Moon distance to increase at approximately 38 millimetres per year. Conservation of angular momentum means that Earth's axial rotation is gradually slowing, and because of this its day lengthens by approximately 23 microseconds every year (excluding glacial rebound). Both figures are valid only for the current configuration of the continents. Tidal rhythmites from 620 million years ago show that, over hundreds of millions of years, the Moon receded at an average rate of per year (2200 km or 0.56% or the Earth-moon distance per hundred million years) and the day lengthened at an average rate of 12 microseconds per year (or 20 minutes per hundred million years), both about half of their current values. The present high rate may be due to near resonance between natural ocean frequencies and tidal frequencies. See also tidal acceleration for a more detailed description.\n", "BULLET::::- For UT: analysis of historical observations shows that ΔT has a long-term increase of +31 s/cy. Converted to days and lunations, the correction from ET to UT becomes:\n", "On 12 December 2008, the full moon was closer to the Earth than it had been at any time in the previous 15 years. This was referred to in popular media as a supermoon.\n\nOn 19 March 2011, there was another full \"supermoon\", closer to the Earth than at any time in the previous 18 years.\n\nOn 14 November 2016, there was another full \"supermoon\"; this time it was closer to the Earth than at any time in the previous 68 years.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Formula.\n", "While gravitation causes acceleration and movement of the Earth's fluid oceans, gravitational coupling between the Moon and Earth's solid body is mostly elastic and plastic. The result is a further tidal effect of the Moon on the Earth that causes a bulge of the solid portion of the Earth nearest the Moon that acts as a torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This \"drains\" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's spin, slowing the Earth's rotation. That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process (confusingly known as tidal acceleration), which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit and results in its lower orbital speed about the Earth. Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's spin is slowing in reaction. Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by per year (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow).\n", "BULLET::::- March 8 – The Moon moves into its nearest point to Earth, called perigee, at the same time as its fullest phase of the Lunar Cycle. The Moon appears to be 14% bigger and 30% brighter than the year's other full moons. The next time these two events coincided will be 2008.\n\nBULLET::::- March 11 – Janet Reno is confirmed by the United States Senate and sworn in the next day, becoming the first female Attorney General of the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- March 12\n", "The following table shows some occasions of a lunar standstill. The times given are for when the Moon's node passed the equinox—the Moon's greatest declination occurs within a few months of these times, depending on its detailed orbit. However, the phenomenon is observable for a year or so on either side of these dates.\n\nSection::::Detailed explanation.\n", "When the actual reduction is 1.00 / 1.30, or about 0.770, the perceived reduction is about 0.877, or 1.00 / 1.14. This gives a maximum perceived increase of 14% between apogee and perigee moons of the same phase.\n", "Every 18.6 years, the angle between the Moon's orbit and Earth's equator reaches a maximum of 28°36′, the sum of Earth's equatorial tilt (23°27′) and the Moon's orbital inclination (5°09′) to the ecliptic. This is called \"major lunar standstill\". Around this time, the Moon's declination will vary from −28°36′ to +28°36′. Conversely, 9.3 years later, the angle between the Moon's orbit and Earth's equator reaches its minimum of 18°20′. This is called a \"minor lunar standstill\". The last lunar standstill was a minor standstill in October 2015. At that time the descending node was lined up with the equinox (the point in the sky having right ascension zero and declination zero). The nodes are moving west by about 19° per year. The Sun crosses a given node about 20 days earlier each year.\n", "However, an additional subtlety further complicates the picture. The Sun's gravitational attraction on the Moon pulls it toward the plane of the ecliptic, causing a slight wobble of about 9 arcmin within a 6-month period. In 2006, the effect of this was that, although the 18.6-year maximum occurred in June, the maximum declination of the Moon was not in June but in September, as shown in the third diagram.\n\nSection::::Other complications.\n", "The Moon's rotation and orbital periods are tidally locked with each other, so no matter when the Moon is observed from Earth the same hemisphere of the Moon is always seen. The far side of the Moon was not seen until 1959, when photographs of most of the far side were transmitted from the Soviet spacecraft Luna 3.\n\nWhen the Earth is observed from the moon, the Earth does not appear to translate across the sky but appears to remain in the same place, rotating on its own axis.\n", "This is consistent with results from satellite laser ranging (SLR), a similar technique applied to artificial satellites orbiting Earth, which yields a model for the gravitational field of Earth, including that of the tides. The model accurately predicts the changes in the motion of the Moon.\n\nFinally, ancient observations of solar eclipses give fairly accurate positions for the Moon at those moments. Studies of these observations give results consistent with the value quoted above.\n", "The similar process of tidal deceleration occurs for satellites that have an orbital period that is shorter than the primary's rotational period, or that orbit in a retrograde direction.\n\nThe naming is somewhat confusing, because the speed of the satellite relative to the body it orbits is \"decreased\" as a result of tidal acceleration, and \"increased\" as a result of tidal deceleration.\n\nSection::::Earth–Moon system.\n\nSection::::Earth–Moon system.:Discovery history of the secular acceleration.\n", "The changing distance separating the Moon and Earth also affects tide heights. When the Moon is closest, at perigee, the range increases, and when it is at apogee, the range shrinks. Every lunations (the full cycles from full moon to new to full), perigee coincides with either a new or full moon causing perigean spring tides with the largest \"tidal range\". Even at its most powerful this force is still weak, causing tidal differences of inches at most.\n\nSection::::Tidal constituents.:Other constituents.\n", "However, because the 18.6-year cycle of standstills is so much longer than the Moon's orbital period (about 27.3 days) that the change in the declination range over periods as short as half an orbit is very small. The period of the lunar nodes precessing in space is slightly shorter than the lunar standstill interval due to Earth's axial precession, altering Earth's axial tilt over a very long period relative to the direction of lunar nodal precession. Simply, the standstill cycle results from the combination of the two inclinations.\n\nSection::::Apparent position of the Moon during standstill.\n", "Millimeter-precision measurements of the lunar distance are made by measuring the time taken for light to travel between LIDAR stations on the Earth and retroreflectors placed on the Moon. The Moon is spiraling away from the Earth at an average rate of per year, as detected by the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. By coincidence, the diameter of corner cubes in retroreflectors on the Moon is also .\n\nSection::::Value.\n\nBULLET::::- An AU is Lunar distances.\n\nBULLET::::- A Light year is Lunar distances.\n\nSection::::Variation.\n", "BULLET::::- Diurnal libration is a small daily oscillation due to Earth's rotation, which carries an observer first to one side and then to the other side of the straight line joining Earth's and the Moon's centers, allowing the observer to look first around one side of the Moon and then around the other—since the observer is on Earth's surface, not at its center.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Parallactic angle\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Libration of the Moon from educational website From Stargazers to Starships\n", "Strictly speaking, the lunar standstill is a moving position in space relative to the direction of Earth's axis and to the rotation of the Moon's orbital nodes (lunar nodal precession) once every 18.6 years. The standstill position does not persist over the two weeks that the Moon takes to move from its maximum (positive) declination to its minimum (negative) declination, and it most likely will not exactly coincide with either extreme.\n", "The mean semi-major axis has a value of . The time-averaged distance between Earth and Moon centers is . The actual distance varies over the course of the orbit of the Moon, from at the perigee to at apogee, resulting in a differential range of .\n", "Lunar distance (astronomy)\n\nLunar distance (LD or formula_1), also called Earth–Moon distance, Earth–Moon characteristic distance, or distance to the Moon, is a unit of measure in astronomy. It is the average distance from the center of Earth to the center of the Moon. More technically, it is the mean semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit. It may also refer to the time-averaged distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon, or less commonly, the instantaneous Earth–Moon distance. The lunar distance is approximately a quarter of a million miles ().\n", "The Moon differs from most natural satellites around other planets in that it remains near the ecliptic (the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun) instead of Earth's equatorial plane. The Moon's maximum and minimum declination vary because the plane of the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined about 5.14° with respect to the ecliptic plane, and the spatial direction of the Moon's orbital inclination gradually changes over an 18.6-year cycle, alternately adding to or subtracting from the 23.5° tilt of Earth's axis.\n", "BULLET::::2. The lunar longitude has a twice-monthly \"Variation\", by which the Moon moves faster than expected at new and full moon, and slower than expected at the quarters.\n\nBULLET::::3. There is also an annual effect, by which the lunar motion slows down a little in January and speeds up a little in July: the \"annual equation\".\n", "The Earth revolves around the Earth-Moon barycentre once a sidereal month, with 1/81 the speed of the Moon, or about per second. This motion is superimposed on the much larger revolution of the Earth around the Sun at a speed of about per second.\n\nThe surface area of the Moon is slightly less than the areas of North and South America combined.\n\nSection::::Earth-Moon system.:Appearance from Earth.\n", "The Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical, which causes the Moon to be closer to Earth and farther away at different times. The Moon and the Sun are aligned every two weeks, which results in spring tides, which are 20% higher than normal. During the period of the new moon, the Moon and Sun are on the same side of Earth, so the high tides or bulges produced independently by each reinforce each other (and has nothing to do with the spring season). Tides of maximum height and depression produced during this period are known as spring tide. Spring tides that coincide with the moon's closest approach to Earth (\"perigee\") have been called perigean spring tides and generally increase the normal tidal range by a couple of inches.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16669	What purpose/benefit does fruit serve to a fruit-bearing tree/plant?	In the wild, fruits are typically evolved to be tasty to animals that are good at spreading seeds of the plant, while possibly being painful or toxic to animals that are not. For example, chilli fruits are sweet to birds (that will swallow seeds whole and poop them out miles away), gives a burning sensation to mammals (who might otherwise destroy the seeds while chewing due to molars), and toxic to insects (because they don't do anyone any good). In this way, chilli plants have their seeds spread over vast areas, increasing the chance many of them will survive to have seeds of their own.	[ "Certain tree types can also serve as fodder for livestock. Trees may produce fruit or nuts that can be eaten by livestock while still on the tree or after they have fallen. The leaves of trees may serve as forage as well, and silvopasture managers can utilize trees as forage by felling the tree so that it can be eaten by livestock, or by using coppicing or pollarding to encourage leaf growth where it is accessible to livestock.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Forage.\n", "Section::::Advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Precocity: The ability to induce fruitfulness without the need for completing the juvenile phase. Juvenility is the natural state through which a seedling plant must pass before it can become reproductive. In most fruiting trees, juvenility may last between 5 and 9 years, but in some tropical fruits e.g. Mangosteen, juvenility may be prolonged for up to 15 years. Grafting of mature scions onto rootstocks can result in fruiting in as little as two years.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n\n\"Cornus\" in Latin means horn, this is describing the dogwoods hard wood. \"Amomum\" in Latin means eastern spice.\n\nSection::::Wildlife.\n\n\"Cornus amomum\" is primarily used by song birds, insects and rodents for its fruits which are produced in summer. Other animals such as White-tailed deer, Elk, and other land dwelling mammals feast on the fruit as well. \"Cornus amomum\" uses the animals as a method of seed dispersal. As \"Cornus amomum\" fruit decay fruitivores tend to pick only the ripe fruit and seeds, which destroy good seeds that would otherwise be dropped and grow.\n", "Birds and other animals may, by their actions, improve conditions in various growing situations, and in such cases are also beneficials. Birds assist in the spread of seeds by ingesting the fruits and berries of plants, then depositing the seeds in their droppings. Other animals, such as raccoons, bears, etc. provide similar benefits.\n\nSection::::Beneficial or pest.:Plants.\n\nPlants that perform positive functions can also be considered beneficials (companion planting is one technique based on principle of beneficial plants).\n\nSection::::Issues.\n", "Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, various cultures have developed many different uses for fruits they do not depend on for food. For example:\n\nBULLET::::- Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles;\n\nBULLET::::- Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements (e.g., annual honesty, cotoneaster, lotus, milkweed, unicorn plant, and wheat). Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including beautyberry, cotoneaster, holly, pyracantha, skimmia, and viburnum.\n", "Adventitious rooting may be a stress-avoidance acclimation for some species, driven by such inputs as hypoxia or nutrient deficiency. Another ecologically important function of adventitious rooting is the vegetative reproduction of tree species such as \"Salix\" and \"Sequoia\" in riparian settings.\n", "The ability of trees to graft is occasionally exploited by tree shaping to create living root bridges in Meghalaya and Nagaland states in India and on the islands of Sumatra and Java in Indonesia. The aerial roots of rubber fig trees, \"Ficus elastica\", are used to form suspension bridges across mountain streams.\n\nSection::::Symbolic uses.\n\nSection::::Symbolic uses.:In art.\n", "Trees are the source of many of the world's best known fleshy fruits. Apples, pears, plums, cherries and citrus are all grown commercially in temperate climates and a wide range of edible fruits are found in the tropics. Other commercially important fruit include dates, figs and olives. Palm oil is obtained from the fruits of the oil palm (\"Elaeis guineensis\"). The fruits of the cocoa tree (\"Theobroma cacao\") are used to make cocoa and chocolate and the berries of coffee trees, \"Coffea arabica\" and \"Coffea canephora\", are processed to extract the coffee beans. In many rural areas of the world, fruit is gathered from forest trees for consumption. Many trees bear edible nuts which can loosely be described as being large, oily kernels found inside a hard shell. These include coconuts (\"Cocos nucifera\"), Brazil nuts (\"Bertholletia excelsa\"), pecans (\"Carya illinoinensis\"), hazel nuts (\"Corylus\"), almonds (\"Prunus dulcis\"), walnuts (\"Juglans regia\"), pistachios (\"Pistacia vera\") and many others. They are high in nutritive value and contain high-quality protein, vitamins and minerals as well as dietary fibre. Walnuts are particularly beneficial to health and contain a higher level of antioxidants than do other nuts. A variety of nut oils are extracted by pressing for culinary use; some such as walnut, pistachio and hazelnut oils are prized for their distinctive flavours, but they tend to spoil quickly.\n", "The fruits are food for many animals, including cassowaries, flying foxes, and civets.\n\nSection::::Species.\n\nThe Plant List currently records 71 accepted species:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea acutibracteata \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea annulata \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea auriculata \" (\"bira-bira\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea belukar \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea berteroana \" (\"pua, te uri\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea blumei \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea bodenii \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea borneensis \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea calcarea \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea carnosa \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea carstensensis \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea caudata \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea ceilanica \" (perfume flower tree)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea collina \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea crenulata \" (cabbage tree)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea curtisii \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fagraea cuspidata \"\n", "Breadnut leaves are commonly used as forage for livestock during the dry season in Central America. The fruits and seeds are also used to feed all kinds of animals.\n\nSection::::Other uses.:Carbon farming applications.\n\nBrosmium alicastrum can be used for carbon farming as a nut crop or fodder.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Artocarpus camansi\", another plant also commonly known as \"breadnut\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Maya Nut Institute\n\nBULLET::::- The El Pilar Forest Garden Network\n\nBULLET::::- Maya Forest Garden, Dominant Plant Species of the Maya Forest\n\nBULLET::::- Crop of the Week: Maya Nut (\"Brosimum alicastrum\", Moraceae)\n", "Uses for the fruit include medicinal purposes based on their medicinal virtues: The bark, leaves, flowers and berries (high in Vitamin C-supports immune function) all have medicinal properties so they not only have proved their usefulness over thousands of years, but are a valuable remedy in modern herbal medicine as well, wine, jelly and dye. Leaves and inner bark can be used as an insecticide and a dye.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Missouri State Fruit Experiment Station\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- USDA Plants Profile: \"Sambucus nigra\" subsp. \"canadensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Vanderbilt University Bioimages photo gallery: \"Sambucus nigra\" ssp. \"canadensis\"\n", "In tropical West Africa, where this species originates, the fruit pulp is used to sweeten palm wine. Historically, it was also used to improve the flavor of soured cornbread, but has been used as a sweetener and flavoring agent for diverse beverages and foods, such as beer, cocktails, vinegar, and pickles.\n", "Because of the combination of such functions in the pulp, the palm both benefits and suffers adverse consequences when carnivores feed on the fruit and thereby remove the pulp. On the one hand, the seeds that carnivores swallow, germinate more frequently than seeds in entire fruit. On the other hand, ingested seeds are more frequently destroyed by invertebrate pests than non-ingested seeds. However, because of the mobility of carnivores, their dispersal service is important to the palmetto, given the severe fragmentation and isolation of most populations across the increasingly densely populated Mediterranean basin.\n\nSection::::Uses and threats.\n", "Section::::Benefits to human health.:Almonds.\n", "People are often encouraged to consume many fruits because they are rich in a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals which are supposedly beneficial to human health. The fruits of \"Prunus\" often contain many phytochemicals and antioxidants. These compounds have properties that have been linked to preventing different diseases and disorders. Research suggests that the consumption of these fruits reduces the risk of developing diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and other age-related declines. There are many factors that can affect the levels of bioactive compounds in the different fruits of the genus \"Prunus\", including the environment, season, processing methods, orchard operations as well as postharvest management.\n", "Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are an attractive food source to the latter, because animals that eat the fruits may excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. (For more information, see list of fruits.)\n", "The sweet flesh of many fruits is \"deliberately\" appealing to animals, so that the seeds held within are eaten and \"unwittingly\" carried away and deposited (i.e., defecated) at a distance from the parent. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts are appealing to rodents (such as squirrels), which hoard them in the soil to avoid starving during the winter, thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to germinate and grow into a new plant away from their parent.\n", "The fruit, a drupe, is an important food source for birds, usually from specialized genera. Birds eat the whole fruit and regurgitate seeds intact, expanding the seeds in the best conditions for germination (ornitochory). In some species, seed dispersal is carried out by mammals.\n\nSection::::Human use.\n\nSection::::Human use.:Commercial selected species.\n\nThe Chilean \"Cryptocarya alba\" and the Australian \"C. erythroxylon\" and \"C. foveolata\" of the mountains of New South Wales are outstanding for their frost tolerance within a genus having its majority of species growing in tropical climate.\n", "Secondary compounds, particularly emodin, have been found in the fruit, leaves, and bark of the plant, and may protect it from insects, herbivores and pathogens. The emodin present in \"R. cathartica\" fruit may prevent early consumption, as it is found most in unripe fruits, which allows seeds to reach maturity before being dispersed. Birds and mice significantly avoid eating unripe fruits, and if forced to ingest emodin or unripe fruit, the animals regurgitate the meal or produce loose, watery stools.\n", "\"Ficus maxima\" fruit are consumed by birds and mammals. These animals act as seed dispersers when the defaecate or regurgitate intact seeds, or when they drop fruit below the parent tree. In Panama, \"F. maxima\" fruit were reported to have relatively high levels of protein and low levels of water-soluble carbohydrates in a study of \"Ficus\" fruit consumed by bats.\n", "While all trees can be said to serve several purposes, such as providing habitat, shade, or soil improvement; multipurpose trees have a greater impact on a farmer’s well being because they fulfill more than one basic human need. In most cases multipurpose trees have a primary role; such as being part of a living fence, or a windbreak, or used in an ally cropping system. In addition to this they will have one or more secondary roles, most often supplying a family with food or firewood, or both.\n", "The lowland paca can be considered an important seed distributor, since its diet includes leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and fruit, especially avocados, mangos and zapotes. It sometimes stores food.\n\nSection::::Economical and ecological aspects.\n", "Beneficial mycorrhizal associations are to be found in many of our edible and flowering crops. Shewell Cooper suggests that these include at least 80% of the \"brassica\" and \"solanum\" families (including tomatoes and potatoes), as well as the majority of tree species, especially in forest and woodlands. Here the mycorrhizae create a fine underground mesh that extends greatly beyond the limits of the tree's roots, greatly increasing their feeding range and actually causing neighbouring trees to become physically interconnected. The benefits of mycorrhizal relations to their plant partners are not limited to nutrients, but can be essential for plant reproduction. In situations where little light is able to reach the forest floor, such as the North American pine forests, a young seedling cannot obtain sufficient light to photosynthesise for itself and will not grow properly in a sterile soil. But, if the ground is underlain by a mycorrhizal mat, then the developing seedling will throw down roots that can link with the fungal threads and through them obtain the nutrients it needs, often indirectly obtained from its parents or neighbouring trees.\n", "Fruit\n\nIn botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) formed from the ovary after flowering.\n\nFruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds. Edible fruits, in particular, have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food. Accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.\n", "Trees can benefit fauna. The most common examples are silvopasture where cattle, goats, or sheep browse on grasses grown under trees. In hot climates, the animals are less stressed and put on weight faster when grazing in a cooler, shaded environment. The leaves of trees or shrubs can also serve as fodder.\n\nSimilar systems support other fauna. Deer and hogs gain when living and feeding in a forest ecosystem, especially when the tree forage nourishes them. In aquaforestry, trees shade fish ponds. In many cases, the fish eat the leaves or fruit from the trees.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Boundary systems.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00591	Why does uploading something affect my download speed while upload and download speeds are listed as seperate?	Because part of how downloading works is that your computer has to acknowledge to the sender that each TCP packet has been received. When someone is saturating your upstream connection, those acknowledgements slow down, which slows down the speed at which you can download files.	[ "Both ratios are then compared and the lower one is used as the modifier. A few conditions exist:\n\nBULLET::::- If the Uploaded Total is less than 1 MB, then the modifier will remain at 1.\n\nBULLET::::- If the client uploads data but doesn't download any, the modifier will be fixed at 10.\n\nBULLET::::- The modifier can only be between 1 and 10.\n", "The higher data rate dial-up modems and many broadband services are \"asymmetric\"—supporting much higher data rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet).\n", "A similar calculation can be performed using upstream bandwidths. Typically, advertised upload rates are 1/4 the download rates however the available upload bandwidth using DOCSIS 1.1 or 2.0 is also lower. If 100 users allocated 1.75 Mbit/s of upload bandwidth share a single DOCSIS 1.1 upstream, the upload oversubscription ratio is 17:1. One article found a typical DOCSIS download oversubscription ratio to be 28.125:1, while a best case oversubscription may be 12:1.\n", "Upstream (networking)\n\nIn computer networking, upstream refers to the direction in which data can be transferred from the client to the server (uploading). This differs greatly from downstream not only in theory and usage, but also in that upstream speeds are usually at a premium. Whereas downstream speed is important to the average home user for purposes of downloading content, uploads are used mainly for web server applications and similar processes where the \"sending\" of data is critical. Upstream speeds are also important to users of peer-to-peer software.\n", "BULLET::::- TCP congestion avoidance controls the data rate. So called \"slow start\" occurs in the beginning of a file transfer, and after packet drops caused by router congestion or bit errors in for example wireless links.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting throughput.:Multi-user considerations.\n\nEnsuring that multiple users can harmoniously share a single communications link requires some kind of equitable sharing of the link. If a bottle neck communication link offering data rate \"R\" is shared by \"N\" active users (with at least one data packet in queue), every user typically achieves a throughput of approximately \"R/N\", if fair queuing best-effort communication is assumed.\n", "BULLET::::- Double-precision floating-point format – is a computer number format. It represents a wide dynamic range of numeric values by using a floating radix point.\n\nBULLET::::- Download – In computer networks, download means to receive data from a remote system, typically a server such as a web server, an FTP server, an email server, or other similar systems. This contrasts with uploading, where data is sent \"to\" a remote server. A \"download\" is a file offered for downloading or that has been downloaded, or the process of receiving such a file.\n\nSection::::E.\n", "In a group of users that has insufficient upload-bandwidth, with demand higher than supply. Segmented downloading can however very nicely handle traffic peaks, and it can also, to some degree, let uploaders upload \"more often\" to better utilize their connection.\n\nData integrity issues\n\nBULLET::::- Very simple implementations of segmented downloading technology can often result in varying levels of file corruption, as there often is no way of knowing if all sources are actually uploading segments of the same file.\n", "ADSL and cable modems are asymmetric, with the upstream data rate much lower than that of its downstream. Symmetric connections such as Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) and T1, however, offer identical upstream and downstream rates.\n", "In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction (the direction to the service provider) is lower, hence the designation of \"asymmetric\" service. In symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) services, the downstream and upstream data rates are equal. Researchers at Bell Labs have reached speeds over 1 Gbit/s for symmetrical broadband access services using traditional copper telephone lines, though such speeds have not yet been deployed elsewhere.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The marketing reasons for an asymmetric connection are that, firstly, most users of internet traffic will require less data to be uploaded than downloaded. For example, in normal web browsing, a user will visit a number of web sites and will need to download the data that comprises the web pages from the site, images, text, sound files etc. but they will only upload a small amount of data, as the only uploaded data is that used for the purpose of verifying the receipt of the downloaded data or any data inputted by the user into forms etc. This provides a justification for internet service providers to offer a more expensive service aimed at commercial users who host websites, and who therefore need a service which allows for as much data to be uploaded as downloaded. File sharing applications are an obvious exception to this situation. Secondly internet service providers, seeking to avoid overloading of their backbone connections, have traditionally tried to limit uses such as file sharing which generate a lot of uploads.\n", "Data rates, including those given in this article, are usually defined and advertised in terms of the maximum or peak download rate. In practice, these maximum data rates are not always reliably available to the customer. Actual end-to-end data rates can be lower due to a number of factors. In late June 2016, internet connection speeds averaged about 6 Mbit/s globally. Physical link quality can vary with distance and for wireless access with terrain, weather, building construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio sources. Network bottlenecks may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end-user to the remote server or service being used and not just on the first or last link providing Internet access to the end-user.\n", "Most IP networks are designed for users to download more than they upload, usually with an expected (Download:Upload) ratio of 3:1 or more.\n\nSegmented downloading, when used by only 20% of an ISP's user base, can upset the ISP's network to a point of requiring substantial reprogramming of routers and a rethink of network design.\n\nBULLET::::- Traditional \"web object\" caching technology (like the Squid proxy) is of no use here.\n", "Consider two ISPs, \"A\" and \"B\". Each has a presence in New York, connected by a fast link with latency 5 ms—and each has a presence in London connected by a 5 ms link. Suppose both ISPs have trans-Atlantic links that connect their two networks, but \"A\"'s link has latency 100 ms and B's has latency 120 ms. When routing a message from a source in \"A\" 's London network to a destination in \"B\" 's New York network, \"A\" may choose to immediately send the message to \"B\" in London. This saves \"A\" the work of sending it along an expensive trans-Atlantic link, but causes the message to experience latency 125 ms when the other route would have been 20 ms faster.\n", "Although the files have different headers their a/v payload can often be the same(see iTunes exception below). In this example the same a/v file was streamed from a server and stored on the hard drive using QuickTime Player 6.x and QuickTime Player 7.x respectively:\n\nThe first 16 bytes of the file are totally different:\n\nBULLET::::- QuickTime Player 6.x\n\nBULLET::::- QuickTime Player 7.x\n\nHowever the a/v data starts at:\n", "BULLET::::- Download Time Examples demonstrates how long it would take for an individual 9.3MB sized MP3 file (4 minutes long, encoded at 320kbit/s) to download. These times assume a line operates at the speeds shown \"at all times\". In real-life, speeds often vary throughout the day, and in cases where a broadband line is shared between multiple different devices (e.g. a wireless router with multiple devices linked to it). The \"~\" symbol means \"approximately\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- ADSL loop extender can be used to expand the reach and rate of ADSL services.\n\nBULLET::::- Attenuation distortion\n\nBULLET::::- Broadband Internet access\n", "For example, if a file is transferred, the goodput that the user experiences corresponds to the file size in bits divided by the file transfer time. The goodput is always lower than the throughput (the gross bit rate that is transferred physically), which generally is lower than network access connection speed (the channel capacity or bandwidth).\n\nExamples of factors that cause lower goodput than throughput are:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Protocol overhead\": Typically, transport layer, network layer and sometimes datalink layer protocol overhead is included in the throughput, but is excluded from the goodput.\n", "BULLET::::- Take the sum(in, out) for each interval. This method is simple to implement and does account for symmetric traffic patters; some ISPs use this method to approximate total volume of data sent and received.\n\nCritics of the 95th percentile billing method usually advocate the use of a flat rate system or using the average throughput rather than the 95th percentile. Both those methods favour heavy users (who have interest in advocating for changes to billing method). Other critics call for billing per byte of data transferred, which is considered most accurate and fair.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Generally, policies for sharing resources that are characterized by low level of fairness (see fairness measures) provide high average throughput but low stability in the service quality, meaning that the achieved service quality is varying in time depending on the behavior of other users. If this instability is severe, it may result in unhappy users that will choose another more stable communication service. \n", "The sampling interval, or how often samples (or \"data points\") are taken, is an important factor in percentile calculation. A percentile is calculated on some set of data points. Every data point represents the average bandwidth used during the sampling interval (e.g., five minutes) and is calculated as the number of bits transferred throughout the interval divided by the duration of the interval (e.g., 300 seconds). The resulting value represents the average use rate for a single sampling interval and is expressed as bits per second (see data transfer rate).\n\nSection::::Burstable rate calculation.\n", "BULLET::::- Packet delay variation: Packets from the source will reach the destination with different delays. A packet's delay varies with its position in the queues of the routers along the path between source and destination and this position can vary unpredictably. Delay variation can be absorbed at the receiver but in so doing increases the overall latency for the stream.\n", "Section::::Types.:Ack filtering/decimation.\n\nAck filtering or decimation is used on highly asymmetric links. In asymmetric links the upstream and downstream rates vary widely. A common example is satellite broadband where a downstream satellite link provides significantly greater bandwidths than the upstream dialup modem link. In this scenario, the speed at which the modem can return TCP acknowledgements can be a limiting factor. As TCP acknowledgements are cumulatively acknowledged some can be decimated or filtered to improve performance.\n\nSection::::Types.:Snoop.\n", "In a cable network utilizing DOCSIS 1.1, for example, the full 38 Mbit/s download bandwidth is typically shared by some 500 subscribers, each of which may be allocated 7 Mbit/s. Calculating the guaranteed bandwidth per subscriber in this case is accomplished by dividing the maximum total bandwidth of 38 Mbit/s by 500, the maximum number of simultaneous users. The advertised peak bandwidth per user of 7 Mbit/s is 92 times the guaranteed bandwidth per user of 0.076 Mbit/s. In this example, the download oversubscription ratio is 92:1.\n", "Generally, each user of a network is expected to use high speed transmission for a short time, for example to download a megabyte web page in less than a second. Continuous usage, such as when sharing files or streaming videos can seriously impair service for others. In DSL, where the core network is shared but the access network is not, this concept is less relevant. However, it becomes more relevant in cable internet, where both the core network and the access network are shared, and on wireless networks, where the total network bandwidth is also relatively narrow.\n\nSection::::Example cap.\n", "BULLET::::- Universal adoption of IPv6 cannot help either, as it only allows all users to have fixed IP addresses. Fixed IP address don't fully address the routing table problems associated with segmented downloading.\n\nBULLET::::- Typical downloading configurations can have a single user in touch with up to \"10 to 30 ephemeral users per file\" scattered across the global internet.\n\nBULLET::::- IP router tables can become bloated with routes to these \"ephemeral users\" slowing down table lookups.\n\nSection::::Network advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Large files can be made available efficiently to many other users by someone who does not have large upload bandwidth.\n", "BULLET::::- Throughput is the actual rate that information is transferred\n\nBULLET::::- Latency the delay between the sender and the receiver decoding it, this is mainly a function of the signals travel time, and processing time at any nodes the information traverses\n\nBULLET::::- Jitter variation in packet delay at the receiver of the information\n\nBULLET::::- Error rate the number of corrupted bits expressed as a percentage or fraction of the total sent\n\nSection::::Performance measures.:Bandwidth.\n" ]	[ "If upload and download speeds are listed as separate, than uploading something should not effect downloading anything." ]	[ "The computer needs to be able to acknowledge to the sender that the TCP packet has been received, when the upstream connection is saturated, the acknowledgements needed slow down, which affects download speed. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If upload and download speeds are listed as separate, than uploading something should not effect downloading anything.", "If upload and download speeds are listed as separate, than uploading something should not effect downloading anything." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The computer needs to be able to acknowledge to the sender that the TCP packet has been received, when the upstream connection is saturated, the acknowledgements needed slow down, which affects download speed. ", "The computer needs to be able to acknowledge to the sender that the TCP packet has been received, when the upstream connection is saturated, the acknowledgements needed slow down, which affects download speed. " ]
2018-03896	Why do paper cuts hurt so bad?	Paper cuts are typically shallow in the skin and bleed very little, leaving the damaged nerves exposed and easily irritated (causing the sensation of pain)	[ "Paper cut (disambiguation)\n\nA paper cut is a gap in skin opened by an edge of a piece of paper.\n\nPaper cut or papercut also may refer to: \n\nSection::::Media.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paper Cut\", a character in the American children's television series \"The Adventures of Pete & Pete\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paper Cuts\" (audio drama), a 2009 audio drama based on the British TV series \"Doctor Who\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paper Cuts\" (radio show), a British show on BBC Radio 2\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papercut\", a webcomic by Canadian Michael Cho (illustrator)\n\nSection::::Music.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mitis junctional epidermolysis bullosa\" (also known as \"Nonlethal junctional epidermolysis bullosa\") is a skin condition characterized by scalp and nail lesions, also associated with periorificial nonhealing erosions. Mitis junctional epidermolysis bullosa is most commonly seen in children between the ages of 4 and 10 years old.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cicatricial junctional epidermolysis bullosa\" is a skin condition characterized by blisters that heal with scarring. It was characterized in 1985.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Notable Cases.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trevett v. Weeden\" (1786), (involving the legitimacy of paper money) was one of the first cases where a state court held a legislative act unconstitutional, setting precedent for \"Marbury v. Madison\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Picard v. Barry Pontiac-Buick, Inc.\", 654 A.2d 690 (R.I. 1995), a tort case, which is often used as an example of battery in tort textbooks.\n", "BULLET::::11. Narmineh Gostar Natanz (IRAN) (SNAIL, SNOW)\n\nBULLET::::12. Lila Tissue Turkey\n\nBULLET::::13. Ipek Kagit Turkey\n\nBULLET::::14. Surya Enterprises\n\nBULLET::::15. Misk Paper Mills\n\nSection::::Sustainability.\n", "This is the condition where the pulp is inflamed and is actively responding to an irritant. This may include a carious lesion that has not reached the pulp.\n", "Do these scars last? I have rarely read anything as painful as Margaret Lawrence's account, told to her daughter, of her return to Columbia Presbyterian Hospital nearly 50 years later. She is, by now, a famous physician, full of honors and achievements. She steps into an elevator and then suddenly\":\" \"I feel especially self-conscious about my hands...I think, if only I had on my white coat, I could put them in my pockets...Here I am, black as you see me...Here are my hands, exposed...I am in the elevator, confronted with the difference.\"\n", "The pain associated with pulp necrosis is often described as spontaneous. Hot temperatures are reported to have exacerbating factors, and cold temperatures are said to soothe this pain. In some cases, the pain presents as a long dull ache as this is due to necrosis of the apical nerves being the last part of the pulp to necrose. Therefore the pain is from the apical nerves, which have residual vitality remaining when the majority of the pulp is necrosed due to the supply of blood to the more medial parts of the apical nerve.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Crown discolouration.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n\nThe cornea is one of the most sensitive tissues of the body, as it is densely innervated with sensory nerve fibres via the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve by way of 70–80 long ciliary nerves. Research suggests the density of pain receptors in the cornea is 300-600 times greater than skin and 20-40 times greater than dental pulp, making any injury to the structure excruciatingly painful.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis doctorsii\" var. \"doctorsii\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis doctorsii\" var. emarginata\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis eburnea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis elmeri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis elobulata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis erectiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis gracilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis grandifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis hardingiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis ixioides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis kenejiae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis kimballiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis kimballiana\" var. \"angustifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis kimballiana\" var. \"antiquensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis kimballiana\" var. \"kimballiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis latifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis microchilina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis micronesiaca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis oreophila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis pacifica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis palawanensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis papuana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis papuana\" var. \"papuana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis papuana\" var. puberiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis × parsonii\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis parviflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis paulinae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spathoglottis petri\"\n", "BULLET::::- Level P-5 = ≤ 30 mm² particles with width ≤ 2 mm\n\nBULLET::::- Level P-6 = ≤ 10 mm² particles with width ≤ 1 mm (Espionage-safe, for extremely high demands of security such as military or government departments)\n\nBULLET::::- Level P-7 = ≤ 5 mm² particles with width ≤ 1 mm\n\nSection::::Shredding method, and output.:Security levels.:NSA/CSS.\n\nBULLET::::- The United States National Security Agency/CSS produces the \"NSA/CSS Specification 02-01 for High Security Crosscut Paper Shredders\".\n\nBULLET::::- They provide a list of evaluated shredders.\n\nSection::::Destruction of evidence.\n\nThere have been many instances where it is alleged that documents have been improperly or illegally destroyed by shredding, including:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Paper Cut\" (Christopher Conte): Little Pete's enemy in the season 2 episode \"Farewell, My Little Viking\" (parts 1 and 2), where he originally was Artie's enemy before refocusing on Little Pete. A boy who grew up in a copy shop, he is covered with lacerations and scars from paper cuts. Paper Cut can fold paper into hundreds of origami shapes, including makeshift weapons. Paper Cut enjoyed making life miserable for the helpless students by forcing them to throw \"rock\" while playing Rock–Paper–Scissors (since he always throws \"paper\"). However Little Pete defied him by throwing \"scissors.\" Paper Cut made it his personal mission to destroy Little Pete in the rematch. Little Pete repeatedly defies him, and finally the students gang up and drive Paper Cut out of Wellsville forever.\n", "BULLET::::- Sefer Mitzwot Katan\n", "BULLET::::- Dawn Redwood \"(Metasequoia glyptostroboides):\" Three specimens between the library and its new wing\n\nBULLET::::- Mulberry \"( \"Morus\" )\" One specimen to the right of the front auditorium doors of the high school\n\nBULLET::::- Norway Maple \" (Acer platanoides )\" One specimen at the corner of Park Drive and Brownsville Road in front of the library\n\nBULLET::::- Redbud \"(Cercis):\" One specimen in front of the middle-high school\n\nBULLET::::- Spruce \"(Picea)\" Five specimens at the north side of the \"old gym\" of the high school and park\n", "BULLET::::- \"F. c. canariensis\" Vieillot, 1817 – central Canary Islands (La Gomera and Tenerife and Gran Canaria)\n\nBULLET::::- \"F. c. bakeri\" Illera et al., 2018 – central Canary Islands (Gran Canaria)\n\nBULLET::::- \"F. c. maderensis\" Sharpe, 1888 – Madeira: Madeiran chaffinch\n\nBULLET::::- \"F. c. moreletti\" Pucheran, 1859 – Azores\n\nBULLET::::- \"F. c. ombriosa\" Hartert, 1913 – El Hierro, Canary Islands\n\nBULLET::::- \"F. c. palmae\" Tristram, 1889 – La Palma, Canary Islands: La Palma chaffinch\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- Kathleen Trenchard (born 1989) is an author and artist who specializes in papel picado and teaches painting, drawing, and art appreciation out of her studio in San Antonio, Texas.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bunting (textile)\n\nBULLET::::- Chad (paper) left over fragments from the cutting.\n\nBULLET::::- Paper cutting\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- https://www.papelpicadodecoramec.com\n\nBULLET::::- http://www.papelpicadodecoramec.com.mx\n\nBULLET::::- Papel Picado of Marcelino Bautista Sifuentes\n\nBULLET::::- Papel picado: Artists both living and historical\n\nBULLET::::- Papel picado: Classic art for a Mexican fiesta\n\nBULLET::::- Papel picado: The art of Mexican cut paper\n\nBULLET::::- Paper cutting, a popular folk art in China\n", "When the pulp becomes inflamed, pressure begins to build up in the pulp cavity, exerting pressure on the nerve of the tooth and the surrounding tissues. Pressure from inflammation can cause mild to extreme pain, depending upon the severity of the inflammation and the body's response. Unlike other parts of the body where pressure can dissipate through the surrounding soft tissues, the pulp cavity is very different. It is surrounded by dentin, a hard tissue that does not allow for pressure dissipation, so increased blood flow, a hallmark of inflammation, will cause pain.\n", "BULLET::::- Peripheral nerve injury\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetic neuropathy\n\nBULLET::::- Tabes dorsalis\n\nBULLET::::- Transverse myelitis\n\nBULLET::::- Meningomyelocele\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Hands with joined thumbs are a gesture of blessing\n\nBULLET::::- A jug filled with water and a bowl symbolize the Tribe of Levi, blessing or the Priesthood\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n\nThe images are created by cutting a design into a folded piece of paper. When the paper is unfolded, the symmetrical design is revealed. The paper can be cut using either scissors or a craft knife.\n\nSection::::Works or publications.\n\nSection::::Works or publications.:Online images.\n", "Papercutting also has connections with other forms of Jewish tradition. For example, Ketubahs (marriage agreements) were sometimes prepared in the form of paper cut, or decorated with paper cutting elements. Also cut into paper, memorial plaques were made to commemorate the names of ancestors’ names and dates of birth and death. Lanterns with papercut walls were placed in synagogues for anniversaries of great men's death. Amulets like a Hamsa often showed an image of a palm with an eye on it.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Features.\n", "BULLET::::- Delaware County Library System (government agency)\n\nBULLET::::- Folcroft Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Glenolden Library\n\nBULLET::::- Helen Kate Furness Library (Wallingford)\n\nBULLET::::- Haverford Township Free Library\n\nBULLET::::- J. Lewis Crozer Library (Chester)\n\nBULLET::::- Lansdowne Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Marple Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Mary M. Campbell Library (Marcus Hook)\n\nBULLET::::- Media-Upper Providence Free Library\n\nBULLET::::- Middletown Free Library\n\nBULLET::::- Newtown Square Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Norwood Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Prospect Park Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Memorial Library of Radnor Township\n\nBULLET::::- Rachel Kohl Community Library (Glen Mills)\n\nBULLET::::- Ridley Park Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Ridley Township Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Sharon Hill Public Library\n", "BULLET::::- Intravascular papillary endothelial hyperplasia (Masson's \"hemangio-endotheliome vegetant intravasculaire\", Masson's lesion, Masson's pseudoangiosarcoma, Masson's tumor, papillary endothelial hyperplasia)\n\nBULLET::::- Juvenile hyaline fibromatosis (fibromatosis hyalinica multiplex juvenilis, Murray–Puretic–Drescher syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Kaposiform hemangioendothelioma (infantile kaposiform hemangioendothelioma)\n\nBULLET::::- Kasabach–Merritt syndrome (hemangioma with thrombocytopenia)\n\nBULLET::::- Keloid (Keloidal scar)\n\nBULLET::::- Keratinizing metaplasia\n\nBULLET::::- Keratocyst\n\nBULLET::::- Klippel–Trenaunay syndrome (angioosteohypertrophy syndrome, hemangiectatic hypertrophy)\n\nBULLET::::- Knuckle pads (heloderma)\n\nBULLET::::- Leiomyosarcoma\n\nBULLET::::- Lipoma\n\nBULLET::::- Liposarcoma (atypical lipoma, atypical lipomatous tumor)\n\nBULLET::::- Lymphangiectasis (lymphangioma)\n\nBULLET::::- Lymphangiomatosis\n\nBULLET::::- Malignant fibrous histiocytoma\n\nBULLET::::- Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (malignant schwannoma, neurofibrosarcoma, neurosarcoma)\n\nBULLET::::- Mast cell sarcoma\n\nBULLET::::- Meningocele\n\nBULLET::::- Metastatic carcinoma\n", "Yehudit Shadur and her husband Joseph Shadur wrote a history of the last three centuries of Jewish paper cutting called \"Traditional Jewish Papercuts: An Inner World of Art and Symbol.\" They won a 1994 Jewish National Book Council prize for this book. In addition to this book, the Shadurs wrote an additional book on Jewish papercuts, the catalog on Yehudit Shadur's 1995 exhibit at the Haaretz Museum in Ramat Aviv, Israel, and several articles on the art of Jewish papercutting.\n\nSection::::Artists.:Tsirl Waletzky.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Penstemon deaveri\" Crosswhite – Mt. Graham beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon debilis\" O'Kane & J. Anderson – Parachute beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon degeneri\" Crosswhite – Degener's beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon deustus\" Dougl. ex Lindl. – scabland penstemon\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon digitalis\" Nutt. ex Sims – talus slope penstemon, foxglove beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon diphyllus\" Rydb. – twoleaf beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon discolor\" Keck – Catalina beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon dissectus\" Ell. – dissected beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon distans\" N. Holmgren – Mt. Tumbull beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon dolius\" M.E. Jones ex Pennell – Jones's penstemon, Jones' beardtongue\n\nBULLET::::- \"Penstemon dubius\" A. Davids. (pro sp.) – dubius penstemon\n", "BULLET::::- The tendon of fibularis longus similarly passes behind the lateral malleolus into the sole.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n\nThe soles of the feet are extremely sensitive to touch due to a high concentration of nerve endings, with as many as 200,000 per sole. This makes them sensitive to surfaces that are walked on, ticklish and some people find them to be erogenous zones.\n\nMedically, the soles are the site of the plantar reflex, the testing of which can be painful due to the sole's sensitivity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08668	Why does every website want permission to give me notifications?	Chrome has a notification API, and other browsers may have adopted it also. The intent was to make web apps more like native apps. Chrome has a background process that runs even if you close the browser that will show notifications, so yes you will see these notifications if you're on a different website or if your browser is closed. The websites want to send you notifications because it's a way to get you back to their site. News sites will probably use it to notify you of new stories. I believe you can disable this background process by going into Chrome's settings, expanding the Advanced settings (bottom of page), then going to the System section and turning off "Continue running background apps when Chrome is closed".	[ "As of 10.8 Mountain Lion, OS X provides desktop notifications via Notification Center. Previous versions of OS X have no built-in desktop notification feature; however, Growl is a popular application that provides similar functionality and enjoys broad support from third party software. iOS also includes Notification Center as of iOS 5.\n\nSection::::Capabilities.\n", "Before iOS 5, notifications were delivered in a modal window and couldn't be viewed after being dismissed. In iOS 5, Apple introduced Notification Center, which allows users to view a history of notifications. The user can tap a notification to open its corresponding app, or clear it. Notifications are now delivered in banners that appear briefly at the top of the screen. If a user taps a received notification, the application that sent the notification will be opened. Users can also choose to view notifications in modal alert windows by adjusting the application's notification settings. Introduced with iOS 8, widgets are now accessible through the Notification Center, defined by 3rd parties.\n", "Any application that uses the Push Notifications system provided by Apple, or local notifications, may use Notification Center. Users may customise what they want to appear in Notification Center, and may opt to stop certain applications appearing in the center, or sending alerts to their screen. OS X users may also disable alerts and banners for a day, stopping notifications appearing on the screen. However, any notifications sent during this time are still visible in the Notification Center panel. A similar service is included in iOS 6 as part of the \"Do Not Disturb\" feature.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "When an app sends a notification while closed, a red badge appears on its icon. This badge tells the user, at a glance, how many notifications that app has sent. Opening the app clears the badge.\n\nSection::::Features.:Accessibility.\n", "Section::::Alerts and spam.\n\nThe notion of content being delivered to users has received negative connotation over the years and is sometimes labeled as spamming, particularly for information that hasn't been requested by the user. The advent of technologies such as RSS and now alert notification are an effort directed to creating an antithesis to spam: the information being received by users is exclusively from opt-in requests.\n\nSection::::FCC.\n", "APNs was also added as an API to Mac OS X 10.7 (\"Lion\") so that developers could begin updating their third-party applications and start utilizing the service. Support was later improved in OS X 10.8 (\"Mountain Lion\") with the introduction of a Notification Center. As with iOS 5.0, the improvement allowed users to manage and read their received notifications in a single location. The release of OS X 10.9 (\"Mavericks\") included Safari 7.0, which added support for accepting and receiving APNs notifications from websites that the user granted permission to.\n\nSection::::Technical details.\n", "Notifications tell the user that something has been added to his or her profile page. Examples include: a message being shared on the user's wall or a comment on a picture of the user or on a picture that the user has previously commented on. Initially, notifications for events were limited to one per event; these were eventually grouped category wise. For instance, 10 users having liked a user's picture now count for one notification, whereas in the earlier stages, these would have accounted for ten separate notifications. The number of notifications can be changed in the settings section, to a maximum of 99. There is a red notification counter at the top of the page, which if clicked displays the most recent ones.\n", "During the 2016 Build keynote, Microsoft announced an update to the WNS and the Windows 10 Operating System that will allow for Android and iOS devices to forward push notifications received to Windows 10 to be viewed and discarded.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Architecture.\n", "APNs was first launched together with iOS 3.0 on June 17, 2009. The release of iOS 5.0 included a Notification Center, adding support for receiving and reading local notifications in a single place.\n", "Section::::Notifications in various settings.\n", "Over time, requirements have evolved as trends have appeared in application development. For example, applications accessing the user's location for advertising were valid prior to the fall of 2009. After this point, apps were rejected that did not provide more robust user experience beyond simply using location data for advertising. Other requirements, such as using undocumented APIs, have always led to rejection.\n", "According to Steven Puddephatt, Business Solutions Architect at the Racing Post, \"[a]t the Racing Post we've historically had problems with data scrapers on our site and have relied on 'after the fact' mechanisms such as IP blocking. We are now [December 2016] on the precipice of exposing our API to the general public, and we are understandably reticent given the value of our data. We searched the market and only Approov offered the strong mobile app authentication and security we required [...] We are now very confident we can launch a public facing API without fear of unauthorized access.\"\n", "Furthermore, support for user locations has been added to the Personal Status Message, although this feature was later removed from the Windows Live Messenger 8.1 client.\n\nSection::::Version history.:MSNP16.\n\nMSNP16 is used in a pre-release version of Windows Live Messenger 9.0, leaked in December 2007.\n\nIt features \"Multiple Points of Presence\" (MPOP), the ability to sign in at 2 places at the same time with having chats replicated at all places. The UUX data have been extended to contain Endpoint Data (also MPOP), as well as Signature Sound MSN Object Data.\n\nSection::::Version history.:MSNP17.\n", "The drop-down Notification Center has now been redesigned to allow widget functionality. Third-party apps can add widget support to their apps that let users see information in the Notification Center without having to open each respective app. Users can add, rearrange, or remove any widgets, at any time. Examples of widgets include a Weather app showing current weather, and a Calendar app showing upcoming events.\n\nNotifications are now actionable, allowing users to reply to a message while it appears as a quick drop-down, or act on a notification through the Notification Center.\n\nSection::::System features.:Keyboard.\n", "Section::::Privacy.\n\nSicher uses phone number for user authentication due to phone number being a unique identifier that can be easily confirmed and an efficient anti-spam measure. User's address book is used for discovery of Sicher contacts, however address book data is not stored on Sicher servers. \n\nUser may choose to receive anonymous notifications about new messages, which means that notification on lock screen will not display content of incoming message, including sender's name.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "HTTP cookies are commonly used to mark and identify visitors. Cookies are a standard capability for all desktop web browsers. With the prevalence of iPhones and Androids, HTTP cookies are now supported by most smartphones, because by default, iPhones and Android phones will accept browser cookies from web sites. As with desktop browsers, the mobile device user may choose to disable cookies.\n\nSection::::Problems with tracking.:HTTP referrer.\n", "Section::::Architectural approaches.\n\nChange detection and notification services can be categorized by the software architecture they use. Two principal approaches can be distinguished:\n\nSection::::Architectural approaches.:Server based.\n\nA server polls content, tracks changes and logs data, sending alerts in the form of email notifications, webhooks, RSS. Typically, an associated website with a configuration is managed by the user. Some services also have a mobile device application which connects to a cloud server and provides alerts to the mobile device.\n\nSection::::Architectural approaches.:Client based.\n\nA local client application with a graphical user interface polls content, tracks changes and logs data.\n\nSection::::Considerations.\n", "The \"Today\" view of Notification Center has been replaced by widgets, and is accessible by swiping from left to right. On the iPad, widgets can be displayed in a two-column layout.\n\nSection::::System features.:Notification Center.\n\nThe Notification Center no longer has a \"Today\" view.\n\nNotifications, now larger, can expand to display more information and all unread notifications can be cleared at once, using 3D Touch.\n\nApps that need to be updated frequently can now have notifications that update live.\n\nThe Notification Center contains a Spotlight search bar.\n\nSection::::System features.:Settings.\n", "Windows Live Alerts integrates tightly with Windows Live Messenger, Windows Live Hotmail (now Outlook.com) and Windows Live Mobile. An \"Alerts\" tab is available in Windows Live Messenger showing a list of recent alerts organized by date or provider's name. When a new alert arrives, a \"toast\" will appear in the user's screen showing the alert's headline. If the user is signed out of Messenger, the user can choose to have the alerts sent to their e-mail or mobile devices.\n\nSection::::Syndication Edition.\n", "Notification Center\n\nNotification Center is a feature in iOS and macOS that provides an overview of alerts from applications. It displays notifications until the user completes an associated action, rather than requiring instant resolution. Users may choose what applications appear in Notification Center, and how they are handled. Initially released with iOS 5 in October 2011, Notification Center was made available on Macs as part of OS X Mountain Lion in July 2012.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Some applications link to new sections, while other settings stay within the page. The user also has access, from the dashboard, to special settings. Two-step verification is an example of this, which requires a verification code to be entered that is sent to the user's phone when logging into a new machine and every-time cookies are cleaned.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n\nSection::::Purpose.:Privacy and convenience.\n", "There has been a trend for social networking sites to send out only \"positive\" notifications to users. For example, sites such as Bebo, Facebook, and MySpace will not send notifications to users when they are removed from a person's friends list. Likewise, Bebo will send out a notification if a user is moved to the top of another user's friends list but no notification is sent if they are moved down the list. This allows users to purge undesirables from their list extremely easily and often without confrontation since a user will rarely notice if one person disappears from their friends list. It also enforces the general positive atmosphere of the website without drawing attention to unpleasant happenings such as friends falling out, rejection and failed relationships.\n", "In previous iOS versions, notifications popped up on the screen as dialog boxes, interrupting the current activity. In iOS 5, notifications are revamped, and show up as a temporary banner at the top of the screen. Recent notifications can also be accessed by pulling a \"Notification Center\" down from the top of the screen. Users who prefer the old notification system can keep it by choosing the appropriate option in the Settings menu.\n\nSection::::System features.:iCloud.\n", "Section::::Technical details.:Architecture.\n", "Strictly speaking, neither the download nor the install of the Notifications is mandatory; the user can change their Automatic Update settings to allow them to choose what updates may be downloaded for installation. If the update is already downloaded, the user can choose not to accept the supplemental EULA provided for the Notifications. In both cases, the user can also request that the update not be presented again. Newer Critical Security Updates may still be installed with the update hidden. However this setting will only have effect on the existing version of Notifications, so it can appear again as a new version. In 2006, California resident Brian Johnson attempted to bring a class action lawsuit against Microsoft, on grounds that Windows Genuine Advantage Notifications violated the spyware laws in the state; the lawsuit was dismissed in 2010.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02535	Why can't emulated GameCube games, for example, be pre-translated for the computer?	Emulation generally doesn't run slow because of issues with translating the code, but rather the fact that the code is optimized for hardware that your computer doesn't have. Think of it like this. I have two calculators. One of them can do addition really well, it can do any addition problem in 1 second. This also means it can do multiplication by turning things like 3x5 into 3+3+3+3+3=15, though that means it takes 5 seconds to do that problem. This is your computer. I have another calculator that isn't near as fast as the first one, it takes it 3 whole seconds to do any addition problems. But this calculator has a special "multiplication circuit" on it that lets it do multiplication problems directly in only 2 seconds! So it doesn't need to break down 3x5 into addition, it can just chug for 2 seconds and then say "=15". This is the console being emulated. I give both of these calculators a sheet of multiplication problems (a video game); which one finishes first? Of course you would answer the second one, because every time the first one needs to do a problem it needs to break it down into addition steps. This is why emulation is slow and why you can't "pretranslate" a game in the method you are thinking of (the closest would be to prewrite the problems as addition instead of multiplication, which is what an official port of the game would be). Of course this doesn't mean emulations can't run fast or faster than the original. What if my first calculator was so good it only took .01 seconds to do an addition problem? Then even if it had to break every single multiplication problem up it would still probably be faster than the calculator with the special circuit that took 2 seconds to do a multiplication problem. This is what happens when you emulate older, smaller hardware like a game boy on modern computers and why it's more feasible; you basically are just overpowering the problem rather than actually making it easier. Newer consoles are much closer to normal computers in power, however, and that is the reason why emulating them well either runs much slower or requires a much more powerful PC.	[ "For instance, a successful x86-to-x64 static recompilation was generated for the procedural terrain generator of the video game \"Cube World\" in 2014.\n\nAnother example is the NES-to-x86 statically recompiled version of the videogame \"Super Mario Bros.\" which was generated under usage of LLVM in 2013.\n\nIn 2004 Scott Elliott and Phillip R. Hutchinson at Nintendo developed a tool to generate \"C\" code from Game Boy binary that could then be compiled for a new platform and linked against a hardware library for use in airline entertainment systems.\n", "In contrast, some other platforms have had very little use of direct hardware addressing, such as an emulator for the PlayStation Vita. In these cases, a simple compatibility layer may suffice. This translates system calls for the foreign system into system calls for the host system e.g., the Linux compatibility layer used on *BSD to run closed source Linux native software on FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. For example, while the Nintendo 64 graphic processor was fully programmable, most games used one of a few pre-made programs, which were mostly self-contained and communicated with the game via FIFO; therefore, many emulators do not emulate the graphic processor at all, but simply interpret the commands received from the CPU as the original program would. Developers of software for embedded systems or video game consoles often design their software on especially accurate emulators called simulators before trying it on the real hardware. This is so that software can be produced and tested before the final hardware exists in large quantities, so that it can be tested without taking the time to copy the program to be debugged at a low level and without introducing the side effects of a debugger. In many cases, the simulator is actually produced by the company providing the hardware, which theoretically increases its accuracy. Math co-processor emulators allow programs compiled with math instructions to run on machines that don't have the co-processor installed, but the extra work done by the CPU may slow the system down. If a math coprocessor isn't installed or present on the CPU, when the CPU executes any co-processor instruction it will make a determined interrupt (coprocessor not available), calling the math emulator routines. When the instruction is successfully emulated, the program continues executing.\n", "Honeywell provided a program called the Liberator for their Honeywell 200 series of computers; it could translate programs for the IBM 1400 series of computers into programs for the Honeywell 200 series.\n\nIn 2014, an ARM architecture version of the 1998 video game \"StarCraft\" was generated by static recompilation and additional reverse engineering of the original x86 version.\n\nThe Pandora handheld community was capable of developing the required tools on their own and achieving such translations successfully several times.\n", "Emulators of platforms other than the Nintendo 64 eventually adopted variants of high-level emulation as well. For example, the Dolphin emulator, which emulates the Nintendo GameCube, has an option for HLE of the GameCube's audio DSP.\n\nSection::::Nintendo's response and UltraHLE's discontinuation.\n", "BULLET::::- Intel Corporation developed and implemented an IA-32 Execution Layer - a dynamic binary translator designed to support IA-32 applications on Itanium-based systems, which was included in Microsoft Windows Server for Itanium architecture, as well as in several flavors of Linux, including Red Hat and Suse. It allowed IA-32 applications to run faster than they would using the native IA-32 mode on Itanium processors.\n\nBULLET::::- Dolphin (an emulator for the GameCube/Wii) performs JIT recompilation of PowerPC code to x86 and AArch64.\n\nSection::::Dynamic binary translation.:Examples for dynamic binary translations in hardware.\n", "Continuing this year's earlier work on graphics performance-related matters, Dolphin developers implemented a solution for the long-standing problem known as shader compilation stuttering. The stuttering is caused by the emulator waiting for the graphics driver to compile shaders required for new environments or objects. The solution that the \"Ubershaders\" – in development since 2015 – present to the problem was to emulate the Wii's and GameCube's rendering pipeline by way of an interpreter running on the host system's graphics processor itself until a specialized shader has been compiled and can be used for future frames, at a lower cost to performance.\n", "Fan translations of video game console games are usually accomplished by modifying a single binary ROM image of the game. Fan translations of PC games, on the other hand, can involve translation of many binary files throughout the game's directory which are packaged and distributed as fan patch. In dealing with translations of console games, a console emulator is generally utilized to play the final product, although unofficial hardware, hardware mods or software mods can be used to run the translated ROM image on its native hardware.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n", "Most emulation software mimics a particular hardware architecture, often to an extremely high degree of accuracy. This is particularly the case with classic home computers such as the Commodore 64, whose software often depends on highly sophisticated low-level programming tricks invented by game programmers and the demoscene.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "Most emulators just emulate a hardware architecture—if operating system firmware or software is required for the desired software, it must be provided as well (and may itself be emulated). Both the OS and the software will then be interpreted by the emulator, rather than being run by native hardware. Apart from this interpreter for the emulated binary machine's language, some other hardware (such as input or output devices) must be provided in virtual form as well; for example, if writing to a specific memory location should influence what is displayed on the screen, then this would need to be emulated. While emulation could, if taken to the extreme, go down to the atomic level, basing its output on a simulation of the actual circuitry from a virtual power source, this would be a highly unusual solution. Emulators typically stop at a simulation of the documented hardware specifications and digital logic. Sufficient emulation of some hardware platforms requires extreme accuracy, down to the level of individual clock cycles, undocumented features, unpredictable analog elements, and implementation bugs. This is particularly the case with classic home computers such as the Commodore 64, whose software often depends on highly sophisticated low-level programming tricks invented by game programmers and the \"demoscene\".\n", "What allowed breaking through this restriction were the advances in dynamic recompilation techniques. Simple \"a priori\" translation of emulated program code into code runnable on the host architecture is usually impossible because of several reasons:\n\nBULLET::::- code may be modified while in RAM, even if it is modified only by the emulated operating system when loading the code (for example from disk)\n\nBULLET::::- there may not be a way to reliably distinguish data (which should not be translated) from executable code.\n", "Section::::Impersonation by malware.\n\nDue to their popularity, emulators have been impersonated by malware. Most of these emulators are for video game consoles like the Xbox 360, Xbox One, Nintendo 3DS, etc. Generally such emulators make currently impossible claims such as being able to run Xbox One and Xbox 360 games in a single program.\n\nSection::::Legal issues.\n\nSection::::Legal issues.:United States.\n", "Dynamic binary translation differs from simple emulation (eliminating the emulator's main read-decode-execute loop—a major performance bottleneck), paying for this by large overhead during translation time. This overhead is hopefully amortized as translated code sequences are executed multiple times.\n", "BULLET::::- A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of it to be controlled and modified, and allowing debugging on a normal PC. The downsides are expense and slow operation, in some cases up to 100 times slower than the final system.\n", "Proteus X LE, Proteus X, Proteus X2, Emulator X and Emulator X2 are all copy protected software. User must also have a qualifying E-MU hardware such as a E-MU digital audio interface, E-MU Xmidi 2x2 or E-MU Xboard keyboard controller connected, powered on and installed correctly as the E-MU hardware also acts as a software copy protection dongle for the protected software. Not having all of these things in order often results in the failed launch of the program or the Streaming engine error message. The E-MU Xmidi 1x1 and E-MU Tracker Pre do not function as a copy protection dongle.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n", "BULLET::::- Emulators are often used as a copyright infringement tool, since they allow users to play video games without having to buy the console, and rarely make any attempt to prevent the use of illegal copies. This leads to a number of legal uncertainties regarding emulation, and leads to software being programmed to refuse to work if it can tell the host is an emulator; some video games in particular will continue to run, but not allow the player to progress beyond some late stage in the game, often appearing to be faulty or just extremely difficult. These protections make it more difficult to design emulators, since they must be accurate enough to avoid triggering the protections, whose effects may not be obvious.\n", "UAE has been ported to many host operating systems, including Linux, macOS, FreeBSD, DOS, Microsoft Windows, RISC OS, BeOS, Palm OS, Android, the Xbox console, the PSP, PSVita and GP2X handhelds, iOS, the Wii and Dreamcast consoles, and even to AmigaOS, MorphOS and AROS.\n\nSection::::Emulation speed.\n", "BULLET::::- DEC created the FX!32 binary translator for converting x86 applications to Alpha applications.\n\nBULLET::::- Sun Microsystems' Wabi software included dynamic translation from x86 to SPARC instructions.\n\nBULLET::::- In January 2000, Transmeta Corporation announced a novel processor design named Crusoe. From the FAQ on their web site,\n", "Interpreters are very popular as computer simulators, as they are much simpler to implement than more time-efficient alternative solutions, and their speed is more than adequate for emulating computers of more than roughly a decade ago on modern machines. However, the speed penalty inherent in interpretation can be a problem when emulating computers whose processor speed is on the same order of magnitude as the host machine. Until not many years ago, emulation in such situations was considered completely impractical by many.\n", "Although a great majority of the CPU emulation cores are interpretive, MAME also supports dynamic recompilation through an intermediate language called the Universal Machine Language (UML) to increase the emulation speed. Back-end targets supported are x86 and x64. A C backend is also available to further aid verification of the correctness. CPUs emulated in this manner are SH-2, MIPS R3000 and PowerPC.\n\nSection::::Design.:Game data.\n", "BULLET::::- Emulators require better hardware than the original system has.\n\nSection::::In new media art.\n", "In September 2016, Dolphin's developers announced the emulator was now able to boot all official GameCube titles. The last title to be supported for boot-up, \"\", had been particularly difficult to emulate due to the game's use of the memory management unit. Also they announced that they removed Triforce emulation, because of no maintenance in the Triforce emulation's code.\n\nIn March 2017, support was added for the Wii Shop Channel.\n", "Citra can boot \"Pokémon\" games since December 30, 2015. Since February 22, 2016, the official website of Citra has changed significantly. Citra can emulate sound since May 21, 2016, and has had a JIT compiler since September 15, 2016. As of the latest version, \"Pokémon Sun and Moon\" are fully playable, a milestone in emulator development.\n", "As of 2005, 2 members of the team were working for Sony - Randy Linden was working for SCEA on porting titles and looking at the possibility of emulation of previous generation titles for the next PlayStation, and Sean Kauppinen was promoting EverQuest II and Star Wars Galaxies for Sony Online Entertainment.\n\nSection::::History.:Copy protection.\n", "Various forms of dynamic recompilation, including the popular Just In Time compiler (JIT) technique, try to circumvent these problems by waiting until the processor control flow jumps into a location containing untranslated code, and only then (\"just in time\") translates a block of the code into host code that can be executed.\n" ]	[ "Emulated games cannot be pre translated." ]	[ "They can be pre translated, that is just not the issue with why they run slow. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Emulated games cannot be pre translated." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They can be pre translated, that is just not the issue with why they run slow. " ]
2018-01926	How can old games be put into resolutions like 4K and 1080p or maxed at 60fps?	Imagine I describe to you how to paint the flag of France: * Paint a blue band that covers the left third of the canvas. * Paint a white band that covers the middle third of the canvas. * Paint a red band that covers the right third of the canvas. I don't need to know how large your canvas is when I give these instructions to you. In fact, these instructions are valid regardless of whether you have a small canvas or a very big one! When an emulator renders an old video game at a high resolution, it is essentially just following the old instructions, but painting on a larger canvas.	[ "An example of a game that has had its original graphics re-rendered at higher resolutions is \"Hitman HD Trilogy\", which contains two games with high resolution graphics: \"\" and \"\". Both were originally released on PC, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. The original resolution was 480p on Xbox. With the remaster, the games are displayed at 720p on Xbox 360.\n\nThere is some debate regarding whether new graphics of an older game at higher resolutions make a video game look better or worse than the original artwork, with comparisons made to colorizing black-and-white-movies.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Special edition\n", "Video games are often resolution-independent; an early example is \"Another World\" for DOS, which used polygons to draw its 2D content and was later remade using the same polygons at a much higher resolution. 3D games are resolution-independent since the perspective is calculated every frame and so it can vary its resolution.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adobe Illustrator\n\nBULLET::::- CorelDRAW\n\nBULLET::::- Direct2D\n\nBULLET::::- Display PostScript\n\nBULLET::::- Himetric\n\nBULLET::::- Inkscape\n\nBULLET::::- Page zooming\n\nBULLET::::- Responsive Web Design\n\nBULLET::::- Retina display\n\nBULLET::::- Scalable Vector Graphics\n\nBULLET::::- Synfig\n\nBULLET::::- Twips\n\nBULLET::::- Vector-based graphical user interface\n\nBULLET::::- Vector graphics\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Generally, PC games are only limited by the display's resolution size. Drivers are capable of supporting very high resolutions, depending on the chipset of the video card. Many game engines support resolutions of 5760×1080 or 5760×1200 (typically achieved with three 1080p displays in a multi-monitor setup) and nearly all will display 1080p at minimum. 1440p and 4K are typically supported resolutions for PC gaming as well.\n", "Because of this, classic games that are remastered typically have their graphics redesigned or their original graphics re-rendered at the higher resolutions used by high-definition televisions.\n\nAn example of a game that has had its graphics redesigned is \"\", while the core character and level information is exactly the same as in \"\".\n", "The 640 × 400i resolution (720 × 480i with borders disabled) was first introduced by home computers such as the Commodore Amiga and, later, Atari Falcon. These computers used interlace to boost the maximum vertical resolution. These modes were only suited to graphics or gaming, as the flickering interlace made reading text in word processor, database, or spreadsheet software difficult. (Modern game consoles solve this problem by pre-filtering the 480i video to a lower resolution. For example, Final Fantasy XII suffers from flicker when the filter is turned off, but stabilizes once filtering is restored. The computers of the 1980s lacked sufficient power to run similar filtering software.)\n", "BULLET::::- Color resolution : in \"high resolution mode\" it was often the case that a certain pixel could not be given an arbitrary color, often certain clusters of pixels, (quite often 8×8 pixels large) shared the same \"color attribute\", so as to spare video memory, as an 8-bit computer only had a 64 KB address space, and the CPU often had limited capabilities to manipulate video memory, therefore it was often necessary to keep the video RAM size as small as possible, so a minimum of the address space of the micro was used, and also the video content could be changed relatively rapidly.\n", "Single line resolution (1 byte per scanline, 256 bytes each object) relative to PMBASE x $100/256:\n\nMissiles share the same bytes of the memory maps above, two bits per Missile:\n\nANTIC does not use the first and last 8 scan lines worth of data of Player/Missile memory in the memory map. In double line resolution the first and last four bytes are ignored, in single line resolution the first and last eight bytes.\n", "Initially, each VCS game fit into a 2K ROM. Later games like \"Space Invaders\", and even \"River Raid\" from 1982, increased this capacity to 4K. The VCS port of \"Asteroids\" (1981) was the first game for the system to use 8K via a bank switching technique. Some later releases, including Atari's ports of \"Dig Dug\" and \"Crystal Castles\", were 16K cartridges.\n", "MARIA supports a palette of 256 colors and graphics modes which are either 160 pixels wide or 320 pixels wide. While the 320 pixel modes theoretically enable the 7800 to create games at higher resolution than the 256 pixel wide graphics found in the Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega Master System, the processing demands of MARIA typically meant that programmers created their games using the lower 160 pixel modes.\n", "Programs designed to mimic older hardware such as Atari, Sega, or Nintendo game consoles (emulators) when attached to multiscan CRTs, routinely use much lower resolutions, such as 160 × 200 or 320 × 400 for greater authenticity, though other emulators have taken advantage of pixelation recognition on circle, square, triangle and other geometric features on a lesser resolution for a more scaled vector rendering.\n\nSection::::Current standards.:Computer monitors.:Commonly used.\n\nThe list of common display resolutions article lists the most commonly used display resolutions for computer graphics, television, films, and video conferencing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Graphics display resolution\n\nBULLET::::- Computer display standard\n", "BULLET::::- X (Horizontal) Resolution: variable, maximum of 565 (programmable to 282, 377 or 565 pixels, or as 5.3693175 MHz, 7.15909 MHz, and 10.738635 MHz pixel dot clock) Taking into consideration overscan limitations of CRT televisions at the time, the horizontal resolutions were realistically limited to something a bit less than what the system was actually capable of. Consequently, most game developers limited their games to either 256, 352, or 512 pixels in display width for each of the three modes.\n", "When using the Rice Video or Glide64 video plug-in, 1964 can load high resolution textures in place of lower, default textures in an N64 game.\n\nSection::::System requirements.\n\nThe minimal recommended hardware specifications for the emulator are:\n\nBULLET::::- CPU: AMD Athlon XP 2200 or Intel Pentium 4 2.0 GHz\n\nBULLET::::- Memory: 512MB of RAM\n\nBULLET::::- OS: Windows 2000, XP, or Vista\n", "The graphics resolution, color palette assignments, and background color can be adjusted in between scanlines. This technique is documented in the original 1983 \"Atari 3600 Software Guide\". Games often used this feature to render high resolution text in one area of the screen, while displaying more colorful graphics with less resolution in the gameplay area. Demos also exist which use this feature to place all 256 colors on the screen for a static image.\n", "An exception to the rule was \"The 11th Hour\", the sequel to \"The 7th Guest\". \"11th Hour\" featured 640×480 FMV at 30 frames-per-second on 4 CDs. The development team had worked for three years on developing a format that could handle the video, as the director of the live-action sequences had not shot the FMV sequences in a way that could be easily compressed. However, this proved to be the game's downfall, as most computers of the day could not play the full-resolution video. Users were usually forced to select an option which played the videos at a quarter-size resolution in black-and-white.\n", "BULLET::::- SP : For the fourth facet, is the number of sprites per scan line. Hardware spites use a kind of Z-buffer to determine which sprite is \"on top\". Availability of hardware to do this limits the number of sprites that can be displayed on each scan line. This number tells how many sprites could be displayed on a scanline before one of them became invisible because of hardware limitations.\n", "Though there is a 56 color limit, this in of itself is a palette storage limit and not an actual hardware limitation. As such, the programmer can swap out the palettes on a per-scanline basis. Because of this ability to swap out the palettes each scanline, over ten thousand colors can actually appear on screen per frame when programmed on a per-scanline basis.\n", "Below is an illustration of how the same image might appear at different pixel resolutions, if the pixels were poorly rendered as sharp squares (normally, a smooth image reconstruction from pixels would be preferred, but for illustration of pixels, the sharp squares make the point better).\n", "If you use 6502 to: load register x with the x coordinate, load register y with the y coordinate, load accumulator with a color, and then call \"Draw line\", you have used up 9 bytes. If there are a total of 1000 such lines in all game images, then that would be 9K gone. The actual memory used for a draw command in the game is 2 bytes.\n", "Section::::Availability.:Computer monitors.\n\nMost widescreen cathode-ray tube (CRT) and liquid-crystal display (LCD) monitors can natively display 1080p content. For example, widescreen WUXGA monitors support 1920x1200 resolution, which can display a pixel for pixel reproduction of the 1080p (1920×1080) format. Additionally, many 23, 24, and widescreen LCD monitors use 1920×1200 as their native resolution; 30 inch displays can display beyond 1080p at up to 2560×1600 (1600p). Many 27\" monitors have native resolutions of 2560×1440 and hence operate at 1440p.\n\nSection::::Availability.:Video game consoles.\n", "BULLET::::- 38402400 (1.601 or 1610); this resolution was used in the IBM T220 and T221 monitors, released in 2001 and 2002 respectively. This resolution is also referred to as \"WQUXGA\", and is four times the resolution of WUXGA (19201200)\n", "PAL and NTSC have a differing number of lines of resolution and also use a different field rate. Traditional standards conversion techniques adopted interpolation as a way to cater for the differences between line resolution and field frequency.\n", "Remastering a video game is more difficult than remastering a film or music because the video game's graphics show their age. This can be due to a number of factors. For example, modern televisions tend to have higher display resolutions than the televisions available when the video game was released.\n", "Old graphics chips, particularly those used in home computers and video game consoles, often have the ability to use a different palette per sprites and tiles in order to increase the maximum number of simultaneously displayed colors, while minimizing use of then-expensive memory (& bandwidth). For example, in the ZX Spectrum, the picture is stored in a two-color format, but these two colors can be separately defined for each rectangular block of 8x8 pixels.\n", "While some CRT-based displays may use digital video processing that involves image scaling using memory arrays, ultimately \"display resolution\" in CRT-type displays is affected by different parameters such as spot size and focus, astigmatic effects in the display corners, the color phosphor pitch shadow mask (such as Trinitron) in color displays, and the video bandwidth.\n\nSection::::Overscan and underscan.\n", "Some late Spectrum software, such as FTL's \"Light Force\", used extremely careful graphics design to achieve full-colour moving graphics, essentially by limiting both the design of the onscreen elements and their paths of motion to 8×8 colour resolution boundaries. The moving elements were thus relatively large and rather blocky or squarish, and their movement was constrained, but this was not visually obvious and the sight of moving full-colour graphics was hugely impressive to Spectrum owners.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01153	When something enters the sea does it make the seas level rise?	Yes, but since the sea is extremely wide, the effect is too small to measure. If all the ice on Greenland fell into the sea, that would raise global sea levels by a few metres.	[ "Many ports, urban conglomerations, and agricultural regions are built on river deltas, where subsidence of land contributes to a substantially increased \"relative\" sea level rise. This is caused by both unsustainable extraction of groundwater (in some places also by extraction of oil and gas), and by levees and other flood management practices that prevent accumulation of sediments from compensating for the natural settling of deltaic soils. Total human-caused subsidence in the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta (Netherlands) is estimated at , over in urban areas of the Mississippi River Delta (New Orleans), and over in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. Isostatic rebound causes relative sea level fall around the Hudson Bay in Canada and the northern Baltic.\n", "Some regional differences are also visible in the tide gauge data. Some of the recorded regional differences are due to differences in the actual sea level, while other are due to vertical land movements. In Europe for instance, considerable variation is found because some land areas are rising while others are sinking. Since 1970, most tidal stations have measured higher seas, but sea levels have dropped along the northern Baltic Sea due to post-glacial rebound.\n\nSection::::Contributions.\n", "BULLET::::- Burchardi flood – A storm tide that struck the North Sea coast of North Frisia and Dithmarschen on the night between 11 and 12 October 1634\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas Flood of 1717 – December 1717 North Sea storm\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclone Berit – A very strong European windstorm in mid-November 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclone Xaver – A winter storm that affected northern Europe in 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Cymbrian flood – A legendary large-scale incursion of the sea in the region of the Jutland peninsula in the period 120 to 114 BC, resulting in a permanent alteration of the coastline with much land lost\n", "Winds blowing in an onshore direction (from the sea towards the land) can cause the water to 'pile up' against the coast; this is known as wind setup. Low atmospheric pressure is associated with storm systems and this tends to increase the surface sea level; this is barometric setup. Finally increased wave breaking height results in a higher water level in the surf zone, which is wave setup. These three processes interact to create waves that can overtop natural and engineered coastal protection structures thus penetrating seawater further inland than normal.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Sea level rise.\n", "BULLET::::- February flood of 1825 – Storm surge flood on the North Sea coast of Germany and the Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Gale of January 1976 – An extratropical cyclone and storm surge which occurred over January 1976\n\nBULLET::::- North Sea flood of 1953 – Late January-early February 1953 North sea flood storm\n\nBULLET::::- North Sea flood of 1962 – A natural disaster affecting mainly the coastal regions of Germany\n\nBULLET::::- North Sea flood of 2007 – A European windstorm which affected northern and western Europe in early November 2007\n", "BULLET::::- St. Elizabeth's flood (1404) – A flood on the coast of the North Sea\n\nBULLET::::- St. Elizabeth's flood (1421) – A flooding of the Grote Hollandse Waard, an area in what is now the Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Marcellus' flood – A storm surge in the North Sea 1362\n\nBULLET::::- St. Peter's flood – Two separate storm tides that struck the coasts of Netherlands and Northern Germany in 1651\n\nBULLET::::- South England flood of February 1287 – A storm and storm surge that hit the southern coast of England with such ferocity that whole areas of coastline were redrawn\n", "Coastal flooding is largely a natural event, however human influence on the coastal environment can exacerbate coastal flooding. Extraction of water from groundwater reservoirs in the coastal zone can enhance subsidence of the land increasing the risk of flooding. Engineered protection structures along the coast such as sea walls alter the natural processes of the beach, often leading to erosion on adjacent stretches of the coast which also increases the risk of flooding.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- Changes in the size of the ocean basin, for instance, by tectonic seafloor spreading or by sedimentation. These slow processes can cause the total volume of the oceanic basin to change.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Indonesia and Japan post-earthquake and tsunamis.\n", "Global warming also has an enormous impact with respect to melting glaciers and ice sheets. Higher global temperatures melt glaciers such as the one in Greenland, which flow into the oceans, adding to the amount of seawater. A large rise (on the order of several feet) in global sea levels poses many threats. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “such a rise would inundate coastal wetlands and lowlands, erode beaches, increase the risk of flooding, and increase the salinity of estuaries, aquifers, and wetlands.”\n", "Similar to tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones cause an offshore rise of water. However, unlike most tropical cyclone storm surges, extratropical cyclones can cause higher water levels across a large area for longer periods of time, depending on the system.\n", "\"Eustatic\" change (as opposed to local change) results in an alteration to the global sea levels due to changes in either the volume of water in the world's oceans or net changes in the volume of the ocean basins.\n\nSection::::Change.:Short term and periodic changes.\n\nThere are many factors which can produce short-term (a few minutes to 14 months) changes in sea level. Two major mechanisms are causing sea level to rise. First, shrinking land ice, such as mountain glaciers and polar ice sheets, is releasing water into the oceans. Second, as ocean temperatures rise, the warmer water expands.\n\nSection::::Change.:Recent changes.\n", "BULLET::::- Changes in total ocean water mass, for instance, by ice sheet runoff. When an ice sheet such as Greenland begins to lose its ice mass due to melt, the liquid water is transported to the ocean. According to the ‘bathtub approach’, ice sheet runoff from Greenland will affect eustatic sea level in all areas of the world, whether nearby or distant. Ocean water mass may also shrink in size if the continental ice sheets grow in size, thereby removing liquid water from oceans and converting them to grow ice sheets\n", "BULLET::::- 9th century – Al-Kindi (Alkindus), an Arab naturalist, writes a treatise on meteorology entitled \"Risala fi l-Illa al-Failali l-Madd wa l-Fazr\" (\"Treatise on the Efficient Cause of the Flow and Ebb\"), in which he presents an argument on tides which \"depends on the changes which take place in bodies owing to the rise and fall of temperature.\"\n", "Rising seas has also been tied to an increased risk from tsunamis, potentially affecting coastal cities in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.\n", "Determining the exact cause of the annual cycle is difficult as there are several factors that influence the amplitude and timing of the annual cycle along the coast including winds, water temperature and salinity, local bathymetry, coastal geometry, ocean currents, land movements, and river outflows. The largest amplitudes in the annual cycle are generally noted near areas with large river outflow such as along the Bay of Bengal, the Gulf of Bohai, the St. Lawrence River, and the Rio Uruguay.\n\nSection::::Satellite Altimetry Era.\n", "BULLET::::- 1219, January 16, \"Saint Marcellus flood\", Netherlands and Germany, 36,000 deaths struck West Friesland\n\nBULLET::::- 1248, a year with three storm tides in The Netherlands with major inundations\n\nBULLET::::- 1277, Netherlands and Germany, formation of Dollart\n\nBULLET::::- 1277, Netherlands and Germany, formation of Lauwerszee\n\nBULLET::::- 1282, Netherlands, separates island of Texel from mainland\n\nBULLET::::- 1287, December 13, Saint Lucia flood, Netherlands, formation of Waddenzee and Zuiderzee, 50,000 - 80,000 deaths. Major impact on Cinque Ports in England.\n\nBULLET::::- 1288, February 5, \"Saint Agathaflood\", Netherlands, several thousands of deaths\n", "The flood of 1976 and the \"North Frisian Flood\" of 1981 brought the highest water levels measured to date on the North Sea coast, but because of sea defences such as improved warning systems and dikes built and modified after the flood of 1962, these led only to property damage.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Floods in the Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Geography of Germany\n\nBULLET::::- List of settlements lost to floods in the Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Storm surge\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gevaar van water, water in gevaar\" uit 2001\n", "BULLET::::- 1421, November 19, second Saint Elisabeth flood, Netherlands, storm tide in combination with extreme high water in rivers due to heavy rains, 10,000 to 100,000 deaths\n\nBULLET::::- 1424, November 18, third \"Saint Elisabeth flood\", Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- 1468, \"Ursula flood\", should have been more forceful than second Saint Elisabeth flood\n\nBULLET::::- 1477, first \"Cosmas- and Damianus flood\", Netherlands and Germany, many thousands of deaths\n\nBULLET::::- 1530, November 5, St. Felix's Flood, Belgium and Netherlands, many towns disappear, more than 100,000 deaths\n\nBULLET::::- 1532, November 1, \"All Saints flood\", Belgium, Netherlands and Germany, several towns disappear, many thousands of deaths\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nExamples of existing coastal flooding issues include:\n\nSection::::Examples.:London and the Thames Barrier.\n\nThe Thames Barrier (Fig. 3) is one of the world's largest flood barriers and serves to protect London from flooding during exceptionally high tides and storm surges. The Barrier can be lifted at high tide to prevent sea waters flooding London and can be lowered to release stormwater runoff from the Thames catchment (for more information see Thames Barrier)\n\nSection::::Examples.:South Canterbury Plains in New Zealand.\n", "Humans impact how much water is stored on land. Building dams prevents large masses of water from flowing into the sea and therefore increases the storage of water on land. On the other hand, humans extract water from lakes, wetlands and underground reservoirs for food production leading to rising seas. Furthermore, the hydrological cycle is influenced by climate change and deforestation, which can lead to further positive and negative contributions to sea level rise. In the 20th century, these processes roughly balanced, but dam building has slowed down and is expected to stay low for the 21st century.\n\nSection::::Projections.\n", "The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the water level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure and fall in regions of high atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will counteract the low atmospheric pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a increase in sea level for every millibar (hPa) drop in atmospheric pressure.\n", "In 2016, the Royal Society of New Zealand stated that a one metre rise would cause coastal erosion and flooding, especially when combined with storm surges. Climate scientist Dr Jim Salinger commented that New Zealand will have to abandon some coastal areas when the weather gets uncontrollable.\n", "In some cases it is possible to measure the fluxes of volume, salt, and temperature across the mouth of an estuary through a tidal cycle. Using this data, can be calculated ( is the return coefficient): it is equal to the fraction of the volume of water (mean tidal prism volume) leaving the estuary during the ebb tide that is replaced with coastal waters prior to re-entering the system. When , the same water is re-entering the estuary, and if , the estuarine water that has left the estuary during the ebb tide has been replaced with coastal waters entering the estuary during the rising tide. The exposure time is estimated by:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08862	Why does the water go from super hot to lukewarm (even when turning the tap to cold) around 5-6am?	There are two reasons I can think of, the first is if the water is sitting in the pipes over time it will become the same temperature as the ambient temperature, if it is running through warm places that could make that initial burst of water warm. The other reason and what I'm thinking is the most likely is you have a hot water circulator running, perhaps on a timer. What happens is typically when you first turn on the hot water it will be cold until the warm water travels from the water heater to the faucet. People will hook up a pump that will circulate the water automatically so that when you go to use it, the water is already hot. But in order to circulate the water it has to go somewhere, your choices are to run a new pipe back to the input to the hit water heater, or you can take the easy route and just feed it into your existing cold water pipe, but the downside to that method is now when you use your cold water it is warm for a period of time.	[ "Abnormally hot temperatures can cause electricity demand to increase during the peak summertime hours of 4 to 7 p.m. when air conditioners are straining to overcome the heat. If a hot spell extends to three days or more, however, nighttime temperatures do not cool down, and the thermal mass in homes and buildings retains the heat from previous days. This heat build-up causes air conditioners to turn on earlier and to stay on later in the day. As a result, available electricity supplies are challenged during a higher, wider, peak electricity consumption period.\n", "In more service-based economies, such as Australia, electricity network peak demand often occurs in the late afternoon to early evening (4pm to 8pm). Residential and commercial demand is the most significant part of these types of peak demand . Therefore, it makes great sense for utilities (electricity network distributors) to manage residential storage water heaters, pool pumps, and air conditioners.\n\nSection::::Scale.:Community scale.\n", "\"The outoffices (supplied by the department) have not yet been put up. The teacher informed me that they were delivered on the 12th and that the person who delivered them promised to return very soon and put them up.\n\n\"Since the 12th the Goulburn has been very high and probably this has prevented the carrier from returning. A tank has also to be delivered.\"\n", "Heating tanks will require cleaning when normal hot water flow appears to be restricted or when noisy heating cycles can be heard during operation. Additional symptoms include water coming from the cooling tank is very warm as well as a change of taste in the water resulting from mineral build-up.\n\nSection::::Water cooler effect.\n", "Between May 2010 and July 2011, the lowest water temperatures occurred in West Branch Fishing Creek in January and February 2011. The temperature was approximately or . The temperature was over in July 2010, with a maximum of or . The temperature was nearly in June 2010 and September 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zero water order\" for financial year 2012–2013 and plant immediately put into standby mode\n\nSection::::Timeline.:2017.\n\nBULLET::::- 19 March - Victorian Government announces the first water from the Wonthaggi Desalination Plant was now flowing into Cardinia Reservoir.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:2018-2019.\n\nBULLET::::- Owing to dry conditions, two consecutive orders were placed for 100 GL and 125 GL of water, expected to meet a quarter of Melbourne's water demand, placing upwards pressure on water prices.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:2035–2045.\n\nBULLET::::- Contract for the operation of the plant expected to expire.\n\nSection::::Media.\n", "At the end of December, thousands of homes and businesses in Northern Ireland and Wales were without water as melting snow and ice revealed many burst pipes. Northern Ireland Water said it was alternating supplies from reservoirs in order to help alleviate the crisis in which some properties had been without supplies since before Christmas.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:January 2011.\n", "Prior to a public statement made by Nasdaq OMX released on the evening of August 22, there was speculation in financial markets as to the cause of the outage. Some media outlets suggested that the outage was caused by a coding error, while others speculated that hacking could have been the cause.\n", "In 2009, BlueHost introduced a new feature called CPU throttling. CPU throttling (at BlueHost and similar hosting services) refers to the process of reducing user's CPU usage in whenever the particular user is pulling \"too much\" server resources at one time. At that particular time, BlueHost would freeze (or drastically reduce) client sites' CPU usage substantially. This effectively shut down clients' websites hosted on the BlueHost server for several hours throughout the day.\n", "Local stores quickly sold out their supplies of bottled water, and the Massachusetts National Guard was dispatched to deliver additional bottled water. The state government also asked bottled-water suppliers to increase their deliveries to the area. Many cafes such as Starbucks and Dunkin' Donuts that depended on municipal water for coffee production were closed or forced to operate with limited functionality.\n\nBy May 2, workers had stopped the spill and begun repairs on the pipe and MWRA officials reported steady water pressure on the night of May 2.\n", "In October and November 2013, difficulties were encountered with the water supply to Dublin. The Ballymore Eustace water treatment works which processes water from its main supply, the Poulaphouca reservoir, experienced a change in water characteristics. The effect was that particles in the water would not settle, leaving tap water cloudy. As a result, the supply to the Dublin was restricted for two days.\n\nCryptosporidium contamination risk led to \"boil notices\" remaining in place in parts of County Roscommon for approximately six-years from 2009 to 2015.\n", "The prisoners held on remand spend up to 23 hours a day locked in their prison cells, where there is no access to warm water and often also not to electricity (apart from lights switched on and off by the guards from outside). In 2012, the inmates were allowed to take warm water shower only twice a week, with each shower being limited to five minutes.\n", "The random time delay in the Zellweger means that the power stations aren't hit with a huge demand when all the hot water systems turn on at the same time; rather, the load is spread over a greater time period.\n\nSection::::History in Australia.\n", "On 21 March, temperatures in the fuel pond had risen slightly, to and water was sprayed over the pool. Power was restored to cooling systems on 24 March and by 28 March, temperatures were reported down to .\n\nSection::::Events.:Radioactive contamination.\n", "On August 31, the campus reopened and students from all over began returning to school. Labor Day weekend brought more challenges to the system as temperatures climbed into the 80s and demand for water by Labor Day soared to , more than the previous record. Normally, the school uses half of the that the town produces in an average day.\n", "BULLET::::- On June 20, 2009, a filter pump on \"Bahari River\" malfunctioned, sending twenty-four guests and employees to the hospital. At 6:25 pm, the pump, which was turned off at the time, was turned back on. The pump surged, forcing a stronger than usual concentration of liquid bleach and hydrochloric acid into the water. Twenty-four people, including park staff and medical personnel, complained of troubled breathing and nausea. They were given oxygen at the park before being transported to Jasper Memorial Hospital for treatment. All were treated and released that evening. It was later determined that an interlock system designed to prevent chemical feeders from pumping chemicals into the water when the pump was turned off had malfunctioned.\n", "The fountain was switched off in the spring of 2006 to conserve water due to water shortages in the south of England. Although the water was recycled, it lost 180 gallons of water a day to filtration and evaporation. It was switched on again in November 2006. In May 2008 the fountain was turned off again due to the failure of its main hydraulic cylinder. On 19 January 2009 the fountain was fenced off for repairs.\n", "The first is a pause in activity because water levels on the Giant Platform, the raised area where the Giant Group is located, are rising.\n\nThe second condition is caused by a marathon play session by Grotto Geyser. About five to six hours into a marathon by Grotto, Bijou will slow and eventually cease playing. Between four and six hours after Grotto stops, Bijou will recover and begin playing again.\n", "(Illustrated by a still lake, where the surface water can be comfortably warm for swimming but deeper layers be so cold as to represent a danger to swimmers, the same effect as gives rise to notices in London's city docks warning 'Danger Cold Deep Water).\n", "The opening of the main penstock is near the bottom of the Nantahala dam, and is underground for most of its length. Because of this the discharged water is always at or near the average groundwater temperature, which in this region is in the mid 50s (F).\n", "The cause of the outage was identified as being a capacity issue with the Nasdaq SIP. A capacity assessment had been run on the SIP in January 2013 which found that each of the 50 ports in the system could tolerate 10,000 items per second, meaning the whole SIP had a capacity of 500,000 items per second. On August 22, 2013 the NYSE Arca system sent multiple sequences to Nasdaq which consumed a large amount of the system’s capacity. The SIP then received quote for inaccurate symbols, the few characters which are used to represent a security on an exchange, from NYSE Arca. This resulted in the SIP generating a numerous quote rejects which further absorbed capacity of the SIP. Every connect and disconnect sequence sent by NYSE Arca to the SIP resulted in over 26000 updates, per port per second. This enormously overwhelmed the Nasdaq SIP and resulted in a system shut down to ensure fairness in the market and prevent further overloading. Nasdaq stated that the volume of activity, per port, per second, at the time of the freeze, was 26 times that of a usual trading day.\n", "Since the release of iOS 11, some users were complaining about random reboots on their iPhone or iPod Touch caused by the clock reaching 12:15 AM each morning. This resulted in Apple trying to fix this update in the iOS 11.2 update, but instead made it worse by adding the 12:15 PM bug, which made the iOS device reboot at 12:15 PM and AM. This bug was fixed with the re-release of the iOS 11.2 update.\n\nSection::::Bugs.:CVE-2018-4124.\n", "List of water shortages\n\nThis is a list of notable wide-scale water shortages.\n\nTo be included, the outage must conform to these criteria:\n\nBULLET::::1. The shortage must not be planned by the service provider.\n\nBULLET::::2. The shortage must affect at least 1,000 people \"and\" last at least one hour.\n\nBULLET::::3. There must be at least 1,000,000 person*customer hours of disruption.\n\nIn other words:\n\nBULLET::::- 1,000 people affected for 1,000 hours (42 days) minimum, but if fewer than 1,000 people, event would not be included (regardless of duration)\n", "At 1:35 P.M. on June 19, 1997, the air temperature in the vicinity of Dark Run upstream of its mouth was . The water temperature at that location and time was . At 12:00 P.M. on June 20, 1997, the air temperature near the stream upstream of its mouth was . The water temperature at this time and location was . The specific conductivity of the stream's waters upstream of its mouth is 118 umhos and the specific conductivity upstream of its mouth is 171 umhos.\n\nSection::::Geography and geology.\n", "Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.\n\nSection::::Hot water supply.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01890	How does a chimney not let air back in the house even when the fire is not lot?	1. Flues (already been covered by other posts) 2. Hot air rises. In general warm air exits through the chimney and cold air enters through cracks/openings in your houses exterior such as doors, windows and attic. This is true whether there is a fire burning or not. 3. Pressure differential - when wind blow across the top of your chimney, it creates a low pressure zone that “sucks” air upward like a straw. Sometimes the air currents around the exterior serve to reverse this movement (ie low pressure in the house pulling cold air down the chimney) but not often.	[ "Section::::Prevention.\n\nSteps to prevent this buildup of deposits include only running appliances hot during the initial ignition phase regularly, only building short and hotter fires, regular cleaning of flues using a chimney sweep, and only using internal chimney structures where possible versus a chimney attached to an external wall. The latter tends to be cooler, contributing to the problem, as well as creating downdrafts which tend to introduce smoke into the structure as the fire subsides. The nests of birds can be prevented by using a wire guard over the chimney.\n", "There are several major issues that are at risk from a chimney fire event. There is of course the danger of burning debris being expelled from the top of the chimney that could ignite other portions of the structure, but the major cause of damage is where the heat of the chimney fire will pass through the masonry materials and overheat nearby combustibles. Even though codes and standards require a specific clearance of the framing members from the masonry materials, often this is not found in actual construction. Many fires reported as chimney fires, are actually structure fires ignited by the overheating of the framing members. These structure fires can be traced to the normal use of the fireplace or sealed combustion chamber.\n", "\"I have no doubt it was even sucking air in through the chimney at this point to try and maintain itself,\" he remarked in an interview.\n\nFinally he managed to pull the inspection plate away and was greeted with the sight of the fire dying away.\n", "Direct vent fireplace\n\nA direct vent fireplace is a prefabricated metal fireplace that employs a direct-vent combustion system. \"Direct vent\" refers to a sealed-combustion system in which air for combustion is drawn from the outdoors, and waste combustion gasses are exhausted to the outdoors. \"Direct vent\" does not simply mean that all gasses from combustion are vented to the exterior of the structure in which it is installed.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n\nThe preassembled fireplace unit is made up of two main components: the outer housing, and the flue system.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Outer housing.\n", "In the late Middle Ages in Western Europe the design of crow-stepped gables arose to allow maintenance access to the chimney top, especially for tall structures such as castles and great manor houses.\n\nSection::::Chimney draught or draft.\n\nWhen coal, oil, natural gas, wood, or any other fuel is combusted in a stove, oven, fireplace, hot water boiler, or industrial furnace, the hot combustion product gases that are formed are called flue gases. Those gases are generally exhausted to the ambient outside air through chimneys or industrial flue gas stacks (sometimes referred to as smokestacks).\n", "Alternatively, a chimney fire may be caused by old bird's nests which have fallen into the chimney and lodged there. When a hot ember ignites the nests, the fire can be just as serious as one caused by ignition of soot. In very old houses, the chimney may also be very large and thick enough to withstand the fire. \n\nThe high temperatures may affect the strength of the chimney causing distortion of metal structures, and potential failure of ceramic structures.\n", "Both of these convection processes immediately begin to slow down, and eventually stop, as soon as the burners turn off.\n\nSection::::Efficiency.\n", "The process begins with the incomplete combustion of fuel in the attached appliance, usually a wood or coal stove, or open fire. The unburned volatiles are heated to the vapor state but not consumed due to a lack of adequate heat and oxygen within the appliance. These volatile distillates escape into the chimney, where they contact cooler surfaces and condense into tar-like deposits, and soot. Successive layers accumulate until either the chimney plugs completely, or the chimney reaches a temperature and oxygen level at which the deposit will ignite. Due to the concentrated level of volatile material now present, these fires tend to burn very hot. \n", "Causes of the deposits which lead to chimney fires include using green/wet fuels, the operation of appliances with insufficient air intake, and low operating temperatures for prolonged periods followed by hot fires. Such practice typically occurs when mild weather periods are followed by cold snaps.\n", "gone through every room and found no fire, but in one chimney, where the room was paved with bricks, which fire I diligently raked up in embers [...] no window or door might let wind disturb them and that it was absolutely set on fire on purpose[...]\n", "To use a clome oven, one must enter the fireplace and build a fire within the oven. Dried gorse or blackthorn was traditionally used. As the oven has no internal chimney, the smoke is allowed to escape through the oven door, and into the adjacent fireplace where it leaves through the main chimney. Once the oven is white hot, the hot ashes are either raked out or pushed aside, then the baking is put in, and the door propped up to the opening.\n", "The burn temperature in modern stoves can increase to the point where secondary and complete combustion of the fuel takes place. A properly fired masonry heater has little or no particulate pollution in the exhaust and does not contribute to the buildup of creosote in the heater flues or the chimney. Some stoves achieve as little as 1 to 4 grams per hour. This is roughly 10% as much smoke than older stoves, and equates to nearly zero visible smoke from the chimney. This is largely achieved through causing the maximum amount of material to combust, which results in a net efficiency of 60 to 70%, as contrasted to less than 30% for an open fireplace. Net efficiency is defined as the amount of heat energy transferred to the room compared to the amount contained in the wood, minus any amount central heating must work to compensate for airflow problems.\n", "Direct vent fireplaces are extremely efficient compared to a traditional fireplace and can operate at about 85% efficiency. Even a very efficient traditional fireplace only operates at about 15% efficiency. This is because most of the hot air generated by the fire travels up the chimney due to convection. A traditional fireplace can also draw hot air in from the room and expel it through the chimney, further lowering the efficiency. The design of the direct vent fireplace allows for such a high level of efficiency because of the sealed firebox. The sealed firebox only allows combustion gasses to leave the system and exit the building. Since it is sealed, no warm air from the room is able to be drawn into the firebox and expelled out of the building.\n", "Enclosing a fire also prevents air from being sucked from the room into the chimney. This can represent a significant loss of heat as an open fireplace can pull away many cubic metres of heated air per hour. Efficiency is generally regarded as the maximum heat output of a stove or fire, and is usually referred to by manufacturers as the difference between heat to the room and heat lost up the chimney.\n", "A chimney starter is used by placing charcoal (lump charcoal or briquettes) in the chimney stacked atop the grate, then paper (or other fuel) is placed below the grate to ignite the charcoal. Once all the charcoal is burning (glowing red on the bottom and ashed over on the top), the chimney is lifted by its handle and the burning charcoal dumped into the grill.\n", "The stove is connected by ventilating stove pipe to a suitable flue, which will fill with hot combustion gases once the fuel is ignited. The chimney or flue gases must be hotter than the outside temperature to ensure combustion gases are drawn out of the fire chamber and up the chimney.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Air supply.\n", "When using an open fire to heat a room the smoke rises through a flue to a chimney pot on the roof. Under normal conditions the warm air from the fire will rise up the chimney emitting the smoke with it and dispersing it at rooftop level where it is less of a nuisance.\n", "In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney. Such appliances are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent pipe to run directly through the external wall.\n\nOn a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal up the joints. The down-slope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing.\n", "A characteristic problem of chimneys is they develop deposits of creosote on the walls of the structure when used with wood as a fuel. Deposits of this substance can interfere with the airflow and more importantly, they are combustible and can cause dangerous chimney fires if the deposits ignite in the chimney.\n", "In \"The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep\" (1845), a fairy tale by the Danish poet and writer Hans Christian Andersen, a porcelain chimney sweep sits upon a table top near his love, a porcelain shepherdess. When the two are threatened, the chimney sweep gallantly conducts his love safely to the rooftop through the stove pipe.\n", "Keeping the air flowing correctly through a wood-burning stove is essential for safe and efficient operation of the stove. Fresh air needs to enter the firebox to provide oxygen for the fire; as the fire burns, the smoke must be allowed to rise through the stove pipe, and exit through the chimney. To regulate air flow, there may be damper devices built into the stove, flue, and stove pipes.\n", "Section::::Construction.:Flue system.\n\nThe flue system is composed of two flues, the inner flue and the outer flue. The outer flue draws air into the bottom of the sealed firebox to allow for combustion. The inner flue draws hot exhaust gasses from the top of the sealed firebox and vents them directly to the outside of the structure through either an adjacent wall or the roof.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "Heaters that burn natural gas drastically reduce the amount of creosote buildup due to natural gas burning much cleaner and more efficiently than traditional solid fuels. While in most cases there is no need to clean a gas chimney on an annual basis that does not mean that other parts of the chimney cannot fall into disrepair. Disconnected or loose chimney fittings caused by corrosion over time can pose serious dangers for residents due to leakage of carbon monoxide into the home. Thus, it is recommended—and in some countries even mandatory—that chimneys be inspected annually and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent these problems. The workers who perform this task are called chimney sweeps or steeplejacks. This work used to be done largely by child labour, and as such features in Victorian literature. In the Middle Ages in some parts of Europe, a crow-stepped gable design was developed, partly to provide access to chimneys without use of ladders.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Standard outdoor wood furnaces.\n\nStandard outdoor wood boilers heat the firebox and the smoke goes out the exhaust straight. If not run hot enough, the exhaust gas will be thick and black, and the resulting ash will not be fully rendered. While functional, these models take more work and are far less efficient than some newer more efficient models.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Catalytic outdoor wood boilers.\n", "The safe operation of a wood-burning stove requires regular maintenance such as emptying ash pans (containers) beneath the wood grate. Routine cleaning of the stove pipes and chimney is also needed to prevent chimney fires. Creosote and soot gradually build up in stovepipes and chimneys. This could damage the chimney and spread fire to the surrounding structure, especially the roof. When soot blocks the airflow through the stove pipes or chimney, smoke can build up in the stove pipes and in the house.\n" ]	[ "Chimneys don't let air back into the house." ]	[ "Chimneys do let air back into the house, but not often. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Chimneys don't let air back into the house.", "Chimneys don't let air back into the house when a fire is not lit." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Chimneys do let air back into the house, but not often. ", "Air can get back into the house when a chimney is not lit, it is just not that common. " ]
2018-04711	Why do our hands and feet get dry more /faster than the rest of our skin?	I agree with the other poster regarding clothing but also there’s a few more reasons - first because you tend to use your hands and feet more- washing up, walking etc so there’s the trauma element. Secondly the skin on the soles of your feet and palms of your hands tends to be thicker than average skin so the layers of the surface have been dead for longer (as it were) thus being more dehydrated and harder. The skin also has a slightly different structure to other body skin - think no hair follicles, more sweat glands etc. This may lead to a lack of oils and greater dehydration compared to the rest of the body. Thirdly these are extremities so nutrients from the blood and cellular waste products have further to travel to be used and/or eliminated. The structures for this tend to be smaller than the ones more proximal to the core of the body. HTH	[ "Keratolysis exfoliativa normally appears during warm weather. Due to excessive sweating and friction, in for example athletic shoes, the skin can start to exfoliate. Other factors that can cause exfoliation are detergents and solvents.\n\nAnother very common cause has been reported from salt water fishermen, who often suffer from these symptoms. It is not sure whether it is from the salt water or whether it is from some bacteria from fish.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Dry skin results from lack of water in the outer layer of skin cells (the stratum corneum). When this layer becomes dehydrated it loses its flexibility and becomes cracked, scaly and sometimes itchy. The stratum corneum contains natural water-holding substances that retain water seeping up from the deeper layers of the skin, and water is also normally retained in the stratum corneum by a surface film of natural oil (sebum) and broken-down skin cells, which slow down evaporation of water from the skin surface. Diprobase works by increasing that layer of oil.\n\nSection::::Manufacturer.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nTypical regions of excessive sweating include the hand palms, underarms, the sole of the foot, and sometimes groin, face, and scalp. Indeed, profuse sweating is present mostly in the underarms, followed by the feet, palms and facial region. Sweating patterns of focal hyperhidrosis are typically bilateral or symmetric and rarely occur in just one palm or one underarm. Night sweats or sweating while sleeping is also rare. The onset of focal hyperhidrosis is usually before the age of 25 years. This is in contrast to generalized hyperhidrosis which tends to occur in an older age group.\n", "Section::::Changes in immigration patterns.\n\nSince the late-1980s immigration patterns changed. Many Cuban immigrants departed from the southern and western coasts of Cuba and arrived at the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico; many landed on Isla Mujeres. From there Cuban immigrants traveled to the Texas-Mexico border and found asylum. Many of the Cubans who did not have family in Miami settled in Houston. The term \"dusty foot\" refers to Cubans immigrating to the U.S. through Mexico.\n", "Mesophytes are plants living in lands of temperate zone, which grow in well-watered soil. They can easily compensate the water lost by transpiration through absorbing water from the soil. To prevent excessive transpiration they have developed a waterproof external covering called cuticle.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n", "Beginning with the United States–Cuban Thaw in 2014, anticipation of the end of the wet feet, dry feet policy led to increased numbers of Cuban immigrants. On January 12, 2017, President Barack Obama announced the immediate cessation of the wet feet, dry feet policy. At the same time the Cuban government agreed to accept the return of Cuban nationals.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cuba–United States relations\n\nBULLET::::- Touch Base Policy (Hong Kong)\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Ruth Ellen Wasem \"Cuban Migration Policy and Issues\" Congressional Research Service, Updated January 19, 2006\n", "BULLET::::- The United States and Cuba did not reach an agreement on how to handle Cubans who are excluded by the INA, but agreed to continue discussing the matter. (Grounds for removal include health-related grounds; criminal grounds; national security grounds; Nazi prosecution grounds; public charge grounds; illegal entry and immigration law violations; and lack of proper immigration documents.)\n\nBULLET::::- The United States and Cuba agreed to review the implementation of this agreement and engage in further discussions.\n", "Excessive sweating or focal hyperhidrosis of the hands interferes with many routine activities, such as securely grasping objects. Some focal hyperhidrosis sufferers avoid situations where they will come into physical contact with others, such as greeting a person with a handshake. Hiding embarrassing sweat spots under the armpits limits the sufferers' arm movements and pose. In severe cases, shirts must be changed several times during the day and require additional showers both to remove sweat and control body odor issues or microbial problems such as acne, dandruff, or athlete's foot. Additionally, anxiety caused by self-consciousness to the sweating may aggravate the sweating. Excessive sweating of the feet makes it harder for patients to wear slide-on or open-toe shoes, as the feet slide around in the shoe because of sweat.\n", "Hydrosis\n\nHidrosis is the process of activating the sweat glands via M3 receptors. Hyperhidrosis is a disorder marked by excessive sweating. It usually begins at puberty and affects the palms, soles, and armpits. Sweating is the body's way of cooling itself and is a normal response to a hot environment or intense exercise.\n", "One factor that determines whether skin is dry or oily is the amount of sebum produced by the skin. Sebum creates a fat-based film on the skin, which may also have an effect on skin hydration. The state of the skin’s stratum corneum plays a role in determining whether one is dry or oily as well, since this barrier layer also helps hold moisture in the skin.\n", "Hyperhidrosis can either be \"generalized\", or \"localized\" to specific parts of the body. Hands, feet, armpits, groin, and the facial area are among the most active regions of perspiration due to the high number of sweat glands (eccrine glands in particular) in these areas. When excessive sweating is localized (e.g. palms, soles, face, underarms, scalp) it is referred to as \"primary\" hyperhidrosis or focal hyperhidrosis. Excessive sweating involving the whole body is termed \"generalized\" hyperhidrosis or secondary hyperhidrosis. It is usually the result of some other, underlying condition.\n", "On January 7, 2006, the Coast Guard found 15 Cubans who had climbed onto a piling on the old Seven Mile Bridge in the Florida Keys. The old bridge had been cut off from land because it was no longer in use and the United States Coast Guard argued that since the refugees could not walk to land, their feet were still \"wet\". The decision to repatriate the Cubans was made by the Coast Guard's legal office in conjunction with Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The Coast Guard stated that the Cubans \"were determined to be wet-feet and processed in accordance with standard procedure.\" In retaliation to the Cubans being returned, Ramón Saúl Sánchez led a hunger strike against the policy, and on January 18, the White House agreed to meet with Sánchez at some point in the near future. After eleven days, the hunger strike was ended, and Sánchez has yet to meet with White House officials. On February 28, 2007, a federal judge ruled that the United States government had acted unreasonably when it sent home the 15 Cubans. The judge ordered the government to make its best effort to help the immigrants return to the United States. Fourteen of the 15 Cubans re-landed on December 15, 2006 and were given migrant visas.\n", "In mammals, the skin excretes sweat through sweat glands throughout the body. The sweat, helped by salt, evaporates and helps to keep the body cool when it is warm. In amphibians, the lungs are very simple, and they lack the necessary means to the exhale like other tetrapods can. The moist, scale-less skin is therefore essential in helping to rid the blood of carbon dioxide, and also allows for urea to be expelled through diffusion when submerged.\n", "Primary or \"focal\" hyperhidrosis may be further divided by the area affected, for instance palmoplantar hyperhidrosis (symptomatic sweating of only the hands or feet) or gustatory hyperhidrosis (sweating of the face or chest a few moments after eating certain foods).\n", "In warm or humid weather or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for the active secretion of sweat. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.\n", "Ticks, biting flies, and contact with other infected animals also causes the spread of rainscald. Once in the skin, the bacteria cause inflammation of the skin as well as the typical symptoms associated with rainscald.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "The overall integrity of the stratum corneum is maintained by specialized intercellular proteins called corneodesmosomes. Three adhesive proteins desmoglein-1, desmocollin-1 and corneodesmosin compose the corneodesmosomes and provide the cohesive forces to connect the adjacent corneocytes. The components of the corneodesmosomes are gradually degraded by the enzymes that digest proteins, as the corneocytes are pushed towards the surface of the skin. As a result of the weakened corneodesmosomes in the outer skin surface, the uppermost layers of corneocytes get exfoliated through frictional forces such as rubbing or washing. This process is a normal protective mechanism of the skin to prevent pathogens from colonizing the skin, and is referred to as desquamation. In healthy skin, desquamation is an invisible process and the stratum corneum is turned over completely within 2–4 weeks, while maintaining the tissue thickness.\n", "The glabrous skin on the sole of the foot lacks the hair and pigmentation found elsewhere on the body, and it has a high concentration of sweat pores. The sole contains the thickest layers of skin on the body due to the weight that is continually placed on it. It is crossed by a set of creases that form during the early stages of embryonic development. Like those of the palm, the sweat pores of the sole lack sebaceous glands.\n", "During a December 4, 2005, game at Heinz Field, T. J. Houshmandzadeh of the Cincinnati Bengals wiped his feet on a Towel after he scored a touchdown. Although the Bengals managed a 7-point victory in that regular season game, the Steelers came back to defeat them 31–17 in the playoffs, on their way to a victory in Super Bowl XL. The Bengals did not reach the playoffs again until the 2009-10 season, after Houshmandzadeh had left the team.\n", "The wet feet, dry feet policy or wet foot, dry foot policy is the name given to a former interpretation of the 1995 revision of the application of the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966 that essentially says that anyone who emigrated from Cuba and entered the United States would be allowed to pursue residency a year later. Prior to 1995, the U.S. government allowed all Cubans who reached U.S. territorial waters to remain in the U.S. After talks with the Cuban government, the Clinton administration came to an agreement with Cuba that it would stop admitting people intercepted in U.S. waters. For two decades thereafter, any Cuban caught on the waters between the two nations (with \"wet feet\") would summarily be returned to Cuba or sent to a third country, while one who made it to shore (\"dry feet\") got a chance to remain in the United States, and later would qualify for expedited \"legal permanent resident\" status in accordance with the 1966 Act and eventually U.S. citizenship. In January 2017, the Obama administration announced the immediate end of the policy shortly before President Barack Obama's term expired.\n", "In humans, sweating is primarily a means of thermoregulation, which is achieved by the water-rich secretion of the eccrine glands. Maximum sweat rates of an adult can be up to 2–4 liters per hour or 10–14 liters per day (10–15 g/min·m), but is less in children prior to puberty. Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface has a cooling effect due to evaporative cooling. Hence, in hot weather, or when the individual's muscles heat up due to exertion, more sweat is produced. Animals with few sweat glands, such as dogs, accomplish similar temperature regulation results by panting, which evaporates water from the moist lining of the oral cavity and pharynx.\n", "\"Hyperolius nitidulus\" live in an environment with a wet season that can be cold and humid, and an extremely hot and dry season. During the hot and dry season the frog is dependent on water therefore it has special adaptations to survive the extreme climate. \"Hyperolius nitidulus\" is known for its unique aestivation behavior during the hot and dry season. During dry season \"Hyperolius nitidulus\" do not seek shelter or hide, instead, they fully expose themselves to the sun by sitting on dry plants to reduce rapid water loss and can remain in this sitting position for months without food or water. The juveniles only move when they are in serious danger. They sit with their legs held tightly to the body and feet hidden under their skin folds. During this period, since there is no food or water intake, the juvenile frog does not urinate or defecate. The body stores all nitrogenous waste as urea in body fluids and purines. As the hot weather increases the dorsal skin of the frog becomes white due to the presence iridophores that can reflect light like a mirror since they are filled with purines crystals.\n", "Some careers present challenges for people with hyperhidrosis. For example, careers that require the use of a knife may not be safely performed by people with excessive sweating of the hands. The risk of dehydration can limit the ability of some to function in extremely hot (especially if also humid) conditions. Even the playing of musical instruments can be uncomfortable or difficult because of sweaty hands.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "From a clinical standpoint, TEWL measurements are of great importance in evaluating skin barrier functionality. Often normal rates of TEWL are compromised due to injury, infection and/or severe damage as in the case of burns. Damage to the stratum corneum and superficial skin layers not only results in physical vulnerability, but also results in an excess rate of water loss. Therefore, dehydration, metabolic acidosis, and conditions such as anhydremia or concentration of the blood are often critical issues for healthcare providers to consider in the treatment of burn patients.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12797	Why are baker's hats shaped the way they are?	seems like it was just a popular sort of hat in general at the specific time french bakers got prominent so that random fashion of the time got stuck as the 'traditional" hat of bakers. It's like how all flight attendant uniforms look vaguely 1950s because plane flight got popular enough in the 1950s to have a standard uniform and even if stuff changes it still keeps elements of what everyone thinks of when they think of what a normal uniform would look like.	[ "Baker's guilds in Europe have used the kringle or pretzel as a symbol for centuries. It is told (but currently unconfirmed by historic documents), that when Vienna was besieged by the Turkish Ottoman armies in 1529, local bakers working in the night gave the city defence an early warning of the attacking enemy. For this, they were later rewarded by the Pope, with permission to use a crown as part of their kringle guild symbol.\n", "A \"Gamsbart\" is made by enclosing the lower end of the tuft of hair in a setting of metal or horn that allows the upper end to spread in a brush-like fashion. Traditionally, hairs are selected for a dark color at the lower end with a very light tip. The size and diameter of the \"Gamsbart\" are important signs of the wearer's pride and manliness.\n\nTraditionally, \"Gamsbärte\" are exclusively placed on hats worn by men; however, recent developments in dirndl fashion have seen \"Gamsbärte\" added to various places on female dresses.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Culturally authentic pictorial lexicon (English)\n", "Belgian special forces units serving with the British during the Second World War included the Belgian Special Air Service (SAS). On their return to Belgium after the war, the unit (and its successors) continued to wear the Denison Smock, with the design following a separate evolutionary path there (M54 in Moon and Balls pattern, M56 in Belgian brushstroke pattern, and M58 in jigsaw pattern).\n", "In the early years of the shipbuilding industry, workers covered their hats with pitch (tar), and set them in the sun to cure, a common practice for dock workers in constant danger of being hit on the head by objects dropped from ship decks.\n\nManagement professor Peter Drucker credited writer Franz Kafka with developing the first civilian hard hat while employed at the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia (1912), but this information is not supported by any document from his employer.\n", "Section::::Notable hatters and milliners.\n\nThis is a partial list of people who have had a significant influence on hatmaking and millinery.\n\nSection::::Notable hatters and milliners.:Hatters.\n\nBULLET::::- International Hat Company, an American manufacturer credited with inventing one of America's most popular early 20th century harvest hats for field hands, farmers, and workmen.\n\nBULLET::::- Hawley Products Company, an American manufacturer credited with inventing the tropical shaped, pressed fiber sun helmet used from World War II through the Persian Gulf War.\n", "One 19th century dictionary of classical antiquity states that, \"Among the Romans the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained his freedom he had his head shaved, and wore instead of his hair an undyed pileus.\" Hence the phrase \"servos ad pileum vocare\" is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty (Liv. XXIV.32). The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius, struck A.D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand.\n", "At the front the sequence of decoration above the bosses is, from bottom to top: ridge, three rows of small domed bosses, ridge, row of square-based pyramids, ridge, row of small domed bosses, ridge, row of lentoid bosses, ridge, three rows of small domed bosses, ridge, row of conical bosses and finally, three ridges.\n\nThe back has the same sequence with the addition, from bottom to top, of ridge, row of lentoid bosses, ridge, three rows of small domed bosses, ridge and, a row of lentoid bosses.\n", "The defining feature of Bartmann jugs, the bearded face mask, is the only constant motif throughout their production. In the 16th century they could be adorned with popular floral or oakleaf-and-acorn decoration on the body of the vessel. Later, especially in the 17th century, they would frequently be decorated with a medallion in the middle of the body, usually in the form of the arms of royalty, noble families or towns. Many other type of ornamental patterns were used including sobering religious maxims such as \"DRINCK VND EZT GODEZ NIT VERGEZT\", “Eat and drink, forget not God”. The design of the face masks, or \"Bartmänner\", went through a design change during the 17th century as they \"became progressively debased and notably grotesque\".\n", "Two versions of the Panamanka existed:\n\nBULLET::::- The original hat was developed to keep the rays of the sun off the wearer's head and out of his eyes. It was made of heavy cotton cloth and featured a set of ventilation holes, a thin leather headband, a plastic chinstrap, and the enameled metal M22 Red Star badge, on a large sew on red star, on the front.\n", "Adam Hats manufactured and sold a variety of budget-priced hats, including the traditional fedora, and pork pie hat. In late spring of each year, Adam Hats promoted straw hats for the summer. Two of their models , were , : ' The Executive ' ; and ' The Major ' ; the last being \" The hat of the month for September \" ; it cost $3.25c.\n", "Hostmaster\n\nThe Hostmaster Pattern was manufactured by New Martinsville Glass Company (which later became Viking Glass Company) during the 1930s. Though the line was extensive, New Martinsville Hostmaster Pattern is one of the lesser known patterns of Elegant Glass. There are no reproductions as the mold was melted down to make the Raindrops pattern (line #14).\n\nSection::::New Martinsville Glass Company.\n\nThe New Martinsville Glass Company opened in 1901 in New Martinsville, West Virginia. They were renowned for the use of color in their glassware. They promoted liquor sets even through Prohibition. The company was renamed Viking Glass in 1944.\n\nSection::::Colors.\n", "In the 1950s, Miller Brothers introduced miniature hat boxes with miniature hats. These novelty items were used as gift certificates, to be redeemed for a hat.\n\nSection::::Adam Hats in feature films.\n\nIn the movie \"Cinderella Man\" (2005), there is a quick camera shot depicting the front of Madison Square Garden in the 1930s, with an Adam Hats store next door to it.\n\nIn the movie \"Non-Stop New York\" (1937), as the movie begins they are celebrating New Year's Eve 1938 in Times Square. People are parading down the street and pass directly in front of an Adam Hats store.\n", "Also, each round badge on a Hayman drum has a patent number - giving the year of manufacture within the patent number.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- On the decoration's original King George V version of 1930, the Royal Cypher \"GvR\", for \"Georgivs V Rex\", and the crown are both encircled by the wreath.\n\nBULLET::::- The first King George VI version has his Royal Cypher \"GRI\" for \"Georgivs Rex Imperator\". On this and the subsequent versions, the crown is located higher and covers the top part of the wreath.\n\nBULLET::::- The second King George VI version, introduced after India became independent in 1947, has his Royal Cypher \"GviR\" for \"Georgivs VI Rex\".\n", "The pastry was created around 1900. Candy with the image of the king was sold by a konditorei in Gothenburg since the 1850s. The earliest mention of a pastry is from the Western parts of Sweden during the 1890s, where the pastry probably was created around the festivities when a statue of the king was erected in Gothenburg on a square, that since then is known as Gustaf Adolfs torg (\"Gustavus Adolphus Square\"). One Gothenburg bakery, Brautigams, claims to have created it in the early 20th century, with the years 1905 or 1909 mentioned.\n", "Wide-brimmed mushroom hats continued to be popular throughout the 1950s and early '60s, with other designers incorporating the wide hat profile. Adaptations included Balmain's spring 1955 side-swept mushroom hat – a design in which the downward-curved brim of the hat dipped low on one side of the face and was tilted upwards on the other, forming an almost triangular profile.\n", "Other hats have been used in British television drama: Patrick Macnee's John Steed sported a Herbert Johnson bowler hat in \"The Avengers\"; Arthur Lowe's Captain Mainwaring wore a floating-bevel peaked cap in the sitcom \"Dad's Army\"; and Tom Baker's Fourth Doctor in \"Doctor Who\" wore a Herbert Johnson felt fedora.\n", "There was a chain of restaurants in Los Angeles, California known as Brown Derby. The first and most famous of these was shaped like a derby. A chain of Brown Derby restaurants in Ohio are still in business today.\n\nMany paintings by the Belgian surrealist artist René Magritte feature bowler hats. \"The Son of Man\" consists of a man in a bowler hat standing in front of a wall. The man's face is largely obscured by a hovering green apple. \"Golconda\" depicts \"raining men\" all wearing bowler hats.\n", "Lampshade hat\n\nA lampshade hat is a millinery design in which the hat has a small circular crown – typically flat, but sometimes rounded – and flares outwards to create a cone-like profile. In shape, it may have some similarities to the pillbox and bucket hat, both of which were popular at around the same time, although the classic lampshade design is longer and more flared than a pillbox (typically ending at or below the ears) and is generally made of stiffer material than a bucket hat. \n", "Section::::History.:1961: End of an era.\n", "According to the \"Dictionary of South African Biography\", one night in 1927 after he and the editor of \"The Natal Mercury\", RJ Kingston Russell, had seen a war film, Charles Evenden was persuaded to draw a cartoon on 'remembrance'. According to the Dictionary, \"The cartoon showed a tin helmet surmounted by a burning candle. Around the flames of the candle were six words – \"True Comradeship\" – \"Mutual Help\" – \"Sound Memory\"\".\n", "Gamsbart\n\nThe Gamsbart (German pronunciation ['gamsbɑːʁt], literally \"chamois beard\", plural Gamsbärte) is a tuft of hair traditionally worn as a decoration on trachten-hats in the alpine regions of Austria and Bavaria.\n\nOriginally worn as a hunting trophy and made exclusively from hair from the chamois' lower neck, \"Gamsbärte\" are today manufactured on a large scale from various animals' hair and are commonly sold by specialized dealers and also at souvenir shops. \n", "19th century Welsh hats were made in the same way and with the same materials as top hats. Most surviving examples were made by Christys of Stockport and London, and Carver and Co of Bristol who also made top hats. Some were made by Welsh hat makers.\n", "While traditionally hat boxes are circular or square in shape, some versions may follow the shape of the hat. New York Historical Society archives include a crescent shaped cardboard design thought to be from the early to mid 19th century and attributed to the New York City hatmaker Elisha Bloomer; Canadian archives include a tin design curved to match the tricorne-style military hat worn by Isaac Brock and dating from 1812.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Shaped leather hat box in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art\n\nBULLET::::- Large German hat box in mixed materials in Metropolitan Museum of Art\n", "In the 16th century, a new profession emerges among Meyrueis artisans: hatters. They produce headwear from a pelt made of a blend of fine wool with floss silk (noble waste from cocoons spinning). \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02791	Why does it feel like you’re having a mini heart attack when something suddenly scares you?	It’s a fight or flight reaction your body has when startled. A long with this increased heart rate, your pupils dilated (allowing you to be able to take more in), your blood vessels also constricted. Increased heart rate + vasoconstriction = higher blood pressure. This is done due to the release of epinephrine, which is a vasopressor, and adrenaline. When your body this, it’s making a split second decision “am I going to fight, or am I going to run” This is as simple as I can make it. Feel free for anyone to add on	[ "The physiological response of surprise falls under the category of the startle response. The main function of surprise or the startle response is to interrupt an ongoing action and reorient attention to a new, possibly significant event. There is an automatic redirection of focus to the new stimuli and, for a brief moment, this causes tenseness in the muscles, especially the neck muscles. Studies show that this response happens extremely fast, with information (in this case a loud noise) reaching the pons within 3 to 8 ms and the full startle reflex occurring in less than two tenths of a second.\n", "Palpitations and dyspnea are hallmarks of panic attacks. Studies have shown that panic disorder patients report a heightened experience of interoceptive sensations, but these studies have failed to clarify whether this is simply due to their systematic bias toward describing such feelings. However, other studies have shown that panic disorder patients feel heartbeat sensations more intensely when the state of the body is perturbed by pharmacological agents, suggesting they exhibit heightened sensitivity to experiencing interoceptive sensations.\n\nSection::::Interoception and mental health.:Generalized anxiety disorder.\n", "Section::::FPS and posttraumatic stress disorder.\n\nA heightened (or abnormally overactive) startle response in the face of benign stimuli/settings is often seen in individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a psychological ailment characterized by maladaptive and inappropriate affective and physiological reactions to stimuli that can be associated with a previously experienced trauma. For instance, combat veterans often experience psychological and physiological panic / anxiety / dissociative \"flashbacks\" to the traumatic experience that triggered the PTSD pathology in reaction to unexpected loud noises, a stimulus that can remind the individual of gunshots, bombs, or exploding grenades.\n", "The central brain structure through which fear-associated responses are mediated has been determined to be the amygdala, which is located in the brain's temporal lobe. When the central nucleus of the amygdala is stimulated - what is popularly referred to as the \"fight-or-flight\" response is activated - the organism in question reacts passively (is rendered frozen in its tracks, becomes hyper-vigilantly attentive, etc.), or displays a physiological reaction geared toward facilitating an aggressive reaction (e.g., increased heart-rate/pulse, rapid breathing). These fear-induced reactions result from communication between the amygdala and a variety of other brain regions (such as the brain stem and hypothalamus), resulting in a variety of physiological responses in the organism. For instance, communication between an activated amygdala and the lateral hypothalamus results in increased blood pressure and dilation of the pupils; the initiation of the central grey via communication from the amygdala results in the organism's becoming frozen in its tracks; communication between the activated amygdala and the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus releases hormones associated with stress.\n", "The perception of a \"threat\" may also trigger an associated ‘feeling of distress’.\n\nPhysiological reactions triggered by mind cannot differentiate both the physical or mental threat separately, Hence the \"fight-or-flight\" response of mind for the both reactions will be same.\n\nSection::::Duration of threat and its different physiological effects on the nervous system..\n", "Tonic posturing (see abnormal posturing) preceding convulsion has been observed in sports injuries at the moment of impact where extension and flexion of opposite arms occur despite body position or gravity. The fencing response emerges from the separation of tonic posturing from convulsion and refines the tonic posturing phase as an immediate forearm motor response to indicate injury force magnitude and location.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Researchers have found a number of physiological mechanisms associated with OR, including changes in phasic and tonic skin conductance response (SCR), electroencephalogram (EEG), and heart rate following a novel or significant stimulus. These observations all occur within seconds of stimulus introduction. In particular, EEG studies of OR have corresponded particularly with the P300 wave and P3a component of the OR-related event-related potential (ERP).\n\nSection::::Neural correlates.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Joan Crawford as Myra Hudson\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Palance as Lester Blaine\n\nBULLET::::- Gloria Grahame as Irene Neves\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Bennett as Steve Kearney\n\nBULLET::::- Virginia Huston as Ann Taylor\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Connors as Junior Kearney\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical response.\n", "According to the SMH, two distinct pathways reactivate somatic marker responses. In the first pathway, emotion can be evoked by the changes in the body that are projected to the brain—called the \"body loop\". For instance, encountering a feared object like a snake may initiate the fight-or-flight response and cause fear. In the second pathway, cognitive representations of the emotions can be activated in the brain without being directly elicited by a physiological response—called the \"as-if body loop\". For instance, imagining an encounter with a snake would initiate a similar flight-or-fight response \"as-if\" you were in that particular situation (albeit perhaps a much weaker one). In other words, the brain can anticipate expected bodily changes, which allows the individual to respond faster to external stimuli without waiting for an event to actually occur.\n", "Fear potentiated startle paradigms are often used to study fear learning and extinction in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder and other anxiety disorders. In fear conditioning studies, an initially neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an aversive one, borrowing from classical conditioning. FPS studies have demonstrated that PTSD patients have enhanced startle responses during both danger cues and neutral/safety cues as compared with healthy participants.\n\nSection::::Learning.\n", "BULLET::::- \"the medusa effect\" – an anxiety-producing systemic effect – where primary-sourced feeling-sensations stick like glue, then ensnare the critical function of thinking. Like a jellyfish (also called a \"medusa\"), the medusa effect generates a glutinous mass which spreads out tentacles to \"sting\" and progressively \"deaden\" the subject. It installs panic as an automatic reflex, which is activated precisely at the point where thought-cycles are switched off by primary feeling-sensations. The medusa effect also evokes Ovid's \"Medusa\", the beautiful woman raped by Poseidon, who Athena subsequently transforms into a snake-locked monster, who turns all who gaze on her into stone. Perseus manages to behead her without stone-transmogrification, by looking at her image reflected in his shield – and so inspires further reflection on the role of observation in working with anxiety and panic.\n", "Section::::Behavioral basis.\n", "Section::::Interoceptive physiology.:Respiratory and chemoreceptive system.\n\nRespiratory perception can differ from other interoceptive physiological symptoms because of an individual's ability to exert voluntary control over the system with controlled breathing or breathing exercises. This system is often measured using restrictive breathing loads and/or CO2 inhalation, which are designed to mimic labored breathing sensations. Dyspnea, or difficulty breathing, is a commonly felt sensation associated with panic attacks; however, due to the voluntary control of breathing, this domain of interoception usually requires implementation of much more elaborate experimental controls to quantify in comparison to cardiac interoception.\n\nSection::::Interoceptive physiology.:Gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems.\n", "Also known as a \"fight-or-flight\" response, this reaction is caused by the release of adrenaline and norepinephrine. It speeds up the pulse and respiratory rate, dilates the pupils, and masks pain. This type of ASR has deep evolutionary roots and helps humans survive dangerous situations. It allows extraordinary physical effort even in the face of severe injury. Unfortunately, it also make diagnosis of other problems difficult by hiding pain and altering vital signs.\n\nSection::::Types of ASR.:Parasympathetic.\n", "Section::::Reactions.:Startle and orienting response.\n\nStartle response interrupts and disengages the organism from ongoing activity, directs attention to stimuli, and protects the organism from potential harmful stimuli. Orienting response is an organism’s innate reaction to a novel stimulus, and it is a defensive response. Heart rate increases after the onset of startle stimuli. The heart rate decreases during the orienting response.\n\nSection::::Measurement techniques for body reactivity.\n\nSection::::Measurement techniques for body reactivity.:Electroencephalography.\n", "Section::::Research and treatments.\n\nAs attention on interoception increases among the scientific community, new research methods and treatment tactics are beginning to emerge. Ongoing research in interoception has shown the importance of perturbing interoceptive systems. This allows researchers the ability to document the effects of non-baseline states, which occur during times of panic or anxiety. It also provides the participant the ability to gauge the intensity of sensations within the body. This can be done through pharmacological interventions, balloon distensions, or respiratory breathing loads depending on the interoceptive system of interest.\n", "The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for priming the body for action, particularly in situations threatening survival. One example of this priming is in the moments before waking, in which sympathetic outflow spontaneously increases in preparation for action.\n", "Section::::In humans.:Goose bumps.\n\nThe pilomotor reflex, more commonly known as goose bumps, was originally a reflex that assured the raising of fur for additional insulation against cold. When scared, this response also made the frightened animal seem bigger and a more formidable enemy.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Hypnic jerk.\n\nThe sudden startled arm-jerking response sometimes experienced when on the verge of sleeping is known as the hypnic jerk.\n", "Section::::Perception.\n", "The focus on this part of the human anatomy has finally been followed by a much later observation testifying to our evolutionary past. The subsequent observation concerns an automatic ear-perking response seen, for example, in dogs when startled by a sudden noise. This response, though faint, fleeting and hardly discernible in humans nonetheless clearly manifests itself. This phenomenon is an automatic-response mechanism that activates even before a human becomes consciously aware that a startling, unexpected or unknown sound has been \"heard\".\n", "Section::::Biological observations.\n\nRecently, researchers have been able to map out distinct patterns of neural activity in the hippocampus triggered by different events. These neural patterns were geometricalled shaped as cliques, which is a fully connected network of nodes. The activity patterns associated with certain startling experiences recurred spontaneously—at intervals ranging from seconds to minutes after the actual event—that showed similar trajectories, including the characteristic geometric shape, but with smaller amplitudes than their original responses.\n\nSection::::Theoretical models.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Post-operation.\n\nAnxiety has also been proven to cause higher analgesic and anaesthetic requirement, postoperative pain, and prolonged hospital stay.\n\nIrving L. Janis separates the effects of preoperative anxiety on postoperative reactions into three levels:\n\nBULLET::::- Low anxiety: The defenses of denial and other reassurances that were created to ward off the worry and apprehension preoperatively are not effective long-term. When all the pain and stress is experienced post-operatively, the emotional tension is unrelieved because there aren’t any real reassurances available from the pre-operational stage.\n", "As exaggerated FPS responses can lend to the pathology associated with PTSD and other disorders of the anxiety disorder classification, decreasing the startle response in humans may be of benefit in the treatment of these psychological disorders. Several forms of medication acting on different neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA, dopamine) in the brain have been shown to cause significant reductions in startle response; the medications that are effective in treating conditioned fear are those typically used in the treatment of anxiety.\n", "In experimental psychology the term \"conditioned emotional response\" refers to a phenomenon that is seen in classical conditioning after a conditioned stimulus (CS) has been paired with an emotion-producing unconditioned stimulus (US) such as electric shock. The conditioned emotional response is usually measured through its effect in suppressing an ongoing response. For example, a rat first learns to press a lever through operant conditioning. Classical conditioning follows: in a series of trials the rat is exposed to a CS, often a light or a noise. Each CS is followed by the US, an electric shock. As an association between the CS and US develops, the rat slows or stops its lever pressing when the CS comes on. The slower the rat presses, the stronger its conditioned emotional response, or \"fear.\" \n", "In a survey of documented head injuries followed by unconsciousness, most of which involved sporting activities, two thirds of head impacts demonstrated a fencing response, indicating a high incidence of fencing in head injuries leading to unconsciousness, and those pertaining to athletic behavior. Likewise, animal models of diffuse brain injury have illustrated a fencing response upon injury at moderate but not mild levels of severity as well as a correlation between fencing, blood brain barrier disruption, and nuclear shrinkage within the LVN, all of which indicates diagnostic utility of the response. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10311	How can video games that have been in development for 6-7 years have graphics that are up to or beyond todays standards?	When I developed games a two years ago, I was in charge of developing the "logic" without any visual assets (only using Unity built-in squares and spheres). Once this part is done, we 'skin' the game using real assets. I have no idea how is this done (or possible) in big companies developing AAA games. The /r/Simulated may make my idea clearer.	[ "Section::::Software.\n\nThere is a large variety and amount of software that will generate scenery and allow for editing of it. These can include: \n\nGame engines with terrain generation:\n\nMost game engines whether custom or proprietary will have terrain generation built in\n\nBULLET::::- See: List of Video Game Engines\n\nTerrain generator programs:\n\nBULLET::::- Terragen – can create terrain, water, atmosphere, and lighting in this free windows program\n\nBULLET::::- L3DT – similar functions to the Terragen program, has a 2048x2048 limit\n\nBULLET::::- World Creator – can create terrain, fully GPU powered\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Brownian surface\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond-square algorithm\n", "Many technical issues must be considered in the design and development of new engineering tools for CAPE. These issues include:\n\nBULLET::::- required functionality of the tools themselves;\n\nBULLET::::- formalization and refinement of engineering methods;\n\nBULLET::::- development of on-line technical reference libraries, and user engineering and graphics visualization;\n\nBULLET::::- user engineering and graphics visualization techniques;\n\nBULLET::::- system connectivity and information sharing, and integration standards for the computing environment;\n\nBULLET::::- incorporation of intelligent behavior in the tools.\n", "Section::::Games developed.:The Sailor's Dream (2014).\n\nIt was announced on 28 July 2014 that this game would be released in late 2014. It is, according to the game developers, 'more open and quite non-linear', unlike their previous titles. Several screencaps and a trailer of the game were provided with the announcement. Jonas Tarestad and Jonathan Eng, who previously worked with Simogo on \"Device 6\", returned to work on this game. \"The Sailor's Dream\" was released on 6 November 2014.\n\nSection::::Games developed.:SPL-T (2015).\n", "Further examples include the PlayStation-era titles in the \"Final Fantasy\" series (Square); the role-playing games \"Parasite Eve\" and \"Parasite Eve II\" (Square); the action-adventure games \"Ecstatica\" and \"Ecstatica 2\" (Andrew Spencer/Psygnosis), as well as \"Little Big Adventure\" (Adeline Software International); the graphic adventure \"Grim Fandango\" (LucasArts); and \"3D Movie Maker\" (Microsoft Kids).\n\nPre-rendered backgrounds are also found in some isometric video games, such as the role-playing game \"The Temple of Elemental Evil\" (Troika Games) and the \"Baldur's Gate\" series (BioWare); though in these cases the form of graphical projection used is not different.\n\nSection::::3D.:First-person perspective.\n", "Mainstream production is usually defined as the period of time when the project is fully staffed. Programmers write new source code, artists develop game assets, such as, sprites or 3D models. Sound engineers develop sound effects and composers develop music for the game. Level designers create levels, and writers write dialogue for cutscenes and NPCs. Game designers continue to develop the game's design throughout production.\n\nSection::::Development process.:Production.:Design.\n", "Many graphic elements of games are created by the designer when producing a prototype of the game, revised by the developer based on testing, and then further refined by the artist and combined with artwork as a game is prepared for publication or release.\n\nFor video games, game artists are responsible for all of the aspects of game development that call for visual art. Game artists are often vital to and credited in role-playing games, collectible card games and video games.\n\nSection::::Development process.:Concept.\n", "The programming of the game is handled by one or more game programmers. They develop prototypes to test ideas, many of which may never make it into the final game. The programmers incorporate new features demanded by the game design and fix any bugs introduced during the development process. Even if an off-the-shelf game engine is used, a great deal of programming is required to customize almost every game.\n\nSection::::Development process.:Production.:Level creation.\n", "Pre-production is the actual building of the game. Artists, programmers, technicians, producers, and directors are all involved in this stage. This is the stage that has brought rise to the new designation of “technical artists.” Artists and programmers work closely together to make sure the vision comes fully to life. Deviations from the original conceptualization are common here as the technical and artistic goals are found ineffective, or impossible. This is where the actual games take shape This is where the “alpha” copy is made. During this stage the developers work closely with marketing specialists so they can start building an advertising campaign.\n", "BULLET::::- Career: Michitaka Hirose\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Brendan Iribe, Michael Antonov, and Palmer Luckey\n\nBULLET::::- 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Steven K. Feiner\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Doug Bowman\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Henry Fuchs\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Mark Billinghurst\n\nBULLET::::- 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Lawrence J. Rosenblum\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Dieter Schmalstieg\n\nBULLET::::- 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Ming C. Lin\n\nBULLET::::- 2009\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Jaron Lanier\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Hirokazu Kato\n\nBULLET::::- 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Bowen Loftin\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Bernd Fröhlich\n\nBULLET::::- 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Susumu Tachi\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Carolina Cruz-Neira\n\nBULLET::::- 2006\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Progressive rendering\" – where a framerate is guaranteed by rendering some subset of the information to be presented and providing incremental (progressive) improvements to the rendering once the visualization is no longer changing.\n", "Many motion graphics animators learn several 3D graphics packages for use according to each program's strengths. Although many trends in motion graphics tend to be based on a specific software's capabilities, the software is only a tool the broadcast designer uses while bringing the vision to life.\n\nLeaning heavily from techniques such as the collage or the pastiche, motion graphics has begun to integrate many traditional animation techniques as well, including stop-motion animation, cel animation or a combination of both.\n\nSection::::Particle system.\n", "The application stage is responsible for generating \"scenes\", or 3D settings that are drawn to a 2D display. This stage is implemented in software that developers optimize for performance. This stage may perform processing such as collision detection, speed-up techniques, animation and force feedback, in addition to handling user input.\n", "Another increasingly common pre-rendering method is the generation of texture sets for 3D games, which are often used with complex real-time algorithms to simulate extraordinarily high levels of detail. While making \"Doom 3\", id Software used pre-rendered models as the basis for generating normal, specular and diffuse lighting maps that simulate the detail of the original model in real-time.\n\nPre-rendered lighting is a technique that is losing popularity. Processor-intensive ray tracing algorithms can be used during a game's production to generate light textures, which are simply applied on top of the usual hand drawn textures.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Career: John C. Dill\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: David S. Ebert\n\nBULLET::::- 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Markus Gross\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Tamara Munzner\n\nBULLET::::- 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Kenneth Joy\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Claudio T. Silva\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Gregory M. Nielson\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Kwan-Liu Ma\n\nBULLET::::- 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Ben Shneiderman\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: John Stasko\n\nBULLET::::- 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Frits Post\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Daniel A. Keim\n\nBULLET::::- 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Christopher R. Johnson\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Hanspeter Pfister\n\nBULLET::::- 2009\n\nBULLET::::- Career: Hans Hagen\n\nBULLET::::- Technical Achievement: Jock D. Mackinlay\n\nBULLET::::- 2008\n", "GTK can be configured to change the look of the widgets drawn; this is done using different display engines. Several display engines exist which try to emulate the look of the native widgets on the platform in use.\n\nStarting with version 2.8, released in 2005, GTK began the transition to using Cairo to render most of its graphical control elements widgets. Since GTK version 3.0, all the rendering is done using Cairo.\n", "During development, the game designer implements and modifies the game design to reflect the current vision of the game. Features and levels are often removed or added. The art treatment may evolve and the backstory may change. A new platform may be targeted as well as a new demographic. All these changes need to be documented and disseminated to the rest of the team. Most changes occur as updates to the design document.\n\nSection::::Development process.:Production.:Programming.\n", "In April 2015, Square Enix announced that the engine would support DirectX 12, and Nvidia revealed a new real-time tech demo developed by Square Enix for the engine, called \"Witch Chapter 0 [cry]\", featuring the character Agni from the earlier \"Agni's Philosophy\" demo. The demo renders over 63 million polygons per frame, uses \"8K by 8K\" resolution textures, and her hair is rendered with over 50 shaders, with each strand of hair rendered as a polygon. It also portrays human crying with a high level of detail, and the quality of the real-time graphics have been compared to pre-rendered CGI animation. The tech demo took a year to produce, and was running on a PC with four GeForce GTX Titan X graphics cards.\n", "Once a solid and stable framework is established, wireframes are translated from sketched storyboards to full-resolution screens that depict the user interface at the pixel level. At this point, it's critical for the programming team to collaborate closely with the designer. Their input is necessary to creating a finished design that can and will be built while remaining true to the concept.\n\nBULLET::::- Test and iterate\n", "During production, programmers may create a great deal of source code to create the game described in the game's design document. Along the way, the design document is modified to meet limitations or expanded to exploit new features. The design document is very much a \"living document\", much of whose life is dictated by programmer's schedules, talent and resourcefulness.\n", "A successful development model is iterative prototyping, where design is refined based on current progress. There are various technology available for video game development\n\nSection::::Development process.:Production.\n\nProduction is the main stage of development, when assets and source code for the game are produced.\n", "The terrain generated the compute does a generation of multifractals then integrates them until finally rendering them onto the screen. These techniques are typically done “on-the-fly” which typically for a 128x128 resolution terrain would mean 1.5 seconds on a CPU from the early 90’s.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Mainstream commercial PC and console games are generally developed in phases: first, in pre-production, pitches, prototypes, and game design documents are written; if the idea is approved and the developer receives funding, then full-scale development begins. The development of a complete game usually involves a team of 20–100 individuals with various responsibilities, including designers, artists, programmers, and testers.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "The game uses a proprietary engine called NG3D which was built from scratch with massive multiplayer games in mind. It supports a variety of features found in today's engines, such as hardware shaders support, continuous world loading, asynchronous resource management and a flexible gameplay system.\n", "A game's artwork included in media, such as demos and screenshots, has a significant impact on customers, because artwork can be judged from previews, while gameplay cannot.\n\nArtists work closely with designers on what is needed for the game.\n\nTools used for art design and production are \"art tools\". These can range from pen and paper to full software packages for both 2D and 3D art. A developer may employ a \"tools team\" responsible for art production applications. This includes using existing software packages and creating custom exporters and plug-ins for them.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- 2017: Phoenix, Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: Baltimore, Maryland\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: Chicago, Illinois,\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Paris, France\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Atlanta, Georgia\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Seattle, Washington\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Providence, Rhode Island\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Salt Lake City, Utah\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Atlantic City, New Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Columbus, Ohio\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Sacramento, California\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Baltimore, Maryland\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Minneapolis, Minnesota\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Austin, Texas\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Seattle, Washington\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Boston, Massachusetts\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: San Diego, California\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: Salt Lake City, Utah\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: San Francisco, California\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Research Triangle Park, North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Phoenix, Arizona\n" ]	[ "Video game graphics are developed during the entire game development process." ]	[ "Video game logic is completed before finally \"skinning\" the game using real assets, these two aspects of game development are not done simultaneously." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Video game graphics are developed during the entire game development process." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Video game logic is completed before finally \"skinning\" the game using real assets, these two aspects of game development are not done simultaneously." ]
2018-06962	Why does water not help against spicy food?	Spice is carried on an oil, which is hydrophobic. Most it will do is spread the heat around. Something with fat in it, like milk, has a better chance of washing away the spicy oil.	[ "Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.\n", "The web implementation allows embedding in a blog, and can also be run as a form of slide show where each node corresponds to a slide.\n\nBULLET::::- Multitouch – The first multitouch implementation of SpicyNodes was as part of the WikiNodes multitouch Wikipedia browser for the Apple iPad, and launched in April 2011.\n\nSection::::Related, but different implementations.\n", "Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n", "When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk is an effective way to relieve the burning sensation (due to caseins having a detergent effect on capsaicin); and room-temperature sugar solution (10%) at is almost as effective. The burning sensation will slowly fade away over several hours if no actions are taken.\n\nCapsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Effects on weight loss and regain.\n", "ADMS only parses a subset of Verilog-A, and not all statements are supported by all XML filters. Specifically, current controlled voltage sources are not supported in most filters targeting SPICE simulators:\n\nBULLET::::- V(..) + I(..) // does not work with NGSPICE\n\nInstead, this needs to be represented as a conductance expression (and not impedance). \n\ni.e. I(..) + V(..)\n\nBULLET::::- I (..) probes do not work with NGSPICE\n\nSome other language constructions need to be supported in the filter as well\n\nBULLET::::- \"for\" loop,\n\nBULLET::::- \"case\" statement.\n\nMany language features are hard to support with ADMS filters\n\nBULLET::::- laplace_transform,\n", "The primary treatment is removal from exposure. Contaminated clothing should be removed and placed in airtight bags to prevent secondary exposure.\n", "A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. However, with newly developed radiation sterilization methods, the risk of Salmonella contamination is now lower.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n", "BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n", "Some flavor elements in spices are soluble in water; many are soluble in oil or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to herbs which are usually added late in preparation.\n\nSection::::Handling spices.:Salmonella contamination.\n", "The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-\"N\"-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called \"capsaicinoids\". The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit. \n", "Capsaicin is used as an analgesic in topical ointments and dermal patches to relieve pain, typically in concentrations between 0.025% and 0.1%. It may be applied in cream form for the temporary relief of minor aches and pains of muscles and joints associated with arthritis, backache, strains and sprains, often in compounds with other rubefacients.\n", "The amount of capsaicin in the fruit is highly variable and dependent on genetics and environment, giving almost all types of \"Capsicum\" varied amounts of perceived heat. The most recognizable \"Capsicum\" without capsaicin is the bell pepper, a cultivar of \"Capsicum annuum\", which has a zero rating on the Scoville scale. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to a recessive gene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently, the \"hot\" taste usually associated with the rest of the \"Capsicum\" family. There are also other peppers without capsaicin, mostly within the \"Capsicum annuum\" species, such as the cultivars Giant Marconi, Yummy Sweets, Jimmy Nardello, and Italian Frying peppers (also known as the Cubanelle).\n", "Capsaicin is also used to deter pests, specifically mammalian pests. Targets of capsaicin repellants include voles, deer, rabbits, squirrels, bears, insects, and attacking dogs. Ground or crushed dried chili pods may be used in birdseed to deter rodents, taking advantage of the insensitivity of birds to capsaicin. The Elephant Pepper Development Trust claims that using chili peppers as a barrier crop can be a sustainable means for rural African farmers to deter elephants from eating their crops. Notably, an article published in the Journal of Environmental Science and Health in 2006 states that \"Although hot chili pepper extract is commonly used as a component of household and garden insect-repellent formulas, it is not clear that the capsaicinoid elements of the extract are responsible for its repellency.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Allicin, the active piquant flavor chemical in uncooked garlic, and to a lesser extent onions (see those articles for discussion of other chemicals in them relating to pungency, and eye irritation)\n\nBULLET::::- Allyl isothiocyanate (also allyl mercaptan), the active piquant chemical in mustard, radishes, horseradish, and wasabi\n\nBULLET::::- Capsazepine, capsaicin antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerol and shogaol, the active piquant flavor chemicals in ginger\n\nBULLET::::- Iodoresiniferatoxin, an ultrapotent capsaicin antagonist found in \"Euphorbia resinifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- List of investigational analgesics\n\nBULLET::::- Naga Viper pepper, Bhut Jolokia Pepper, Carolina Reaper, Trinidad Moruga Scorpion; some of the world's most capsaicin-rich fruits\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "To prepare red mojo it is necessary to dry the peppers. Once dry, peppers can be kept for a long time before preparation. Before making mojo, peppers are soaked in water so they lose their spiciness. Then, grains and fibers are removed but for a few that will make the mojo spicy. In the case of green mojo, spiciness will be regulated by the amount of garlic, and can be also intensified by adding ground coriander seeds.\n\nSection::::Canarian mojo.:Canarian variations.\n", "The amount of capsaicin in hot peppers varies significantly among varieties, and is measured in Scoville heat units (SHU). The world's current hottest known pepper as rated in SHU is the 'Carolina Reaper,' which had been measured at over 2,200,000 SHU.\n\nSection::::Species and varieties.:Species list.\n\nSources:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum annuum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum baccatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum campylopodium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum cardenasii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum ceratocalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum chacoense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum chinense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum coccineum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum cornutum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum dimorphum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum dusenii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum eximium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum flexuosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum friburgense\" Bianch. & Barboza\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum frutescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum galapagoense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum geminifolium\"\n", "Although capsaicin creams have been used to treat psoriasis for reduction of itching, a review of six clinical trials involving topical capsaicin for treatment of pruritus concluded there was insufficient evidence of effect.\n\nThere is insufficient clinical evidence to determine the role of ingested capsaicin on several human disorders, including obesity, diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular diseases.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Pepper spray and pests.\n\nCapsaicinoids are also an active ingredient in riot control and personal defense pepper spray agents. When the spray comes in contact with skin, especially eyes or mucous membranes, it produces pain and breathing difficulty, discouraging protestors and assailants.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Displays a subset – Only a limited number of nodes can fit on a typical screen at once, which requires a large enough screen to fit the nodes, and means it is usually not possible to display all the nodes simultaneously.\n\nBULLET::::- Balanced branches – Layouts only make sense if there are balanced branches with fewer than two dozen child nodes. A typical implementation requires an average of 2-10 linked/child nodes per node. Too few, and the layout becomes a string of pearls. Too many, and the nodes do not fit.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "While the show's green slime changed recipes, and even consistencies frequently, the water was almost always the same. There were a few instances where cast members were dumped on with variations; such as soapy water (Christine), brown toilet water (Matthew, Stephanie, Jill), and yellow polluted water (Carlos, Chris, Rekha, Andrea). The show also occasionally used water as a gag without the trigger phrase being said, such as when Adam turns the hose on his mom in \"Communications\" (1989).\n\nSection::::Water, Slime and Pies.:Slime.\n", "Early research showed capsaicin to evoke a long-onset current in comparison to other chemical agonists, suggesting the involvement of a significant rate-limiting factor. Subsequent to this, the TRPV1 ion channel has been shown to be a member of the superfamily of TRP ion channels, and as such is now referred to as . There are a number of different TRP ion channels that have been shown to be sensitive to different ranges of temperature and probably are responsible for our range of temperature sensation. Thus, capsaicin does not actually cause a chemical burn, or indeed any direct tissue damage at all, when chili peppers are the source of exposure. The inflammation resulting from exposure to capsaicin is believed to be the result of the body's reaction to nerve excitement. For example, the mode of action of capsaicin in inducing bronchoconstriction is thought to involve stimulation of C fibers culminating in the release of neuropeptides. In essence, the body inflames tissues as if it has undergone a burn or abrasion and the resulting inflammation can cause tissue damage in cases of extreme exposure, as is the case for many substances that cause the body to trigger an inflammatory response.\n", "Symptomatic relief is noted with exposure to hot water (greater than 41 degrees C), which is mediated by TRPV–the capsaicin receptor. Assessing for dehydration due to vomiting and hot showers is important as it can lead to acute kidney failure, and this is easily treated with IV fluids. If dehydration is severe, hospitalization may be required. Based on the mechanism of the effect, some clinicians have used topical capsaicin cream applied to the periumbilical area in the treatment of acute cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. The use of capsaicin as first-line treatment for cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome has been well-tolerated, though the evidence for efficacy is limited. The use of hot water showers in the emergency department setting has been advocated in situations where topical capsaicin cream is unavailable, though the same precautions to hot water use (dehydration, burn injury) are required.\n", "BULLET::::- CDP will only function when a packet contains the Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) header. The interface must also support SNAP, for CDP to work on a router, as well.\n\nBULLET::::- CDP must have the device's interfaces directly connected, otherwise, CDP cannot detect nor send out advertisements to the other device.\n\nBULLET::::- CDP can only be used between Cisco devices. If a connection between a pair consists of only one Cisco device, it can only use the vendor neutral protocol: Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP).\n\nSection::::History.:Using CDP.:Various CDP Commands.\n", "Homodihydrocapsaicin\n\nHomodihydrocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in chili peppers (\"Capsicum\"). Like capsaicin it is an irritant. Homodihydrocapsaicin accounts for about 1% of the total capsaicinoids mixture and has about half the pungency of capsaicin. Pure homodihydrocapsaicin is a lipophilic colorless odorless crystalline to waxy compound. It produces \"numbing burn\" in the throat and is one of the most prolonged and difficult to rinse out. On the Scoville scale it has 8,600,000 SHU (Scoville heat units).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Capsaicin\n\nBULLET::::- Dihydrocapsaicin\n\nBULLET::::- Nordihydrocapsaicin\n\nBULLET::::- Homocapsaicin\n\nBULLET::::- Nonivamide\n\nBULLET::::- Scoville scale\n\nBULLET::::- Pepper spray\n\nBULLET::::- Spice\n", "Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00271	Why do NFL teams demand hundreds of millions of dollars in public funding for their stadiums when their owners / ownership groups are billionaires?	Because they can. Why pay billions when someone else will just give it to you? I live in Las Vegas, and apparently our city was so desperate to get a NFL team, they offered to pay for most of the stadium. And because the people who live here refuse to take on a tax increase to pay for it, it will go to the "resort fee" that tourists pay when they stay in a hotel here.	[ "Over time, a market for subsidies has come into existence. Sports teams have realized their ability to relocate at lower and lower costs to their private contributors. Because local governments feel that keeping their sports teams around is critical to the success of their cities, they comply and grant teams subsidies. This creates a market for subsidies, where professional athletic organizations can shop between cities to see which municipality will provide them with the most resources. Teams in the NFL have a major incentive to keep their stadium up to date, as the NFL allows teams to bid to host the Super Bowl and takes recent and planned renovations into account. Many NFL teams in recent years have asked for subsidies for the construction of entirely new stadiums, like the Atlanta Falcons, who were subsequently awarded the contract for Super Bowl LIII.\n", "In the USA, the annual subsidies provided by the state for the construction of stadiums are in the range of billions of dollars. A 2005 study of all sports stadiums and facilities in use by the four major leagues from 1990 to 2001 calculated a total public subsidy of approximately $17 billion, or approx. $24 billion in 2018 dollars. The average annual subsidy during that period was $1.6 billion ($2.2 billion in 2018) for all 99 facilities included in the study, with an average of $16.2 million ($22.8 million in 2018) per facility annually. A 2012 Bloomberg analysis estimates that tax exemptions annually cost the U.S. Treasury $146 million. \n", "Critics also argue that the construction of new stadiums could cause citizens and businesses to leave a city because of eminent domain issues. If a city is forced to take land from its citizens to build a new stadium, those who have lost land could become angry enough to leave the city. If they are business owners, then they will likely take their businesses with them. These trade-offs are a part of the marginal cost calculation the city does. Much like the social marginal benefit calculation the city performed to find what benefits teams brought to the city, the social marginal cost calculation sums up all of the unintended negative effects from a particular spending plan.\n", "Section::::Perverse subsidies.:Examples.:Others.\n\nThe US National Football League's (NFL) profits have topped records at $11 billion, the highest of all sports. The NFL had tax-exempt status until voluntarily relinquishing it in 2015, and new stadiums have been built with public subsidies.\n", "Twenty-seven of the 30 stadiums built between 1953 and 1970 received more than $450 million in total public funding for construction. During this period, publicly funding a stadium grew in popularity as an effective incentive to attract professional sports teams to up and coming cities. Famous examples include the Brooklyn Dodgers leaving New York in exchange for 300 acres in Chavez Ravine and the New York Giants moving to San Francisco for what would eventually become Candlestick Park. The Los Angeles Coliseum became the first fully publicly funded stadium in 2018.\n", "There had been discussions for the Raiders to share Levi's Stadium with the San Francisco 49ers. However, the 49ers went ahead without the Raiders and broke ground on the $1.2 billion stadium on April 19, 2012 and have since sold $670 million worth of seats including 70% of club and luxury suites, making it unlikely that the Raiders would continue to explore the idea of sharing the stadium as they would now be secondary tenants with little to no commercial rights over the highly lucrative luxury suites.\n", "Recently there have been many studies that have suggested that there are a number of direct and indirect economic benefits associated with hosting a professional sports team, although each city experiences this to a different degree. Even still, a survey conducted in 2017 found that \"83% of economists polled believed that a subsidy's cost to the public outweighed the economic benefits\". The economics behind issuing billions of dollars to professional athletic organizations are still unclear, but cities have clearly showed that they are willing to assume the best, as recent years have seen an increase in the number of subsidies issues and the amount of money issued per subsidy.\n", "When a city conducts a calculation to assess what they are willing to pay for a subsidy, they use an economic model that attempts to quantify the various social benefits for each dollar invested. This is done through a social marginal benefit evaluation, which takes the sums of all of the private benefits that result from investing, intended or not. Economists consider all the economic effects of having a professional athletic team in a city, like the \"sunny day\" benefit, job creation, civic pride, increased tourism, decreases/increases in crime rates, etc. The social marginal cost is equal to the sum of the private marginal benefits. The marginal cost is known only by the government, who deliberates with franchises to decide how much bringing a team to their city will cost. The image to the right is a good visual representation of this analysis. In this diagram, the city would like to acquire four teams, since at that point the social marginal benefit of recruiting a team still exceeds the marginal cost.\n", "The initial $200 million as a standard part of the NFL's G4 stadium loan, plus the additional $100 requested from St. Louis totaled $300 million which the NFL ultimately deemed inadequate, was then granted to Oakland and San Diego to maintain their respected teams.\n\nOn January 14, 2016, at a St. Louis Blues game, the St. Louis Cardinals Owner and Blues Owner dropped a puck together to celebrate the \"best sports city in America\", as the crowd chanted \"Kroenke sucks!\"\n", "Section::::Criticisms.\n\nMany criticisms exist regarding the use of stadium subsidies. First, critics argue that new stadiums generate little to no new spending (consumption). Instead, what fans spend in and around the stadium are substitutes for what they would otherwise spend on different entertainment options. Thus, this argument contends, new stadiums do not cause economic growth or lead to increased aggregate income. In fact, this suggests that money being substituted towards concessions, tickets, and merchandise actively harms the economy surrounding a stadium. \n", "The financing for the project is expected to come in the form of $750 million in public funding and $1.1 billion from the Raiders. The public portion of the funding will come from municipal bonds issued by Clark County, backed by the proceeds of a special tax on hotel rooms in the Las Vegas area, which took effect in March 2017. The Raiders' contribution was expected to include a $650 million loan from Bank of America, $200 million from the NFL's stadium loan program, and $300 million from sales of personal seat licenses at the stadium, naming rights for the stadium, and sponsorships.\n", "Another criticism of stadium subsidies is that much of the money the new stadiums bring in does not stay in the local economy. Instead of going to stadium employees and other sources that would benefit the local community, a lot of the money goes toward paying the organizations. Those payments come from either the state or city government, where spending normally goes towards social welfare programs or salaries for government employees. It has been argued that the opportunity cost of a subsidy for a sports team is far greater than the benefit, since the billions of dollars that are spent on a stadium could be better spent on schools, firehouses, public transportation, or police departments. \n", "In a settlement announced November 1, 2012, the coalition, called Play Fair at Farmers Field, secured \"$50 million in concessions... including $10.3 million for a new platform at a Metro Blue Line station and $8 million in upgrades to a plaza outside the Convention Center.\"\n\nSection::::Carson Stadium (2015).\n", "Following the September 2008 MSFC vote to start feasibility studies for re-using the Metrodome, an unrelated study released for 38 U.S. cities found that \"when a [NFL] team wins, people's moods improve,\" and that personal income for residents of a city with an NFL team with 10 wins increases about $165 per year. While true for NFL football, for comparison, professional baseball and basketball gain no personal income for residents.\n\nSection::::Proposal timeline.:2009.\n", "There are two primary ways that a city facilitates the construction of a stadium. The first, and most commonly used method, is a direct subsidy. This involves a city promising a certain amount of revenue to go towards the construction, maintenance, and renovation of a stadium. Other times, the city will give tax breaks to teams or stadium owners in lieu of a direct cash transfer. Over a period of time, a reduction in the taxes paid against the stadium generally saves the organization building the stadium around the same amount as a subsidy would be worth. \n", "Advocates for stadium subsidies also claim less quantifiable positive externalities, such as civic pride and fan identification, so that hosting a major sports team becomes something of a public good. Local sports fans enjoy the benefit even if they do not pay for it.\n", "On August 15, 2016, the Public Resources Advisory Group published an independent report which estimated the stadium plan would have required a public contribution of $2.3 billion over 30 years, which was more than twice as much as the estimate of $1.1 billion by the Chargers.\n", "Two teams, the Carolina Panthers and Oakland Raiders, are entering the final year of their lease agreements with their current stadium.\n\nSection::::Stadiums.:Carolina Panthers.\n", "In late January 2016, billionaire Sheldon Adelson, president and CEO of the Las Vegas Sands Corporation casino empire, proposed a new domed stadium in Las Vegas to potentially house the University of Nevada, Las Vegas football team and a possible NFL team. Adelson quickly reached out to the Raiders to discuss the team partnering on the new stadium. In April 2016, without promising the team would move, Raiders owner Mark Davis met with the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee and pledged $500 million toward Adelson's stadium if public officials agreed to contribute to the stadium.\n", "When the stadium had its grand opening on July 17, 2014, Goodell mentioned to the live crowd that it would make a great home for the Raiders and that it was up for the team to decide whether or not it wanted to play there or build a stadium on the site of the Oakland Coliseum. While the 49ers remained open to sharing the stadium with the Raiders, the Raiders said that their personal preference was the Coliseum site.\n", "In granting stadium subsidies, governments claim that the new or improved stadiums will have positive enternalities for the city. Proponents tout improvements to the local economy as the primary benefits. Economists who debate the issue have separated the effects on a local economy into direct and indirect effects. Direct benefits are those that exist as a result of the \"rent, concessions, parking, advertising, suite rental, and other preferred seating rental\", and direct expenses come from \"wages and related expenses, utilities, repairs and maintenance, insurance,\" and the costs of building the facilities. Generally, these benefits vary widely. The Balitmore Orioles, for example, estimate that each game they host brings $3 million in economic benefits to the city. Over the course of an entire baseball season, the Orioles will have 81 home games, which means that benefit gets multiplied to be around $243 million a season. For NFL teams the case is much different, as there are only 8 home games a season. Over the lifetime of a stadium, which is often between 20-30 years, this benefit accumulates even more. Essentially, this is the basis on which municipalities evaluate the benefit of a team. Supporters further argue that the stadiums attract tourism and businesses that lead to further spending and job creation, representing indirect benefits. All of the increased spending causes a multiplier effect that leads to more spending and job creation and eventually finances the subsidy through increased tax revenues from ticket and concessions sales, improved property values and more spending nearby the stadium. In some cases, there has even been an observed reduction in crime during a game, although the aggregate effect of professional sports on crime is disputable. Additionally, there has recently been research that suggests that home games generate what is called a \"sunny day benefit\". There is a measurable drop in local spending that occurs within a city on a rainy day, but with a professional sports team playing a game, spending increases significantly. Jordan Rappaport, an economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas, estimates that this benefit is between $14 to $24 million dollars a year, which can be compounded over the life of a stadium.\n", "One writer in \"The New Yorker\" said it is \"not quite right to credit or blame Populous\" for trends in their new stadiums—as it is ultimately team owners that plan what they want in future stadiums—but they \"certainly enabled\" such changes.\n", "In 1994, then-commissioner Paul Tagliabue appointed Policy and owners Jerry Richardson of the Carolina Panthers and Pat Bowlen of the Denver Broncos to \"negotiate on behalf of the NFL\" for the Oakland Raiders to play in a proposed stadium in Hollywood Park. However, the deal fell through and owner Al Davis moved the team back to Oakland.\n", "On February 19, 2015, the Chargers and the Oakland Raiders announced that they would build a privately financed $1.7 billion stadium in Carson if they were to move to the Los Angeles market. Both teams stated that they would continue to attempt to get stadiums built in their respective cities.\n", "Eighty years ago, stadium subsidies were essentially unheard of, with funding for professional sports stadiums coming from private sources. In 1951, MLB commissioner Ford Frick decided that league teams were bringing large amounts of revenue to their host cities from which owners weren't able to profit. He announced that cities would need to start supporting their teams by building and maintaining venues through public subsidy. Today, most new or renovated professional sports stadiums are financed at least partly through stadium subsidies. While Frick may have been a catalyst, this change has been primarily caused by the increase in bargaining power of professional sports teams at the expense of their host cities. As the years have passed, municipalities have come to love their local professional sports teams. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02557	How did they print pictures in early days of newspaper ? I recently watched the movie The Post and the entire time I was wondering how they printed pictures with the movable metal type ?	They used a filter on photos that broke the image into tiny dots, called [halftone]( URL_0 ). You aren't actually seeing grey or varying shades of black, but dots getting smaller and further apart to create the illusion of grey tones. The image was then transferred to a plate, right along with the type, that was then inked and the image transferred to the paper by pressing the inked plate against it.	[ "Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades, but the first half-tone photo-engraving process was invented by Canadians George-Édouard Desbarats and William Leggo Jr. On October 30, 1869, Desbarats published the \"Canadian Illustrated News\" which became the world's first periodical to successfully employ this photo-mechanical technique; featuring a full page half-tone image of His Royal Highness Prince Arthur, from a photograph by Notman. Ambitious to exploit a much larger circulation, Debarats and Leggo went to New York and launched the \"New York Daily Graphic\" in March 1873, which became the world's first illustrated daily.\n", "Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades. One of the well known attempts was by Stephen H. Horgan while working for the \"New York Daily Graphic\". The first printed photograph was an image of Steinway Hall in Manhattan published on December 2, 1873. The \"Graphic\" then published \"the first reproduction of a photograph with a full tonal range in a newspaper\" on March 4, 1880 (entitled \"A Scene in Shantytown\") with a crude halftone screen.\n", "BULLET::::- 1893: Henry Peter Bosse publishes his large format \"Views on the Mississippi River between Minneapolis, Minn and St. Louis, Mo. 1883–1891\" as bound albums of meticulous, blue cyanotypes. One of these albums came into the possession of Alexander Mackenzie, Army Corps Chief of Engineers. Each of the 169 Mackenzie album cyanotypes is printed using an oval mask, and each is titled by Bosse in hand-written ink.\n", "Images could be printed together with movable type if they were made as woodcuts or wood engravings as long as the blocks were made to the same type height. If intaglio methods, such as copper plates, were used for the images, then images and the text would have required separate print runs on different machines.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- History of printing in East Asia\n\nBULLET::::- History of Western typography\n\nBULLET::::- Letterpress printing\n\nBULLET::::- Odhecaton – the first sheet music printed with movable type\n\nBULLET::::- Spread of European movable type printing\n\nBULLET::::- Type foundry\n\nBULLET::::- Typesetting\n\nBULLET::::- Style guides\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Black paper was inserted before the proof was photographed for each of the photos on the final page to create clear windows in the negative. The separately made halftones would be taped into these clear windows on the negative. This negative could then be used to expose the photosensitized printing plate for an offset press. In this way the heavy investment in hot metal typesetting could be adapted to the newer offset technology during a transition period.\n\nSection::::Comparison to successors.\n", "The Monotype Corporation survived the demise of the hot metal typesetting era by selling digital type.\n\nSection::::Transition.\n\nTowards the end of its life hot metal composition in newspapers was kept alive by the proof press. As each page was set and locked up, it was moved on a turtle (a rolling table with an accurately flat steel surface) to the manual proof press where it was hand inked and a single very high quality proof was pulled. This proof could then be photographed and converted to a negative.\n", "In 1981, printing was moved from an aging Scott letterpress (which was bought used from Dayton, Ohio, in 1969) at the main office at 52 South Dock Street to the new Dow Jones & Company offset printing plant six miles away in Shenango Township that was built to print regional editions of the parent company's The Wall Street Journal. Page negatives photographed of pasted-up pages – and later, paginated pages sent directly to an imagesetter that produced page negatives – were driven to the plant for platemaking.\n", "On March 4, 1880, \"The Daily Graphic\" (New York) published the first halftone (rather than engraved) reproduction of a news photograph.\n", "Section::::Hamilton Manufacturing Company.\n\nIn 1878, Hamilton was asked by William Nash, the editor of the local \"Two Rivers Chronicle\", to cut type for a poster Nash needed to print. Nash did not have enough time to order new type and knew of Hamilton's skill with a saw. Hamilton used a foot-power scroll saw to cut the letters, and then mounted them to a block of wood. The type printed so well that he sent samples to area printers and upon receiving orders formed the J. E. Hamilton Holly Wood Type Company.\n", "The large block of wood was then separated into its constituent pieces and turned over to the engraving department, which meticulously carved out the white sections, leaving the black illustration in relief. The sections of the wood block were then rejoined and sent to the composing room, where the illustration was converted to part of an electrotyped copper plate for printing.\n\nSection::::History.:Years after Frank Leslie's death.\n", "Typically, wordless novels used relief printing techniques such as woodcuts, wood engraving, metalcuts, or linocuts. One of the oldest printing techniques, relief printing has its origins in 8th-century China and was introduced to Europe in the 15th century. It requires an artist to draw or transfer an image to a printing block; the areas not to be printed (the white areas) are cut away, leaving raised areas to which ink is applied to make prints. The monochrome prints were usually in black ink, and occasionally in a different colour such as sienna or orange. Relief printing is an inexpensive but labour-intensive printing technique; it was accessible to socially conscious artists who wanted to tell wordless stories of the working classes.\n", "The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and patented in 1875 by Robert Barclay. This development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoe's 1843 rotary printing press—a press that used a metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the printed image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the cardboard covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber, which is still the most commonly used material.\n", "BULLET::::- Offset printing is a commonly used printing technique where the inked image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. Ira Washington Rubel invented the first offset printing press in 1903.\n\n1903 Airplane\n", "Section::::History.:Lithography.\n\nLithography, introduced at the end of the nineteenth century, allowed for the use of color in prints and allowed artists to print on larger surfaces than the letterpress. Additionally, lithography enabled artists to draw their own lettering on designs, which was not possible with the letterpress. The design was drawn directly onto the stone by the artist, and then transferred onto the surface of the paper.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "The emergence of cold type paralleled the development of web offset presses, particularly for newspapers, in the latter part of the 20th century. The combination of cold type and offset presses dramatically reduced the expense of publishing a newspaper, especially labor costs. Harris and Goss were two companies that led in the development of web offset presses. The Goss Community press, which is still in production as of 2014, was an affordable solution for small and mid-size newspapers, and they frequently bought Compugraphic typesetting equipment at the same time.\n", "Section::::Process.:Photopolymer Plates.\n\nThe letterpress printing process remained virtually unchanged until the 1950s when it was replaced with the more efficient and commercially viable offset printing process. The labor-intensive nature of the typesetting and need to store vast amounts of lead or wooden type resulted in the letterpress printing process falling out of favour.\n\nIn the 1980s dedicated letterpress practitioners revived the old craft by embracing a new manufacturing method which allowed them to create raised surface printing plates from a negative and a photopolymer plate.\n", "Wood-engraved blocks could be used on conventional printing presses, which were going through rapid mechanical improvements during the first quarter of the 19th century. The blocks were made the same height as, and composited alongside, movable type in page layouts—so printers could produce thousands of copies of illustrated pages with almost no deterioration. The combination of this new wood engraving method and mechanized printing drove a rapid expansion of illustrations in the 19th century. Further, advances in stereotype let wood-engravings be reproduced onto metal, where they could be mass-produced for sale to printers.\n", "The commercial method of calico printing using engraved rollers was invented in 1821 in New Mills. John Potts of Potts, Oliver and Potts used a copper-engraved master to produce rollers to transfer the inks.\n", "Producing printing plates via photographic methods was pioneered by Ordnance Survey in around 1893. This process lasted around 100 years before digital technology made it become obsolete very quickly.\n", "Leavitt's partner Trow was an early adapter of new printing technologies, and among the first to use power presses, then in 1840 a stereotype press as well. In 1843, the John F. Trow firm printed in 1843 \"Memoir of Mrs. Louisa Adams Leavitt\" by Rev. Asa Dodge Smith.\n", "Paper print\n\nPaper prints of films were an early mechanism to establish the copyright of motion pictures by depositing them with the Library of Congress. Thomas Alva Edison’s company was first to register each frame of motion-picture film onto a positive paper print, in 1893. The Library of Congress processed and cataloged each of the films as one photograph, accepting thousands of paper prints of films over a twenty-year period.\n", "Variants of the zincographic process included a form of early photographic engraving, photogravure: zinc was coated with a light-sensitive albumen/chromium salt mixture, exposed in contact with a glass negative, inked and the albumen removed by washing to create a single proof image. The printer would then transfer the proof design to a zinc plate under a press, and hand-etch the drawing onto the plate with a stylus. The plate was then rubbed with oil, which would not stick to the repellent coating, but adhere in the etched areas. The printer could then ink the plate, and it would remain in the grooves. As in chromolithography, colors were printed in successive passes of the press, the plates kept in register.\n", "Two magazines, \"Practical Printer\" and \"Printers' Wit & Humor\" were published by the firm in order to showcase their type. In 1897 Inland bought out the Western Engravers' Supply Company of St. Louis. In 1911 the brothers sold the foundry to ATF, which divided the matrices between their own facility in Jersey City and that of their subsidiary Barnhart Brothers & Spindler in Chicago. While the other two brothers simply retired, Oswald Schraubstadter worked for ATF for many years.\n", "During much of the letterpress era, movable type was composed by hand for each page. Cast metal \"sorts\" were composed into words, then lines, then paragraphs, then pages of text and tightly bound together to make up a \"form\", with all letter faces exactly the same \"height to paper\", creating an even surface of type. The form was placed in a press, inked, and an impression made on paper.\n", "BULLET::::- A rotary printing press is a printing press in which the images to be printed are curved around a cylinder. In 1843, Richard Hoe invented a revolution in printing by rolling a cylinder over stationary plates of inked type and using the cylinder to make an impression on paper. This eliminated the need for making impressions directly from the type plates themselves, which were heavy and difficult to maneuver.\n\n1844 Pratt truss\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01641	Why do Formula 1 pit stop crew wear all white?	The Williams team wears white because that's their car's color scheme. The Ferrari team wears Ferrari Red, and Red Bull Racing wears Red Bull Blue. All the teams use a specific color scheme on their cars and crews.	[ "Marshals of top racing leagues dress in flame retardant overalls, usually white or orange so drivers see them clearly and so any flag displayed can be seen and comprehended more quickly. Warm layered clothing may be necessary underneath the overalls, since workers often must stand in one place for periods as long as 45 minutes, so movement like walking that generates body heat is not possible.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Gloves and boots.\n", "At one point in the 1960s Alfred Owen's brother Ernest wanted the team to paint their cars orange with black trim, orange being the Owen Organisation's corporate colour, used for a band around the nose of the cars and for the mechanics' overalls; Rudd (who didn't like the idea of orange BRMs) pointed out that orange was the Dutch racing colour, when such things were still honoured; through most of the 1960s the cars ran with Owen orange bands round the nose.\n", "Henri spoke of being as white as shrouds once the dirt of the day had been washed off, then of their bodies being drained by diarrhea, before continuing:\n", "Racing suit\n\nA racing suit or racing overalls, often referred to as a fire suit due to its fire retardant properties, is clothing such as overalls worn in various forms of auto racing by racing drivers, crew members who work on the vehicles during races, track safety workers or marshals, and in some series commentators at the event.\n", "BULLET::::- At the September 2011 meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council, representatives of the member organisations voted to amend the rules for double-waved yellow flags in all FIA-sanctioned championships. The amendment means that double-waved flags will be shown when a track marshal is working on or beside the circuit.\n", "Section::::History.:Sponsorship era – from 1968.\n", "The team jerseys were changed to black and green beginning with the 2011 Tour de France, when the team formed Sky Rainforest Rescue, a three-year partnership with WWF to help raise awareness of deforestation in Brazil. At the 2018 Tour de France, the team wore special kit in support of the Sky Ocean Rescue initiative, with the goal of eliminating single-use plastic team-wide by 2020.\n", "Formula One sponsorship liveries\n\nFormula One sponsorship liveries have been used since the late 1960s, replacing the previously used national colours. With sponsors becoming more important with the rising costs in Formula One, many teams wanted to be able to display the logos of their sponsors as clearly as possible.\n", "In the spring of , sponsorship liveries, which had already been used in the United States for some years, were also allowed in international racing. Team Gunston, a South African privateer team, was the first Formula One team to paint their cars in the livery of their sponsors when they entered a private Brabham for John Love, painted in the colours of Gunston cigarettes, in the 1968 South African Grand Prix. In the next race, the 1968 Spanish Grand Prix, Team Lotus became the first works team to follow this example, with Graham Hill's Lotus 49B entered in the red, gold and white colors of Imperial Tobacco's Gold Leaf brand. British Racing Green soon vanished from the cars of British teams.\n", "When car manufacturers started to concentrate in their own F1 teams at the start of the decade, Toyota was one of them. As main rival Honda did, they always painted their cars with the same white/red color scheme, instead of any sponsor colors.\n\nSection::::Tyrrell.\n\nTyrrell Racing competed in Formula One from –. Its traditional colour was blue and white, or a combination as such, for most of the 1970s and 1980s. The cars were more white during the mid to late 1990s.\n\nSection::::Virgin.\n", "Grand Prix motorcycle racing sponsorship liveries\n\nGrand Prix motorcycle racing sponsorship liveries have been used since the late 1960s, replacing the previously used national colours. With sponsors becoming more important with the rising costs in the motorcycle CC classes, many teams wanted to be able to display the logos of their sponsors as clearly as possible.\n", "In some sports, specific items of clothing are worn to differentiate roles within a team. For example, in volleyball, the libero (a specialist in defensive play) wears a different colour to that of their teammates. In sports such as soccer and GAA codes, a contrasting colour or pattern is worn by the goalkeeper. In other sports, clothing may indicate the current status or past achievements of a participant. In cycling disciplines, the rainbow jersey indicates the current world champion, and in major road cycling races, jerseys of particular colours are worn by the race leader and leaders of auxiliary classifications.\n", "Section::::Helmet design.:Third-party adaptations.\n\nHis nephew Bruno wore a modified version of his helmet design (a yellow helmet with a green and blue stripe) during his Formula One career, but the stripes are shaped after an S rather than being straight, under the chin area it has a green stripe, and it has a blue rounded rectangle in the top area. Bruno sported a modified helmet design for the final three races of the 2011 season to honour the 20th anniversary of Ayrton winning his last world championship.\n", "In the early days of racing, most racing series had no mandated uniforms. Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, specialized racing suits were designed to optimize driver temperature via heat transfer, and later to protect drivers from fire. By 1967, the majority of competitors in Formula One, NASCAR, the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA), United States Auto Club (USAC), and Champ Car (the predecessor to modern IndyCar) began wearing specialized fire suits. Most modern suits use Nomex, a material developed in the 1960s around the time fire suits emerged. The suits are also known for prominently displaying driver sponsors.\n", "Entire championship fields can consist of silhouettes, or sometimes only a single class in a multi-class field may permit silhouettes. Notable racing classes where silhouette cars have been used include NASCAR, Group 5 Special Production Cars, Group B rallying, DTM, JGTC/Super GT, Monster truck and the Australian Supercars Championship.\n", "Section::::Design and use.:Branding.\n\nSince the 1980s, racing suits have been customized to prominently feature the sponsors of drivers and teams, leading to designs similar to those of the race cars. For fire suits, the material used to make the sponsor patches must also be fire proof, adding additional weight to the suit. Many modern suits, however, use printed logos in order to reduce weight.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "By 1970, the NHRA along with SEMA began developing specifications for fire suits, using the Thermal Protective Performance (TPP) standard developed by DuPont. These specifications are now used by SFI. During the 1970s, racewear manufacturer Stand 21 partnered with brake manufacturer Ferodo and a french producer of firemen's suits to create single-layer asbestos racing uniforms. These suits never became popular, as the dangers of asbestos exposure became more well-known. Actor Steve McQueen was believed to have worn asbestos suits when performing stunts for films, which may have contributed to his contraction of mesothelioma. In 1975, the FIA introduced its current standard for fire-retardant suits. At this time, DuPont created a new Nomex blend using Kevlar to prevent tearing and increase the longevity of suits. In 1979, several F1 drivers including Niki Lauda, Mario Andretti, and Carlos Reutemann began competing in bulky five-layer suits constructed to NASA specifications.\n", "Often, sponsorship agreements respect traditional colours. For example, Ferrari has had major sponsors which also use red colours, like Marlboro and Santander. In contrast, when tobacco company West sponsored McLaren in the 1990s and 2000s, they did not use their colours, but the \"Silver Arrows\" from engine provider Mercedes. In a reversed situation, Subaru has continued using blue and yellow liveries well after their 555 sponsorship ended.\n\nSome manufacturers prefer colours different from their national colours. For example, Citroën has traditionally used red, Renault and Opel have used yellow and black, and Volkswagen has used blue and white.\n", "Section::::Brawn GP.\n\nAfter Honda pulled out of F1 at the end of 2008, team boss Ross Brawn struggled to find a buyer to save the team, eventually buying it himself. A lack of sponsors resulted in the white livery, with flashes of bright yellow and black. Towards the end of the season, the team arranged one-race sponsor deals with a variety of major local companies, including Canon, Mapfre, Itaipava and Qtel.\n", "In NASCAR, IndyCar, North American motorcycle road racing, and most American forms of motorsports, a waved white flag displayed at the starter's stand indicates the start of the final lap of the race.\n\nIn MotoGP, a white flag is used to warn riders of rain.\n\nIn some series, a white flag is shown from all flag stations on the first lap of a practice or qualifying session so competitors will know which stations are manned.\n\nSection::::Instruction flags.\n\nInstruction flags are usually used to communicate with one driver at a time.\n\nSection::::Instruction flags.:Black flag.\n", "In his karting days, Senna's helmet consisted of a plain white background with notable features absent. He experimented with several designs to satisfy him, such as a white, yellow, and green helmet, before settling on a design by Sid Mosca that included a yellow background with a green stripe surrounding the upper visor and a light metallic blue stripe surrounding the lower visor (both stripes are delineated in the other stripe's color) that was first seen in 1979; Mosca also painted helmets for Emerson Fittipaldi and Nelson Piquet.\n", "The EFDA Nations Cup, running 1990–1998, was a one make racing series with around 20 national teams being represented.\n\nThe annual A1 Grand Prix series of 2005–2009 featured national teams, driving identical cars with differing colour schemes. Initially, most schemes were based on the respective national flags; some teams with different traditional sporting colours have since switched, including A1 Team Australia and A1 Team India. The old national racing colours were not so popular among these teams.\n", "The old colour scheme was abandoned by the FIA for most racing disciplines in the 1970s.\n\nSection::::History.:Contemporary usage.\n\nTraditional colours are still used by automakers and teams that want to emphasise their racing traditions, especially by Italian, British and German manufacturers.\n\nThe \"Rosso Corsa\" has been used uninterruptedly by Italian manufacturers Ferrari and Alfa Romeo.\n", "Prior to the advent of fire-retardant racing suits, there were no mandated driving uniforms in most racing series. In NASCAR competition, for example, many drivers and crew members would wear jeans and other typical street clothes. American firm Hinchman had manufactured specialized racing suits since the mid-1920s, worn by drivers Babe Stapp and Pete DePaolo. In the 1950s, NASCAR Grand National (Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series) driver Tim Flock began wearing a specialized racing suit, which became popular in the 1960s. At this time, the suits were designed with an inner liner meant to keep drivers cool. Soon afterwards, in several series racing suits or any driver clothing used in competition were soaked in chemical solutions to make them fire-retardant long enough for a driver to escape an incident. In NASCAR, a baking soda solution was typically used, while the SCCA mandated racing suits treated in boric acid or borax. Boraxo, a brand of powdered soap largely composed of borax, was often used as treatment.\n", "Starting in 1951 the Cunningham racing team added racing stripes to their cars to easily identify them during the a racing. These evolved from the traditional FIA (Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile) registered US Racing colors of a white body and blue chassis which dated from when racing cars had the chassis exposed. The two blue stripes were a symbolic echo of the chassis colors. In 1959 the FIA instructed drivers to add a country color to their helmets similar to British Racing green. Dan Gurney of Ferarri decided to run a blue helmet with a white stripe. He only ran the helmet for 2 years as he felt it was bad luck with a string of sub par finishes.\n" ]	[ "All Formula 1 pit stop crews wear all white." ]	[ "Other teams wear other colors. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All Formula 1 pit stop crews wear all white." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Other teams wear other colors. " ]
2018-02248	in WWE, how do the crowd know to make signs about whats going to happen on the show?	There are tons of WWE rumor sites out there which will tell you what is going to happen in the future.	[ "Special ring entrances are also developed for big occasions, most notably the WrestleMania event. For example, WrestleMania III and VI both saw all wrestlers enter the arena on motorized miniature wrestling rings. Live bands are sometimes hired to perform live entrance music at special events. John Cena and Triple H are particularly notable in recent years for their highly theatrical entrances at WrestleMania.\n\nSection::::Wrestlers.\n\nSection::::Wrestlers.:Women's wrestling.\n", "Botches can also involve scripted lines. During the airing of WrestleMania XXX, Hulk Hogan—serving as the host of WrestleMania—mistakenly referred to the Mercedes-Benz Superdome to the live audience as the Silverdome, the home of WrestleMania III and where Hogan had his famous showdown with André the Giant. After Hogan corrected himself, Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Rock would rib Hogan for calling the Superdome the Silverdome, and it ended up being a running gag for the rest of WrestleMania XXX and into the post-WrestleMania \"Raw\" the next night.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Positive impact.\n", "In professional wrestling, the announcement is usually performed outside the ring, and typically doesn't mention the time or method of victory; however, as professional wrestling shows do incorporate an official timekeeper at ringside, much like boxing and MMA, some ring announcers may be informed of the time of the fall at the match's conclusion and will relay that information to the audience as well.\n", "While the wrestling matches themselves are the primary focus of professional wrestling, a key dramatic element of the business can be entrances of the wrestlers to the arena and ring. It is typical for a wrestler to get their biggest crowd reaction (or \"pop\") for their ring entrance, rather than for anything they do in the wrestling match itself, especially if former main event stars are returning to a promotion after a long absence.\n", "In recent years to prevent the spread of blood-borne diseases such as hepatitis, WWE referees now keep a pair of latex medical gloves in their pockets. The gloves are put on whenever a wrestler is bleeding.\n\nSection::::The \"X\" sign.\n", "After the X sign is given, the officials backstage would communicate to the referee, if necessary, revised plans to end the match quickly. There is also a \"blow off\" sign, raising both arms straight up, if a wrestler seemed injured but feels he can continue.\n\nSection::::Distractions and bumps.\n", "In recent years, WWE has gone out of its way to warn viewers that the post-WrestleMania \"Raw\" crowd are \"non-traditional\" and will \"boo the guys they normally cheer\" and \"cheer the guys they normally boo\". This announcement was repeated after WrestleMania 34, but critics pointed out that the crowd cheered wrestlers \"regardless of whether they are babyfaces or heels\" and that \"on this night, they cheered everyone that WWE wanted them to cheer with one exception... Roman Reigns.\"\n", "Starting from Wrestlemania 28 WWE have aired a monthly live half an hour pre-show on YouTube before each of their PPVs featuring a match, an interview and the hype for the subsequent PPV.\n", "On March 23, 2015, WWE added a small LED board to the left side of the ring on \"Raw\". This LED board was also used at WrestleMania 31. The LED board since is now on an on/off basis, featuring in some weeks and not others. On the 1,000th episode of \"Raw\", \"The Night\" by Kromestatik debuted as the theme for \"Raw\" while \"Energy\" by Shinedown served as the secondary theme-song until August 18, 2014, when it was replaced with \"Denial\" by We Are Harlot.\n", "Hawkins also appeared in Zack Ryder's YouTube series, \"Z! True Long Island Story\". After sporadically appearing on the show he became a regular on the show. Hawkins and Reks have appeared on the show together also. One of Hawkins most memorable segments came after Zack Ryder started to use a cane on his show. Scott Stanford, another regular on the show, has come up to Hawkins and Reks saying that they are using the Broski Cane, this has annoyed the pair on every occasion stating that Hawkins used a cane first.\n", "Simmons and Layfield reunited for \"Raw 1000\" on July 23, 2012, when they provided protection for Lita during her brief match with Heath Slater. Layfield attacked Slater with a Clothesline from Hell, and after the match, Simmons simply said his trademark catchphrase, \"Damn.\"\n\nThe APA again reunited on the January 19, 2015, episode of \"Raw\" (dubbed \"Raw Reunion\" due to numerous special appearances by various WWE Hall of Famers and Legends), alongside The New Age Outlaws, saving the New World Order (nWo) members from The Ascension, during which Layfield attacked Ascension member Viktor with a \"Clothesline from Hell\".\n", "The Hart Foundation made their presence known during the main event between The Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin. At one point, when it looked like Austin was about to win, Pillman reached over and rang the bell prematurely, causing a distraction. In the end the Undertaker pinned Steve Austin, followed moments later by Neidhart, Owen Hart, Bulldog and Pillman attacking both wrestlers. Moments later Steve Austin knocked Bret Hart out of his wheel chair and then used one of Hart's crutches as a weapon to chase all the members of the Hart Foundation off.\n", "A wrestler or a promotion uses kayfabe in regards to injuries in one of two ways; \"selling\" a fake injury as part of a storyline, or they come up with a storyline reason to explain the absence of someone due to a legitimate injury. Sometimes a wrestler will be kept off shows to demonstrate the severity of what happened to them previously as part of a storyline. Prior to the spread of the internet, this was a common tactic used to explain the absence of a wrestler when a said wrestler would tour Japan or was unable to appear on specific shows. If a wrestler appears on a show after a \"brutal\" attack they would \"sell\" the injury by limping or having their arm heavily bandaged and so on. In other instances, when a wrestler was legitimately injured either during a match or during training, a storyline would play out where a heel would attack the wrestler and \"injure\" them to give the impression that the injury was due to the attack. This normally would lead to the injured wrestler returning, later on, to \"settle the score\".\n", "BULLET::::- William Regal, WWF commissioner (March 8, 2001 – October 11, 2001)\n\n While Mick Foley was commissioner in 2000, he was the ultimate on-screen authority, overriding everyone else\n\nSection::::WWE authority figures.:Corporate officers.\n\nFrom 1996 onwards, the corporate roles of Vince McMahon and his wife Linda were gradually acknowledged in WWF programmes and were subsequently included in storylines. The following list gives the development of corporate offices as portrayed in storylines and should not be confused with their counterparts in the actual structure in WWE, Inc. and its predecessors.\n", "A unsold pilot for a weekly syndicated \"Team Challenge Series\" television show was taped in 1989 with hosts Ralph Strangis and Greg Gagne at \"Satellite Base\" calling matches recorded in an empty TV studio with no ring announcer. All wrestler entrances were done in front of a green screen with footage of fans at sports bars who were supposedly watching the matches live inserted on the screen using Chroma-Key. The pilot can be viewed in the \"WWE Hidden Gems\" section of the \"Vault\" menu on WWE Network.\n\nSection::::Television.\n", "Before Dean Ambrose and Roman Reigns revealed Chris Jericho as their mystery partner, a fan managed to jump the barricade and enter the ring without getting caught by security. WWE would later release a statement on this situation, stating that \"WWE takes the safety of our performers very seriously, and any fan entering the ring area will be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law.\"\n", "In November 2004, Sahadi discovered that WWE was filming an advertisement for the 2005 Royal Rumble in the Orlando, Florida-based Universal Studios, not far from SoundStage 21, where TNA recorded pay-per-views and episodes of \"TNA Impact!\". TNA decided to send wrestlers Abyss, Traci, Shane Douglas and the 3Live Kru, along with backstage personnel Jeremy Borash, Bill Banks, and Tim Welch, to welcome the WWE employees, bringing them milk, cookies and balloons. The TNA employees confronted their WWE contemporaries outside of the studio in which the commercial was being filmed and handed out their balloons. 3Live Kru member B.G. James commented on the opulence of the WWE buffet, asking if he could have some mahi-mahi, and then asked to speak with Vince McMahon as \"\"I made him a bunch of money back in the day\"\" (as one-half of the New Age Outlaws and a member of D-Generation X, James was partly responsible for large merchandise sales throughout 1998 and 1999), while fellow 3Live Kru member Konnan commented that McMahon \"...is a stand up guy, but sometimes he has to sit down to aim\".\n", "Commentators have become important in communicating the relevance of the characters' actions to the story at hand, filling in past details and pointing out subtle actions that may otherwise go unnoticed.\n\nSection::::Dramatic elements.:Story.:Promos.\n\nA main part of the story-telling part of wrestling is a promo, short for promotional interview. Promos are performed, or \"cut\", in wrestling jargon, for a variety of reasons, including to heighten interest in a wrestler, or to hype an upcoming match.\n", "Last-minute injuries, contracts, and marital statuses can also change the storyline or how a segment is presented. When Enzo Amore's contract was terminated due to withholding information about his sexual assault investigation, his romantic storyline with Nia Jax was scrapped, while she has moved to have the storyline with Drew Gulak, the segments for Raw 25 has also changed on hours' notice due to Jimmy Fallon unable to arrive in New York in time for pre-taped segments for Raw 25 where he was supposed to interview the current and former GM's in Raw and SmackDown, but instead, they only waved in a Hall-of-Fame-like lineup.\n", "Section::::Gameplay.\n\nAt its core, \"WWE With Authority!\" was a digital collectible card game in electronic form. Players could purchase virtual \"Pages\" and assemble them into a \"Playbook.\" This playbook would represent the moves and abilities that your wrestler would be capable of pulling off in the ring.\n", "BULLET::::- On several occasions, such as during the 2013 Slammy Awards, fans have successfully hijacked segments in which Bryan was either not involved in, or involved only secondarily, with his \"Yes!\" chant. In the case of the \"Championship Ascension Ceremony\" segment, the fan's continuing \"Yes!\" chants forced John Cena to go off-script and acknowledge Bryan (especially since the show was held in Seattle) even though the segment was supposed to be about Cena and Randy Orton's impending title unification match.\n", "With the introduction of the Titantron entrance screen in 1997, WWF/WWE wrestlers also had entrance videos made that would play along with their entrance music.\n\nOther dramatic elements of a ring entrance can include:\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrotechnics\n", "Although professional wrestling is worked, real injuries can be sustained. In such an event, the referee raises his hands above his head into an \"X\" shape to alert backstage officials and paramedics, as well as any other wrestlers that what is going on is really happening. An \"X\" sign across the chest is a warning, it signifies that a wrestler may be injured, but is still able to compete. In recent times, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) and WWE have used the \"X\" sign to signify storyline as well as legitimate injuries. An example of this is when A.J. Styles was kayfabe injured after being hit with a powerbomb off the stage through a table by Bully Ray. Another example is during the 2006 Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 22 when Matt Hardy performed a suplex on Ric Flair from the top of the ladder, and the two referees, Jim Korderas and Mike Chioda, used the \"X\" sign. Flair re-entered the match minutes afterwards, showing he was not legitimately injured.\n", "Special guest referees may be used from time to time; by virtue of their celebrity status, they are often scripted to dispense with the appearance of neutrality and use their influence to unfairly influence the outcome of the match for added dramatic impact. Face special referees will often fight back against hostile heel wrestlers, particularly if the special referee is either a wrestler himself or a famous martial artist (such as Tito Ortiz at the main event at TNA Hard Justice 2005).\n", "Because wrestling is predetermined, a wrestler's entrance music will play as they enter the arena, even if they are, in kayfabe, not supposed to be there. For example, in 2012 through 2014, The Shield was a trio of wrestlers who were (in kayfabe) not at the time under contract with WWE (hence their gimmick of entering the ring through the crowd), but they still had entrance music which was played whenever they entered the arena, despite the fact that they were kayfabe invaders.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01538	Why isn't the 2000s called the 20th century and the 1900s, the 19th etc?	Well, just go back and count from the beginning. 0001-0100 = 1st century 0101-0200 = 2nd century 0201-0300 = 3rd century ... 0901-1000 = 10th century ... 1801-1900 = 19th century 1901-2000 = 20th century 2001-2100 = 21st century	[ "Aughts\n\nThe \"aughts\" is one way of referring to the first decade of a century, in American English, such as 2000s (decade). In modern history, the numbering of the first decade of the 1900s and the first decade of the 2000s became challenging for societies that had grown accustomed to referring to prior decades as \"the nineties\" and \"the eighties\".\n\nSection::::1900s.\n", "1900s (decade)\n\nThe 1900s (pronounced \"nineteen-hundreds\") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1900, and ended on December 31, 1909. The term \"nineteen-hundreds\" can also mean the entire century of years from 1900 to 1999 (see 1900s). The Edwardian era (1901–1910) covers a similar span of time.\n\nSection::::Pronunciation varieties.\n", "20th century\n\nThe 20th (twentieth) century was a century that began on \n\nJanuary 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium. It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1, 1900 and ended on December 31, 1999.\n", "Informally, years may be referred to in groups based on the hundreds part of the year. In this system, the years 1900–1999 are referred to as the \"nineteen hundreds\" (\"1900s\"). Aside from English usage, this system is used in Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Finnish. The Swedish \"nittonhundratalet\" (or \"1900-talet\"), Danish \"nittenhundredetallet\" (or \"1900-tallet\"), Norwegian \"nittenhundretallet\" (or \" 1900-tallet\") and Finnish \"tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku\" (or \"1900-luku\") refer unambiguously to the years 1900–1999.\n\nSection::::Similar dating units in other calendar systems.\n", "In American English it is not so clear cut. According to the \"Chicago Manual of Style\" online Q&A, there is no common agreement as to the meaning of the phrase \"turn of the \"n\"-th century.\" For instance, if a statement describes an event as taking place \"at the turn of the 18th century,\" it could refer to a period around the year 1701 or around 1800, that is, the beginning or end of that century. As such, they recommend either using only \"turn of the century,\" and only in a context that makes clear which transition is meant, or alternatively to use a different expression that is unambiguous. \"Turn of the century\" commonly meant the transition from the 19th century to the 20th century; however, as the generations living at the end of the 20th century survived into the 21st century, the specific number of the referenced century became necessary to avoid confusion.\n", "Stephen Jay Gould at the time argued there is no objective way of deciding this question. \n\nAssociated Press reported that the third millennium began on 1 January 2001, but also reported that celebrations in the US were generally more subdued at the beginning of 2001, compared to the beginning of 2000.\n\nMany public celebrations for the end of the second millennium were held on December 31, 1999 – January 1, 2000—with a few people marking the end of the millennium a year later.\n", "20th century (disambiguation)\n\nThe 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000, according to the Gregorian xcalendar.\n\n20th century may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- 20th century BC\n\nSection::::Film and Theatre.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Twentieth Century\" (play), a 1932 Broadway play\n\nBULLET::::- \"Twentieth Century\" (film), a 1934 American comedy\n\nBULLET::::- \"On the Twentieth Century\", a 1978 musical based on the play and film\n\nBULLET::::- Twentieth Century Pictures, a film studio created in 1933\n\nBULLET::::- \"The 20th Century\", the 1957-1970 television series\n\nBULLET::::- \"20th Century with Mike Wallace\", the 1990s-2000s television series\n\nSection::::Music.\n", "\"Twentieth Century\" – a title which Columbia considered changing because they feared that many westerners would not be familiar with the name of the train – was in production February 22–March 24, 1934.\n", "In general usage, centuries are aligned with decades by grouping years based on their shared digits. In this model, the 'n' -th century started/will start on the year \"(100 x n) - 100\" and ends in \"(100 x n) - 1\". For example, the 20th century is generally regarded as from 1900 to 1999, inclusive. This is sometimes known as the odometer effect. The astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero, so the first century begins with the year zero, rather than the year one. \n\nSection::::Alternative naming systems.\n", "21st century\n\nThe 21st (twenty-first) century is the current century of the \"Anno Domini\" era or Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 2001, and will end on December 31, 2100. It is the first century of the 3rd millennium. It is distinct from the century known as the 2000s which began on January 1, 2000 and will end on December 31, 2099.\n", "Section::::Productions.\n", "There are several main varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in American English. Using 1906 as an example, they are \"nineteen-oh-six\", \"nineteen-six\", and \"nineteen-aught-six\". Which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, \"nineteen-oh-six\" is the most common; \"nineteen-six\" is less common; \"nineteen-aught-six\" is recognized but not much used. In the post-World War II era through the 1990s, mentions of \"nineteen-ought-six\" or \"aught-six\" often distinctly connoted old-fashioned speech; for example, it was once used to add to the geriatric-humor effect in the dialogue of the Grampa Simpson character. The strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an \"ohs\" or \"aughts\" decade.\n", "BULLET::::- Particularly in the 20th century, a nominal decade is often used to refer not just to a set of ten years but rather to a period of about ten years - for example, the phrase \"the sixties\" often refers to events that took place between around 1964 and 1972, and to memories of the counterculture, flower power, protests of 1968 and other things happening at the time. Often, such a nominal decade will come to be known by a title, such as the \"Swinging Sixties\" (1960s), the \"Warring Forties\" (1940s) and the \"Roaring Twenties\" (1920s). This practice is occasionally also applied to decades of earlier centuries, for example, references to the 1890s as the \"Gay Nineties\" or \"Naughty Nineties\".\n", "Turn of the century\n\nTurn of the century, in its broadest sense, refers to the transition from one century to another. The term is most often used to indicate a distinctive time period either before or after the beginning of a century or both before and after.\n\nWhere no specific century is stated, the term usually refers to the most recent transition of centuries.\n\nIn British English the phrase 'the turn of the nineteenth century' refers to the years immediately preceding and immediately following 1801, 'the turn of the twentieth century' to the years surrounding 1901, and so on.\n", "Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years, there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries. One is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perspective (general usage). \n", "BULLET::::- Harry Von Tilzer\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Turpin\n\nBULLET::::- Edgard Varèse\n\nBULLET::::- Vesta Victoria\n\nBULLET::::- Anton Webern\n\nBULLET::::- Percy Wenrich\n\nBULLET::::- Bert Williams\n\nBULLET::::- Harry Williams\n\nBULLET::::- Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari\n\nBULLET::::- Amy Woodforde-Finden\n\nBULLET::::- Israel Zangwill\n\nBULLET::::- Ferdinand von Zeppelin\n\nBULLET::::- Charles A. Zimmerman\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 1900s in literature\n\nSection::::See also.:Timeline.\n\nThe following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade:\n\n1900 • 1901 • 1902 • 1903 • 1904 • 1905 • 1906 • 1907 • 1908 • 1909\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- 1900 – The Brownie camera is invented; this was the beginning of the Eastman Kodak company. The Brownie popularized low-cost photography and introduced the concept of the snapshot. The first Brownie was introduced in February 1900,\n\nBULLET::::- 1900 – The first zeppelin flight occurs over Lake Constance near Friedrichshafen, Germany on July 2, 1900.\n\nBULLET::::- 1901 – First electric typewriter is invented by George Canfield Blickensderfer of Erie, Pennsylvania. It was part of a line of Blickensderfer typewriters, known for its portability.\n", "In the English-speaking world, a name for the decade was never universally accepted in the same manner as for decades such as the '80s and the '90s. Orthographically, the decade can be written as the \"2000s\" or the 00s\". Common suggestions for referring to this decade: \"2000s\", \"Two-thousands\", \"Twenty Hundreds\", \"Twenty-ohs\", \"00s\" (pronounced \"Ohs\", \"Oh Ohs\", \"Double Ohs\" or \"Ooze\", \"Zeros\", \"Double Zeros\"), \"the Noughties\", \"the Noughts\", \"the Aughts\", \"the Aughties\", \"the Oughties\". Other suggestions from 45 countries suggest the \"double nothings\", \"zilches\", \"oh-zone\", \"oh-something\". When the \"20–\" is dropped, the individual years within the decade are usually referred to as starting with an \"oh\", such as \"oh-seven\" to refer to the year 2007. During the decade of the 2000s, it was more common to hear years referred to starting with \"two-thousand (and)\" rather than \"twenty-oh\". Starting around the middle of the 2010s, it became more common to refer to the individual years of the previous decade as \"twenty-oh-seven\" or \"twenty-oh-eight\" than it had been during the 2000s, although the \"two thousand (and)\" pattern is still far more common.\n", "The genesis of \"Twentieth Century\" was \"Napoleon of Broadway\", a play by Charles Bruce Millholland about his experiences in working for the legendary and eccentric Broadway producer David Belasco.\n", "Section::::Songs.\n\nBULLET::::- Act I\n\nBULLET::::- Stranded Again – Bishop, Actors, Singers\n\nBULLET::::- Saddle Up the Horse – Owen O'Malley & Oliver Webb\n\nBULLET::::- On the Twentieth Century – Porters, Letitia, Conductor, Flanagan, Rogers, Passengers\n\nBULLET::::- I Rise Again – Oscar Jaffe, Owen & Oliver\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Maiden's Lament – Imelda & Mildred Plotka\n\nBULLET::::- Veronique – Lily Garland & Male Singers\n\nBULLET::::- I Have Written a Play – Conductor Flanagan\n\nBULLET::::- Together – Poters & Passengers, Oliver\n\nBULLET::::- Never – Lily, Owen, & Oliver\n", "Section::::The search for a method.\n\nBadiou conceives of the century as a duration and concentrates upon the \"short century\" of 75 years, beginning with the wars of 1914-18 (including the Russian Revolution of 1917) and closing with the collapse of the USSR and the end of the Cold War.\n", "Millennium celebrations\n\nThe millennium celebrations were a worldwide, coordinated series of events celebrating the end of 1999 and the start of the year 2000 in the Gregorian calendar. Notwithstanding the debate about the technical method of calculating the official changeover, these celebrations were characterized as marking the end of the 20th century and the 2nd millennium, and the beginning of the 21st century and the 3rd millennium.\n", "19th century\n\nThe 19th (nineteenth) century was a century that began on January 1, 1801, and ended on December 31, 1900. It is often used interchangeably with the 1800s, though the start and end dates differ by a year.\n", "The band was formed while most of the members were still attending high school. They experimented with several names such as \"Modern Poets\" and kept this name for two shows before changing it to \"Evident Earth\". They finally decided on \"This Century\" after guitarist Silverman jokingly said they're \"lucky if we come up with a band name some time this century\".\n\nSection::::History.:Early EP's (2007–2009).\n", "Section::::Similar conventions in other languages.\n" ]	[ "The 2000s should be called the 20th century and the 1900s should be called the 19th. " ]	[ "The first century starts from year 0 to 100. Therefore when calculating, it is not incorrect to state that we currently live in the 21st century. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The 2000s should be called the 20th century and the 1900s should be called the 19th. ", "The 2000s should be called the 20th century and the 1900s should be called the 19th. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The first century starts from year 0 to 100. Therefore when calculating, it is not incorrect to state that we currently live in the 21st century. ", "The first century starts from year 0 to 100. Therefore when calculating, it is not incorrect to state that we currently live in the 21st century. " ]
2018-19573	How fast would you have to drive over a landmine (or minefield) not to be affected by the resulting explosion(s)?	As fast or faster than the shrapnel being expelled from the landmine you just ran over. It's all relative. For example, a claymore has a muzzle velocity of 1218 meters per second. If you are going faster than that there's no way it can catch you.	[ "Secondary injuries from a blast mine are often caused by the material that has been torn loose by the mine's explosion. This consists of the soil and stones that were on top of the mine, parts of the victim's footwear and the small bones in the victim's foot. This debris creates wounds typical of similar secondary blast effects or fragmentation. Special footwear, including combat boots or so-called \"blast boots\", is only moderately protective against the destructive effects of blast mines, and the loss of a foot is a typical outcome.\n", "There are also several ways of making vehicles resistant to the effects of a mine detonation to reduce the chance of crew injury. In case of a mine's blast effect, this can be done by absorbing the blast energy, deflecting it away from the vehicle hull or increasing the distance between the crew and the points where wheels touch the ground–where any detonations are likely to centre.\n", "The amount of explosive in a VS-Mk 2 mine is comparatively small in relation to other anti-personnel mines because it is designed to disable victims, not kill them. Although the blast wound from an VS-Mk 2 is unlikely to be fatal (assuming that prompt emergency medical care is provided) it usually destroys a significant part of the victim's foot, thereby leading to some form of permanent disability regarding their gait. However, in situations where the victims are barefoot or wearing sandals, the blast wounds are more severe.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Weight: 135 g\n", "The resulting injuries to a human body depend on the size of the mine's main charge, the depth, type of soil it was laid in and how the victim contacted it, e.g. stepping on the mine, using all or part of the foot. Different types of soil will result in different amounts of energy being transferred upward into the subject's foot, with saturated \"clay-like\" soil transferring the most. Larger main charges result in a release of significantly more energy, driving the blast wave further up a target's foot and leg and causing greater injury, in some cases even described as severe as traumatic amputation of the leg up to the knee.\n", "To put things in perspective, most anti-personnel blast mines (e.g. the VS-50) contain around 50 grams of explosive, which is enough to destroy all or part of a victim's foot. In marked contrast, the 300 gram charge inside a Gyata-64 mine can easily destroy a victim's entire leg (often requiring amputation high above the knee) in addition to inflicting severe injuries on the adjacent limb, which may also require some form of amputation.\n", "BULLET::::- It must throw enough fragments so that at a range of it achieves a 100 percent strike rate on a target (man sized)\n\nBULLET::::- The fragment area must not be more than high and no more than 60 degrees wide\n\nBULLET::::- Fragments must have a velocity of per second providing 58 foot-pounds (79 joules) of kinetic energy delivered to the target.\n", "Blast mines have little effect on armoured vehicles, but can damage a wheeled vehicle if it runs directly over the mine. Small blast mines will severely damage a tire, rendering it irreparable while some types could also damage adjacent running gear.\n\nSection::::Blast mines.:Components.\n\nSection::::Blast mines.:Components.:Mine casing.\n", "First used in World War I with tanks, rollers are designed to detonate mines; blast-resistant vehicles with steel wheels, such as the Casspir, serve a similar purpose. However, those used in humanitarian demining cannot withstand the blast from an anti-tank mine, so their use must be preceded by careful surveying. Unlike flails and tillers, they only destroy functioning mines, and even those do not always explode.\n", "When a person steps on a blast mine and activates it, the mine's main charge detonates, creating a blast shock wave consisting of hot gases travelling at extremely high velocity. The shock wave sends a huge compressive force upwards, ejecting the mine casing and any soil covering the mine along with it. When the blast wave hits the surface, it quickly transfers the force into the subject's footwear and foot. This results in a massive compression force being applied. In most cases, the victim's foot is blown off by the blast wave.\n", "Land mines were commonly deployed by insurgents during the South African Border War, leading directly to the development of the first dedicated mine-protected armoured vehicles in South Africa. Namibian insurgents used anti-tank mines to throw South African military convoys into disarray before attacking them. To discourage detection and removal efforts, they also laid anti-personnel mines directly parallel to the anti-tank mines. This initially resulted in heavy South African military and police casualties, as the vast distances of road network vulnerable to insurgent sappers every day made comprehensive detection and clearance efforts impractical. The only other viable option was the adoption of mine-protected vehicles which could remain mobile on the roads with little risk to their passengers even if a mine was detonated. South Africa is widely credited with inventing the v-hull, a vee-shaped hull for armoured vehicles which deflects mine blasts away from the passenger compartment.\n", "The SLAM is compact and weighs only 1 kilogram, so it is easily man-portable. The SLAM is intended for use against APCs, parked aircraft, wheeled or tracked vehicles, stationary targets (such as electrical transformers), small fuel-storage tanks (less than ), and ammunition storage facilities. When the mine is triggered, the Monroe effect generates a copper explosively formed penetrator (EFP), which can penetrate 40 millimeters of armor at a range of eight meters.\n", "Usually (though not always) trip-wires measuring around 20 feet (6 meters) in length are fitted to this mine in order to increase its activation area. When tracking trip-wires back to their source, deminers must keep in mind that other landmines may have been planted along its length. It is all too easy to concentrate on following a trip-wire back to its source, forgetting that there could be PMA-3, PMN or similar blast mines lying buried underneath.\n\nThe mine has been found in Angola, Bosnia, Chile, Croatia, Eritrea, Iraq, Kosovo, Mozambique and Namibia.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Diameter: 75 mm\n", "A second technique involves the use of tilt or pull, rather than downward pressure to trigger the mine. An example of a mine using this technique is the Valmara 69.\n\nA third technique involves the use of a pressure plate with a small surface area yet broad ground coverage like the M1 mine. This is less effective than the first two techniques, but much simpler to implement.\n\nSection::::Non-pressure blast resistant fuzes.\n", "It was because of this threat that some of the first successful mine protected vehicles were developed by South African military and police forces. Chief amongst these were the Buffel and Casspir armoured personnel carriers and Ratel armoured fighting vehicle. They employed v-shaped hulls that deflected the blast force away from occupants. In most cases occupants survived anti-tank mine detonations with only minor injuries. The vehicles themselves could often be repaired by replacing the wheels or some drive train components that were designed to be modular and replaceable for exactly this reason.\n", "Mechanical demining techniques have some challenges. In steep, undulating terrain they may skip over some of the ground. Operators can be endangered by defective mines or mines with delay charges that detonate after the blast shield has passed over; shaped charge mines that are capable of piercing most armor; and intelligent mines that are off to the side and use a variety of sensors to decide when to fire a rocket at an armored vehicle. One answer is to use remote controlled vehicles such as the Caterpillar D7 MCAP (United States) and the Caterpillar D9 (Israel).\n\nSection::::Conventional detection methods.:Mechanical.:Smart prodders.\n", "BULLET::::- The Electric Pulse attacks any opponents close to the vehicle, and temporarily cuts their power.\n\nBULLET::::- The Oil Spill weapon spills oil on to the track behind the car, which will affect the handling of any opponents unlucky enough to drive over it.\n\nBULLET::::- The Bouncing Mines are dropped from behind the vehicle, and will bounce around the track for a short while, until hit and detonated. They can also be thrown forwards with a press of the UP key when firing. This weapon also comes in a pack of 3.\n", "Detection and removal of landmines is a dangerous activity, and personal protective equipment does not protect against all types of landmine. Once found, mines are generally defused or blown up with more explosives, but it is possible to destroy them with certain chemicals or extreme heat without making them explode.\n\nSection::::Land mines.\n", "In pressure fuzed landmines this is achieved by having the fuze react differently based on the duration of the pressure impulse. For example, a number of Italian landmines like the VS-1.6 use an air system, where air is forced through a small hole into an air bladder, the inflation of which rotates a locking collar and releases the striker into the detonator. The sudden impulse from impact or explosion does not have sufficient duration to inflate the bladder and rotate the locking collar, whereas steady pressure from a vehicle's wheel or track does.\n", "Due to the critical standoff necessary for penetration and the development of standoff neutralization technologies, shaped charge off-route mines using the Munroe effect are more rarely encountered, though the British/French/German ARGES mine with a tandem warhead is an example of one of the more successful.\n\nThe term \"off-route mine\" refers to purpose designed and manufactured anti-tank mines. Explosively Formed Projectiles (EFPs) are one type of IED that was used in Iraq, but most \"home made\" IEDs are not employed in this manner.\n\nSection::::Countermeasures.\n", "According to Trevor Davies Engineering, manufacturer of the Pookie, \"...of the 76 vehicles built between 1976 and 1980 none ever detonated a mine, though 12 were lost and two drivers were killed.\" Remotely detonated mines were responsible for the loss of the 12 vehicles and one of the fatalities, though it is not clear if the remaining fatality, caused by an RPG, also resulted in the loss of vehicle and if that loss was included in the previous count.\n", "Blast resistant mine\n\nA Blast resistant mine is a landmine (intended for anti-tank or anti-personnel purposes) with a fuze which is designed to be insensitive to the shock wave from a nearby explosion. This feature makes it difficult or impossible to clear such mines using explosive minefield breaching techniques. As a result, the process of clearing minefields is slower and more complex. Blast resistance can be achieved in a number of ways.\n\nSection::::Pressure blast resistant fuzes.\n", "BULLET::::- Engine and suspension must be able to handle payload weight of 9000 lb at speeds up to 62 mph on improved “paved” roads\n\nBULLET::::- Operate by 1 Soldier with ability to transport 6 additional Soldiers / EOD variant will have 1 operator with ability to transport 3 additional Soldiers and 2 robots\n\nBULLET::::- Designed for quick repair ( 8 hrs repair time after blast) in the field after a mine blast\n\nBULLET::::- Initial maintenance provided through CLS. Battle damage repair kits and detailed manuals need to be provided. Manuals need to go through full VAL/VERA\n", "Despite advances in mine detection technology, \"mine detection boils down to rows of nervous people wearing blast-resistant clothing and creeping laboriously across a field, prodding the ground ahead to check for buried objects.\" Often, especially when the soil is hard, they unwittingly apply too much force and risk detonating a mine. Prodders have been developed that provide feedback on the amount of force.\n\nSection::::Detection methods under development.\n", "The mine can be detonated by any mechanism that activates the blasting cap. There are field-expedient methods of detonating the mine by tripwire, or by a timer, but these are rarely used.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Once the mine lands, it launches seven tripwires before arming itself. Any disturbance of the tripwires will trigger the mine. The mine is entirely electrically detonated, if the battery level of the mine drops below a pre-set level - the mine self-destructs. Even if the mine does not self-destruct, the battery will fully discharge after 14 days, rendering the mine inactive.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02233	Why did adultery become decriminalised in many western countries?	In a secular society, a marriage is just a contract. There are no criminal penalties for violating other types of contracts (aside from things like fraud,) and no harm to society from violating a marriage contract. So it makes no sense to criminalize a matter that's ultimately between two people, when there's already civil courts to deal with the financial consequences of adultery (i.e divorce, alimony, division of assets, etc)	[ "Many couples of the time chose to petition on the grounds of adultery, even when no adultery had been committed. In this situation, a popular solution was what was known as \"hotel evidence\": the man and an uninvolved woman would travel to a seaside resort for a weekend, and go around publicly and ostentatiously as husband and wife. In the morning, they would take great care to be observed by the chambermaid in bed together when she brought in their breakfast. The pair would return home, and when the case came to court the maid would be called on to give evidence as a witness to this fictitious \"adultery\". After the trial, there would then be a six-month waiting period until the \"decree nisi\" granted at the trial was made absolute, and any misconduct by the \"innocent\" party in this time—or any evidence of collusion coming to light—could annul the divorce.\n", "Adultery is no longer a crime in any European country. Adultery was decriminalised in England and Wales in 1857. The change also applied in some British territories of the British Empire and was adopted in others. Among the last Western European countries to decriminalised adultery were Italy (1969), Malta (1973), Luxembourg (1974), France (1975), Spain (1978), Portugal (1982), Greece (1983), Belgium (1987), Switzerland (1989), and Austria (1997).\n", "As of 2019, adultery is a criminal offense in 19 states, but prosecutions are rare. Pennsylvania abolished its fornication and adultery laws in 1973. States which have decriminalised adultery in recent years include West Virginia (2010), Colorado (2013), New Hampshire (2014), Massachusetts (2018), and Utah (2019). In the last conviction for adultery in Massachusetts in 1983, it was held that the statute was constitutional and that \"no fundamental personal privacy right implicit in the concept of ordered liberty guaranteed by the United States Constitution bars the criminal prosecution of such persons [adulterers].\" \n", "Until the 1990s, most Latin American countries had laws against adultery. Adultery has been decriminalized in most of these countries, including Paraguay (1990), Chile (1994), Argentina (1995), Nicaragua (1996), Dominican Republic (1997), Brazil (2005), and Haiti (2005). In some countries, adultery laws have been struck down by courts on the ground that they discriminated against women, such as Guatemala (1996), where the Guatemalan Constitutional Court struck down the adultery law based both on the Constitution's gender equality clause and on human rights treaties including CEDAW. The adultery law of the Federal Criminal Code of Mexico was repealed in 2011.\n", "The United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice is deeply concerned at the criminalization and penalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women.\n", "However, even in jurisdictions that have decriminalised adultery, it may still have legal consequences, particularly in jurisdictions with fault-based divorce laws, where adultery almost always constitutes a ground for divorce and may be a factor in property settlement, the custody of children, the denial of alimony, etc. Adultery is not a ground for divorce in jurisdictions which have adopted a no-fault divorce model. \n", "In most Communist countries adultery was not a crime. Romania was an exception, where adultery was a crime until 2006, though the crime of adultery had a narrow definition, excluding situations where the other spouse encouraged the act or when the act happened at a time the couple was living separate and apart; and in practice prosecutions were extremely rare.\n", "However, even in jurisdictions that have decriminalised adultery, adultery may still have legal consequences, particularly in jurisdictions with fault-based divorce laws, where adultery almost always constitutes a ground for divorce and may be a factor in property settlement, the custody of children, the denial of alimony, etc. Adultery is not a ground for divorce in jurisdictions which have adopted a no-fault divorce model, but may still be a factor in child custody and property disputes.\n", "The United States is one of few industrialized countries to have laws criminalizing adultery. In the United States, laws vary from state to state. Until the mid 20th century most U.S. states (especially Southern and Northeastern states) had laws against fornication, adultery or cohabitation. These laws have gradually been abolished or struck down by courts as unconstitutional. \n", "In India, adultery is the sexual intercourse of a man with a married woman without the consent of her husband when such sexual intercourse does not amount to rape. It was a non-cognizable, non-bailable criminal offence, until the relevant law was overturned by the Supreme Court of India on 27 September 2018.\n\nSection::::Punishment.\n", "Laws against adultery have been named as invasive and incompatible with principles of limited government (see Dennis J. Baker, The Right Not to be Criminalized: Demarcating Criminal Law's Authority (Ashgate) chapter 2). Much of the criticism comes from libertarianism, the consensus among whose adherents is that government must not intrude into daily personal lives and that such disputes are to be settled privately rather than prosecuted and penalized by public entities. It is also argued that adultery laws are rooted in religious doctrines; which should not be the case for laws in a secular state.\n", "Children born out of adultery suffered, until recently, adverse legal and social consequences. In France, for instance, a law that stated that the inheritance rights of a child born under such circumstances were, on the part of the married parent, half of what they would have been under ordinary circumstances, remained in force until 2001, when France was forced to change it by a ruling of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) (and in 2013, the ECtHR also ruled that the new 2001 regulations must be also applied to children born \"before\" 2001).\n", "All countries in Europe, as well as most countries in Latin America have decriminalized adultery; however, in many countries in Africa and Asia (particularly the Middle East) this type of infidelity is criminalized. Even where infidelity is not a criminal offense, it may have legal implications in divorce cases; for example it may be a factor in property settlement, the custody of children, the denial of alimony, etc. In civil claims, not only the spouse, but also the \"other man/other woman\" may be held accountable: for example, seven US states (Hawaii, Illinois, North Carolina, Mississippi, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Utah) allow the possibility of the tort action of alienation of affections (brought by a deserted spouse against a third party alleged to be responsible for the failure of the marriage). In a highly publicized case in 2010, a woman in North Carolina won a $9 million suit against her husband's mistress. In the United States, criminal laws relating to infidelity vary, and those states that criminalize adultery rarely prosecute the offense. Penalties for adultery range from life imprisonment in Michigan, to a $10 fine in Maryland or class 1 felony in Wisconsin. The constitutionality of US criminal laws on adultery is unclear due to Supreme Court decisions in 1965 giving privacy of sexual intimacy to consenting adults, as well as broader implications of \"Lawrence v. Texas\" (2003). Adultery is declared to be illegal in 21 states.\n", "Another issue is the issue of paternity of a child. The application of the term to the act appears to arise from the idea that \"criminal intercourse with a married woman ... tended to adulterate the issue [children] of an innocent husband ... and to expose him to support and provide for another man's [children]\". Thus, the \"purity\" of the children of a marriage is corrupted, and the inheritance is altered.\n", "Concerns exist that the existence of \"adultery\" as a criminal offense (and even in family law) can affect the criminal justice process in cases of domestic assaults and killings, in particular by mitigating murder to manslaughter, or otherwise proving for partial or complete defenses in case of violence. These concerns have been officially raised by the Council of Europe and the UN in recent years. The Council of Europe Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of women against violence states that member states should: (...) \"57. preclude adultery as an excuse for violence within the family\". UN Women has also stated in regard to the defense of provocation and other similar defenses that \"laws should clearly state that these defenses do not include or apply to crimes of 'honour', adultery, or domestic assault or murder.\"\n", "Adultery is a crime in Taiwan and the Philippines. In the Philippines, the law differentiates based on the gender of the spouse. A wife can be charged with adultery, while a husband can only be charged with the related crime of concubinage, which is more loosely defined (it requires either keeping the mistress in the family home, or cohabiting with her, or having sexual relations under scandalous circumstances). There are currently proposals to decriminalize adultery in the Philippines.\n", "Historically, many cultures considered adultery a very serious crime, some subject to severe punishment, usually for the woman and sometimes for the man, with penalties including capital punishment, mutilation, or torture. Such punishments have gradually fallen into disfavor, especially in Western countries from the 19th century. In countries where adultery is still a criminal offense, punishments range from fines to caning and even capital punishment. Since the 20th century, criminal laws against adultery have become controversial, with most Western countries decriminalising adultery. \n", "Historically, many cultures considered adultery a very serious crime, some subject to severe punishment, usually for the woman and sometimes for the man, with penalties including capital punishment, mutilation, or torture. Such punishments have gradually fallen into disfavor, especially in Western countries from the 19th century. In countries where adultery is still a criminal offense, punishments range from fines to caning and even capital punishment. Since the 20th century, criminal laws against adultery have become controversial, with most Western countries decriminalising adultery. \n", "In Pakistan, adultery is a crime under the Hudood Ordinance, promulgated in 1979. The Ordinance sets a maximum penalty of death. The Ordinance has been particularly controversial because it requires a woman making an accusation of rape to provide extremely strong evidence to avoid being charged with adultery herself. A conviction for rape is only possible with evidence from no fewer than four witnesses. In recent years high-profile rape cases in Pakistan have given the Ordinance more exposure than similar laws in other countries. Similar laws exist in some other Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Brunei.\n", "In common-law countries, adultery was also known as \"criminal conversation.\" This became the name of the civil tort arising from adultery, being based upon compensation for the other spouse's injury. Criminal conversation was usually referred to by lawyers as \"crim. con.\", and was abolished in England in 1857, and the Republic of Ireland in 1976. Another tort, alienation of affection, arises when one spouse deserts the other for a third person. This act was also known as desertion, which was often a crime as well. A small number of jurisdictions still allow suits for criminal conversation and/or alienation of affection. In the United States, six states still maintain this tort.\n", "Opponents of adultery laws regard them as painfully archaic, believing they represent sanctions reminiscent of nineteenth-century novels. They further object to the legislation of morality, especially a morality so steeped in religious doctrine. Support for the preservation of the adultery laws comes from religious groups and from political parties who feel quite independent of morality, that the government has reason to concern itself with the consensual sexual activity of its citizens … The crucial question is: when, if ever, is the government justified to interfere in consensual bedroom affairs?\n", "In some societies the law punishes the \"intruder\", rather than the adulterous spouse. For instance art 266 of the Penal Code of South Sudan reads: \"Whoever, has consensual sexual intercourse with a man or woman who is and whom he or she has reason to believe to be the spouse of another person, commits the offence of adultery [...]\". Similarly, under the adultery law in India (Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code, until overturned by the Supreme Court in 2018) it was a criminal offense for a man to have consensual sexual intercourse with a married woman, without the consent of her husband (no party was criminally punished in case of adultery between a married man and an unmarried woman).\n", "Human rights organizations have stated that legislation on sexual crimes must be based on consent, and must recognize consent as central, and not trivialize its importance; doing otherwise can lead to legal, social or ethical abuses. Amnesty International, when condemning stoning legislation that targets adultery, among other acts, has referred to \"acts which should never be criminalized in the first place, including consensual sexual relations between adults\". Salil Shetty, Amnesty International's Secretary General, said: \"It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activityeven punishable by death.\" The \"My Body My Rights\" campaign has condemned state control over individual sexual and reproductive decisions; stating \"All over the world, people are coerced, criminalized and discriminated against, simply for making choices about their bodies and their lives\".\n", "In the traditional English common law, adultery was a felony. Although the legal definition of \"adultery\" differs in nearly every legal system, the common theme is sexual relations outside of marriage, in one form or another. \n\nTraditionally, many cultures, particularly Latin American ones, had strong double standards regarding male and female adultery, with the latter being seen as a much more serious violation.\n", "In Muslim countries that follow Sharia law for criminal justice, the punishment for adultery may be stoning. There are fifteen countries in which stoning is authorized as lawful punishment, though in recent times it has been legally carried out only in Iran and Somalia. Most countries that criminalize adultery are those where the dominant religion is Islam, and several Sub-Saharan African Christian-majority countries, but there are some notable exceptions to this rule, namely Philippines, Taiwan, and several U.S. states. In some jurisdictions, having sexual relations with the king's wife or the wife of his eldest son constitutes treason. \n\nSection::::Overview.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16413	How does flash paper not leave any ash when burned?	The paper or cotton are treated with Nitric and sulfuric acid. The process uses nitric acid to convert cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water because chemistry!	[ "The residue left after complete combustion of paper at high temperature is known as ash content of the paper. It is generally expressed as percent of the original test sample and represents filler content in the paper. Ash content is not an important property of paper but it helps to know the level of fillers in the paper and grade of papers.\n\nSection::::Paper test.:Miscellaneous properties.:pH of paper.\n", "BULLET::::3. Experimental process: If the ashes are exposed to the environment between combustion and the analysis, oxides may convert back to carbonates by reacting with carbon dioxide in the air.\n\nBULLET::::4. Type, age, and growing environment of the wood stock affect the composition of the wood, and thus the ash.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Measurements.\n\nTypically between 0.43 and 1.82 percent of the mass of burned wood (dry basis) results in ash. Also the conditions of the combustion affect the composition and amount of the residue ash, thus higher temperature will reduce ash yield.\n", "BULLET::::1. Fly ash: Some studies include the solids escaping via the flue during combustion, while others do not.\n\nBULLET::::2. Temperature of combustion produces two direct effects:\n\nBULLET::::- Dissociation: Conversion of carbonates, sulfides, etc., to oxides results in no carbon, sulfur, carbonates, or sulfides. Some metallic oxides (e.g. mercuric oxide) even dissociate to their elemental state and/or vaporize completely at wood fire temperatures.\n\nBULLET::::- Volatilization: In studies in which the fly ash is not measured, some combustion products may not be present at all.\n", "Quantitative filter paper, also called ash-free filter paper, is used for quantitative and gravimetric analysis. During the manufacturing, producer use acid to make the paper ash-less and achieve high purity.\n\nSection::::Laboratory filters.:Chromatography Papers.\n\nChromatography is a method chemists use to separate compounds. This type of filter paper has specific water flow rate and absorption speed to maximize the result of paper chromatography. The absorption speed of this type of filter paper is from 6 cm to 18 cm and the thickness is from 0.17 mm from 0.93 mm.\n\nSection::::Laboratory filters.:Extraction Thimbles.\n", "Although not strictly a dust, paper particles emitted during processing - especially rolling, unrolling, calendaring/slitting, and sheet-cutting - are also known to pose an explosion hazard. Enclosed paper mill areas subject to such dangers commonly maintain very high air humidities to reduce the chance of airborne paper dust explosions.\n\nIn special effects pyrotechnics, lycopodium powder and non-dairy creamer are two common means of producing safe, controlled fire effects.\n", "It insulates fires by melting at approximately 350–400 degrees F. Class A fires are caused by the burning of common combustible materials, such as wood, paper, or most plastics.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Burning liquids and gases.\n\nThe powder breaks the chain reaction of by coating the surface to which it is applied. These fires (Class B in the American system; Classes B and C in the European and Australian systems) include the burning of gasoline, oil, propane, and natural gas.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Electrical fires.\n", "The scraped bark strips are then cooked for two or three hours in a mixture of water and soda ash. The fibre is cooked enough when it can easily be pulled apart lengthwise. The strips are then rinsed several times in clean water to rinse off the soda ash. Rinsing also makes the fibre brighter and whiter—fine kozo paper is not bleached, but is naturally pure white.\n", "Some pulps are flash dried. This is done by pressing the pulp to about 50 percent moisture content and then let it fall through silos that are 15–17 m high. Gas fired hot air is the normal heat source. The temperature is well above the char point of cellulose, but large amount of moisture in the fibre wall and lumen prevents the fibres from being incinerated. It is often not dried down to 10 percent moisture (air dry). The bales are not as densely packed as air dry pulp.\n\nSection::::Environmental concerns.\n", "BULLET::::1. Loss on Ignition (LOI): fly ash loses weight when it burns at about 1000 °C due to presence of carbon and water. The weight loss happens due to carbon combustion and moisture evaporation is called \"Loss on Ignition(LOI)\". This is expressed as percentage. The lower the loss of Ignition, the better will be fly ash. As per BIS it should not be more than 5%.\n", "Section::::Original use.\n", "BULLET::::8. One single sheet of Hanji is now made, which is pressed between heavy stones to dry, and placed in a warm room. They do not dry them near fire, because gradually drying them with a warm temperature causes the paper to be more tough and durable.\n", "Ashes as the end product of incomplete combustion will be mostly mineral, but usually still contain an amount of combustible organic or other oxidizable residues. The best-known type of ash is wood ash, as a product of wood combustion in campfires, fireplaces, etc. The darker the wood ashes, the higher the content of remaining charcoal will be due to incomplete combustion.\n\nLike soap, ash is also a disinfecting agent (alkaline). The World Health Organization recommends ash or sand as alternative when soap is not available.\n\nSection::::Specific types.\n\nBULLET::::- Wood ash\n\nBULLET::::- Products of coal combustion\n\nBULLET::::- Bottom ash\n", "Unreacted acid was removed from pyrocellulose pulp by a multistage draining and water washing process similar to that used in paper mills during production of chemical woodpulp. Pressurized alcohol removed remaining water from drained pyrocellulose prior to mixing with ether and diphenylamine. The mixture was then fed through a press extruding a long tubular cord form to be cut into grains of the desired length.\n", "Section::::Chemical composition and classification.:Class F.\n\nThe burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 7% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, adding a chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can form a geopolymer.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition and classification.:Class C.\n", "The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of microcrystalline cellulose to the paper. Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create \"fire-safe\" cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self-extinguish. This fire-safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry.\n", "Ash content represents the incombustible component remaining after a sample of the furnace oil is completely burned. The ash content of petroleum products is generally low. It is defined as inorganic residue that remains after combustion of the oil in air at specific high temperature. Ash ranges from 0.1%-0.2%. The ash content of a fuel is a measure of the amount of inorganic noncombustible material it contains. Some of the ash forming constituents occur naturally in crude oil; others are present as a result of refining or contamination during storage or distribution.\n", "Volcanic ash in the immediate vicinity of the eruption plume is different in particle size range and density than that in downwind dispersal clouds, which contain only the finest particle sizes of ash. Experts have not established the ash loading that affects normal engine operation (other than engine lifetime and maintenance costs). Whether this silica-melt risk remains at the much lower ash densities characteristic of downstream ash clouds is currently unclear.\n", "Section::::No noxious emissions and low leachability of EMCs.\n\nThe EMC activation of fly ash is a mechanical process, and does not involve heating or burning. Leachability tests were performed by LTU in 2001 in Sweden on behalf of a Swedish power production company. These tests confirmed that EMC made from fly ash \"showed a low surface specific leachability\" with respect to \"all environmentally relevant metals.\" \n\nSection::::EMCs using California volcanic ash.\n", "Given sufficient time under fire or heat conditions, these products char away, crumble, and disappear. The idea is to put enough of this material in the way of the fire that a level of fire-resistance rating can be maintained, as demonstrated in a fire test. Ablative materials usually have a large concentration of organic matter that is reduced by fire to ashes. In the case of silicone, organic rubber surrounds very finely divided silica dust (up to 380 m² of combined surface area of all the dust particles per gram of this dust). When the organic rubber is exposed to fire, it burns to ash and leaves behind the silica dust with which the product started.\n", "Section::::Safety.:Canadian food and drug regulations.\n\nThe Canadian government requires that the bay leaves contain no more than 4.5% total ash material with a maximum of 0.5% of which is insoluble in hydrochloric acid. To be considered dried it has to contain 7% moisture or less. The oil content cannot be less than 1 milliliter per 100 grams of the spice. \n", "BULLET::::3. Bean or buckwheat stems are burned, and their ashes are put into water to boil the Baekpi for 4–5 hours.\n\nBULLET::::4. The Baekpi is washed, removing any remaining bark and soil.\n\nBULLET::::5. The skinned and cleaned Baekpi is placed on a flat stone board and pounded (\"Gohae\") for about an hour.\n\nBULLET::::6. The mucus from abelmoschus manihot (Dakpul) is applied onto the bark. This helps the paper stay together for a long time, and does not contain any harmful chemicals.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alkali–silica reaction (ASR)\n\nBULLET::::- Alkali–aggregate reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Cement\n\nBULLET::::- Energetically modified cement (EMC)\n\nBULLET::::- Health effects of coal ash\n\nBULLET::::- Pozzolanic reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Silica fume\n\nBULLET::::- Cenocell\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Evaluation of Dust Exposures at Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Union Bridge, MD, a NIOSH Report, HETA 2000-0309-2857\n\nBULLET::::- Determination of Airborne Crystalline Silica Treatise by NIOSH\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coal Ash: 130 Million Tons of Waste\" \"60 Minutes\" (Oct. 4, 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- American Coal Ash Association\n\nBULLET::::- United States Geological Survey - Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash (document)\n\nBULLET::::- Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility: Coal Combustion Waste\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.\n\nKingsford Charcoal is made from charred softwoods such as pine and spruce which is then mixed with ground coal and other ingredients to make a charcoal briquette. As of January 2016, Kingsford Charcoal contains the following ingredients:\n\nBULLET::::- Wood char - Fuel for heating\n\nBULLET::::- Mineral char - Fuel for heating\n\nBULLET::::- Mineral carbon - Fuel for heating\n\nBULLET::::- Limestone - Binding agent\n\nBULLET::::- Starch - Binding agent\n\nBULLET::::- Borax - Release agent\n\nBULLET::::- Sawdust - Speed up ignition\n", "Ash content may be determined as air dried basis and on oven dried basis. The main difference between the two is that the latter is determined after expelling the moisture content in the sample of coal\n\nSection::::Chemical properties of coal.:Fixed carbon.\n", "Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement is particularly suitable but not limited to Class C fly ashes. Class \"F\" fly ashes can have volatile effects on the entrained air content of concrete, causing reduced resistance to freeze/thaw damage. Fly ash often replaces up to 30% by mass of Portland cement, but can be used in higher dosages in certain applications. In some cases, fly ash can add to the concrete's final strength and increase its chemical resistance and durability.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "All paper leaves ash when burned." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Nitric acid converts cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water leaves no ash when burned." ]
2018-14991	How does the military (any military) do air-to-air weapons testing?	They have drones. Sometimes there are purpose built drones like the [Chukar]( URL_0 ), sometimes they'll rig a mothballed old fighter from the boneyards in Arizona and remote control it. The 82nd aerial targets unit out of Tyndall AFB fly old F-4s as full size targets.	[ "APR 85 - JAN 90: Colonel G R Owens\n\nJAN 90 - MAY 93: Colonel S A S Hill\n\nMAY 93 - DEC 96: Colonel R M A Joy\n\nDEC 96 - MAY 98: Colonel T R Bradwell\n\nCommanding Officer JATEU\n\nMAY 98 - AUG 99: Wing Commander C M Eames RAF\n\nAUG 99 - AUG 01: Lieutenant Colonel T Mills REME\n\nAUG 01 - AUG 03: Lieutenant Colonel A D Teare REME\n\nAUG 03 - APR 06: Lieutenant Colonel M Oakes REME\n\nAPR 06 - APR 07: Lieutenant Colonel T A Gyorffy REME\n\nCommanding Officer JADTEU\n", "Flight testing of military aircraft is often conducted at military flight test facilities. The US Navy tests aircraft at Naval Air Station Patuxent River and the US Air Force at Edwards Air Force Base. The U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School and the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School are the programs designed to teach military test personnel. In the UK, most military flight testing is conducted by three organizations, the RAF, BAE Systems and QinetiQ. For minor upgrades the testing may be conducted by one of these three organizations in isolation, but major programs are normally conducted by a joint trials team (JTT), with all three organizations working together under the umbrella of an integrated project team (IPT) airspace.\n", "1987 in aviation\n\nThis is a list of aviation-related events from 1987:\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- Lauda Air begins scheduled service.\n\nSection::::Events.:January.\n\nBULLET::::- During January and February, the United States Navy conducts proof-of-concept tests of Pioneer (later RQ-2 Pioneer) unmanned aerial vehicles aboard the battleship in the Caribbean to see if they can spot effectively for naval gunfire. Although four of the five Pioneers are lost during the tests, they demonstrate their ability to detect targets for \"Iowa\"s 16-inch (406-mm) guns.\n", "Inception (Old Sarum)\n", "Flying Section (Became part of the Herc Operational Evaluation Unit in 1998):\n", "The Center has tested all the aircraft types in the Air Force inventory, and the center's work force—civilian, military and contractor—work together to flight test and evaluate new aircraft and upgrades to aircraft already in inventory for Air Force units, the Department of Defense, NASA and other government agencies. Upgrades to be tested here include improvements to radar, weapons-delivery and navigation systems, and a system to give tactical pilots the ability to strike ground targets from low altitudes at night and in adverse weather.\n", "BULLET::::- 461st Flight Test Squadron: 27 October 2006 – Present (F-35 Joint Strike Fighter)\n\nBULLET::::- 6514th Test Squadron: 5 May 1970 – 18 September 1973 (UAV/Drones)\n\nSchools\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School: 1 March 1978–present\n\nSection::::Lineage.:Stations.\n\nBULLET::::- Muroc Army Air Field, California, 29 November 1943\n\nBULLET::::- Palmdale Army Air Field, California, 1 June 1944\n\nBULLET::::- Bakersfield Municipal Airport, California, 11 October 1944\n\nBULLET::::- Santa Maria Army Air Field, California, 10 July 1945\n\nBULLET::::- March Field, California, c. 29 November 1945 – 3 July 1946\n\nBULLET::::- Wurtsmith Air Force Base, Michigan, 18 August 1955 – 1 April 1960\n", "Military programs differ from commercial in that the government contracts with the aircraft manufacturer to design and build an aircraft to meet specific mission capabilities. These performance requirements are documented to the manufacturer in the aircraft specification and the details of the flight test program (among many other program requirements) are spelled out in the statement of work. In this case, the government is the customer and has a direct stake in the aircraft's ability to perform the mission. Since the government is funding the program, it is more involved in the aircraft design and testing from early-on. Often military test pilots and engineers are integrated as part of the manufacturer's flight test team, even before first flight. The final phase of the military aircraft flight test is the Operational Test (OT). OT is conducted by a government-only test team with the dictate to certify that the aircraft is suitable and effective to carry out the intended mission.\n", "BULLET::::- 19th Air Division, 2 July 1966\n\nBULLET::::- 12th Air Division, 1 July 1973\n\nBULLET::::- Fifteenth Air Force, 15 July 1988\n\nBULLET::::- Eighth Air Force, 1 September 1991 – 1 Oct 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Air Force Development Test Center (later Air Armament Center), 15 March 1994\n\nBULLET::::- Air Force Test Center, 1 October 2012 – present\n\nSection::::Lineage.:Components.\n\nGroups\n\nBULLET::::- 46th Operations Group: Attached 18 July 2012 – 1 October 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 46th Test Group: Attached 18 July 2012 – 1 October 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 46th Range Group: Attached 18 July 2012 – 1 October 2012\n", "Support Sections\n\nEngineering:\n\nEngineering Section consists of Trial Engineering Officers, Workshops and the Design Drawing Office. The roles of Engineering Section are to provide engineering airworthiness advice for all lead sections as well as develop, manufacture and test equipment and hardware required in support of JADTEU trials. Additionally, the Section provides an engineering support service that covers all technical aspects of air transportation both within the Unit as well as to OEMs, other Service establishments and MOD branches. \n", "In addition to the Professional Course the school has nine regularly-scheduled short courses of two to six weeks duration. These include introductory courses in fixed and rotary wing P&FQ, avionics systems testing, operational test and evaluation, civil certification courses, night vision systems, production flight testing, and a pre-test pilot school course designed as a preparatory course for students planning to attend the challenging twelve-month course.\n\nSection::::Curriculum.\n", "Meanwhile, the test engineers usually begin assembling a test rig, and releasing preliminary tests for use by the software engineers. At some point, the tests cover all of the functions of the engineering specification. At this point, testing of the entire avionic unit begins. The object of the acceptance testing is to prove that the unit is safe and reliable in operation.\n", "There are typically two categories of flight test programs – commercial and military. Commercial flight testing is conducted to certify that the aircraft meets all applicable safety and performance requirements of the government certifying agency. In the US, this is the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA); in Canada, Transport Canada (TC); in the United Kingdom (UK), the Civil Aviation Authority; and in the European Union, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). Since commercial aircraft development is normally funded by the aircraft manufacturer and/or private investors, the certifying agency does not have a stake in the commercial success of the aircraft. These civil agencies are concerned with the aircraft's safety and that the pilot's flight manual accurately reports the aircraft's performance. The market will determine the aircraft's suitability to operators. Normally, the civil certification agency does not get involved in flight testing until the manufacturer has found and fixed any development issues and is ready to seek certification.\n", "Section::::History.:Test Operations.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Casey\": 28 college students, 54 4-hour sessions\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cowboy\": 39 Air Force officers and airmen, 22 8-hour sessions\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cobra\": 40 Air Force officers and airmen, 22 8-hour sessions\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cogwheel\": 33 Air Force officers and airmen, 14 4-hour sessions\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n", "BULLET::::- Czech Republic\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore for testing Igla missiles\n\nBULLET::::- The UK for evaluation of the Denel Rooivalk helicopter\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden for testing the RBS15 MK3 and CAMPS\n\nBULLET::::- Spain for integration of the Taurus missile on the F-18.\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey, the Turkish Navy held a live fire exercise in May 2014 during which two frigates and a corvette fired various missiles and guns.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n\nTesting at the site focuses predominantly on flight performance rather than the destructive capability of weapon systems. Consequently missile test flights are typically conducted with dummy warheads or instrument packs rather than live weapons.\n", "Section::::History.:Russian S-300PS SAM Testing.\n", "BULLET::::- Harvard Army Air Field, Nebraska, 23 August 1944 – 7 March 1945\n\nBULLET::::- Northwest Field (Guam), Marianna Islands, 14 April 1945 – 10 June 1946\n\nBULLET::::- Pleiku Air Base, South Vietnam, 8 May 1965\n\nBULLET::::- Nha Trang Air Base, South Vietnam, 15 September 1966\n\nBULLET::::- Cam Ranh Bay Air Base, South Vietnam, 1 September 1969\n\nBULLET::::- Phan Rang Air Base, South Vietnam, 30 September 1971\n\nBULLET::::- Tan Son Nhut Air Base, South Vietnam, 10 January 1972 – 21 February 1973\n\nBULLET::::- MacDill Air Force Base, Florida, 31 August 1973\n\nBULLET::::- Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina, 1 July 1974\n", "Live-fire exercises involving air-to-surface work are usually centered around precision-guided munitions. In some cases, tests involving bombs will make use of derelict buildings or, even more frequently, vehicles. Live-fire bombing exercises are usually conducted with precision-guided munitions to ensure that they work correctly, but are also used to test new and experimental weapons to ensure that they work as they were originally designed to. These test are usually monitored by chase planes and by cameras to determine if everything worked as it was originally intended to.\n", "Section::::Lineage.\n\nBULLET::::- Designated as the 6517th Test Squadron and activated on 10 March 1989\n\nBULLET::::- Activated on 16 March 2006\n\nBULLET::::- Activated 17 April 2019\n\nSection::::Lineage.:Assignments.\n\nBULLET::::- 6510th Test Wing (later 412th Test Wing), 10 March 1989\n\nBULLET::::- 412th Operations Group, 1 October 1993 – 1 October 1995\n\nBULLET::::- 412th Operations Group, 16 March 2006 – 14 February 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 96th Operations Group, 17 April 2019 - Present\n\nSection::::Lineage.:Stations.\n\nBULLET::::- Edwards Air Force Base, California, 10 March 1989 – 1 October 1995\n\nBULLET::::- Edwards Air Force Base, California, 16 March 2006 – 14 February 2012\n", "BULLET::::- Experimental FTE and civilian applicants are required to undergo a flying Class III physical prior to the TPS selection board.\n", "Section::::Courses.\n\nSection::::Courses.:Professional course.\n\nThe principal course taught at the NTPS is the Professional Course which is certified for EASA Category 1. It is a one-year-long course covering performance, flying qualities and avionics systems. Both test pilots and flight test engineers are trained. Portions of the course are specifically tailored for fixed or rotary wing pilots and engineers. Sub-sets of the professional course, taught in conjunction with professional course students, are offered routinely:\n\nBULLET::::1. Customers can send students to either the Performance and Flying Qualities (P&FQ) Professional Course or to the Systems Professional Course, each being approximately six months in length.\n", "Edwards Air Force Base, California and has operating locations at Fort Worth, Texas and Arlington, Virginia. Detachment 1 leads Block 2 and Block 3 Initial Operational Testing and Evaluation for the F-35 Lightning II. The Detachment 1 Commander serves as the Joint Strike Fighter Operation Test Team Combined Test Director, leading team members from the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, U.S. Marines, United Kingdom Air Warfare Centre, and Royal Netherlands Air Force in testing and evaluating F-35 operations, training and logistics.\n\nSection::::Components.:Detachments.:Detachment 2 (AFOTEC DET. 2).\n", "The entire operation is usually completed in four days, and only requires the test article for one of those days. All equipment is brought to the test article, assembled, pretested and performance-checked before testing the flight article. The flight article is generally required for only one day of testing depending on the complexity of the test plan. On completion of the flight test, the article is removed and all equipment is disassembled and transported from the site.\n\nBULLET::::- Portability: can be set up almost anywhere\n\nBULLET::::- Modularity: adapts to multiple configurations\n\nBULLET::::- Controllability: safe, repeatable, real-time control\n", "Section::::Components.:Detachments.:Detachment 4 (AFOTEC DET. 4).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03893	How does a human who doesn't know any language "think" (speak to himself) ?	[Here's an article about a person who was born deaf and didn't learn sign language until adulthood.]( URL_0 ) He's not interested in answering your question though: > What is it like to live without language? Unfortunately, Ildefonso doesn’t help us too much with that: > > It’s another frustration that Ildefonso doesn’t want to talk about it. For him, that was the dark time. Whenever I ask him, and I’ve asked him many, many times over the years, he always starts out with the visual representation of an imbecile: his mouth drops, his lower lip drops, and he looks stupid. He does something nonsensical with his hands like, “I don’t know what’s going on.” He always goes back to “I was stupid.” > > It doesn’t matter how many times I tell him, no, you weren’t exposed to language and… The closest I’ve ever gotten is he’ll say, “Why does anyone want to know about this? This is the bad time.” What he wants to talk about is learning language.	[ "The language of thought hypothesis has been both controversial and groundbreaking. Some philosophers reject the LOTH, arguing that our public language \"is\" our mental language—a person who speaks English \"thinks\" in English. But others contend that complex thought is present even in those who do not possess a public language (e.g. babies, aphasics, and even higher-order primates), and therefore some form of mentalese must be innate. \n", "Hadjioannou credits inspiration for some of his concepts on conversational AI to the ideas and work of British-American philosopher and cognitive scientist, Dr Peter Carruthers and his theories on the role that natural language plays in human cognition - specifically quoting \"there is a type of inner, explicitly linguistic thinking that allows us to bring our own thoughts into conscious awareness. We may be able to think without language, but language lets us know that we are thinking.\".\n", "The book opens with a lyrical description of a rabbit, stuck inside a trap, becoming able to reason his way out. This is a common theme in the book. Animal traps are based on the idea that the animals cannot reason their way out of them. When the animals get the ability to reason, they start escaping.\n", "BULLET::::- Certain deaf adults who neither have capability to learn a spoken language nor have access to a sign language, known as home signers, in fact communicate with both others like them and the outside world using gestures and self-created signing. Although they have no experience in language or how it works, they are able to conceptualize more than iconic words but move into the abstract, suggesting that they could understand that before creating a gesture to show it. Ildefonso, a homesigner who learned a main sign language at twenty-seven years of age, found that although his thinking became easier to communicate, he had lost his ability to communicate with other homesigners as well as recall how his thinking worked without language.\n", "Tomasello argues that this kind of bi-directional cognition is central to the very possibility of linguistic communication. Drawing on his research with both children and chimpanzees, he reports that human infants, from one year old onwards, begin viewing their own mind as if from the standpoint of others. He describes this as a cognitive revolution. Chimpanzees, as they grow up, never undergo such a revolution. The explanation, according to Tomasello, is that their evolved psychology is adapted to a deeply competitive way of life. Wild-living chimpanzees form despotic social hierarchies, most interactions involving calculations of dominance and submission. An adult chimp will strive to outwit its rivals by guessing at their intentions while blocking them from reciprocating. Since bi-directional intersubjective communication is impossible under such conditions, the cognitive capacities necessary for language don't evolve.\n", "The strong version of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis in linguistics states that language determines thought, and that linguistic categories alone limit and determine cognitive categories. Although Whorf himself framed linguistic relativity in terms of \"habits of mind\" rather than determinism, the revolutionary nature of his hypothesis was met with much misinterpretation and criticism. In 1969, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay rejected the strong hypothesis using a .\n\nSteven Pinker notes that we are not born with language, so that it is not likely that we are engineered to think in words alone.\n\nSection::::Non-verbal thought.:Multiple intelligences.\n", "Brown experienced a \"sudden conversion\" upon reading a copy of \"The Natural Approach\" by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell that his colleague Adrian S. Palmer gave him the next day. \"In 1983, I first came across Krashen's idea that we acquire languages by understanding messages, and in no other way,\" recalled Brown. \"The thing that caught my attention was 'and in no other way.' I was pretty well sold on understanding happenings, but now I could consider ruling out everything else. No memorizing, no practicing, no speaking!\"\n", "Multiple brain areas are required for the Protoself to function. Namely, the hypothalamus, which controls the general homeostasis of the organism, the brain stem, whose nuclei map body signals, and the insular cortex whose function is linked to emotion. These brain areas work together to keep up with the constant process of collecting neural patterns to map the current status of the body's responses to environmental changes. The Protoself does not require language in order to function, moreover it is a direct report of one's experience.\n", "One day, Rumbaugh used the computer to say to Kanzi, \"Can you make the dog bite the snake?\" It is believed Kanzi had never heard this sentence before. In answering the question, Kanzi searched among the objects present until he found a toy dog and a toy snake, put the snake in the dog's mouth, and used his thumb and finger to close the dog's mouth over the snake. In 2001, Alexander Fiske-Harrison, writing in the \"Financial Times\", observed that Kanzi was \"asked by an invisible interrogator through head-phones (to avoid cueing) to identify 35 different items in 180 trials. His success rate was 93 percent.\" In further testing, beginning when he was years old, Kanzi was asked 416 complex questions, responding correctly over 74% of the time. Kanzi has been observed verbalizing a meaningful noun to his sister.\n", "BULLET::::- According to the theory behind cognitive therapy, founded by Aaron T. Beck, our emotions and behavior are caused by our internal dialogue. We can change ourselves by learning to challenge and refute our own thoughts, especially a number of specific mistaken thought patterns called \"cognitive distortions\". Cognitive therapy has been found to be effective by empirical studies.\n", "The Mind of an Ape\n\nThe Mind of an Ape is a 1983 book by David Premack and his wife Ann James Premack. The authors argue that it is possible to teach language to (non-human) great apes. They write: \"We now know that someone who comprehends speech must know language, even if he or she cannot produce it.\"\n\nSection::::The authors.\n", "In a book with the title \"The Extended Mind: The Emergence of Language, the Human Mind and Culture\", Robert K. Logan (2007) develops the thesis that verbal language extends the brain into a mind capable of conceptualization and hence the mind = brain + language. The human brain before it acquired verbal language according to this thesis is considered to be a percept processor. With language the mind is capable of conceptualization and hence able to consider things that are not immediately available in the here and now. The first words of verbal language are concepts associated with all the percepts associated with those words. For example the word water brings to mind the water we drink, the water we cook with, the water we wash with and the water we find in rivers, lakes and oceans and the water we find when it rains or when snow melts. Logan's thesis was first developed in a paper, \"The extended mind: understanding language and thought in terms of complexity and chaos theory\" presented at the 7th Annual Conference of The Society for Chaos Theory in Psychology and the Life Sciences at Marquette U., Milwaukee, Wisconsin on August 1, 1997.\n", "I suddenly spoke to those present in a completely unknown language without looking at anyone present. Unfortunately, I remember nothing from this conversation, nor with whom I thought I spoke...What I remember is that I suddenly jumped out of my chair, thinking that somebody wanted to beat me. It was my own hand which [ had ] hung on the back of my chair which [ had ] frightened me.\n\nDuring the day-long excursion Sparre's consciousness alternated between periods of clarity and periods of drowsy, quasi-hallucination:\n", "In 1861 Paul Broca, reported a post mortem study of an aphasic patient who was speechless apart from a single nonsense word: \"Tan\". Broca showed that an area of the left frontal lobe was damaged. As Tan was unable to produce speech but could still understand it, Broca argued that this area might be specialised for speech production and that language skills might be localized to this cortical area. Broca did a similar study on another patient, Lelong, a few weeks later. Lelong, like Tan, could understand speech but could only repeat the same 5 words. After examining his brain, Broca noticed that Lelong had a lesion in approximately the same area as his patient Tan. He also noticed that in the more than 25 patients he examined with aphasia, they all had lesions to the left frontal lobe but there was no damage to the right hemisphere of the brain. From this he concluded that the function of speech was probably localized in the inferior frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere of the brain, an area now known as Broca's area.\n", "In Sue Townsend's \"\", Adrian writes a book entitled \"Lo! The Flat Hills Of My Homeland\", in which the main character, Jake Westmorland, writes a book called \"Sparg of Kronk\", whose eponymous character, Sparg, writes a book with no language.\n", "While patients’ brains usually adapt and allow for uninterrupted daily life, cognitive tests can easily determine whether a patient has split brain. In an experiment involving a chimeric figure, with a woman’s face on the left half and a man’s face on the right half, a patient with split-brain focusing on the middle point will point to the woman’s face when prompted to point to the face in the picture, and will answer “a man” if asked what the picture is depicting. This is due to the fact that the Fusiform Face Area (FFA) is in the right hemisphere, while language centers are predominantly in the left hemisphere.\n", "The existence of these neurons should likely trace their roots back closer to a common ancestor with modern primates, the only other species noted with mirror neurons, and some of the intentional and mimetic capabilities that Donald attributes to the evolution of the mimetic mind in Homo Erectus were likely around much earlier in some simplified form, perhaps as the foundation of the rigid social hierarchies that our primate cousins are known for.\n", "David Premack, emeritus professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania, and Ann James Premack, a science writer, began teaching language to apes in 1964. Premack started his work at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Florida, a program at the University of Florida, continued it at the University of Missouri, then at the University of California, Santa Barbara and the University of Pennsylvania.\n\nSection::::The apes.\n", "Embodied language processing\n\nEmbodied cognition occurs when an organism’s sensorimotor capacities (ability of the body to respond to its senses with movement), body and environment play an important role in thinking. The way in which a person’s body and their surroundings interacts also allows for specific brain functions to develop and in the future to be able to act. This means that not only does the mind influence the body’s movements, but the body also influences the abilities of the mind, also termed the bi-directional hypothesis. \n", "The experiment called Project Nim was one of the first experiments that aimed to show nonhuman primates could be taught a human form of language. The experiment conducted on the chimpanzee dubbed \"Nim Chimpsky\" took place in the 1970's and was the idea of Herbet S. Terrace, to try to disprove the notion put forth by Noam Chomsky, for whom the chimp was named, stating that language is an exclusively human ability. Nim was taught 125 signs in his life, and constantly impressed those he met with his ability to seemingly understand human nature and his mischievous behaviours. Similar experiments took place on two other primates, Koko and Kanzi. Koko was able to learn many signs, as well as some novel vocalizations to indicate emotional state. Kanzi learned to model human language in an entirely different way. He was able to learn 348 geometrical symbols that represented different words, and to combine symbols in a type of proto-grammar to convey meaning and understanding. His keepers also claim that he understands the meaning of up to 3000 human words. These examples of stunning cognition demonstrate the near-human ability of some trained primates to learn and retain the ability to communicate with humans.\n", "or production of speech and thus require a share of the attentional resources dedicated to the speech task. Other processes, thought to happen offline, take place as part of the child's background mental processing rather than during the time dedicated to the speech task.\n", "BULLET::::1. There can be no higher cognitive processes without mental representation. The only plausible psychological models represent higher cognitive processes as representational and computational thought needs a representational system as an object upon which to compute. We must therefore attribute a representational system to organisms for cognition and thought to occur.\n\nBULLET::::2. There is causal relationship between our intentions and our actions. Because mental states are structured in a way that causes our intentions to manifest themselves by what we do, there is a connection between how we view the world and ourselves and what we do.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Some notably successful natural language processing systems developed in the 1960s were SHRDLU, a natural language system working in restricted \"blocks worlds\" with restricted vocabularies, and ELIZA, a simulation of a Rogerian psychotherapist, written by Joseph Weizenbaum between 1964 and 1966. Using almost no information about human thought or emotion, ELIZA sometimes provided a startlingly human-like interaction. When the \"patient\" exceeded the very small knowledge base, ELIZA might provide a generic response, for example, responding to \"My head hurts\" with \"Why do you say your head hurts?\".\n", "It has also been suggested that the characterization of Ildefonso as entirely \"languageless\" may be an oversimplification. In the same review, Padden speculates that \"Schaller may have been teaching language to Ildefonso, but more accurately, she was teaching him how to map a new set of symbols on a most likely already existent framework of symbolic competence.\"\n", "However, as Everett points out, the language can have recursion in ideas, with some ideas in a story being less important than others. He also mentions a paper from a recursion conference in 2005 describing recursive behaviors in deer as they forage for food. So to him, recursion can be a brain property that humans have developed more than other animals. He points out that the criticism of his conclusions uses his own doctoral thesis to refute his knowledge and conclusions drawn after a subsequent twenty-nine years of research.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Humans who don't know language think to themselves." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "While we aren't totally sure, the example of Ildefonso seems to indicate we may not think if we don't know language. At least not in the way we traditionally define \"thinking\"." ]
2018-21584	How do the same programs run on different operating systems?	There are development languages that are cross platform. This is one way this can be accomplished. The same code base will run in various environments (Linux/BSD/Windows) and then OS specific code can be ran inside the software that is called based on what environment the code detects. Also, a second way would be runtime emulation such as WINE, but I don't think that is what you are referring to	[ "Another approach is to implement VMs on the operating system level, so all VMs run on the same OS instance (or incarnation), but are fundamentally separated to not interfere with each other.\n\nSection::::Classes by function.:Workstations.\n", "Both 'Program Files' and 'Common Program Files' can be moved. At system startup, the actual paths to 'Program Files' and 'Common Program Files' are loaded from the Windows registry, where they are stored in the codice_2 and codice_3 values under codice_4. They are then made accessible to the rest of the system via the volatile environment variables codice_5, and codice_6. Applications can also obtain the locations of these paths by querying the codice_7 using codice_8, or through Windows Management Instrumentation, or by querying the shell using CSIDLs, or codice_9. These are all localization-independent methods.\n", "At the next level there are the servers. This is where nearly all the operating system functionality is located. User processes obtain file service, for example, by sending messages to the file server to open, close, read, and write files. In turn, the file server gets disk I/O performed by sending messages to the disk driver, which controls the disk.\n", "Multiple Windows applications run by default in a single Windows session – multitasking cooperatively and without memory protection – just as they would under native Windows 3.x. However, to achieve true isolation between Windows 3.x programs, OS/2 can also run multiple copies of Windows in parallel, with each copy residing in a separate VDM. The user can then optionally place each program either in its own Windows session – with preemptive multitasking and full memory protection \"between\" sessions, though not \"within\" them – or allow some applications to run together cooperatively in a shared Windows session while isolating other applications in one or more separate Windows sessions. At the cost of additional hardware resources, this approach can protect each program in any given Windows session (and each instance of Windows itself) from every other program running in any \"separate\" Windows session (though not from other programs running in the same Windows session).\n", "The use of different toolsets to perform different builds may not be sufficient to achieve a variety of working executables for different platforms. In this case, the software engineer must \"port\" it, i.e. amend the code to be suitable to a new computer architecture or operating system. For example, a program such as Firefox, which already runs on Windows on the x86 family, can be modified and re-built to run on Linux on the x86 (and potentially other architectures) as well. The multiple versions of the code may be stored as separate codebases, or merged into one codebase by conditional compilation (see above). Note that, while\n", "Multiple MVS instances can be organized and collectively administered in a structure called a \"systems complex\" or \"sysplex\", introduced in September, 1990. Instances interoperate through a software component called a Cross-system Coupling Facility (XCF) and a hardware component called a \"Hardware Coupling Facility\" (CF or Integrated Coupling Facility, ICF, if co-located on the same mainframe hardware). Multiple sysplexes can be joined via standard network protocols such as IBM's proprietary Systems Network Architecture (SNA) or, more recently, via TCP/IP. The z/OS operating system (MVS' most recent descendant) also has native support to execute POSIX and Single UNIX Specification applications. The support began with MVS/SP V4R3, and IBM has obtained UNIX 95 certification for z/OS V1R2 and later.\n", "Second generation \"S3E\" (microcoded) versions of the larger New Range systems (such as the 2960/2966 from West Gorton, and the later 2940/50 from Stevenage), could run 1900 series code under DME (Direct Machine Environment) as an emulation as well as the New Range instruction set under the newer VME (Virtual Machine Environment). Later CME (Concurrent Machine Environment) microcode was developed, which allowed DME and VME to co-exist (and run) concurrently on the same platform, similar to the functionality offered by virtualisation software such as VMware today.\n\nSection::::Operating systems.\n\nSection::::Operating systems.:Executive.\n", "BULLET::::- Web browsers – more or less compatible with each other, running JavaScript web-apps\n\nBULLET::::- Linux (x86, PowerPC, ARM, and other architectures)\n\nBULLET::::- macOS (x86, PowerPC (on 10.5 and below))\n\nBULLET::::- Mendix\n\nBULLET::::- Solaris (SPARC, x86)\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation 4 (x86), PlayStation 3 (PowerPC based) and PlayStation Vita (ARM)\n\nBULLET::::- Minor/historical\n\nBULLET::::- AmigaOS (m68k), AmigaOS 4 (PowerPC), AROS (x86, PowerPC, m68k), MorphOS (PowerPC)\n\nBULLET::::- Atari TOS, MiNT\n\nBULLET::::- BSD (many platforms; see NetBSDnet, for example)\n\nBULLET::::- DOS-type systems on the x86: MS-DOS, IBM PC DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS\n\nBULLET::::- OS/2, eComStation\n\nSection::::Platforms.:Software platforms.:Java platform.\n", "porting must be accompanied by cross-platform building, the reverse is not the case.\n\nAs an alternative to porting, \"cross-platform virtualization\" allows applications compiled for one CPU and operating system to run on a system with a different CPU and/or operating system, without modification to the source code or binaries. As an example, Apple's Rosetta, which is built into Intel-based Macintosh computers, runs applications compiled for the previous generation of Macs that used PowerPC CPUs. Another example is IBM PowerVM Lx86, which allows Linux/x86 applications to run unmodified on the Linux/Power operating system.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Traditional applications.:Scripts and interpreted languages.\n", "The operating system kernel identifies each process by its process identifier. is a special process that is created when the system boots; after forking a child process becomes the swapper process (sometimes also known as the \"idle task\"). , known as init, is the ancestor of every other process in the system.\n\nSection::::Unix-like systems.:Linux.\n", "For software that is distributed as a binary executable, such as software written in C or C++, the programmer must \"build the software\" for each different operating system and computer architecture, i.e. must use a toolset that translates—transcompiles—a single codebase into multiple binary executables. For example, Firefox, an open-source web browser, is available on Windows, macOS (both PowerPC and x86 through what Apple Inc. calls a Universal binary), Linux, and BSD on multiple computer architectures. The four platforms (in this case, Windows, macOS, Linux, and BSD) are separate executable distributions, although they come from the same source code.\n", "Most OSes provide binary compatibility, in each version of the OS, for most binaries built to run on earlier versions of the OS. For example, many executables compiled for Windows 3.1, Windows 95 or Windows 2000 can also be run on Windows XP or Windows 7, and many applications for DOS work also on modern versions of Windows.\n\nSection::::Binary compatible hardware.\n", "These four conditions are known as the \"Coffman conditions\" from their first description in a 1971 article by Edward G. Coffman, Jr.\n\nSection::::Deadlock handling.\n\nMost current operating systems cannot prevent deadlocks. When a deadlock occurs, different operating systems respond to them in different non-standard manners. Most approaches work by preventing one of the four Coffman conditions from occurring, especially the fourth one. Major approaches are as follows.\n\nSection::::Deadlock handling.:Ignoring deadlock.\n", "Not all files or devices support all I/O modifiers. Different files and devices have different default I/O modifiers and a few I/O modifier defaults can be changed using the $SET command.\n\nSection::::Device independent input/output.:Line number ranges.\n", "BULLET::::- Software: Intermediate software translated the already existing programming into the native machine language, usually on microprocessors.\n\nBULLET::::- Guest operating environments: The system and database were implemented in an application that simulated most of the Pick functions, like the Basic and retrieval languages. In general, they depended on their host operating systems for everything else, from disk mapping to security.\n", "Another approach that is used is to depend on pre-existing software that hides the differences between the platforms—called abstraction of the platform—such that the program itself is unaware of the platform it is running on. It could be said that such programs are \"platform agnostic\". Programs that run on the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) are built in this fashion.\n", "This \"application directory\" is executed (run) when the machine boots (if so configured), therefore causing its !Run file to be executed (i.e. \"$.!Boot.!Run\" in Acorn pathname syntax). This file then causes various files to be executed, OS modules loaded, standard icons to be loaded and filetypes defined, and defines a number of standard variables through which its various subdirectories are accessed. Thus RISC OS's entire boot sequence can be avoided merely by holding Shift.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bundle (OS X)\n\nBULLET::::- Application Virtualization\n\nBULLET::::- Portable application creators\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- ROX-Filer User Manual: Application directories\n", "Microsoft .NET applications for target platforms like Windows Mobile on the ARM architecture cross-compile on Windows machines with a variety of processors and Microsoft also offer emulators and remote deployment environments that require very little configuration, unlike the cross compilers in days gone by or on other platforms.\n\nRuntime libraries, such as Mono, provide compatibility for cross-compiled .NET programs to other operating systems, such as Linux.\n", "Many operating systems support multitasking which enables many computer programs to appear to run simultaneously on one computer. Operating systems may run multiple programs through process scheduling – a software mechanism to switch the CPU among processes often so users can interact with each program while it runs. Within hardware, modern day multiprocessor computers or computers with multicore processors may run multiple programs.\n\nSection::::Storage and execution.:Self-modifying programs.\n", "The following files are loaded sequentially. \n\nBULLET::::1. ntoskrnl.exe (the kernel)\n\nBULLET::::2. hal.dll (type of hardware abstraction layer)\n\nBULLET::::3. kdcom.dll (Kernel Debugger HW Extension DLL)\n\nBULLET::::4. bootvid.dll (for the windows logo and side-scrolling bar)\n\nBULLET::::5. config\\system (one of the registry hives)\n\nNext, NTDETECT.COM and the Windows NT kernel (\"Ntoskrnl.exe\") and the Hardware Abstraction Layer (\"hal.dll\") are loaded into memory. If multiple hardware configurations are defined in the Windows Registry, the user is prompted at this point to choose one.\n", "Child process\n\nA child process in computing is a process created by another process (the parent process). This technique pertains to multitasking operating systems, and is sometimes called a subprocess or traditionally a subtask.\n\nThere are two major procedures for creating a child process: the fork system call (preferred in Unix-like systems and the POSIX standard) and the spawn (preferred in the modern (NT) kernel of Microsoft Windows, as well as in some historical operating systems).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "With operating-system-virtualization, or containerization, it is possible to run programs within containers, to which only parts of these resources are allocated. A program expecting to see the whole computer, once run inside a container, can only see the allocated resources and believes them to be all that is available. Several containers can be created on each operating system, to each of which a subset of the computer's resources is allocated. Each container may contain any number of computer programs. These programs may run concurrently or separately, and may even interact with one another.\n", "Higher-level behaviors implemented by a runtime system may include tasks such as drawing text on the screen or making an Internet connection. It is often the case that operating systems provide these kinds of behaviors as well, and when available, the runtime system is implemented as an abstraction layer that translates the invocation of the runtime system into an invocation of the operating system. This hides the complexity or variations in the services offered by different operating systems. This also implies that the OS kernel can itself be viewed as a runtime system, and that the set of OS calls that invoke OS behaviors may be viewed as interactions with a runtime system.\n", "Some applications mix various methods of cross-platform programming to create the final application. An example of this is the Firefox web browser, which uses abstraction to build some of the lower-level components, separate source subtrees for implementing platform-specific features (like the GUI), and the implementation of more than one scripting language to help facilitate ease of portability. Firefox implements XUL, CSS and JavaScript for extending the browser, in addition to classic Netscape-style browser plugins. Much of the browser itself is written in XUL, CSS, and JavaScript, as well.\n\nSection::::Cross-platform programming.:Cross-platform programming toolkits and environments.\n", "In a multithreaded process, system calls can be made from multiple threads. The handling of such calls is dependent on the design of the specific operating system kernel and the application runtime environment. The following list shows typical models followed by operating systems:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21356	How many Humans have existed??	The first "modern" homo sapiens, who looked like we do today first appeared roughly 50,000 years ago. It is currently estimated that approx 100-120 Billion of us have been born since then.	[ "Historical migration of human populations begins with the movement of \"Homo erectus\" out of Africa across Eurasia about a million years ago. \"Homo sapiens\" appear to have occupied all of Africa about 150,000 years ago, moved out of Africa 50,000 - 60,000 years ago, and had spread across Australia, Asia and Europe by 30,000 years BC. Migration to the Americas took place 20,000 to 15,000 years ago, and by 2,000 years ago, most of the Pacific Islands were colonized.\n", "Section::::Prehistory.\n\nSection::::Prehistory.:Early humans.\n\nGenetic measurements indicate that the ape lineage which would lead to \"Homo sapiens\" diverged from the lineage that would lead to chimpanzees and bonobos, the closest living relatives of modern humans, around 4.6 to 6.2 million years ago. Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 300,000 years ago, and reached behavioural modernity about 50,000 years ago.\n", "It has been estimated from archaeological data that the human capacity for cumulative culture emerged somewhere between 500,000–170,000 years ago.\n", "from about 5,000 years ago (the Bronze Age), first beginning in Mesopotamia.\n\nFew human populations progressed to historicity, with substantial parts of the world remaining in a Neolithic, Mesolithic or Upper Paleolithic stage of development until the advent of globalisation\n\nand modernity initiated by European exploration and colonialism.\n", "Though most of human existence has been sustained by hunting and gathering in band societies, increasingly many human societies transitioned to sedentary agriculture approximately some 10,000 years ago, domesticating plants and animals, thus enabling the growth of civilization. These human societies subsequently expanded, establishing various forms of government, religion, and culture around the world, and unifying people within regions to form states and empires. The rapid advancement of scientific and medical understanding in the 19th and 20th centuries permitted the development of fuel-driven technologies and increased lifespans, causing the human population to rise exponentially. The global human population was estimated to be near / 1e9 round 1 billion in 2019.\n", "Some estimates extend their timeline into deep prehistory, to \"10,000 BC\", i.e. the early Holocene, when world population estimates range roughly between one and ten million (with an uncertainty of up to an order of magnitude).\n\nEstimates for yet deeper prehistory, into the Paleolithic, are of a different nature. At this time human populations consisted entirely of non-sedentary hunter-gatherer populations, with anatomically modern humans existing alongside archaic human varieties, some of which are still ancestral to the modern human population due to interbreeding with modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic. \n", "Until c. 10,000 years ago, humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They generally lived in small nomadic groups known as band societies. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements. About 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt's Nile Valley and the Indus Valley. Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources used for subsistence. But humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of technology.\n", "This recent out of Africa migration derived from East African populations, which had become separated from populations migrating to Southern, Central and Western Africa at least 100,000 years earlier. Modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing archaic humans (either through competition or hybridization). They inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years ago, and the Americas at least 14,500 years ago.\n\nSection::::History.:Transition to modernity.\n\nUntil about 12,000 years ago (the beginning of the Holocene), all humans lived as hunter-gatherers, generally in small nomadic groups known as band societies, often in caves.\n", "BULLET::::- 11,000 years ago (9,000 BC): Earliest date recorded for construction of \"temenoi\" ceremonial structures at Göbekli Tepe in southern Turkey, as possibly the oldest surviving proto-religious site on Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- 11,000 years ago (9,000 BC): Emergence of Jericho, which is now one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Giant short-faced bears and giant ground sloths go extinct. Equidae goes extinct in North America.\n\nBULLET::::- 10,500 years ago (8,500 BC): Earliest supposed date for the domestication of cattle.\n", "\"H. e. bilzingslebenensis\" (Vlcek 1978) refers to skull fragments found at the Bilzingsleben site, Thuringia, Germany.\n\nThere is, however, indirect evidence of human presence in Europe as early as 1.6 Mya, in the form of stone tools discovered at Lézignan-la-Cèbe, France, in 2008.\n\nOther stone tools found in France and thought to predate 1 Mya are from Chilhac, Haute-Loire) and from the Grotte du Vallonnet, near Menton.\n\nHuman presence in Great Britain close to 1 Mya is established by stone tools and fossilized footprints found near Happisburgh, Norfolk.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "The answer naturally depends on the definition of \"people\", i.e. is only \"Homo sapiens\" to be counted, or all of genus \"Homo\", but due to the small population sizes in the Lower Paleolithic, the order of magnitude of the estimate is not affected by the choice of cut-off date substantially more than by the uncertainty of estimates throughout the Neolithic to Iron Age.\n", "BULLET::::- 10,000 years ago (8,000 BC): The Quaternary extinction event, which has been ongoing since the mid-Pleistocene, concludes. Many of the ice age megafauna go extinct, including the megatherium, woolly rhinoceros, Irish elk, cave bear, cave lion, and the last of the sabre-toothed cats. The mammoth goes extinct in Eurasia and North America, but is preserved in small island populations until ~1650 BC.\n\nBULLET::::- 10,800–9,000 years ago: Byblos appears to have been settled during the PPNB period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC. Neolithic remains of some buildings can be observed at the site.\n", "The ongoing admixture events within anatomically modern human populations make it difficult to estimate the age of the matrilinear and patrilinear most recent common ancestors of modern populations (Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam). Estimates of the age of Y-chromosomal Adam have been pushed back significantly with the discovery of an ancient Y-chromosomal lineage in 2013, to likely beyond 300,000 years ago. There have, however, been no reports of the survival of Y-chromosomal or mitochondrial DNA clearly deriving from archaic humans (which would push back the age of the most recent patrilinear or matrilinear ancestor beyond 500,000 years).\n", "BULLET::::- 10,000–5,000 years ago (8,000–3,000 BC) Identical ancestors point: sometime in this period lived the latest subgroup of human population consisting of those that were all common ancestors of all present day humans, the rest having no present day descendants.\n\nBULLET::::- 9,500–5,900 years ago: Neolithic Subpluvial in North Africa. The Sahara desert region supports a savanna-like environment. Lake Chad is larger than the current Caspian Sea. An African culture develops across the current Sahel region.\n\nBULLET::::- 9,500 years ago (7500 BC): Çatalhöyük urban settlement founded in Anatolia. Earliest supposed date for the domestication of the cat.\n", "The genus \"Homo\" evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids (great apes) branch of the primates. Modern humans, defined as the species \"Homo sapiens\" or specifically to the single extant subspecies \"Homo sapiens sapiens\", proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000–60,000 years ago, Australia around 40,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280.\n\nSection::::History.:Evolution and range.:Evidence from molecular biology.\n", "BULLET::::- 40,000–30,000 years ago: First human settlement (Aboriginal Australians) in Sydney, Perth and Melbourne.\n\nBULLET::::- 40,000–20,000 years ago: oldest known ritual cremation, the Mungo Lady, in Lake Mungo, Australia.\n\nBULLET::::- 35,000 years ago: oldest known figurative art of a human figure as opposed to a zoomorphic figure (Venus of Hohle Fels).\n\nBULLET::::- 33,000 years ago: oldest known domesticated dog skulls show they existed in both Europe and Siberia by this time.\n\nBULLET::::- 31,000–16,000 years ago: Last Glacial Maximum (peak at 26,500 years ago).\n", "Early hominins—particularly the australopithecines, whose brains and anatomy are in many ways more similar to ancestral non-human apes—are less often referred to as \"human\" than hominins of the genus \"Homo\". Several of these hominins used fire, occupied much of Eurasia, and gave rise to anatomically modern \"Homo sapiens\" in Africa about 315,000 years ago. Humans began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago, and in several waves of migration, they ventured out of Africa and populated most of the world.\n", "List of first human settlements\n\nThis is a list of dates associated with the prehistoric peopling of the world (first known presence of \"Homo sapiens\").\n\nThe list is divided into four categories, Middle Paleolithic (before 50,000 years ago), \n\nUpper Paleolithic (50,000 to 12,500 years ago), Holocene (12,500 to 500 years ago) and Modern (Age of Sail and modern exploration).\n", "It is estimated that the average life span of hominids on the African savanna between 4,000,000 and 200,000 years ago was 20 years. This means that the population would be completely renewed about five times per century, assuming that infant mortality has already been accounted for. It is further estimated that the population of hominids in Africa fluctuated between 10,000 and 100,000 individuals, thus averaging about 50,000 individuals. Roughly multiplying 40,000 centuries by 50,000 to 500,000 individuals per century, yields a total of 2 billion to 20 billion hominids, or an average estimate of about 10 billion hominids that lived during that approximately 4,000,000 year time span.\n", "Timeline of human evolution\n\nThe timeline of human evolution outlines the major events in the development of the human species, \"Homo sapiens\", and the evolution of the human's ancestors. It includes brief explanations of some of the species, genera, and the higher ranks of taxa that are seen today as possible ancestors of modern humans.\n", "BULLET::::- 250,000 years ago: first appearance of \"Homo neanderthalensis\" (Saccopastore skulls)\n\nBULLET::::- 250,000–200,000 years ago: modern human presence in West Asia (Misliya cave)\n\nBULLET::::- 230,000–150,000 years ago: age of mt-DNA haplogroup L (\"Mitochondrial Eve\")\n\nBULLET::::- 195,000 years ago: Omo remains (Ethiopia).\n\nBULLET::::- 170,000 years ago: humans are wearing clothing by this date.\n\nBULLET::::- 160,000 years ago: \"Homo sapiens idaltu\"\n\nBULLET::::- 150,000 years ago: Peopling of Africa: Khoisanid separation, age of mtDNA haplogroup L0\n\nBULLET::::- 125,000 years ago: peak of the Eemian interglacial period.\n\nBULLET::::- 120,000–90,000 years ago: Abbassia Pluvial in North Africa—the Sahara desert region is wet and fertile.\n", "Among extant populations, the Khoi-San (or \"Capoid\") hunters-gatherers of Southern Africa may represent the human population with the earliest possible divergence within the group \"Homo sapiens sapiens\". Their separation time has been estimated in a 2017 study to be as long as between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago, compatible with the estimated age of \"H. sapiens\". \"H. s. idaltu\", found at Middle Awash in Ethiopia, lived about 160,000 years ago, and \"H. sapiens\" lived at Omo Kibish in Ethiopia about 195,000 years ago. Fossil evidence for modern human presence in West Asia is ascertained for 177,000 years ago, and disputed fossil evidence suggests expansion as far as East Asia by 120,000 years ago.\n", "Division of Europeans and East Asians is of the order of 50,000 years, with repeated and significant admixture events throughout Eurasia during the Holocene.\n\nArchaic human species may have survived until the beginning of the Holocene (Red Deer Cave people), although they were mostly extinct or absorbed by the expanding \"H. sapiens\" populations by 40 kya (Neanderthal extinction).\n\nSection::::List of species.\n", "The earliest members of the genus \"Homo\" are \"Homo habilis\" which evolved around . \"Homo habilis\" has been considered the first species for which there is clear evidence of the use of stone tools. More recently, however, in 2015, stone tools, perhaps predating \"Homo habilis\", have been discovered in northwestern Kenya that have been dated to 3.3 million years old. Nonetheless, the brains of \"Homo habilis\" were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main adaptation was bipedalism as an adaptation to terrestrial living. During the next million years a process of encephalization began, and with the arrival of \"Homo erectus\" in the fossil record, cranial capacity had doubled. \"Homo erectus\" were the first of the hominina to leave Africa, and these species spread through Africa, Asia, and Europe between . One population of \"H. erectus\", also sometimes classified as a separate species \"Homo ergaster\", stayed in Africa and evolved into \"Homo sapiens\". It is believed that these species were the first to use fire and complex tools. The earliest transitional fossils between \"H. ergaster/erectus\" and archaic humans are from Africa such as \"Homo rhodesiensis\", but seemingly transitional forms are also found at Dmanisi, Georgia. These descendants of African \"H. erectus\" spread through Eurasia from c. 500,000 years ago evolving into \"H. antecessor\", \"H. heidelbergensis\" and \"H. neanderthalensis\". The earliest fossils of anatomically modern humans are from the Middle Paleolithic, about 200,000 years ago such as the Omo remains of Ethiopia and the fossils of Herto sometimes classified as \"Homo sapiens idaltu\". Later fossils of archaic \"Homo sapiens\" from Skhul in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years ago.\n", "Species discussed:\n\n\"Homo ergaster\",\n\n\"Megantereon\",\n\n\"Homo erectus\",\n\n\"Megaloceros\",\n\n\"Homo neanderthalensis\",\n\nSteppe bison, and\n\nCro-Magnon.\n\nSection::::Episodes.:Episode 2.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20972	Why does your ring finger move when you flex your pinky finger?	Tendons you have in your forearm control your fingers. The ring and pinky fingers share tendons. It's fun to squeeze your forearm and see your fingers slightly move without you consciously moving them	[ "All four non-thumb digits (index finger, middle finger, ring finger and little finger) contain three bones called the \"phalanges\" that are aligned in a linear row like box cars in a train. These bones are designated the proximal phalanx (closest to the palm), the middle phalanx, and the distal phalanx (farthest from the palm). The joints between these bones are referred to as the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP, between the proximal and middle phalanx) and the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP, between the middle and distal phalanx). muscles that begin in the forearm send long tendons to the fingers and these tendons attach at different points on these bones. Flexing and extending these digits occurs when these muscles contract and their tendons pull on their bony attachments. The deepest of the flexor muscles in the anterior forearm is called the flexor digitorum profundus muscle (FDP); it gives off four tendons that travel through the carpal tunnel into the hand and attach to the distal phalanx in each of the four non-thumb digits.\n", "BULLET::::- Opponens pollicis lies deep to abductor pollicis brevis. As its name suggests it opposes the thumb, bringing it against the fingers. This is a very important movement, as most of human hand dexterity comes from this action.\n\nAnother muscle that controls movement of the thumb is adductor pollicis. It lies deeper and more distal to flexor pollicis brevis. Despite its name, its main action is mainly rotation and opposition. It is not in the thenar group of muscles, so is supplied by the ulnar nerve.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n", "Dupuytren's contracture\n\nDupuytren's contracture is a condition in which one or more fingers become permanently bent in a flexed position. It usually begins as small hard nodules just under the skin of the palm, then worsens over time until the fingers can no longer be straightened. While typically not painful, some aching or itching may be present. The ring finger followed by the little and middle fingers are most commonly affected. The condition can interfere with preparing food, writing, and other activities.\n", "Google Street View's picture of the area around the Wisconsin Governor's Mansion, taken in 2011 during the tenure of Scott Walker, shows a jogger giving the finger in the direction of the mansion.\n\nSection::::Similar gestures.\n", "BULLET::::- The ulnar nerve originates in nerve roots C8 and T1 (and occasionally C7). It provides sensation to the ring and pinky fingers. It innervates the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, the flexor digitorum profundus muscle to the ring and pinky fingers, and the intrinsic muscles of the hand (the interosseous muscle, the lumbrical muscles and the flexor pollicus brevis muscle). This nerve traverses a groove on the elbow called the cubital tunnel, bordering on the medial epicondyle of the humerus also known as the funny bone. Striking the nerve at this point produces an unpleasant sensation in the ring and little fingers.\n", "BULLET::::- The Ring is an Italian gesture used in conversation to delineate precise information, or emphasize a specific point. It is made similarly to the A-Ok sign, but the ring made by the thumb and forefinger is on top with the palm facing medially. The arm moves up and down at the elbow. If more emphasis is needed both hands will make the gesture simultaneously with the palms facing one another.\n", "For patients with low median nerve palsy, it has been shown that the flexor digitorum superficialis of the long and ring fingers or the wrist extensors best approximate the force and motion that is required to restore full thumb opposition and strength. This type of transfer is the preferred method for median nerve palsy when both strength and motion are required. In situations when only thumb mobility is desired, the extensor indicis proprius is an ideal transfer.\n", "Fingers do not contain muscles (other than arrector pili). The muscles that move the finger joints are in the palm and forearm. The long tendons that deliver motion from the forearm muscles may be observed to move under the skin at the wrist and on the back of the hand.\n\nMuscles of the fingers can be subdivided into extrinsic and intrinsic muscles.\n\nThe extrinsic muscles are the long flexors and extensors. They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm.\n", "In order for the thumb to maintain a normal position, a strict balance between these groups is required. Weak or absent extensors and/or abductors (the extensor pollicis brevis tendon, the extensor pollicis longus tendon or, rarely, the abductor pollicis longus tendon), can cause a disbalance, leading to an abnormal position of the thumb: congenital clasped thumb. There is also the possibility that two tendons are affected simultaneously.\n\nThe following tendon deviations can induce congenital clasped thumb:\n\nBULLET::::- The flexor tendons are too short (the thumb is drawn into the palm)\n\nBULLET::::- The abductor tendons are hypoplastic or absent\n", "The EPL inserts on the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb. It uses the dorsal tubercle on the radius as fulcrum to help the EPB with its action as well as extending the distal phalanx of the thumb. Because the index finger and little finger have separate extensors, these fingers can be moved more independently than the other fingers.\n\nSection::::Neurovascular supply.\n", "The flexor digiti minimi brevis, like other hypothenar muscles, is innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve. The ulnar nerve arises from the spinal nerve levels C8-T1. The spinal roots of C8 and T1 then merge to form the lower trunk, anterior division, medial cord, and finally produce the ulnar nerve. The ulnar nerve has a superficial and deep branch, but it is the deep branch that innervates the flexor digiti minimi brevis.\n\nSection::::Actions.\n\nThe flexor digiti minimi brevis flexes the little finger at the metacarpophalangeal joint.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Section::::Anatomical snuff box.\n\nThe EPL tendon crosses obliquely the tendons of the ECRL and ECRB, and is separated from the EPB by a triangular interval, the anatomical snuff box, in which the radial artery is found.\n\nSection::::Insertion and action.\n", "Dorsal branch of ulnar nerve\n\nThe dorsal branch of ulnar nerve arises about 5 cm. proximal to the wrist; it passes backward beneath the Flexor carpi ulnaris, perforates the deep fascia, and, running along the ulnar side of the back of the wrist and hand, divides into two dorsal digital branches; one supplies the ulnar side of the little finger; the other, the adjacent sides of the little and ring fingers.\n", "Rockefeller campaigned actively for the Republican ticket, and Ford lost narrowly to Jimmy Carter. In what would become an iconic photo of the 1976 campaign, Rockefeller famously responded to hecklers at a rally in Binghamton, New York, with a raised middle finger. \"At the time, Rockefeller's finger flashing was scandalous. Writing about the moment 20 years later, Michael Oricchio of the \"San Jose Mercury News\" said the action became known euphemistically as 'the Rockefeller gesture'.\"\n\nSection::::Political ideology.\n", "The muscles of the thumb can be compared to guy-wires supporting a flagpole; tension from these muscular guy-wires must be provided in all directions to maintain stability in the articulated column formed by the bones of the thumb. Because this stability is actively maintained by muscles rather than by articular constraints, most muscles attached to the thumb tend to be active during most thumb motions.\n", "The muscles can be compared to guy-wires supporting a flagpole; tension from these muscular guy-wires must be provided in all directions to maintain stability in the articulated column formed by the bones of the thumb. Because this stability is actively maintained by muscles rather than by articular constraints, most muscles attached to the thumb tend to be active during most thumb motions.\n\nSection::::Extrinsic.\n", "Pinky ring\n\nA pinky ring is a ring worn on the little finger of either hand, which is also called the \"fifth finger\".\n\nSection::::Professional rings.\n", "Opponens digiti minimi muscle of hand\n\nThe opponens digiti minimi (opponens digiti quinti in older texts) is a muscle in the hand. It is of a triangular form, and placed immediately beneath the palmaris brevis, abductor digiti minimi and flexor digiti minimi brevis. It is one of the three hypothenar muscles that control the little finger.\n\nIt arises from the convexity of the hamulus of the hamate bone and the contiguous portion of the transverse carpal ligament; it is inserted into the whole length of the metacarpal bone of the little finger, along its ulnar margin.\n", "BULLET::::- The first of these divides into two proper digital nerves for the adjoining sides of the index and middle fingers;\n\nBULLET::::- the second common palmar digital nerve splits into two proper digital nerves for the adjoining sides of the third and fourth digits.\n\nEach proper digital nerve, opposite the base of the first phalanx, gives off a dorsal branch which joins the dorsal digital nerve from the superficial branch of the radial nerve, and supplies the integument on the dorsal aspect of the last phalanx.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Central palmar interossei.\n\nThe other three palmar interossei originate on the side of the metacarpal facing the hand's midline (ray of long finger); the second is attached to the medial side of the index finger; the third to the lateral side of the ring finger; and the fourth to the lateral side of the little finger. The tendons of these three muscles pass posterior to the deep transverse ligament before being inserted onto the extensor expansion.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Innervation.\n\nAll of the interosseous muscles of the hand are innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"lateral aspect\" (which flexes the 2nd and 3rd digit) is innervated by the median nerve specifically the anterior interosseous branch (C8, T1).\n\nIt is one of two flexor muscles that is not exclusively supplied by the median nerve (the other is flexor carpi ulnaris).\n\nSection::::Structure.:Variation.\n\nThe tendon of the index finger often has a separate muscle belly.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nFlexor digitorum profundus is a flexor of the wrist (midcarpal), metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints.\n", "The tendons of the extensor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis form what is known as the anatomical snuff box (an indentation on the lateral aspect of the thumb at its base) The radial artery can be palpated anteriorly at the wrist(not in the snuffbox).\n\nSection::::Intrinsic.\n\nThe intrinsic muscles of the thumb can be divided into two groups; the thenar eminence and other muscles. The thenar eminence refers to the group of muscles on the palm at the base of the thumb.\n\nThe three muscles composing the thenar eminence are the abductor pollicis brevis, flexor pollicis brevis and opponens pollicis.\n", "Its tendon passes through a compartment of the extensor retinaculum, posterior to distal radio-ulnar joint, then divides into two as it crosses the dorsum of the hand, and finally joins the extensor digitorum tendon. All three tendons attach to the dorsal digital expansion of the fifth digit (little finger). There may be a slip of tendon to the fourth digit.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nAn additional fibrous slip from the lateral epicondyle; the tendon of insertion may not divide or may send a slip to the ring finger.\n\nAbsence of muscle rare; fusion of the belly with the extensor digitorum communis not uncommon.\n", "In the ring and middle fingers, often a nodule can be felt at the area of the hand where the palm meets the finger.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThe cause of trigger finger is unclear but several causes have been proposed. It has also been called stenosing tenosynovitis (specifically \"digital tenosynovitis stenosans\"), but this may be a misnomer, as inflammation is not a predominant feature.\n", "Multiple types of the connection between the flexor pollicis longus and the flexor digitorum profundus were described: \n\nBULLET::::- A tendinous connection between the flexor digitorum profundus of the index to the flexor pollicis longus\n\nBULLET::::- A muscle with a bifurcated (split into two) tendon for the thumb and index finger\n\nBULLET::::- A common muscle with five tendons for the thumb and the long fingers\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04354	After getting off a treadmill why does it fill like you're still on it?	URL_0 Basically, it's velocitization. On a treadmill you can be running 12+ mph, but as soon you get off you got back to 0 or 2 mph. The difference of speed makes you feel like you're still moving even though you're not moving much. You might also feel dizzy, with high heart bpm because you didn't slow down for a period of time.	[ "Among the users of treadmills today are medical facilities (hospitals, rehabilitation centers, medical and physiotherapy clinics, institutes of higher education), sports clubs, Biomechanics Institute, orthopedic shoe shops, running shops, Olympic training centers, universities, fire-training centers, NASA, test facilities and training rooms of police and army, gyms and even home users.\n", "The normal value for dead space volume (in mL) is approximately the lean mass of the body (in pounds), and averages about a third of the resting tidal volume (450-500 mL). In Fowler's original study, the anatomic dead space was 156 ± 28 mL (n=45 males) or 26% of their tidal volume. Despite the flexibility of the trachea and smaller conducting airways, their overall volume (i.e. the anatomic dead space) changes little with bronchoconstriction or when breathing hard during exercise.\n", "With their very powerful (e.g. 3.3 kW = 4.5 HP) electric motor powered drive system treadmills deliver mechanical energy to the human body through the moving running belt of the treadmill. The subject is not changing his horizontal position and is passively moved and forced to catch up with the running belt underneath his feet. The subject can also be fixed in safety harnesses, unweighting systems, various supports or even fixed in and moved with a robotic orthotic system utilizing the treadmill.\n", "The energy that is absorbed by the muscle can be converted into elastic recoil energy, and can be recovered and reused by the body. This creates more efficiency because the body is able to use the energy for the next movement, decreasing the initial impact or shock of the movement.\n\nFor example, kinetic energy is absorbed in running every time one's foot strikes the ground and continues as one's mass overtakes the foot. At this moment, elastic recoil energy is at its maximum and a large amount of this energy is absorbed and is added to the next stride.\n", "Medical treadmills are also active measuring devices. When connected through an interface with ECG, ergospirometry, blood pressure monitor (BPM), or EMG, they become a new medical system (e.g., stress test system or cardiopulmonary rehabilitation system) and can also be equipped to measure VO2max and various other vital functions.\n\nMost treadmills have a “cardio mode”, where a target heart rate is defined and the speed and elevation (load) is controlled automatically until the subject is in “heart rate steady state”. So the treadmill is delivering mechanical energy to the human body based on the vital function (heart rate) of the subject.\n", "After cardiovascular exercise or weight training, the body continues to need oxygen at a higher rate than before the exercise began. High intensity bouts of exercise with the Bulgarian Bag increase metabolic rates higher than traditional weight training and cardiovascular activity because the exercise includes both weight training and fast dynamic movement.\n", "BULLET::::- Treadmill running is not specific to any sport, i.e., there is no competitive sport that actually utilizes treadmill running. For example, a competitive runner would be far better off running outdoors through space since it is more specific and realistic to his/her event.\n\nAs an indoor activity:\n\nBULLET::::- Many users find treadmills monotonous and lose interest after a period.\n\nBULLET::::- Treadmills do not offer the psychological satisfaction some runners get from running in new locations away from the distractions of home.\n\nAs a machine:\n", "Morin et al. (2011) performed a study to investigate the importance of ground reaction forces by having sprinters run on a force treadmill that measured both horizontal and vertical ground reaction forces. Belt velocity was measured for each step and calculations were performed to find the “index of force application technique”, which determines how well subjects are able to apply force in the horizontal direction.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Resilience research.\n", "In humans, the PTS is believed by some to occur at critical levels of ankle dorsiflexor moments and power. Dorsiflexor muscles show high levels of activation when walking near the PTS and human subjects describe feeling fatigue in these muscles. Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) also decrease after the transition to running, despite a higher energetic expenditure.\n", "Section::::Detailed process.:Critical concentration.\n", "Oversized treadmills are also used for cycling at speeds up to 80 km/h, for wheelchair users and in special applications with thick running belt for cross-country skiing and biathlon, where athletes perform training and testing exercise with roller ski on a running deck of up to sizes of 450 x 300 cm.\n\nSection::::Exercise treadmills.:Advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Enable the user to set up an exercise regime that can be adhered to irrespective of the weather.\n", "On the running deck the subject is moving, who adapts to the adjustable speed of the belt. The running deck is usually mounted on damping elements, so the running deck has shock absorbing characteristics. By a lifting element, the entire frame including treadmill running deck will be raised and thus simulates a pitch angle for uphill running. Some treadmills also have the reversing of a running belt for the purpose of downhill loads. Most treadmills for professionals in the fitness area, run for table sizes of about 150 cm long and 50 cm width, a speed range of about 0 ... 20 km/h and slope angle of 0 ... 20%.\n", "Energy expenditure is commonly used as a measure of gait quality and efficiency. Human metabolic rates are usually recorded via measuring the maximal oxygen consumption (VO max) during controlled incremental exercise under observation. Treadmills are used for gait analysis and standard walking tests. Able-bodied and athletic individuals on average have smaller metabolic costs than impaired individuals performing identical tasks.\n\nThe values from a theoretical model and experimental analyses are listed below:\n\nBULLET::::- Transtibial amputees experience 9-33% increase\n\nBULLET::::- Transfemoral amputees experience 66-100% increase\n", "A medical treadmill which is also used for ergometry and cardiopulmonary stress test as well as performance diagnostics is always a class IIb medical device either when used as stand-alone device in a medical environment or when used in connection with an ECG, EMG, ergospirometry, or blood pressure monitoring device.\n", "BULLET::::- Because the hose attaches to the bottom of the bladder, in order to let the last of the liquid into the hose, air that reaches the opening bubbles to the top of the bladder, and is trapped there until the liquid is nearly drained. Each time more air is blown into the bladder than the amount of liquid contained inside the hose, the pressure inside the bladder increases, and the more effort blowing back involves. Therefore, the technique profits from enough attention to develop a sense of when the hose is nearly full of air.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Eccentric contraction and oxygen consumption:\n", "BULLET::::- Some treadmill runners develop bad running habits that become apparent when they return to outdoor running. In particular a short, upright, bouncy gait may result from having no wind resistance and trying to avoid kicking the motor covering with the front of the foot.\n\nBULLET::::- Imposes a strict pace on runners, giving an unnatural feel to running which can cause a runner to lose balance.\n", "It is important to acknowledge the fact that a swimmer does not have to spend energy to overcome drag all through its muscle work; it is also assisted by the thrust force in this task. Their research also shows that defining drag on the body is definitional and many definitions of drag on the swimming body are prevalent in literature. Some of these definitions can give higher value than the muscle power. However, this doesn't lead to any paradox because higher drag also means higher thrust in the power balance equation, and this does not violate any energy balance principles.\n", "Morin et al. explored the effects of fatigue on force production and force application techniques in a study where sprinters performed four sets of five 6 second sprints using the same treadmill setup as previously mentioned. Data was collected on their ability to produce ground reaction forces as well as their ability to coordinate the ratio of ground forces (horizontal to vertical) to allow for greater horizontal acceleration. The immediate results showed a significant decrease in performance with each sprint and a sharper decrease in rate of performance depreciation with each subsequent data set. In conclusion, it was obvious that both the total force production capability and technical ability to apply ground forces were greatly affected.\n", "Though the muscle is doing a negative amount of mechanical work, (work is being done \"on\" the muscle), chemical energy (in fat, glucose or ATP) is nevertheless consumed, although less than would be consumed during a concentric contraction of the same force. For example, one expends more energy going up a flight of stairs than going down the same flight.\n", "Section::::Dead space and the ventilated patient.\n\nThe depth and frequency of our breathing is determined by chemoreceptors and the brainstem, as modified by a number of subjective sensations. When ventilated, the patient breathes at a rate and tidal volume that is dictated by the machine.\n", "Since users do not take their feet off the pedals, there is no footfall noise in contrast with other fitness trainers such as treadmills.\n\nA 2002 study by the University of Idaho shows that varying the stride length on the elliptical trainer can recruit a larger variety of muscle groups. The study also showed that as the stride is lengthened, more calories are burned without any higher rate of perceived exertion by the user. This study is in agreement with the claims made about the adjustable stride length feature on some newer ellipticals.\n\nSection::::Common usage.\n", "The muscles responsible for accelerating the runner forward are required to contract with increasing speed to accommodate the increasing velocity of the body. During the acceleration phase of sprinting, the contractile component of muscles is the main component responsible for the power output. Once a steady state velocity has been reached and the sprinter is upright, a sizable fraction of the power comes from the mechanical energy stored in the ‘series elastic elements’ during stretching of the contractile muscles that is released immediately after the positive work phase. As the velocity of the runner increases, inertia and air resistance effects become the limiting factors on the sprinter’s top speed.\n", "This view was largely unchallenged until the late 1980s. Since that time, several studies have shown that transitioning from walking to running actually resulted in an increase in energy expenditure, while other studies have supported an energetic benefit from the transition. In the time since the energetics optimization view was first challenged, a number of mechanical, kinetic, and kinematic factors have been explored to explain the transition. Weak to moderately strong correlations have been found between several variables and the PTS, but work from a variety of researchers in the 1990s and 2000s agrees that ultimately it is fatigue and discomfort (or imminent fatigue/discomfort) in the tibialis anterior and other dorsiflexor muscles of the ankle that is the primary stimulus for the transition from walking to running in humans.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10354	How do so many countries commit war crimes, and yet there seems to be little action against it?	There is no world court that can go around arresting people for committing war crimes. The closest thing you have to that is the International Court of Justice. But the ICJ is more of a Western European political tool than anything else. It would never prosecute a Western European leader, and cannot operate in countries that are not militarily controlled by a Western European country. But there is also a problem with your question, which is the assumption that the commission of war crimes is widespread. There is reason for that because the media in general, and people on the internet in particular, like calling every action by countries they deem to be their enemy a war crime. In order for a civilian killing to be a legal war crime, the killing needs to be done intentionally, with knowledge of the civilian's status, and there cannot be a military purpose behind the killing. That means that if a bomb misses its intended target and strikes a civilian that is not a war crime, because there was no intention to kill civilians. That means that if a building is reasonably believed to be housing solely combatants, but it turns out to be a civilian building instead that is not a war crime because there was no intention to kill civilians. That means that if combatants are hiding amongst a group of civilians, the killing of those civilians is not a war crime because the killing had a military purpose. In the modern world, the overwhelming majority of civilians that are killed by a military are killed because their government intentionally deceives it's opponent into thinking that civilian buildings are in fact military buildings or because militants attempt to use civilians as human shields. When civilians are killed under those circumstances it does not give rise to the commission of a war crime.	[ "War crimes trials have become a critically important component of nation building. PILPG’s War Crimes Practice Area was established in 1996, with an agreement between Richard Goldstone and PILPG to provide research assistance to the International Prosecutor on issues pending before the ICTY. In the past, the War Crimes Practice Group has also provided research assistance to the ICTR, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Iraqi Special Tribunal, and the International Criminal Court. PILPG advises these tribunals on the entire spectrum of issues pertaining to war crimes prosecution.\n\nSection::::Primary practice areas.:Water Diplomacy.\n", "War crimes are significant in international humanitarian law because it is an area where international tribunals such as the Nuremberg Trials and Tokyo Trials have been convened. Recent examples are the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, which were established by the UN Security Council acting under Chapter VIII of the UN Charter.\n", "War crimes are prohibited by the Geneva Conventions, of which Sri Lanka is a signatory. In 2002 the International Criminal Court (ICC) was created by the Rome Statute to prosecute individuals for serious crimes, such as war crimes. Sri Lanka is not a signatory of the Rome Statute. Therefore, it is only possible for the ICC to investigate and prosecute war crimes in Sri Lanka if the UN Security Council was to refer Sri Lanka to the ICC, which is unlikely. However, individual countries may investigate and prosecute alleged culprits over whom they have jurisdiction, such as those with dual-nationality. In addition, a number of countries apply universal jurisdiction in respect of certain crimes, such as war crimes, allowing them to prosecute individuals irrespective of where the crime was committed, the nationality of the culprits and the nationality of the victims. On 21 March 2019 Sri Lanka co-sponsored a resolution made by the UN giving the country a 2 year deadline to establish a judicial mechanism to assess violation of humanitarian international law committed during the civil war.\n", "In the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly in 2014, many states made positive remarks on the International Law Commission's decision to move forward with studying the need for a global crimes against humanity treaty, and expressed their support for the work of the ILC on the crimes against humanity treaty topic, including Australia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Israel, Japan, Korea, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United States. In particular, Croatia stated that it “fully supports endeavors aimed at developing a global international instrument for the prevention, prosecution and punishment of crimes against humanity, as well as cooperation between States in that regard.” The Czech Republic expressly noted the work of the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative in this area in their statement.\n", "The prosecution of severe international crimes—including genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes—is necessary to enforce international criminal law and deliver justice to victims.\n\nThis is an important component of transitional justice, or the process of transforming societies into rights-respecting democracies and addressing past human rights violations.\n\nInvestigations and trials of leaders who have committed crimes and caused mass political or military atrocities is a key demand of victims of human rights abuses. Prosecution of such criminals can play a key role in restoring dignity to victims, and restoring trusting relationships in society.\n", "International humanitarian law defines the conduct and responsibilities of belligerent nations, neutral nations and individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons (usually meaning civilians). However the relevant treaties do not expressly envisage causes of action for victims in national or international law. Liesbeth Zegveld, a Dutch specialist in international humanitarian law, has drawn attention to their failure expressly to guarantee victims of violations of the law any right to a legal remedy.\n", "On July 1, 2002, the International Criminal Court, a treaty-based court located in The Hague, came into being for the prosecution of war crimes committed on or after that date. Several nations, most notably the United States, China, Russia, and Israel, have criticized the court. The United States still participates as an observer. Article 12 of the Rome Statute provides jurisdiction over the citizens of non-contracting states in the event that they are accused of committing crimes in the territory of one of the state parties.\n", "The Rome Statute defines that \"intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population\" to be illegal, but only came into effect on July 1, 2002 and has not been ratified by every country.\n\nSection::::Ethics.\n", "Section::::Debate.\n\nThe Liberian Truth and Reconciliation Commission, established by the Liberian Transitional Government in 2005, published its final recommendations in 2009, suggesting that Liberia establish a Special Criminal Court to prosecute war-related crimes. However, Liberia lacks the political will to implement the recommendations and many alleged war criminals hold positions of power making prosecution for war crimes impossible in the national criminal justice system.\n", "Regional human rights courts have referred to the Manual in reaching findings on the inadequacy of investigations into suspicious deaths. National courts have done the same when establishing guidelines for the investigation of killings by the police. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) relied on the Principles and the Manual in its Study on customary international humanitarian law: a contribution to the understanding and respect for the rule of law in armed conflict (2005) and in its Guidelines for Investigating Deaths in Custody (2013).\n", "\"War Crimes\" is a low budget ($10,000) British feature film made in the UK in 2005 and set in 1992, during the traumatic events of the split up of Yugoslavia. The film is based in Bosnia, and 40% of the dialogue is in Serbo-Croatian language. This project was shot on Digital Video and is currently being distributed by ITN. This film was shot on location in Wales and England, and features a multinational cast from Belgium, Canada, Finland, Germany, Greece, the UK, and the USA.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nStoryline\n", "Section::::History and Role.\n\nThe mandate was established in 2009 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1888, one in a series of resolutions which recognized the detrimental impact that sexual violence in conflict has on communities, and acknowledged that the crime undermines peace and security efforts. The resolution signaled a change in the way the international community views and responds to conflict-related sexual violence. It is no longer seen as an inevitable by-product of war, but rather a, a crime that is preventable and punishable under international human rights law.\n", "BULLET::::- 16 September 2008 Nils Melzer - Direct Participation in Hostilities\n\nBULLET::::- 7 October 2008 Liesbeth Zegveld - Remedies for War Victims\n\nBULLET::::- 11 November 2008 Ove Bring - The Law on Neutrality and Collective Security: a Historical Perspective\n\nSection::::Past lectures.\n\nBULLET::::- 15 July 2008 Dr. Gary Solis, Georgetown University Law School - Removal of Protected Persons from Occupied Terr\n", "In the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly in 2014, some states questioned the need for further study on the need for a crimes against humanity convention, including France, South Africa, and the Netherlands, which considered \"that this issue is to a large extent already addressed in the Rome Statute.\" France questioned the need for a crimes against humanity convention and made reference to the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative in their remarks before the UN 6th Committee in 2014.\n", "After a conflict has ended, persons who have committed any breach of the laws of war, and especially atrocities, may be held individually accountable for war crimes through process of law.\n\nSection::::Key provisions and principles applicable to civilians.\n", "Crimes against humanity, along with crimes against peace and war crimes, were one of the three categories of crimes elaborated upon in the Nuremberg Charter, in response to the grave atrocities committed during the Second World War. Since the establishment of the Nuremberg principles and the adoption of the Genocide Convention, genocide and war crimes have widely been recognized and prohibited in international criminal law. However, there has never been a comprehensive convention on crimes against humanity, even though such crimes are continuously perpetrated worldwide in numerous conflicts and crises. Consequently, an international convention on crimes against humanity is a key missing element in the current framework of international humanitarian law, international criminal law, and human rights law. Washington University's Crimes Against Humanity (CAH) Initiative represents the first concerted effort to address the gap that exists in international criminal law by enumerating a comprehensive international convention on crimes against humanity. While the Genocide Convention provides a legal framework for prosecuting perpetrators of genocide, and the Geneva Conventions address war crimes, crimes against humanity have yet to be codified. The statutes of the International Criminal Court, the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda each contain different definitions of crimes against humanity, further demonstrating the need for a comprehensive convention that would both punish perpetrators and prevent such atrocities from occurring in the future.\n", "Preliminary examinations regarding Iraq, the State of Palestine and Venezuela were at some point closed but later on reopened. With regard to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Prosecutor published a letter responding to complaints he had received. He noted that \"the International Criminal Court has a mandate to examine the \"conduct during the conflict\", but not whether the \"decision to engage\" in armed conflict was legal\", and that the court's jurisdiction is limited to the actions of nationals of states parties. He concluded that there was a reasonable basis to believe that a limited number of war crimes had been committed in Iraq, but that the crimes allegedly committed by nationals of states parties did not appear to meet the required gravity threshold for an ICC investigation. However, on 13 May 2014, the Prosecutor announced that preliminary examinations regarding the situation in Iraq are re-opened, due to communication received by the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights regarding alleged war crimes by United Kingdom officials between 2003 and 2008.\n", "Regarding claims based on the idea that a senior state official committing International crimes can never be said to be acting officially, as Wouters notes: \"This argument, however, is not waterproof since it ignores the sad reality that in most cases those crimes are precisely committed by or with the support of high-ranking officials as part of a state’s policy, and thus can fall within the scope of official acts.\" Academic opinion on the matter is divided and indeed only the future development of International Customary law, possibly accelerated by states exercising universal jurisdiction over retired senior state officials, will be able to confirm whether state sovereignty has now yielded partially to internationally held human rights values.\n", "The societal consequences of war rape can equally have a negative impact on post-conflict reconciliation and the judicial follow-up on wartime crimes, including rape. Given the stigmatisation of victims and their isolation or fear thereof, they might prefer to remain silent with regard to the violations they have suffered. Indeed, underreporting of cases of rape during armed conflict is a practical challenge post-conflict communities have to face that is pointed to by a number of actors, including the United Nations Secretary-General, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights as well as international NGOs.\n", "The Protocol offers a particular note on the duty to investigate during the conduct of hostilities, which it highlights as a context that may provide practical difficulties for the application of much of the Protocol’s content. All suspected war crimes must be investigated. But the Protocol also emphasizes that, where, during the conduct of hostilities, it appears that casualties have resulted from an attack, a post-operation assessment should be conducted to establish the facts, including the accuracy of the targeting.\n", "Without all the shooting, \"Crossing Lines\" is more closely related to the special crimes investigations unit of the first International Criminal Tribunal at The Hague in the Netherlands. These crime investigators from all over the world do indeed operate across national jurisdictional lines in connection with major crimes such as murder, rape, torture and kidnapping that occurred in the territory of the former Yugoslavia. John Cencich’s \"The Devil’s Garden: A War Crimes Investigator's Story\" (Potomac Books, Washington, D.C.) demonstrates how police investigators from Berlin, France, Belgium, Scotland Yard, Italy, the United States and many others worked pursuant to the authority of the United Nations Security Council, without relying on national police forces, to investigate and bring to justice some of the world's worst criminals.\n", "The regional teams in this Sanctions Enforcement Group make sure that those who \"do\" violate properly imposed UN sanctions do not \"persist\" in efforts to thwart international laws and the will of the international community.\n\nOnce the UN executive has determined that an international lawbreaker is repeatedly violating UN sanctions and is a threat to international law and order, and this international criminal refuses to surrender himself to the justice of the UN's tribunal in The Hague, then the ISEG is authorized to take whatever means necessary to stop the violations. They have total authority to 'take out' such people.\n", "In both the broad conditions we identified - loss of life and ethnic cleansing - we have described the action in question as needing to be \"large scale\" in order to justify military intervention. We make no attempt to quantify \"large scale\": opinions may differ in some marginal cases (for example, where a number of small scale incidents may build cumulatively into large scale atrocity), but most will not in practice generate major disagreement. What we do make clear, however, is that military action can be legitimate as an anticipatory measure in response to clear evidence of likely large scale killing. Without this possibility of anticipatory action, the international community would be placed in the morally untenable position of being required to wait until genocide begins, before being able to take action to stop it.\n", "Where warranted, a situation may then be subject to \"intensive analysis\". This involves collecting detailed information from open sources; conducting systematic crime analysis; examining factors such as gravity, complementarity and the interests of justice; seeking additional information; and, in advanced cases, planning for potential investigation. As of February 2006, 10 situations had been subject to intensive analysis; as of August 2008, the situations under analysis included Afghanistan, Chad, Colombia, Côte d'Ivoire, Georgia and Kenya.\n\nIn deciding whether to open a formal investigation, the Prosecutor must consider four factors:\n", "Serbian Justice Minister, Nela Kuburović, said that: \"The entire international community is under an obligation to prosecute war crimes suspects.\"\n" ]	[ "Commission of war crimes is widespread. " ]	[ "The commission of war crimes is not widespread, media and internet wrongfully call enemy actions war crimes. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Commission of war crimes is widespread. ", "Many countries commit war crimes." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The commission of war crimes is not widespread, media and internet wrongfully call enemy actions war crimes. ", "The commission of war crimes is not widespread, as they must have no military purpose." ]
2018-08612	Why is it that hot or even warm water causes our sunburns to hurt more?	Hot water increases blood flow to the skin. More blood means more sensitivity, more sensitivity means more pain.	[ "Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Duration.\n\nSunburn can occur in less than 15 minutes, and in seconds when exposed to non-shielded welding arcs or other sources of intense ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, the inflicted harm is often not immediately obvious.\n", "Other symptoms can include blistering, swelling (edema), pruritus (itching), peeling skin, rash, nausea, fever, chills, and fainting (syncope). Also, a small amount of heat is given off from the burn, caused by the concentration of blood in the healing process, giving a warm feeling to the affected area. Sunburns may be classified as superficial, or partial thickness burns. Blistering is a sign of second degree sunburn.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Variations.\n", "Additionally, since sunburn is a type of radiation burn, it can initially hide a severe exposure to radioactivity resulting in acute radiation syndrome or other radiation-induced illnesses, especially if the exposure occurred under sunny conditions. For instance, the difference between the erythema caused by sunburn and other radiation burns is not immediately obvious. Symptoms common to heat illness and the prodromic stage of acute radiation syndrome like nausea, vomiting, fever, weakness/fatigue, dizziness or seizure can add to further diagnostic confusion.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "The American Academy of Dermatology recommends the following for treatment of sunburn:\n\nBULLET::::- For pain relief, take cool baths or showers frequently.\n\nBULLET::::- Use soothing moisturizers that contain aloe vera or soy.\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen or aspirin can help with pain.\n\nBULLET::::- Keep hydrated and drink extra water.\n\nBULLET::::- Do not pop blisters on a sunburn. Instead, let them heal on their own.\n\nBULLET::::- Protect sunburned skin with loose clothing when going outside to prevent further damage.\n", "Because of variations in the intensity of UV radiation passing through the atmosphere, the risk of sunburn increases with proximity to the tropic latitudes, located between 23.5° north and south latitude. All else being equal (e.g., cloud cover, ozone layer, terrain, etc.), over the course of a full year, each location within the tropic or polar regions receives approximately the same amount of UV radiation. In the temperate zones between 23.5° and 66.5°, UV radiation varies substantially by latitude and season. The higher the latitude, the lower the intensity of the UV rays. Intensity in the northern hemisphere is greatest during the months of May, June and July — and in the southern hemisphere, November, December and January. On a minute-by-minute basis, the amount of UV radiation is dependent on the angle of the sun. This is easily determined by the height ratio of any object to the size of its shadow. The greatest risk is at solar noon, when shadows are at their minimum and the sun's radiation passes most directly through the atmosphere. Regardless of one's latitude (assuming no other variables), equal shadow lengths mean equal amounts of UV radiation.\n", "The most effective way to prevent sunburn is to reduce the amount of UV radiation reaching the skin. The World Health Organization, American Academy of Dermatology, and Skin Cancer Foundation recommend the following measures to prevent excessive UV exposure and skin cancer:\n\nBULLET::::- Limit sun exposure between the hours of 10am and 4pm, when UV rays are the strongest\n\nBULLET::::- Seek shade when UV rays are most intense\n\nBULLET::::- Wear sun-protective clothing including a wide brim hat, sunglasses, and tightly-woven, loose-fitting clothing\n\nBULLET::::- Use sunscreen\n\nBULLET::::- Avoid tanning beds and artificial UV exposure\n\nSection::::Prevention.:UV intensity.\n", "Sunburn is an inflammatory response in the skin triggered by direct DNA damage by UV radiation. When the skin cells' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell-death is triggered and the skin is replaced.\n\nSun protective measures including sunscreen and sun protective clothing are widely accepted to prevent sunburn and some types of skin cancer. Special populations including children are especially susceptible to sunburn and protective measures should be used.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nTypically, there is initial redness, followed by varying degrees of pain, proportional in severity to both the duration and intensity of exposure.\n", "Sunlight includes sufficient ultraviolet power to cause sunburn within hours of exposure, and the burn severity increases with the duration of exposure. This effect is a response of the skin called erythema, which is caused by a sufficient strong dose of UV-B. The Sun's UV output is divided into UV-A and UV-B: solar UV-A flux is 100 times that of UV-B, but the erythema response is 1,000 times higher for UV-B. This exposure can increase at higher altitudes and when reflected by snow, ice, or sand. The UV-B flux is 2–4 times greater during the middle 4–6 hours of the day, and is not significantly absorbed by cloud cover or up to a meter of water.\n", "The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the \"erythemal action spectrum\". The action spectrum shows that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with Caucasians more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm, which is in the lower UVC band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt effects are not as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time and location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UVA and UVB bands.\n", "Home treatments that may help the discomfort include using cool and wet cloths on the sunburned areas. Applying soothing lotions that contain aloe vera to the sunburn areas was supported by multiple studies, though others have found aloe vera to have no effect. Aloe vera has no ability to protect people from sunburns. Another treatment includes using a moisturizer that contains soy.\n\nA sunburn draws fluid to the skin’s surface and away from the rest of the body. Drinking extra water is recommended to help prevent dehydration.\n", "The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm wavelength, which is in the lower UVC band that is almost never encountered except from artificial sources like welding arcs. Most sunburn is caused by longer wavelengths, simply because those are more prevalent in sunlight at ground level.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Ozone depletion.\n", "BULLET::::1. The time of day. In most locations, the sun's rays are strongest between approximately 10am and 4pm daylight saving time.\n\nBULLET::::2. Cloud cover. UV is partially blocked by clouds; but even on an overcast day, a significant percentage of the sun's damaging UV radiation can pass through clouds.\n\nBULLET::::3. Proximity to reflective surfaces, such as water, sand, concrete, snow, and ice. All of these reflect the sun's rays and can cause sunburns.\n\nBULLET::::4. The season of the year. The position of the sun in late spring and early summer can cause a more-severe sunburn.\n", "BULLET::::- Phytophotodermatitis: UV radiation induces inflammation of the skin after contact with certain plants (including limes, celery, and meadow grass). Causes pain, redness, and blistering of the skin in the distribution of plant exposure.\n\nBULLET::::- Polymorphic light eruption: Recurrent abnormal reaction to UVR. It can present in various ways including pink-to-red bumps, blisters, plaques and urticaria.\n\nBULLET::::- Solar urticaria: UVR-induced wheals that occurs within minutes of exposure and fades within hours.\n", "There are certain genetic conditions, for example xeroderma pigmentosum, that increase a person's susceptibility to sunburn and subsequent skin cancers. These conditions involve defects in DNA repair mechanisms which in turn decreases the ability to repair DNA that has been damaged by UV radiation.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medications.\n\nThe risk of a sunburn can be increased by pharmaceutical products that sensitize users to UV radiation. Certain antibiotics, oral contraceptives, and tranquillizers have this effect.\n\nSection::::Causes.:UV intensity.\n\nThe UV Index indicates the risk of getting a sunburn at a given time and location. Contributing factors include:\n", "BULLET::::- Type III: White skin, may burn but tans easily\n\nBULLET::::- Type IV: Light brown/olive skin, hardly burns, tans easily\n\nBULLET::::- Type V: Brown skin, usually does not burn, tans easily\n\nBULLET::::- Type VI: Black skin, very unlikely to burn, becomes darker with UV radiation exposure\n\nAge also affects how skin reacts to sun. Children younger than six and adults older than sixty are more sensitive to sunlight.\n", "Sunburn\n\nSunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, commonly from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch, pain, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. An excess of UV radiation can be life-threatening in extreme cases. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors. \n", "BULLET::::- History of sunburn: Studies show that even a single episode of painful sunburn as a child can increase an individual's risk of developing AK as an adult. Six or more painful sunburns over the course of a lifetime was found to be significantly associated with the likelihood of developing AK.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Skin pigmentation.\n", "Since the cause of the condition cannot be fully avoided in all cases, treatment is usually focused on topical itch management. This can be effected by the application of antipruritic lotions or creams, using phototherapy, or the application of hot or cold packs to the skin after water contact. Paradoxically, hot baths or showers help many patients, possibly because heat causes mast cells in the skin to release their supply of histamine and to remain depleted for up to 24 hours afterward.\n", "BULLET::::- Infants 6-12 months: Sunscreen can safely be used on infants this age. It is recommended to apply a broad-spectrum, water-resistant SPF 30+ sunscreen to exposed areas as well as avoid excessive UV exposure by using wide-brim hats and protective clothing.\n\nBULLET::::- Toddlers and Preschool-aged children: Apply a broad-spectrum, water-resistant SPF 30+ sunscreen to exposed areas, use wide-brim hats and sunglasses, avoid peak UV intensity hours of 10am-4pm and seek shade. Sun protective clothing with a SPF rating can also provide additional protection.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Artificial UV exposure.\n", "BULLET::::- Climatotherapy: Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature, humidity, sunshine, barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents\n\nBULLET::::- Heliotherapy: Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun's radiation\n\nBULLET::::- Thalassotherapy: Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea water\n\nSection::::Putative therapies.:Psoriasis.\n\nClimatotherapy at the Dead Sea may be a therapy for psoriasis by sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that UV rays are partially blocked by the increased cloud cover over the Dead Sea.\n\nSection::::Putative therapies.:Rhinosinusitis.\n", "After the exposure, skin may turn red in as little as 30 minutes but most often takes 2 to 6 hours. Pain is usually strongest 6 to 48 hours after exposure. The burn continues to develop for 1 to 3 days, occasionally followed by peeling skin in 3 to 8 days. Some peeling and itching may continue for several weeks.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Skin cancer.\n", "Cortisol and the stress response have known deleterious effects on the immune system. High levels of perceived stress and increases in cortisol have been found to lengthen the wound-healing time in healthy, male adults. Those who had the lowest levels of cortisol the day following a 4 mm punch biopsy had the fastest healing time. In dental students, wounds from punch biopsies took an average of 40% longer to heal when performed three days before an examination as opposed to biopsies performed on the same students during summer vacation. This is in line with previous animal studies that show similar detrimental effects on wound healing, notably the primary reports showing that turtles recoil from cortisol.\n", "Payback times can vary greatly due to regional sun, extra cost due to frost protection needs of collectors, household hot water use etc.\n\nFor instance in central and southern Florida the payback period could easily be 7 years or less rather than the 12.6 years indicated on the chart for the U.S.\n", "Sunburn (disambiguation)\n\nSunburn is a condition of the skin after overexposure to ultraviolet radiation.\n\nSunburn may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Sun scald, the effects of ultraviolet radiation on the plant kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- SS-N-22 Sunburn, two Soviet anti-ship missiles\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\" (Blake Babies album), 1990\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\" (Sun album)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\" (Fuel album), 1998\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\" (Fuel song), 1999\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\" (Muse song), 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Sunburn (Owl City song)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\", a 2004 album by Gordie Sampson\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\" (1979 film), a film starring Farrah Fawcett\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunburn\" (1999 film), an American film\n", "Suntans, which naturally develop in some individuals as a protective mechanism against the sun, are viewed by most in the Western world as desirable. This has led to an overall increase in exposure to UV radiation from both the natural sun and tanning lamps. Suntans can provide a modest sun protection factor (SPF) of 3, meaning that tanned skin would tolerate up to three times the UV exposure as pale skin.\n\nSunburns associated with indoor tanning can be severe.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18932	What’s the difference between the urine that women excrete when they’re pregnant and regular urine?	A higher concentration of pregnancy related hormones. That's what pregnancy tests measure (and I'm guessing the basis for the question).	[ "Urine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, Urecholine, Urowave). Urine from postmenopausal women is rich in gonadotropins that can yield follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone for fertility therapy. One such commercial product is Pergonal.\n\nUrine from pregnant women contains enough human chorionic gonadotropins for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication. Pregnant mare urine is the source of estrogens, namely Premarin. Urine also contains antibodies, which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of pathogens, including HIV-1.\n", "BULLET::::- The urine test may be a \"chromatographic immunoassay\" or any of several other test formats, home-, physician's office-, or laboratory-based. Published detection thresholds range from 20 to 100 mIU/ml, depending on the brand of test. Early in pregnancy, more accurate results may be obtained by using the first urine of the morning (when urine is most concentrated). When the urine is dilute (specific gravity less than 1.015), the hCG concentration may not be representative of the blood concentration, and the test may be falsely negative.\n", "During pregnancy, a woman's mass increases by about 12 kg (26 lb). The European Food Safety Authority recommends an increase of 300 mL per day compared to the normal intake for non-pregnant women, taking the total adequate water intake (from food and fluids) to 2,300 mL, or approximately 1,850 mL/ day from fluids alone\n", "Section::::Management.:Pregnancy.\n\nControl of metabolism is vital during pregnancy of women with MSUD. To prevent detrimental abnormalities in development of the embryo or fetus, dietary adjustments should be made and plasma amino acid concentrations of the mother should be observed carefully and frequently. Amino acid deficiency can be detected through fetal growth, making it essential to monitor development closely.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Analysis of amniotic fluid can reveal many aspects of the baby's genetic health as well as the age and viability of the fetus. This is because the fluid contains metabolic wastes and compounds used in assessing fetal age and lung maturity, but amniotic fluid also contains fetal cells, which can be examined for genetic defects.\n", "Modern pregnancy tests \"do not\" use the pregnancy itself to determine pregnancy status; rather, human chorionic gonadotropin is used, or hCG, present in the urine of gravid females, as a \"surrogate marker to indicate\" that a woman is pregnant. Because hCG can also be produced by a tumor, the specificity of modern pregnancy tests cannot be 100% (because false positives are possible). Also, because hCG is present in the urine in such small concentrations after fertilization and early embryogenesis, the sensitivity of modern pregnancy tests cannot be 100% (because false negatives are possible).\n\nSection::::Positive and negative predictive values.\n", "Urine tests will typically show positive around four weeks after the last menstrual period (LMP) and are best done in the morning as hCG levels are then highest. Because of their cut-off hCG level, a positive result is less likely to be incorrect than a negative one, and how much water/fluids have been consumed \"can\" affect the results as well. Serum hCG tests for a more specific part of the hCG molecule and can detect pregnancy earlier than urine, before even a period has been missed.\n", "BULLET::::- Grade 0 – No renal pelvis dilation. This means an anteroposterior diameter of less than 4 mm in fetuses up to 32 weeks of gestational age and 7 mm afterwards. In adults, cutoff values for renal pelvic dilation have been defined differently by different sources, with anteroposterior diameters ranging between 10 and 20 mm. About 13% of normal healthy adults have a transverse pelvic diameter of over 10 mm.\n\nBULLET::::- Grade 1 (mild) – Mild renal pelvis dilation (anteroposterior diameter less than 10 mm in fetuses) without dilation of the calyces nor parenchymal atrophy\n", "Section::::Functions.:Excretion.\n\nWaste products excreted from the fetus such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine are transferred to the maternal blood by diffusion across the placenta.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Immunity.\n", "Pregnancy specific biological substances\n\nPregnancy-specific biological substances, which include the placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic fluid, and amniotic membrane are being studied for a number of health uses. For example, Placental-derived stem cells are being studied so they can serve as a potential treatment method for cell therapy. Hepatocyte-like cells (HLC) are generated from differentiated human amniotic epithelial cells (hAEC) that are abundant in the placenta. HLC may replace hepatocytes for hepatocyte transplantation to treat acute or chronic liver damage.\n", "Kay recommends that a neonate born with untreated in utero hydronephrosis receive a renal ultrasound within two days of birth. A renal pelvis greater than 12mm in a neonate is considered abnormal and suggests significant dilation and possible abnormalities such as obstruction or morphological abnormalities in the urinary tract.\n", "There are many physiologic changes that occur during pregnancy that influence respiratory status and function. Progesterone has noticeable effects on respiratory physiology, increasing minute volume (the amount of air breathed in and out of the lungs in 1 minute) by 40% in the first trimester via an increase in tidal volume alone, as the respiratory rate does not change during pregnancy. As a result, carbon dioxide levels in the blood decrease and the pH of the blood becomes more alkaline (i.e. the pH is higher and more basic). This causes the maternal kidneys to excrete bicarbonate to compensate for this change in pH. The combined effect of the decreased serum concentrations of both carbon dioxide and bicarbonate leads to a slight overall increase in blood pH (to 7.44 compared to 7.40 in the non-pregnant state) . If an arterial blood gas (ABG) specimen is drawn on a pregnant person, it would therefore reveal respiratory alkalosis (from the decrease in serum carbon dioxide mediated by the lungs) with a compensatory metabolic acidosis (from the decrease in serum bicarbonate mediated by the kidneys).\n", "The presence of fetal cells in mothers can be associated with benefits when it comes to certain autoimmune diseases. In particular, male fetal cells are related to helping mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus. When kidney biopsies were taken from patients with lupus nephritis, DNA was extracted and run with PCR. The male fetal DNA was quantified and the presence of specific Y chromosome sequences were found. Women with lupus nephritis containing male fetal cells in their kidney biopsies exhibited better renal system functioning. Levels of serum creatinine, which is related to kidney failure, were low in mothers with high levels of male fetal cells. In contrast, women without male fetal cells who had lupus nephritis showed a more serious form of glomerulonephritis and higher levels of serum creatinine.\n", "Amniotic fluid is present from the formation of the gestational sac. Amniotic fluid is in the amniotic sac. It is generated from maternal plasma, and passes through the fetal membranes by osmotic and hydrostatic forces. When fetal kidneys begin to function in about week 16, fetal urine also contributes to the fluid. In earlier times, it was believed that the amniotic fluid was composed entirely of fetal urine.\n", "Section::::What is involved in pre-conception counseling?:Urinalysis.\n\nUrine sample or urinalysis can reveal the presence of proteinuria (protein in the urine), a possible indicator of infection or kidney disease, or the presence of blood which can indicate a urinary tract infection. Urinalysis might also show the presence of glucose (glycosuria), but women of child-bearing age are unlikely to have undiagnosed diabetes (this is separate from gestational diabetes that may occasionally develop during the course of a subsequent pregnancy).\n\nSection::::Using the assessment.\n\nSection::::Using the assessment.:Physicians.\n", "Blood or urine tests measure hCG. These can be pregnancy tests. hCG-positive indicates an implanted blastocyst and mammalian embryogenesis. These can be done to diagnose and monitor germ cell tumors and gestational trophoblastic diseases.\n\nConcentrations are commonly reported in thousandth international units per milliliter (mIU/ml). The international unit of hCG was originally established in 1938 and has been redefined in 1964 and in 1980. At the present time, 1 international unit is equal to approximately 2.35×10 moles, or about 6×10 grams.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Methodology.\n", "Section::::Accuracy.:False positives.\n\nFalse positive test results may occur for several reasons, including errors of test application, use of drugs containing the hCG molecule, and non-pregnant production of the hCG molecule. Urine tests can be falsely positive in those that are taking the medications: chlorpromazine, phenothiazines and methadone among others.\n\nSpurious \"evaporation lines\" may appear on many home pregnancy tests if read after the suggested 3–5 minute window or reaction time, independent of an actual pregnancy. False positives may also appear on tests used past their expiration date.\n", "Like any other gonadotropins, it can be extracted from the urine of pregnant women or produced from cultures of genetically modified cells using recombinant DNA technology.\n\nIn Pubergen, Pregnyl, Follutein, Profasi, Choragon and Novarel, it is extracted from the urine of pregnant women. In Ovidrel, it is produced with recombinant DNA technology.\n\nSection::::hCG forms.\n\nRegarding endogenous forms of hCG, there are various ways to categorize and measure them, including total hCG, C-terminal peptide total hCG, intact hCG, free β-subunit hCG, β-core fragment hCG, hyperglycosylated hCG, nicked hCG, alpha hCG, and pituitary hCG.\n", "Section::::Serum levels.\n\nSection::::Serum levels.:Maternal.\n\nIn pregnant women, fetal AFP levels can be monitored in urine. Since AFP is quickly cleared from the mother's serum via her kidneys, maternal urine AFP correlates with fetal serum levels, although the maternal urine level is much lower than the fetal serum level. AFP levels rise until about week 32.\n\nSection::::Serum levels.:Infants.\n", "For incidentally detected prenatal hydronephrosis, the first study to obtain is a postnatal renal ultrasound, since as noted, many cases of prenatal hydronephrosis resolve spontaneously. This is generally done within the first few days after birth, although there is some risk that obtaining an imaging study this early may miss some cases of mild hydronephrosis due to the relative oliguria of a newborn. Thus, some experts recommend obtaining a follow up ultrasound at 4–6 weeks to reduce the false-negative rate of the initial ultrasound. A voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) is also typically obtained to exclude the possibility of vesicoureteral reflux or anatomical abnormalities such as posterior urethral valves. Finally, if hydronephrosis is significant and obstruction is suspected, such as a ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) or ureterovesical junction (UVJ) obstruction, a nuclear imaging study such as a MAG-3 scan is warranted.\n", "HCG pregnancy strip test\n\nDetection of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) in urine or serum is an easy first method of diagnosis of pregnancy. hCG can be detected as early as the sixth day after conception. hCG is also an important tumor marker because it is produced by some kinds of tumor, such as: seminoma, choriocarcinoma, germ cell tumors, hydatidiform mole formation, teratoma with elements of choriocarcinoma, and islet cell tumor\n", "Newborn screening for maple syrup urine disease involves analyzing the blood of 1–2 day-old newborns through tandem mass spectrometry. The blood concentration of leucine and isoleucine is measured relative to other amino acids to determine if the newborn has a high level of branched-chain amino acids. Once the newborn is 2–3 days old the blood concentration of branched-chain amino acids like leucine is greater than 1000 µmol/L and alternative screening methods are used. Instead, the newborn’s urine is analyzed for levels of branched-chain alpha-hydroxyacids and alpha-ketoacids.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Swollen legs, feet and ankles are common in late pregnancy. The problem is partly caused by the weight of the uterus on the major veins of the pelvis. It usually clears up after delivery of the baby, and is mostly not a cause for concern, though it should always be reported to a doctor.\n", "It subsequently relaunched as inui Health, claiming \"FDA clearance for its smartphone-enabled home urine testing platform that can conduct five common tests, with more to come.\" \n\nSection::::Products.\n", "Urinary tract infections are more concerning in pregnancy due to the increased risk of kidney infections. During pregnancy, high progesterone levels elevate the risk of decreased muscle tone of the ureters and bladder, which leads to a greater likelihood of reflux, where urine flows back up the ureters and towards the kidneys. While pregnant women do not have an increased risk of asymptomatic bacteriuria, if bacteriuria is present they do have a 25–40% risk of a kidney infection. Thus if urine testing shows signs of an infection—even in the absence of symptoms—treatment is recommended. Cephalexin or nitrofurantoin are typically used because they are generally considered safe in pregnancy. A kidney infection during pregnancy may result in premature birth or pre-eclampsia (a state of high blood pressure and kidney dysfunction during pregnancy that can lead to seizures). Some women have UTIs that keep coming back in pregnancy and currently there is not enough research on how to best treat these infections.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05215	why do spacecraft re-enter the earth’s atmosphere so quickly? Why can’t they just gently descend?	Plus, gravity is pulling on them at 9.82m/s^2, so it's nearly impossible to come in gently.	[ "Even in the case of an airless body, there is a limit to how close a spacecraft may approach. The magnitude of the achievable change in velocity depends on the spacecraft's approach velocity and the planet's escape velocity at the point of closest approach (limited by either the surface or the atmosphere.)\n", "For Earth, atmospheric entry occurs at the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km (62.14 mi / ~ 54 nautical mi) above the surface, while at Venus atmospheric entry occurs at 250 km (155.3 mi / ~135 nautical mi) and at Mars atmospheric entry at about 80 km (50 mi / ~ 43.2 nautical mi). Uncontrolled, objects reach high velocities while accelerating through space toward the Earth under the influence of Earth's gravity, and are slowed by friction upon encountering Earth's atmosphere. Meteors are also often travelling quite fast relative to the Earth simply because their own orbital path is different from that of the Earth before they encounter Earth's gravity well. Most controlled objects enter at hypersonic speeds due to their suborbital (e.g., intercontinental ballistic missile reentry vehicles), orbital (e.g., the Soyuz), or unbounded (e.g., meteors) trajectories. Various advanced technologies have been developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities. An alternative low-velocity method of controlled atmospheric entry is buoyancy which is suitable for planetary entry where thick atmospheres, strong gravity, or both factors complicate high-velocity hyperbolic entry, such as the atmospheres of Venus, Titan and the gas giants.\n", "\"Atmospheric entry\" is the movement of human-made or natural objects as they enter the atmosphere of a celestial body from outer space—in the case of Earth from an altitude above the Kármán Line, (100 km). This topic is heavily concerned with the process of controlled \"re\"entry of vehicles which are intended to reach the planetary surface intact, but the topic also includes uncontrolled (or minimally controlled) cases, such as the intentionally or circumstantially occurring, destructive deorbiting of satellites and the falling back to the planet of \"space junk\" due to orbital decay.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Orbital mechanics\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Vehicles sent on lunar or planetary missions are generally not launched by direct injection to departure trajectory, but first put into a low Earth parking orbit; this allows the flexibility of a bigger launch window and more time for checking that the vehicle is in proper condition for the flight. A popular misconception is that escape velocity is required for flight to the Moon; it is not. Rather, the vehicle's apogee is raised high enough to take it to a point (before it reaches apogee) where it enters the Moon's gravitational sphere of influence (though the required velocity is close to that of escape.) This is defined as the distance from a satellite at which its gravitational pull on a spacecraft equals that of its central body, which is\n", "but instead used a S-shaped vertical descent profile (starting with an initially steep descent, followed by a leveling out, followed by a slight climb, followed by a return to a positive rate of descent continuing to splash-down in the ocean) through Earth's atmosphere to reduce its speed until the parachute system could be deployed enabling a safe landing. Aerobraking does not require a thick atmosphere – for example most Mars landers use the technique, and Mars' atmosphere is only about 1% as thick as Earth's.\n", "In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2 km/s, or 40,320 km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000 km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0 km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200 km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has significant orbital velocity (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8 km/s, or 28,080 km/h).\n", "Sub-orbital tourist flights will initially focus on attaining the altitude required to qualify as reaching space. The flight path will probably be either vertical or very steep, with the spacecraft landing back at its take-off site.\n\nThe spacecraft will probably shut off its engines well before reaching maximum altitude, and then coast up to its highest point. During a few minutes, from the point when the engines are shut off to the point where the atmosphere begins to slow down the downward acceleration, the passengers will experience weightlessness.\n", "BULLET::::- Entry: after separating from the cruise stage the aeroshell enters the atmosphere and is subject to air and dust in the Martian atmosphere\n\nBULLET::::- Parachute descent: a certain speed and altitude a parachute is deployed to slow the lander further\n\nBULLET::::- Rocket descent: closer to the ground the parachute is ejected and the lander uses rocket engines to slow the lander before touchdown\n\nLanding sequence:\n\nBULLET::::- 25 November 2018 final course correction before EDL\n\nBULLET::::- 26 November 2018 Cruise stage jettisoned before entering atmosphere\n", "On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of before reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.\n", "The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is about 11 km/s, but that is insufficient to send the body an infinite distance because of the gravitational pull of the Sun. To escape the Solar System from a location at a distance from the Sun equal to the distance Sun–Earth, but not close to the Earth, requires around 42 km/s velocity, but there will be \"partial credit\" for the Earth's orbital velocity for spacecraft launched from Earth, if their further acceleration (due to the propulsion system) carries them in the same direction as Earth travels in its orbit.\n", "Hours before the probe's entry, the science phase would begin. An event timer on the probe would initiate activities, while the carrier-relay spacecraft would power up its radio receiver and turn to point its probe-relay antenna to the entry site. The probe would enter the Saturn's atmosphere at velocity of ≈27 km/s, which is less than \"Galileo\" probe's velocity of 47.4 km/s. After the entry heating and deceleration phase, the probe would deploy a drogue parachute the main parachute when it reaches an atmospheric pressure of 0.1 bar. At 1 bar of pressure, the parachute would be released and the descent module would continue free falling through the atmosphere or with help to another drogue parachute to the nominal end of mission, 55 minutes after entry and 250 km deep. The probe would be designed to endure at least 10 bars of pressure.\n", "Finally, it must be able to penetrate an atmosphere and land on a terrain accurately, without missing its target. A more constricted landing area calls for more strict accuracy. In such cases, a spacecraft will be more streamlined and possess a steeper re-entry trajectory angle. These factors combine to affect the re-entry corridor, the area in which a spacecraft must travel in order to avoid burning up or rebounding out of an atmosphere.\n\nAll of these above requirements are met through the consideration, design, and adjustment of a spacecraft's structure and trajectory.\n", "An orbiting spacecraft only stays in the sky if the centrifugal component of its movement around the Earth is enough to balance the downward pull of gravity. If it goes slower, the pull of gravity gradually makes its altitude decrease. The required speed is called \"orbital velocity,\" and it varies with the height of the orbit. For the International Space Station, or a Space Shuttle in low Earth orbit, the orbital velocity is about 27,000 km per hour (17,000 miles per hour).\n", "In the past fifty years spaceflight has usually meant remaining in space for a period of time, rather than going up and immediately falling back to earth. This entails orbit, which is mostly a matter of velocity, not altitude, although that does not mean air friction and relevant altitudes in relation to that and orbit don't have to be taken into account. At much, much higher altitudes than many orbital ones maintained by satellites, altitude begins to become a larger and larger factor and speed a lesser one. At lower altitudes, due to the high speed required to remain in orbit, air friction is a very important consideration affecting satellites, much more than in the popular image of space. At even lower altitudes, balloons, with no forward velocity, can serve many of the roles satellites play.\n", "Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing, with parachutes and, sometimes, a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing. High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos.\n", "BULLET::::- Aerobraking allows a spacecraft to reduce the high point of an elliptical orbit by repeated brushes with the atmosphere at the low point of the orbit. This can save a considerable amount of fuel because it takes much less delta-V to enter an elliptical orbit compared to a low circular orbit. Because the braking is done over the course of many orbits, heating is comparatively minor, and a heat shield is not required. This has been done on several Mars missions such as Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and at least one Venus mission, Magellan.\n", "The first kind of orbit insertion is used when capturing into orbit around a celestial body other than Earth, owing to the excess speed of interplanetary transfer orbits relative to their destination orbits. This shedding of excess velocity is typically achieved via a rocket firing known as an orbit insertion burn. For such a maneuver, the spacecraft’s engine thrusts in its direction of travel for a specified duration to slow its velocity relative to the target body enough to enter into orbit. Another technique, used when the destination body has a tangible atmosphere, is called aerocapture, which can use the friction of the atmospheric drag to slow down a spacecraft enough to get into orbit. This is very risky, however, and it has never been tested for an orbit insertion. Generally the orbit insertion deceleration is performed with the main engine so that the spacecraft gets into a highly elliptical “capture orbit” and only later the apocenter can be lowered with further decelerations, or even using the atmospheric drag in a controlled way, called aerobraking, to lower the apocenter and circularize the orbit while minimizing the use of onboard fuel. To date, only a handful of NASA and ESA missions have performed aerobraking (Magellan, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Trace Gas Orbiter, Venus Express, ...).\n", "Compared to the Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is about 100 times thinner. As a result, if a landing craft were to descend into Mars' atmosphere, it would decelerate at a much lower altitude, and depending on the object's mass, may not have enough time to reach terminal velocity. In order to deploy super- or subsonic decelerators, velocity must be below a threshold or they will not be effective. Therefore, technologies must be developed so that a landing craft can be decelerated enough to allow adequate time for other necessary landing processes to be carried out before landing.\n", "On 12 February 2019, mission controllers began the process of ending the Van Allen Probes mission by lowering the spacecrafts' perigees, which will increase their atmospheric drag and result in their eventual destructive reentry into the atmosphere. This is to ensure that the probes reenter in a reasonable timespan, in order to pose as little threat as possible with regards to the problem of orbital debris. The probes are projected to cease operations in early 2020, when they run out of the fuel necessary to keep their solar panels pointed at the sun. Reentry into the atmosphere is predicted to occur in 2034.\n", "Returning spacecraft (including all potentially manned craft) have to find a way of slowing down as much as possible while still in higher atmospheric layers and avoid hitting the ground (lithobraking) or burning up. For many orbital space flights, initial deceleration is provided by the retrofiring of the craft's rocket engines, perturbing the orbit (by lowering perigee down into the atmosphere) onto a suborbital trajectory. Many spacecraft in low-Earth orbit (e.g., nanosatellites or spacecraft that have run out of station keeping fuel or are otherwise non-functional) solve the problem of deceleration from orbital speeds through using atmospheric drag (aerobraking) to provide initial deceleration. In all cases, once initial deceleration has lowered the orbital perigee into the mesosphere, all spacecraft lose most of the remaining speed, and therefore kinetic energy, through the atmospheric drag effect of aerobraking.\n", "For bodies with atmospheres, the landing occurs after atmospheric entry. In these cases, landers may employ parachutes to slow down and to maintain a low terminal velocity. Sometimes small landing rockets are fired just before impact to reduce the impact velocity. Landing may be accomplished by controlled descent and setdown on landing gear, with the possible addition of a post-landing attachment mechanism for celestial bodies with low gravity. Some missions (for example, Luna 9 and Mars Pathfinder), used inflatable airbags to cushion the lander's impact rather than a more traditional landing gear.\n", "Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.\n\nSection::::Spacecraft.:Launch systems.\n\nLaunch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.\n\nSection::::Challenges.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Space disasters.\n", "Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at reentry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Furthermore, slow-speed returns to Earth from near-space such as parachute jumps from balloons do not require heat shielding because the gravitational acceleration of an object starting at relative rest from within the atmosphere itself (or not far above it) cannot create enough velocity to cause significant atmospheric heating.\n", "The \"Pioneer 10\" and \"11\", and \"Voyager 1\" and \"2\" Centaur (second) stages are also in heliocentric orbits.\n\nIn order to leave the Solar System, the probe needs to reach the escape velocity. After leaving Earth, the Sun's escape velocity is 42.1 km/s. In order to reach this speed, it is highly advantageous to use the orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun, which is 29.78 km/s. By passing near a planet, a probe can gain extra speed.\n", "Spacecraft with a perigee below about are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about , decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to , it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere. The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about .\n\nSection::::List of terms and concepts.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14504	Why does light / images bend or curve in the infinite void created when two mirrors reflect each other?	Basically its because the two mirrors are never perfectly flat and parallel with one another. The slight difference (which is probably significantly less than a degree) is multiplied with every subsequent reflection, so it doesn't take many repeats (of which you can probably see 30-40 or more) before the difference becomes very noticeable. Plus, the mirrors don't reflect all the light. Even a very good mirror reflects only 95% of the light, so every reflection absorbs 5'% of the light. That's why it doesn't take very long at all before the image darkens to the point where you can't see anything.	[ "All the conic sections share a \"reflection property\" that can be stated as: All mirrors in the shape of a non-degenerate conic section reflect light coming from or going toward one focus toward or away from the other focus. In the case of the parabola, the second focus needs to be thought of as infinitely far away, so that the light rays going toward or coming from the second focus are parallel.\n", "For convex mirrors, if one moves the formula_7 term to the right side of the equation to solve for formula_8, the result is always a negative number, meaning that the image distance is negative—the image is virtual, located \"behind\" the mirror. This is consistent with the behavior described above.\n", "In the case of two mirrors, in planes at an angle α, looking through both from the sector which is the intersection of the two halfspaces, is like looking at a version of the world rotated by an angle of 2α; the points of observations and directions of looking for which this applies correspond to those for looking through a frame like that of the first mirror, and a frame at the mirror image with respect to the first plane, of the second mirror. If the mirrors have vertical edges then the left edge of the field of view is the plane through the right edge of the first mirror and the edge of the second mirror which is on the right when looked at directly, but on the left in the mirror image.\n", "Looking through a mirror from different positions (but necessarily with the point of observation restricted to the halfspace on one side of the mirror) is like looking at the 3D mirror image of space; without further mirrors only the mirror image of the halfspace before the mirror is relevant; if there is another mirror, the mirror image of the other halfspace is too.\n\nSection::::In geometry and geometrical optics.:In three dimensions.:Effect of mirror on the lighting of the scene.\n", "If the mirrors are not precisely parallel, but instead are canted at a slight angle, the \"visual tunnel\" will be perceived to be curved (off to one side) as it recedes into infinity.\n", "These types of optics may be obtained, for example, by applying the edge ray of nonimaging optics to the design of mirrored optics, as shown in figure \"CEC\" on the right. It is composed of two elliptical mirrors \"e\" with foci S and R and its symmetrical \"e\" with foci S and R.\n", "For example, in a two-centimeter-thick infinity mirror, with the light sources halfway between, light from the source initially travels one centimeter. The first reflection travels one centimeter to the rear mirror and then two centimeters to, and through the front mirror, a total of three centimeters. The second reflection travels two centimeters from front mirror to back mirror, and again two centimeters from the back mirror to, and through the front mirror, totaling four centimeters, plus the first reflection (three centimeters) making the second reflection seven centimeters away from the front mirror. Each successive reflection adds four more centimeters to the total (the third reflection appears 11 centimeters deep, fourth 15 centimeters deep, and so on).\n", "By the laws of reflection, the images of the objects, placed within the angles of the mirrors, are multiplied, and some appear more distant than others, so that the objects of one cell will appear to take up more space than is contained in the entire chest. Looking through each hole will produce a new scene, each seemingly too large to be contained in the chest. According to the different angles the mirrors make with each other, the representations will be different; if the mirrors are at an angle greater than a right one, the images will be immense. (see anamorphosis)\n", "Section::::In geometry and geometrical optics.:In three dimensions.\n\nThe concept of reflection can be extended to three-dimensional objects, including the inside parts, even if they are not transparent. The term then relates to structural as well as visual aspects. A three-dimensional object is reversed in the direction perpendicular to the mirror surface. In physics, mirror images are investigated in the subject called geometrical optics.\n", "These mirrors are called \"converging mirrors\" because they tend to collect light that falls on them, refocusing parallel incoming rays toward a focus. This is because the light is reflected at different angles, since the normal to the surface differs with each spot on the mirror.\n\nSection::::Concave mirrors.:Uses of concave mirrors.\n", "A mirror image appears more obviously three-dimensional if the observer moves, or if the image is viewed using binocular vision. This is because the relative position of objects changes as the observer's perspective changes, or is differently viewed with each eye.\n", "Section::::The Mirror Principle in Distributed Morphology.\n", "The 3D illusion mirror effect is produced whenever there are two parallel reflective surfaces which can bounce a beam of light back and forth an indefinite (theoretically infinite) number of times. The reflections appear to recede into the distance because the light actually is traversing the distance it appears to be travelling. \n", "BULLET::::- In a plane mirror, a parallel beam of light changes its direction as a whole, while still remaining parallel; the images formed by a plane mirror are virtual images, of the same size as the original object (see mirror image).\n\nBULLET::::- In a concave mirror, parallel beams of light become a convergent beam, whose rays intersect in the focus of the mirror. Also known as converging mirror\n\nBULLET::::- In a convex mirror, parallel beams become divergent, with the rays appearing to diverge from a common point of intersection \"behind\" the mirror.\n", "The image on a convex mirror is always \"virtual\" (rays haven't actually passed through the image; their extensions do, like in a regular mirror), \"diminished\" (smaller), and \"upright\". As the object gets closer to the mirror, the image gets larger, until reaching approximately the size of the object, when it touches the mirror. As the object moves away, the image diminishes in size and gets gradually closer to the focus, until it is reduced to a point in the focus when the object is at an infinite distance. These features make convex mirrors very useful: since everything appears smaller in the mirror, they cover a wider field of view than a normal plane mirror.\n", "In the case of two parallel mirrors, looking through both at once is like looking at a version of the world which is translated by twice the distance between the mirrors, in the direction perpendicular to them, away from the observer. Since the plane of the mirror in which one looks directly is beyond that of the other mirror, one always looks at an oblique angle, and the translation just mentioned has not only a component away from the observer, but also one in a perpendicular direction. The translated view can also be described by a translation of the observer in opposite direction. For example, with a vertical periscope, the shift of the world is away from the observer and down, both by the length of the periscope, but it is more practical to consider the equivalent shift of the observer: up, and backward.\n", "In geometry, the mirror image of an object or two-dimensional figure is the virtual image formed by reflection in a plane mirror; it is of the same size as the original object, yet different, unless the object or figure has reflection symmetry (also known as a P-symmetry).\n", "Plane mirrors are the only type of mirror for which a real object always produces an image that is virtual, erect and of the same size as the object. Virtual objects produce real images, however. The focal length of a plane mirror is infinity; its optical power is zero.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Mirrors with curved surfaces can be modeled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. For mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. Other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. In particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. Curved mirrors can form images with magnification greater than or less than one, and the image can be upright or inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen.\n", "Section::::Analysis.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Mirror equation, magnification, and focal length.\n\nThe Gaussian mirror equation, also known as the mirror and lens equation, relates the object distance formula_1 and image distance formula_2 to the focal length formula_3: \n\nThe sign convention used here is that the focal length is positive for concave mirrors and negative for convex ones, and formula_1 and formula_2 are positive when the object and image are in front of the mirror, respectively. (They are positive when the object or image is real.)\n", "For concave mirrors, whether the image is virtual or real depends on how large the object distance is compared to the focal length. If the formula_9 term is larger than the formula_7 term, formula_8 is positive and the image is real. Otherwise, the term is negative and the image is virtual. Again, this validates the behavior described above.\n\nThe magnification of a mirror is defined as the height of the image divided by the height of the object:\n", "Two or more mirrors aligned exactly parallel and facing each other can give an infinite regress of reflections, called an infinity mirror effect. Some devices use this to generate multiple reflections:\n\nBULLET::::- Fabry–Pérot interferometer\n\nBULLET::::- Laser (which contains an optical cavity)\n\nBULLET::::- 3D Kaleidoscope to concentrate light\n\nBULLET::::- momentum-enhanced solar sail\n\nSection::::Applications.:Technology.:Military applications.\n", "Specular reflection forms images. Reflection from a flat surface forms a mirror image, which appears to be reversed from left to right because we compare the image we see to what we would see if we were rotated into the position of the image. Specular reflection at a curved surface forms an image which may be magnified or demagnified; curved mirrors have optical power. Such mirrors may have surfaces that are spherical or parabolic.\n\nSection::::Reflection of light.:Laws of reflection.\n", "A collimated (parallel) beam of light diverges (spreads out) after reflection from a convex mirror, since the normal to the surface differs with each spot on the mirror.\n\nSection::::Convex mirrors.:Uses of convex mirrors.\n", "The picture sketches the three mirrors outlined by magenta quadrangles,\n\nthree colored rays entering from the right, an exit pupil as a green canvas, and where\n\nthe rays end up in the exit pupil. \n\nIf the mirrors are rotated by 20 degrees , an equivalent ray tracing shows\n\nthat they rays hit the exit pupil at places rotated by 40 degrees away\n\nfrom the places of the nominal angle.\n\nSection::::Matrix Optics.\n\nThe overall effect on a ray that hits the first mirror in the laboratory\n\nframe, where is the horizontal distance to the beam center\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04988	If DNA contains informations about our whole body, why can we not regenerate certain body parts if they gets removed?	IKEA instructions do not equal a finished IKEA cabinet :) similarly, if you build the cabinet you no longer have the materials to build another one, even though you still have the instructions. You need more materials (which, for humans, basically boils down to stem cells). This isn’t perfectly 1 to 1, though. Most of the genetic information that our bodies utilize is for the internal processes on the cellular level to ensure that things run smoothly and you stay alive. The most marked development that we make, which is in the womb, is only possible because of the highly malleable nature of stem cells. Those stem cells change into different cells once we’re born and are spread all over our respective internal systems, thus limiting their uses. What I can’t answer, though, is why humans are unable to regenerate while other animals can. It’s definitely something that researchers are investigating, but there is no real concrete answer yet. The Darwinian explanation is that over the millions of years that those animals developed, evolution by natural selection ‘selected’ for traits that are most beneficial for that species’ survival. Evidently, humans did not need significant regeneration to survive!	[ "Almost any piece from a \"Schmidtea mediterranea\" individual can regenerate an entire organism in a few days. This is in part enabled by the presence of abundant pluripotent stem cells called neoblasts. Transplantation of a single neoblast to a fatally injured animal has been shown to rescue the animal \n", "In 2016 scientists could transform a skin cell into any other tissue type via the use of drugs. \n\nThe technique was noted as safer than genetic reprogramming which, in 2016, was a concern medically. The technique, used a cocktail of chemicals and enabled efficient on site regeneration without any genetic programming. In 2016 it was hoped to one day use this drug to regenerate tissue at the site of tissue injury.\n\nSection::::Naturally regenerating appendages and organs.\n\nSection::::Naturally regenerating appendages and organs.:Heart.\n", "Cystic fibrosis is another disease of the lungs, which is highly fatal and genetically linked to a mutation in the CFTR gene. Through growing patient-specific lung epithelium in vitro, lung tissue expressing the cystic fibrosis phenotype has been achieved. This is so that modelling and drug testing of the disease pathology can be carried out with the hope of regenerative medical applications.\n\nSection::::Induced regeneration in humans.:Penis.\n\nThe penis has been successfully regenerated in the lab. The penis is a harder organ to regenerate than skin, the bladder and vagina, due to the structural complexity.\n\nSection::::Induced regeneration in humans.:Spinal nerves.\n", "In a 2014 paper, ENCODE researchers tried to address \"the question of whether nonconserved but biochemically active regions are truly functional\". They noted that in the literature, functional parts of the genome have been identified differently in previous studies depending on the approaches used. There have been three general approaches used to identify functional parts of the human genome: genetic approaches (which rely on changes in phenotype), evolutionary approaches (which rely on conservation) and biochemical approaches (which rely on biochemical testing and was used by ENCODE). All three have limitations: genetic approaches may miss functional elements that do not manifest physically on the organism, evolutionary approaches have difficulties using accurate multispecies sequence alignments since genomes of even closely related species vary considerably, and with biochemical approaches, though having high reproducibility, the biochemical signatures do not always automatically signify a function.\n", "Genome annotation remains a major challenge for scientists investigating the human genome, now that the genome sequences of more than a thousand human individuals (The 100,000 Genomes Project,UK)and several model organisms are largely complete. Identifying the locations of genes and other genetic control elements is often described as defining the biological \"parts list\" for the assembly and normal operation of an organism. Scientists are still at an early stage in the process of delineating this parts list and in understanding how all the parts \"fit together\".\n", "After injury, neurons in the adult peripheral nervous system can switch from a dormant state with little axonal growth to robust axon regeneration. DNA demethylation in mature mammalian neurons removes barriers to axonal regeneration. This demethylation, in regenerating mouse peripheral neurons, depends upon TET3 to generate 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) in DNA. 5hmC was altered in a large set of regeneration-associated genes (RAGs), including well-known RAGs such as \"Atf3\", \"Bdnf\", and \"Smad1\", that regulate the axon growth potential of neurons.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- DNA methylation\n\nBULLET::::- Demethylating agent\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cell Research\" (Nature) for 5-fC and 5-caC antibodies. \n", "The first organ ever induced and made in the lab was the bladder, which was created in 1999. In 2014, there had been various tissues regenerated by the 3d printer and these tissues included: the bladder, muscle, vagina, penis and the thymus.\n\nIn 2015 researchers developed a proof of principle biolimb inside a laboratory; they also estimated that it would be at least a decade for any testing of limbs in humans. The limb demonstrated, fully functioning skin, muscles, blood vessels and bones.\n", "In \"B. subtilis\" the length of the transferred DNA is greater than 1271 kb (more than 1 million bases). The length transferred is likely double stranded DNA and is often more than a third of the total chromosome length of 4215 kb. It appears that about 7-9% of the recipient cells take up an entire chromosome.\n\nThe capacity for natural transformation appears to occur in a number of prokaryotes, and thus far 67 prokaryotic species (in seven different phyla) are known to undergo this process.\n", "Section::::Definitions.\n\nTransformation is one of three forms of horizontal gene transfer that occur in nature among bacteria, in which DNA encoding for a trait passes from one bacterium to another and is integrated into the recipient genome by homologous recombination; the other two are transduction, carried out by means of a bacteriophage, and conjugation, in which a gene is passed through direct contact between bacteria. In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.\n", "At least two species of African spiny mice, \"Acomys kempi\" and \"Acomys percivali\", are capable of autotomic release of skin, e.g. upon being captured by a predator. They are the first mammals known to do so. They can completely regenerate the autotomically released or otherwise damaged skin tissue — regrowing hair follicles, skin, sweat glands, fur and cartilage with little or no scarring. It is believed that the corresponding regeneration genes could also function in humans.\n\nSection::::Invertebrates.\n", "The beginning of the millennium saw the introduction of several independent developments in DEL technology. These technologies can be classified under two general categories: non-evolution-based and evolution-based DEL technologies capable of molecular evolution. The first category benefits from the ability to use off the shelf reagents and therefore enables rather straightforward library generation. Hits can be identified by DNA sequencing, however DNA translation and therefore molecular evolution is not feasible by these methods. The split and pool approaches developed by researchers at Praecis Pharmaceuticals (now owned by GlaxoSmithKline), Nuevolution (Copenhagen, Denmark) and ESAC technology developed in the laboratory of Prof D. Neri (Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Zurich, Switzerland) fall under this category. ESAC technology sets itself apart being a combinatorial self-assembling approach which resembles fragment based hit discovery (Fig 1b). Here DNA annealing enables discrete building block combinations to be sampled, but no chemical reaction takes place between them. \n", "If the processes involved in forming new tissue can be reverse-engineered into humans, it may be possible to heal injuries of the spinal cord or brain, repair damaged organs and reduce scarring and fibrosis after surgery. Despite the large conservation of the Hox genes through evolution, mammals and humans specifically cannot regenerate any of their limbs. This raises a question as to why humans which also possess an analog to these genes cannot regrow and regenerate limbs. Beside the lack of specific growth factor, studies have shown that something as small as base pair differences between amphibian and human Hox analogs play a crucial role in human inability to reproduce limbs. Undifferentiated stem cells and the ability to have polarity in tissues is vital to this process.\n", "Following this gene-centered view of evolution, it can be argued that an organism is no more than a temporary body in which a set of companion genes (actually alleles) co-operate toward a common goal: to grow the organism into adulthood, before they go their separate ways in bodies of the organism's progeny. Bodies are created and discarded, but good genes live on as replicas of themselves, a result of a high-fidelity copy process typical of digital encoding.\n", "BULLET::::- Peter W. Reddien – studies how regenerative organisms regrow body parts. Using the flatworm planaria, he has identified important components of the molecular and developmental programs specifying the body parts to be replaced, and shown that they require pluripotent stem cells called neoblasts, as well as expression of position control genes and signals from the muscle\n", "Gerhart and Kirschner give the example of the evolution of a bird or bat wing from a tetrapod forelimb. They explain how, if bones undergo regulatory change in length and thickness as a result of genetic mutation, the muscles, nerves and vasculature will accommodate to those changes without themselves requiring independent regulatory change. Studies of limb development show that muscle, nerve, and vascular founder cells originate in the embryonic trunk and migrate into the developing limb bud, which initially contains only bone and dermis precursors. Muscle precursors are adaptable; they receive signals from developing dermis and bone and take positions relative to them, wherever they are. Then, as noted previously, axons in large numbers extend into the bud from the nerve cord; some fortuitously contact muscle targets and are stabilized, and the rest shrink back. Finally, vascular progenitors enter. Wherever limb cells are hypoxic, they secrete signals that trigger nearby blood vessels to grow into their vicinity. Because of the adaptability conferred by exploratory processes, the co-evolution of bones, muscles, nerves and blood vessels is not required. Selection does not have to coordinate multiple independently varying parts. This not only means that viable phenotypes can easily be generated with little genetic change, but also that genetic mutations are less likely to be lethal, that large phenotypic changes can be favored by selection, and that phenotypic variation is functional and adaptive (i.e. ‘facilitated’). \n", "Montagnier was also questioned about his beliefs on homeopathy, to which he replied: \"I can’t say that homeopathy is right in everything. What I can say now is that the high dilutions are right. High dilutions of something are not nothing. They are water structures which mimic the original molecules. We find that with DNA, we cannot work at the extremely high dilutions used in homeopathy; we cannot go further than a 10 dilution, or we lose the signal. But even at 10, you can calculate that there is not a single molecule of DNA left. And yet we detect a signal.\"\n", "Also, the causal chains from genes to functionality are not separate or isolated but are entangled together, most obviously in metabolic pathways (such as the Calvin and citric acid cycles) which link a succession of enzymes (and, thus, gene products) to form a coherent biochemical system. Furthermore, information flow in the chain is not exclusively one-way. While the central dogma of molecular biology describes how information cannot be passed back to inheritable genetic information, the other causal arrows in this chain can be bidirectional, with complex feedbacks ultimately regulating gene expression.\n", "Section::::Policies and procedures for the protection of human subjects.\n\nThe CHTN has established operating policies and procedures that protect the subjects from whom CHTN biospecimens are obtained. These policies and procedures are consistent with current regulations and guidance for repositories from the Office of Human Research Protections (OHRP) in the Department of Human and Health Services (DHHS). The following policies and procedures govern collection of biospecimens and their distribution to researchers:\n", "In 2009, the regeneration of hollow organs and tissues with a long diffusion distance, was a little more challenging. Therefore, to regenerate hollow organs and tissues with a long diffusion distance, the tissue had to be regenerated inside the lab, via the use of a 3D printer.\n\nWith printing tissues, by 2012, there were four accepted standard levels of regenerative complexity that were acknowledged in various academic institutions: \n\nBULLET::::- Level one, \"flat tissue\" like skin was the simplest to recreate;\n\nBULLET::::- Level two was \"tubular structures\" such as blood vessels;\n\nBULLET::::- Level three was \"hollow non-tubular structures\";\n", "In the natural world DNA usually becomes available by death and lysis of other cells, but in the laboratory it is provided by the researcher, often as a genetically engineered fragment or plasmid. During uptake, DNA is transported across the cell membrane(s), and the cell wall if one is present. Once the DNA is inside the cell it may be degraded to nucleotides, which are reused for DNA replication and other metabolic functions. Alternatively it may be recombined into the cell's genome by its DNA repair enzymes. If this recombination changes the cell's genotype the cell is said to have been transformed. Artificial competence and transformation are used as research tools in many organisms (\"see Transformation (genetics)\").\n", "Section::::Induced regeneration in humans.:Thymus.\n\nResearchers from the University of Edinburgh have succeeded in regenerating a living organ. The regenerated organ closely resembled a juvenile thymus in terms of architecture and gene expression profile. The thymus gland is one of the first organs to degenerate in normal healthy individuals.\n\nSection::::Induced regeneration in humans.:Vagina.\n\nBetween the years 2005 and 2008, four women with vaginal hypoplasia due to Müllerian agenesis were given regenerated vaginas. Up to eight years after the transplants, all organs have normal function and structure.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "For example, MDI Biological Laboratory scientists study the tiny nematode \"Caenorhabditis elegans\", with a lifespan of two to three weeks, to study genes that regulate aging and lifespan. Those same genes are present in humans. They study organisms such as zebrafish and salamanders that are naturally able to regenerate diseased or damaged tissue, organs, and limbs using the same genetic mechanisms found in humans. However, for some reason those mechanisms have been turned off in most mammals. MDI Biological Laboratory scientists are learning how to reactivate these mechanisms to promote healing in humans.\n", "It has been shown that bone marrow-derived cells could be the source of progenitor cells of multiple cell lineages, and a 2004 study suggested that one of these cell types was involved in lung regeneration. Therefore, a potential source of cells for lung regeneration has been found; however, due to advances in inducing stem cells and directing their differentiation, major progress in lung regeneration has consistently featured the use of patient-derived iPSCs and bioscaffolds.\n", "DNA stores biological information. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information. Biological information is replicated as the two strands are separated. A significant portion of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.\n", "In 1999 the bladder was the first regenerated organ to be given to seven patients; as of 2014, these regenerated bladders are still functioning inside the beneficiaries.\n\nSection::::Induced regeneration in humans.:Fat.\n\nIn 1949 purified insulin was shown to regenerate fat in diabetics with Lipoatrophy. In 1976,after 82 days of consectutive injections into a scar, purified insulin was shown to safely regenerate fat and completely regenerate skin in a non-diabetic. \n" ]	[ "DNA should have enough information to regenerate body parts." ]	[ "DNA contains instructions but not materials." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "DNA should have enough information to regenerate body parts." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "DNA contains instructions but not materials." ]
2018-20713	Why the airplane's black box is orange and what does the black refers to?	Orange because it’s bright and easy to find after crush. Black box means you have no idea what’s inside until after you open it.	[ "By 1967 when flight recorders were mandated by leading aviation countries, the casual misnomer had found its way into general use: “These so-called ‘black boxes’ are, in fact, of fluorescent flame-orange in colour.”\n\nNevertheless, the technically precise terms used among aviation experts today are “flight data recorder” and “cockpit voice recorder,” respectively. The recorders are not permitted to be black in color, and must be bright orange, as they are intended to be spotted and recovered after incidents.\n\nSection::::Components.\n\nSection::::Components.:Flight data recorder.\n", "Safety orange (also known as blaze orange, and a number of other names) was defined in ANSI standard Z535.1-1998 and is commonly used in a wide variety of contexts to warn of hazards, including: high-viz clothing, road cones, and as the background color in safety warning notices.\n\nA shade of orange known as \"International orange\" is used in the aerospace industry to set objects apart from their surroundings, similar to Safety orange, but deeper and with a more reddish tone. It was the color used for the Space Shuttle pressure suits.\n\nSection::::Additional definitions of orange.\n\nSection::::Additional definitions of orange.:Orange (Pantone).\n", "International orange\n\nInternational orange is a color used in the aerospace industry to set objects apart from their surroundings, similar to safety orange, but deeper and with a more reddish tone. \n\nSection::::Variations of international orange.\n\nSection::::Variations of international orange.:Aerospace.\n\nThis is the shade used by NASA. \n\nThe Bell X1, the first airplane to break the sound barrier, was also painted in International Orange.\n\nSection::::Variations of international orange.:Golden Gate Bridge.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (29 Feb 2000): Oceanic Flight 105 is skyjacked by North Korean extremists who accuse a passenger of ordering a massacre during the Korean War.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nowhere to Land\" (2000 television movie): A man suffering from mental illness brings a deadly nerve agent on board Oceanic Flight 762, also from Sydney to Los Angeles, in the run-up to the 2000 Summer Olympics. At takeoff, the hole in the aircraft's fuselage from \"Executive Decision\" is visible.\n", "At around 3:40 a.m. on September 14, a paramedic and a firefighter who were searching through the debris of the impact site found two dark boxes, about by long. They called for an FBI agent, who in turn called for someone from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). The NTSB employee confirmed that these were the flight recorders (\"black boxes\") from American Airlines Flight 77. Dick Bridges, deputy manager for Arlington County, Virginia, said the cockpit voice recorder was damaged on the outside and the flight data recorder was charred. Bridges said the recorders were found \"right where the plane came into the building.\"\n", "Section::::Music video and live performances.\n", "On an otherwise ordinary day in Los Angeles, air traffic controllers in contact with American Airlines Flight 117 have the flight appear on a radar screen. The air traffic controllers instruct the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 airliner to make an emergency landing at Los Angeles International Airport. \n", "\"Black Box\" was inspired by the work of Godfrey Hounsfield who was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Medicine for his invention of the CAT scanner.\n\nSection::::Objective.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" \"\": The pilot of a military jet fighter identifies himself as, \"Oceanic Flight 815, requesting clearance for landing.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Up All Night\" \"Travel Day\" (16 Feb 2012): Reagan and Chris travel with Amy for the first time. At the airport check-in, the camera pans to Oceanic Airlines, the counter next to the fictitious Pathway Air that the couple was heading to.\n\nBULLET::::- \"White Collar\" \"Whack-A-Mole\" (11 Dec 2014): The plane targeted by the Pink Panthers is Oceanic Flight 1097 scheduled to land at JFK 3 days later.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "It is worn by people wanting to be seen, including highway workers and lifeguards. Prisoners are also sometimes dressed in orange clothing to make them easier to see during an escape. Lifeguards on the beaches of Los Angeles County, both real and in television series, wear orange swimsuits to make them stand out. Orange astronaut suits have the highest visibility in space, or against blue sea. An aircraft's two types of \"black box,\" or flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder, are actually bright orange, so they can be found more easily. In some cars, connectors related to safety systems, such as the airbag, may be coloured orange.\n", "Any question ending in \"What is in the Black box\"? In some questions it was another black box and even Flight data recorder (in Russian the words are the same). There are three black boxes, but the large black box is the ordinary, the smaller (smallest) used only if there are two or three boxes in the question (or in blitz rounds) or the item must \"(not would)\" be little.\n\nOther contents of the big black box have included\n\nBULLET::::- Bar code (question about EAN standards)\n\nBULLET::::- \"[email protected]\" (as an example of e-mail address)\n", "The term \"black box\" was a World War II British phrase, originating with the development of radio, radar, and electronic navigational aids in British and Allied combat aircraft. These often-secret electronic devices were literally encased in non-reflective black boxes or housings. The earliest identified reference to “black boxes” occurs in a May 1945 \"Flight\" article, “Radar for Airlines,” describing the application of wartime RAF radar and navigational aids to civilian aircraft: “The stowage of the ‘black boxes’ and, even more important, the detrimental effect on performance of external aerials, still remain as a radio and radar problem.”\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Doomsday\" (1969), the seventeenth episode of the third season of \"\", (Peter Graves) uses a white Ericofon. In the following episode, \"Live Bait\", an Ericofon is the desk phone of Helmut Kellermann (Anthony Zerbe), the episode's main antagonist.\n\nBULLET::::- A red Ericofon is used in a top-security U.S. tracking station in the episode \"The Ninety-Second War: Part II\" (1972) of the TV series \"Hawaii Five-O\".\n\nBULLET::::- An Ericofon is seen in the operation room of the secret service in the French movie \"Le grand blond avec une chaussure noire\" (1972).\n", "The colours of Flight Deck match in with the theme of the movie \"Top Gun\". The supports of the track are coloured grey and the track itself is coloured with a much lighter shade of grey. The trains on Flight Deck are coloured mainly red, but also have a bit of white on the backs of the seats. The station for Flight Deck is coloured all grey.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Rider requirements.\n", "Section::::Investigation.\n", "At right is the color \"orange\", also known as \"color wheel orange\". This is the tone of orange that is a pure chroma on the HSV color wheel, the expression of which is known as the , exactly halfway between red and yellow. The complementary color of orange is azure.\n\nSection::::Computer web color oranges.\n\nSection::::Computer web color oranges.:Orange (web color).\n\nAt right is the web color called \"orange\". It is defined in CSS as the hex triplet FFA500.\n\nSection::::Computer web color oranges.:Dark orange (web color).\n\nThe web color called \"dark orange\" is at the right.\n\nSection::::Aerospace and safety.\n", "Brown deems the Pentagon's shifting position on the black box not to be credible, and has pointed out that a team of US Army Pathfinders was sent to the crash site to look for the black box. He criticizes the Congressional subcommittee investigating the crash \n\nfor not questioning why US Army Rangers were sent to search for a black box if there were no black box to begin with.\n", "Flight recorder\n\nA flight recorder is an electronic recording device placed in an aircraft for the purpose of facilitating the investigation of aviation accidents and incidents. Flight recorders are also known by the misnomer black box—they are in fact bright orange to aid in their recovery after accidents.\n", "Section::::Investigation.:Deicing procedures at LaGuardia.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Argentinian movie El Secreto De Sus Ojos from 2009 an Ericofon is used. The scene is dated in the mid seventies.\n\nBULLET::::- In the episode \"There Is Another Sky\" (2010) of the TV series \"Caprica\", Joseph Adama receives a call on an Ericofon.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Dutch movie \"The kidnapping of Freddy Heineken\" (2011), a red Ericofon was used. The story plays in 1983.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2015 film \"The Man from U.N.C.L.E.\", Victoria Vinciguerra is briefly seen speaking on an aqua mist colored Ericofon.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Trimphone: Another telephone from the same era.\n", "BULLET::::- On April 5, 1984, a Saudia Lockheed L-1011 TriStar on final approach to Damascus from Jeddah was hijacked by a Syrian national. The hijacker demanded to be taken to Istanbul, Turkey, but changed his mind and requested to go to Stockholm. After landing in Istanbul to refuel, the pilot pushed the hijacker, who was arrested, out the emergency exit.\n", "In another vivid example, on 11 September 2001, a Korean Air Flight 85 Boeing 747 en route to New York City from Seoul, Korea, headed to Anchorage, Alaska, for a refuelling stop, was ordered to land at Whitehorse, Yukon Territory. First, while making towards Anchorage, the crew had sent a text message to its airline including the letters \"HJK\", code for hijack, which prompted a scramble of two F-15s.\n", "While taxiing, the flight discussed deicing procedures. The first officer suggested to the pilot that the aircraft ahead of them in the queue \"might keep our wings clear for us.\" The pilot replied that \"it can cause us to re-freeze too ... I don't want to be very close to him.\" Later, the first officer remarked \"look at all that stuff. What is that?\" to which the pilot replied \"sand I guess, urea sand.\"\n", "BULLET::::- (non-standard) - On some airlines' Airbus aircraft, this color is used to indicate interphone calls between two flight attendants, distinguishing them from the pink or red light used for interphone calls made from the cockpit to a flight attendant, and is also accompanied with a high-low chime like the pink or red light. On some other airlines' aircraft, this color has a completely different meaning, and is used to indicate that the cockpit is no longer sterile after the aircraft is above a specific altitude.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Chief Purser.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The black box should be black, not orange" ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "\"Black\" refers not to the color of the box to the fact that you have no idea what's inside until after you open it." ]
2018-12349	How do cemeteries make money after all plots are bought?	In the US there are several kinds of Cemetery. 1) Family cemeteries on private land which earn no income. 2) Government owned cemeteries maintained by tax money. Some are federal like Arlington, some are locally or State operated. While they often sell plots that is not their primary funding 3) Privately owned cemeteries operated for public use. These sell plots and utilize that money for maintenance. There are laws that require all cemeteries open to the public to take a large percentage of the money they get selling plots to be put into investment trusts that are used to generate interest that are then used for maintaining the cemetery. This is done even by the government operated ones even though they are supplemented by taxes. Some cemeteries also have a limited amount of time that you own the plot and after that time your body is exhumed and moved to a mausoleum, osuery, or some kind of crypt. This allows them to sell the plot again. This is not common in the US as most burial plots are in perpetuity here, but it is somewhat common in Europe and other parts of the world.	[ "Originally graves in this cemetery were sold in lots of 16. The LDS Church charged $20 for 16 graves. That price was later increased to $50 per grave. In the 1980s cemetery management began selling graves one at a time instead of in lots of 16. In the 1990s the price of graves was increased to $425. In 2012 the price was $500.\n\nIt is estimated by the cemetery that there are approximately 17,000 grave sites, of which 1,400 are currently occupied.\n\nSection::::Nonprofit.\n", "Several large multi-national corporations in this service field have received exposure from high-profile litigation. The Loewen Group, Inc., received a particularly large jury verdict in the State of Mississippi which was later found to be in error as the allegations against Loewen Group proved false. The Canadian-based company then brought suit against the United States alleging violations under N.A.F.T.A.. Houston based Service Corporation International has also had their share of legal troubles with the operations of both their funeral homes and cemeteries. In 2009 a class-action lawsuit was filed against SCI and Eden Memorial Park, one of the cemeteries the corporation manages, based on allegations that remains were being moved around to create additional space for future internments. A settlement of $80 million was reached in 2014.\n", "On September 14, 2009, a class-action lawsuit was filed against SCI and Eden Memorial Park, a Jewish cemetery managed by SCI in Mission Hills, charging that they were destroying graves to make room for new interments.\n", "In 2016, an offer to purchase 22 Reade Street and the Burial Grounds was made with a Letter of Intent to the City of New York. The bidding group was led by African-American owned development firm The Hoeg Corporation; Burial Ground Monument architect, Rodney Leon; and Italian development company, Bizzi & Partners Development.\n\nSection::::Memorial.:Visitor Center.\n", "These burial problems were resolved with the development of ‘public cemeteries for all’. This was initially not under the direction of local or central government, but under Joint Stock Companies for profit. For example, Key Hill Cemetery in Birmingham’s Jewellery Quarter, founded in 1834, was a local example of such a Joint Stock venture.\n", "More recent is the practice of families with large estates choosing to create private cemeteries in the form of burial sites, monuments, crypts, or mausoleums on their property; the mausoleum at Fallingwater is an example of this practice. Burial of a body at a site may protect the location from redevelopment, with such estates often being placed in the care of a trust or foundation. Presently, state regulations have made it increasingly difficult, if not impossible, to start private cemeteries; many require a plan to care for the site in perpetuity. Private cemeteries are nearly always forbidden on incorporated residential zones.\n", "As part of the settlement reached, by spring 2005 all buildings on the Tri-State property were razed. The property will remain in a trust so that it will be preserved in peace and dignity as a secluded memorial to those whose remains were mistreated, and to prevent crematory operations or other inappropriate activities from ever taking place there.\n", "- Closing mausoleum or columbarium fees\n\n- Perpetual endowment charges for maintenance or other services of the mausoleum or columbarium\n\nThe Funeral Rule does not apply to cemeteries and mausoleums unless they offer both funeral goods and services.\n\nSection::::U.S. veteran cemeteries.\n", "May 6, 1908:\n\nComet Lodge 139 divides cemetery into two parcels and sells Comet Lodge Cemetery to one of their Nobles, H.S. Noise, for $1.00.\n\nJuly 19, 1912:\n", "Today's Israel land registry shows the Church Missionary Trust Association Ltd., London, as the proprietor of Mount Zion Cemetery. Jarmaleh Cemetery, in turn, is registered under the name of the Jarmaleh Cemetery Board, which, however, is not registered as a legal entity so that a government dispossession would legally be easily possible at any time.\n", "Today the field is kept open and cared for by the local government. The government ensures that the local forest and vegetation is kept maintained. A footpath for walking (or bicycling) has been maintained, and tables and benches have been placed where locals and tourists alike can rest and have a picnic. \n", "Section::::Closure.:Final removals and sale.\n", "BULLET::::- Cemeteries sometimes have a limited number of plots in which to bury the dead. Once all plots are full, older remains may be moved to an ossuary to accommodate more bodies, in accordance with burial contracts, religious and local burial laws. In Hong Kong where real estate is at a premium, burials in government-run cemeteries are disinterred after six years under exhumation order. Remains are either collected privately for cremation or reburied in an urn or niche. Unclaimed burials are exhumed and cremated by the government. Permanent burial in privately run cemeteries is allowed.\n", "Many states have established state veteran cemeteries, but this varies state by state and the specific state should be contacted for more information.\n\nThe Funeral Rule advises that consumers should be cautious when considering commercial cemeteries offering “veterans specials”. The Funeral Rule advises that the savings offered are usually recaptured through charging inflated fees for an adjoining spouse plot and/or high opening and closing fees.\n\nSection::::Pre-need contracts.\n", "BULLET::::- Second class funerals cost £1 (about £ in 2020 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings (about £ in 2020 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future.\n", "As a nonprofit cemetery, which is operated and maintained by volunteers, the cemetery only charges what they have to in order to maintain the grounds, and their equipment. They invest a great deal of their assets into helping families learn about alternative, less expensive methods of burial. A typical burial in the Pleasant Green Cemetery, including headstone, casket, and all fees, often costs less than $4,000 and can cost as little as $1,200. This is 90% lower than the national average.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Forest Lawn Memorial-Parks & Mortuaries\n", "In an interesting variant on the practice of reclaiming bombed-out areas for community gardens (also practiced during WWII in the ghettos of Eastern Europe), in American inner-cities, community groups have reclaimed abandoned or vacant lots for garden plots. In these cases, groups have subsequently leased from a municipality that claims the property or claimed squatter's rights or a right to subsistence not currently recognized by the legal system.\n", "Section::::Howard ownership.:Closure and limited reopening.\n", "One issue relates to cost. Traditionally a single payment is made at the time of burial, but the cemetery authority incurs expenses in cemetery maintenance over many decades. Many cemetery authorities find that their accumulated funds are not sufficient for the costs of long-term maintenance. This shortfall in funds for maintenance results in three main options: charge much higher prices for new burials, obtain some other kind of public subsidy, or neglect maintenance. For cemeteries without space for new burials, the options are even more limited. Public attitudes towards subsidies are highly variable. People with family buried in local cemeteries are usually quite concerned about neglect of cemetery maintenance and will usually argue in favour of public subsidy of local cemetery maintenance, whereas other people without personal connection to the cemetery often argue that public subsidies of private cemeteries is an inappropriate use of their taxes. Some jurisdictions require a certain amount of money be set aside in perpetuity and invested so that the interest earned can be used for maintenance.\n", "BULLET::::- Second class funerals cost £1 (about £ in 2020 terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings (about £ in 2020 terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future.\n", "Renovation work was scheduled for April 2013 at the crematorium. New cremators were to be installed with the ability to retain and recycle waste heat, and the chapels were due to be redecorated. The council said about £1.5 million would be spent but savings of £42,000 per year would arise.\n\nSection::::Cemeteries and crematoria.:Hove Cemetery.\n", "In effect, this was operated as a \"Potter's Field\", that is a publicly run place to bury the poor unclaimed dead at the public expense.\n", "Section::::Contemporary management.:Grave digging.\n", "The basic details of the awarding, financing and care of honorary graves are similarly handled in all German-speaking countries. Berlin and Vienna maintain the largest number of such sites.\n\nSection::::Cities.\n\nSection::::Cities.:Berlin.\n" ]	[ "All cemeteries can make money after all plots are bought.", "Cemeteries make money after all the plots are sold." ]	[ "Family cemetaries earn no income, government owned cemetaries are maintained by tax money, and privately owned cemetaries gain income from not only selling plots but by reselling plots if a body is exhumed and moved to a mausoleum, osuery, or crypt.", "Selling plots is not a primary money-making source for cemeteries." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All cemeteries can make money after all plots are bought.", "Cemeteries make money after all the plots are sold." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Family cemetaries earn no income, government owned cemetaries are maintained by tax money, and privately owned cemetaries gain income from not only selling plots but by reselling plots if a body is exhumed and moved to a mausoleum, osuery, or crypt.", "Selling plots is not a primary money-making source for cemeteries." ]
2018-13115	What exactly happened at the Helsinki Conference and why was it traitorous?	We don't know exactly what happened, as the full content of the discussion has not been made available. A point that has drawn considerable criticism from both Democratic and Republican officials was a speech by US President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin, in which Trump expressed confidence in Putin's denials of foreign interference in US elections, and appeared to dismiss the findings of US intelligence agencies. For example: > “All I can do is ask the question. My people came to me, Dan Coats came to me and some others. They said they think it’s Russia. I have President Putin. He just said it’s not Russia. I will say this. I don’t see any reason why it would be. I have confidence in both parties.” Emphasis added. Whether one considers that traitorous is a separate question. However generally the discussion has centered on the perception of those actions by Russia as hostile, and as such Russia as a hostile force, and Trump's actions in turn providing cover for them against law enforcement in the United states.	[ "BULLET::::- The BHHRG based part of a Latvia report on an interview with Alfreds Rubiks, the Communist who led the \"National Salvation Committee\" which would have co-ordinated repression had the coup against Gorbachev not failed in 1991.\n", "In the CSCE terminology, there were four groupings or baskets. in the first basket, the \"Declaration on Principles Guiding Relations between Participating States\" (also known as \"The Decalogue\") enumerated the following 10 points:\n", "According to the Cold War scholar John Lewis Gaddis in his book \"The Cold War: A New History\" (2005), \"Leonid Brezhnev had looked forward, Anatoly Dobrynin recalls, to the 'publicity he would gain... when the Soviet public learned of the final settlement of the postwar boundaries for which they had sacrificed so much'... '[Instead, the Helsinki Accords] gradually became a manifesto of the dissident and liberal movement'... What this meant was that the people who lived under these systems — at least the more courageous — could claim official permission to say what they thought.\"\n", "Section::::History.:First revision (1975).\n", "Despite these changes, as Macklin predicted, consensus was no closer and the Declaration was considered by some to be out of touch with contemporary thinking, and even the question of the future of the Declaration became a matter for conjecture.\n\nSection::::History.:Sixth revision (2008).\n", "Section::::History.:Fifth revision (2000).\n\nSection::::History.:Fifth revision (2000).:Background.\n", "In a few cases deliberate duplicity is alleged, whereby secret agreements or intentions are claimed to have existed in conflict with understandings given publicly. An example is Winston Churchill's covert concordance with the USSR that the Atlantic Charter did not apply to the Baltic states. Given the strategic requirements of winning the war, British Prime Minister Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had no option but to accept the demands of their erstwhile ally, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam conferences, argues retired diplomat Charles G. Stefan.\n", "When vice president Gerald R. Ford came into office in August 1974, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) negotiations had been underway for nearly two years. Although the USSR was looking for a rapid resolution, none of the parties were quick to make concessions, particularly on human rights points. Throughout much of the negotiations, US leaders were disengaged and uninterested with the process. In an August 1974 conversation between President Ford and his National Security Advisor and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Dr. Kissinger commented on the CSCE that \"we never wanted it but we went along with the Europeans ... [i]t is meaningless—it is just a grandstand play to the left. We are going along with it.\"\n", "Another story describes how the Finnish journalist and activist J. E. Zidbäck prevented Lenin and Stalin from being arrested by the Tsarist secret police based on information he had received from Helsinki. Zidbäck claimed that hundreds of state police and gendarmes had already arrived in town on Christmas Eve. His version of these events, however, is inconsistent with other information; for example, Emil Viljanen, who was president of the Tampere Workers' Society at the time, did not corroborate this story.\n", "Section::::History.:Clarifications of Articles 29, 30 (2002–2004).\n", "Helsinki Accords\n\nThe Helsinki Accords, Helsinki Final Act, or Helsinki Declaration (, ) was the final act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe held in Finlandia Hall of Helsinki, Finland, during July and August 1, 1975. Thirty-five countries, including the U.S., Canada, and all European countries except Albania and Andorra signed the declaration in an attempt to improve relations between the Communists and the West. The Helsinki Accords, however, were not binding as they did not have treaty status.\n\nSection::::Articles.\n", "Section::::History.:Second to Fourth revisions (1975–2000).\n\nSubsequent revisions between 1975 and 2000 were relatively minor, so the 1975 version was effectively that which governed research over a quarter of a century of relative stability.\n\nSection::::History.:Second to Fourth revisions (1975–2000).:Second and Third Revisions (1983, 1989).\n", "In June 1976, the group's appeal to U.S. congresswoman Millicent Fenwick persuaded her to lead the creation of the U.S. Helsinki Commission (see the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe), which included senators, congress members, and representatives from the State, Defense, and Commerce Departments.\n", "In July Bert's father's brother \"Janne\", who lives in an apartment in New York City in the United States, has invited Bert's family to a holiday in Jamaica. But first, they must travel over to New York City, and the journey is done by aeroplane. When Bert hears of communists not being allowed into the USA, he turns afraid when he knows his neighbour Olle Collin votes for VPK. The problems turn worse when Paulina's cousin \"Pavel\" from Czechoslovakia, a USSR ally state, is visiting Sweden. Because of poor USA-USSR relations, Bert fears the USA sending agents into Sweden and he also fears the USA agents seeing Bert with Paulina and Pavel would risk Bert's entry permit to the USA. Bert thinks he sees USA agents inside a parked Televerket bus. Bert now must shows his support for the USA, and calls the embassy of the USA in Sweden, singing \"Happy Birthday to USA\", but the staff takes it for Russian folk songs. Bert bring the flag of the USA to McDonald's, when a cigar-smoking man walks by, and the flag catches fire. The local newspaper depicts the event as a youth communist demonstrating outside McDonald's by desecrating and burning the flag of the USA. The trip finally occurs, but when the Heman Hunters meet, Åke gives Bert a Swedish-Icelandic phrasebook, as Åke means most aeroplanes on their way to the USA have to emergency land in Iceland.\n", "This event is also referred to in the title of Edmund Wilson's book \"To the Finland Station\" (1940), a well-known study of revolutionary thought.\n", "BULLET::::- Süleyman Demirel, Prime Minister of Turkey\n\nBULLET::::- Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\n\nBULLET::::- Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia\n\nSection::::Heads of states, heads of governments.:International organizations.\n\nBULLET::::- Kurt Waldheim, Secretary-General of the United Nations\n\nSection::::Heads of states, heads of governments.:Absent.\n\nBULLET::::- Joan Martí Alanis, Co-Prince of Andorra and Bishop of Urgell\n\nBULLET::::- Mehmet Shehu, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Charter 77\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "In addition, the documents and appeals were circulated via samizdat. Many documents that reached the West were republished in periodicals such as the \"Cahiers du Samizdat\" and the \"Samizdat Bulletin\".Over time, the Group's documents focused on a wide range of issues, including national self-determination, the right to choose one's residence, emigration and the right of return, freedom of belief, the right to monitor human rights, the right to a fair trial, the rights of political prisoners, and the abuse of psychiatry.\n", "Shortly after the conclusion of the speech, reports of its having taken place and its general content were conveyed to the West by Reuters journalist John Rettie, who had been informed of the event a few hours before he was due to leave for Stockholm; it was therefore reported in the Western media in early March. Rettie believed the information came from Khrushchev himself via an intermediary.\n", "BULLET::::- There was covert cooperation between the Finnish government and Western intelligence agencies. The CIA could fund the anti-Communist Social Democratic Party, a major, often government-leading party, though it gradually became unusually pro-Soviet beginning in the late 1960s, with many radical leftists holding influential posts among other such parties. There was also military intelligence cooperation, for instance allowing SIGINT flights to probe the Soviet radar network (according to Pekka Visuri) and providing seismic data to detect Soviet nuclear tests.\n\nSection::::Liquidation.\n", "Henry Kissinger is often credited with having coined the term détente in 1973 during the height of Cold War tensions. It was during the so-called détente phase, on 3 July 1973, that the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was opened in Helsinki, Finland. The CSCE was created as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation motivated by the political will to improve relations between East and West and contribute to peace, security, justice and cooperation in Europe.\n", "The Committee against the Finnish White Terror () was an organization in Sweden, formed at the end of the Finnish Civil War. The formation of the Committee was preceded by a call from the Social Democratic Left Party published in \"Politiken\" in February 1918 to mobilize protests around the country to counter the official Swedish government position on the Finnish question. The Committee sought to unite the Swedish labour movement for a common position against what they termed the ”White Terror” in Finland. The Committee raised funds for humanitarian aid to the victims of the repression. The Committee also opposed denials of political asylum for Finnish refugees.\n", "An important agreement on a tunnel building project is being held between Finland and Soviet Union in secresy, over fears of their political effects. When the press catches wind that the meeting is held at the foreign minister's manor, the talks are hastily moved. A reporter for the Finnish Broadcasting Company, Yleisradio, is murdered on the grounds of the manor and his camera-man is caught by the guards.\n", "Section::::Reaction.:Support for the original plan.\n", "BULLET::::8. Finland also extradited eight Jews (on orders from the then head of the State Police Arno Anthoni, who was deeply antisemite – the Prime Minister of Finland, Paavo Lipponen issued an official apology for deportations in 2000), 76 political prisoners with non-Finnish citizenship and 2,600–2,800 prisoners of war to Germany in exchange for 2,100 Fennic/Karelian prisoners of war from Germany. Some of the extradited had Finnish nationality but had moved to Soviet Union before the war, received Soviet citizenship and returned to Finland in secret.\n", "The collapse of the Berlin Wall and the new global political context this created gave rise to a new peace movement called the “Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly”. From October 19 to 22 1990, peace activists from all parts of Europe (chaired by Václav Havel, then president of Czechoslovakia) held a meeting. They agreed on the “Prague Appeal” and founded the HCA as a permanent forum, within which peace and civic groups, as well as individuals and institutions representing a broad spectrum of views, could exchange experiences, discuss common concerns and formulate joint campaigns and strategies.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "What happened at the Helsinki Conference may have been traitorous." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Donald Trump's actions at the conference provided cover for Russia against law enforcement in the US ." ]
2018-23728	Why are presidents typically able to step down instead of going to jail for their crimes?	Typically there isn't evidence beyond reasonable doubt that a president has committed a crime punishable by jail time.	[ "The president has power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations require Senate confirmation before they may take office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves. Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon a month after taking office. Presidents often grant pardons shortly before leaving office, like when Bill Clinton pardoned Patty Hearst on his last day in office; this is often controversial.\n", "Pardons can be controversial when they appear to be politically motivated. President George W. Bush commuted the sentence of White House staffer Lewis \"Scooter\" Libby.\n\nSection::::Foreign affairs.\n\nUnder the Constitution, the president is the federal official that is primarily responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations. The president appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls (subject to confirmation by the Senate) and receives foreign ambassadors and other public officials. With the secretary of state, the president manages all official contacts with foreign governments.\n", "Because a political offender may be fighting against a tyrannical government, treaties have usually specified that a person cannot be extradited for a political offense. Thomas Jefferson wrote:\n\nSection::::Specific crimes.\n\nSection::::Specific crimes.:Terrorism.\n", "The issue re-arose in 1998, during the impeachment of President Bill Clinton.\n\nOn July 22, 2017, President Donald Trump tweeted, \"While all agree the U. S. President has the complete power to pardon, why think of that when only crime so far is LEAKS against us.FAKE NEWS\" , prompting a series of news article and online commentary regarding the president's ability to pardon relatives, aides, and possibly even himself in relation to the 2017 Special Counsel investigation.\n\nSection::::Controversies.\n", "A president may be removed or impeached from their position in a nation's government for breaking or disregarding various laws or procedures that are written by that nation. The removal or impeachment process varies depending on the nation and their specific form of government. For example, the impeachment process of the president of the United States is quite different from that of France. The president of France is granted what is called the power of immunity throughout their term as the president. This power of immunity states that the president cannot be prosecuted or requested to testify before any jurisdiction. However, they may still be impeached only by the High Court. The High Court is a court conveyed by both houses of Parliament. In the United States, the impeachment process begins in the House of Representatives, where the president is first accused of committing either bribery, treason, or other high crimes including misdemeanors. If the House passes a majority vote to impeach the president, the Senate then conducts the trial to remove them from office. If a president is found guilty, he is removed from office and replaced by the vice president for the remainder of the term. If the president is acquitted in court, he will continue to serve the rest of their term as president.\n", "Concerning Obama's alleged betrayal of the rule of law, Anderson has commented:\n\nThe complacency that has allowed wars of aggression, wars of choice, we weren't forced into them, they were totally illegal wars under international law, the kinds of war crimes that took place, with people just saying, even our current president, 'Oh, let's put that behind us. Let's not call people to account. Let's not enforce our laws ...\"If these people had robbed the gold bullion out of a government safe, would we just say, 'Let bygones be bygones; forget the rule of law?\n", "Because impeachment and conviction of officials involve an overturning of the normal constitutional procedures by which individuals achieve high office (election, ratification, or appointment) and because it generally requires a supermajority, they are usually reserved for those deemed to have committed serious abuses of their office. In the United States, for example, impeachment at the federal level is limited to those who may have committed \"Treason, Bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors\".\n", "Section::::Limitations.\n\nFederal pardons issued by the president apply only to federal law; they do not apply to civil, state, or local offenses. Federal pardons also do not apply to cases of impeachment. Pardons for state crimes are handled by governors or a state pardon board.\n", "Furthermore, even when impeachment proceedings against a sitting president are successful, whether by causing his removal from office or by compelling his resignation, the legislature usually has little or no discretion in determining the ousted president's successor, since presidential systems usually adhere to a rigid succession process which is enforced the same way regardless of how a vacancy in the presidency comes about. The usual outcome of a presidency becoming vacant is that a vice president automatically succeeds to the presidency. Vice presidents are usually chosen by the president, whether as a running mate who elected alongside the president or appointed by a sitting president, so that when a vice president succeeds to the presidency it is probable that he will continue many or all the policies of the former president. A prominent example of such an accession would be the elevation of Vice President Gerald Ford to the U.S. Presidency after Richard Nixon agreed to resign in the face of virtually certain impeachment and removal, a succession that took place notwithstanding the fact that Ford had only assumed the Vice Presidency after being appointed by Nixon to replace Spiro Agnew, who had also resigned due to scandal. In some cases, particularly when the would-be successor to a presidency is seen by legislators as no better (or even worse) than a president they wish to see removed, there may be a strong incentive to abstain from pursuing impeachment proceedings even if there are legal grounds to do so.\n", "President Nixon's errors resulted in the expansion and abuse of presidential power. If future presidents govern by decree, impeachment will be necessary to rein in the presidency and support the constitution. With a constitutional presidency, any illegal or unconstitutional actions by a president's administration must be exposed and punished: \"A constitutional Presidency, as the great Presidents had shown, could be very strong Presidency indeed. But what kept a strong President constitutional, in addition to checks and balances incorporated within his own breast, was the vigilance of the nation. Neither impeachment nor repentance would make much difference if the people themselves had come to an unconscious acceptance of the imperial Presidency. The Constitution could not hold the nation to ideals it was determined to betray.\"\n", "At least four state governors have been impeached and removed from office:\n\nBULLET::::- James E. Ferguson, Democratic Governor of Texas, was impeached for misapplication of public funds and embezzlement. In July 1917, Ferguson was convicted and removed from office.\n\nBULLET::::- Jack C. Walton, Democratic Governor of Oklahoma, was impeached for a variety of crimes including illegal collection of campaign funds, padding the public payroll, suspension of habeas corpus, excessive use of the pardon power, and general incompetence. In November 1923, Walton was convicted and removed from office.\n", "Article Two, Section Four of the United States Constitution provides that: \"The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, \"Bribery\", or other High crimes and Misdemeanors.\" For a time in the early history of the country, corrupt public officials could be charged with the common law crimes related to corruption; such crimes could continue to be charged in the D.C. circuit court, where the laws of Maryland and Virginia remained in force, even after the Supreme Court's decision abolishing federal common law crimes in \"United States v. Hudson\" (1812).\n", "A related example in the United States today is the procedure in which the President can be removed by lesser figures in the national government. However, in the original sense the use of the doctrine of the lesser magistrates carried with it the possibility of violence and war.\n\nSection::::Reformation.\n", "BULLET::::- Pat Nolan, a Republican politician who pleaded guilty to public corruption\n\n\"The New York Times\" remarked that Trump took no action on more than 10,000 pending applications and that he solely used his pardon power on \"public figures whose cases resonated with him given his own grievances with investigators\".\n\nSection::::Domestic policy.:Criminal justice.:Drug policy.\n", "Section::::Former heads of state.:Personal influence or privileges.\n\nFormer Presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.\n", "Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the Federal Sentencing Guidelines are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket amnesty to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to Vietnam draft dodgers who had fled to Canada. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of respites. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.\n", "Most presidents of states worldwide and most monarchs have security of tenure. Governors-General do not and can be dismissed by their head of state when formally advised to do so either by the prime minister or by the cabinet. \n\nIn the United States, while two presidents were impeached in the over two centuries existence of the presidency, (Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton), no president has been removed from office to date.\n\nSection::::Problems over lack of security of tenure.\n\nSection::::Problems over lack of security of tenure.:The Australian Dismissal Crisis in 1975.\n", "According to the Office of the Pardon Attorney (U.S. Department of Justice), presidents have utilized respites to varying degrees although, as is the case with every other form of executive clemency, there has been something like a general decline since 1900. The Pardon Attorney has posted data for respites for some administrations.\n\nMost recently, Bill Clinton delayed the execution of Juan Garza in order that an ongoing study of bias in the federal death-penalty system might be completed.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Respite for Libby?\", P.S. Ruckman, Jr., \"National Review\", June 14, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Pardon Power Blog\n", "The president also holds many other rights, which are typically part of the duties of a head of state. These include, for example, the creation and awarding of honorary and professional titles, and the \"de facto\" meaningless right to declare illegitimate children to legitimate children at the request of the parents. Among the presidential rights, which were formed from simple federal laws, is the \"Promotio sub auspiciis Praesidentis rei publicae\", in which PhD students with extraordinary credentials receive a ring of honor from the president. In addition, the president has the right to shut down criminal proceedings (right of abolition) or to pardon prisoners. According to the case law of the Constitutional Court, pardon acts of the president do not only undo the punishment itself, but also the associated blame. Accordingly, a disciplinary process may no longer rely on such a conviction: \"The repayment of a conviction granted by the grace of the president has the consequence that this conviction may no longer be considered in case of disciplinary proceedings\".\n", "The president and judges, including the chief justice of the supreme court and high courts, can be impeached by the parliament before the expiry of the term for violation of the Constitution. Other than impeachment, no other penalty can be given to a president in position for the violation of the Constitution under of the constitution. However a president after his term/removal can be punished for his already proven unlawful activity under disrespecting the constitution, etc. No president has faced impeachment proceedings. Hence, the provisions for impeachment have never been tested. The sitting president cannot be charged and needs to step down in order for that to happen.\n", "While there have been demands for the impeachment of most presidents, only two—Andrew Johnson and William J. Clinton—have actually been impeached, and both were acquitted by the United States Senate and not removed from office. Removal requires an impeachment vote from the House of Representatives and a conviction from the Senate. Impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon made it out of committee, but he resigned before the actual debate on the floor of the House began. Every President elected since 1980 has been the subject of at least one resolution introduced into Congress with the purpose of impeachment.\n", "Section::::Tenure.:Impeachment.\n\n of the Constitution allows for the removal of high federal officials, including the president, from office for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" authorizes the House of Representatives to serve as a \"grand jury\" with the power to impeach said officials by a majority vote. authorizes the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, by a two-thirds vote to convict.\n", "Bill Clinton pardon controversy\n\nFormer U.S. President Bill Clinton was criticized for some of his pardons and acts of executive clemency. Pardoning or commuting sentences is a power granted by the U.S. Constitution to all sitting U.S. Presidents.\n", "It should be noted that Truman, upon leaving the presidency, was not rich; he in fact had no savings and lived off of a meager army pension, staving off additional assistance by selling inherited family property. Partly due to this, Congress eventually passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 yearly pension to each former president.\n", "Second is the seriousness and when the offense occurred. When the offense is years in the past and didn't affect many people, the chance to achieve a pardon is much greater than if the offense was very recent and a high crime. Things that must be considered include how the victims would deal with the pardon, and how it will set a precedence for future similar crimes. During his presidency, President Barack Obama granted 1,715 clemencies. Most of these were for nonviolent drug offenders, in an effort to get non-serious offenders out of prison and to reverse the negative outcomes from the War on Drugs.\n" ]	[ "We know that presidents commit crimes and let them step down instead of going to jail." ]	[ "We may not have enough evidence to prove the crime, but they still step down to avoid pressure. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We know that presidents commit crimes and let them step down instead of going to jail.", "We know that presidents commit crimes and let them step down instead of going to jail." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "We may not have enough evidence to prove the crime, but they still step down to avoid pressure. ", "We may not have enough evidence to prove the crime, but they still step down to avoid pressure. " ]
2018-14749	Why does turning down the heat while cooking give off more steam?	The steam you see at a low boil is actually tiny drops of liquid water condensing in the (somewhat) cooler air above the pot. "Dry" steam is an invisible gas, so when the air above the pot is hot enough - for example, when more water is boiling off more rapidly - the invisible dry water gas can't condense into visible droplets.	[ "A cooking technique called flash boiling uses a small amount of water to quicken the process of boiling. For example, this technique can be used to melt a slice of cheese onto a hamburger patty. The cheese slice is placed on top of the meat on a hot surface such as a frying pan, and a small quantity of cold water is thrown onto the surface near the patty. A vessel (such as a pot or frying-pan cover) is then used to quickly seal the steam-flash reaction, dispersing much of the steamed water on the cheese and patty. This results in a large release of heat, transferred via vaporized water condensing back into a liquid (a principle also used in refrigerator and freezer production).\n", "Section::::Practical uses.:Flash boiling in cooking.\n", "Steam infusion is used in cooking applications on fluid based products. The heat addition on particulate level in a low pressure environment makes steam infusion cooking especially applicable to soups and sauces where particle integrity is important. Steam Infusion has shown the potential to improve the nutritional content of food and is being researched by the University of Lincoln\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In a conventional boiler, fuel is burned and the hot gases produced pass through a heat exchanger where much of their heat is transferred to water, thus raising the water's temperature.\n", "Steam blanching systems inject hot air (~100 °C) onto food as it passes through the blanching system on a conveyor belt. This method greatly reduces the leaching of water-soluble compounds from the product and is the preferred technique for smaller foods and those with cut surfaces. Steam blanching is more energy efficient, and the ability for quick heating allows for shorter processing times. This reduced heat exposure preserves color, flavor, and overall quality of the food; however, evaporation may occur leading to lower masses and product yields.\n", "Section::::Combustion.:Superheater.\n\nL.D. Porta gives the following equation determining the efficiency of a steam locomotive, applicable to steam engines of all kinds: power (kW) = steam Production (kg h)/Specific steam consumption (kg/kW h).\n\nA greater quantity of steam can be generated from a given quantity of water by superheating it. As the fire is burning at a much higher temperature than the saturated steam it produces, far more heat can be transferred to the once-formed steam by superheating it and turning the water droplets suspended therein into more steam and greatly reducing water consumption.\n", "One of the hot gases produced in the combustion process is water vapour (steam), which arises from burning the hydrogen content of the fuel. A condensing boiler extracts additional heat from the waste gases by condensing this water vapour to liquid water, thus recovering its latent heat of vaporization. A typical increase of efficiency can be as much as 10-12%. While the effectiveness of the condensing process varies depending on the temperature of the water returning to the boiler, it is always at least as efficient as a non-condensing boiler.\n", "Reduction (cooking)\n\nIn cooking, reduction is the process of thickening and intensifying the flavor of a liquid mixture such as a soup, sauce, wine, or juice by simmering or boiling.\n\nReduction is performed by simmering or boiling a liquid such as stock, fruit or vegetable juices, wine, vinegar, or a sauce until the desired concentration is reached by evaporation. This is done without a lid, enabling the vapor to escape from the mixture. Different components of the liquid will evaporate at slightly different temperatures, and the goal of reduction is to drive away those with lowest points of evaporation.\n", "When the lower heating value (LHV) is determined, cooling is stopped at 150 °C and the reaction heat is only partially recovered. The limit of 150 °C is based on acid gas dew-point.\n\nNote: Higher heating value (HHV) is calculated with the product of water being in liquid form while lower heating value (LHV) is calculated with the product of water being in vapor form.\n\nSection::::Relation between heating values.\n", "The classic steamer has a chimney in the center, which distributes the steam among the tiers.\n\nSection::::Method.\n\nSteaming works by boiling water continuously, causing it to vaporize into steam; the steam then carries heat to the nearby food, thus cooking the food. The food is kept separate from the boiling water but has direct contact with the steam, resulting in a moist texture to the food. This differs from double boiling, in which food is not directly exposed to steam, or pressure cooking, which uses a sealed vessel.\n", "This method of food preparation involves using the Maillard reaction to \"brown\" the meat or vegetables and then deglazing with stock or water and simmering the mixture over low heat for an extended period of time. It is often done in a cast iron pot or dutch oven, so the heat can be evenly applied and distributed.\n\nSection::::Description.:Meat.\n", "While reduction does concentrate the flavors left in the pan, reducing too much will drive away all liquid in the sauce, leaving a \"sticky, burnt coating\" on the pan.\n", "Many boilers raise the temperature of the steam after it has left that part of the boiler where it is in contact with the water. Known as superheating it turns 'wet steam' into 'superheated steam'. It avoids the steam condensing in the engine cylinders, and gives a significantly higher efficiency.\n\nSection::::Components and accessories of steam engines.:Motor units.\n", "Increasing the steam flow-rate may improve the juice extraction rate.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThis was a popular type of harvest juicer as it prepared the juice for immediate bottling in good sized batches. There is generally no need to strain or boil the juice after mechanical juicing and it could be operated over a wood stove in the rural country sides.\n", "BULLET::::- However, for true energy calculations in some specific cases, the higher heating value is correct. This is particularly relevant for natural gas, whose high hydrogen content produces much water, when it is burned in condensing boilers and power plants with flue-gas condensation that condense the water vapor produced by combustion, recovering heat which would otherwise be wasted.\n\nSection::::Usage of terms.\n", "The cooking surface is made of a glass-ceramic material which is a poor heat conductor, so only a little heat is lost through the bottom of the pot. In normal operation the cooking surface stays significantly cooler than with other stove cooking methods, but still needs to cool down before it can be safely touched.\n", "Water on the outside of a pot, i.e., a wet pot, increases the time it takes the pot of water to boil. The pot will heat at a normal rate once all excess water on the outside of the pot evaporates.\n\nBoiling is also often used to remove salt from certain foodstuffs, such as bacon if a less saline product is required.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Boil-in-the-bag.\n", "Both of these convection processes immediately begin to slow down, and eventually stop, as soon as the burners turn off.\n\nSection::::Efficiency.\n", "Sauces from basic brown sauce to Béchamel sauce and even tomato sauce are simmered for long periods (from 1 to 10 hours) but not boiled. Simmering not only develops the maximum possible flavor, but also allows impurities to collect at the top and be skimmed off periodically as the sauce cooks. Boiling diffuses the impurities into the liquid and results in a bitter taste and unclear stock. Broths are also simmered rather than boiled, and for the same reasons.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nCommon preparations involving reductions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Consommés, reduced and clarified stocks\n\nBULLET::::- Gravies\n", "Section::::Components and accessories of steam engines.:Cold sink.\n\nAs with all heat engines, the majority of primary energy must be emitted as waste heat at relatively low temperature.\n\nThe simplest cold sink is to vent the steam to the environment. This is often used on steam locomotives to avoid the weight and bulk of condensers. Some of the released steam is vented up the chimney so as to increase the draw on the fire, which greatly increases engine power, but reduces efficiency.\n", "A hot shower will produce steam that condenses on the shower side of the curtain; lowering the pressure there. In a steady state the steam will be replaced by new steam delivered by the shower but in reality the water temperature will fluctuate and lead to times when the net steam production is negative.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Air pressure.\n", "Steaming\n\nSteaming is a method of cooking using steam. This is often done with a food steamer, a kitchen appliance made specifically to cook food with steam, but food can also be steamed in a wok. In the American southwest, steam pits used for cooking have been found dating back about 5,000 years. Steaming is considered a healthy cooking technique that can be used for many kinds of food.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- \"better energy efficiency\" – a supplementary burner is needed only during heating the charge and doré casting operations. During cupellation, the oxidation reactions provide sufficient heat to maintain temperature. There was a 92% reduction in fuel consumption per tonne of doré treated reported for the BBOC at the Niihama refinery\n", "Dry steam is saturated steam that has been very slightly superheated. This is not sufficient to change its energy appreciably, but is a sufficient rise in temperature to avoid condensation problems, given the average loss in temperature across the steam supply circuit. Towards the end of the 19th century, when superheating was still a less-than-certain technology, such steam-drying gave the condensation-avoiding benefits of superheating without requiring the sophisticated boiler or lubrication techniques of full superheating.\n" ]	[ "Turning down the heat while cooking gives off more steam." ]	[ "There are two types of steam: dry steam is an invisible gas given off liquid when it's hot enough to do so, and visible steam is made up of condensing visible droplets at a lower temperature." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Turning down the heat while cooking gives off more steam.", "Turning down the heat while cooking gives off more steam." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are two types of steam: dry steam is an invisible gas given off liquid when it's hot enough to do so, and visible steam is made up of condensing visible droplets at a lower temperature.", "There are two types of steam: dry steam is an invisible gas given off liquid when it's hot enough to do so, and visible steam is made up of condensing visible droplets at a lower temperature." ]
2018-08258	Why are some tests/exams scored on seemingly arbitrary ranges instead of straight percentage?	For a lot of standardized tests it's not really feasible to get a zero. Failing a multiple choice test that badly would be impressive, since you should get some percentage of the questions correct simply by random chance. So tests have different ways to deal with this. Some consider any score below some threshold to be effectively the same as this random chance minimum score. Some subtract from your score for each wrong answer so that the random chance score is zero. the AP tests do this. They also often consider some questions harder than others, so getting 95% right is considered a lot more difficult than getting 90% right. In those tests, the results may not scale linearly with % correct. The ACT does this.	[ "With the exception of 2018, moderation was applied to account for variations in region sets (as then students in different regions would be answering different question papers). In 2018, when everyone around the world answered the same questions, this practice was renamed as \"standardisation,\" with the CBSE gradually phasing out the practice with the reduction on subjects which were given the offset.\n\nIn 2018, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Accountancy were given offset of +9, Business Studies given +6, and English given a +3 offset. In 2019, moderation took the effect of giving up to 11 extra marks :\n", "Some private schools (particularly in higher levels of education) require a 70 to pass instead of the regular 60.\n", "In universities a point system is used for exams, with 30 points being the best grade and 18 the minimum passing grade. This stems from the practice that exams were traditionally given by 3 examiners. Each had to rate the student's examination performance on a 1–10 scale, and the final grade was the sum of the three ratings. On a 1–10 scale, passing is 6, so on a 1–30 scale the minimum passing grade is 36 = 18. Nowadays the form of each examination is decided by the professor (number of examiners, whether written, oral, or both, etc.), but the traditional grading system remained.\n", "Conversions from percentage marks to letter grades, by province:\n\nSection::::North America.:Canada.:Alberta.\n\nIn Alberta Post-Secondary Colleges, Technical Institutes, or Universities, the actual percentage associated with letter grade is up to the individual institution or professor teaching the course.\n\nThe 4.33 is scored as a 4.00 at University of Alberta, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, MacEwan University University of Calgary\n", "It is the practice adopted by CBSE of 'tweaking' candidates' marks to account for paper difficulties and variations. This has been criticized in the past for inflating students' marks in a hyper-competitive society where even one mark counts, and CBSE is in the process of ending it. In 2017, CBSE informed that it would end moderation entirely, but its decision was challenged by a court case at the Delhi High Court, which ruled that moderation should continue for that year.\n", "The total mark obtained by a student through moderation cannot exceed 95; if so, it is \"capped\" at 95 unless the student's actual mark is 96 or more. This is the reason a mark of 95 is relatively common for such subjects, and why it is \"much\" tougher to get 96 than to get a 95.\n", "The OBE system, when in its experimental stages, originally used a scale from 1 - 4 (a pass being a 3 and a '1st class pass' being above 70%), but this system was considered far too coarse and replaced by a scale from 1 to 7.\n\nFor the final standard exams, a 'normal pass' is given for an average mark 50%-59%, and a distinction is given for an average of 80% or more.\n", "Academic grading in Ireland\n\nIn Irish secondary schools, grades are awarded using letters along this scale:\n\nBULLET::::- H1: 90% -100% 100 +25\n\nBULLET::::- H2: 80% - 89% 88 +25\n\nBULLET::::- H3: 70% - 79% 77 +25\n\nBULLET::::- H4: 60% - 69% 66 +25\n\nBULLET::::- H5: 50% - 59% 56 +25\n\nBULLET::::- H6: 40% - 49% 46 +25\n\nBULLET::::- H7: 30% - 39% 37 DOES NOT GET +25\n\nBULLET::::- H8: under 30% 0\n\nORDINARY LEVEL POINTS \n\nBULLET::::- O1: 90% -100% 56\n\nBULLET::::- O2: 80% - 89% 46\n\nBULLET::::- O3: 70% - 79% 37\n\nBULLET::::- O4: 60% - 69% 28\n", "Until high school, an averaged percentage is provided. A percentage over 80 is considered excellent; between 60 and 80 is considered to be 'first division'; between 40 and 60 is considered to be 'second division'\n\nThe Percentage System works as : Maximum Marks:100, Minimum Marks: 0, Minimum Marks Required for Passing: 35.\n\n100–91% considered Excellent, 75–90% considered Very good, 55–64% considered good, 45–55% considered fair, 41–44% considered Pass, 0–40% considered fail. A percentage above 65% is referred as 1st Division and indicates high intellectual level. Some Universities follow weighted average pattern to calculate percentage:\n", "Traditional exam script marking began in Cambridge 1792 when, with undergraduate numbers rising, the importance of proper ranking of students was growing. So in 1792 the new Proctor of Examinations, William Farish, introduced marking, a process in which every examiner gives a numerical score to each response by every student, and the overall total mark puts the students in the final rank order. Francis Galton (1869) noted that, in an unidentified year about 1863, the Senior Wrangler scored 7,634 out of a maximum of 17,000, while the Second Wrangler scored 4,123. (The 'Wooden Spoon' scored only 237.)\n", "Many courses also have Non-Graded Pass (NGP) and Non-Graded Fail (NGF), in which it is considered more appropriate to have qualitative than quantitative assessment. However, in some universities, an F1 category may be given a 'Pass Conceded' if the student's Weighted Average is greater than a nominated threshold. (More often than not, this is around the 53–55 range.)\n", "Section::::Design and scoring.:Scoring issues.\n\nHuman scoring is relatively expensive and often variable, which is why computer scoring is preferred when feasible. For example, some critics say that poorly paid employees will score tests badly. Agreement between scorers can vary between 60 and 85 percent, depending on the test and the scoring session. Sometimes states pay to have two or more scorers read each paper; if their scores do not agree, then the paper is passed to additional scorers.\n", "Since then, a number of other districts have abandoned Boston's old mechanism. In 2007, through an act of Parliament,\n\nBritish authorities outlawed the use of First Preference First arrangements, which made Boston's old method of school assignment illegal throughout 150 English districts.\n", "Moderation can also take the form of giving \"grace\" marks to enable students who have scored near the pass mark to pass. This is the reason marks between 25 and 33 are unheard of in subjects like Mathematics, and also explains why the difference between D1 and D2 cutoff is sometimes very small.\n\nSection::::Changes for the 2019 exam.\n\nSection::::Changes for the 2019 exam.:Earlier duration for vocational exams.\n", "Since the turn of the millennium the percentage of pupils obtaining 5 or more good GCSEs has increased by about 30%, while independent tests performed as part of the OECD PISA and IES TIMSS studies have reported Literacy, Maths and Science scores in England and Wales having fallen by about 6%, based on their own tests\n", "The \"clear line\" between passing and failing on an exam may be achieved through use of a cut score: for example, test takers correctly answering 75% or more of the questions pass the test; test takers correctly answering 74% or fewer fail. In large-scale high-stakes testing, rigorous and expensive standard-setting studies may be employed to determine the ideal cut score or to keep the test results consistent between groups taking the test at different times.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n", "In most post-secondary institutions, percentages are mainly a suggestion, and not a hard grading system, and even some individual classes can have large deviations from the norm (such as anything below an 80 being a C+ or lower).\n\nLetter grades are not used at all in francophone schools; only percentages are used. In francophone schools, from grades 1–9, as well as kindergarten, an alternative grading system is used instead of percentages and letter grades: numbers 1 to 4 are used, with 4 being excellent, 3 being good, 2 being acceptable, and 1 being poor.\n", "Indian Universities follow a Percentage System and Indian Institutes of Technology follow a 10-point GPA System. The Percentage System works as:\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum Marks:100\n\nBULLET::::- Minimum Marks: 0\n\nBULLET::::- Minimum Marks Required for Passing: 40 or 30 (Depending on University)\n\n At selected India institutions, a lower percentage may be considered passing.\n\nThe eight-point GPA introduced by University of Mumbai from Academic year 2012–13 is categorized as follows:\n\nThe 10-point GPA followed by Indian Institutes of Technology is categorized as follows: \n\nSome universities follow weighted average pattern to calculate percentage:\n", "Section::::Africa.:South Africa.\n\nMost universities follow a model based on the British system. Thus, at the University of Cape Town and the University of South Africa (UNISA), the percentages are calibrated as follows: a 1st class pass is given for 75% and above, a second (division one) for 70 - 74%, a second (division two) for 60% - 69%, and a third for 50 - 59%. Any lower than 50% is a fail. The University of the Witwatersrand considers an A to be 75% and above.\n\nSection::::Asia.\n", "BULLET::::- * In the final year DES statistics for O-Levels are available (1986), and across all subjects, 6.8% of candidates obtained a grade A, and 39.8% and A-C.\n\nNote:\n\nBULLET::::- * 2014: what constitutes an equivalent to a C grade was restricted, reducing the total from 75.2% under the old system to 63.8%, or 52.6% if the five include English and Maths.\n\nBULLET::::- § 2015: five only published for 5 passes that include English and Maths.\n", "Between 1975, with the introduction of the national alphabetic grades to the O-Level, and the replacement of both the O-Level and CSE with the GCSE, in 1988, approximately 36% of pupils entered for a Mathematics exam sat the O-Level and 64% the CSE paper. With grades allocated on a normative basis with approximately ~53% (10% A, 15% B, 25–30% C) obtaining a C or above at O-Level, and 10% the O-Level C equivalent Grade 1 CSE; a proportion being entered for neither paper. The percentage of the population obtaining at least a grade \"C\" or equivalent in maths, at O-level, remained fixed in 22–26% band.\n", "BULLET::::- The usage of percentages as labels on a pie chart can be misleading when the sample size is small.\n\nBULLET::::- Making a pie chart 3D or adding a slant will make interpretation difficult due to distorted effect of perspective. Bar-charted pie graphs in which the height of the slices is varied may confuse the reader.\n\nSection::::Misleading graph methods.:Pie chart.:3D Pie chart slice perspective.\n", "The University of Saskatchewan and University of Regina both use a percentage grade system, universal across faculties and departments.\n\nSection::::North America.:Mexico.\n\nMexican schools use a scale from 0 to 10 to measure students' scores. Since decimal scores are common, a scale from 0 to 100 is often used to remove the decimal point.\n", "Prior to 1792, a team of Cambridge examiners convened at 5pm on the last day of examining, reviewed the 19 papers each student had sat – and published their rank order at midnight. Marking solved the problems of numbers and prevented unfair personal bias, and its introduction was a step towards modern objective testing, the format it is best suited to. But the technology of testing that followed, with its major emphasis on reliability and the automatisation of marking, has been an uncomfortable partner for some areas of educational achievement: assessing writing or speaking, and other kinds of performance need something more qualitative and judgemental.\n", "A 5.5 constitutes a pass, whereas 5.4 and below constitute a fail. If no decimal places are used, 6 and up is a pass and 5 and below is a fail; however, in this case of grading in full numbers there exists sometimes \"6-\", which would officially translate to 5.75, but can be interpreted here as \"barely, but just good enough\". Roughly, a student scores a 5.5 (pass) when 2/3 (67%) of an exam is correct. If the grade would be a 5.49 and one decimal is used, the 5.49 will be a 5.5, but if no decimals are used (usually at the end of the year) the 5.49 will end up as a 5 which indicates a fail.\n" ]	[ "Some tests/exams are scored on arbitrary ranges instead of a percentage." ]	[ "Multiple choice standardized tests have a random chance minimum score so the score is adjusted to account for that." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Some tests/exams are scored on arbitrary ranges instead of a percentage.", "Some tests/exams are scored on arbitrary ranges instead of a percentage." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Multiple choice standardized tests have a random chance minimum score so the score is adjusted to account for that.", "Multiple choice standardized tests have a random chance minimum score so the score is adjusted to account for that." ]
2018-24344	Why do some humans have crooked or spaced out teeth when every other animal pretty much always has straight teeth?	Take a mouse for example. Mice only have 4 teeth. 2 front teeth on the top and 2 front teeth on the bottom. These must be straight so they join in the middle to pinch/cut into food. If the teeth are not straight, they instead slide past eachother (sometimes resulting in their bottom tooth piercing into their top lip/snout and their top tooth piercing into their bottom lip/chin). This is called a malocclusion. Mice with this problem die very quickly because their teeth become worthless for feeding and the injuries get infected very quickly (eat, sleep, and roll around in their own excrements). Animals that rely on teeth for eating (most animals) will die at early ages from starvation, so you usually won't be around long enough for us to see them. Moreover, animals that have a genetic basis for having crooked teeth probably won't live long enough to reproduce. As humans, this isn't a big deal because we can choose to eat soft foods, and we have orthodontics like braces to correct malocclusions and crooked teeth. Additionally, we have veneers, dentures, bridges, crowns and other artificial contrivances to fix the issue. Humans that would have died out thousands of years ago for being unable to eat, can now live long and healthy lives. As a neuroscientist I work with rodents a lot and if the mice develop malocclusions, we try to correct it by shaving their teeth down so they have another shot to grow straight (mice grow teeth how we grow fingernails: continuously from the base) and supply a nutrient paste. If that doesn't work, we usually have to put them down because they won't be able to eat enough to sustain themselves.	[ "BULLET::::- Crowded teeth and poor sinus drainage, as human faces are significantly flatter than those of other primates and humans share the same tooth set. This results in a number of problems, most notably with wisdom teeth, which can damage neighboring teeth or cause serious infections of the mouth.\n", "The dental formula of humans is: . Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their third molars, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Genetics.\n", "During the transition to agriculture, the shape of the human mandible went through a series of changes. The mandible underwent a complex series of shape changes not matched by the teeth, leading to incongruity between dental and mandibular form. These changes in human skulls may have been \"driven by the decreasing bite forces required to chew the processed foods eaten once humans switched to growing different types of cereals, milking and herding animals about 10,000 years ago.\"\n\nSection::::Crowding of teeth.:Treatment.\n", "Section::::Supporting structures.:Gingiva.\n", "Agenesis (failure to develop) of wisdom teeth in human populations ranges from zero in Tasmanian Aboriginals to nearly 100% in indigenous Mexicans. The difference is related to the PAX9 gene (and perhaps other genes).\n\nSection::::Anatomical.:Vomeronasal organ.\n", "In an experiment on two groups of rock hyraxes fed hardened or softened versions of the same foods, the animals fed softer food had significantly narrower and shorter faces and thinner and shorter mandibles than animals fed hard food. Experiments have shown similar results in other animals, including primates, supporting the theory that masticatory stress during childhood affects jaw development. Several studies have shown this effect in humans. Children chewed a hard resinous gum for two hours a day and showed increased facial growth.\n", "Section::::Primates.\n\nPrimates have four cutting upper parallel fore-teeth, except in some bat species which have two or none; solitary tusks in each jaw, one on each side; two pectoral teats; two feet and hands; flattened, oval nails; and they eat fruits.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo sapiens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo americanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo europaeus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo asiaticus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo afer\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo monstrosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo troglodytes\" – partly based on myth, partly on orangutans\n\nBULLET::::- \"Simia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Simia satyrus\" – common chimpanzee\n\nBULLET::::- \"Simia sylvanus\" – Barbary macaque\n\nBULLET::::- \"Simia sphinx\" – mandrill\n\nBULLET::::- \"Simia apedia\" – \"nomen dubium\"\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Rabbit.\n", "General characterizing feature of the dental morphology of humans are the lack of facial prognathism, a parabola-shaped mandible and maxilla, and molars that are the same size as the front teeth. Humans also have small crowns in relation to body mass and tend to show a reduction in cusp and root number. The reduction in the dental arcade was accompanied by molars moving posteriorly and axial inclination of the molar roots.\n", "Section::::Supporting structures.:Alveolar bone.\n", "Synapsid skulls are identified by the distinctive pattern of the holes behind each eye, which served the following purposes:\n\nBULLET::::- made the skull lighter without sacrificing strength.\n\nBULLET::::- saved energy by using less bone.\n\nBULLET::::- probably provided attachment points for jaw muscles. Having attachment points further away from the jaw made it possible for the muscles to be longer and therefore to exert a strong pull over a wide range of jaw movement without being stretched or contracted beyond their optimum range.\n", "The skulls of machairodonts suggests another change in the shape of the temporalis muscle. The main constraint to opening the jaws is that the temporalis muscle will tear if it is stretched past a critical degree around the glenoid process when the mouth is opened. In modern felids, the occipital bone extends backward, but the temporalis muscles that attach to this surface are strained when opening the jaw wide as the muscle is wrapped around the glenoid process. To reduce the stretch of the temporalis muscle around the immovable process, machairodonts evolved a skull with a more vertical occipital bone. The domestic cat has a gape of 80°, while a lion has a gape of 91°. In \"Smilodon\", the gape is 128°, and the angle between the ramus of the mandible and the occipital bone is 100°. This angle is the major limiting factor of the gape, and reducing the angle of the occipital bone relative to the palate of the mouth, as seen in \"Smilodon\", allowed the gape to increase further. Had the occipital bone not been stretched towards the palate, and closer to perpendicular, the gape would theoretically be less, at roughly 113°.\n", "Section::::Diversity.:Rabbit.\n", "The greatest number of teeth in any known placental land mammal was 48, with a formula of . However, no existing (or extant) placental mammal has this number. In extant placental mammals, the maximum dental formula is: . Mammalian teeth are usually symmetrical, but not always. For example, the aye-aye has a formula of , demonstrating the need for both upper and lower quadrant counts.\n\nSection::::Dental formula.:Tooth naming discrepancies.\n", "Studies of premolar size in hominid species that predate \"Australopithecus\" \"afarensis\" show long, uni-cuspid teeth at the P location, while species dated after \"A. afarensis\" have been shown to have wider, bicuspid teeth at the same location, which is hypothesized to show the beginnings of canine to premolar evolution in hominids.\n", "Section::::Abnormalities.:Environmental.:Destruction after development.\n", "Compared to archaic people, anatomically modern humans have smaller, differently shaped teeth. This results in a smaller, more receded dentary, making the rest of the jaw-line stand out, giving an often quite prominent chin. The central part of the mandible forming the chin carries a triangularly shaped area forming the apex of the chin called the mental trigon, not found in archaic humans. Particularly in living populations, the use of fire and tools requires fewer jaw muscles, giving slender, more gracile jaws. Compared to archaic people, modern humans have smaller, lower faces.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Body skeleton structure.\n", "Section::::Vertebrates.:Mammals.\n", "It is believed that teeth in piglets evolved as a product of an evolutionary arms race caused by sibling competition, resulting in armed sibling rivalry. Teeth become more important when the litter size is larger than normal, causing increased competition. In these situations, the teeth can help the individual piglet compete against siblings.\n\nSection::::Role of the parent and interbrood conflict.\n", "Section::::Abnormalities.:Environmental.:Discoloration.\n", "One of the features distinguishing \"H. erectus\" from \"H. sapiens\" is the size difference in teeth. \"H. erectus\" has large teeth while \"H. sapiens\" have smaller teeth. One theory for the reason of \"H. erectus\" having larger teeth is because of the requirements for eating raw meat instead of cooked meat like \"H. sapiens\".\n", "BULLET::::- Their \"molars\" have two parallel rows of tubercles, unlike the tribosphenic (three-peaked) molars of uncontested early crown mammals.\n\nBULLET::::- The chewing action differs in that undisputed crown mammals chew with a side-to-side grinding action, which means that the molars usually occlude on only one side at a time, while multituberculates' jaws were incapable of side-to-side movement—they chewed, rather, by dragging the lower teeth backwards against the upper ones as the jaw closed.\n", "Natalia Rybczynski, of the Canadian Museum of Nature, analyzed the teeth, and wood chips, of modern beavers, and Dipoides. She concluded that they all used just one of their teeth at a time, when cutting down trees. She concluded that modern beavers square teeth required half as many bites as Dipoides less evolved round teeth.\n\nRybczynski argues that eating bark and building dams are unlikely to have evolved twice, so modern beavers and Dipoides shared a wood eating common ancestor, 24 million years ago.\n", "Micrognathism\n\nMicrognathism is a condition where the jaw is undersized. It is also sometimes called \"mandibular hypoplasia\". It is common in infants, but is usually self-corrected during growth, due to the jaws' increasing in size. It may be a cause of abnormal tooth alignment and in severe cases can hamper feeding. It can also, both in adults and children, make intubation difficult, either during anesthesia or in emergency situations.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nWhile not always pathological, it can present as a birth defect in multiple syndromes including:\n\nBULLET::::- Catel–Manzke syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Bloom syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Coffin–Lowry syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Congenital rubella syndrome\n", "Generally, tooth development in non-human mammals is similar to human tooth development. The variations usually lie in the morphology, number, development timeline, and types of teeth. However, some mammals' teeth do develop differently than humans'.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01759	How can the universe expand into something if the universe is considered everything?	> Why is it expanding? As far as we can tell it's always been expanding, and nothing is stopping it from continuing. In fact, our latest observations suggest it's picking up speed. Due to what? We have no idea: that's "dark energy". Figure that out, and there is almost certainly a Nobel Prize waiting for you. > What is there to expand into? If the universe is infinite, nothing. If the universe is finite, we can't know. The observable universe is definitely smaller than the universe, so if there is an edge out there, we have no way of observing or reaching it, ever. I know neither or these possibilities are very gratifying, but there it is.	[ "Over time, the space that makes up the universe is expanding. The words 'space' and 'universe', sometimes used interchangeably, have distinct meanings in this context. Here 'space' is a mathematical concept that stands for the three-dimensional manifold into which our respective positions are embedded while 'universe' refers to everything that exists including the matter and energy in space, the extra-dimensions that may be wrapped up in various strings, and the time through which various events take place. The expansion of space is in reference to this 3-D manifold only; that is, the description involves no structures such as extra dimensions or an exterior universe.\n", "The metric expansion of space is of a kind completely different from the expansions and explosions seen in daily life. It also seems to be a property of the universe as a whole rather than a phenomenon that applies just to one part of the universe or can be observed from \"outside\" it.\n", "The proposed field and its quanta (the subatomic particles related to it) have been named \"inflaton\". If this field did not exist, scientists would have to propose a different explanation for all the observations that strongly suggest a metric expansion of space has occurred, and is still occurring much more slowly today.\n\nSection::::Overview of metrics and comoving coordinates.\n\nTo understand the metric expansion of the universe, it is helpful to discuss briefly what a metric is, and how metric expansion works.\n", "Regardless of the overall shape of the universe, the question of what the universe is expanding into is one which does not require an answer according to the theories which describe the expansion; the way we define space in our universe in no way requires additional exterior space into which it can expand since an expansion of an infinite expanse can happen without changing the infinite extent of the expanse. All that is certain is that the manifold of space in which we live simply has the property that the distances between objects are getting larger as time goes on. This only implies the simple observational consequences associated with the metric expansion explored below. No \"outside\" or embedding in hyperspace is required for an expansion to occur. The visualizations often seen of the universe growing as a bubble into nothingness are misleading in that respect. There is no reason to believe there is anything \"outside\" of the expanding universe into which the universe expands.\n", "In ordinary conversation, \"everything\" usually refers only to the totality of things relevant to the subject matter. When there is no expressed limitation, \"everything\" may refer to the universe, the world.\n", "The conflict between the two cosmologies derives from the inflexibility of Einstein's theory of general relativity, which shows how gravity is formed by the interaction of matter, space, and time. Physicist John Wheeler famously summed up the theory's essence as \"Matter tells space how to curve; space tells matter how to move.\" However, in order to build a workable cosmological model, all of the terms on both sides of Einstein's equations must be balanced: on one side, matter (i.e., all the things that warp time and space); on the other, the curvature of the universe and the speed at which space-time is expanding. In short, a model requires a particular amount of matter in order to produce particular curvatures and expansion rates.\n", "To set nothing correctly apart from something, one must declare the specific level at which the something and the nothing are articulated. Both are therefore not only declared by their own definition but need to be declared within a larger reality as well. Without declaring the overall setting — and this brings us to the overall level that Gödel already explored — it becomes difficult to declare whether we're talking about a tree or about a forest, particularly where \"nothing\" is concerned.\n\nSection::::Anything.\n", "The modern concept of outer space is based on the \"Big Bang\" cosmology, first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist Georges Lemaître. This theory holds that the universe originated from a very dense form that has since undergone continuous expansion.\n", "Although there are some exceptions, expanded universe works are generally accepted as canon, or part of the \"official\" storyline continuity. Otherwise, they are considered apocrypha. In some cases, characters created for an expanded universe are later featured in the primary works associated with that franchise, as in the cases of Aayla Secura and Grand Admiral Thrawn in the \"Star Wars\" franchise. When all expanded universe works (films, novels, comic books, video games, role-playing games, etc.) are considered canonical, then the expanded universe is an \"imaginary entertainment environment.\" \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Buffyverse\n\nBULLET::::- DC Extended Universe\n", "The term expanded universe, sometimes called an extended universe, is generally used to denote the \"extension\" of a media franchise (like a television program or a series of feature films) with other media, generally comics and original novels. This typically involves new stories for existing characters already developed within the franchise, but in some cases entirely new characters and complex mythology are developed. This is not necessarily the same as an adaptation, which is a retelling of the same story that may or may not adhere to accepted canon. Nearly every media franchise with a committed fan base has some form of expanded universe.\n", "John Locke, in \"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding\", defined extension as \"only the Space that lies between the Extremities of those solid coherent Parts\" of a body. It is the space possessed by a body. Locke refers to the extension in conjunction with \"solidity\" and \"impenetrability,\" the other primary characteristics of matter.\n", "The Universe is often defined as \"the totality of existence\", or everything that exists, everything that has existed, and everything that will exist. In fact, some philosophers and scientists support the inclusion of ideas and abstract concepts – such as mathematics and logic – in the definition of the Universe. The word \"universe\" may also refer to concepts such as \"the cosmos\", \"the world\", and \"nature\".\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Eventually I concluded that language was bigger than the universe, that it was possible to talk about things in the same sentence which could not both be found in the real world. The real world might conceivably contain some object which had never so far been moved, and it might contain a force that had never successfully been resisted, but the question of whether the object was really immovable could only be known if all possible forces had been tried on it and left it unmoved. So the matter could be resolved by trying out the hitherto irresistible force on the hitherto immovable object to see what happened. Either the object would move or it wouldn't, which would tell us only that either the hitherto immovable object was not in fact immovable, or that the hitherto irresistible force was in fact resistible.\n", "The expansion of the universe is the increase of the distance between two distant parts of the universe with time. It is an intrinsic expansion whereby \"the scale of space itself changes\". The universe does not expand \"into\" anything and does not require space to exist \"outside\" it. Technically, neither space nor objects in space move. Instead it is the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changes in scale. Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, this limitation does not restrict the metric itself. To an observer it appears that space is expanding and all but the nearest galaxies are receding into the distance.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nTwo prominent examples of media franchises with an expanded universe are \"Star Wars\" and \"Star Trek\", which both have a wide range of original novels, comics, video games, and other media that add to the mythology of their fictional universe in different ways. In both cases, entirely new characters and situations have been developed that exist only within the expanded universe media.\n\nSection::::Canonicity.\n", "The common conception of physical objects includes that they have extension in the physical world, although there do exist theories of quantum physics and cosmology which may challenge this. In modern physics, \"extension\" is understood in terms of the spacetime: roughly speaking, it means that for a given moment of time the body has some location in the space, although not necessarily a point. A physical body as a whole is assumed to have such quantitative properties as mass, momentum, electric charge, other conserving quantities, and possibly other quantities.\n", "One can make the statement that \"anything\" is a specific word where \"everything\" can be seen as a general word. Still, both meanings may readily be understood by everyone, while their definitions will equally contain some aspects of murkiness as to what is included and what is not. First of all, \"anything\" does not need to be covered by an actual something, since an act of god or fate, a coincident or an unintended consequence can also be included in the list of \"anything\". Also, the question whether an \"actual\" nothing can also be used to take up the place of \"anything\" is harder to debate at the abstract level and requires actual input to declare whether this is true or false. Examples of this position are that not the amount of money, but rather the lack of money can make us rise and shine early from bed to go to work, and that not the abundance of food, but rather hunger and the lack of food make us hunt and till the soil. See also: Much Ado About Nothing.\n", "Section::::Beliefs.:Structure of the Universe.\n\nRaëlian cosmology as proposed in 1973 by Raël states that the observable universe has no creator and is infinite in time and finite in size and surrounded by infinite space.\n", "While a novel by Dan Brown depicts a Catholic priest who holds a romantic view about the big bang theory, taking it as evidence of everything arising from one. Gurdjieff's interpretation of the same fact was exactly the opposite. The finding of \"everything arose from one\" is not a blessed one if one is intelligent enough to think of what awaits in the future as a result of this: everything is moving away from one and in the process of dispersion into nothingness.\n", "Often pronounced in a way that indicates evading specifics, \"anything\" provides full freedom about the something that is supposedly covered by the word. \"Anything goes\" indicates maximization of freedom, just like \"Do as you please\" means there are no restrictions other than the restrictions put in place by oneself.\n", "The qualification is that variation in physical structures can be overlooked, provided this does not imperil the uniformity of conclusions drawn from observation: the Sun is different from the Earth, our galaxy is different from a black hole, some galaxies advance toward rather than recede from us, and the universe has a \"foamy\" texture of galaxy clusters and voids, but none of these different structures appears to violate the basic laws of physics.\n", "Physicists then, as now, often look at a property with the word \"available\" or \"utilizable\" in its name with a certain unease. The idea of what is available raises the question of \"available to what?\" and raises a concern about whether such a property is anthropocentric. Laws derived using such a property may not describe the universe but instead describe what people wish to see.\n", "In terms of the metric expansion of space, it is in the dark-energy-dominated era, after the universe's matter content has become diluted enough for metric expansion to be dominated by vacuum energy (dark energy). It is also in the universe's Stelliferous Era, after enough time for superclusters to have formed (at about 5 billion years), but before the accelerating expansion of the universe has removed the local supercluster beyond the cosmological horizon (at about 150 billion years).\n\nSection::::Grammar.\n", "According to the Big Bang theory, the very early Universe was an extremely hot and dense state about 13.8 billion years ago which rapidly expanded. About 380,000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called recombination epoch. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space. Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space. As light has a finite velocity, this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe. This leaves open the question as to whether the Universe is finite or infinite.\n", "No field responsible for cosmic inflation has been discovered. However such a field, if found in the future, would be scalar. The first similar scalar field proven to exist was only discovered in 2012 - 2013 and is still being researched. So it is not seen as problematic that a field responsible for cosmic inflation and the metric expansion of space has not yet been discovered.\n" ]	[ "Universe is expanding into something." ]	[ "We don't know if the universe is expanding into something or if it is infinite. Nor can we know what might be on the other side of this theoretical \"edge\"." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Universe is expanding into something." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We don't know if the universe is expanding into something or if it is infinite. Nor can we know what might be on the other side of this theoretical \"edge\"." ]
2018-04644	How and why did humans develop speech and language?	We don't know. There are lots of conjectures, but most of them are, to put it in ELI5 terms, ridiculous. Because we didn't have any tape recorders to record the first human speech, we're relying simply on guesswork. Non-human mammals use sound to communicate, but they're usually mating calls, warnings, that kind of thing. Are those systems "languages"? By some definitions maybe, but in that case there likely never was a time when humans didn't have language. Did language develop from that? It seems a reasonable enough theory, but it's still just a wild guess. Dubious cases of sign-language-using gorillas aside (there's a lot of controversy about them), human language is distinct from other animals' communication systems in a few important ways. Most importantly, we can say anything we want to: in English, we have about forty different sounds, and we can arrange them in any manner we please, to convey any kind of message we want, even messages that have never been conveyed before -- and we can still be confident we'll be understood. Animals, on the other hand, can only say a small number of things: "I am here," or "Get out of my territory or I'll attack," or "Look out! Snake!" They cannot combine sounds in new and different ways to say something new. Perhaps the beginnings of a recognizably human language came about when our ancestors had words for things -- nouns -- and words for actions -- verbs. Perhaps their first sentences were simple combinations of one verb and one noun, and our languages grew from that. Perhaps. But we have absolutely no way of knowing. There were, as I said, no tape recorders; and writing wasn't invented until we already had highly sophisticated complete languages. Everything that happened before the invention of writing is unknown and (without a time machine) unknowable.	[ "Section::::Conceptual frameworks.:Speech act theory.\n\nOne way to explain biological complexity is by reference to its inferred function. According to the influential philosopher John Austin, speech's primary function is action in the social world.\n", "Section::::Conceptual frameworks.:Natural science or social science?:Nature or society?\n", "The Broca's and Wernicke's areas in the primate brain are responsible for controlling the muscles of the face, tongue, mouth, and larynx, as well as recognizing sounds. Primates are known to make \"vocal calls\", and these calls are generated by circuits in the brainstem and limbic system.\n", "In some ways like beavers as they construct their dams, humans have always engaged in niche construction, creating novel environments to which they subsequently become adapted. Selection pressures associated with prior niches tend to become relaxed as humans depend increasingly on novel environments created continuously by their own productive activities. According to Steven Pinker, language is an adaptation to \"the cognitive niche\". Variations on the theme of ritual/speech co-evolution — according to which speech evolved for purposes of internal communication within a ritually constructed domain — have attempted to specify more precisely when, why and how this special niche was created by human collaborative activity.\n", "The mimetic theory of development was the central pillar in Donald's three-part model of symbolic cognition proposed in his 1991 book \"Origins of the Modern Mind\".\n\n\"Origins of the Modern Mind\" proposes a three-stage development of human symbolic capacity through culture:\n", "Section::::Origin of speech sounds.:Gestural theory.\n\nThe gestural theory states that speech was a relatively late development, evolving by degrees from a system that was originally gestural. Our ancestors were unable to control their vocalization at the time when gestures were used to communicate; however, as they slowly began to control their vocalizations, spoken language began to evolve.\n\nThree types of evidence support this theory:\n\nBULLET::::1. Gestural language and vocal language depend on similar neural systems. The regions on the cortex that are responsible for mouth and hand movements border each other.\n", "Section::::Conceptual frameworks.:Natural science or social science?\n\nSection::::Conceptual frameworks.:Natural science or social science?:Social reality.\n", "Section::::Speculative scenarios.:Twentieth century speculations.:Hunter-gatherer egalitarianism.\n\nMany scholars associate the evolutionary emergence of speech with profound social, sexual, political and cultural developments. One view is that primate-style dominance needed to give way to a more cooperative and egalitarian lifestyle of the kind characteristic of modern hunter-gatherers.\n\nSection::::Speculative scenarios.:Twentieth century speculations.:Hunter-gatherer egalitarianism.:Intersubjectivity.\n", "Those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as Michael Tomasello, see it developing from the cognitively controlled aspects of primate communication, these being mostly gestural as opposed to vocal. Where vocal precursors are concerned, many continuity theorists envisage language evolving from early human capacities for song.\n", "BULLET::::2. Nonhuman primates minimise vocal signals in favour of manual, facial and other visible gestures in order to express simple concepts and communicative intentions in the wild. Some of these gestures resemble those of humans, such as the \"begging posture\", with the hands stretched out, which humans share with chimpanzees.\n\nBULLET::::3. Mirror Neurons\n", " In the United States, prior to and immediately following World War II, the dominant psychological paradigm was behaviourism. Within this conceptual framework, language was seen as a certain kind of behaviour — namely, verbal behaviour, to be studied much like any other kind of behaviour in the animal world. Rather as a laboratory rat learns how to find its way through an artificial maze, so a human child learns the verbal behaviour of the society into which it is born. The phonological, grammatical and other complexities of speech are in this sense \"external\" phenomena, inscribed into an initially unstructured brain. Language's emergence in \"Homo sapiens,\" from this perspective, presents no special theoretical challenge. Human behaviour, whether verbal or otherwise, illustrates the malleable nature of the mammalian — and especially the human — brain.\n", "Section::::Evolution of the speech organs.\n\nSpeaking is the default modality for language in all cultures. Humans' first recourse is to encode our thoughts in sound — a method which depends on sophisticated capacities for controlling the lips, tongue and other components of the vocal apparatus.\n", "The essay \"The festal origin of human speech\", though published in the late nineteenth century, made little impact until the American philosopher Susanne Langer re-discovered and publicised it in 1941. \n\nThe theory sets out from the observation that primate vocal sounds are above all \"emotionally\" expressive. The emotions aroused are socially contagious. Because of this, an extended bout of screams, hoots or barks will tend to express not just the feelings of this or that individual but the mutually contagious ups and downs of everyone within earshot.\n", "Section::::Speculative scenarios.:Problems of reliability and deception.:\"Kin selection\".\n", "Little is known about the timing of language's emergence in the human species. Unlike writing, speech leaves no material trace, making it archaeologically invisible. Lacking direct linguistic evidence, specialists in human origins have resorted to the study of anatomical features and genes arguably associated with speech production. While such studies may provide information as to whether pre-modern \"Homo\" species had speech \"capacities\", it is still unknown whether they actually spoke. While they may have communicated vocally, the anatomical and genetic data lack the resolution necessary to differentiate proto-language from speech.\n", "Section::::Conceptual frameworks.:Biosemiotics.\n\nBiosemiotics is a relatively new discipline, inspired in large part by the discovery of the genetic code in the early 1960s. Its basic assumption is that \"Homo sapiens\" is not alone in its reliance on codes and signs. Language and symbolic culture must have biological roots, hence semiotic principles must apply also in the animal world.\n", "Section::::Origin of speech sounds.:Distinctive features theory.\n\nAccording to one influential school, the human vocal apparatus is intrinsically digital on the model of a keyboard or digital computer. If so, this is remarkable: nothing about a chimpanzee's vocal apparatus suggests a digital keyboard, notwithstanding the anatomical and physiological similarities. This poses the question as to when and how, during the course of human evolution, the transition from analog to digital structure and function occurred.\n", "Section::::Evolution of the speech organs.:Tongue.\n\nThe word \"language\" derives from the Latin \"lingua,\" \"tongue\". Phoneticians agree that the tongue is the most important speech articulator, followed by the lips. A natural language can be viewed as a particular way of using the tongue to express thought.\n", "Section::::Conceptual frameworks.\n\nSection::::Conceptual frameworks.:Structuralism.\n", "Origin of speech\n\nThe origin of speech refers to the more general problem of the origin of language in the context of the physiological development of the human speech organs such as the tongue, lips and vocal organs used to produce phonological units in all human languages.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Section::::Evolution of the speech organs.:Respiratory control.\n", "Section::::Evolution of the speech organs.:Larynx.\n", "BULLET::::- Ta-ta. This did not feature in Max Müller's list, having been proposed in 1930 by Sir Richard Paget. According to the \"ta-ta\" theory, humans made the earliest words by tongue movements that mimicked manual gestures, rendering them audible.\n", "Section::::Speculative scenarios.\n\nSection::::Speculative scenarios.:Early speculations.\n\nIn 1861, historical linguist Max Müller published a list of speculative theories concerning the origins of spoken language: These theories have been grouped under the category named invention hypotheses. These hypotheses were all meant to understand how the first language could have developed and postulate that human mimicry of natural sounds were how the first words with meaning were derived. \n", "Uncontroversially, monkeys, apes and humans, like many other animals, have evolved specialised mechanisms for producing \"sound\" for purposes of social communication. On the other hand, no monkey or ape uses its \"tongue\" for such purposes. Our species' unprecedented use of the tongue, lips and other moveable parts seems to place speech in a quite separate category, making its evolutionary emergence an intriguing theoretical challenge in the eyes of many scholars.\n\nSection::::Modality-independence.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00660	What does the "strength" of an earthquake acutally mean?	As you may know, an earthquake occurs when two slabs of rock move relative to one another over a surface called a "fault". Moment magnitude is simply the product of the area of the fault ruptured, the relative movement across the fault, and the stiffness of the rock (called the shear modulus). It is closely related to the energy released in the earthquake, but the relation is not trivial. The moment magnitude does not take into account any other factors, so ignores the depth, duration, size of area affected, and so on. The moment magnitude is an important quantity in academia because it is directly related to the fault rupture itself. However, it is not of huge benefit for working out impacts because other parameters like proximity to population centres, building quality, depth and surface geology (the waves that cause the damage are surface waves that only represent a tiny fraction of the total earthquake energy, and these waves can be amplified or suppressed depending on the geology at the surface) are a lot more important than the moment magnitude. You may be interested in the USGS's [PAGER program]( URL_0 ) which tries to take these factors into account to estimate the economic and humanitarian impact of earthquakes when they happen.	[ "The small table is a rough guide to the degrees of the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale. The colors and descriptive names shown here differ from those used on certain shake maps in other articles.\n\nSection::::Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.:Estimating site intensity and its use in seismic hazard assessment.\n", "The basis by which the U. S. Geological Survey (and other agencies) assigns intensities is nominally Wood and Neumann's \"Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale of 1931\". However, this is generally interpreted with the modifications summarized by Stover and Coffman because in the decades since 1931 it has been found that \"some criteria are more reliable than others as indicators of the level of ground shaking.\" Also, construction codes and methods have evolved, making much of built environment stronger; these make a given intensity of ground shaking seem weaker. And it is now recognized that some of the original criteria of the higher degrees (X and above), such as bent rails, ground fissures, landslides, etc., are \"related less to the level of ground shaking than to the presence of ground conditions susceptible to spectacular failure...\"\n", "The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following:\n\nSection::::Effects of earthquakes.:Shaking and ground rupture.\n\nShaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.\n", "The correlation between magnitude and intensity is far from total, depending upon several factors including the depth of the hypocenter, terrain, distance from the epicenter. For example, a 4.5 magnitude quake in Salta, Argentina, in 2011, that was 164 km deep had a maximum intensity of I, while a 2.2 magnitude event in Barrow in Furness, England, in 1865, about 1 km deep had a maximum intensity of VIII.\n", "Dozens of so-called intensity prediction equations have been published to estimate the macroseismic intensity at a location given the magnitude, source-to-site distance and, perhaps, other parameters (e.g. local site conditions). These are similar to ground motion prediction equations for the estimation of instrumental strong-motion parameters such as peak ground acceleration. A summary of intensity prediction equations is available. Such equations can be used to estimate the seismic hazard in terms of macroseismic intensity, which has the advantage of being more closely related to seismic risk than instrumental strong-motion parameters. \n\nSection::::Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.:Correlation with physical quantities.\n", "Damage to buildings is related to both peak ground velocity (PGA) and the duration of the earthquake – the longer high-level shaking persists, the greater the likelihood of damage.\n\nSection::::Comparison of instrumental and felt intensity.\n\nPeak ground acceleration provides a measurement of \"instrumental intensity\", that is, ground shaking recorded by seismic instruments. Other intensity scales measure \"felt intensity\", based on eyewitness reports, felt shaking, and observed damage. There is correlation between these scales, but not always absolute agreement since experiences and damage can be affected by many other factors, including the quality of earthquake engineering.\n\nGenerally speaking,\n", "A far more detailed and stringent MCE stands for \"maximum credible earthquake\", which is used in designing for skyscrapers and larger civil infrastructure, like dams, where structural failure could lead to other catastrophic consequences. These MCEs might require determining more than one specific earthquake event, depending on the variety of structures included.\n\nSection::::US seismic hazard maps.\n", "The Mercalli scale is not defined in terms of more rigorous, objectively quantifiable measurements such as shake amplitude, shake frequency, peak velocity, or peak acceleration. Human-perceived shaking and building damages are best correlated with peak acceleration for lower-intensity events, and with peak velocity for higher-intensity events.\n\nSection::::Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.:Comparison to the moment magnitude scale.\n", "Study of geographic areas combined with an assessment of historical earthquakes allows geologists to determine seismic risk and to create seismic hazard maps, which show the likely PGA values to be experienced in a region during an earthquake, with a probability of exceedance (PE). Seismic engineers and government planning departments use these values to determine the appropriate earthquake loading for buildings in each zone, with key identified structures (such as hospitals, bridges, power plants) needing to survive the maximum considered earthquake (MCE).\n", "Peak Ductility Demand is a quantity used particularly in the fields of architecture, geological engineering, and mechanical engineering. It is defined as the amount of ductile deformation a material must be able to withstand (when exposed to a stress) without brittle fracture or failure. This quantity is particularly useful in the analysis of failure of structures in response to earthquakes and seismic waves.\n\nIt has been shown that earthquake aftershocks can increase the peak ductility demand with respect to the mainshocks by up to 10%.\n", "Intensity scales empirically categorize the intensity of shaking based on the effects reported by untrained observers, and are adapted for the effects that might be observed in a particular region. In not requiring instrumental measurements, they are useful for estimating the magnitude and location of historical (pre-instrumental) earthquakes: the greatest intensities generally correspond to the epicentral area, and their degree and extent (possibly augmented with knowledge of local geological conditions) can be compared with other local earthquakes to estimate the magnitude.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "After many years of trying every possible manipulation of accelerometer-time histories, it turns out that the extremely simple peak ground velocity (PGV) provides the best correlation with damage. PGV merely expresses the peak of the first integration of the acceleration record. Accepted formulae now link PGV with MM Intensity. Note that the effect of soft soils gets built into the process, since one can expect that these foundation conditions will amplify the PGV significantly.\n\n\"ShakeMaps\" are produced by the United States Geological Survey, provide almost-real-time information about significant earthquake events, and can assist disaster-relief teams and other agencies.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Impact and response.:Scientific reaction.\n", "In a normal seismic hazard analyses intended for the public, that of a \"maximum considered earthquake\", or \"maximum considered event\" (MCE) for a specific area, is an earthquake that is expected to occur once in approximately 2,500 years; that is, it has a 2-percent probability of being exceeded in 50 years. The term is used specifically for general building codes, which people commonly occupy; building codes in many localities will require non-essential buildings to be designed for \"collapse prevention\" in an MCE, so that the building remains standing - allowing for safety and escape of occupants - rather than full structural survival of the building.\n", "In seismic engineering, the effective peak acceleration (EPA, the maximum ground acceleration to which a building responds) is often used, which tends to be ⅔ – ¾ the PGA.\n\nSection::::Seismic risk and engineering.\n", "PAGER impact estimates from the United States Geological Survey included a red alert level for initial shaking-related fatalities (35% chance of 1,000–10,000 fatalities, 27% chance of 10,000–100,000 fatalities) and an orange alert level for economic impact (35% chance of US$100 million–$1 billion, 26% chance of US$1–10 billion).\n", "The last part of the curve, perhaps the most important part, can be filled in by inference. This would come from studying similar geology throughout the world (using analogs to extend time), or by a study of fault mechanics. For example, large-scale studies have been conducted for Stable Continental Regions (SCR's), which are defined \"as regions of continental crust that have not experienced any major tectonism, magmatism, basement metamorphism or anorogenic intrusion since the early Cretaceous, and no rifting or major extension or transtension since the Paleogene.\"\n", "The peak horizontal acceleration (PHA) is the most commonly used type of ground acceleration in engineering applications. It is often used within earthquake engineering (including seismic building codes) and it is commonly plotted on seismic hazard maps. In an earthquake, damage to buildings and infrastructure is related more closely to ground motion, of which PGA is a measure, rather than the magnitude of the earthquake itself. For moderate earthquakes, PGA is a reasonably good determinant of damage; in severe earthquakes, damage is more often correlated with peak ground velocity.\n\nSection::::Geophysics.\n", "with being the rigidity (or resistance) of moving a fault with a surface areas of over an average dislocation (distance) of . (Modern formulations replace with the equivalent , known as the \"geometric moment\" or \"potency\"..) By this equation the \"moment\" determined from the double couple of the seismic waves can be related to the moment calculated from knowledge of the surface area of fault slippage and the amount of slip. In the case of the Niigata earthquake the dislocation estimated from the seismic moment reasonably approximated the observed dislocation.\n", "Intensity scales are based on the observed effects of the shaking, such as the degree to which people or animals were alarmed, and the extent and severity of damage to different kinds of structures or natural features. The maximal intensity observed, and the extent of the area where shaking was felt (see isosiesmal map, below), can be used to estimate the location and magnitude of the source earthquake; this is especially useful for historical earthquakes where there is no instrumental record.\n\nSection::::Ground shaking.\n", "Ground shaking can be caused in various ways (volcanic tremors, avalanches, large explosions, etc.), but shaking intense enough to cause damage is usually due to rupturing of the earth's crust known as earthquakes. The intensity of shaking depends on several factors: \n\nBULLET::::- The \"size\" or strength of the source event, such as measured by various seismic magnitude scales.\n\nBULLET::::- The type of seismic wave generated, and its orientation.\n\nBULLET::::- The depth of the event.\n\nBULLET::::- The distance from the source event.\n\nBULLET::::- Site response due to local geology\n", "The \"catastrophe\" and \"enormous catastrophe\" categories added by Cancani (XI and XII) are used so infrequently that current USGS practice is merge them into a single \"Extreme\" labeled \"X+\".\n\nSection::::Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.\n\nThe lower degrees of the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage.\n\nThis table gives Modified Mercalli scale intensities that are typically observed at locations near the epicenter of the earthquake.\n\nSection::::Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.:Correlation with magnitude.\n", "Seismic loading means application of an earthquake-generated excitation on a structure (or geo-structure). It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground, with adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami. The loading that is expected at a given location on the Earth's surface is estimated by engineering seismology. It is related to the seismic hazard of the location.\n\nSection::::Seismic performance.\n", "The largest probability decrease is on the San Jacinto fault, which went from 32% to 9%. Again this is due to multifault rupturing, but here the effect is fewer earthquakes, but they are more likely to be bigger (M ≥ 7.7) \n\nSection::::Methodology.\n", "Site response is especially important as certain conditions, such as unconsolidated sediments in a basin, can amplify ground motions as much as ten times.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02380	Why do modern Game Consoles (i.e: Xbox One) seem to have less games than their predecessors (i.e: Xbox 360) despite having the same game companies?	If you look at big publishers, they're moving their focus to making money via their new term "live services" (so to them, you'd ideally play destiny 2 for 10 years, constantly giving them money through their own currency). EA made $4 Billion last year just from "live services" eclipsing what they make from game sales. Maybe it's a fad, but it does give independent games an "in" for people who don't like that model (assuming they don't also follow the same model, as it's a money factory).	[ "Many media reports include exclusive hardware and software as points of consideration for consumers. They also draw attention to the relevance of such exclusive titles for the developer, as there may be a potential for greater sales volume when releasing on multiple platforms. Firms such as Microsoft, Sony and Nintendo also use exclusive titles to their advantage in order to create marketing strategies. Microsoft claimed that the \"Halo\" series, specifically \"Halo 3\", was a key \"payoff\" in their strategy when entering the console market with the Xbox and Xbox 360. It is not uncommon for big firms such as Sony and Microsoft to buy small publishers in order to preserve exclusivity for themselves.\n", "In 2004, the total U.S. sales of video game hardware, software and accessories was $9.9 billion compared with $10 billion in 2003. Total software sales rose 8 percent over the previous year to $6.2 billion. Additionally, sales of portable software titles exceeded $1 billion for the first time. Hardware sales were down 27 percent for the year due in part to shortages during the holiday season and price reductions from all systems.\n\nSection::::Trends.:Video game consoles.\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo GameCube\n\nBULLET::::- Xbox\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation 2\n\nBULLET::::- Sony released an internal hard drive for the PlayStation 2 on March 23\n", "Exclusivity is a topic used in discussions of the advantages and disadvantages of rival vendors in the video game market, and one which is used for marketing by vendors involved. Industry analysts generally agree that there is a correlation between availability of exclusive titles, and hardware sales.\n\nSection::::Usage in the video game industry.\n", "In addition, the industry is experiencing further significant change driven by convergence, with technology and player comfort being the two primary reasons for this wave of industry convergence. Video games and related content can now be accessed and played on a variety of media, including: cable television, dedicated consoles, handheld devices and smartphones, through social networking sites or through an ISP, through a game developer's website, and online through a game console and/or home or office personal computer. In fact, 12% of U.S. households already make regular use of game consoles for accessing video content provided by online services such as Hulu and Netflix. In 2012, for the first time, entertainment usage passed multiplayer game usage on Xbox, meaning that users spent more time with online video and music services and applications than playing multiplayer games. This rapid type of industry convergence has caused the distinction between video game console and personal computers to disappear. A game console with high-speed microprocessors attached to a television set is, for all intents and purposes, a computer and monitor.\n", "By the seventh generation of video game consoles (late 2000s) AAA game development on the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 game consoles typically cost in the low tens of millions of dollars ($15m to $20m) for a new game, with some sequels having even higher total budgets – for example \"Halo 3\" is estimated to have had a development cost of $30m, and a marketing budget of $40m. According to a whitepaper published for EA games (Dice Europe) the seventh generation saw a contraction in the number of video game developing houses creating AAA level titles, reducing from an estimated 125 to around 25, but with a roughly corresponding fourfold increase in staffing required for game development.\n", "During the seventh generation, AAA (or \"blockbuster\") games had marketing at a similar level to high-profile films, with television, billboard and newspaper advertising; a corresponding increasing reliance on sequels, reboots, and similarly franchised IP was also seen, in order to minimize risk. Costs at the end of the generation had risen as high as the hundreds of millions of dollars – the estimated cost of \"Grand Theft Auto V\" was approximately $265m. The same conditions also drove the growth of the indie game scene at the other end of the development spectrum, where lower costs enabled innovation and risk-taking.\n", "Computer games continue to lose ground to console video games with a US sales drop of 14% in 2003. (NPD) Total 2003 entertainment software sales in the United States grew slightly to $7 billion USD; console sales increased to $5.8 billion and computer games accounted for the remaining $1.2 billion. ESA (pdf)\n\nSection::::Trends.:Video game consoles.\n\nThe dominant video game consoles in 2003 were:\n\nBULLET::::- Sony's PlayStation 2\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo's GameCube\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft's Xbox\n\nSection::::Trends.:Handheld game systems.\n\nThe dominant handheld systems in 2003 were:\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo's Game Boy Advance\n", "BULLET::::- SNK created the Neo Geo CD as a much cheaper alternative to the AES, lowering the price of games considerably, from ~300$ to ~50$ . It's essentially an AES console with a media format change from cartridges to CDs, placing it in the fourth generation.\n\nSection::::Fifth generation (1993–2005).\n\nThere were a total of home video game consoles released in the fifth generation;\n\nSection::::Sixth generation (1998–2013).\n\nThere were a total of home video game consoles released in the sixth generation, and 2 cancelled platforms;\n\nSection::::Seventh generation (2005–2017).\n", "The industry wide adoption of high-definition graphics during the seventh generation of consoles greatly increased development teams' sizes and reduced the number of high-budget, high-quality titles under development. In 2013 Richard Hilleman of Electronic Arts estimated that only 25 developers were working on such titles for the eighth console generation, compared to 125 at the same point in the seventh generation-console cycle seven or eight years earlier.\n\nBy 2018, the United States video game industry had matched that of the Unites States film industry on basis of revenue, with both industries having made around that year.\n\nSection::::Economics.:Retail.\n", "Video game systems are an iconic example of platform ecosystems. Consoles need to launch with high quality games. Since it is difficult to induce game developers to make games for a console that has not yet been widely adopted, most game console producers must produce games themselves (or subsidize their production) to ensure that high quality games are available when the console launches. On the other hand, end users want more games than just those produced by the console producer, so console producers like Microsoft, Sony and Nintendo also license third-party developers to produce games for their consoles. They carefully screen the licensed games for quality and compatibility, and they may require the game developers to sign exclusivity agreements or to customize the games for the console.\n", "Despite the increased competition, the sales for major console manufacturers featured strong starts. The PlayStation 4 sold 1 million consoles within 24 hours in 2 countries, whilst the Xbox One sold 1 million consoles within 24 hours in 13 countries. As of April 2014, 7 million PlayStation 4 consoles have been sold worldwide, and 5 million Xbox One units have shipped, both outpacing sales of their seventh generation systems. In May, Nintendo announced that it had sold only 2.8 million Wii U consoles, falling far short of their forecasts.\n", "Section::::Trends.:Mergers.\n\nMany game publishing companies with a long established history merged with their competitors: Microsoft bought second-party developer Rare in 2002; Square merged with Enix to form Square Enix in 2003 and then later bought Taito; Sega merged with Sammy to form Sega Sammy Holdings in 2004; Konami bought a majority share of Hudson Soft; Namco merged with Bandai to form Bandai Namco Holdings in 2006.\n\nSection::::Software.\n\nSection::::Software.:Milestone titles.\n", "In recent times, video game consoles have often been sold at a loss while software and accessory sales are highly profitable to the console manufacturer. For this reason, console manufacturers aggressively protect their profit margin against piracy by pursuing legal action against carriers of modchips and jailbreaks. Particularly in the sixth generation era and beyond, Sony and Microsoft, with their PlayStation 2 and Xbox, had high manufacturing costs so they sold their consoles at a loss and aimed to make a profit from game sales. Nintendo had a different strategy with its GameCube, which was considerably less expensive to produce than its rivals, so it retailed at break-even or higher prices. In the following generation of consoles, both Sony and Microsoft have continued to sell their consoles, the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 respectively, at a loss, with the practice continuing in the most recent generation with the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One.\n", "The Xbox One has sold poorly in Japan, continuing the trend of Microsoft's previous consoles which have struggled against the local Sony and Nintendo. The Xbox One sold a total figure of 23,562 consoles within its launch week. By comparison, the Xbox 360 sold 62,000 consoles in Japan during its opening week in 2005. In the week ending June 14, 2015 the Xbox One sold just 100 consoles in Japan; in the same week the Wii U sold 16,413 consoles.\n", "By the end of 1983, consoles had become cheaper to develop and produce causing a saturation of consoles which in turn led to their libraries becoming saturated too. Due to the levels of games on the market prices were low and despite good sales figures, developers weren't making enough money from sales to justify staying in the market.\n", "The eighth generation of video game consoles (PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Wii U) saw further increases in costs and staffing – at Ubisoft, AAA game development involved 400 to 600 persons for open world games, split across multiple locations and countries.\n\nAAA game development has been identified as one environment where crunch time and other working pressures that negatively affect the employees are particularly evident.\n\nSection::::Related terms.\n", "The increase is largely due to the portable game market which counterbalanced sluggish console game sales. Delays, hardware shortages, and anticipation of next-generation video game consoles have been cited as reasoning for slow sales for both console games and console hardware. Console games and hardware dropped by 12% and 3% respectively.\n", "Similarly, 42% of adults own a game console such as an Xbox or PlayStation. 3% of adults 75 and older, 8% of the adults ages 66–74, 19% of adults ages 57–65, 38% of adults ages 47–56, 63% of adults ages 35–46 and 18–34 own a game console.\n", "Companies that are separate from the console manufacturer are considered to be \"third-party\" developers. They commonly have restrictions placed upon them and their games by the console manufacturers as a way to control the library of their consoles.\n\nSection::::Development.:Comparison between arcade, PC and handheld games.\n", "Section::::History.:2010s.\n\nWithin the 2010s, a larger shift towards casual and mobile gaming on smartphones and tablets became significant, in part due to a wider demographic of video game players drawing in more female and older players. Continuing from the previous decade, a large number of independently-developed video games emerged as games on par with those from major publishers, made easier to promote and distribute through digital storefronts on personal computers, consoles, and mobile store markets. All three major console manufacturers released next generation consoles: Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Wii U, and Nintendo Switch.\n\nSection::::Employment.\n\nSection::::Employment.:Education training.\n", "IHS Markit estimated that worldwide revenue related to console hardware, software, and services was $34.7 billion, down about 2.5% from 2015; hardware sales were down from $12.8 billion to $10.5 billion, while software and service revenues were up. Sony held about 57% of the market share during 2016, followed by Microsoft and Nintendo.\n", "In console gaming, Microsoft stepped forward first in November 2005 with the Xbox 360, and Sony followed in 2006 with the PlayStation 3, released in Europe in March 2007. Setting the technology standard for the generation, both featured high-definition graphics over HDMI connections, large hard disk-based secondary storage for save games and downloaded content, integrated networking, and a companion on-line gameplay and sales platform, with Xbox Live and the PlayStation Network respectively. Both were formidable systems that were the first to challenge personal computers in power (at launch), while offering a relatively modest price compared to them. While both cost more than most past consoles, the Xbox 360 enjoyed a substantial price edge, selling for either $300 or $400 depending on model, while the PS3 launched with models priced at $500 and $600. Coming with Blu-ray Disc and Wi-Fi, the PlayStation 3 was the most costly game console on the market since Panasonic's version of the 3DO, which retailed for little under $700. The PlayStation 3's high price led to the console being defeated by the Xbox 360 (also resulting in Xbox 360 gaining market leadership until 2008), thus breaking the streak of dominance that the PlayStation brand once had, which was started in 1994 with the success of the original PlayStation. However, the slim model and the PlayStation Move controllers caused a massive recovery for PlayStation 3, and by 2013 the console outsold Xbox 360.\n", "Being able to purchase new, better and different games for the same console at a reduced price, instead of several identical consoles that occupied more space and a connection on the TV, lead to the fall of dedicated consoles, in favor of better technologies. The transition was abrupt, so manufacturers scrambled to replace or sell aging tech.\n", "Each of these consoles had its own library of games produced by the console maker, and many had large libraries of games produced by third-party developers. In 1982, analysts noticed trends of saturation, mentioning that the amount of new software coming in will only allow a few big hits, that retailers had too much floor space for systems, and that price drops for home computers could result in an industry shakeup.\n", "While the original Xbox sold poorly in Japan, selling just 500,000 units while it was on the market (between 2002 and 2005), the Xbox 360 performed slightly better, selling 1.5 million units from 2005 to 2011.\n\n\"Edge\" magazine reported in August 2011 that initially lacklustre and subsequently falling sales in Japan, where Microsoft had been unable to make serious inroads into the dominance of domestic rivals Sony and Nintendo, had led to retailers scaling back and in some cases discontinuing sales of the Xbox 360 completely.\n\nSection::::Timeline.\n" ]	[ "Because modern consoles have the same game companies as their predecessors, they shouldn't have fewer games than the earlier consoles." ]	[ "Companies have opted to make more money off of live services than the video games themselves, resulting in less games." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because modern consoles have the same game companies as their predecessors, they shouldn't have fewer games than the earlier consoles.", "Because modern consoles have the same game companies as their predecessors, they shouldn't have fewer games than the earlier consoles." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Companies have opted to make more money off of live services than the video games themselves, resulting in less games.", "Companies have opted to make more money off of live services than the video games themselves, resulting in less games." ]
2018-10746	If the Scandinavian languages (Danish, Norwegian & Swedish) are mutually intelligible, why are they considered distinct languages instead of different dialects of the same language?	Its kind of a semantic argument, you could make the same point for Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. while it is a partially political distinction the many thing is that mutually intelligible is really hard to prove as a set concept. The main theory being that just because you can understand a few words doesn't mean you can hold a conversation. and there is a fuzzy line in there somewhere that splits dialects and languages. I wish there was a better answer but there is no golden rule.	[ "Some linguists claim that mutual intelligibility is, ideally at least, the primary criterion separating languages from dialects. On the other hand, speakers of closely related languages can often communicate with each other; thus there are varying degrees of mutual intelligibility, and often other criteria are also used. As an example, in the case of a linear dialect continuum that shades gradually between varieties, where speakers near the center can understand the varieties at both ends, but speakers at one end cannot understand the speakers at the other end, the entire chain is often considered a single language. If the central varieties then die out and only the varieties at both ends survive, they may then be reclassified as two languages, even though no actual language change has occurred.\n", "In addition, political and social conventions often override considerations of mutual intelligibility. For example, the varieties of Chinese are often considered a single language even though there is usually no mutual intelligibility between geographically separated varieties. Another similar example would be varieties of Arabic. In contrast, there is often significant intelligibility between different Scandinavian languages, but as each of them has its own standard form, they are classified as separate languages. There is also significant intelligibility between Thai languages of different regions of Thailand.\n", "Northern Germanic languages spoken in Scandinavia form a dialect continuum where two furthermost dialects have almost no mutual intelligibility. As such, spoken Danish and Swedish normally have low mutual intelligibility, but Swedes in the Öresund region (including Malmö and Helsingborg), across a strait from the Danish capital Copenhagen, understand Danish somewhat better, largely due to the proximity of the region to Danish-speaking areas. While Norway was under Danish rule, the Bokmål written standard of Norwegian originates from Dano-Norwegian, a koiné language that evolved among the urban elite in Norwegian cities during the later years of the union. Additionally, Norwegian assimilated a considerable amount of Danish vocabulary as well as traditional Danish expressions. As a consequence, spoken mutual intelligibility is not reciprocal.\n", "A standard variety together with its dependent varieties is commonly considered a \"language\", with the dependent varieties called \"dialects\" of the language, even if the standard is mutually intelligible with another standard from the same continuum. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, are often cited as examples. Conversely, a language defined in this way may include local varieties that are mutually unintelligible, such as the German dialects.\n\nThe choice of standard is often determined by a political boundary, which may cut across a dialect continuum.\n", "Within this framework, W. A. Stewart defined a \"language\" as an autonomous variety together with all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it, noting that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by Charles A. Ferguson and John J. Gumperz in 1960.\n\nSimilarly, a heteronomous variety may be considered a \"dialect\" of a language defined in this way.\n\nIn these terms, Danish and Norwegian, though mutually intelligible to a large degree, are considered separate languages.\n\nIn the framework of Heinz Kloss, these are described as languages by \"ausbau\" (development) rather than by \"abstand\" (separation).\n", "One criterion, which is often considered to be purely linguistic, is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other; otherwise, they are said to be different languages. However, this definition becomes problematic in the case of dialect continua, in which it may be the case that dialect B is mutually intelligible with both dialect A and dialect C but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible with each other. In this case, the criterion of mutual intelligibility makes it impossible to decide whether A and C are dialects of the same language or not.\n", "The Germanic languages and dialects of Scandinavia are a classic example of a dialect continuum, from Swedish dialects in Finland, to Swedish, Gutnish, Elfdalian, Scanian, Danish, Norwegian (Bokmål and Nynorsk), Faroese, Icelandic, with many local dialects of those languages. The Continental North Germanic languages (Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian) are close enough and intelligible enough for some to consider them to be dialects of the same language, but the Insular ones (Icelandic and Faroese) are not immediately intelligible to the other North Germanic speakers.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germanic languages.:Continental West Germanic continuum.\n", "As a result, speakers on either side of the boundary may use almost identical varieties, but treat them as dependent on different standards, and thus part of different \"languages\".\n\nThe various local dialects then tend to be leveled towards their respective standard varieties, disrupting the previous dialect continuum.\n\nExamples include the boundaries between Dutch and German, between Czech, Slovak and Polish, and between Belarusian and Ukrainian.\n\nThe choice may be a matter of national, regional or religious identity, and may be controversial.\n", "Linkages are formed when languages emerged historically from the diversification of an earlier dialect continuum. Its members may have diverged despite sharing subsequent innovations, or such dialects may have come into contact and so converged. In any dialect continuum, innovations are shared between neighbouring dialects in intersecting patterns. The patterns of intersecting innovations continue to be evident as the dialect continuum turns into a linkage.\n", "Even within a single sprachraum, there can be different, but closely related, languages, otherwise known as dialect continua. A classic example is the varieties of Chinese, which can be mutually unintelligible in spoken form, but are typically considered the same language (or, at least, closely related) and have a unified non-phonetic writing system. Arabic has a similar situation, but its writing system (an abjad) reflects the pronunciation and grammar of a common literary language (Modern Standard Arabic).\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Germanic languages.\n\nBULLET::::- Anglosphere (the English-speaking world)\n\nBULLET::::- Dutch Language Union\n\nBULLET::::- List of territorial entities where German is an official language\n", "However, many groups of languages are partly mutually intelligible, i.e. most speakers of one language find it relatively easy to achieve some degree of understanding in the related language(s). Often the languages are genetically related, and they are likely to be similar to each other in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, or other features.\n", "For example, the Scanian dialects spoken at the southern tip of Sweden, were considered dialects of Danish when the area was part of the kingdom of Denmark.\n\nA few decades after the area was transferred to Sweden, these varieties were generally regarded as dialects of Swedish, although the dialects themselves had not changed.\n\nEfforts to achieve autonomy are often connected with nationalist movements and the establishment of nation states.\n\nExamples of varieties that have gained autonomy are Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian from Serbo-Croatian and Afrikaans, which was formerly considered a dialect of Dutch.\n", "BULLET::::- Assyrian Neo-Aramaic: Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Lishana Deni, Hértevin, Bohtan Neo-Aramaic, and Senaya – the standard forms are structurally the same language and thus mutually intelligible to a significant degree. As such, these varieties are occasionally considered dialects of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. They are only considered separate languages for geographical, political and religious reasons.\n\nBULLET::::- Catalan: Valencian – the standard forms are structurally the same language and share the vast majority of their vocabulary, and hence highly mutually intelligible. They are considered separate languages only for political reasons.\n", "For example, although Germanic varieties spoken on either side of the Dutch–German border are very similar, those spoken in the Netherlands are oriented towards Standard Dutch, whereas those spoken in Germany are oriented towards Standard German.\n\nWithin this framework, a \"language\" may be defined as an autonomous variety together with all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it.\n\nStewart noted that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by Charles A. Ferguson and John J. Gumperz in 1960.\n\nIn these terms, Danish and Norwegian, though mutually intelligible to a large degree, are considered separate languages.\n", "Section::::Cognate languages.\n\nIn one common case, two closely related languages or language varieties are in direct competition, one weaker, the other stronger. Speakers of the stronger language may characterize the weaker language as a \"dialect\" of the strong language, with the implication that it has no independent existence. In response, defenders of the other language will go to great lengths to prove that their language is equally autonomous.\n", "Similarly, in the German speaking area and Italy, standard German or Italian speakers may have great difficulty understanding the \"dialects\" from regions other than their own, but virtually all \"dialect\" speakers learn the standard languages in school and from the media.\n\nSection::::List of mutually intelligible languages.\n\nBelow is an \"incomplete\" list of fully and partially mutually intelligible varieties sometimes considered languages.\n\nSection::::List of mutually intelligible languages.:Written and spoken forms.\n\nBULLET::::- Afrikaans: Dutch (partially)\n\nBULLET::::- Assyrian Neo-Aramaic: Turoyo (high in written form; in spoken form partially and asymmetrically)\n\nBULLET::::- Astur-Leonese: Spanish, Galician and Portuguese (high)\n", "The process of standardization often involves one variety of a language taking precedence over other social and regional dialects of a language. Another approach, where dialects are mutually intelligible, is to introduce a poly-phonemic written form that is intended to represent all dialects of a language adequately but with no standard spoken form. If one variety of a language is chosen, that variety comes to be perceived as supra-dialectal and the 'best' form of the language.\n", "The other major language family in Europe besides Indo-European are the Uralic languages. The Sami languages, sometimes mistaken for a single language, are a dialect continuum, albeit with some disconnections like between North, Skolt and Inari Sami. The Baltic-Finnic languages spoken around the Gulf of Finland form a dialect continuum. Thus, although Finnish and Estonian are separate languages, there is no definite linguistic border or isogloss that separates them. Recognition of this fact is however more difficult today because many of the intervening languages have declined or gone extinct.\n\nSection::::Middle East.\n\nSection::::Middle East.:Turkic.\n", "The Romance languages—Galician/Portuguese, Spanish, Sicilian, Catalan, Occitan/Provençal, French, Sardinian, Romanian, Romansh, Friulan, other Italian, French, and Ibero-Romance dialects, and others—form another well-known continuum, with varying degrees of mutual intelligibility.\n", "Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which all the Italian languages are mutually unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages; some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum are more or less mutually intelligible. For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely standard Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a Sicilian-speaking individual. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with a Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than with a standard Italian or Sicilian speaker. Meanwhile, a Sicilian-speaking person would have a greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.\n", "The status of \"language\" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages in China, despite their mutual unintelligibility.\n", "Dialectology is the study of dialects and their geographic or social distribution. Traditionally, dialectologists study the variety of language used within a particular speech community, a group of people who share a set of norms or conventions for language use. More recently, sociolinguists have adopted the concept of the community of practice, a group of people who develop shared knowledge and shared norms of interaction, as the social group within which dialects develop and change. Sociolinguists Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet explain: \"Some communities of practice may develop more distinctive ways of speaking than others. Thus, it is within communities of practice that linguistic influence may spread within and among speech communities.\"\n", "These variants do differ slightly, as is the case with other polycentric languages (English, German, French, Portuguese, and Spanish, among others), but not to a degree which would justify considering them as different languages. This fact suggests by no means a re-establishment of a common state, since standard variants of all other polycentric languages are spoken in different countries, e.g. English in the US, UK, Australia, and Canada, German in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. The above examples demonstrate that the pluricentricity of language does not imply linguistic unification. Each nation can codify its variant on its own.\n", "By many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. However, because of several hundred years of sometimes quite intense rivalry between Denmark and Sweden, including a long series of wars from the 16th to 18th centuries, and the nationalist ideas that emerged during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the languages have separate orthographies, dictionaries, grammars, and regulatory bodies. Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish are thus from a linguistic perspective more accurately described as a dialect continuum of Scandinavian (North Germanic), and some of the dialects, such as those on the border between Norway and Sweden, especially parts of Bohuslän, Dalsland, western Värmland, western Dalarna, Härjedalen, Jämtland, and Scania, could be described as intermediate dialects of the national standard languages.\n", "Section::::Structure of a family.:Dialect continua.\n\nSome closely knit language families, and many branches within larger families, take the form of dialect continua in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it possible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individual languages within the family. However, when the differences between the speech of different regions at the extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no mutual intelligibility between them, as occurs in Arabic, the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language. \n" ]	[ "Mutually intelligible languages means one can hold a conversation in that other language." ]	[ "Being able to understand a few words in a mutually intelligible language does not mean one can hold a conversation." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mutually intelligible languages means one can hold a conversation in that other language.", "Mutually intelligible languages means one can hold a conversation in that other language." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Being able to understand a few words in a mutually intelligible language does not mean one can hold a conversation.", "Being able to understand a few words in a mutually intelligible language does not mean one can hold a conversation." ]
2018-19419	If I use a plastic straw and put it in the trash, how does it make it to the ocean.	Most developed countries dispose of their trash in relatively responsible ways. The biggest problem is underdeveloped countries that don't have a waste disposal infrastructure that end up throwing their garbage in rivers that flow into the ocean.	[ "Plastic debris from inland states come from two main sources: ordinary litter and materials from open dumps and landfills that blow or wash away to inland waterways and wastewater outflows. The refuse finds its way from inland waterways, rivers, streams and lakes to the ocean. Though ocean and coastal area cleanups are important, it is crucial to address plastic waste that originates from inland and landlocked states.\n\nAt the systems level, there are various ways to reduce the amount of debris entering our waterways:\n\nBULLET::::- Improve waste transportation to and from sites by utilizing closed container storage and shipping\n", "Microplastics pollution are a concern if plastic waste is improperly dumped. If plastic straws are improperly disposed of, they can be transported via water into soil ecosystems, and others, where they break down into smaller, more hazardous pieces than the original plastic straw.\n", "Continental plastic litter enters the ocean largely through storm-water runoff, flowing into watercourses or directly discharged into coastal waters. Plastic in the ocean has been shown to follow ocean currents which eventually form into what is known as Great Garbage Patches. Knowledge of the routes that plastic follows in ocean currents comes from accidental container drops from ship carriers. For example, in May 1990 The Hansa Carrier, sailing from Korea to the United States, broke apart due to a storm, ultimately resulting in thousands of dumped shoes; these eventually started showing up on the U.S western coast, and Hawaii.\n", "Over the course of the past 50 years, plastics have increasingly become a large part of people's lives all around the world. Due to the durability, versatility, and low cost of plastics, consumers and industries utilize plastics for a variety of products. However, with increased production and consumption of plastics comes an increase in plastic waste that inevitably makes its way into the ocean. Scientists estimate that there is over 150 million tons of plastic residing in the World's oceans today.\n", "In June 2017, researchers published a paper in \"Nature Communications\", with a model of the river plastic input into the ocean. Their model estimates that between 1.15 and 2.41 million metric tonnes of plastic enter the world's oceans every year, with 86% of the input stemming from rivers in Asia.\n", "Almost 20% of plastic debris that pollutes ocean water, which translates to 5.6 million tons, comes from ocean-based sources. MARPOL, an international treaty, \"imposes a complete ban on the at-sea disposal of plastics\". Merchant ships expel cargo, sewage, used medical equipment, and other types of waste that contain plastic into the ocean. In the United States, the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987 prohibits discharge of plastics in the sea, including from naval vessels. Naval and research vessels eject waste and military equipment that are deemed unnecessary. Pleasure crafts release fishing gear and other types of waste, either accidentally or through negligent handling. The largest ocean-based source of plastic pollution is discarded fishing gear (including traps and nets), estimated to be up to 90% of plastic debris in some areas.\n", "BULLET::::- Maciel Cicchetti, Argentina. Coxswain. 2nd Volvo Ocean Race.\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Carlin, Ireland. Reporter.\n\nSection::::2014-2015 Volvo Ocean Race.:Grounding.\n", "On September 9, 2018, The Ocean Cleanup launched the world’s first ocean cleanup system, 001 aka “Wilson”, which is being deployed to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. System 001 is 600 meters long that acts as a U-shaped skiff that uses natural oceanic currents to concentrate plastic and other debris on the ocean’s surface into a confined area for extraction by vessels. The project has been met with criticism from oceanographers and plastic pollution experts, though it has seen wide public support.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bioaccumulation\n\nBULLET::::- Biodegradable plastic\n\nBULLET::::- Biodegradation\n\nBULLET::::- Endocrine disruption\n\nBULLET::::- Great Pacific garbage patch\n", "Section::::Effects of plastic on oceans.:Land-based sources of ocean plastic pollution.\n\nEstimates for the contribution of land-based plastic vary widely. While one study estimated that a little over 80% of plastic debris in ocean water comes from land-based sources, responsible for every year. In 2015, Jambeck et al. calculated that of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010, with 4.8 to entering the ocean - a percentage of only up to 5%.\n", "The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) launched its \"Trash-Free Waters\" initiative in 2013 to prevent single-use plastic wastes from ending up in waterways and ultimately the ocean. EPA collaborates with the United Nations Environment Programme–Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP) and the Peace Corps to reduce and also remove trash in the Caribbean Sea. EPA has also funded various projects in the San Francisco Bay Area including one that is aimed at reducing the use of single-use plastics such as disposable cups, spoons and straws, from three University of California campuses.\n", "BULLET::::- Marcus Eriksen et al. (2014) reported that 92% of marine plastic (by count) is smaller than microplastics and would escape the system. Microplastic and synthetic fibers have been discovered frozen into ice cores, abundant on the sea floor, and on every beach worldwide. Along the way, it passes through the bodies of billions of organisms. The study shows that plastic mass is mainly found in the two larger size classes (86%). The project intends to capture pieces before they disintegrate too far.\n", "One study shows estimates of 5.25 trillion individual pieces of microplastcs, weighing nearly 267,000 tons are currently floating in our oceans. It has been estimated that since being invented, 8.3 billion tons of plastics has been produced, with 80% (6.64 billion tons) being dumped in landfills, on land, and in the oceans. Plastic particles don't biodegrade or break down and instead just fragment into smaller pieces. If current trends in the amount of plastics flowing into our oceans continues, combined with overfishing, will result in plastics outweighing fish in the oceans by 2050.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Great Pacific garbage patch\n", "Techniques for collecting and removing marine (or riverine) debris include the use of debris skimmer boats \"(pictured)\". Devices such as these can be used where floating debris presents a danger to navigation. For example, the US Army Corps of Engineers removes 90 tons of \"drifting material\" from San Francisco Bay every month. The Corps has been doing this work since 1942, when a seaplane carrying Admiral Chester W. Nimitz collided with a piece of floating debris and sank, costing the life of its pilot. Once debris becomes \"beach litter\", collection by hand and specialized beach-cleaning machines are used to gather the debris.\n", "BULLET::::- Gulf of California; an interview with Charles J. Moore about the Great Pacific garbage patch of plastic, chemical sludge (chemicals like flame retardants, pesticides, herbicides, dioxins among other are often hydrophobic and thus are attracted by the plastic) and other waste which are affecting the sea life, and by the food chain the humans.\n\nBULLET::::- Plymouth in England; the microparticles of plastic are affecting shellfish.\n\nBULLET::::- Great Cumbrae in Scotland; the microparticles of plastic are affecting crabs, and shrimp (up to 83%).\n", "Section::::Types of pollution.:Plastic debris.\n\nMarine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic – a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II. The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as .\n\nIn a study published by \"Environmental Science & Technology\", Schmidt \"et al\" (2017) calculated that the Yangtze, Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, Nile, Ganges, Pearl River, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong \"transport 88–95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea.\"\n", "The construction of the JUNK Raft began in April 2008 and was finished the following month. The huge undertaking of constructing a seaworthy raft from \"junk\" was aided by volunteers from the environmental education programs of Bell Elementary School, Green Ambassadors, Muse Elementary School, Santa Monica High School, and Westbridge School for Girls. The volunteers lent a hand by cleaning bottles, fastening bottle caps, and stuffing them into the recycled fisherman's net pontoon forms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Son of Town Hall\", junk raft that crossed the Atlantic, made by Poppa Neutrino\n", "BULLET::::- The approach by itself cannot solve the whole problem. Plastic in the oceans is spread far beyond the gyres; experts estimate that less than 5% of all the plastic pollution which enters the oceans makes its way into any of the garbage patches. Much of the plastic that does is not floating at the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- The 5 Gyres Institute criticized the Environmental Impact Report and did not examine alternatives, such as having fishermen recover plastic pollution. Slat responded that conventional methods like vessels and nets would be inefficient in terms of time and costs.\n", "Shipping has significantly contributed to marine pollution. Some statistics indicate that in 1970, commercial shipping fleets around the world dumped over 23,000 tons of plastic waste into the marine environment. In 1988, an international agreement (MARPOL 73/78, Annex V) prohibited the dumping of waste from ships into the marine environment. In the United States, the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987 prohibits discharge of plastics in the sea, including from naval vessels.. However, shipping remains a dominant source of plastic pollution, having contributed around 6.5 million tons of plastic in the early 1990s. Research has shown that approximately 10% of the plastic found on the beaches in Hawaii are nurdles. In one incident on July 24, 2012, 150 tonnes of nurdles and other raw plastic material spilled from a shipping vessel off the coast near Hong Kong after a major storm. This waste from the Chinese company Sinopec was reported to have piled up in large quantities on beaches. While this is a large incident of spillage, researchers speculate that smaller accidents also occur and further contribute to marine microplastic pollution.\n", "In 2011, at age 16, Slat came across more plastic than fish while diving in Greece. He decided to devote a high school project for deeper investigation into ocean plastic pollution and why it was considered impossible to clean up. He later came up with the idea to build a passive system, using the circulating ocean currents to his advantage, which he presented at a TEDx talk in Delft in 2012.\n", "The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other countries combined. The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, Nile, Ganges, Pearl River, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong \"transport 88–95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea.\"\n", "Section::::Transport.:Ship.\n\nAbout 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container, and the largest container ships can carry over 19,000 TEU (Twenty-Foot Equivalent, or how many 20 foot containers can fit on a ship). Between 2011 and 2013, an average of 2,683 containers were reported lost at sea. Other estimates go up to 10,000; of these 10% are expected to contain chemicals toxic to marine life.\n\nSection::::Transport.:Plane.\n", "Plastic pollution on land poses a threat to the plants and animals - including humans who are based on the land. Estimates of the amount of plastic concentration on land are between four and twenty three times that of the ocean. The amount of plastic poised on the land is greater and more concentrated than that in the water. Mismanaged plastic waste ranges from 60 percent in East Asia and Pacific to one percent in North America. The percentage of mismanaged plastic waste reaching the ocean annually and thus becoming plastic marine debris is between one third and one half the total mismanaged waste for that year.\n", "On the sea, the removal of artificial debris (i.e. plastics) is still in its infancy. However some projects have been started which used ships with nets (Kaisei and New Horizon) to catch some plastics, primarily for research purposes. Another method to gather artificial litter has been proposed by Boyan Slat. He suggested using platforms with arms to gather the debris, situated inside the current of gyres.\n", "During the last two years, San Pedro La Laguna passed a town ordinance to ban the use of plastic, which includes straws and plastic bags. The citizens have opted to utilize readily made textiles, baskets, etc. for daily use during their shopping trips. It is evident, that may are doing their part without pay, as part of their effort, long time citizens take trips on their canoes to extract some 700 lbs. of trash from their lake each day.Video de San Pedro La Laguna\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Civil War.\n", "In 2008 the Foundation organized the JUNK Raft project, to \"creatively raise awareness about plastic debris and pollution in the ocean\", and specifically the Great Pacific Garbage Patch trapped in the North Pacific Gyre, by sailing 2,600 miles across the Pacific Ocean on a raft made from an old Cessna 310 aircraft fuselage and six pontoons filled with 15,000 old plastic bottles. Crewed by Dr. Marcus Eriksen of the Foundation, and film-maker Joel Paschal, the raft set off from Long Beach, California on 1 June 2008, arriving in Honolulu, Hawaii on 28 August 2008. On the way, they gave valuable water supplies to Ocean rower Roz Savage, also on an environmental awareness voyage.\n" ]	[ "Plastic thrown in the trash will make its way to the ocean.", "Plastic thrown in the trash will make its way to the ocean.", "Plastic thrown in the trash will make its way to the ocean." ]	[ "Plastic in the trash will only go to the ocean in underdeveloped nations that don't dispose of their waste properly. ", "Plastic in the trash will only go to the ocean in underdeveloped nations that don't dispose of their waste properly. ", "Plastic in the trash will only go to the ocean in underdeveloped nations that don't dispose of their waste properly. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Plastic thrown in the trash will make its way to the ocean.", "Plastic thrown in the trash will make its way to the ocean.", "Plastic thrown in the trash will make its way to the ocean.", "Plastic thrown in the trash will make its way to the ocean." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Plastic in the trash will only go to the ocean in underdeveloped nations that don't dispose of their waste properly. ", "Plastic in the trash will only go to the ocean in underdeveloped nations that don't dispose of their waste properly. ", "Plastic in the trash will only go to the ocean in underdeveloped nations that don't dispose of their waste properly. ", "Plastic in the trash will only go to the ocean in underdeveloped nations that don't dispose of their waste properly. " ]
2018-01953	How do air-conditioners produce cold air when it's so hot outside?	An air conditioner can work as long as the compressed gas in the outside part can condense into a liquid. Let's look at how an air conditioner works. The science behind it is that when you squash a gas, it gets hot, and when you allow a gas to expand, it gets cold. You can feel this when you pump up a bike tyre - the pump gets hot as the gas is squashed. You can feel the other way when you use deodorant - the compressed gas expands as you release it, and becomes cold. So, an air conditioner has an amount of gas inside it. The pump squashes that gas, and it gets hot. This hot gas goes to the coils outside. As long as the outside is not as hot as the gas - 65°C is typical - it cools down, giving up that heat to the air outside. Provided it can give up enough heat, the gas condenses to a hot liquid, because of the high pressure. Then this liquid then passes through a valve that drops the pressure. Some of it instantly evaporates, and making that liquid evaporate (or, boil) takes heat energy. Just like that deodorant, the temperature of it drops. Now it is cold, and it is passed through the coils on the inside. Here it pulls heat out of the air inside the room, and this heat is used to boil off the liquid, back into a gas. This gas then flows back to the pump, to be compresed again, which heats it up, and it gives up the heat pulled from the inside of the room (together with heat from the work done by the pump) in the outside coils again. So as long as it is not too hot for the high pressure, hot gas to condense to a liquid, the air conditioner will work fine.	[ "Energy recovery systems sometimes utilize heat recovery ventilation or energy recovery ventilation systems that employ heat exchangers or enthalpy wheels to recover sensible or latent heat from exhausted air. This is done by transfer of energy to the incoming outside fresh air.\n\nSection::::Energy efficiency.:Air conditioning energy.\n", "Section::::Operating principles.:Free cooling.\n", "The tempering of incoming fresh air is done by a heat or energy recovery core. In this case, the core is made of aluminum or plastic plates. Humidity levels are adjusted through the transferring of water vapor. This is done with a rotating wheel either containing a desiccant material or permeable plates.\n", "It is likely that Robert Stirling's air engine of 1818, which incorporated his innovative \"Economiser\" (patented in 1816) was the first air engine put to practical work. The economiser, now known as the regenerator, stored heat from the hot portion of the engine as the air passed to the cold side, and released heat to the cooled air as it returned to the hot side. This innovation improved the efficiency of Stirling's engine and should be present in any air engine that is properly called a Stirling engine.\n", "Section::::Working principle.\n", "In his patent of 1759, Henry Wood was the first to document the powering an engine by the changing volume of air as it changed temperature. George Cayley was the first to build a working model in 1807. The Reverend Robert Stirling is generally credited with the \"invention\" of the hot air engine in 1816 for his development of a \"regenerator\" which conserves heat energy as the air moves between the hot and cold sides of the engine. Technically, not all hot air engines utilize regenerators, but the term hot air engine and Stirling engine are sometimes used interchangeably.\n", "Section::::Categories.:Forced-air.\n", "A newer version from Nibe Sweden the F730 takes in additional air from outdoors to the above process - this is a more powerful type of EAHP with an inverter controlled compressor. Out put from the heat pump can vary from 1.1 to 6 kW and the discharged air from this unit can be as low as -15 °C\n\nSection::::NIBE.\n\nF200P \n\nBULLET::::- Discontinued\n\nF360P \n\nBULLET::::- Discontinued\n\nF205 F370 F470\n\nF750\n\nF730\n\nSection::::Issues.\n", "Section::::Types.:Fixed plate heat exchangers.\n", "In cooling mode the cycle is similar, but the outdoor coil is now the condenser and the indoor coil (which reaches a lower temperature) is the evaporator. This is the familiar mode in which air conditioners operate.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nMilestones:\n\nBULLET::::- 1748: William Cullen demonstrates artificial refrigeration.\n\nBULLET::::- 1834: Jacob Perkins builds a practical refrigerator with diethyl ether.\n\nBULLET::::- 1852: Lord Kelvin describes the theory underlying heat pumps.\n\nBULLET::::- 1855–1857: Peter von Rittinger develops and builds the first heat pump.\n", "Heat pumps, refrigerators and air conditioners use work to move heat from a colder to a warmer place, so their function is the opposite of a heat engine. The work energy (\"W\") that is applied to them is converted into heat, and the sum of this energy and the heat energy that is moved from the cold reservoir (\"Q\") is equal to the total heat energy added to the hot reservoir (\"Q\")\n", "BULLET::::- Open system: Outside air is drawn from a filtered air intake (Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value MERV 8+ air filter is recommended). The cooling tubes are typically long straight tubes into the home. An open system combined with energy recovery ventilation can be nearly as efficient (80-95%) as a closed loop, and ensures that entering fresh air is filtered and tempered.\n", "The fluid from the open or closed loop is circulated through a heat pump. The refrigerant in the heat pump either extracts heat from the fluid or rejects heat to it, cooling or warming the refrigerant. When heat is absorbed by the refrigerant, the heat pump boosts its temperature and sends it to the air handler to circulate hot air to heat the home and (optionally) to a hot water heater to produce domestic hot water. The now cooled fluid goes back into the closed loop or, in an open loop system, is sent back to its source.\n", "Section::::Products.\n\nIQAir currently has products that fall into four product categories:\n\n1. Portable room air purifiers\n", "The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.\n\nSection::::Installation types.:Portable units.:Portable split system.\n", "Throughout the cooling season, the system works to cool and dehumidify the incoming, outside air. This is accomplished by the system taking the rejected heat and sending it into the exhaust airstream. Subsequently, this air cools the condenser coil at a lower temperature than if the rejected heat had not entered the exhaust airstream. During the heating seasons, the system works in reverse. Instead of discharging the heat into the exhaust airstream, the system draws heat from the exhaust airstream in order to pre-heat the incoming air. At this stage, the air passes through a primary unit and then into a space. With this type of system, it is normal, during the cooling seasons, for the exhaust air to be cooler than the ventilation air and, during the heating seasons, warmer than the ventilation air. It is for this reason the system works very efficiently and effectively. The coefficient of performance (COP) will increase as the conditions become more extreme (i.e., more hot and humid for cooling and colder for heating).\n", "Parkinson and Crossley, English patent, 1828 came up with their own hot air engine. In this engine the air-chamber is partly exposed, by submergence in cold water, to external cold, and its upper portion is heated by steam. An internal vessel moves up and down in this chamber, and in so doing displaces the air, alternately exposing it to the hot and cold influences of the cold water and the hot steam, changing its temperature and expansive condition. The fluctuations cause the reciprocation of a piston in a cylinder to whose ends the air-chamber is alternately connected.\n", "Section::::Efficiency ratings.\n\nThe 'Efficiency' of air source heat pumps is measured by the Coefficient of performance (COP). A COP of 3 means the heat pump produces 3 units of heat energy for every 1 unit of electricity it consumes. Within temperature ranges of −3 °C to 10 °C, the COP for many machines is fairly stable at 3–3.5.\n", "Some manufacturers produce \"cycling dryers\". These store a cold mass that cools the air when the compressor is OFF. When the refrigeration compressor runs, the large mass takes much longer to cool, so the compressor runs longer, and stays OFF longer. These units operate at lower dew points, typically in the 35–40 °F range. When selected with the optional \"cold coalescing filter\", these units can deliver compressed air with lower dew points. Non-cycling dryers use a hot gas by pass valve to prevent the dryer from icing up.\n", "The technology is similar to a refrigerator or freezer or air conditioning unit: the different effect is due to the physical location of the different system components. Just as the pipes on the back of a refrigerator become warm as the interior cools, so an ASHP warms the inside of a building whilst cooling the outside air.\n\nThe main components of an air-source heat pump are:\n\nBULLET::::- An outdoor heat exchanger coil, which extracts heat from ambient air\n", "Section::::Usage.\n", "If dehumidification is required, then the cooling coil is employed to \"over-cool\" to that the dew point is reached and condensation occurs. A heater coil placed after the cooling coil re-heats the air (therefore known as a \"re-heat coil\") to the desired supply temperature. This process has the effect of reducing the relative humidity level of the supply air.\n", "Section::::History.:Electrical air conditioning.\n\nIn 1902, the first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in Buffalo, New York. After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at the Buffalo Forge Company. There, he began experimenting with air conditioning as a way to solve an application problem for the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York. The first air conditioner, designed and built in Buffalo by Carrier, began working on 17 July 1902.\n", "Section::::Longevity.\n", "When the ambient air temperature drops to a set temperature, a modulating valve allows all or part of the chilled water to by-pass an existing chiller and run through the free cooling system, which uses less power and uses the lower ambient air temperature to cool the water in the system.\n\nThis can be achieved by installing an air blast cooler with any existing chiller or on its own. During low ambient temperatures, an installation can by-pass an existing chiller giving energy savings of up to 75%, without compromising cooling requirements.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15008	How do people go about measuring the heights of mountains?	Today, you can just put a GPS Tracker on the top and measure it against the nearest height of the sea. Other methods can be: Measure the air pressure Triangulate by other visible objects Fly a Plane with radar over it	[ "Section::::Survey operation.\n\nAfter careful setup of the level, the height of the cross hairs is determined by either sighting from a known benchmark with known height determined by a previous survey or an arbitrary point with an assumed height is used.\n", "To measure an unknown slope, the surveyor first sights a target along that slope and then adjusts the angle of the level until the bubble is centered on the cross-hair. Once this is done, the slope may be read from the scale.\n", "It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example, Ulugh Muztagh on the north Tibetan Plateau is often listed as to , but appears to be only to . Some mountains differ by on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements of Mount Everest range from to . These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights.\n", "Which methodology is used depends on the person doing the calculation and on the use to which the prominence is put. For example, if one is making a list of all peaks with at least 2,000 ft (610 m) of prominence, one would use the optimistic prominence, to include all possible candidates (knowing that some of these could be dropped off the list by further, more accurate, measurements). If one wishes to present the most accurate data for the peaks, mean or interpolated prominence would be appropriate as the other measures give biased estimates.\n\nSection::::Wet prominence and dry prominence.\n", "Instead of using the sea level, geodesists often prefer to define height from the surface of a reference ellipsoid, see Geodetic system, vertical datum.\n\nDefining the height of geographic landmarks becomes a question of reference. For example, the highest mountain by elevation in reference to sea level belongs to Mount Everest, located on the border of Nepal and Tibet, China; however the highest mountain by measurement of apex to base belongs to Mauna Kea in Hawaii, United States.\n\nSection::::In aviation.\n", "In general, \"altitude\" refers to distance above mean sea level (MSL or AMSL), \"height\" refers to distance above a particular point (e.g. the airport, runway threshold, or ground at present location), and \"elevation\" describes a feature of the terrain itself in terms of distance above MSL. One mnemonic that can be used is: if it's an altitude you can fly there, if it's an elevation you can walk there, and if it's height that's how far a rock will fall before it hits the ground.\n\nSection::::Atmospheric sciences.\n", "The clinometer and tape method or the tangent method, is commonly used in the forestry industry to measure log length. Some clinometers are hand held devices used to measure angles of slopes. The user can sight to the top of a tree using such a clinometer and read the angle to the top using a scale in the instrument. Topographic Abney levels are calibrated so when read at a distance of from the tree, the height to the tree above eye level can be directly read on the scale. Many clinometers and Abney levels have a percent-grade scale that gives 100 times the tangent of the angle. This scale gives the tree height in feet directly when measured at a distance of from the tree.\n", "In general, the clinometer is used to measure the angle Θ from the eye to the top of the tree, and then the horizontal distance to the tree at eye level is measured using a tape. The height above eye level is then calculated by using the tangent function:\n\nhorizontal distance at eye level to the tree x tangent Θ = height above eye level\n", "It is very unlikely that all the heights given are correct to the nearest meter; indeed, problems of definition of sea level can arise when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many meters, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in Wikipedia. Many mountains in the Karakorum differ by over 100 metres on different maps. These discrepancies serve to emphasise the uncertainties in the listed heights.\n\nSection::::Geographical distribution.\n", "The same process is used to measure the height of the base of the tree above or below eye level. If the base of the tree is below eye level, then the height of the tree below eye level is added to the height above eye level. If the base of the tree is above eye level, then the height of the base of the tree above eye level is subtracted from the height of the treetop above eye level. It may be difficult to directly measure the horizontal distance at eye level if that distance is high off the ground or if the base of the tree is above eye level. In these cases the distance to the base of the tree can be measured using the tape along the slope from eye level to the base of the tree and noting the slope angle Θ. In this case the height of the base of the tree above or below eye level is equal to the (sin Θ x slope distance) and the horizontal distance to the tree is (cos Θ x slope distance).\n", "Survey points are usually marked on the earth's surface by objects ranging from small nails driven into the ground to large beacons that can be seen from long distances. The surveyors can set up their instruments on this position and measure to nearby objects. Sometimes a tall, distinctive feature such as a steeple or radio aerial has its position calculated as a reference point that angles can be measured against.\n", "The height of a benchmark is calculated relative to the heights of nearby benchmarks in a network extending from a \"fundamental benchmark\". A fundamental benchmark is a point with a precisely known relationship to the vertical datum of the area, typically mean sea level. The position and height of each benchmark is shown on large-scale maps.\n", "On sloping ground, the \"above ground\" reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk, but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground. If the DBH point falls on a swelling in the trunk it is customary to measure the girth below the swelling at the point where the diameter is smallest. Other ambiguous settings for determining the exact place where to measure the diameter is given in Dahdouh-Guebas & Koedam (2006).\n", "Section::::History.:First comparative charts.\n\nIn the 1810s the first formal comparative mountains charts emerged. Early examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Smith's \"Comparative View of the Heights of the Principal Mountains &c. In The World,\" published in London in 1816\n\nBULLET::::- John Thomson's \"A Comparative View of the Heights of the Principal Mountains and other Elevations in the World.\" published in the 1817 edition of Thomson's \"New General Atlas.\"\n", "In the US, the current NAVD88 datum is tied to a defined elevation at one point rather than to any location's exact mean sea level. Orthometric heights are usually used in the US for engineering work, although dynamic height may be chosen for large-scale hydrological purposes. Heights for measured points are shown on National Geodetic Survey data sheets, data that was gathered over many decades by precise spirit leveling over thousands of miles. \n", "BULLET::::- \"On the heights of mountains\" – A work which may have been part of his \"Circuit of the Earth\". It was the earliest known attempt to measure the heights of various mountains by triangulation.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Descent into (the Cave of) Trophonius\" () – A work which consisted of several books, and, as we may infer from the fragments quoted from it, contained an account of the degenerate and licentious proceedings of the priests in the cave of Trophonius.\n", "There are several additional methods that can be used to measure tree heights from a distance that can produce reasonably accurate results. These include traditional surveying methods using a theodolite, cross-triangulation, the extended baseline method, the parallax method, and the triangle method.\n", "When the key col for a peak is close to the peak itself, prominence is easily computed by hand using a topographic map. However, when the key col is far away, or when one wants to calculate the prominence of many peaks at once, a computer is quite useful. Edward Earl has written a program called WinProm\n\nwhich can be used to make such calculations, based on\n", "*.By convention, cols created by human activity are not counted. Therefore, the Suez, Panama and other canals are ignored in these calculations. Cuts that lower the natural elevations of mountain passes are also ignored. Towers, monuments and similar on the peaks are also ignored.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- World peaks with 4000 meters of prominence from peakbagger.com\n\nBULLET::::- World top 50 most prominent peaks, originally compiled by David Metzler and Eberhard Jurgalski, and updated with the help of others as new elevation information, especially SRTM, has become available.\n", "If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of North America\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Greenland\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of the major 3000-meter summits of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of California fourteeners\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain ranges of California\n", "The Schiehallion experiment was repeated in 1856 by Henry James, director-general of the Ordnance Survey, who instead used the hill Arthur's Seat in central Edinburgh. With the resources of the Ordnance Survey at his disposal, James extended his topographical survey to a 21-kilometre radius, taking him as far as the borders of Midlothian. He obtained a density of about .\n", "Tree heights can also be measured remotely from the ground. The most basic remote height methodologies are all variations of the stick measurement. The height is calculated using the principle of similar triangles. A short stick is held out pointing vertically at arm’s length by its base pointing vertically. The surveyor moves in and out toward a tree until the base of the stick above the lower hand aligns with the base of the tree and the top of the stick aligns with the top of the tree. The distance from the lower hand to the surveyor’s eye is measured, the distance from the lower hand to the top of the stick is measured, and the distance from the eye to the base of the tree is measured with a tape. The ratio of distance from the eye to the hand is to the distance from eye to the base of the tree, as is equal to the ratio of the length of the stick to the height of the tree provided that the top of the tree is positioned vertically over the base.\n", "The first step in sight reduction is to correct the sextant altitude for various errors and corrections. The instrument may have an error, IC or index correction (See article on adjusting a sextant). Refraction by the atmosphere is corrected for with the aid of a table or calculation and the observer's height of eye above sea level results in a \"dip\" correction, (as the observer's eye is raised the horizon dips below the horizontal). If the Sun or Moon was observed, a semidiameter correction is also applied to find the centre of the object. The resulting value is \"observed altitude\" (\"Ho\").\n", "List of the major 4000-meter summits of the United States\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 104 mountain peaks of the United States with at least of topographic elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "a Digital Elevation Model. The underlying mathematical theory is called \"Surface Network Modeling,\" and is closely related to Morse Theory. Andrew Kirmse extended this method to find every point on Earth with at least 100 feet of prominence.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21470	why is water not flammable	Hydrogen gas is flammable because it's easily "oxidized" - attacked by oxygen gas or another aggressive electron stealer. When things burn or rust, they're generally being chemically attacked by oxygen. Water is already fully oxidized, the oxygen has already pilfered two electrons (the only two they have to give) from two hapless hydrogen atoms and is now stable and happy. Water will still participate in other types of chemical reactions, but it's not going to further react with oxygen. An even more powerful oxidizing agent can displace (or even attack) the oxygen if you really wanted to "burn" water.	[ "Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot carbon such as coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, decompose the water, producing water gas.\n", "In some cases, the use of water is undesirable. This is because some chemical products react with water to produce poisonous gases, or they may even burn when they come into contact with water (e.g., sodium). Another problem is that some products float on water, such as hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, and alcohol, etc.); a burning layer can then be spread by the fire. If\n", "Cases also exist where the ignition factor is not the activation energy. For example, a smoke explosion is a very violent combustion of unburned gases contained in the smoke created by a sudden fresh air input (oxidizer input). The interval in which an air/gas mix can burn is limited by the explosive limits of the air. This interval can be very small (kerosene) or large (acetylene).\n\nWater cannot be used on certain type of fires:\n\nBULLET::::- Fires where live electricity is present – as water conducts electricity it presents an electrocution hazard.\n", "The gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected or ignited with a flame above the water if this was the intention. The required potential for the electrolysis of pure water is 1.23 V at 25 °C. The operating potential is actually 1.48 V or higher in practical electrolysis.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some Class B fires (hydrocarbons, petroleums, and fuels on fire) cannot be efficiently controlled with water. Fuels with a specific gravity less than water, such as gasoline or oil, float on water, resulting in the fire continuing in the fuel on top of the water. The application of a combination of fire suppressant foam mixed with water is a common and effective method of forming a blanket on top of the liquid fuel which eliminates the oxygen needed for combustion.The configuration of some fuels, such as coal and baled waste paper, result in a deep seated and burrowing fire, resulting in less effective fire control by the application of water on the outer surfaces of the fuel. \n", "The amount of air required for complete combustion to take place is known as theoretical air. However, in practice, the air used is 2-3x that of theoretical air.\n\nSection::::Types.:Complete and incomplete.:Incomplete.\n\nIncomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, carbon, carbon monoxide, and/or hydroxide are produced instead of carbon dioxide.\n", "a pressurized fuel tank is endangered by fire it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank if it is sprayed with cooling water; the resulting decompression might produce a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).\n\nElectrical fires cannot be extinguished with water since the water could act as a conductor.\n", "Water is fully oxidized hydrogen. Hydrogen itself is a high-energy, flammable substance, but its useful energy is released when water is formed. Water will not burn. The process of electrolysis can split water into hydrogen and oxygen, but it takes as much energy to take apart a water molecule as was released when the hydrogen was oxidized to form water. In fact, some energy would be lost in converting water to hydrogen and then burning the hydrogen because some waste heat would always be produced in the conversions. Releasing chemical energy from water, in excess or in equal proportion to the energy required to facilitate such production, would therefore violate the first or second law of thermodynamics.\n", "Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. It is dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents, because many organic materials float on water and the water tends to spread the burning liquid.\n", "The use of water allows the use of the flame ionisation detector (FID), which gives mass sensitive output for nearly all organic compounds.\n\nThe maximum temperature is limited to that at which the stationary phase is stable. C18 bonded phases which are common in HPLC seem to be stable at temperatures up to 200 °C, far above that of pure silica, and polymeric styrene–divinylbenzene phases offer similar temperature stability.\n\nWater is also compatible with use of an ultraviolet detector down to a wavelength of 190 nm.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Pressurized water reactor\n\nBULLET::::- Steam cracking\n\nBULLET::::- Supercritical carbon dioxide\n\nBULLET::::- Superheated steam\n", "Water can have two different roles. In the case of a solid combustible, the solid fuel produce pyrolyzing products under the influence of heat, commonly radiation. This process is halted by the application of water, since water is more easily evaporated than the fuel is pyrolyzed. Thereby energy is removed from the fuel surface and it is cooled and the pyrolysis is stopped, removing the fuel supply to the flames. In fire fighting, this is referred to as surface cooling.\n", "Cavendish, though he did not realise it, made an important observation about burning phlogiston in air; a dewy liquid was formed on the inside of the glassware: water. This should have had enormous repercussions for the whole scientific community in the 1700s, who still believed water to be an elemental substance. Yet, if water could be \"made\" by burning inflammable air, then water is \"not\" an element, but a compound.\n", "Combustion is the chemical reaction that feeds a fire more heat and allows it to continue. When the fire involves burning metals like lithium, magnesium, titanium, etc. (known as a class-D fire), it becomes even more important to consider the energy release. The metals react faster with water than with oxygen and thereby more energy is released. Putting water on such a fire results in the fire getting hotter or even exploding. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are ineffective against certain metals such as titanium. Therefore, inert agents (e.g. dry sand) must be used to break the chain reaction of metallic combustion.\n", "Section::::Chemical and physical properties.:Electrical conductivity and electrolysis.\n\nPure water has a low electrical conductivity, which increases with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as common salt.\n\nLiquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.:Mechanical properties.\n", "Water is efficient at extinguishing fire, and usually has the advantage of being available at little cost, but when dropped from an aircraft has big disadvantages because it breaks up in the air-stream and a significant proportion erodes into mist and either evaporates before it hits the target or falls in concentrations too light to be effective against a fire, so its extinguishing properties do not last very long. Water is only effective if dropped directly on flames.\n", "Section::::Safety.\n\nIt was largely unaffected by short immersion in water, when immersion was prolonged however the chlorate dissolved out, leaving a practically non-explosive residue. However, if exposed to moist and dry air alternately, the chlorate crystallised out on the surfaces rendering the explosive very sensitive.\n\nIn testing however it was found to be extremely sensitive to combined friction and percussion, and could be readily ignited by a glancing blow with wood. Found also to be chemically unstable, it was known to ignite spontaneously both in the laboratory \n", "Electrical fire may be fought in the same way as an ordinary combustible fire, but water, foam, and other conductive agents are not to be used. While the fire is or possibly could be electrically energized, it can be fought with any extinguishing agent rated for electrical fire. Carbon dioxide CO, NOVEC 1230, FM-200 and dry chemical powder extinguishers such as PKP and even baking soda are especially suited to extinguishing this sort of fire. PKP should be a last resort solution to extinguishing the fire due to its corrosive tendencies. Once electricity is shut off to the equipment involved, it will generally become an ordinary combustible fire.\n", "Although the reactants are stable at room temperature, they burn with an extremely intense exothermic reaction when they are heated to ignition temperature. The products emerge as liquids due to the high temperatures reached (up to 2500 °C with iron(III) oxide)—although the actual temperature reached depends on how quickly heat can escape to the surrounding environment. Thermite contains its own supply of oxygen and does not require any external source of air. Consequently, it cannot be smothered, and may ignite in any environment given sufficient initial heat. It burns well while wet, and cannot be easily extinguished with water—though enough water to remove sufficient heat may stop the reaction. Small amounts of water boil before reaching the reaction. Even so, thermite is used for welding underwater.\n", "On 20 February 1944, Flame was aboard the ferry D/F Hydro when it was sunk in a commando operation. The Hydro was carrying heavy water that would have been used in Nazi Germany's nuclear weapons programme.\n", "In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the concrete evidence, as it emerges from the contemporary literary references, provides the following characteristics:\n\nBULLET::::- It burned on water, and, according to some interpretations, was ignited by water. In addition, as numerous writers testify, it could be extinguished only by a few substances, such as sand (which deprived it of oxygen), strong vinegar, or old urine, presumably by some sort of chemical reaction.\n\nBULLET::::- It was a liquid substance, and not some sort of projectile, as verified both by descriptions and the very name \"liquid fire.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Some water-based suppressants may be used on certain class D fires, such as burning titanium and magnesium. Examples include the Fire Blockade and FireAde brands of suppressant. Some metals, such as elemental lithium, will react explosively with water, therefore water-based chemicals should never be used on such fires due to the possibility of a violent reaction.\n", "All chemicals that react vigorously with water or liberate toxic gas when in contact with water are recognised for their hazardous nature in the 'Approved Supply List,' or the list of substances covered by the international legislation on major hazards many of which are commonly used in manufacturing processeses.\n\nSection::::Alkali metals.\n\nThe alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr) are the most reactive metals in the periodic table - they all react vigorously or even explosively with cold water, resulting in the displacement of hydrogen.\n", "BULLET::::- Hydrocarbon fires – as it will only spread the fire because of the difference in density/hydrophobicity. For example, adding water to a fire with an oil source will cause the oil to spread, since oil and water do not mix.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal fires – as these fires produce huge amounts of energy (up to 7.550 calories/kg for aluminium) and water can also create violent chemical reactions with burning metal (possibly even serving as an additional oxidizing agent).\n\nSince these reactions are well understood, it has been possible to create specific water-additives which will allow:\n", "Pure water is a fairly good insulator since it has a low autoionization, K = 1.0×10 at room temperature and thus pure water conducts current poorly, 0.055 µS·cm. Unless a very large potential is applied to cause an increase in the autoionization of water the electrolysis of pure water proceeds very slowly limited by the overall conductivity.\n", "BULLET::::- A flammable liquid with a flash point at or above 38 °C (100 °F) that does not meet the definition of any other hazard class may be reclassed as a combustible liquid. This provision does not apply to transportation by vessel or aircraft, except where other means of transportation is impracticable. An elevated temperature material that meets the definition of a Class 3 material because it is intentionally heated and offered for transportation or transported at or above its flash point may not be reclassed as a combustible liquid.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02299	Why do some street lights buzz?	For the same reason that some fluorescent lights buzz. They contain a circuit to generate a high voltage (because that is needed to pull electrons off the gas in the bulb and ionize it). That high voltage circuit is oscillating, and the rapid current changes cause rapid magnetic field changes. The leads to [magnetostriction]( URL_0 ), where the magnetic field changes cause some materials to slightly deform rapidly. They literally get longer/shorter or bigger/smaller as the magnetic field effects them. Just not by very much. Or they can simply get moved back and forth. That can cause buzzing, whining, rattling, etc. It might not even be the thing undergoing magnetostriction that makes the noise; it could be shaking something else and that thing makes the noise. The same phenomenon can cause other gizmos to make noise. Transformer whine/buzz, capacitor whine. etc.	[ "In at least some parts of Sydney, the ripple frequency is 1042 Hz. The signal usually consists of several bursts of a few seconds on and off, followed by a period of up to 50 seconds on. This is coded to affect only selected equipment. Occurrences are very frequent, sometimes several times an hour throughout the day, not just at evening and morning off-peak times.\n\nSection::::Radioactive risk of one type of Zellweger meter.\n", "Section::::Corona breakdown.:Appearance.\n\nCorona is sometimes seen as a bluish glow around high voltage wires and heard as a sizzling sound along high voltage power lines. Corona also generates radio frequency noise that can also be heard as ‘static’ or buzzing on radio receivers. Corona can also occur naturally as “St. Elmo's Fire” at high points such as church spires, treetops, or ship masts during thunderstorms.\n\nSection::::Corona breakdown.:Ozone generation.\n", "Some types of lamp are also sensitive to switching cycles. Rooms with frequent switching, such as bathrooms, can expect much shorter lamp life than what is printed on the box. Compact fluorescent lamps are particularly sensitive to switching cycles.\n\nSection::::Public lighting.\n\nThe total amount of artificial light (especially from street light) is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space. This light is the source of light pollution that burdens astronomers and others.\n\nSection::::Uses other than illumination.\n", "Light emitted from lighting equipment such as luminaires and lamps may vary in strength as function of time, either intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional light variations are applied amongst others for warning, signalling (e.g. traffic-light signalling, flashing aviation light signals), entertainment (like stage lighting), metrology (strobe light for measurement of rotation speed), navigation (like optical beacons, lighthouses) or for communication (Li-Fi). Generally, the light output of lighting equipment may also have unintentional light level modulations due to the lighting equipment itself. The magnitude, shape, periodicity and frequency of the TLM will depend on many factors such as the type of light source, the electrical mains-supply frequency, the driver or ballast technology and type of light regulation technology applied (e.g. pulse-width modulation). These TLM properties may vary over time due to aging effects, component failure or end-of-life behavior. Furthermore external factors such as incompatibility with dimmers or presence of mains-supply voltage fluctuations (power-line flicker) play a role. TLMs are also known from non-electrical lighting sources like candle light or they may be experienced while driving along a row of trees lit by the sun or by driving through a tunnel lit by luminaires having a certain spacing. \n", "If an incandescent lamp is operated on a low-frequency current, the filament cools on each half-cycle of the alternating current, leading to perceptible change in brightness and \"flicker\" of the lamps; the effect is more pronounced with arc lamps, and the later mercury-vapor and fluorescent lamps. Open arc lamps made an audible buzz on alternating current, leading to experiments with high-frequency alternators to raise the sound above the range of human hearing.\n\nSection::::Operating factors.:Rotating machines.\n", "BULLET::::- Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) that require a long time before restarting.\n\nBULLET::::- Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current. This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars, when viewed on camera or by some people, seem to flash or flicker. This is a type of stroboscopic effect.\n", "Section::::LEDs.\n\nLEDs also have twinkling versions, though they contain an oscillator that alternates on and off at a very regular intervals rather than the irregular blinking of the thermal bimetallic strips. Dimmers or low batteries generally do not affect the twinkling interval, but as with incandescent bulbs, having them off part of the time extends battery life.\n", "Most strobe lights on sale to the public are factory-limited to about 10–12 Hz (10–12 flashes per second) in their internal oscillators, although externally triggered strobe lights will often flash as frequently as possible. Studies have shown that the majority of people that are susceptible to the strobing effects can have symptoms at 15 Hz-70 Hz, albeit rare. Other studies have shown epileptic symptoms at the 15 Hz rate with over 90 seconds of continuous staring at a strobe light. There have been no known seizures at or below the 8 Hz (or 8 flashes per second) level. Many fire alarms in schools, hospitals, stadiums, etc. strobe at a 1 Hz rate.\n", "Astoria arc flash\n\nAn industrial accident occurred at a Con Edison substation Astoria, Queens, New York City, on December 27, 2018. During the incident, a 138,000 volt coupling capacitor potential device failed which resulted in an arc flash which in turn burned aluminum, lighting up the sky with blue-green spectacle visible for miles around and as far as New Jersey. The event was covered extensively on social media and LaGuardia Airport temporally lost power, but there were neither deaths nor injuries. Such was the magnitude of the bizarre illumination that extraterrestrial visitation was a common supposition.\n", "Flicker may be produced, for example, if a steel mill uses large electric motors or arc furnaces on a distribution network, or frequent starting of an elevator motor in an office building, or if a rural residence has a large water pump starting regularly on a long feeder system. The likelihood of flicker increase as the size of the changing load becomes larger with respect to the prospective short-circuit current available at the point of common connection.\n\nSection::::Measurement of flicker.\n\nThe requirements of a flicker measurement equipment are defined in the international electro-technical standard IEC 61000-4-15.\n", "Reflections in more complex scenarios, such as found on a network of cables, can result in very complicated and long lasting waveforms on the cable. Even a simple overvoltage pulse entering a cable system as uncomplicated as the power wiring found in a typical private home can result in an oscillatory disturbance as the pulse is reflected to and fro from multiple circuit ends. These \"ring waves\" as they are known persist for far longer than the original pulse and their waveforms bears little obvious resemblance to the original disturbance, containing high frequency components in the tens of MHz range.\n", "Treeing has been a long-term failure mechanism for buried polymer-insulated high voltage power cables, first reported in 1969. In a similar fashion, 2D trees can occur along the surface of a highly stressed dielectric, or across a dielectric surface that has been contaminated by dust or mineral salts. Over time, these partially conductive trails can grow until they cause complete failure of the dielectric. Electrical tracking, sometimes called \"dry banding\", is a typical failure mechanism for electrical power insulators that are subjected to salt spray contamination along coastlines. The branching 2D and 3D patterns are sometimes called Lichtenberg figures.\n", "Carbon can act, at first, like a high resistivity dust in the precipitator. Higher voltages can be required in order for corona generation to begin. These higher voltages can be problematic for the TR-Set controls. The problem lies in onset of corona causing large amounts of current to surge through the (low resistivity) dust layer. The controls sense this surge as a spark. As precipitators are operated in spark-limiting mode, power is terminated and the corona generation cycle re-initiates. Thus, lower power (current) readings are noted with relatively high voltage readings.\n", "Near the end of life, fluorescent lamps can start flickering at a frequency lower than the power frequency. This is due to a dynamic instability inherent in the negative resistance of the plasma source, which can be from a bad lamp, a bad ballast, or a bad starter; or occasionally from a poor connection to power.\n\nNew fluorescent lamps may show a twisting spiral pattern of light in a part of the lamp. This effect is due to loose cathode material and usually disappears after a few hours of operation.\n", "Further background and explanations on the different TLA phenomena are given in a recorded webinar “\"Is it all just flicker?\"”. Models for the visibility of flicker and stroboscopic effect from the temporal behavior of luminous output of LEDs are in the doctoral thesis of Perz.\n\nSection::::Root causes.\n\nThe root cause of TLAs is the variation of the light intensity of lighting equipment. Important factors that can contribute and that determine the magnitude and type of light modulation of lighting equipment are:\n", "Section::::Reaction.\n", "BULLET::::- In both old and new designs, even mostly directly-coupled operational amplifier circuits, feedback through the power supply rails can generate ultrasonic oscillations that vary in amplitude at a low frequency (squegging) due to the power supply voltage sagging as oscillations build up (the long time constant coming from the power supply reservoir capacitor) in such a way that the low frequency is audible even though the high frequency fundamental is not. Such problems can be difficult to diagnose.\n", "As an example, when a person walks over a nylon carpet, the rubbing of shoes on carpet performs the role of a battery and resistor, while the person acts as a capacitor (C1 and C2), and the air between a hand and a door knob is a spark gap. Stray inductance acts as L.\n\nSection::::Sparks and allied phenomena.\n\nHorizontal lines randomly arranged on a television screen may be caused by sparking in a malfunctioning electrical device. Electric railways can also be a strong source of this type of interference.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Association for the Scientific Study of Anomalous Phenomena\n\nBULLET::::- Deluminator, a fictional \"Harry Potter\" device.\n\nBULLET::::- Gas-discharge lamp\n\nBULLET::::- High-intensity discharge lamp\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury-vapor lamp\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium vapor lamp\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Street Light Interference\" by Dennis Stacy, \"Omni\", September 1990\n\nBULLET::::- \"Street Light Interference\" by Robert McMorris, \"Omaha World-Herald\", January 1990\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The SLI Effect\" by Hilary Evans - free download book on Street Light Interference.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Close Encounters of the Street Lamp Kind\", David Morrow, \"The Independent\", August 30, 1995\n", "Temporal light modulation disturbances may arise from fluctuations of the light intensity of lighting equipment. Light emitted from lighting equipment such as luminaires and lamps may vary in strength as function of time, either intentionally or unintentionally (Figure 1). Generally, the light output of lighting equipment has unintentional residual light level modulations due to the lighting equipment itself. The magnitude, shape, periodicity and frequency of the TLM depends on many factors such as the type of light source, the electrical mains-supply frequency, the driver or ballast technology and type of light regulation technology applied (e.g. pulse-width modulation). Conventional incandescent type of lighting equipment typically has a moderate residual light modulation (10%- 20% modulation depth) with a modulation frequency which is twice the mains frequency. LED-type of lighting equipment, because they are semiconductor devices, respond much more rapidly to variations in the input signal than the conventional light sources. Therefore, LED light sources are also much more sensitive to fluctuations in the input current, and reproduce those current fluctuations in the light output, potentially leading to TLI. Furthermore, external factors such as incompatibility with dimmers or presence of mains-supply voltage fluctuations (power-line flicker) play a role and may cause additional temporal light modulations.\n", "BULLET::::- Random or repetitive variations in the RMS voltage between 90 and 110% of nominal can produce a phenomenon known as \"flicker\" in lighting equipment. Flicker is rapid visible changes of light level. Definition of the characteristics of voltage fluctuations that produce objectionable light flicker has been the subject of ongoing research.\n\nBULLET::::- Abrupt, very brief increases in voltage, called \"spikes\", \"impulses\", or \"surges\", generally caused by large inductive loads being turned off, or more severely by lightning.\n", "BULLET::::- The resistance of the sliding brush contact causes a voltage drop in the motor circuit called which consumes energy.\n\nBULLET::::- The repeated abrupt switching of the current through the inductance of the windings causes sparks at the commutator contacts. These are a fire hazard in explosive atmospheres and a source of degrading UV radiation, and create electronic noise, which can cause electromagnetic interference in nearby microelectronic circuits.\n", "When the spark gap fires, the charged capacitor discharges into the primary winding, causing the primary circuit to oscillate. The oscillating primary current creates an oscillating magnetic field that couples to the secondary winding, transferring energy into the secondary side of the transformer and causing it to oscillate with the toroid capacitance to ground. Energy transfer occurs over a number of cycles, until most of the energy that was originally in the primary side is transferred to the secondary side. The greater the magnetic coupling between windings, the shorter the time required to complete the energy transfer. As energy builds within the oscillating secondary circuit, the amplitude of the toroid's RF voltage rapidly increases, and the air surrounding the toroid begins to undergo dielectric breakdown, forming a corona discharge.\n", "BULLET::::- Glowplugs operating or wait to start (most diesel engines) – Appears when the engine is switched on to indicate the engine glow plugs are operating, and the driver should wait for the light to extinguish before starting the engine. Usually shaped like a coiled cord.\n", "Section::::Categories of temporal light effects.\n\nObviously, the intentional TLMs listed under 'Root cause' above result into wanted effects. In many cases TLMs may cause unacceptable annoying effects such as flicker or stroboscopic effect that can directly be perceived by humans. These effects are categorized as temporal light artefacts (TLAs). Apart from annoyance, flicker may induce epileptic reactions in susceptible people (photosensitive epilepsy). \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02860	Why is it wasting water when we let it run while we brush our teeth?	Water that goes down the drain has already been purified once, and will now have to be purified again before it can be discharged. The water itself can be reclaimed, but the energy used to purify it is wasted.	[ "Water used for agriculture is called \"agricultural water\" or \"farm water.\" Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water, this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems.\n", "BULLET::::- In hydropower applications, the energy lost to skin friction in flume and penstock is not available for useful work, say generating electricity.\n\nBULLET::::- Irrigation water is pumped at large yearly volumes of flow, entailing significant expense.\n\nBULLET::::- HVAC systems pump conditioning air on a widespread basis.\n\nBULLET::::- In refrigeration applications, energy is expended pumping the coolant fluid through pipes or through the condenser. In split systems, the pipes carrying the coolant take the place of the air ducts in HVAC systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Wells and domestic water systems must be engineered for effective and economical operation.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "In the specific context of the United States NRW reduction can also mean reduced legal liability and reduced insurance payments.\n\nSection::::Programs to reduce NRW.\n\nReducing NRW is a complex process. While some programs have been successful, there are many pitfalls.\n\nSection::::Programs to reduce NRW.:Successful programs.\n\nIn the following cities high levels of non-revenue water have been substantially reduced:\n\nBULLET::::- Dolphin Coast (iLembe), South Africa, 30% in 1999 to 16% in 2003 by the private utility Siza Water Company;\n\nBULLET::::- Istanbul, Turkey, from more than 50% prior to 1994 to 34% in 2000 by the public utility ISKI;\n", "In many areas a compound of fluoride is added to tap water in an effort to improve dental health among the public. In some communities \"fluoridation\" remains a controversial issue. (See water fluoridation controversy.)\n\nSection::::Potable water supply.\n\nThis supply may come from several possible sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Municipal water supply\n\nBULLET::::- Water wells\n\nBULLET::::- Processed water from creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, rainwater, etc.\n\nDomestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running water supply, such as a stream or river. The water flow also allowed sending waste water away from the residences.\n", "In many utilities the exact breakdown of NRW components and sub-components is simply not known, making it difficult to decide about the best course of action to reduce NRW. Metering of water use at the level of production (wells, bulk water supply), at key points in the distribution network and for consumers is essential to estimate levels of NRW (see Water metering).\n", "There are a variety of trace elements present in virtually all potable water, some of which play a role in metabolism. For example, sodium, potassium and chloride are common chemicals found in small amounts in most waters, and these elements play a role in body metabolism. Other elements such as fluoride, while arguably beneficial in low concentrations, can cause dental problems and other issues when present at high levels. Water is essential for the growth and maintenance of our bodies, as it is involved in a number of biological processes.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Medical use.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Medical use.:Effects of illness.\n", "BULLET::::- Public order and safety facilities: police stations, fire stations, prison, reformatory, or penitentiary, courthouse or probation office\n\nBULLET::::- Religious buildings: churches, synagogues, monasteries, mosques, sanctuaries.\n\nBULLET::::- Elderly care facilities: retirement homes, residential care/assisted living, hospices.\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturing: heavy industry, light industry, food and beverage processing, machine shops.\n", "Strictly speaking, water that is discharged into the sewer, or directly to the environment is not wasted or lost. It remains within the hydrologic cycle and returns to the land surface and surface water bodies as precipitation. However, in many cases, the source of the water is at a significant distance from the return point and may be in a different catchment. The separation between extraction point and return point can represent significant environmental degradation in the watercourse and riparian strip. What is \"wasted\" is the community's supply of water that was captured, stored, transported and treated to drinking quality standards. Efficient use of water saves the expense of water supply provision and leaves more fresh water in lakes, rivers and aquifers for other users and also for supporting ecosystems. A concept that is closely related to water wasting is \"water-use efficiency.\" Water use is considered inefficient if the same purpose of its use can be accomplished with less water. Technical efficiency derives from engineering practice where it is typically used to describe the ratio of output to input and is useful in comparing various products and processes. For example, one showerhead would be considered more efficient than another if it could accomplish the same purpose (i.e., of showering) by using less water or other inputs (e.g., lower water pressure). However, the technical efficiency concept is not useful in making decisions of investing money (or resources) in water conservation measures unless the inputs and outputs are measured in value terms. This expression of efficiency is referred to as economic efficiency and is incorporated into the concept of water conservation.\n", "Farm water\n\nFarm water, also known as agricultural water, is water committed for use in the production of food and fiber. On average, 80 percent of the fresh water withdrawn from rivers and groundwater is used to produce food and other agricultural products. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation of crops or the watering of livestock.\n", "The California drought, beginning in 1987, led to reductions in surface water delivery.\n", "Section::::Water use in major CII categories.:Schools.\n\nThe shares of total CII use in schools range from 3.5 percent in Phoenix, Arizona to 6.5 percent in Tampa, Florida and up to 8 percent in Oakland, California. Most schools use water for restrooms, cooling and heating, irrigation of outdoor playing fields and lawns, locker rooms, laboratories, and cafeteria kitchens. \n", "Water utilities often adopt water efficiency programs that are directed specifically to CII customers. The programs often target the largest water users as well as specific categories of CII customers including government and municipal buildings, large landscape areas, schools and colleges, office buildings, restaurants and hotels. Water use information in these and other readily recognizable functional classes of CII users from several studies of the CII sector are briefly characterized below.\n\nSection::::Water use in major CII categories.\n\nSection::::Water use in major CII categories.:Office buildings.\n", "Many states in the US have experienced water shortages in the past few decades, creating a market for freshwater that could be profitable for Canada. In the south-western US, growing populations and lifestyles that consume large amounts of water have caused most of the aquifers and rivers in the region to be overused. The water in the Oglala Aquifer, which serves much of the west-central US, was used eight times faster in 2001 than the replenishment rate. Demands for this freshwater are expected to increase as the climate warms.\n", "Section::::History.:Life-cycle assessment of water use.\n", "The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing countries and significant proportions in more economically developed countries (in the United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawn for use is for irrigation).\n", "Continuity of water supply is taken for granted in most developed countries, but is a severe problem in many developing countries, where sometimes water is only provided for a few hours every day or a few days a week. It is estimated that about half of the population of developing countries receives water on an intermittent basis.\n\nSection::::Service quality.:Water quality.\n", "Nationwide, there are approximately 1,012 thousand office buildings with a combined floor space of 1,952 million square feet. Assuming the WUI of 88 g/ksf/d as representing average office usage in the U.S., the total country-wide use would be 1,400 mgd or close to 12 percent of CII use. Significant quantities of water can be saved in older office buildings by replacing bathroom fixtures, cooling tower efficiency retrofits, and adopting efficient landscape irrigation measures. Estimates of potential water conservation savings range from 19 percent in Southwest Florida to 30 percent or more in California.\n\nSection::::Water use in major CII categories.:Retail outlets.\n", "Irrigation of farms and landscapes accounts for the greatest use of recycled water in California, more than 60%, with agriculture alone accounting for nearly 40%. Given that agriculture uses 80% of developed water supply in California, this greatly reduces strain on natural freshwater supplies. Water must be treated to at least the secondary level in order to be used in agriculture in California. In cases where the recycled water will not have contact with the edible portion of the plant, like in orchards or vineyards, secondary treatment is deemed sufficient, but in the case of crops with the edible portion of the plant having contact with the recycled water tertiary treatment is regulated.\n", "Section::::Uses of water.:Agricultural.\n\nIn an average year, about 39% of California's water consumption, or , is used for agricultural purposes. Of that total, 11%, or is not consumed by the farms for crop production but is instead recycled and reused by other water users, including environmental use, urban use, and agricultural use, yielding net water consumption for food and fiber production equal to 28% of California's water consumption, or . This water irrigates almost , which grows 350 different crops. Agricultural water usage varies depending on the amount of rainfall each year.\n", "Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is under increasing demand for human activities. The world has an estimated 1.34 billion cubic kilometers of water, but 96.5% of it is salty. Almost 70% of fresh water can be found in the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland. Less than 1% of this water on Earth is accessible to humans, the rest is contained in soil moisture or deep underground. Accessible freshwater is located in lakes, rivers, reservoirs and shallow underground sources. Rainwater and snowfall do very little to replenish many underground sources.\n", "Fresh water is a renewable and variable, but finite natural resource. Fresh water can only be replenished through the process of the water cycle,in which water from seas, lakes, forests, land, rivers, and reservoirs evaporates, forms clouds, and returns as precipitation. Locally, however, if more fresh water is consumed through human activities than is naturally restored, this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.\n\nFresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.\n", "Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the “Water footprint of products” section above), and much “green water’ is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of “dedicated water use” in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc.\n", "Section::::Components and audits.\n\nThe International Water Association (IWA) has developed a detailed methodology to assess the various components of NRW. Accordingly, NRW has the following components:\n\nBULLET::::- Unbilled authorized consumption\n\nBULLET::::- Apparent losses (water theft and metering inaccuracies)\n\nBULLET::::- Real losses (from transmission mains, storage facilities, distribution mains or service connections)\n", "BULLET::::- Failure to mobilize the necessary human and financial resources\n\nBULLET::::- Lack of coordination between the components of the program\n\nBULLET::::- Underestimation of the difficulties\n\nBULLET::::- Underestimation of the time factor\n\nSection::::Optimal level.\n", "Section::::Overview of NRW levels.:Expressed as a share of produced water.\n\nThe following percentages indicate the share of NRW in total water produced:\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore 5% (UFW)\n\nBULLET::::- Denmark 6%\n\nBULLET::::- Netherlands 6%\n\nBULLET::::- Germany 7% (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- Japan 7% (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Manila, Philippines 11% (2011), down from 63% in 1997\n\nBULLET::::- Tunisia 18% (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- England and Wales 19% (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- MWA, Bangkok 25% (2012)\n\nBULLET::::- France 26% (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- Dhaka, Bangladesh 29% (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Italy 29% (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- Chile 34% (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Jakarta, Indonesia 42% (2016), down from 59% in 1998\n\nBULLET::::- Amman, Jordan 34% (2010)\n" ]	[ "Wasting water when you let it go down the drain." ]	[ "You are wasting energy because the water can be reclaimed it just needs to be purified again. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wasting water when you let it go down the drain." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You are wasting energy because the water can be reclaimed it just needs to be purified again. " ]
2018-06423	How does a modern phone determine what orientation it is? (vertical and horizontal)	The phone has a sensor that can sense acceleration. The thing is that everything is constantly affected by gravity, which means that the sensor will pick up a force of 9.81m/s² (or 1G) that points in some direction. The phone then knows that this direction is "down". If you would take your phone to e.g. a space station then the automatic orientation of the screen would no longer work, since the gravitational force is cancelled out by the space station rotating around earth.	[ "Picture orientation is recorded such that photos (but not videos) are always right-side-up, and are cropped on their ends if being viewed in the opposite orientation from which they were taken. However, the phone only recognizes upright (portrait) and rotated onto its left side (landscape), and does not recognize right-side or upside-down orientation. When put this way or flat on a table, it uses the previously recognized orientation. When entering text messages (or any other text such as address book), the phone uses the standard dialpad and iTap when upright, while it uses a small QWERTY virtual keyboard layout while on its left side. The rotation function is controlled by an accelerometer.\n", "Section::::Camera phone.:Orientation.\n", "A current application of AoA is in the geodesic location or geolocation of cell phones. The aim is either to comply with regulations that require cell systems to report the location of a cell phone placing an emergency (i.e., 911) call or to provide a special service to tell the bearer of the cell phone where he is. Multiple receivers on a base station would calculate the AoA of the cell phone's signal, and this information would be combined to determine the phone's location on the earth. \n", "Mobile positioning may include location-based services that disclose the actual coordinates of a mobile phone, which is a technology used by telecommunication companies to approximate the location of a mobile phone, and thereby also its user.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n\nThe location of a mobile phone can be determined in a number of ways.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Network-based.\n", "Beginning with the iPhone 4, Apple's smartphones also include a gyroscopic sensor, enhancing its perception of how it is moved.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sensors.:Radio.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Technical problems.:Antenna.\n\nShortly after the iPhone 4 was launched, some consumers reported that signal strength of the phone was reduced when touching the lower left edge of the phone, bridging one of the two locations which separates the two antennas, resulting in dropped calls in some areas with lower signal reception. In response, Apple issued a statement advising that customers should \"avoid gripping [the phone] in the lower left corner\" when making or receiving a call.\n", "A peculiar coding error never addressed nor corrected on LG's VX9700 chassis, there is a longstanding software texting bug using \"complete-the-word\" mode. When the user tilts the phone sideways, transitioning the screen from vertical to horizontal mode, the phone unintentionally reverts user control, back to Abc mode, from the \"complete-the-word\" mode.\n\nSection::::Specs.\n\nLG Dare specifications\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Prada (KE850)\n\nBULLET::::- LG Vu\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Dare by LG\n\nBULLET::::- LG Dare (Verizon Wireless)\n\nBULLET::::- LG Dare Updates\n\nBULLET::::- LG VX9700 looks to be Verizon's Prada-like touchscreen phone\n", "Cellular geolocation is less precise than by GPS, but it is available to devices that do not have GPS receivers and where the GPS is not available. The precision of this system varies and is highest where advanced forward link methods are possible and is lowest where only a single cell site can be reached, in which case the location is only known to be within the coverage of that site.\n\nAn advanced forward link is where a device is within range of at least three cell sites and where the carrier has implemented timing system use.\n", "BULLET::::- Camera facing away: This position automatically starts the camera application to take pictures or create videos. If the phone's video player application is being used, twisting to this position automatically changes the video to horizontal full screen mode, and it is possible to stand the 5700 on its side in this position so it is easier to watch videos.\n\nBULLET::::- Camera facing forward: This position automatically starts the camera application and is intended for self-portraits and for videophone calls. This position lets the phone be laid down horizontally on its side for hands-free use of the video camera.\n", "The next generation of smartphones will be context-aware, taking advantage of the growing availability of embedded physical sensors and data exchange abilities. One of the main features applying to this is that phones will start keeping track of users' personal data, and adapt to anticipate the information will need. All-new applications will come out with the new phones, one of which is an X-ray device that reveals information about any location at which the phone is pointed. Companies are developing software to take advantage of more accurate location-sensing data. This has been described as making the phone a virtual mouse able to click the real world. An example would be pointing the phone's camera at a building while having the live feed open, and the phone will show text with the image of the building, and save its location for use in the future.\n", "Cherry Mobile Flare S7 series' specifications and design were leaked ahead of their launch on October 12, 2018. Its design for the S7 Deluxe and Plus series were using the long notch from the iPhone XS\n\nIn 2016, Cherry Mobile established official presence in Europe. It started distributing its products in Germany.\n\nSection::::Cubix.\n", "Nokia Point & Find\n", "New trends for smartphone displays began to emerge in 2017, with both LG and Samsung releasing flagship smartphones utilizing displays with taller aspect ratios than the common ratio. These designs allow the display to have a larger diameter, but with a slimmer width than 16:9 displays with an equivalent screen size. Another trend popularized that year were displays that contained tab-like cut-outs at their top-centre—colloquially known as a \"notch\"—to contain the front-facing camera, and sometimes other sensors typically located along the top bezel of a device. These designs allow for \"edge-to-edge\" displays that take up nearly the entire height of the device, with little to no bezel along the top. This design characteristic was popularized by the Essential Phone (which featured a circular tab for its camera) and iPhone X (which used a wider tab to contain a camera and facial scanning system). In 2018, the first smartphones featuring fingerprint readers embedded within OLED displays were announced, followed in 2019 by an implementation using an ultrasonic sensor on the Samsung Galaxy S10.\n", "It can be rotated up to 60 degrees each way once it is connected via the Lightning connector. For capturing a Selfie, it can be reversed to face towards the user.\n\nSection::::Requirements.\n", "On the CDMA version of the phone there are four slits in the metal band. Two at the top (on the left and right) and two at the bottom. This divides the metal band into four different segments, which like the GSM version of the phone, serves as different antennas for connectivity. The top portion of the band (divided by the top left and right slits) is for connecting to the CDMA network. The left portion of the metal band is for Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS just like the GSM version. The right side is not an antenna, but serves to cosmetically mirror the left side and also to create a similar look to the GSM version of the phone.\n", "The hardware is limited in its multi-touch functionality. It can only track multiple touches where their X and Y coordinates are different. The firmware to enable this functionality was first released in Japan.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Networks.\n", "TecTile\n\nTecTiles are a near field communication (NFC) application, developed by Samsung, for use with mobile smartphone devices.\n\nEach TecTile is a low-cost self-adhesive sticker with an embedded NFC Tag. They are programmed before use, which can be done simply by the user, using a downloadable Android app.\n\nWhen an NFC-capable phone is placed or 'tapped' on a Tag, the programmed action is undertaken. This could cause a website to be displayed, the phone switched to silent mode, or many other possible actions.\n", "Due to the relatively high gain of the antennas contained within handsets, it is necessary to roughly aim the antenna at the satellite. As the handsets contain a GPS receiver it is possible to program the ground position of the satellites as waypoints to assist with aiming. \n", "Android distributions by other manufacturers typically use different lock screen designs than what stock Android utilizes; newer versions of HTC's Sense used a metallic ring dragged from the bottom of the screen to unlock the phone, and also allows users to launch apps by dragging their respective shortcut icon into the ring instead. On recent Samsung devices, the lock screen involves dragging in any direction from any location on the screen (with TouchWiz Nature devices, such as the Galaxy S III and S4, it is also accompanied by a visual effect such as a pond ripple or lens flare); similarly to HTC's lock screen, app shortcuts can be dragged up from the bottom of the screen to unlock directly into them. \n", "The Xperia 1 is designed around the new 21:9 aspect ratio display, a rework from the previous \"Ambient Flow\" design seen in the Xperia XZ3. It consists of a 7000-series aluminum alloy chassis that has a curved edge all around the device, a 2.5D scratch-resistant front and curved-edged back glass panels made of Corning Gorilla Glass 6, resulting in a more squarish but symmetrical design aesthetic, reminiscent of the classic \"OmniBalance\" design language of old Xperia Z-series flagships. The most defining change in the Xperia 1, as it was in the Xperia XZ2 trio and the XZ3, are the placement of the camera on the back. It is centrally aligned on the upper half of the device, as opposed to being placed on the top-left side like in previous Xperia devices. The NFC antenna is placed on the left-hand side of the new triple-lens camera system, housed in a raised module with chrome beveled edges surrounding it, along with the color sensing (RGBC-IR sensor) and the single LED flash up top.\n", "The installation of the ODU employs automated tools for simplified antenna alignment and commissioning. The installation procedure is identical anywhere within the satellite service area and the use of circular polarization further simplifies the setup which permits to reduce the time and cost of the home installation. Although the installation could be done by some advanced users, it is recommended to contact a \"certified Tooway installer\".\n", "Some implementations, that do not use the sagital axis, are presenting in phones like Nokia 3250 and Oppo N1, with twistable componentes: a keyboard, and main camera (doubling as a selfie one), respectively.\n\nSection::::With movable sections.:Mixed.\n\nSome mobile phones use more than one form, such as the Nokia N90, Philips 968, Sharp SX862, Samsung SGH-P910, Amoi 2560, Samsung Alias series or Panasonic FOMA P900iV, which use both a swivel and a flip axis. \n", "The N93i includes a built-in accelerometer much like the Nokia N95. Third-party applications have started to make use of the built in accelerometer including:\n\nBULLET::::- RotateMe which automatically changes the screen rotation when the phone is tilted.\n\nBULLET::::- NokMote which uses the accelerometer as a D-Pad and moves in the direction of tilt, much like the Wii Remote.\n\nBULLET::::- ShutUp which turns the phone on Silent when it is turned face down.\n\nBULLET::::- ShakeMe which can lock the keypad, toggle Bluetooth, turn on the backlight or toggle Silent Profile\n\nBULLET::::- ShakeLock which will lock the phone when it is shaken.\n", "BULLET::::- The bottom bar of the left triangle represents cot Φ. The length is noted and using dividers copied over to the hypotenuse of the right triangle, and a further horizontal bar drawn; that will have the length of sin D. This is measured and placed on the bottom bar of the left triangle. This sets the position M, and the substyle line (the term diallist use for the angle).\n\nBULLET::::- Finding SH - the substyle height\n", "Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.\n\nThe movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12072	How did the Thai soccer team get trapped in a cave?	Ya they walked in, then the cave flooded due to monsoon rains. Way out became blocked by water.	[ "Tham Luang cave rescue\n\nIn June and July 2018, a widely publicised cave rescue successfully extricated members of a junior football team trapped in Tham Luang Nang Non cave in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand. Twelve members of the team, aged eleven to sixteen, and their 25-year-old assistant coach entered the cave on 23 June after football practice. Shortly afterwards, heavy rains partially flooded the cave, trapping the group inside.\n", "Around 7 p.m., head coach Nopparat Khanthawong () checked his phone, finding about twenty missed calls from parents worried that their children had not come home. Nopparat dialed assistant coach Chanthawong, followed by a number of the boys in quick succession. Eventually, he reached Songpon Kanthawong, a 13-year-old member of the team who mentioned he was picked up after practice, and that the rest of the boys had gone exploring in the Tham Luang caves. The coach raced up to the caves finding abandoned bicycles and bags near the entrance, with water seeping out of the muddy pathway. He alerted authorities to the missing group after seeing their unclaimed belongings.\n", "BULLET::::- On 7 September 2018 the Royal Thai government hosted a reception for all Thai and foreign officials and personnel involved in the rescue. His Majesty the King granted a royal decoration, The Most Admirable Order of the Direkgunabhorn, to 188 people who were involved in the rescue of the football team—114 foreigners and 74 Thais. The Royal Thai Government Gazette has officially published the list of recipients of the Order of the Direkgunabhorn for Tham Luang cave rescue on 21 March 2019.\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom:\n", "In 2018, twelve boys aged 11 to 16, all members of a junior association football team, and their 25-year-old male assistant coach were stranded in the cave for 18 days by a flood. They were rescued in a massive joint operation between the Thai government, the Thai military, and a group of international expert cave divers. British divers found them on a muddy ledge in darkness more than from the entrance nine days into their ordeal. The effort to save their lives was a global operation watched around the world. In all, 90 divers – 50 of whom were foreigners – helped to extract the group. An ex-navy diver, Saman Kunan, died during the mission because he ran out of air, having placed air tanks along the route to the boys.\n", "BULLET::::- Tham Luang cave rescue in 2018. Twelve members of the Moo Pa (Wild Boar) soccer team, aged 11–17, and one coach were trapped in the Tham Luang Nang Non cave in Thailand. A search was immediately commenced when a ranger of the National Park in Chiang Rai province alerted authorities of the missing boys after seeing their unclaimed belongings at the entrance to the cave. The team was located, alive, on 2 July 2018 by British divers Richard Stanton and John Volanthen; they were assisted later by Jason Mallinson. More than 1,000 people were involved in the rescue operation, including teams from China, Myanmar, Laos, Australia, the UK, and the United States.\n", "The members of the trapped team were as follows:\n", "On 23 June 2018, a group of twelve boys aged between 11 and 16, who went to explore Tham Luang Nang Non with their assistant football coach, aged 25, went missing. The group was found 10 days later. They were part of a local junior football team. The cave they entered became flooded. Thai Navy SEAL divers had been searching the caves ever since. Owing to heavy rain which further flooded the cave entrance, searches were periodically interrupted. Thai NAVY divers soon got help from American, Australian, British, and Chinese divers, military members, and emergency personnel.\n", "BULLET::::- United States: On 28 June, the US military’s Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM) deployed 36 personnel from Okinawa, including airmen from 353rd Special Operations Group and the 31st Rescue Squadron. According to Military.com, they joined seven other personnel, including a member of Joint US Military Advisory Group Thailand. Pentagon spokesman Colonel Rob Manning said that US personnel had \"staged equipment and prepared the first three chambers of the cave for safe passage. The US contingent assisted in transporting the evacuees through the final chambers of the system, and provided medical personnel and other technical assistance to the rescue efforts.\"\n", "On Saturday 23 June 2018, a group of twelve boys aged between 11 and 16 from a local junior football team named the \"Wild Boars\" and their 25-year-old assistant coach, Ekkaphon Chanthawong, went missing after setting out to explore the cave. According to early news reports, they planned to have a birthday party in the cave after the football practice, and spent a significant sum of money on food, but they refuted this in a news conference after the rescue. The team was stranded in the tunnels by sudden and continuous rainfall after they had entered the cave. They had to leave some food supplies behind when fleeing the rising water.\n", "Section::::Search and contact.\n", "Section::::Timeline.\n\n23 June: The team entered the Tham Luang cave shortly after practice and prior to heavy rain. Later, the mother of one of the boys reported to local police that her son was missing after he failed to arrive home. Local police investigated and found shoes and bicycles near the entrance of the cave after rumors spread about them going into the Tham Luang cave.\n\n24 June: Handprints and footprints of the boys were found by officials. A vigil is held outside the cave by relatives.\n", "A logistics camp was established at the cave entrance, which accommodated hundreds of volunteers and journalists in addition to the rescue workers. The site was divided into several zones: restricted areas for the Thai Navy SEALs, other military personnel, and civilian rescuers, an area for the relatives to give them privacy, and areas for the press and for the general public.\n", "Multiple dangers—the threat of more heavy rain, dropping oxygen levels, and the difficulty or impossibility of finding or drilling an escape passage—forced rescuers to make the decision to bring out the team and coach with experienced divers. The Thai Navy SEALs and US Air Force rescue experts met with the Thai Minister of the Interior who approved the plan. Ninety divers worked in the cave system, forty from Thailand and fifty from other countries. Rescuers at first considered teaching the boys basic diving skills to enable them to make the journey. Organisers built a mock-up of a tight passage with chairs, and divers practiced with local boys in a school swimming pool. Thai SEALs and US Air Force experts then refined the plan to use teams of divers to bring out the weakened boys.\n", "BULLET::::- On 5 January 2019, the Asian Football Federation awarded the \"Wild Boars\" a two-year support program, which will provide the club with technical support and training equipment and 100 Molten match balls a year. Three of the boys and their coach were invited to the 2019 AFC Asian Cup in United Arab Emirates to watch Thailand vs. India match on January 6, 2019 as guests of honor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Modesto Varischetti (1907)\n\nBULLET::::- Alpazat cave rescue (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- Beaconsfield Mine collapse (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Copiapó mining accident\n\nBULLET::::- Riesending cave rescue (2014)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "3 July: Seven Thai Navy divers, including Doctor Pak Loharnshoon and a medic, went to deliver food, medicine and supplies to the boys, including high calorie gels and paracetamol. Four of them, including Loharnshoon, volunteered to stay with the boys inside the cave for a week until all 12 were extracted. They would be the last people to exit the cave.\n", "Between 8 and 10 July, all of the boys and their coach were rescued from the cave by an international team.\n\nThe rescue effort involved more than 10,000 people, including over 100 divers, many rescue workers, representatives from about 100 governmental agencies, 900 police officers and 2,000 soldiers, and required ten police helicopters, seven police ambulances, more than 700 diving cylinders, and the pumping of more than a billion litres of water out of the caves.\n", "The group was found alive on Monday evening, 2 July, according to a press release at 22:30. All 12 boys along with their coach were reported alive. They were found by British volunteer divers around 400 metres away from a spot nicknamed \"Pattaya Beach\", an elevated mound in the cave. Food and medical supplies were delivered but a three-hour-long journey, continued rains and mountainous terrain above the cave delayed their escape. On 8 July at 19:00 four of the boys had been rescued. By 10 July at 19:00, all of the boys and their coach had been rescued from the cave.\n", "25 June: Thai Navy SEAL divers enter the cave to search for the team.\n\n26 June: Having arrived at a T-junction, divers were pushed back due to floodwaters. The floodwaters blocked an elevated air pocket near Pattaya Beach, where divers believe the team may have been stranded.\n\n27 June: British and a US military team of divers and experts were sent to Thailand to help with the search. Divers re-entered but quickly retreated due to another flooding.\n", "On 3 July the trapped group were joined by three Thai Navy SEALs who supported them until the rescue. The SEALS included Thai Army doctor Lt. Col. Pak Loharachun of the 3rd Medical Battalion, who had completed the Navy SEALs course. Thai officials told reporters that rescuers were providing health checks and treatment and keeping the boys entertained, and that none of those trapped was in serious condition. \"They have been fed with easy-to-digest, high-energy food with vitamins and minerals, under the supervision of a doctor\", Rear Admiral Apagorn Youkonggaew, head of the Thai Navy's Special Forces, told reporters. A video made by the rescuers, and shared a few hours later by the Thai Navy SEALs, showed all twelve boys and their coach introducing themselves and stating their age. Wrapped in emergency blankets and appearing frail, they all said hello to the outside world. \"\"Sawatdi khrap\"\", each boy said with his palms together in \"wai\", the traditional Thai greeting. A second video shows a medic treating them. It was believed that some of the group could not swim, complicating what would already be a difficult rescue. The Army doctor discovered that they had attempted to dig their way out of the cave. The team members had used rock fragments to dig every day, creating a hole five metres deep.\n", "BULLET::::- Alpazat cave rescue in 2004. Several British military personnel on a recreational expedition were trapped in a cave in Mexico after flooding. They were rescued after nine days underground by Richard Stanton and Jason Mallinson from the British Cave Rescue Organisation.\n", "The international cave diving team was led by four British divers John Volanthen, Richard Stanton, Jason Mallinson, Chris Jewell each assigned a boy and two Australians, Dr Richard Harris, a physician specializing in anesthesia, and Craig Challen. Their portion of the journey would stretch over 1 kilometre going through submerged routes while being supported by 90 Thai and foreign divers at various points performing medical check-ups, resupplying air-tanks for the main divers and other emergency roles.\n", "On 2 July 2018, the cave was brought to international prominence when twelve members of a junior association football team and their assistant coach were found deep inside the cave. They had become trapped due to monsoonal flooding on 23 June. A rescue effort succeeded in bringing them out safely by 10 July. One Thai rescue diver died in the attempt.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nSection::::Description.:Name.\n\nThe cave is also known as Tham Luang (), Tham Nam Cham (), and Tham Yai (). Since 'Tham' means 'cave', the commonly used phrase Tham Luang cave is tautological.\n\nSection::::Description.:Geology.\n", "Section::::Responses.:International.\n\nOver the course of two weeks, hundreds of volunteers, military specialists and corporate experts arrived from around the world to offer assistance in the rescue.\n", "BULLET::::- United Kingdom: The British Cave Rescue Council sent eight experienced cave rescue divers, some familiar with caves in Thailand, to lead the diving team; three cave rescue personnel; and special equipment. Vernon Unsworth, a British man living in the area, was the first person with caving expertise on the site. John Volanthen and Rick Stanton discovered the boys and led the cave diving team. Chris Jewell and Jason Mallinson brought of diving equipment. Other divers involved included Connor Roe and Josh Bratchley. Other cave rescue personnel, Mike Clayton, and Gary Mitchell provided surface control for the divers, along with Robert Harper who had initially deployed among the first three U.K. divers. Tim Acton deployed as a friend of the Thai Navy SEAL's.\n", "BULLET::::- Riesending cave rescue in 2014. Johann Westhauser was hit on the head by a boulder below the entrance of Riesending Cave, in Germany. 728 people were involved in his evacuation which took 11 days.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19974	How do we tell how old distant planets are?	Calculation and deduction from things we can detect. Stars for example work on a balance between gravity and fusion heat. Gravity pulls the star together but once the component materials such as hydrogen are compressed and heated enough they fuse together, releasing energy which pushes the material apart. This also slows the rate of reaction. So a bigger star then has more gravity and can burn more fuel (and is forced to do so). Heated elements also emit an identifiable spectra of light, so we can look at a star's light and determine what it is composed of. Then by gaging its brightness we can see how quickly it is burning fuel and as a consequence how massive it must be. From that we can conclude how old the star must be, and planets that orbit that star usually formed from the same field of material as the star. Different compositions of planet form at different speeds and so by determining the general makeup of the planet the estimate can again be narrowed down.	[ "BULLET::::- PSR B1620-26 b: On July 10, using information obtained from the Hubble Space Telescope, a team of scientists led by Steinn Sigurðsson confirmed the oldest extrasolar planet yet. The planet is located in the globular star cluster M4, about 5,600 light years from Earth in the constellation Scorpius. This is one of only three planets known to orbit around a stellar binary; one of the stars in the binary is a pulsar and the other is a white dwarf. The planet has a mass twice that of Jupiter, and is estimated to be 12.7 billion years old.\n\nSection::::2004.\n", "There are uncertainties in the figures for mass and radius, and irregularities in the shape and density, with accuracy often depending on how close the object is to Earth or whether it has been visited by a probe.\n\nSection::::List of objects by radius.\n\nSection::::List of objects by radius.:Larger than 400 km.\n", "At the beginning of the solar system, there were several relatively short-lived radionuclides like Al, Fe, Mn, and I present within the solar nebula. These radionuclides—possibly produced by the explosion of a supernova—are extinct today, but their decay products can be detected in very old material, such as that which constitutes meteorites. By measuring the decay products of extinct radionuclides with a mass spectrometer and using isochronplots, it is possible to determine relative ages of different events in the early history of the solar system. Dating methods based on extinct radionuclides can also be calibrated with the U-Pb method to give absolute ages. Thus both the approximate age and a high time resolution can be obtained. Generally a shorter half-life leads to a higher time resolution at the expense of timescale.\n", "For centuries scientists, philosophers, and science fiction writers suspected that extrasolar planets existed, but there was no way of detecting them or of knowing their frequency or how similar they might be to the planets of the Solar System. Various detection claims made in the nineteenth century were rejected by astronomers. The first evidence of an exoplanet (Van Maanen 2) was noted as early as 1917, but was not recognized as such. The first suspected scientific detection of an exoplanet occurred in 1988. Shortly afterwards, the first confirmed detection came in 1992, with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star was made in 1995, when a giant planet was found in a four-day orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi. Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes, but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods, such as the transit method and the radial-velocity method. In February 2018, researchers using the Chandra X-ray Observatory, combined with a planet detection technique called microlensing, found evidence of planets in a distant galaxy, stating \"Some of these exoplanets are as (relatively) small as the moon, while others are as massive as Jupiter. Unlike Earth, most of the exoplanets are not tightly bound to stars, so they're actually wandering through space or loosely orbiting between stars. We can estimate that the number of planets in this [faraway] galaxy is more than a trillion.\n", "Section::::Geology.:Planetology.\n\nRelative dating is used to determine the order of events on Solar System objects other than Earth; for decades, planetary scientists have used it to decipher the development of bodies in the Solar System, particularly in the vast majority of cases for which we have no surface samples. Many of the same principles are applied. For example, if a valley is formed inside an impact crater, the valley must be younger than the crater.\n", "Along with other factors, the presence of a protoplanetary disk sets a maximum limit on the age of stars. Stars with protoplanetary disks are typically young, having moved onto the main sequence only a relatively short time ago. Over time, this disk would coalesce to form planets, with leftover material being deposited into various asteroid belts and other similar locations. However, the presence of pulsar planets complicates this method as a determinant of age.\n\nSection::::Gyrochronology.\n", "Section::::Minor planets.:TNOs with an aphelion larger than 200 AU.\n\nThe following group of bodies have orbits with an aphelion above 200 AU, with 1-sigma uncertainties given to two significant digits.\n\nBULLET::::- 8114 ±500\n\nBULLET::::- 3390 ±1400\n\nBULLET::::- 3248.7 ±7.5\n\nBULLET::::- 2081 ±430\n\nBULLET::::- 2064.1 ±5.1\n\nBULLET::::- 2037 ±340\n\nBULLET::::- 1612 ±12\n\nBULLET::::- 1547 ±2\n\nBULLET::::- 1297 ±41\n\nBULLET::::- 1126 ±49\n\nBULLET::::- 1062.00 ±0.49\n\nBULLET::::- 1000.3 ±3.8\n\nBULLET::::- 990 ±130\n\nBULLET::::- 902.29 ±0.44\n\nBULLET::::- 890.5 ±1.1\n\nBULLET::::- 863 ±1\n\nBULLET::::- 822 ±230\n\nBULLET::::- 778 ±63\n\nBULLET::::- 772.20 ±0.46\n\nBULLET::::- 747 ±23\n\nBULLET::::- 707.17 ±0.22\n\nBULLET::::- 671 ±46\n\nBULLET::::- 665 ±22\n", "Transit-timing variation can also be used to find a planet's mass.\n\nSection::::Physical parameters.:Radius, density, and bulk composition.\n\nPrior to recent results from the \"Kepler\" space observatory, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are most easily detected. However, the planets detected by \"Kepler\" are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.\n", "Kepler (2009-2013) and K2 (2013- ) have discovered over 2000 verified exoplanets. Hubble Space Telescope and MOST have also found or confirmed a few planets. The infrared Spitzer Space Telescope has been used to detect transits of extrasolar planets, as well as occultations of the planets by their host star and phase curves.\n\nThe Gaia mission, launched in December 2013, will use astrometry to determine the true masses of 1000 nearby exoplanets.\n\nCHEOPS and TESS, to be launched in 2018, and PLATO in 2024 will use the transit method.\n\nSection::::Verification and falsification methods.\n\nBULLET::::- Verification by multiplicity\n", "The data given for each planet is taken from the latest published paper on the planet to have that data. In many cases it is not possible to have an exact value, and an estimated range is instead provided. The least massive planet is Fomalhaut b, which has a mass of 2 M or less. The coldest and oldest is 59 Virginis b with a mean temperature of 240 °C and age of 100–500 million years.\n\nThis list includes the four members of the multi-planet system that orbit HR 8799.\n\nSection::::Key.\n", "Section::::Established detection methods.:Transit photometry.:History.\n", "The main advantage of the transit method is that the size of the planet can be determined from the lightcurve. When combined with the radial-velocity method (which determines the planet's mass), one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the planet's physical structure. The planets that have been studied by both methods are by far the best-characterized of all known exoplanets.\n", "On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on \"Kepler\" space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way galaxy. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away.\n", "BULLET::::- Discovered that planetary debris disks around young stars can vary in amount of dust on yearly or even monthly timescales, providing a glimpse into the violent events that build terrestrial planets[12,13].\n", "Section::::Detection of extrasolar asteroids and debris disks.:Contamination of stellar atmospheres.\n\nSpectral analysis of white dwarfs' atmospheres often finds contamination of heavier elements like magnesium and calcium. These elements cannot originate from the stars' core, and it is probable that the contamination comes from asteroids that got too close (within the Roche limit) to these stars by gravitational interaction with larger planets and were torn apart by star's tidal forces. Up to 50% of young white dwarfs may be contaminated in this manner.\n", "Distances to astronomical objects may be determined through parallax measurements, use of standard references such as cepheid variables or Type Ia supernovas, or redshift measurement. Spectroscopic redshift measurement is preferred, while photometric redshift measurement is also used to identify candidate high redshift sources. The symbol \"z\" represents redshift.\n\nSection::::List of objects by year of discovery that turned out to be most distant.\n", "Crater counting is a method for estimating the age of a planet's surface. The method is based upon the assumptions that when a piece of planetary surface is new, then it has no impact craters; impact craters accumulate after that at a rate that is assumed known. Consequently, counting how many craters of various sizes there are in a given area allows determining how long they have accumulated and, consequently, how long ago the surface has formed. The method has been calibrated using the ages obtained by radiometric dating of samples returned from the Moon by the Luna and Apollo missions. It has been used to estimate the age of areas on Mars and other planets that were covered by lava flows, on the Moon of areas covered by giant mares, and how long ago areas on the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn flooded with new ice.\n", "BULLET::::- The Extrasolar Planet Observations and Characterization (EPOCh) mission used the Deep Impact high-resolution camera in 2008 to better characterize known giant extrasolar planets orbiting other stars and to search for additional planets in the same system. The Principal Investigator was L. Drake Deming of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.\n", "BULLET::::- C/1974 F1 (Lovas) 15129\n\nBULLET::::- C/2013 J5 (Boattini) 14297\n\nBULLET::::- C/2006 Q1 (McNaught) 13768\n\nBULLET::::- C/2014 Q6 (PANSTARRS) 13761\n\nBULLET::::- C/1975 V1-A (West) 13560\n\nBULLET::::- C/1999 F1 (Catalina) 13390\n\nSection::::Comets with greatest aphelion (2 body heliocentric).:Distant periodic comets with well-known aphelion.\n\nThese can also change significantly such as if perturbed by Jupiter\n\nBULLET::::- 153P/Ikeya–Zhang (0.5–102)\n\nBULLET::::- 273P/Pons–Gambart (0.8–63)\n\nBULLET::::- 35P/Herschel–Rigollet (0.7–57 AU, returns in 2092)\n\nBULLET::::- Comet Swift–Tuttle (0.96-51 AU)\n\nBULLET::::- 177P/Barnard (1–47)\n\nBULLET::::- Halley's Comet (0.59-35, for many years the most distant aphelion known)\n\nBULLET::::- 165P/LINEAR (7–29)\n\nBULLET::::- 122P/de Vico (0.6–34)\n\nBULLET::::- 12P/Pons–Brooks (0.7–33.5)\n", "Not all the planet candidates go through this process. Circumbinary planets do not show strictly periodic transits, and have to be inspected through other methods. In addition, third-party researchers use different data-processing methods, or even search planet candidates from the unprocessed light curve data. As a consequence, those planets may be missing KOI designation.\n\nSection::::Planet finding process.:Confirming planet candidates.\n\nOnce suitable candidates have been found from Kepler data, it is necessary to rule out false positives with follow-up tests.\n", "This is important because the presence of the three mineral phases allows investigation of isotopic dates using samples that provide a great separation in concentrations between parent and daughter nuclides. This is particularly true of uranium and lead. Lead is strongly chalcophilic and is found in the sulfide at a much greater concentration than in the silicate, versus uranium. Because of this segregation in the parent and daughter nuclides during the formation of the meteorite, this allowed a much more precise date of the formation of the solar disk and hence the planets than ever before.\n", "In 1987 María Teresa Ruiz decided to start The Calán-ESO proper-motion survey using red plates taken (starting from the 1970s) with the 1-m ESO Schmidt Camera at La Silla Observatory, Chile. The survey was not specially designed for search for brown dwarfs, but in the main for search for another type of celestial bodies—white dwarfs. Pairs of plates, separated by long span of time, were compared with blink comparator to detect objects with high proper motion. Objects with high proper motion, which were found, were selected for follow-up spectroscopy using the 3.6-m telescope, equipped with EFOSC1, at the same observatory.\n", "Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs, rather than deuterium fusion, formation process or location, is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure with the dividing line at around 5 Jupiter masses.\n\nSection::::Detection methods.\n\nSection::::Detection methods.:Direct imaging.\n", "Section::::Planetary system.\n\nOn August 24, 2010, a research team led by Christophe Lovis of the University of Geneva announced that the star has at least five planets, and possibly as many as seven. The planets were detected using the HARPS spectrograph, in conjunction with the ESO's 3.6 m telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile, using Doppler spectroscopy.\n", "Apart from their distance to the Sun, different bodies show chemical variations indicating their formation and history. Neptune is denser than Uranus, taken as one piece of evidence that the two may have switched places in the early Solar System. Comets show both high volatile content, and grains containing refractory materials. This also indicates some mixing of materials through the Solar System when those comets formed. Mercury's inventory of materials by volatility is being used to evaluate different models for its formation and/or subsequent modification.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01187	When you hold something hot in your hand, and have to let go, why does the pain you get come delayed for like 1 second?	The movement of the arm away from a hot object is a reflex action, your central nervous system doesn't wait for the message to reach the brain and instead the reflex is entirely handled by nervous system elements in your spine. The fact that you moved your hand away from the hot object before you 'felt' the pain (in your brain) draws your attention to the phenomena and makes it seem as though you chose to move your hand away before feeling anything hence the perceived delay.	[ "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "The two basic types of sensation are touch-position and pain-temperature. Touch-position input comes to attention immediately, but pain-temperature input reaches the level of consciousness after a delay; when a person steps on a pin, the awareness of stepping on something is immediate but the pain associated with it is delayed.\n", "Recently this idea has regained some credibility under a new term, central sensitization. Central sensitization occurs when neurons in the spinal cord's dorsal horn or brainstem become more responsive after repeated stimulation by peripheral neurons, so that weaker signals can trigger them. The delay in appearance of referred pain shown in laboratory experiments can be explained due to the time required to create the central sensitization.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Axon-reflex.\n", "During the first nerve impulse, concentration was either significantly below or nearing that of the second impulse. When concentration was approaching that of the second impulse, facilitation was increased. In this first experiment, stimuli were presented in intervals of 100 ms between the first and second stimuli. An absolute refractory period was reached when intervals were about 10 ms apart.\n", "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "Although there are numerous definitions of pain, almost all involve two key components. First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example in humans would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example in humans would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "Nociceptors have two different types of axons. The first are the fast myelinated axons which allow an action potential to travel at a rate of about 20 meters/second towards the CNS. They are primarily of the Aδ fiber type though there is also a small but significant fraction of the even faster Aβ fibres involved in fast pain signalling. The other type is the more slowly conducting C fiber axons. These only conduct at speeds of around 2 meters/second. This is due to the light or non-myelination of the axon. As a result, pain comes in two phases. The first phase is mediated by the fast-conducting Aδ fibers and the second part due to (Polymodal) C fibers. The pain associated with the Aδ fibers can be associated to an initial extremely sharp pain. The second phase is a more prolonged and slightly less intense feeling of pain as a result of the acute damage. If there is massive or prolonged input to a C fiber, there is a progressive build up in the spinal cord dorsal horn; this phenomenon is similar to tetanus in muscles but is called wind-up. If wind-up occurs there is a probability of increased sensitivity to pain.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Imaging.:Nerve latency testing.\n\nThe time taken for a muscle supplied by the pudendal nerve to contract in response to an electrical stimulus applied to the sensory and motor fibers can be quantified. Increased conduction time (terminal motor latency) signifies damage to the nerve. 2 stimulating electrodes and 2 measuring electrodes are mounted on the examiner's gloved finger (\"St Mark's electrode\").\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Nociceptors have two different types of axons. The first are the Aδ fiber axons. They are myelinated and can allow an action potential to travel at a rate of about 20 meters/second towards the CNS. The other type is the more slowly conducting C fiber axons. These only conduct at speeds of around 2 meters/second. This is due to the light or non-myelination of the axon. As a result, pain comes in two phases. The first phase is mediated by the fast-conducting Aδ fibers and the second part due to (Polymodal) C fibers. The pain associated with the Aδ fibers can be associated to an initial extremely sharp pain. The second phase is a more prolonged and slightly less intense feeling of pain as a result of the acute damage. If there is massive or prolonged input to a C fiber, there is a progressive build up in the spinal cord dorsal horn; this phenomenon is similar to tetanus in muscles but is called wind-up. If wind-up occurs there is a probability of increased sensitivity to pain.\n", "As assessments of whether the right to an expeditious trial has been granted must be made on an ad hoc basis, McGuinness J concluded that taken as a whole, \"the delays in the latter period of the prosecution of the applicant amount to a denial of his right to an expeditious trial. There is also a real risk that this may lead to an unfair trial.”\n", "Additional research has shown that the experience of pain is shaped by a plethora of contextual factors, including vision. Researchers have found that when a subject views the area of their body that is being stimulated, the subject will report a lowered amount of perceived pain. For example, one research study used a heat stimulation on their subjects' hands. When the subject was directed to look at their hand when the painful heat stimulus was applied, the subject experienced an analgesic effect and reported a higher temperature pain threshold. Additionally, when the view of their hand was increased, the analgesic effect also increased and vice versa. This research demonstrated how the perception of pain relies on visual input.\n", "Any mechanical process encounters limitations modeled by Newtonian physics. The behavior of disk drives provides an example of mechanical latency. Here, it is the time seek time for the actuator arm to be positioned above the appropriate track and then rotational latency for the data encoded on a platter to rotate from its current position to a position under the disk read-and-write head.\n\nSection::::Computer hardware and operating system latency.\n", "The cold water release is most suitable for foods with short cooking times. It takes about 20 seconds for the cooker to cool down enough to lower the pressure so that it can be safely opened. This method is not suitable for electric pressure cookers, as they are not immersible.\n\nThe cold water release method is not recommended when cooking pulses e.g. red kidney beans, as the sudden release of pressure can cause the bean to burst its skin.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Pressure settings.\n", "“right to an expeditious trial is implied in the right to a fair trial. There is a danger that a lengthy delay in itself will, through its effect on the memory of potential witnesses and of the accused person himself, render a trial unfair. … In the case of the applicant his loss of contact with his motor cycling associates, together with his anxiety and concern at the impending proceedings against him and the fact that he has now been charged with a less serious offence must be added factors.”\n", "Sensorimotor contagion is an automatic reduction in corticospinal excitability due observing another person experiencing pain. In a study by Avenanti on pain empathy in racial bias, it was shown that when a person sees a needle being poked into the hand of another person, there is a reduced motor evoked potential (MEP) in the muscle of the observer’s hand.\n\nSection::::Lack of pain empathy.\n", "Their results demonstrated that a prepulse before a stimulus pulse effectively reduces the probability that pain will be experienced due to electrocutaneous stimulation. Surprisingly enough, a prepulse of 32% of the amplitude of the stimulus pulse was able to nearly half the probability of experiencing pain. Therefore, in environments in which the pain threshold is difficult to discern, it may be sufficient to deliver a relatively low amplitude prepulse before the stimulus to achieve the desired effects.\n\nSection::::Depolarizing prepulse applications.:Nerve fiber recruitment order.\n", "Other measures can also be obtained from the cold pressor such as pain threshold and pain tolerance. This is done by requiring a participant to place their hand in the cold pressor for as long as they can. Once pain is present, they let the researcher know. Once the pain is unbearable, the participant removes his/her hand. This provides a measure of threshold (first feeling pain) and tolerance (total time minus threshold). This method is the most frequently used application of the cold pressor task. Comparable in terms of pain elicitation is the hot water immersion test, the equivalent to the cold pressor using hot water. The hot water immersion test (HIT) is equally capable of triggering a pain response without the confounding of baroreflex activation.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nPRP is a product of the psychological refractory period paradigm, a paradigm in which two different stimuli are presented in rapid succession, each requiring a fast response. Stimulus onset asynchrony, the time that lapses between the presentations of the two stimuli, acts as the \"independent variable\" in this paradigm, and the reaction time to the second stimulus acts as the \"dependent variable\".\n", "Many illusions in vision are caused by adaptation, the prolonged exposure to a previous stimulus. In such cases, the perception of a subsequent stimulus is altered. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as a contingent after-effect. Similarly, adaptation can cause such illusions in the sense of touch.\n\nBULLET::::- If one hand is immersed in cold water and the other in hot for a minute or so, and then both hands are placed in lukewarm water, the lukewarm water will feel hot to the hand previously immersed in cold water, and cold to the hand previously immersed in hot water.\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example in humans would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "Section::::Interoceptive physiology.:Nociceptive system.\n\nNociception refers to the receiving and processing of pain inducing stimuli by the central nervous system. Functional brain imaging studies during painful stimulation of the skin with heated probes, during mechanical compression, and electric shock have suggested that the insular cortex is prominently activated during pain processing. Thus while pain was once thought of as an exteroceptive sensation, based on functional imaging and anatomical evidence it is now understood that it has an interoceptive component.\n\nSection::::Interoceptive physiology.:Thermoregulatory system.\n", "Axon reflex suggests that the afferent fiber is bifurcated before connecting to the dorsal horn. Bifurcated fibers do exist in muscle, skin, and intervertebral discs. Yet these particular neurons are rare and are not representative of the whole body. Axon-Reflex also does not explain the time delay before the appearance of referred pain, threshold differences for stimulating local and referred pain, and somatosensory sensibility changes in the area of referred pain.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Hyperexcitability.\n", "A painful facial expression is one way in which the experience of pain is communicated from one individual to another. One study aimed to measure test subject’s related brain activity and facial muscle activity when they watched video clips of a variety of facial expressions including neutral emotion, joy, fear, and pain. The study found that when a subject is shown a painful facial expression, their late positive potential (LPP) is increased during the time period of 600–1000ms after the initial exposure of the stimulus. This increase in LPP for painful facial expressions was higher than the increase caused by other emotional expressions. \n", "For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23169	where does the energy come from if we burn hydrogen	Atoms in molecules are held together with bonds. Since it takes energy to break these bonds, naturally, energy is released when they are formed. Whether a chemical reaction results in a net gain or loss of energy depends on the energy required to break the bonds of the reactants and the energy released in the formation of the binds of the products. In the case of burning hydrogen, you are breaking H-H bonds and O-O bonds and forming H-O bonds. The H-H and O-O bonds require less energy to break than is released in the formation of the H-O bonds, so you have excess energy.	[ "If carried out in atmospheric air instead of pure oxygen, as is usually the case, hydrogen combustion may yield small amounts of nitrogen oxides, along with the water vapor.\n\nThe energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. In an electrochemical cell, that energy can be used with relatively high efficiency. If it is used simply for heat, the usual thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply.\n", "Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in activated carbon and 10% in superheated steam.\n\nSection::::Production, storage, infrastructure.:Experimental production methods.\n\nSection::::Production, storage, infrastructure.:Experimental production methods.:Biological production.\n", "Hydrogen has a high energy density by weight but has a low energy density by volume. Even when highly compressed or liquified, the energy density by volume is only 1/4 that of gasoline, although the energy density by weight is approximately three times that of gasoline or natural gas. An Otto-cycle internal-combustion engine running on hydrogen is said to have a maximum efficiency of about 38%, 8% higher than a gasoline internal-combustion engine.\n", "The bidirectional or reversible reaction catalyzed by hydrogenase allows for the capture and storage of renewable energy as fuel with use on demand. This can be demonstrated through the chemical storage of electricity obtained from a renewable source (e.g. solar, wind, hydrothermal) as H during periods of low energy demands. When energy is desired, H can be oxidized to produce electricity.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Hydrogenase-based biofuel cells.:Advantages.\n", "Hydrogen is usually considered an energy carrier, like electricity, as it must be produced from a primary energy source such as solar energy, biomass, electricity (e.g. in the form of solar PV or via wind turbines), or hydrocarbons such as natural gas or coal. Conventional hydrogen production using natural gas induces significant environmental impacts; as with the use of any hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is emitted.\n\nSection::::Production and storage.\n", "Because pure hydrogen does not occur naturally on Earth in large quantities, it usually requires a primary energy input to produce on an industrial scale. Common production methods include electrolysis and steam-methane reforming. In electrolysis, electricity is run through water to separate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. This method can use wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, fossil fuels, biomass, nuclear, and many other energy sources. Obtaining hydrogen from this process is being studied as a viable way to produce it domestically at a low cost. Steam-methane reforming, the current leading technology for producing hydrogen in large quantities, extracts hydrogen from methane. However, this reaction releases fossil carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere which are greenhouse gases exogenous to the natural carbon cycle, and thus contribute to climate change.\n", "In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (\"see:\" direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water. When hydrogen is used, the CO2 is released when methane from natural gas is combined with steam, in a process called steam methane reforming, to produce the hydrogen. This can take place in a different location to the fuel cell, potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors—for example, in fork lifts.\n", "There are also several physico-chemical methods for producing hydrogen; most of these methods require electrolysis of water. When this process draws its power from renewable energy sources like wind turbines or photovoltaic cells, the production requires little consumption of non-renewable resources. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel.\n\nSection::::Processed engineered fuel.\n", "An accounting of the energy utilized during a thermodynamic process, known as an energy balance, can be applied to automotive fuels. With today's technology, the manufacture of hydrogen via steam reforming can be accomplished with a thermal efficiency of 75 to 80 percent. Additional energy will be required to liquefy or compress the hydrogen, and to transport it to the filling station via truck or pipeline. The energy that must be utilized per kilogram to produce, transport and deliver hydrogen (i.e., its well-to-tank energy use) is approximately 50 MJ using technology available in 2004. Subtracting this energy from the enthalpy of one kilogram of hydrogen, which is 141 MJ, and dividing by the enthalpy, yields a thermal energy efficiency of roughly 60%. Gasoline, by comparison, requires less energy input, per gallon, at the refinery, and comparatively little energy is required to transport it and store it owing to its high energy density per gallon at ambient temperatures. Well-to-tank, the supply chain for gasoline is roughly 80% efficient (Wang, 2002). Another grid-based method of supplying hydrogen would be to use electrical to run electrolysers. Roughly 6% of electricity is lost during transmission along power lines, and the process of converting the fossil fuel to electricity in the first place is roughly 33 percent efficient. Thus if efficiency is the key determinant it would be unlikely hydrogen vehicles would be fueled by such a method, and indeed viewed this way, electric vehicles would appear to be a better choice. However, as noted above, hydrogen can be produced from a number of feedstocks, in centralized or distributed fashion, and these afford more efficient pathways to produce and distribute the fuel.\n", "Section::::Rationale.\n\nA hydrogen economy was proposed by the University of Michigan to solve some of the negative effects of using hydrocarbon fuels where the carbon is released to the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons, etc.). Modern interest in the hydrogen economy can generally be traced to a 1970 technical report by Lawrence W. Jones of the University of Michigan.\n", "Section::::Production, storage, infrastructure.:Experimental production methods.:Photoelectrocatalytic production.\n\nA method studied by Thomas Nann and his team at the University of East Anglia consists of a gold electrode covered in layers of indium phosphide (InP) nanoparticles. They introduced an iron-sulfur complex into the layered arrangement, which when submerged in water and irradiated with light under a small electric current, produced hydrogen with an efficiency of 60%.\n", "Section::::Production, storage, infrastructure.:Current production methods.\n\nHydrogen is industrially produced from steam reforming, which uses fossil fuels such as natural gas. The energy content of the produced hydrogen is less than the energy content of the original fuel, some of it being lost as excessive heat during production. Steam reforming emits carbon dioxide.\n\nA small part (4% in 2006) is produced by electrolysis using electricity and water, consuming approximately 50 kilowatt-hours of electricity per kilogram of hydrogen produced.\n\nSection::::Production, storage, infrastructure.:Current production methods.:Electrolysis of water.\n", "In the first method, hydrogen is injected into the natural gas grid or is used in transport or industry. The second method is to combine the hydrogen with carbon dioxide to produce methane using a methanation reaction such as the Sabatier reaction, or biological methanation, resulting in an extra energy conversion loss of 8%. The methane may then be fed into the natural gas grid. The third method uses the output gas of a wood gas generator or a biogas plant, after the biogas upgrader is mixed with the hydrogen from the electrolyzer, to upgrade the quality of the biogas.\n", "In the current hydrocarbon economy, transportation is fueled primarily by petroleum and heating by natural gas. Burning of hydrocarbon fuels emits carbon dioxide and other pollutants. The demand for energy is increasing, particularly in China, India, and other developing countries.\n", "Thermochemical cycles combine solely heat sources (\"thermo\") with \"chemical\" reactions to split water into its hydrogen and oxygen components. The term \"cycle\" is used because aside from water, hydrogen and oxygen, the chemical compounds used in these processes are continuously recycled. If electricity is partially used as an input, the resulting thermochemical cycle is defined as a hybrid one.\n", "As of 1999, the majority of hydrogen (∼95%) is produced from fossil fuels by steam reforming or partial oxidation of methane and coal gasification with only a small quantity by other routes such as biomass gasification or electrolysis of water. Around 8GW of electrolysis capacity is installed \n\nworldwide, accounting for around 4% of global hydrogen production. Developing affordable methods for producing hydrogen with less damage to the environment is a goal of the hydrogen economy. Electrolysis of water using electricity produced from fossil fuels emits significant amounts of CO2.\n\nSection::::Steam reforming.\n", "Besides regular electrolysis, electrolysis using microbes is another possibility. With biocatalysed electrolysis, hydrogen is generated after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of aquatic plants can be used. These include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines, and algae\n\nSection::::Production, storage, infrastructure.:Experimental production methods.:High-pressure electrolysis.\n", "Many microbial metabolisms produce or consume H.\n\nSection::::Biotic cycles.:Production.\n\nHydrogen is produced by hydrogenases and nitrogenases enzymes in many microorganisms, some of which are being studied for their potential for biofuel production. These H-metabolizing enzymes are found in all three domains of life, and out of known genomes over 30% of microbial taxa contain hydrogenase genes. Fermentation produces H from organic matter as part of the anaerobic microbial food chain via light-dependent or light-independent pathways. \n\nSection::::Biotic cycles.:Consumption.\n", "The energy density per unit \"volume\" of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources, although the energy density per unit fuel \"mass\" is higher. Nevertheless, elemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible future \"carrier\" of energy on an economy-wide scale. For example, sequestration followed by carbon capture and storage could be conducted at the point of production from fossil fuels. Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NO emissions, but without carbon emissions. However, the infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial. Fuel cells can convert hydrogen and oxygen directly to electricity more efficiently than internal combustion engines.\n", "Hydrogen is locked up in enormous quantities in water, hydrocarbons, and other organic matter. One of the challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel comes from being able to efficiently extract hydrogen from these compounds. Now, steam reforming, which combines high-temperature steam with natural gas, accounts for the majority of the hydrogen produced. This method of hydrogen production occurs at temperatures between 700-1100°C, and has a resultant efficiency of between 60-75%. Hydrogen can also be produced from water through electrolysis, which is less carbon intensive if the electricity used to drive the reaction does not come from fossil-fuel power plants but rather renewable or nuclear energy instead. The efficiency of water electrolysis is between about 70-80%, with a goal set to reach 82-86% efficiency by 2030 using proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. Once produced, hydrogen can be used in much the same way as natural gas - it can be delivered to fuel cells to generate electricity and heat, used in a combined cycle gas turbine to produce larger quantities of centrally produced electricity or burned to run a combustion engine; all methods producing no carbon or methane emissions. In each case hydrogen is combined with oxygen to form water. The heat in a hydrogen flame is a radiant emission from the newly formed water molecules. The water molecules are in an excited state on initial formation and then transition to a ground state; the transition releasing thermal radiation. When burning in air, the temperature is roughly 2000 °C (the same as natural gas). Historically, carbon has been the most practical carrier of energy, as hydrogen and carbon combined are more volumetrically dense, although hydrogen itself has three times the energy density per weight as methane or gasoline. Although hydrogen is the smallest element and thus has a slightly higher propensity to leak from venerable natural gas pipes such as those made from iron, leakage from plastic (polyethylene PE100) pipes is expected to be very low at about 0.001%. \n", "In a similar chain of transformations beginning at the dawn of the universe, nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to one theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This resulted in hydrogen representing a store of potential energy which can be released by nuclear fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from the gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into starlight. Considering the solar system, starlight, overwhelmingly from the Sun, may again be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth. This occurs in the case of avalanches, or when water evaporates from oceans and is deposited as precipitation high above sea level (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbine/generators to produce electricity).\n", "Hydrogen can be made via high pressure electrolysis, low pressure electrolysis of water, or a range of other emerging electrochemical processes such as high temperature electrolysis or carbon assisted electrolysis. However, current best processes for water electrolysis have an effective electrical efficiency of 70-80%, so that producing 1 kg of hydrogen (which has a specific energy of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50–55 kWh of electricity. At an electricity cost of $0.06/kWh, as set out in the Department of Energy hydrogen production \n", "Overall, about 97% of input carbon fed directly to the process can be converted into synthetic fuel. However, any carbon used in generating hydrogen will be lost as carbon dioxide, so reducing the overall carbon efficiency of the process.\n", "Hydrogen for fuel cells can be produced in many ways. The most common method in the United States (95% of production) is via Gas reforming, specifically using methane, which produces hydrogen from fossil fuels by running them through a high temperature steam process. Since fossil fuels are primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen molecules of various sizes, various fossil fuels can be utilized. For example, methanol, ethanol, and methane can all be used in the reforming process. Electrolysis and high temperature combination cycles are also used to provide hydrogen from water whereby the heat and electricity provide sufficient energy to disassociate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.\n", "Power-to-Gas is an energy process and storage technology, which takes the excess power generated by wind turbines, solar power, or biomass power plants and converts carbon dioxide and water into methane using electrolysis, enabling it be stored. The excess electricity can then be held in existing reserves, including power and natural gas grids. This allows for seasonally adjusted storage of significant amounts of power and the provision of CO2-neutral fuels in the form of the resulting renewable energy source gas.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06673	How can paleontologists tell that they've discovered a new type of dinosaur and it wasn't simply a mutation or larger variant of an already discovered dinosaur.	If the bone structure is so different that no small mutations could explain it. There's room for error in borderline cases.	[ "BULLET::::- A study on the ornithomimosaur fossils from the Lower Cretaceous Arundel Clay (Maryland, United States) published by Brownstein (2017), interpreting the fossils as indicative of the presence of two ornithomimosaur taxa in the Arundel, is criticized by McFeeters, Ryan & Cullen (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the diversity of ornithomimosaur dinosaurs from the Upper Cretaceous Nemegt Formation (Mongolia) as indicated by the morphology of their manus bones is published by Chinzorig \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "BULLET::::- A new specimen of \"Haya griva\" is described from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia by Norell & Barta (2016).\n\nBULLET::::- A reassessment of the holotype locality of \"Leaellynasaura amicagraphica\" is published by Herne, Tait & Salisbury (2016), who argue that several fossils traditionally referred to \"L. amicagraphica\" cannot be confidently attributed to this species.\n", "BULLET::::- Description of two skulls of subadult specimens of \"Tylosaurus proriger\" from the Niobrara Formation (Kansas, United States), and a study on the allometric changes undergone by \"T. proriger\" through life, is published by Stewart & Mallon (2018), who reject the hypothesis presented by Jiménez-Huidobro, Simões & Caldwell (2016) that \"Tylosaurus kansasensis\" is a junior synonym of \"Tylosaurus nepaeolicus\".\n\nBULLET::::- The smallest-known, neonate-sized specimen of \"Tylosaurus\" is described from the Santonian portion of the Niobrara Chalk (Kansas, United States) by Konishi, Jiménez-Huidobro & Caldwell (2018).\n", "From the 1980s onwards, in Alaska more than six thousand bones of hadrosaurid dinosaurs have been uncovered, at the Colville River. They were found north of Umiat in the Liscomb bonebed. At first they were identified as belonging to some member of the Lambeosaurinae. Later, they were referred to \"Edmontosaurus\", more specifically \"Edmontosaurus regalis\", a member of the Saurolophinae. A definite identification was hampered by the fact that most of the bones were of juveniles. In 2014, Hirotsugu Mori solved this problem by statistically determining size classes within the fossil material and comparing the Alaskan bones with known \"Edmontosaurus annectens\" specimens of the same size. He concluded that they represented two separate species.\n", "In June 2011, a more detailed re-study was published in the peer-reviewed journal \"PLoS ONE\" by Denver Fowler, Peter Larson and others reanalyzing the published data, which they stated to be equivocal regarding stratigraphic position, and that ontogenetic interpretation in the description had overestimated the maturity of the specimen. While Sereno had claimed that the vertebrae of \"Raptorex\" were nearly fused, and that the bone histology of the specimen indicated it was a subadult about six years old, Fowler and colleagues argued that Sereno and his team had misinterpreted the growth stage data, and found that the specimen was actually a young juvenile only about three years old. They also found fault with the Sereno team's interpretation of the specimen's age. Fowler and colleagues showed that the fish bone which Sereno had identified as \"Lycoptera\" without comment is actually very different in shape and much larger in size than any known specimen of \"Lycoptera\" and cannot even be assigned to the same order as that genus. Rather, it probably belonged to an ellimmichthyiform fish, which span the entire Cretaceous period, rendering the bone useless for dating. In light of this, they noted that there is no reason to believe the fossil dates to the early Cretaceous, and that given its extreme similarity to juvenile tyrannosaurids, a late Cretaceous age is far more likely. Based on this analysis, Fowler and colleagues concluded that \"Raptorex\" was much more likely to represent a juvenile tyrannosaurid similar to \"Tarbosaurus\", though its exact identity cannot be known without more information about growth patterns in tyrannosaurids, and further efforts to discover its age. Consequently, Sereno's hypothesis that the derived features of tyrannosaurids evolved in the Early Cretaceous cannot be supported by current evidence.\n", "BULLET::::- A study of the bone histology of \"Tenontosaurus tilletti\" is published by Sarah Werning (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A study of the bone histology of \"Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki\" is published by Tom R. Hübner (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A study questioning the interpretation of \"Torosaurus\" as a junior synonym and a growth stage of \"Triceratops\" was published by Nicholas R. Longrich and Daniel J. Field (2012).\n", "The single results are then assessed by a Naive Bayes classifier which decides whether or not their combined effect might be deleterious for the protein. The 'raw' accuracy of MutationTaster is about 90%, with the inclusion of knowledge about common (harmless) polymorphisms and known disease mutations, the actual rate of correct classifications is much higher. The test output explains if the alteration is a known or predicted harmless or disease-causing mutation and gives detailed information about the mutation.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Deng asked Mazák to retract the paper. Mazák finally conceded by stating (on 20 August 2012 in \"PNAS\") that: “after further examination, it was determined that the fossil used in the study was a composite specimen from the late Miocene laterite and not from the early Pleistocene loess. The article is hereby retracted.”\n", "The ability to discover and detect known and unknown mutations is of great importance in biomedical research and genetic diagnosis (see Applications). Therefore, multiple methods have been developed to enable research-based and clinical diagnostic detection of such mutations.\n", "BULLET::::- Schroeter \"et al.\" (2017) reevaluate collagen I peptides recovered from a specimen of \"Brachylophosaurus canadensis\" in 2009 and recover additional eight peptide sequences of collagen I from the same specimen.\n\nBULLET::::- An isolated dentary and postcranial skeleton from Dinosaur Provincial Park (Alberta, Canada) is interpreted as likely representing the same skeleton as the holotype skull of \"Corythosaurus excavatus\" by Bramble \"et al.\" (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the morphological variation of the dorsal finlets in extant bichirs, testing the viability of these anatomic structures as a tool for taxonomic diagnoses in the study of fossil members of this group, is published by Coelho, Cupello & Brito (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- New data on the reproductive biology of the species \"Saurichthys curionii\" and \"Saurichthys macrocephalus\" from the Middle Triassic Meride Limestone (Monte San Giorgio, Switzerland) is presented by Maxwell \"et al.\" (2018), who identify six specimens as unambiguously gravid.\n", "Section::::Palaeobiology.\n\n\"Dysalotosaurus\" was a precocial dinosaur, which experienced sexual maturity at ten years, had an indeterminate growth pattern, and maximum growth rates comparable to a large kangaroo.\n\nSection::::Palaeobiology.:Palaeopathology.\n\nIn 2011 paleontologists Florian Witzmann and Oliver Hampe from the Museum für Naturkunde and colleagues discovered that deformations of some \"Dysalotosaurus\" bones were likely caused by a viral infection similar to Paget's disease of bone. This is the oldest evidence of viral infection known to science.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on pathological characteristics of left femur of a specimen of \"Gigantspinosaurus sichuanensis\" from the Late Jurassic of China will be published by Hao \"et al.\" (2019), who interpret this specimen as probably affected by bone tumor.\n\nBULLET::::- Plates of an armored dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian-Pliensbachian) Lower Kota Formation (India) are redescribed by Galton (2019), who considers these fossils to be more similar to plates of ankylosaurians than basal thyreophorans, and interprets them as the earliest ankylosaurian fossils reported so far.\n", "Section::::Advances and challenges.\n", "BULLET::::- A study was done on the skulls of \"Majungasaurus\" and revealed changes throughout the life cycle of this dinosaur (2016).\n\nBULLET::::- A study was conducted on the skeleton of \"Nasutoceratops\", revealing that it and \"Avaceratops\" belonged to a completely new group of centrosaurines (2016).\n\nSection::::Basal archosauriforms.:Birds.\n\nSection::::Basal archosauriforms.:Birds.:Research.\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the rates of morphological evolution in Early Cretaceous birds is published by Wang and Lloyd (2016).\n", "BULLET::::- Morphologically diverse pliosaurid teeth are described from the Upper Jurassic (Tithonian) of the Kheta river basin (Eastern Siberia, Russia) and from the Lower Cretaceous (Berriasian and Valanginian) of the Volga region (European Russia) by Zverkov \"et al.\" (2018), who argue that their findings challenge the hypothesis that only one lineage of pliosaurids crossed the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary.\n\nBULLET::::- Complete mandible of \"Kronosaurus queenslandicus\" is described from the Albian Allaru Mudstone (Australia) by Holland (2018).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the putative beta-keratin antibodies reported in a fossil specimen of \"Shuvuuia deserti\" by Schweitzer \"et al.\" (1999) is published by Saitta \"et al.\" (2018), who interpret their findings as inconsistent with any protein or other original organic substance preservation in the \"Shuvuuia\" fiber.\n\nBULLET::::- Probable therizinosauroid eggs are described from the Upper Cretaceous Hongtuya Formation (China) by Ren \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the anatomy of the basicranium of \"Nothronychus mckinleyi\", and its implications for reconstructing the soft tissues of this species, is published by Smith, Sanders & Wolfe (2018).\n", "Section::::Theory.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the phylogenetic relationships of the species \"Chendytes lawi\" and the Labrador duck (\"Camptorhynchus labradorius\") is published by Buckner \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Schmidt (2018) interprets more than 1000 large, near-circular gravel mounds from western New South Wales (Australia) as likely to be nest mounds constructed by an extinct bird, similar to the malleefowl but larger.\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the phylogenetic relationships of \"Foro panarium\" is published by Field & Hsiang (2018), who consider this species to be a stem-turaco.\n", "Section::::Method.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on pathologic titanosaurian eggs from several Upper Cretaceous basins in southwestern Europe is published by Sellés, Vila & Galobart (2017), who interpret the abundance of abnormal eggs as probably caused by a dinosaur faunal replacement at the end of early Maastrichtian (circa 71-70 million years ago).\n\nBULLET::::- A redescription of the postcranial material of \"Lesothosaurus diagnosticus\" is published by Baron, Norman & Barrett (2017), who argue that \"Stormbergia dangershoeki\" is most likely a junior synonym of \"L. diagnosticus\".\n", "For example, in 1979 Paul Olson briefly discussed the specimen during his description of the small tanystropheid \"Tanytrachelos\". He found difficulty diagnosing the specimen using Ellenberger's photographs, but he did note that it shared many similarities with tanystropheids such as \"Tanytrachelos\" and \"Tanystropheus\" rather than birds.\n", "BULLET::::- Molecular sequence analysis: With rapid development of DNA sequencing technology, an enormous amount of DNA sequence data is available and even more is forthcoming in the future. Various methods have been developed to infer the DFE from DNA sequence data. By examining DNA sequence differences within and between species, we are able to infer various characteristics of the DFE for neutral, deleterious and advantageous mutations. To be specific, the DNA sequence analysis approach allows us to estimate the effects of mutations with very small effects, which are hardly detectable through mutagenesis experiments.\n", "BULLET::::- De Buffrenil and Mazin found a woven texture in the bones of \"Ichthyosaurus\", \"Omphalosaurus\", and \"Stenopterygius\". This texture is found only in the bones of quickly growing animals, suggesting that ichthyosaurs had high metabolic rates and may even have been warm blooded.\n\nBULLET::::- Massare and Callaway observed that Triassic ichthyosaurs had more elongated body plans than their Jurassic successors.\n\n1991\n", "Their main conclusions are that \"Navahoceros\" is a \"nomen nudum\" and all revised bones which were labeled as \"Navahoceros\" belong to \"Odocoileus lucasi\" (including exhibition-mounts assembled from dissociated bones).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04017	Why do lights get brighter before they die?	An incandescent light bulb works by making a tungsten filament so hot that it glows in the visible spectrum. The main failure mode of a tungsten filament is that it is so hot that it slowly evaporates. It gets thinner and thinner until either on its own or due to a minor mechanical or thermal shock, it breaks. Just before this happens, it can get a very thin spot. That significantly increases the electrical resistance at that spot, which makes it get even hotter, and thus brighter. That increased brightness is temporary, since the increased temperature will shortly cause it to melt open and thus fail.	[ "Section::::Releases.\n", "Another phenomenon associated with HID lamp wear and aging is discoloration of the emitted light beam (\"fading\"). Commonly, a shift towards blue and/or violet can be observed. This shift is slight at first and is more generally a sign of the lamps being \"broken in\" whilst still being in good overall working order, but towards the end of its life, the HID lamp is often perceived as \"only\" producing blue and violet light. Based on Planck's law, this is a direct result of the increased voltage and higher temperature necessary to maintain the arc.\n", "BULLET::::- Photoconductivity and dark conductivity decrease rapidly at first before stabilizing at a lower value.\n\nBULLET::::- Interruptions in the illumination has no effect on the subsequent rate of change. Once the sample is illuminated again, the photoconductivity will drop as though there was no interruption.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Suggested explanations.\n", "BULLET::::- Adjusting the \"type\" of lights used, so that the light waves emitted are those that are less likely to cause severe light pollution problems. Mercury, metal halide and above all first generation of blue-light LED road luminaires are much more polluting than sodium lamps: Earth's atmosphere scatters and transmits blue light better than yellow or red light. It is a common experience observing \"glare\" and \"fog\" around and below LED road luminaires as soon as air humidity increases, while orange sodium lamp luminaires are less prone to showing this phenomenon.\n", "White LEDs can be used as white holiday lights or to create any other color through the use of colored refractors and lenses similar to those used with incandescent bulbs. Color fading may occur due to the exposure of colored plastics to sunlight or heat, as with ordinary holiday lights. Yellowing may also occur in the epoxy body in which the LED is encased if left in the sun consistently.\n", "Black Light or Luminous Paint is typically made up of fluorescent dyes mixed into paint. These dyes are not a typical dye, but rather a pigment that is suspended in a carrier or resin. This pigment is what gives off a glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. This glow or light is created by the energy that is released from the pigment. While the fluorescent paint layers reflect light, the paint layer darkens over time and decreases in fluorescence.\n\nSection::::Painting mediums and preventive conservation.:Blacklight or fluorescent/luminous paintings.:Preventive conservation.\n", "HPS lamps generally have the same rated lifespan as MV lamps, and they give increased light and efficiency at lower wattages. Usually, when an MV light is replaced, it is replaced with a HPS light of a lower wattage, for example, a 175 watt MV fixture will get replaced with a 100 or 150 watt HPS fixture as that will meet or exceed the lumen output of the 175 watt MV fixture. At end of life MV lamps just become dimmer and sometimes color shift towards the green end of the spectrum but continue to consume the same amount of electricity. HPS lamps begin to suffer end-of-life cycling before the amount of useful light becomes visibly diminished, or just burn out. HPS lights come in wattages of 35, 50, 70, 100, 150, 200, 250, 310, 400, 600, 750, and 1,000 watt sizes, while LPS lights come in wattages of 18, 35, 55, 90, 135, and 180 watt sizes.\n", "The most obvious change in introducing light at night is the end of darkness in general. The day/night cycle is probably the most powerful environmental behavioral signal, as almost all animals can be categorized as nocturnal or diurnal. If a nocturnal animal is only active in extreme dark, it will be unable to live in lit areas. The most acute affects are directly next to streetlights and lit buildings, but the diffuse light of skyglow can extend out to hundreds of kilometers away from city centers.\n\nSection::::Natural light cycles.:Seasonal (solar) cycles.\n", "The effect was rediscovered again by Thomas Edison on February 13, 1880, while he was trying to discover the reason for breakage of lamp filaments and uneven blackening (darkest near the positive terminal of the filament) of the bulbs in his incandescent lamps.\n", "Photo-oxidation, \"i.e.,\" photochemical oxidation. A colorant molecule, when excited by a photon of sufficient energy, undergoes an oxidation process. In the process the chromophoric system of the colorant molecule reacts with the atmospheric oxygen to form a non-chromophoric system, resulting in fading. Colorants which contain a carbonyl group as the chromophore are particularly vulnerable to oxidation.\n\nSection::::Chemical processes.:Photoreduction.\n", "photopic eye. Predominantly because of this effect, white light sources such as metal halide, fluorescent, or white LED can produce as much as 3.3 times the visual sky glow brightness of the currently most-common high-pressure sodium lamp, and up to eight times the brightness of low-pressure sodium or amber Aluminium gallium indium phosphide LED.\n", "The brightness of MR lamps can be adjusted when used with appropriate light fixtures and dimmers. However, the color temperature changes significantly when the lamp is dimmed, shifting dramatically to the warmer end of the spectrum.\n\nLike all halogen lamps, MR lamps produce significant heat and care must be taken to avoid contact with skin or proximity to flammable materials when the lamp is on or has been on recently.\n", "HPS lamps have slightly different electrical requirements than do the older MV lamps. Both HPS and MV lamps require a transformer or ballast to change the voltage and regulate the current, however, HPS lamps also require an electrical \"starter\" circuit—much like older fluorescent lamps in residential use. MV lamps do not require a separate \"starter\" circuit because they have a special starter element within the bulb used for striking the arc. MV lamps slowly dim over time, and a 20-year-old lamp may emit a very pleasing, but useless, soft green glow, rather than the powerful blue-white light of a new MV lamp. The yellow-spectrum HPS lamps also slowly dim over time but are known for \"cycling,\" where the lamp cycles on and off when it has reached the end of its life cycle. When cycling, the arc within the lamp extinguishes and the lamp must cool down before the starter circuit initializes a new arc. This has been the most recognized downfall of HPS. Some HPS lamps start to burn a pinkish/reddish color at the end of their life (usually when already cycling), or start to burn a pinkish/white color and go dim, or also burn out at the end of their life cycle whether they cycle or not. HPS fixtures can contain a special photocell or ballast that can sense a cycling lamp and shut off the fixture to prevent damage to the ignitor and ballast.\n", "Section::::Modern lights.\n", "There is one surviving example in England, in the churchyard at Bisley, Gloucestershire, which is referred to as the Poor Souls' Light.\n\nSection::::Misconceptions.\n", "During the Paschal Vigil, after the Midnight Office, all of the candles and lamps in the temple are extinguished, with the exception of the sanctuary lamp behind the iconostasis, and all wait in silence and darkness. (In Orthodox churches, when possible, the Holy Fire arrives from the Holy Sepulchre during Holy Saturday afternoon and it is used to light anew the flame in the sanctuary lamp.) At the stroke of midnight, the priest censes around the Holy Table, and lights his candle from the sanctuary lamp. Then the Holy Doors are opened and all the people light their candles from the priest's candle. Then, all the clergy and the people exit the church and go in procession three times around it holding lighted candles and singing a hymn of the resurrection.\n", "For churches that celebrate the Easter Vigil on the night of Holy Saturday, the ceremonial lighting of the Paschal candle is one of the most solemn moments of the service.\n\nOn Maundy Thursday of the same week the entire church is darkened by extinguishing all candles and lamps. This represents the darkness of a world without God. \n", "Section::::Background.\n", "BULLET::::- As a result of the Purkinje effect, the dark-adapted human eye is very sensitive to blue and green light that LED street lights emit in large amounts, as compared to the yellow and orange high-pressure sodium lights that are typically being replaced. This magnifies the effect of light pollution - particularly sky glow.\n\nBULLET::::- The major increase in the blue and green content of artificial sky glow arising from widespread LED lighting is likely to increase impacts on bird migration and other nocturnal animal behaviours.\n", "Light encountering a painted surface can either alter or break the chemical bonds of the pigment, causing the colors to bleach or change in a process known as photodegradation. Materials that resist this effect are said to be lightfast. The electromagnetic spectrum of the sun contains wavelengths from gamma waves to radio waves. The high energy of ultraviolet radiation in particular accelerates the fading of the dye.\n", "After the sun has also set for these altitudes at the end of nautical twilight, the intensity of light emanating from earlier mentioned lines decreases, until the oxygen-green remains as the dominant source.\n\nWhen astronomical darkness has set in, the green 557.7 nm oxygen line is dominant, and atmospheric scattering of starlight occurs.\n\nDifferential refraction causes different parts of the spectrum to dominate, producing a golden hour and a blue hour.\n\nSection::::Relative contributions.\n", "Lastly, the type of light bulbs that are installed has a significant effect on energy consumption. The efficiency of light sources vary greatly. Fluorescent lights produce several times as much light, for given power input, as incandescent lights do, and LEDs are continuing to improve beyond that. Shades vary in their absorption. Light colored ceilings, walls and other surfaces increase ambient light by reflecting.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas lights\n\nBULLET::::- Daylight harvesting\n\nBULLET::::- Energy conservation\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker fusion threshold\n\nBULLET::::- Hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- Light pollution\n\nBULLET::::- Light sensitivity\n\nBULLET::::- Seasonal affective disorder\n\nBULLET::::- World energy resources and consumption\n", "On December 8, 2014, it was announced that the lasers had been switched from ion lasers to solid-state lasers. This saves approximately 64 kilowatts of electric power per show. It also means that the laser will no longer need a water cooling system, which also reduced water consumption by thousands of gallons.\n\nSection::::Technical infrastructure.:Moving lights.\n", "When the sun has just set, the brightness of the sky decreases rapidly, thereby enabling us to see the airglow that is caused from such high altitudes that they are still fully sunlit until the sun drops more than about 12° below the horizon. During this time, yellow emissions from the sodium layer and red emissions from the 630 nm oxygen lines are dominant, and contribute to the purplish color sometimes seen during civil and nautical twilight.\n", "Stray light is a major issue in the design of a coronagraph, used for observing the Sun's corona.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nThere are many sources of stray light. For example:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ghost orders\" in diffraction gratings. These can be caused by periodic variations in the spacing of grooves in ruled gratings, for instance.\n\nBULLET::::- Light scattered towards a telescope from particles along the optical path to a star.\n\nBULLET::::- Light emitted by components of the optical system.\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared optical systems are, obviously, especially susceptible due to thermal radiation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00170	Why does nails of hands grow faster than nails on feet?	If I remember correctly, it is because of trauma to the fingernails. Toenails are usually protected, where your hands are constantly interacting with things. Don't remember all the specifics but this is ELI5.	[ "In mammals, the growth rate of nails is related to the length of the terminal phalanges (outermost finger bones). Thus, in humans, the nail of the index finger grows faster than that of the little finger; and fingernails grow up to four times faster than toenails.\n\nIn humans, nails grow at an average rate of a month. Fingernails require three to six months to regrow completely, and toenails require twelve to eighteen months. Actual growth rate is dependent upon age, sex, season, exercise level, diet, and hereditary factors. \n", "A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and:\n\nBULLET::::1. expanded apical pads (fingertips),\n\nBULLET::::2. developed epidermal ridges (fingerprints),\n\nBULLET::::3. broadened distal parts of distal phalanges (fingertip bones), and\n\nBULLET::::4. reduced flexor and extensor tubercles (attachments areas for finger muscles on bones).\n", "In tetrapods, claws are made of keratin and consist of two layers. The unguis is the harder external layer, which consists of keratin fibers arranged perpendicular to the direction of growth and in layers at an oblique angle. The subunguis is the softer, flaky underside layer whose grain is parallel to the direction of growth. The claw grows outward from the nail matrix at the base of the unguis and the subunguis grows thicker while travelling across the nail bed. The unguis grows outward faster than the subunguis to produce a curve and the thinner sides of the claw wear away faster than their thicker middle, producing a more or less sharp point. Tetrapods use their claws in many ways, commonly to grasp or kill prey, to dig and to climb and hang.\n", "Shorter toes: Human toes are straight and extremely short in relation to body size compared to other animals. In running, the toes support 50 to 75% of body mass in humans. Impulse and mechanical work increase in humans as toe length increases, showing that it is energetically favorable to have shorter toes. The costs of shorter toes are decreased gripping capabilities and power output. However, the efficiency benefits seem to outweigh these costs, as the toes of \"A. afarensis\" remains were shorter than great apes, but 40% longer than modern humans, meaning that there is a trend toward shorter toes as the primate species moves away from tree-dwelling. This 40% increase in toe length would theoretically induce a flexor impulse 2.5 times that of modern humans, which would require twice as much mechanical work to stabilize.\n", "Section::::Theories and findings.:Aspects of posttraumatic growth.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "In pheasants, the ratio of the 2nd to 4th digit of the foot has been shown to be influenced by manipulations of testosterone in the egg.\n\nStudies in mice indicate that prenatal androgen acts primarily by promoting growth of the fourth digit.\n\nThere is evidence that this reflects fetal exposure to the hormone testosterone.\n\nSeveral studies present evidence that digit ratios are heritable.\n\nThe level of estrogen in the amniotic fluid is not correlated with higher 2D:4D, and when examined researchers found no difference in estrogen levels between males and females.\n\nSection::::Explanation of the digit ratio effect.\n", "BULLET::::- Doing fist pushups on the backside of the first fingerbone would increasingly put pressure on the extensor muscles as weight was shifted from knuckle-end to the further joint. When in a tight first, the flat of the fingernails can dig into the palm and push the skin down to create a bridge to stabilize the first structure and prevent hyperflexion of the knuckle joints (which can be observed by doing pushups with the entire backside of the fingers flat on the ground, fingers pointing towards the opposite hand).\n\nSection::::Training methods.:For stabilization.\n", "Prehensile feet\n\nPrehensile feet are lower limbs that possess prehensility, the ability to grasp like a hand. They are most commonly observed in monkeys, who similarly possess prehensile tails, and apes.\n\nDue to the development of bipedalism in humans, the hands became the focus of prehensility and the feet adjusted to more of a stabilizing role. It may be possible, however, that the foot does not reach its limits of dexterity due to the constant muscle tension needed in stabilizing and balancing the foot to hold up the legs and the rest of the frame.\n", "BULLET::::- At day 22, lung buds form, remaining ensheathed in a splanchnopleuric mesoderm\n\nSection::::Limb development.\n", "Limb and foot structure of representative terrestrial vertebrates:\n\nSection::::Structure.:Variability in scaling and limb coordination.\n", "The process of moulting in insects begins with the separation of the cuticle from the underlying epidermal cells (apolysis) and ends with the shedding of the old cuticle (ecdysis). In many species it is initiated by an increase in the hormone ecdysone. This hormone causes:\n\nBULLET::::- apolysis – the separation of the cuticle from the epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- secretion of new cuticle materials beneath the old\n\nBULLET::::- degradation of the old cuticle\n", "Section::::Theories and findings.:Resilience.\n", "The longest female nails known ever to have existed measured a total of 601.9 cm, an average of 60.19 cm (23.7 inches) for each fingernail. Contrary to popular belief, nails do not continue to grow after death; the skin dehydrates and tightens, making the nails (and hair) appear to grow.\n\nSection::::Function.:Permeability.\n", "In his 1999 description of the fossil bones of the hand, Clarke pointed out that the length of the palm of the hand as well as the length of the finger bone was significantly shorter than that of chimpanzees and gorillas. The hand was like that of modern humans, known as relatively unspecialized.\n", "Finally, the nail functions as a tool enabling, for instance, a so-called \"extended precision grip\" (e.g. pulling out a splinter in one's finger), and certain cutting or scraping actions.\n\nSection::::Function.:Growth.\n\nThe growing part of the nail is under the skin at the nail's proximal end under the epidermis, which is the only living part of a nail.\n", "Prehensility\n\nPrehensility is the quality of an appendage or organ that has adapted for grasping or holding. The word is derived from the Latin term \"prehendere\", meaning \"to grasp\".\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nAppendages that can become prehensile include:\n\nBULLET::::- The hands of primates are all prehensile to varying degrees\n\nBULLET::::- Prehensile feet:\n\nBULLET::::- The claws of cats are prehensile.\n\nBULLET::::- The feet of passerine birds are prehensile\n", "In 2011 Iversen and Christiansen & Elklit suggested that predictors of growth have different effects on PTG on micro-, meso-, and macro level, and a positive predictor of growth on one level can be a negative predictor of growth on another level. This might explain some of the inconsistent research results within the area.\n\nPosttraumatic growth has been studied in children to a lesser extent. A review by Meyerson and colleagues found various relations between social and psychological factors and posttraumatic growth in children and adolescents, but concluded that fundamental questions about its value and function remain.\n\nSection::::Theories and findings.\n", "The nail is an \"unguis\", meaning a keratin structure at the end of a digit. Other examples of \"ungues\" include the claw, hoof and talon. The nails of primates and the hooves of running mammals evolved from the claws of earlier animals.\n", "For young geckos, shedding occurs more frequently, once a week, but when they are fully grown, they shed once every one to two months.\n\nSection::::Common traits.:Adhesion ability.\n\nAbout 60% of gecko species have adhesive toe pads that allow them to adhere to most surfaces without the use of liquids or surface tension. Such pads have been gained and lost repeatedly over the course of gecko evolution. Adhesive toepads evolved independently in about 11 different gecko lineages and were lost in at least 9 lineages.\n", "A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species, indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and reduced flexor and extensor tubercles in distal phalanges and broadened distal parts of distal phalanges, coupled with expanded apical pads and developed epidermal ridges. This suggests that widened distal phalanges were developed in arboreal primates, rather than in quadrupedal terrestrial primates.\n\nSection::::History of phalanges.:In animals.:Other mammals.\n", "BULLET::::- Increased entry of megakaryocytes into the systemic circulation. Under normal circumstances in healthy individuals, megakaryocytes that arise from the bone marrow are trapped in the pulmonary capillary bed and broken down before they enter the systemic circulation. It is thought that in disorders where there is right-to-left shunting or lung malignancy, the megakaryocytes can bypass the breakdown within the pulmonary circulation and enter the systemic circulation. They are then trapped within the capillary beds within the extremities, such as the digits, and release platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). PDGF and VEGF have growth promoting properties and cause connective tissue hypertrophy and capillary permeability.\n", "Syndactyly is not particularly common (though the Australian omnivorous marsupials share it) and is generally posited as an adaptation to assist in climbing. Many modern diprotodonts, however, are strictly terrestrial, and have evolved further adaptations to their feet to better suit this lifestyle. This makes the history of the tree-kangaroos particularly convoluted: it appears that the animals were arboreal at some time in the far distant past, moving afterward to the ground—gaining long kangaroo-like feet in the process—before returning to the trees, where they further developed a shortening and broadening of the hind feet and a novel climbing method.\n", "In many quadrupeds, particularly horses and other larger animals, the metacarpophalangeal joint is referred to as the \"fetlock.\" This term is translated literally as \"foot-lock.\" In fact, although the term fetlock does not specifically apply to other species' metacarpophalangeal joints (for instance, humans), the \"second\" or \"mid-finger\" knuckle of the human hand does anatomically correspond to the fetlock on larger quadrupeds. For lack of a better term, the shortened name may seem more practical.\n", "The main contributor to onychocryptosis is footwear, particularly ill-fitting shoes with inadequate toe-box room and tight stockings that apply pressure to the top or side of the foot. Other factors may include the damp atmosphere of enclosed shoes, which soften the nail-plate and cause swelling on the epidermal keratin (eventually increasing the convex arch permanently), genetics, trauma and disease. Improper cutting of the nail may cause the nail to cut into the side-fold skin from growth and impact, whether or not the nail is truly \"ingrown\". The nail bends inwards or upwards depending on the angle of its cut. If the cutting tool, such as scissors, is at an attitude in which the lower blade is closer to the toe than the upper blade, the toenail will tend to grow upwards from its base, and vice versa. The process is visible along the nail as it grows, appearing as a warp advancing to the end of the nail. The upper corners turn more easily than the center of the nail tip. Holding the tool at the same angle for all nails may induce these conditions; as the nail turns closer to the skin, it becomes harder to fit the lower blade in the right attitude under the nail. When cutting a nail, it is not just the correct angle that is important, but also how short it is cut. A shorter cut will bend the nail more, unless the cut is even on both top and bottom of the nail.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09720	In car racing, how do they keep the cars organized into a clearly defined "front" of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc when the cars are constantly doing pit stops?	If you go into a pit stop and another car that is still racing overtakes you than you lose that place So if you are in first and go for a pit stop and the cars in 2nd and 3rd skip the pit stop and go past you, you'll be in 3rd place when you come out of the pit stop Timing your pit stops is a big part of the strategy in car racing because every car needs to do them, but when you do them $and how quickly$ can have a major impact on where you finish in a race	[ "A second variation is used in the Australian GT Championship invitational Highlands 101 at Highlands Motorsports Park in New Zealand. It integrates both the Le Mans start and the Land Rush start. The drivers are behind the wheel already, but the co-drivers are equipped with flags approximately from their cars on the entrance to pit lane. At the signal, the co-drivers run the and hand over a flag that signals to their team the car is cleared to start. The driver then starts the car.\n\nSection::::Safety and precautions.\n", "A Le Mans start variation called a \"land rush start\" is used at short course off-road races at Crandon International Off-Road Raceway where the vehicles start lined up side-by-side on a wide part of the track. The \"land rush start\" is based on the 1970 24 Hours of Le Mans start, and is used in historic races at Le Mans in some situations. However, unlike the true Le Mans start, engines are already running and the drivers are already sitting behind the wheel, wearing their safety belts, when the starting signal is displayed.\n", "BULLET::::- On the second day, teams 31st and worse participate in the Last Row Shootout will make one attempt to make the field. The top three cars start in positions 31-33.\n\nBULLET::::- After the Last Row Shootout, those who finished 1st to 9th will participate in their Fast Nine Shootout. As usual, cars are released from 9th to 1st in reverse order, and each has one attempt to make the field. Times of this session will determine the first three rows, including Pole Day.\n\nSection::::Indianapolis 500 pole-sitters.\n", "TA, SGT, and GT class cars all \"grid\" (with the 2 fastest qualifiers on the front row, and all other slower cars behind them according to qualifying times) and race together during the same \"race session\" using a staggered start with the two slower classes starting their respective races (in order of class) behind the TA class grid, being separated from each other as well. The fastest qualifiers in each of the four classes may choose to start on the left or right of the next fastest qualifier on the front row. TA2 class cars have their own separate race.\n", "In a race where they qualify to determine their starting position for the heat race they use a \"heads up\" system. This system is where there is a predetermined set of cars that go to the A feature from the heat race, usually either the top 3 or 4.\n", "The initial start of the race may organize the cars in specific lines. For instance, NASCAR races start double file, and the Indy 500 starts triple file. Restarts, however, are often only single file, but lapped cars may form a second line on the inside. Some short track ovals have a rule, adopted by NASCAR in June 2009, and INDYCAR in 2011, where the restarts are all double file, with the leader's choice of inside or outside on the ensuing restart.\n", "Depending on the circuit, the garage may be located on pit lane or in a separate area. \n\nIn most series the order of the teams' pit boxes is assigned by points standings, race results, or previous qualifying results before the start of the race. In NASCAR and in INDYCAR's Indianapolis 500, typically pit assignments are made after qualifying, with the fastest qualifiers choosing their pit stall first.\n", "Since the length of the auxiliary pit road was significantly shorter than the main pit road, the cars that pitted there were held from 15–20 seconds to make up for the time that would have been spent if the cars had traveled the entire main pit road.\n", "In a couple of cases, a team that entered the season finale with the points lead entered additional cars in order to maximize their chances of clinching the season championship. The extra car would prevent the contender from finishing last and would provide a back-up car in case the primary car suffered a mechanical failure at the starting grid (or failed to qualify altogether). The additional entry could also serve as a \"blocker\" of competing drivers, or could drop to the back of the field to allow the primary car to gain positions and points sufficient to clinch the championship, although unsportsmanlike conduct was never officially used nor condoned.\n", "The pits usually comprise a pit lane which runs parallel to the start/finish straight and is connected at each end to the main track, and a row of garages (usually one per team) outside which the work is done. Pit stop work is carried out by anywhere from two to twenty mechanics (also called a \"pit crew\"), depending on the series regulations, while the driver often waits in the vehicle (except where a driver change is involved or in Motorbike racing).\n\nSection::::Location and terminology.\n", "In the IndyCar Series, a pit stop is a more complex operation than in NASCAR, but far less so than in Formula One. Rules permit six mechanics over the pit wall during a stop. The pit rules and procedures have origins in USAC National Championship racing. The spare fuel for IndyCar competition is stored in large pitside fuel tanks. Each team's tank is filled to a specified volume of fuel, depending upon the race distance. Teams are also given a certain allotment of spare tires sets, likewise owing to the race distance. All of the spare tires are pre-mounted on wheels before the race.\n", "In some cases, a team will use a start-and-park car to help fund another competitive car in the same or a different series. This practice is prevalent in NASCAR's second-tier Xfinity Series, notably by The Motorsports Group, RSS Racing (only number 38 or 93 to help fund the no. 39 team) and TriStar Motorsports. However, there are some cases in which a small underfunded team does use this money to eventually run full races, or conserve the car. Teams like NEMCO Motorsports, Leavine Family Racing, and Phil Parsons Racing have done this in the past, before transitioning to running full races.\n", "In round 1, cars are sent out one at a time at the direction of a NASCAR official. Each car has one warm-up lap, one timed lap, and one cool down lap. NASCAR will release cars roughly half a lap apart to prevent any aerodynamic advantage from being gained from a competitor's car. The order in which cars go on track is the inverse of practice speeds. As with the road course format, the top 12 cars advance to the final round.\n", "BULLET::::- Also beginning at Long Beach for all remaining road/street course events, cars that are not on the lead lap during an upcoming restart in the final 20 laps will peel off and drive through pit lane on the speed limiter and cycle back to the end of the line. The rule was later expanded to oval races as well, where lead-lap cars will simply drive to the front in position order instead. This is similar to NASCAR's restart procedure, where all lapped cars must move to the rear of the field.\n", "The race features a variation of the traditional Le Mans start. The car is parked in traditional Le Mans formation, while co-drivers are positioned about 250 meters from the circuit, and must run to their car parked on pit lane. Once there, the co-driver pulls the flag from the car, and the primary driver is allowed to leave. The cars are parked on pit lane, and the pit lane speed limit will be in effect until the car leaves pit lane.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In most cases, an OST event consists of the field of cars being split into three even groups. There are three qualifying heats to sort the grid for the Main Event. In each heat, two groups will take part, with the grids ordered to give all drivers a fair chance across the night. As an example, Heat One is Group 1 & 2, Heat Two is Group 1 & 3 & Heat Three is Group 2 & 3. Drivers receive grid points for the race results, with first place taking 24, second 23, third 22 and so on.\n", "Crew chiefs lead the pit crew during pit stops in addition to coaching the driver during the race. Pit crew members were once the mechanics on the racecar, but most teams feature individuals dedicated to pit stops only, and often former collegiate or professional athletes are used for pit stops. Former NFL player Tim Goad is regarded as the first former professional athlete involved in a pit crew, as a jackman. Nonetheless, some pit crew members work with the team in fabricating or designing the race cars during the week while training for their \"pit job\" on the weekends. Teams have built full training centers similar to that of professional athletes for their pit crews.\n", "From 1989 to 2001, the pit road could only accommodate 34 pit stalls. In the early years, some teams were required to share pit stalls while other teams were forced to pit inside the garage area. When cars dropped out of the race, their pit stalls were reassigned to cars who were sharing.\n", "BULLET::::- Nowadays, this role is carried out by a traffic light system - drivers drive into their team pit by memory or by watching the crews out on pit lane and are signaled to leave the pit box by a series of lights suspended over the driver's head in the pit box controlled from the garage.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"refueling man\" managed the refueling hose/system for the car, hooking it in place during the pit stop and removing/disengaging it when refueling was complete.\n", "Drivers may use force to pass the car in front to gain position. The winner is the first driver to complete race distance. The contact element is what attracts drivers and fans alike and requires great skill in delivering and withstanding the hits that are part and parcel of Hotstox racing.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:1984 Humble beginnings.\n", "Besides back of the pack finishes, another way to identify start and park teams is by monitoring the number of laps a team completes over the course of the season, or the percentage of each race the entry competes in. PPR and McDowell, for example, completed 34 percent of the laps possible during their 2013 season, while the team with new driver Josh Wise completed over 90 percent the next year.\n\nSection::::Description.:Field fillers.\n", "BULLET::::- At 4:30 pm, the Fast Nine Shootout began, and ran until 6:00 pm. Each of the nine cars had their afternoon time erased. Each car was guaranteed at least one attempt during the shootout to re-qualify. Once every car had completed one attempt, time permitting, cars could go out and make up to two additional attempts. Drivers were not required to erase their initial time when making their second and/or third attempt. The shootout determined the pole position as well as starting positions 2-9.\n", "In all years, the Indy cars have utilized the auxiliary starting line located at the midpoint of the backstretch. This allows the entire field to properly assemble into the grid formation, and start the race heading towards the best passing zone on the circuit. The pace car will pull off into the pits as normal, and allow the pole position car to pace the field all the way to the backstretch. Since the start/finish line at the pit straight is immediately proceeded by the tight and slow carousel, it does not allow for optimum racing into the first turn. The finish line and all other scoring is done at the line on the pit straight. Over the years, restarts after caution periods were previously done at the pit straight, but as of 2017, they too were moved to the auxiliary starting line.\n", "With the exception of Indianapolis, all races begin with a standing start with cars two abreast on the grid, cars are three abreast at Indianapolis. A \"pit board\" is shown on screen each time the player crosses the start/finish line.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Championship seasons.\n", "Under normal conditions, a routine stop for an IndyCar team lasts between six and ten seconds. IndyCar teams are permitted to set their own pit strategies.\n\nSection::::Endurance racing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03890	How does computer code deteriorate over time	It doesn't, but the environment in which it is run changes. The operating system changes, the hardware it runs on changes, and so code that used to work just fine may at some point break. Not because the program code itself has changed, but because its behavior depended on some quirk of the computer it ran on. For example, old games tended to rely on the speed of the CPU to determine the speed of the game. That worked great at the time, but 10 years later, you had much, much faster CPU's, and suddenly the game ran too fast for anyone to play it. Or some very old programs assumed that when they asked the OS how much free disk space was available, the result would be less 2 gigabyte, because back then no one had that big hard drives. And so, some years pass, and suddenly people have much bigger hard drives than the program was able to handle, and so when it asks the OS how much disk space is available, the result is bigger than the program expects, and so it wraps around and the program thinks you have minus 2GB free disk space and refuses to install. Or the program relies on a bug in the OS, which has since been fixed.	[ "Section::::Maintenance Factors.\n\nImpact of key adjustment factors on maintenance (sorted in order of maximum positive impact)\n\nNot only are error-prone modules troublesome, but many other factors can degrade performance too. For example, very complex spaghetti code is quite difficult to maintain safely.\n\nA very common situation which often degrades performance is lack of suitable maintenance tools, such as defect tracking software, change management software, and test library software. Below describe some of the factors and the range of impact on software maintenance.\n\nImpact of key adjustment factors on maintenance (sorted in order of maximum negative impact)\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "When changes occur in the program's environment, particularly changes which the designer of the program did not anticipate, the software may no longer operate as originally intended. For example, many early computer game designers used the CPU clock speed as a timer in the game, but newer CPU clocks were faster, so the gameplay speed increased accordingly, making the game less usable over time.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Onceability.\n", "BULLET::::- A great deal of documentation may describe the current behavior and would be expensive to change. In addition, it is essentially impossible to recall all copies of the existing documentation, so users are likely to continue to refer to obsolete manuals.\n", "Very often, an old code base is simply abandoned and a brand-new system (which is intended to be free of many of the burdens of the legacy system) created from scratch, but this can be an expensive and time-consuming process.\n\nSome examples and reasons behind software brittleness:\n\nBULLET::::- Users expect a relatively constant user interface; once a feature has been implemented and exposed to the users, it is very difficult to convince them to accept major changes to that feature, even if the feature was not well designed or the existence of the feature blocks further progress.\n", "Software that is being continuously modified may lose its integrity over time if proper mitigating processes are not consistently applied. However, much software requires continuous changes to meet new requirements and correct bugs, and re-engineering software each time a change is made is rarely practical. This creates what is essentially an evolution process for the program, causing it to depart from the original engineered design. As a consequence of this and a changing environment, assumptions made by the original designers may be invalidated, introducing bugs.\n", "Software that is not currently being used gradually becomes unusable as the remainder of the application changes. Changes in user requirements and the software environment also contribute to the deterioration.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Active rot.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Unused code.\n\nInfrequently used portions of code, such as document filters or interfaces designed to be used by other programs, may contain bugs that go unnoticed. With changes in user requirements and other external factors, this code may be executed later, thereby exposing the bugs and making the software appear less functional.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Rarely updated code.\n\nNormal maintenance of software and systems may also cause software rot. In particular, when a program contains multiple parts which function at arm's length from one another, failing to consider how changes to one part affect the others may introduce bugs.\n", "When software is new, it is very malleable; it can be formed to be whatever is wanted by the implementers. But as the software in a given project grows larger and larger, and develops a larger base of users with long experience with the software, it becomes less and less malleable. Like a metal that has been work-hardened, the software becomes a legacy system, brittle and unable to be easily maintained without fracturing the entire system.\n", "Software maintenance and evolution of systems was first addressed by Meir M. Lehman in 1969. Over a period of twenty years, his research led to the formulation of Lehman's Laws (Lehman 1997). Key findings of his research conclude that maintenance is really evolutionary development and that maintenance decisions are aided by understanding what happens to systems (and software) over time. Lehman demonstrated that systems continue to evolve over time. As they evolve, they grow more complex unless some action such as code refactoring is taken to reduce the complexity.\n", "BULLET::::- Systems can also be brittle if the component dependencies are too rigid. One example of this is seen in the difficulties transitioning to new versions of dependencies. When one component expects another to output only a given range of values, and that range changes, then it can cause errors to ripple through the system, either during building or at runtime.\n\nBULLET::::- Fewer technical resources are available to support changes when a system is in a maintenance phase than there are for a system that is in a development or implementation phase of the SDLC.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Brittle Systems\n", "From both an academic and industrial point of view, the software aging phenomenon has increased. The main focus has been to understand its effects from a verifiable observation and theoretical understanding.\n\n\"\"Programs, like people, get old. We can't prevent aging, but we can understand its causes, take steps to limit its effects, temporarily reverse some of the damage it has caused, and prepare for the day when the software is no longer viable.\"\"\n\nMemory bloating and leaking, along with data corruption and unreleased file-locks are particular causes of software aging.\n\nSection::::Proactive management of software aging.\n", "In practice, adding new features may be prioritized over updating documentation; without documentation, however, it is possible for specific knowledge pertaining to parts of the program to be lost. To some extent, this can be mitigated by following best current practices for coding conventions.\n\nActive software rot slows once an application is near the end of its commercial life and further development ceases. Users often learn to work around any remaining software bugs, and the behaviour of the software becomes consistent as nothing is changing.\n\nSection::::Example.\n", "The continuing rapid evolution and proliferation of different kinds of computer hardware, modes of digital encoding, operating systems and general or specialized software has ensured that digital obsolescence will be an equally ongoing problem. Cornell University Library’s digital preservation tutorial (now hosted by MIT Libraries) has a timeline of obsolete media formats, called the \"Chamber of Horrors\", that shows how rapidly new technologies are created and cast aside. A prime example of this problem is the BBC Domesday Project from the 1980s, although its data was eventually recovered with significant effort. \n\nSection::::Obsolescence in software.\n", "BULLET::::- The original implementers (who knew how things really worked) have moved on and left insufficient documentation of the internal workings of the software. Many small implementation details were only understood through the oral traditions of the design team, and many of these details eventually are irretrievably lost, although some can be rediscovered through the diligent (and expensive) application of software archaeology.\n", "Programs written in programming languages that use a garbage collector (e.g. Java) usually rely on this feature for avoiding memory leaks. Thus the \"aging\" of these programs is at least partially dependent on the quality of the garbage collector built into the programming language's runtime environment itself.\n", "BULLET::::- Patches have probably been issued throughout the years, subtly changing the behavior of the software. In many cases, these patches, while correcting the overt failure for which they were issued, introduce other, more subtle, failures into the system. If not detected by regression testing, these subtle failures make subsequent changes to the system more difficult.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduced duplicate code and functions\n\nBULLET::::- Source code file organization cleanliness\n\nMaintainability is closely related to Ward Cunningham's concept of technical debt, which is an expression of the costs resulting of a lack of maintainability.\n\nReasons for why maintainability is low can be classified as reckless vs. prudent and deliberate vs. inadvertent, and often have their origin in developers' inability, lack of time and goals, their carelessness and discrepancies in the creation cost of and benefits from documentation and, in particular, maintainable source code.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Size.\n", "Some classes of bugs have nothing to do with the code. Faulty documentation or hardware may lead to problems in system use, even though the code matches the documentation. In some cases, changes to the code eliminate the problem even though the code then no longer matches the documentation. Embedded systems frequently work around hardware bugs, since to make a new version of a ROM is much cheaper than remanufacturing the hardware, especially if they are commodity items.\n\nSection::::Benchmark of bugs.\n\nTo facilitate reproducible research on testing and debugging, researchers use curated benchmarks of bugs:\n\nBULLET::::- the Siemens benchmark\n", "The \"Jargon File\", a compendium of hacker lore, defines \"bit rot\" as a jocular explanation for the degradation of a software program over time even if \"nothing has changed\"; the idea being this is almost as if the bits that make up the program were subject to radioactive decay.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSeveral factors are responsible for software rot, including changes to the environment in which the software operates, degradation of compatibility between parts of the software itself, and the appearance of bugs in unused or rarely used code.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Environment change.\n", "BULLET::::- The software will continuously evolve until it is no longer evolvable and then enter stage of servicing (also known as software maturity). During this stage, only minor changes will be done.\n\nBULLET::::- Next stage which is phase-out, there is no more servicing available for that particular software. However, the software still in production.\n\nBULLET::::- Lastly, close-down. The software use is disconnected or discontinue [2] and the users are directed towards a replacement.[1].\n\nSection::::Lehman's Laws of Software Evolution.\n", "Software failures are a more likely cause of unplanned systems outages compared to hardware failures. This is because software exhibits over time an increasing failure rate due to data corruption, numerical error accumulation and unlimited resource consumption. In widely used and specialized software, a common action to clear a problem is rebooting because aging occurs due to the complexity of software which is never free of errors. It is almost impossible to fully verify that a piece of software is bug-free. Even high-profile software such as Windows and macOS must receive continual updates to improve performance and fix bugs. Software development tends to be driven by the need to meet release deadlines rather than to ensure long-term reliability. Designing software that can be immune to aging is difficult. Not all software will age at the same rate as some users use the system more intensively than others.\n", "There are changes in the environment not related to the program's designer, but its users. Initially, a user could bring the system into working order, and have it working flawlessly for a certain amount of time. But, when the system stops working correctly, or the users want to access the configuration controls, they cannot repeat that initial step because of the different context and the unavailable information (password lost, missing instructions, or simply a hard-to-manage user interface that was first configured by trial and error). Information Architect Jonas Söderström has named this concept \"Onceability\", and defines it as \"the quality in a technical system that prevents a user from restoring the system, once it has failed\".\n", "Software quality is very important, especially for commercial and system software like Microsoft Office, Microsoft Windows and Linux. If software is faulty (buggy), it can delete a person's work, crash the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors are called \"bugs\" which are often discovered during alpha and beta testing. Software is often also a victim to what is known as software aging, the progressive performance degradation resulting from a combination of unseen bugs.\n", "Although most found issues are maintainability problems, high impact defects can be found, too. A special category of defects that often has a high impact are security vulnerabilities such as format string exploits, race conditions, memory leaks and buffer overflows, thereby improving software security.\n\nSection::::Efficiency and effectiveness of reviews.:Guidelines.\n\nThe effectiveness of code review was found to depend on the speed of reviewing.\n", "Section::::Limitations and complications.\n" ]	[ "Computer code itself deteriorates over time.", "Computer code deteriorates over time." ]	[ "The code doesn't deteriorate, the environment in which it is run changes which can make old code not run the same way anymore. ", "Computer code does not deteriorate over time." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Computer code itself deteriorates over time.", "Computer code deteriorates over time." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The code doesn't deteriorate, the environment in which it is run changes which can make old code not run the same way anymore. ", "Computer code does not deteriorate over time." ]
2018-21966	Why does the US have such a small amount of train routes compared to Europe?	The US rail network is just as extensive as Europe's. The difference is that it's primarily used for freight.	[ "Rail transportation in the United States\n\nRail transportation in the United States consists primarily of freight shipments, while passenger service, once a large and vital part of the nation's passenger transportation network, plays a limited role as compared to transportation patterns in many other countries.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:1720–1825.\n", "Due to the geography of the United States and the generally large distances between major cities, air transportation is the preferred method of travel for trips over , such as for business travelers and long distance vacation travelers. For cities closer together in the Northeastern part of the country (e.g. Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington D.C.), the Northeast Corridor rail line carries the majority of intercity traffic.\n", "U.S. railroads still play a major role in the nation's freight shipping. They carried 750 billion ton-miles by 1975 which doubled to 1.5 trillion ton-miles in 2005. In the 1950s, the U.S. and Europe moved roughly the same percentage of freight by rail; by 2000, the share of U.S. rail freight was 38% while in Europe only 8% of freight traveled by rail. In 2000, while U.S. trains moved 2,390 billion ton-kilometers of freight, the 15-nation European Union moved only 304 billion ton-kilometers of freight. In terms of ton-miles, railroads annually move more than 25% of the United States' freight and connect businesses with each other across the country and with markets overseas.\n", "Mass transit accounts for 9% of total U.S. work trips. Transport of goods by rail is extensive, though relatively low numbers of passengers (approximately 31 million annually) use intercity rail to travel, partly because of the low population density throughout much of the U.S. interior. However, ridership on Amtrak, the national intercity passenger rail system, grew by almost 37% between 2000 and 2010. Also, light rail development has increased in recent years. Bicycle usage for work commutes is minimal.\n", "Passenger transportation is dominated by a network of over 3.9 million miles of highways which is pervasive and highly developed by global standards. Passenger transportation is dominated by passenger vehicles (including cars, trucks, vans, and motorcycles), which account for 86% of passenger-miles traveled. The remaining 14% was handled by planes, trains, and buses. Public transit use is highly concentrated in large older cities, with only six above 25% and only New York City above 50% of trips on transit. Airlines carry almost all non-commuter intercity traffic, except the Northeast Corridor where Amtrak carries more than all airlines combined.\n", "Transportation in North America\n\nTransportation in North America is about a varied transportation system, whose quality ranges from being on par with a high-quality European motorway to an unpaved gravelled back road that can extend hundreds of miles. There is also an extensive transcontinental freight rail network, but passenger railway ridership is lower than in Europe and Asia.\n\nSection::::Railways.\n\nSection::::Railways.:Canada, the United States and Mexico.\n", "Section::::Social, economical, and energetic aspects.:Usage.\n\nDue to these benefits, rail transport is a major form of passenger and freight transport in many countries. It is ubiquitous in Europe, with an integrated network covering virtually the whole continent. In India, China, South Korea and Japan, many millions use trains as regular transport. In North America, freight rail transport is widespread and heavily used, but intercity passenger rail transport is relatively scarce outside the Northeast Corridor, due to increased preference of other modes, particularly automobiles and airplanes.\n", "The development of the American rail network during the 19th century created structural impediments to the adoption of high-speed rail in the later half of the 20th that were not present in Europe and Asia. Freight on American railroads had to travel vastly longer distances, so railroads developed longer cars that could be joined into longer trains. In contrast to Europe, these freights traveled past very few older buildings that were at risk of structural damage from vibrations created by heavy passing trains (even today, American freight cars and their contents may be as heavy as , while their European counterparts are limited to ).\n", "The sole long distance intercity passenger railroad in the continental U.S. is Amtrak. Virgin Trains USA provides regional intercity service in Florida. Commuter rail systems exist in more than a dozen metropolitan areas, but these systems are not extensively interconnected, so commuter rail cannot be used alone to traverse the country. Commuter systems have been proposed in approximately two dozen other cities, but interplays between various local-government administrative bottlenecks and ripple effects from the 2007–2012 global financial crisis have generally pushed such projects farther and farther into the future, or have even sometimes mothballed them entirely. The most culturally notable and physically evident exception to the general lack of significant passenger rail transport in the U.S. is the Northeast Corridor between Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston, with significant branches in Connecticut and Massachusetts. The corridor handles frequent passenger service that is both Amtrak and commuter. New York City itself is noteworthy for high usage of passenger rail transport, both subway and commuter rail (Long Island Rail Road, Metro-North Railroad, New Jersey Transit). The subway system is used by one third of all U.S. mass transit users. Other major cities with substantial rail infrastructure include Boston's MBTA, Philadelphia's SEPTA, and Chicago's elevated system and commuter rail system Metra. The commuter rail systems of San Diego and Los Angeles, Coaster and Metrolink, connect in Oceanside, California.\n", "BULLET::::- May 1 – Orlando, FL – House of Blues\n\nBULLET::::- May 6 – San Francisco, CA – Warfied Theatre\n\nBULLET::::- May 7 – Los Angeles, CA – Club Nokia\n\nBULLET::::- May 8 – Anaheim, CA – The Grove\n\nBULLET::::- May 10 – Phoenix, AZ – Ovations Live\n\nBULLET::::- May 12 – Houston, TX – Warehouse\n\nBULLET::::- May 14 – Kansas City, MO – Midland Theatre\n\nBULLET::::- May 15 – St. Louis, MO – The Pageant\n\nSection::::Singles.\n", "In 2014 there were around 1 million kilometres of railway in the world (a decrease of 3% compared to 2013). Of this, 350,000 km were in Europe and mainly used for passenger service, 370,000 km were in North America and mainly used for freight, and 230,000 km were in Asia and used for both freight and passenger service. In America and Europe, there are many low cost airlines and motorways which compete with rail for passenger traffic, while Asia has seen a large growth in high-speed rail with 257bn pkm representing 72% of total world high-speed rail passenger traffic.\n\nSection::::Passenger rail.\n", "The United States makes extensive use of its rail system for freight. According to the Association of American Railroads: \"U.S. freight railroads are the world's busiest, moving more freight than any rail system in any other country. In fact, U.S. railroads move more than four times as much freight as do all of Western Europe's freight railroads combined.\"\n", "In the United States, Canada, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Mexico regional passenger rail services are provided by governmental or quasi-governmental agencies, with a limited number of metropolitan areas served.\n\nEight commuter rail systems in the United States carried over ten million trips in 2018:\n\nBULLET::::- Metropolitan Transportation Authority's Long Island Rail Road, serving New York City and Long Island\n\nBULLET::::- NJ Transit Rail Operations, serving New York City, New Jersey (Newark, Trenton) and Philadelphia\n\nBULLET::::- Metropolitan Transportation Authority's Metro-North Railroad, serving New York (Yonkers and New York City) and Southwest Connecticut (Bridgeport)\n", "Section::::Impact on American economy and society.:Career paths.\n", "Section::::History by country.:Europe.:France.\n", "Section::::Background.:Trans-Hudson crossings.\n", "BULLET::::- 1860–1890 the government started ordering the construction of new lines,\n\nBULLET::::- 1890–1938 the different railroads were consolidated into two large railroads,\n\nBULLET::::- 1938–1992 Nederlandse Spoorwegen was granted a monopoly on rail transport, and\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 to present the Nederlandse Spoorwegen lost its monopoly.\n\nSection::::History by country.:Europe.:Russia.\n", "Road, rail, air and water transportation are all prevalent and important across Europe. Europe was the location of the world's first railways and motorways and is now the location of some of the world's busiest ports and airports. The Schengen Area enables border control-free travel between 26 European countries. Freight transportation has a high level of intermodal compatibility and the European Economic Area allows the free movement of goods across 30 states.\n\nA review of critical success factors for the delivery of transport infrastructure projects in Europe is presented in.\n\nSection::::Rail transport.\n", "Section::::Europe.:Bohemia and Moravia.\n", "Most rail service in the United States is publicly funded at all tiers of government. Amtrak, the national rail system, provides service across the entire continental United States. The frequency of Amtrak service varies depending on the size of the city, and its location along major rail routes. For example, cities such as New York City and Washington, D.C. which are located along the busy Northeast Corridor may see up to 50 Amtrak trains per day come in an out of their stations. This same corridor is the location of the only operating high speed rail network in the Americas: the \"Acela Express\". Other smaller cities, such as Dodge City, Kansas for instance, may only have two trains daily, or in rarer cases, cities in the upper Midwestern states, where there is sparse population, might only have Amtrak service two to three times per week. Regional rail services are primarily fixed on a major city or a state. For example, the Long Island Rail Road services the Long Island suburbs of New York City, while the UTA FrontRunner serves as a regional rail service for the Wasatch Front of Utah. These trains normally run throughout the entire day with service ranging from every 20 minutes during peak hours to every 30-45 minutes during off-peak hours. Other rail services that are regional in nature may only operate during rush hour. For example, the Virginia Railway Express (VRE), which services the Northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. only operates during the morning hours into Washington, D.C., and the evening hours out of Washington, D.C. VRE does not operate at night nor on the weekends, and only has one train during the middle of the day. Finally, several cities have light rail systems which operate generally in the core of the city and their surrounding suburbs. For instance, cities such as Kansas City, Norfolk, Boston, New Orleans, and Seattle have streetcar services that run every 10-15 minutes throughout their respective urban cores. \n", "Due to the wide availability of \"Northeast Regional\" frequencies, the \"Acela Express,\" the \"Keystone Service,\" and the \"Pennsylvanian\" as well as commuter rail, most long- and medium-haul trains operating along the New York-Washington leg of the NEC do not allow local travel between NEC stations. In most cases, long- and medium-haul trains only stop to discharge passengers from Washington (and in some cases, Alexandria) northward, and to receive passengers from Newark to Washington. This policy is intended to keep seats available for passengers making longer trips. The \"Vermonter\" is the only medium-haul train that allows local travel in both directions between New York and Washington.\n", "Travel became much easier, cheaper and more common. Shoppers from small towns could make day trips to big city stores. Hotels, resorts and tourist attractions were built to accommodate the demand. The realization that anyone could buy a ticket for a thousand-mile trip was empowering. Historians Gary Cross and Rick Szostak argue:\n", "BULLET::::- France: see Rail transport in France or SNCF\n\nBULLET::::- Germany: see Rail transport in Germany and Deutsche Bahn\n\nBULLET::::- Greece: see TrainOSE, Railways of Greece and Hellenic Railways Organisation\n\nBULLET::::- Hungary: see Hungarian State Railways\n\nBULLET::::- Iceland: see Rail transport in Iceland\n\nBULLET::::- Isle of Man: see Rail transport in the Isle of Man\n\nBULLET::::- Italy: see Rail transport in Italy and Trenitalia\n\nBULLET::::- Liechtenstein: see Rail transport in Liechtenstein\n\nBULLET::::- Lithuania: see Rail transport in Lithuania\n\nBULLET::::- Luxembourg: see Rail transport in Luxembourg\n\nBULLET::::- Malta: see Malta Railway\n\nBULLET::::- Monaco: see Rail transport in Monaco\n", "The primary Interstate Highway along the East Coast is Interstate 95, completed in 2018, which replaced the historic U.S. Route 1 (Atlantic Highway), the original federal highway that traversed all East Coast states, except Delaware. By water, the East Coast is connected from Boston, Massachusetts to Miami, Florida, by the Intracoastal Waterway, also known as the East Coast Canal, which was completed in 1912. Amtrak's \"Downeaster\" and \"Northeast Regional\" offer the main passenger rail service on the Seaboard. The \"Acela Express\" offers the only high-speed rail passenger service in the Americas. Between New York and Boston the \"Acela Express\" has up to a 54% share of the combined train and air passenger market.\n", "Great American Railroad Journeys\n\nGreat American Railroad Journeys is a BBC travel documentary series presented by Michael Portillo and aired on BBC Two. Using an 1879 copy of Appleton's Guidebook to the railroads of the United States and Canada, Portillo travels across the United States primarily by train, though at times using other forms of transportation where necessary. On his journeys, he makes stops to learn how places, events and people, and the railroads of the 19th century influenced the country's growth into a major superpower. \n" ]	[ "US has a small amount of train routes compared to Europe.", "Europe has many more train routes than the US." ]	[ "The US railway network is just as extensive as Europe's.", "The US has just as many train routes as Europe." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "US has a small amount of train routes compared to Europe.", "Europe has many more train routes than the US." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The US railway network is just as extensive as Europe's.", "The US has just as many train routes as Europe." ]
2018-03435	Why are seats not integrated into the design of toilets?	i.e., why aren't they permanently attached? You want the toilet bowl to be ceramic. Resistant to stains, non-porus to bacteria, and can withstand the weight of even OP's mom. However, ceramic can be cold and generally you don't want cold on your tushie. Plus, you can customize your toilet seat, have a wood one, a padded plastic one, whatever.	[ "There are toilets on the market where the seats have integrated spray mechanicms for anal and genital water sprays (see for example Toilets in Japan). This can be useful for the elderly or people with disabilities.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Accessible toilets.\n\nAn accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities, such as age related limited mobility or inability to walk due to impairments. Additional measures to add toilet accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from the toilet seat, including enough room for a caregiver if necessary.\n\nSection::::Public toilet.\n", "Accessible toilet\n\nAn accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities. Persons with reduced mobility find them useful, as do those with weak legs, as a higher toilet bowl makes it easier for them to stand up. Additional measures to add accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from the toilet seat, and including enough room for a caregiver if necessary. Some countries have requirements concerning the accessibility of public toilets. Toilets in private homes can be modified (retrofitted) to increase accessibility.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Toilet seats are manufactured in a range of different styles and colors, and they may be furnished matching the style of the toilet itself. They are usually built to fit the shape of the toilet bowl: two examples of this being the elongated bowl and the regular bowl. Some toilet seats are fitted with slow-closing hinges to reduce noise by preventing them from slamming against the bowl.\n", "Public toilets (aka restrooms) can present accessibility challenges for people with disabilities. For example, stalls may not be able to fit a wheelchair, and transferring between the wheelchair and the toilet seat may pose a challenge. Accessible toilets are designed to address these issues by providing more space and bars for users to grab and hold during transfers, and space for an assistant if necessary.\n", "A two-piece attaching seat and toilet bowl lid are typically mounted over the bowl to allow covering the toilet when it is not in use and to provide seating comfort. The seat may be installed at the factory, or the parts may be sold separately and assembled by a plumbing distributor or the installer.\n\nSection::::Water usage.\n\nThe amount of water used by conventional flush toilets is usually a significant portion of personal daily water usage: for example, five 10-liter flushes per day use .\n\nModern low-flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush, per flush.\n", "The International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials' Uniform Plumbing Code, section 409.2.2, requires that \"all water closet seats, except those within dwelling units or for private use, shall be of the open front type\". There is an exception for toilets with an automatic toilet-seat cover dispenser. The code has no legal force, but because it is followed by many public authorities, many public toilets feature open front toilet seats (also called \"split seats\").\n", "Toyota is the first automaker to offer a factory installed auto-access seat for disabled people. The one-touch rotating, power ascending/descending lift-up seat can lower to within of the ground.\n\nSection::::Third generation (XL30; 2010–present).:Model year changes.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Toyota's new navigation system with Entune connected navigation system became available.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: The four-cylinder engine was dropped and replaced with the 2GR-FE V6.\n", "A significant development in transportation, and public transport in particular, to achieve accessibility, is the move to \"low-floor\" vehicles. In a low-floor vehicle, access to part or all of the passenger cabin is unobstructed from one or more entrances by the presence of steps, enabling easier access for the infirm or people with push chairs. A further aspect may be that the entrance and corridors are wide enough to accommodate a wheelchair. Low-floor vehicles have been developed for buses, trolleybuses and trams.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Legislation.\n\nSome countries have requirements concerning the accessibility of public toilets. In the United States, most new construction for public use must be built to Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 standards. In the United Kingdom, the Equality Act 2010 requires organizations and businesses to make reasonable adjustments to meet the needs of people with disabilities.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Accessible bathtub\n\nBULLET::::- Accessible housing\n\nBULLET::::- Transfer bench\n\nBULLET::::- Unisex public toilet\n\nBULLET::::- Visitability, proposed design standards for all new housing\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- United Nations Enable Programme\n", "High-tech toilet seats may include many features, including a heated seat, a bidet, and a blow drier. High-tech seats are most common in Japan, where a seat with integrated bidets is colloquially called a Washlet, after a leading brand. Electrically heated toilet seats have been popular in Japan since the 1970s. Since Japanese bathrooms are often unheated, the toilet seat sometimes doubles as a space heater. Integrated bidets date from around 1980, and have since become very popular in Japan, and are becoming more common in most other developed countries.\n", "The Eyegiene by Blueline Hygienics can be installed in minutes, without the need for special tools and tradesmen and does not require any extra water\n\npipes or electricity supplies. The only requirement is a rechargeable battery that can be easily\n\nreplaced. After each use, seat automatically rotates through a cleaning mechanism. In less than 10 seconds, the seat is hygienically cleaned by using a biodegradable solution.The Eyegiene toilet seat was first introduced to the market in 2005 and as of 2005 around 200,000 toilet seats are installed in Europe\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.:SUPRATECH.\n", "Toilets can be designed to be used either in a sitting or in a squatting posture.\n\nSection::::Types by usage posture.:Toilet with a pedestal for sitting.\n\nSitting toilets are often referred to as \"western-style toilets\". Sitting toilets are more convenient than squat toilets for people with disabilities and the elderly.\n\nSection::::Types by usage posture.:Squat toilet.\n", "There has been much debate among those who use toilet covers, regarding the orientation of said toilet seat cover. The proper way to place a cover on a toilet seat is to place the side with the flap toward the front of the toilet, with the flap going in the toilet to prevent \"splashing\" forward. Most public toilet seats are \"U\" shaped with an exposed rim in the front; the flap prevents particles and germs from collecting there.\n\nSection::::Laws.\n", "As for the future of airports, there are many trends floating around, and becoming more relevant in regards to the experience of the traveler. An example, being the need to create a “sense of place”. The seating arrangement in a waiting area, is taking on a new and fresh look, all in the hopes of creating a positive response from travelers.\n", "Automatic self-clean toilet seat\n\nAn automatic self-clean toilet seat is designed to be cleaned, disinfected and dried after each use. Such toilet seats are starting to become common at various public toilets in the USA and Europe.\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.:CWS.\n", "The early versions of stadium-style seating as built in 1995 had auditoriums configured with an entrance to a flat area in front of the screen for wheelchair users; persons sitting there had to either lean back or look up at an uncomfortable angle to see the screen. Able-bodied guests had to ascend the stairs to sit in the middle of the risers in order to have a comfortable line-of-sight with the screen. Since some wheelchair users may have limited neck movement range, this configuration made AMC a popular target for Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) lawsuits.\n", "The purpose for this seat design is to allow women to wipe the perineal area after using the toilet without contacting the seat. It also omits an area of the seat that could be contaminated with urine, and avoids contact between the seat and the user's genitals.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Modern design, electronic integration, and function.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Modern design, electronic integration, and function.:Slow-close.\n\nA slow-close seat uses special hinges to prevent the seat from slamming down. Special hinges provide resistance, allowing the seat to lower slowly.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Modern design, electronic integration, and function.:Warming.\n", "BULLET::::- Public advertising amenities must fit the broader architecture and urban planning rules of their cities. These requirements lead to interesting design approaches for poster presentation in different formats.\n\nBULLET::::- Street furniture families were designed to fit these needs. Over the years they were completed with additional components like restrooms and automatic toilet facilities and kiosks to name a few.\n\nBULLET::::- To finance this infrastructure long term contracts (10 to 15 years) are signed between cities and outdoor advertising companies.\n", "The construction of low floor trams and buses is increasingly required by law, whereas the use of inaccessible features such as paternosters in public buildings without any alternative methods of wheelchair access is increasingly deprecated. Modern architecture is increasingly required by law and recognised good practise to incorporate better accessibility at the design stage.\n", "In the UK, all single deck buses are required to be accessible to wheelchair users by 2017, all double-deck coaches by 2020. Similar requirements exist for trains, with most trains already incorporating a number of wheelchair-spaces.\n\nThe EU has required airline and airport operators to support the use of airports and airliners by wheelchair users and other 'Persons with Reduced Mobility' since the introduction of EU Directive EC1107/2006.\n\nIn Los Angeles there is a program to remove a small amount of seating on some trains to make more room for bicycles and wheelchairs.\n", "Section::::Manufacturers.:Sanitronics International B.V.\n\nSanitronics International has years of experience in designing and producing automatic public toilet systems for different places all over the world. A revolutionary, self-cleaning, toilet system for the public environment. With a quick turn around time, every visitor will be able to experience a toilet that will be clean on the inside and out. With over 20 years of experience in public toilets, the system has been designed around topics such as vandalism, sustainability, comfort and hygiene. Providing the highest possible service level for every type of visitor. The toilets developed in the Netherlands. \n\nSection::::Manufacturers.:Blueline Hygienics.\n", "Lower-cost options include a detachable toilet seat referred to as an \"electronic bidet(“e-bidet”)\" seat, which are becoming increasingly popular as well.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic bidet shower for front (lady) and rear cleansing\n\nBULLET::::- Seat-warming\n\nBULLET::::- Adjustable water temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Deodorizer\n\nBULLET::::- Air dryer\n\nBULLET::::- Many models offer water-conservative 1.0-1.28GPF\n\nBULLET::::- Illuminating nightlight\n\nSection::::Health applications.\n", "Although Europeans eventually developed a similar design, this method of transportation did not exist until 1595 when an unknown inventor from Spain built one for King Phillip II. Although it was an elaborate chair having both armrests and leg rests, the design still had shortcomings since it did not feature an efficient propulsion mechanism and thus, requires assistance to propel it. This makes the design more of a modern-day highchair or portable throne for the wealthy rather than a modern-day wheelchair for the disabled.\n", "Toilets in private homes can be modified to increase accessibility; this is one of the skills of an occupational therapist. Common modifications include: adding a raised toilet seat on top of a standard toilet, installing a taller and more convenient height toilet bowl, attaching a frame or grab bars, and ensuring the toilet paper is within reach and can be detached with one hand. These modifications can enable aging in place for seniors who wish to remain in their homes and communities.\n\nSection::::Description.:Terminology.\n\nAlternative terms are \"handicapped toilet\" or \"toilets for the disabled\" which are no longer recommended (see disability).\n", "Toilitech produces anti-vandal self-cleaning toilets and public toilets, equipped with handicap equipment.\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.:EUROmodul.\n\nMagic Box II can be installed into already finished toilet user space (airport or railway stations) and can be done very easily due to plug n play installation system. Toilet seat disinfection process and bowl flush will start when user touch the LED button before leaving user space.\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.:Xiamen Wing Technology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00583	Why do your earbuds emit a high pitched noise whenever you walk past the detectors at a library?	Because the detectors transmit a signal that interferes with the amplifier in your audio player. Those detectors work in a couple of ways - One is where the signal they transmit is picked up by a coil in the book, which is connected to a small chip that transmits it's number whenever it gets power. The coils pick up this number, and the computer checks that the book linked to it has been properly checked out. The other is that the signal simply induces a current in a coil attached to the book, robbing energy from the system. The system detects this and knows that a tag is passing by. For these, the tag is either removed or disabled when the book is checked out. Both of these rely on signals that can be picked up by a simple audio amplifier.	[ "Dear Uncle Ezra,\n\nWhat is that sound coming from the Johnson Museum? It's a pingy type sound that I guess could be some kind of wind chime but it seems like it's coming from the building itself.\n\n— Just wondering\n\nDear Chiming In,\n", "NC level 35 is generally considered acceptable for most library functions, with NC level 40 acceptable in the busier areas (for comparison, NC 20-25 is considered acceptable for concert halls). NC values consider the background noise level traditionally heard from building systems including heating, air conditioning, ventilation, fan units and noise through windows. With increasing numbers of electrical equipment to be found in libraries, increasingly on unmediated public access, consideration of noise must be incorporated into the practice of library atmospherics.\n\nSection::::Technological atmospheric variables.:Computers and lighting.\n", "In former years the dome's acoustics caused an echo problem, which repeated several times any short noise made in the room. Adding sound-absorbing material reduced this effect.\n", "\"Katalog\" (English: Catalogue) is a music piece composed specially for the Black Diamond by Danish composer Fuzzy as a new artistic decoration. It consists of an electroacoustic composition, around three minutes long, for every week of the year. Every day at 1 pm the composition is broadcast in the atrium via a permanent installation based on a computerized 12-channel loudspeaker system, in which every loudspeaker can be programmed individually. Four loudspeakers are installed in the ceiling of each of the three balcony levels.\n", "The presence of the Vashta Nerada were created with lighting managed by director of photography Rory Taylor. To draw the eye toward the shadows, they were deepened in post-production by visual effects company The Mill.\n\nSection::::Broadcast and reception.\n\nSection::::Broadcast and reception.:Release and ratings.\n", "Section::::Acoustics career.:TDS/TEF technology.\n\nIn 1980, Kolbe was an early user of time delay spectrometry / time energy frequency (TDS/TEF) technology.\n", "Console noise comes from magnetic components on or within the console. These include ferrite in cores in inductors and transformers, steel frames around LCDs, legs on IC chips and steel cases in disposable batteries. Some popular MIL spec connectors also have steel springs.\n", "The frequency of the noise depends on the nature of electromagnetic forces (quadratic or linear function of electrical field or magnetic field) and on the frequency content of the electromagnetic field (in particular if a DC component is present or not).\n\nSection::::Electromagnetic noise and vibrations in electric machines.\n", "BULLET::::- seismic noise (any ground motion whose sources are numerous: waves in the Mediterranean sea, wind, human activity for instance the traffic during daytime, etc.) in the low frequencies up to about 10 Hertz (Hz);\n\nBULLET::::- the thermal noise of the mirrors and their suspension wires, from a few tens of Hz up to a few hundreds;\n\nBULLET::::- the laser shot noise above a few hundreds of Hz.\n", "While ambient electrical noise is a serious issue when dealing with millivolt and microvolt signals such as those typically originating from microphones and other input transducers, it is highly unlikely that such induced noise would significantly audibly affect high level output signals in low impedance systems such as the speaker wires connecting an amplifier to a speaker, unless of course, the cables are unusually long, the location is unusually noisy or the listener has an exceptionally good ear.\n", "Usage of a digipot is far more complex than that of a simple mechanical potentiometer, and there are many limitations to observe; nevertheless they are widely used, often for factory adjustment and calibration of equipment, especially where the limitations of mechanical potentiometers are problematic. A digipot is generally immune to the effects of moderate long-term mechanical vibration or environmental contamination, to the same extent as other semiconductor devices, and can be secured electronically against unauthorised tampering by protecting the access to its programming inputs by various means.\n", "The primary source of noise for researchers at the nanoscale is mechanical vibration. Activities within a building generate noise that can travel through the structure and vibrations created outside (such as from road traffic) can travel through the ground and enter the building. A variety of methods were employed to reduce vibration generation, travel and entry into the lab space:\n\nBULLET::::- The main structure of the building is massive, 2.0 m-thick concrete foundations and 0.5 m-thick concrete floors.\n\nBULLET::::- All plant machinery is removed to the third floor, as far from the lab space as possible.\n", "Section::::Radio tags.\n", "Section::::Research in the U.S..\n", "The tuning issue can be addressed by using a scanning circuit to enable the detector to scan the spectrum automatically and stop scanning when a bat call is heard. One example of such a detector is the Bat Scanner.\n\nIt is also possible to use a 'comb spectrum' generator as the local oscillator so that the detector is effectively tuned to lots of frequencies, 10 kHz apart, all at once.\n", "BULLET::::- coils: in magnetic resonance imaging, \"coil noise\" is that part of total system noise attributed to the receiving coil, due to its non-zero temperature.\n\nSection::::Examples of device subject to electromagnetic noise and vibrations.:Rotating devices.\n\nRotating devices include radial and axial flux rotating electric machines used for electrical to mechanical power conversion such as\n\nBULLET::::- induction motors\n\nBULLET::::- synchronous motors with permanent magnets or DC wound rotor\n\nBULLET::::- switched reluctance motors\n", "In addition to his duties at the University of Illinois, Wyatt has been an active figure in the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States (SEAMUS), serving as its President from 1989 through 1996 and on its Board of Directors until 2016.\n", "On 31 May 2003 a group of UK researchers held a mass experiment, where they exposed some 700 people to music laced with soft 17 Hz sine waves played at a level described as \"near the edge of hearing\", produced by an extra-long-stroke subwoofer mounted two-thirds of the way from the end of a seven-meter-long plastic sewer pipe. The experimental concert (entitled \"Infrasonic\") took place in the Purcell Room over the course of two performances, each consisting of four musical pieces. Two of the pieces in each concert had 17 Hz tones played underneath.\n", "Another use of this side effect has resulted in its use as a forensic tool. When a recording is made that captures audio near an AC appliance or socket, the hum is also incidentally recorded. The peaks of the hum repeat every AC cycle (every (1000/50) round 2 ms for 50 Hz AC, or every (1000/60) round 2 ms for 60 Hz AC). Any edit of the audio that is not a multiplication of the time between the peaks will distort the regularity, introducing a phase shift. A continuous wavelet transform analysis will show discontinuities that may tell if the audio has been cut.\n", "Section::::Broadcast and reception.:Critical reception and accolades.\n", "These phenomena can potentially generate vibrations of the ferromagnetic, conductive parts, coils and permanent magnets of electrical, magnetic and electromechanical device, resulting in an audible sound if the frequency of vibrations lies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz, and if the sound level is high enough to be heard (e.g. large surface of radiation and large vibration levels). Vibration level is increased in case of a mechanical resonance, when electromagnetic forces match with a structural mode natural frequency of the active component (magnetic circuit, electromagnetic coil or electrical circuit) or of its enclosure. \n", "In March 2016, a security guard at the library was observed by multiple patrons harassing a Muslim patron for wearing a hijab. Protests were held outside the library and the security guard admitted to harassing the woman although he claimed he thought she was wearing a hoodie. The security guard, who had been previously terminated by Metropolitan Police for destruction of private property, was not fired despite there being no policy against wearing hoodies in the library.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "In such device, dynamic electromagnetic forces come from variations of magnetic field, which either comes from a steady AC winding or a rotating DC field source (permanent magnet or DC winding).\n\nSection::::Sources of magnetic noise and vibrations in electric machines.\n\nThe harmonic electromagnetic forces responsible for magnetic noise and vibrations in a healthy machine can come from\n\nBULLET::::- Pulse-width modulation supply of the machine\n\nBULLET::::- slotting effects\n\nBULLET::::- magnetic saturation\n\nIn a faulty machine, additional noise and vibrations due to electromagnetic forces can come from\n\nBULLET::::- mechanical static and dynamic eccentricities\n\nBULLET::::- uneven air-gap\n\nBULLET::::- demagnetization\n\nBULLET::::- short circuits\n", "Some libraries offer public access to a range of electronic equipment, including public-access computers, fax machines, photocopiers, ATMs, and self-service checkout units. These technological variables create a need for varied environments within the library building in order to take account of different needs expressed by patrons - a silent-study area should not also house a group of photocopiers.\n\nSection::::Technological atmospheric variables.:Noise criteria.\n\nNoise criteria (NC) translates complex acoustical characteristic into a single quantitative value. \n", "BULLET::::- All Low noise labs have a seven tonne concrete isolation block set on damper pads, within the ground slab. This is the experimental space, with lower vibrations than the surrounding floor and allowing experiments to continue while the researcher walks around within the lab.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01354	What makes mucous slimy?	Mucus is slimy because it has lots of proteins and other chemicals in it that like to stick together. That's really all it is. \* Mucus is the slimy stuff. Mucous is the quality of being like mucus, or of having or producing mucus. The difference is important.	[ "Section::::Growth and morphology.\n", "Section::::Chemistry.\n", "Section::::Reproduction.\n", "Mucosal immunology is the study of immune system responses that occur at mucosal membranes of the intestines, the urogenital tract and the respiratory system, i.e., surfaces that are in contact with the external environment. In healthy states, the mucosal immune system provides protection against pathogens but maintains a tolerance towards non-harmful commensal microbes and benign environmental substances. For example, in the oral and gut mucosa, the secretion of IgA provides an immune response to potential antigens in food without a large and unnecessary systemic immune response. Since the mucosal membranes are the primary contact point between a host and its environment, a large amount of secondary lymphoid tissue is found here. The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, or MALT, provides the organism with an important first line of defense. Along with the spleen and lymph nodes, the tonsils and MALT are also considered to be secondary lymphoid tissue. The mucosal immune system provides three main functions: serving as the body's first line defense from antigens and infection, preventing systemic immune responses to commensal bacteria and food antigens (primarily food proteins in the Gut-associated lymphoid tissue, so-called oral tolerance), and regulating appropriate immune responses to pathogens encountered on a daily basis.\n", "Section::::Layout.:Submucosal and muscular layers.\n\nThe submucosa consists of a dense and irregular layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves branching into the mucosa and muscular layer. It contains the submucous plexus, and enteric nervous plexus, situated on the inner surface of the muscular layer.\n", "Section::::Habitat and ecology.\n", "The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It surrounds the lumen of the tract, and comes into direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa itself is made up of three layers: \n\nBULLET::::- The epithelium is the innermost layer. It is where most digestive, absorptive and secretory processes occur.\n\nBULLET::::- Lamina propria is a layer of connective tissue within the mucosa. Unusually cellular compared to most connective tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Muscularis mucosae is a thin layer of smooth muscle.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Mucosa.:Epithelium.\n", "Section::::Morphology and taxonomy.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n", "Section::::Physiology and ecology.\n", "Submucosa\n\nThe submucosa (or tela submucosa) is a thin layer of tissue in various organs of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts. It is the layer of dense irregular connective tissue that supports the mucosa (mucous membrane) and joins it to the muscular layer, the bulk of overlying smooth muscle (fibers running circularly within layer of longitudinal muscle).\n\nThe submucosa (\"sub-\" + \"mucosa\") is to a mucous membrane what the subserosa (\"sub-\" + \"serosa\") is to a serous membrane.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "BULLET::::- 30 °C - No growth\n\nBULLET::::- 5-25 °C - Growth and sporulation\n\nBULLET::::- 15 °C and below - Recurved short sporangiophores, columellae more narrow and cylindrical-ellipsoidal, sporangiospores larger\n\n\"Mucor mucedo\" reproduction occurs in asexual and sexual methods.\n", "Cryptosporidium muris\n\nCryptosporidium muris is a species of coccidium, first isolated from the gastric glands of the common mouse.\n\n\"Cryptosporidium\" does originate in common mice, specifically laboratory mice. However, it also has infected cows, dogs, cats, rats, rabbits, lambs, and humans and other primates.\n\nSection::::General characteristics.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n\nThe mucosa of organs are composed of one or more layers of epithelial cells that secrete mucus, and an underlying lamina propria of loose connective tissue. The type of cells and type of mucus secreted vary from organ to organ and each can differ along a given tract.\n", "Other strains of L. mucosae have been isolated from human feces, referred to as ME-340, human intestine and vagina, the intestines of dogs, calves, and horses, and the stomach mucosa of breast-fed lamb, strain D.\n\nSection::::Special Functions.\n", "Section::::Type VII secretion system (T7SS).\n", "Section::::Commercial and biotechnological use.\n", "Section::::Symbiotic interactions.\n\nHyphae of \"Mucor plumbeus\" have been found to be invaded by the hyperparasitic fungi \"Trichoderma viride\" and \"Synchephalis californica\". In addition, \"Mucor plumbeus\" produces a gas that stimulates the growth of \"Phytophthora citrophthora\", a plant pathogen. The presence of \"M. plumbeus\" stimulates the fruiting of \"Pilobolus kleinii\" due to the production of ammonia.\n\nSection::::Health implications.\n", "Alveolar macrophages are frequently seen to contain granules of exogenous material such as particulate carbon that they have picked up from respiratory surfaces. Such black granules may be especially common in smoker's lungs or long-term city dwellers.\n\nThe alveolar macrophage is the third cell type in the alveolus, the others are the type I and type II pneumocytes.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Section::::Mycotoxins.:Human disease.\n\n\"Mucor mucedo\" sometimes cause opportunistic and rapidly spreading infections called mucormycosis. Also referred to as zygomycosis, this necrotizing infection can be life threatening in diabetic or immuno-suppressed/compromised patients.\"Mucor mucedo\" can cause minor infections as well, as there have been reported cases of frequent vomiting and severe purging along with prostration following the consumption of cheese contaminated with \"M. mucedo\" mould growth.\n\nSection::::Mycotoxins.:Amphotericin B.\n", "Section::::Multure.\n", "The lamina propria is a fibrous connective tissue layer that consists of a network of type I and III collagen and elastin fibers. The main cells of the lamina propria are the fibroblasts, which are responsible for the production of the extracellular matrix. The basement membrane forms the border between the epithelial layer and the lamina propria.\n\nSection::::Tissue engineered oral mucosa.\n\nSection::::Tissue engineered oral mucosa.:Partial-thickness engineered oral mucosa.\n", "Enterocytes, along with goblet cells, represent the principal cell types of the epithelium of the villi in the small intestine.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nThere, the villi and the microvilli increase intestinal absorptive surface area approximately 30-fold and 600-fold, respectively, providing exceptionally efficient absorption of nutrients in the lumen. \n", "Section::::Diet.\n", "In the gastrointestinal tract, the term \"mucosa\" or \"mucous membrane\" refers to the combination of epithelium, lamina propria, and (where it occurs) muscularis mucosae. The etymology suggests this, since the Latin names translate to \"the mucosa's own special layer\" (\"lamina propria mucosae\") and \"muscular layer of the mucosa\" (\"lamina muscularis mucosae\").\n\nThe muscularis mucosae is composed of several thin layers of smooth muscle fibers oriented in different ways which keep the mucosal surface and underlying glands in a constant state of gentle agitation to expel contents of glandular crypts and enhance contact between epithelium and the contents of the lumen.\n" ]	[ "Mucous is the slimy stuff. " ]	[ "Mucous is the quality of being like mucus, and mucus is the slimy stuff. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mucous is the slimy stuff. ", "Mucous is the slimy stuff. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mucous is the quality of being like mucus, and mucus is the slimy stuff. ", "Mucous is the quality of being like mucus, and mucus is the slimy stuff. " ]
2018-00965	Why do some videos when played on a computer have only specific points you can jump to?	Modern video compression works by only storing changes between frames (among many other tricks that are also used). Only every few seconds a full frame is stored. Those are called „keyframes“. If you video has keyframes at 0:20 and 0:24 and you jump to 0:22, the video Decoder can’t decode that specific frame without first going back to the previous keyframe or it can jump forward to the next. Probably depends on which one in closer and on the player software what it ends up doing.	[ "The data collection and computation also requires time. The audio feed goes to an audio delay to be synchronized with the delayed video. The total delay for the viewer from the live feed ends up being about 2/3 of a second.\n\nSection::::Final result.\n", "For Flash video seeking requires a list of seek points in the media file metadata. These points are offsets in the video (both in seconds and bytes) at which a new key frame starts. A web server or a media server which handles the download, must support seek points in query string of requests for downloading data.\n\nFor other types of media files such as MP4 or MKV, web servers must be capable of handling a special offset parameter. The offset parameter name differs for various servers so it must be specified in player settings.\n", "Because VideoNow uses video discs, and that has very little if any skip protection, it is more prone to skipping if the VideoNow is touched, bumped, or shaken while playing a PVD.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "This SCART feature had been used for connection to analogue decoding equipment by pay TV operators in Europe, and in the past was used for connection to teletext equipment before the decoders became built-in. The outgoing signal could be of the same nature as the incoming signal, or RGB component video, or even an \"insert\" over the original signal, due to the \"fast switching\" feature of SCART.\n", "BULLET::::- One channel with alternating left and right frames for the corresponding eye, using LCD shutter glasses that synchronize to the video to alternately block the image to each eye, so the appropriate eye sees the correct frame. This method is most common in computer virtual reality applications such as in a Cave Automatic Virtual Environment, but reduces effective video framerate by a factor of two.\n\nSection::::Formats.\n\nDifferent layers of video transmission and storage each provide their own set of formats to choose from.\n", "Where two or more video signals are combined or being switched between, the horizontal and vertical timing of the picture sources should be coincident with each other. If they are not, the picture will appear to jump when switching between the sources whilst the display device re-adjusts the horizontal and/or vertical scan to correctly reframe the image.\n\nSection::::Possible problems.:Color changes.\n\nWhere composite video is in use, the phase of the chrominance subcarrier of each source being combined or switched should also be coincident. This is to avoid changes in colour hue and/or saturation during a transition between sources.\n\nSection::::Scope.\n", "BULLET::::- A Snake game could be activated in the Adobe Flash player by pressing a combination of arrow keys whilst videos were paused or playing. Once started, the snake could be controlled by further use of the arrow keys, directing it to \"gobble up dots\" to increase its size. If the snake hit the edges of the video window, the game ended. The feature no longer works with the HTML5 video player.\n\nBULLET::::- When watching a video with \"fidget spinner\" in the title, the buffering icon would change into a spinning fidget spinner.\n", "Section::::Concepts and technical challenges.:Commentary.\n\nUser replies to video content, traditionally in the form of text or image links which are not embedded into the playback sequence of the video, have been allowed through such video hosting services as Viddler to become embedded both within the imagery of the video and within portions of the playback (via selected time lengths inside the progress slider element); this feature has become known as \"video comments\" or \"audio comments\".\n\nSection::::Concepts and technical challenges.:Commercial exploitation.\n", "Last position memory\n\nLast-position memory is a feature that allows media playback devices to continue from where a user pauses the playback, or after powering off the device.\n\nSection::::Early methods.\n", "BULLET::::- Bitrate Calculator does not allow to choose the number of channels for audio tracks (defaults to Stereo)\n\nBULLET::::- System-wide brightness, contrast and color adjustments for videos (from Nvidia or ATI Control Panel) will be detected by XMedia Recode during the Preview and those adjustments will be hardcoded into the output file.\n\nBULLET::::- Lack of documentation for codec options (hover tooltips)\n\nBULLET::::- All videos default the framerate to \"Keep Original\", however this can sometimes create corrupt or broken videos. The user is therefore required to choose the desired framerate every time to prevent the mentioned problem from occurring.\n", "A common problem with video recordings is the action jumps, instead of flowing smoothly, due to low frame rate. Though getting faster all the time, ordinary PCs are not yet fast enough to play videos and simultaneously capture them at professional frame rates, \"i.e.\" 30 frame/s. For many cases, high frame rates are not required. This is not generally an issue if simply capturing desktop video, which requires far less processing power than video playback, and it is very possible to capture at 30 frame/s. This varies depending on desktop resolution, processing requirements needed for the application that is being captured, and many other factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Video shifters, or \"video shift register based systems\" (there is no generally agreed upon name for these type of devices), are the most simple type of video controllers. They are directly or indirectly responsible for the video timing signals, but they normally do not access the video RAM directly. They get the video data from the main CPU, a byte at a time, and convert it to a serial bitstream, hence the technical name \"video shifter\". This serial data stream is then used together with the synchronization signals to output a video signal. The main CPU needs to do the bulk of the work. Normally these chips only support a very low resolution raster graphics mode.\n", "The pause between sending video data is used in real time computer graphics to perform various operations on the back buffer before copying it to the front buffer instead of just switching both pointers, or to provide a time reference for when switching such pointers is safe.\n", "BULLET::::- Some video overlay devices write the digital video signal directly into the graphics card's video memory or provide it to the graphics card's RAMDAC.\n", "BULLET::::- Lack of motion detection. Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects the movement of an object into the field of view and remaining still for a user definable time. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or used to trigger changes in other internal features.\n", "MP3 players also have last-position memory. Typically this is to be found on mid- to high-end models of them. Less expensive models of MP3 players sometimes only do last-position memory by knowing the file it's on without knowing the playback progress, and some lower-end models don't store last position memory at all.\n\nSection::::Computer-based devices.:Save-stating.\n\nSometimes the effect of \"last-position memory\" can be emulated by savestating in virtual machines playing media playback software, such as VLC Media Player which doesn't natively support \"last-position memory\"\n", "Online services, including YouTube, are also beginning to provide \"'video stabilization\" as a post-processing step after content is uploaded. This has the disadvantage of not having access to the realtime gyroscopic data, but the advantage of more computing power and the ability to analyze images both before and after a particular frame.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Orthogonal transfer CCD.\n", "BULLET::::- Tagging. The registered users were able to place and suggest the removal of tags to each video. These were then used to power the inbuilt search engine.\n\nStage6 also featured its own search engine profiling the videos by the user-generated tags and their popularity. Because the search engine used the tags, rather than the title, as a primary search criteria, it was often difficult to find a video based on its name.\n", "BULLET::::- A video monitor with built-in speakers or line-out may not delay sound and video paths by the same number of milliseconds. Some video monitors contain internal user-adjustable audio delays to aid in correction of errors.\n", "Assuming the player's optical pickup is in proper working order, crosstalk distortion normally does not occur during playback of CAV format LaserDiscs, as the rotational speed never varies. However, if the player calibration is out of order or if the CAV disc is faulty or damaged, other problems affecting tracking accuracy can occur. One such problem is \"laser lock\", where the player reads the same two fields for a given frame over and over, causing the picture to look frozen as if the movie were paused.\n", "In order for this to work, three things have to come together:\n\nBULLET::::- The video controller has to provide the required functions.\n\nBULLET::::- The device driver software for the video controller and the X display server program have to implement the XVideo interface.\n\nBULLET::::- The video playback software has to make use of this interface.\n", "BULLET::::- There are presently no audio drivers written to support the console's internal audio hardware, however a USB audio device can be used.\n\nBULLET::::- Some codecs are incompatible with the current display driver, causing some videos to not play. In addition to this, framebuffer and cache issues mean that videos that do play are jumpy after the first few seconds when the cache is full.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Even if the frame is the smallest time unit, one can still spatially segment a video at a sub-frame level, separating the frame image into its constituent objects. This is necessary when performing node segmentation at the object level. Time introduces complexity in this case also, for even after an object is differentiated in one frame, it is usually necessary to follow the same object through a sequence of frames. This process, known as object tracking, is essential to the creation of links from objects in videos. Spatial segmentation of object can be achieved, for example, through the use of intensity gradients to detect edges, color histograms to match regions, motion detection, or a combination of these and other methods.\n", "For example: For the DVD video format, a recording is stored in an MPEG program stream, containing DVD-Video specific packets for navigation purposes—such as fast forward and fast reverse. In order to fill these packets properly, an encoding system needs to examine considerable amounts of video data, both before and after the navigation point. Video recorder systems typically have too little memory to achieve this fully, so logically a work-around for this has been introduced.\n", "There are some limitations for the length of a single video. At the very least, there is a limitation on the file size for each video file, which is 4 GB (the maximum file size that is allowed by the FAT32 format of the SDHC cards). But it is possible that a video will not reach 4 GB because it will be limited by excessive sensor heat (usually after 12 minutes of continuous video shooting). Depleted batteries or a full memory card may also interfere with video length.\n\nSection::::Firmware.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00196	Why do metal objects like spoons make microwaves explode?	As someone who's stuck a spoon in a microwave, they don't exactly "explode". I mean... I lived to tell the tale. Metal reflects microwaves rather than absorbing them like food. If the metal is flat, it just acts a lot like the walls of the microwave itself, and is generally harmless. Those metal linings on Hot Pocket and microwave pizza "trays" are meant to do just this, to better cook the food. Pointy (foil) or weird-shaped objects (spoons n' stuff) cause the microwaves to reflect in strange ways. It may focus the microwaves into a small area by reflection, it may generate an arc because the microwaves cause a current to run along the metal, etc. This can set your food on fire, or ruin the microwave. Still won't explode, though.	[ "Any object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwaves is safe, see below), twist-ties containing metal wire, the metal wire carry-handles in paper Chinese take-out food containers, or almost any metal formed into a poorly conductive foil or thin wire, or into a pointed shape. Forks are a good example: the tines of the fork respond to the electric field by producing high concentrations of electric charge at the tips. This has the effect of exceeding the dielectric breakdown of air, about 3 megavolts per meter (3×10 V/m). The air forms a conductive plasma, which is visible as a spark. The plasma and the tines may then form a conductive loop, which may be a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities.\n", "It is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.\n", "Products that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Metal objects.\n\nAny metal or conductive object placed into the microwave will act as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.\n", "Certain foods such as grapes, if properly arranged, can produce an electric arc. Prolonged arcing from food carries similar risks to arcing from other sources as noted above.\n\nSome other objects that may conduct sparks are plastic/holographic print thermoses (such as Starbucks novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell will burst off the object or melt.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Resonance absorption.\n", "Section::::Other concerns.\n\nSome vacuum tubes present in microwave installations tend to generate bremsstrahlung x-rays. Magnetrons and especially hydrogen thyratrons tend to be the worst offenders.\n\nSection::::Low-level exposure.\n", "BULLET::::- In season 2 episode 5 of \"Arrested Development\", Michael Bluth talks about his brother forgetting to remove the tin foil when microwaving a Ding Dong.\n\nBULLET::::- In season 1 episode 12 of \"The Big Bang Theory\", \"The Jerusalem Duality\", Howard Wolowitz berates his mother by phone when she forgets to put a Ding Dong in his bagged lunch.\n\nBULLET::::- In the American sitcom \"Seinfeld\", there is an episode entitled \"The Dinner Party\" where George Costanza suggests bringing Ring Dings and Pepsi to the dinner party.\n", "Throughout the chapter, Kean discussed elements that were put through extreme temperatures to be able to get a sample. Xenon and krypton were put to temperatures as low as -240 F.Sam also talks about how laser beams come to be with elements like yttrium and neodymium. Kean states that the most powerful laser has more power than the US and it uses crystals of yttrium spiked with neodymium. While lasers produce light in visible light, masers don't as they produce it in microwaves. Masers were considered impossible until began working on them and his research earned him a Nobel Prize in 1964.\n", "Section::::Heating characteristics.:Effects on food and nutrients.\n", "Section::::Chapter 2.\n\n\"The fathers of the periodic table\"\n\nIn this chapter, the author focuses on the relationships between carbon, silicon, and germanium. He explains how carbon is the backbone of amino acids and the building blocks to everything. He discusses that because of carbon, amino acids all stick together. Then, he describes the carbon element and how it wants to fill its outer energy level with eight electrons so it attaches to four atoms since carbon already has four atoms.\n", "The effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.\n", "The second problem is due to food composition and geometry, and must be addressed by the cook, by arranging the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically testing and shielding any parts of the food that overheat. In some materials with low thermal conductivity, where dielectric constant increases with temperature, microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaway. Under certain conditions, glass can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting.\n", "Metallised films are used as a susceptor for cooking in microwave ovens. An example is a microwave popcorn bag.\n\nMany food items are also packaged using metallised films for appearance only, as these produce a package with greater sparkle when compared to competing products that use printed paper or polymer films.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Insulation.\n", "Some current plastic containers and food wraps are specifically designed to resist radiation from microwaves. Products may use the term \"microwave safe\", may carry a microwave symbol (three lines of waves, one above the other) or simply provide instructions for proper microwave use. Any of these is an indication that a product is suitable for microwaving when used in accordance with the directions provided.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Uneven heating.\n", "Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some materials with low thermal conductivity which also have dielectric constants that increase with temperature. An example is glass, which can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting if preheated. Additionally, microwaves can melt certain types of rocks, producing small quantities of molten rock. Some ceramics can also be melted, and may even become clear upon cooling. Thermal runaway is more typical of electrically conductive liquids such as salty water.\n", "Today, technical ceramics can also be found in everyday objects such as lighters, mobile phones, espresso machines or cars, since the material is heat-resistant, durable and hard. Ceramic blades cut diamonds, for example.\n\nSection::::Selb locations.:Rosenthal Museum.\n", "Section::::Heating characteristics.:Use in cleaning kitchen sponges.\n\nStudies have investigated the use of the microwave to clean non-metallic domestic sponges which have been thoroughly wetted. A 2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes (at 1000 watt power) removed 99% of coliforms, \"E. coli\" and MS2 phages. \"Bacillus cereus\" spores were killed at four minutes of microwaving.\n\nA 2017 study was less affirmative: about 60% of the germs were killed but the remaining ones quickly re-colonized the sponge.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n", "The use of unmarked plastics for microwave cooking raises the issue of plasticizers leaching into the food, or the plastics chemically reacting to microwave energy, with by-products leaching into the food, suggesting that even plastic containers marked \"microwavable\" may still leach plastic by-products into the food.\n\nThe plasticizers which received the most attention are bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates, although it is unclear whether other plastic components present a toxicity risk. Other issues include melting and flammability. An alleged issue of release of dioxins into food has been dismissed as an intentional red herring distraction from actual safety issues.\n", "Section::::Components.\n\nA microwave oven consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- a high-voltage power source, commonly a simple transformer or an electronic power converter, which passes energy to the magnetron\n\nBULLET::::- a high-voltage capacitor connected to the magnetron, transformer and via a diode to the chassis\n\nBULLET::::- a cavity magnetron, which converts high-voltage electric energy to microwave radiation\n\nBULLET::::- a magnetron control circuit (usually with a microcontroller)\n\nBULLET::::- a short waveguide (to couple microwave power from the magnetron into the cooking chamber)\n\nBULLET::::- a metal cooking chamber\n\nBULLET::::- a turntable or metal wave guide stirring fan.\n\nBULLET::::- a control panel\n", "Section::::Chapter 19.\n\n\"Above (and beyond) the periodic table\"\n", "Some magnetrons have ceramic insulators with beryllium oxide (beryllia) added. The beryllium in such oxides is a serious chemical hazard if crushed then inhaled or ingested. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be handled. This is a danger if the microwave oven becomes physically damaged, if the insulator cracks, or when the magnetron is opened and handled, yet not during normal usage.\n", "Section::::History.:Cavity magnetron.\n", "Section::::Terahertz metamaterial devices.\n\nDevelopment of metamaterials has traversed the electromagnetic spectrum up to terahertz and infrared frequencies, but does not yet include the visible light spectrum. This is because, for example, it is easier to build a structure with larger fundamental elements that can control microwaves. The fundamental elements for terahertz and infrared frequencies have been progressively scaled to smaller sizes. In the future, visible light will require elements to be scaled even smaller, for capable control by metamaterials.\n", "Non-thermal effects in solids are still part of an ongoing debate. It is likely that, through focusing of electric fields at particle interfaces, microwaves cause plasma formation and enhance diffusion in solids via second-order effects. As a result, they may enhance solid-state sintering processes. Debates continued in 2006 about non-thermal effects of microwaves that have been reported in solid-state phase transitions. A 2013 essay concluded the effect did not exist in organic synthesis involving liquid phases. A 2015 perspective discusses the non-thermal microwave effect (a resonance process) in relation to selective heating by Debye relaxation processes.\n", "Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.\n" ]	[ "Metal objects make microwaves explode.", "Metal spoons can cause a microwave to explode." ]	[ "The microwave doesn't explode but a fire can start.", "Metal spoons can ruin a microwave but they can't really make a microwave explode." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Metal objects make microwaves explode.", "Metal spoons can cause a microwave to explode." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The microwave doesn't explode but a fire can start.", "Metal spoons can ruin a microwave but they can't really make a microwave explode." ]
2018-00830	Why is a rainbow curved?	Rainbows are sunlight reflected inside raindrops. They reflect at a fixed angle due to the way water bends light, but they can be in any orientation. All the sunlight is coming from the same direction (the sun). If you take light from one direction change its path by a fixed angle in all directions, you end up with a circle.	[ "Droplets (or spheres) composed of materials with different refractive indices than plain water produce rainbows with different radius angles. Since salt water has a higher refractive index, a sea spray bow doesn't perfectly align with the ordinary rainbow, if seen at the same spot. Tiny plastic or glass marbles may be used in road marking as a reflectors to enhance its visibility by drivers at night. Due to a much higher refractive index, rainbows observed on such marbles have a noticeably smaller radius. One can easily reproduce such phenomena by sprinkling liquids of different refractive indices in the air, as illustrated in the photo.\n", "A rainbow does not exist at one particular location. Many rainbows exist; however, only one can be seen depending on the particular observer's viewpoint as droplets of light illuminated by the sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches the observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The whole system composed by the sun's rays, the observer's head, and the (spherical) water drops has an axial symmetry around the axis through the observer's head and parallel to the sun's rays. The rainbow is curved because the set of all the raindrops that have the right angle between the observer, the drop, and the sun, lie on a cone pointing at the sun with the observer at the tip. The base of the cone forms a circle at an angle of 40–42° to the line between the observer's head and their shadow but 50% or more of the circle is below the horizon, unless the observer is sufficiently far above the earth's surface to see it all, for example in an aeroplane (see above). Alternatively, an observer with the right vantage point may see the full circle in a fountain or waterfall spray.\n", "A rainbow is not located at a specific distance from the observer, but comes from an optical illusion caused by any water droplets viewed from a certain angle relative to a light source. Thus, a rainbow is not an object and cannot be physically approached. Indeed, it is impossible for an observer to see a rainbow from water droplets at any angle other than the customary one of 42 degrees from the direction opposite the light source. Even if an observer sees another observer who seems \"under\" or \"at the end of\" a rainbow, the second observer will see a different rainbow—farther off—at the same angle as seen by the first observer.\n", "In theory, every rainbow is a circle, but from the ground, usually only its upper half can be seen. Since the rainbow's centre is diametrically opposed to the sun's position in the sky, more of the circle comes into view as the sun approaches the horizon, meaning that the largest section of the circle normally seen is about 50% during sunset or sunrise. Viewing the rainbow's lower half requires the presence of water droplets \"below\" the observer's horizon, as well as sunlight that is able to reach them. These requirements are not usually met when the viewer is at ground level, either because droplets are absent in the required position, or because the sunlight is obstructed by the landscape behind the observer. From a high viewpoint such as a high building or an aircraft, however, the requirements can be met and the full-circle rainbow can be seen. Like a partial rainbow, the circular rainbow can have a secondary bow or supernumerary bows as well. It is possible to produce the full circle when standing on the ground, for example by spraying a water mist from a garden hose while facing away from the sun.\n", "A circular rainbow should not be confused with the glory, which is much smaller in diameter and is created by different optical processes. In the right circumstances, a glory and a (circular) rainbow or fog bow can occur together. Another atmospheric phenomenon that may be mistaken for a \"circular rainbow\" is the 22° halo, which is caused by ice crystals rather than liquid water droplets, and is located around the sun (or moon), not opposite it.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Supernumerary rainbows.\n", "The secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary because more light escapes from two reflections compared to one and because the rainbow itself is spread over a greater area of the sky. Each rainbow reflects white light inside its coloured bands, but that is \"down\" for the primary and \"up\" for the secondary. The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called Alexander's band, after Alexander of Aphrodisias who first described it.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Twinned rainbow.\n", "The Irish leprechaun's secret hiding place for his pot of gold is usually said to be at the end of the rainbow. This place is impossible to reach, because the rainbow is an optical effect which depends on the location of the viewer. When walking towards the end of a rainbow, it will appear to \"move\" further away (two people who simultaneously observe a rainbow at different locations will disagree about where a rainbow is).\n", "Section::::Variations.:Fogbow.\n", "Rainbow is a very comfortable planet with a moderate climate, a calm atmosphere, little seismic activity and a rather phlegmatic native fauna. There is only one continent (in the Northern hemisphere) and some small archipelagos (in the South one, which is covered with an ocean). Remarkably, the coastal line between the southern ocean and the northern continent roughly coincides with the equator.\n\nSection::::Inhabitants.\n", "Section::::Geographic Distribution.\n", "Rainbow\n\nA rainbow is a meteorological phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a multicoloured circular arc. Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the sun.\n\nRainbows can be full circles. However, the observer normally sees only an arc formed by illuminated droplets above the ground, and centered on a line from the sun to the observer's eye.\n", "A numerical ray tracing study showed that a twinned rainbow on a photo could be explained by a mixture of 0.40 and 0.45 mm droplets. That small difference in droplet size resulted in a small difference in flattening of the droplet shape, and a large difference in flattening of the rainbow top.\n\nMeanwhile, the even rarer case of a rainbow split into three branches was observed and photographed in nature.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Full-circle rainbow.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "BULLET::::- the positions of the primary and secondary rainbows\n\nBULLET::::- the path of sunlight within a drop: light beams are refracted when entering the atmospheric droplets, then reflected inside the droplets and finally refracted again when leaving them.\n\nBULLET::::- the formation of the rainbow: he explains the role of the individual drops in creating the rainbow\n\nBULLET::::- the phenomenon of color reversal in the secondary rainbow\n", "The rainbow will occur where the angle is maximum with respect to the angle . Therefore, from calculus, we can set , and solve for , which yields\n\nSubstituting back into the earlier equation for yields ≈ 42° as the radius angle of the rainbow.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Double rainbows.\n\nThe term double rainbow is used when both the primary and secondary rainbows are visible. In theory, all rainbows are double rainbows, but since the secondary bow is always fainter than the primary, it may be too weak to spot in practice.\n", "From above the earth such as in an aeroplane, it is sometimes possible to see a rainbow as a full circle. This phenomenon can be confused with the glory phenomenon, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5–20°.\n", "Null-T developed partially on Rainbow is a technology of transporting objects of any size in any direction and any distance. It is based on a so-called \"puncture of the Riemannian fold (прокол римановой складки)\" and actually goes against everything proclaimed by traditional theories of absolute space, time-space continuum and kappa-space. Nevertheless, such problem has been raised and successfully solved even though at an enormous cost.\n", "The displacement of the rainbow due to different refractive indices can be pushed to a peculiar limit. For a material with a refractive index larger than 2, there is no angle fulfilling the requirements for the first order rainbow. For example, the index of refraction of diamond is about 2.4, so diamond spheres would produce rainbows starting from the second order, omitting the first order. In general, as the refractive index exceeds a number , where is a natural number, the critical incidence angle for times internally reflected rays escapes the domain formula_2. This results in a rainbow of the -th order shrinking to the antisolar point and vanishing.\n", "Both arcs are brightly coloured ring segments centred on the zenith, but in different positions in the sky: The circumzenithal arc is notably curved and located high above the Sun (or Moon) with its convex side pointing downwards (creating the impression of an \"upside down rainbow\"); the circumhorizontal arc runs much closer to the horizon, is more straight and located at a significant distance below the Sun (or Moon). Both arcs have their red side pointing towards the sun and their violet part away from it, meaning the circumzenithal arc is red on the bottom, while the circumhorizontal arc is red on top.\n", "The circumhorizontal arc is sometimes referred to by the misnomer \"fire rainbow\". In order to view it, the Sun or Moon must be at least 58° above the horizon, making it a rare occurrence at higher latitudes. The circumzenithal arc, visible only at a solar or lunar elevation of less than 32°, is much more common, but often missed since it occurs almost directly overhead.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Rainbows on Titan.\n", "Light of primary rainbow arc is 96% polarised tangential to the arch. Light of second arc is 90% polarised.\n\nSection::::Number of colours in spectrum or rainbow.\n", "In the foreground a wayfarer has stopped to rest. He turns his gaze to the background, where a black abyss opens up. In those depths a few mountains can be glimpsed. Above the landscape, a rainbow forms in the waning light.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "It is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame, as this would require an angle of view of 84°. For a 35 mm camera, a wide-angle lens with a focal length of 19 mm or less would be required. Now that software for stitching several images into a panorama is available, images of the entire arc and even secondary arcs can be created fairly easily from a series of overlapping frames.\n", "BULLET::::- At the conclusion of \"The Insect Play\", by brothers Karel and Josef Čapek and translated by Paul Selver, a group of school children sing: \"As I went down to Shrewsbury Town, / I saw my love in a dimity gown: / And all so gay I gave it away, / I gave it away—my silver crown.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23801	What is a long exposure photo and how are they taken?	To take a picture, we control for 3 variables - aperture, exposure time and ISO. ISO is the sensitivity of the sensor. Higher the sensitivity, higher the noise. Increase ISO only if the light is low and subject is moving. Aperture is how wide the lens is open. Larger the opening, more light falls into the sensor. Larger aperture also affects the depth of field. Exposure duration is how long the aperture is kept open. More the duration, more light flows in, and more the blur. We use large exposure duration to take static pictures (sky, stars, moon). We also use it to get silky smooth pictures of motion (waves in a sea or froth in a brook).	[ "Whereas there is no fixed definition of what constitutes \"long\", the intent is to create a photo that somehow shows the effect of passing time, be it smoother waters or light trails. A 30-minute photo of a static object and surrounding cannot be distinguished from a short exposure, hence, the inclusion of motion is the main factor to add intrigue to long exposure photos. Images with exposure times of several minutes also tend to make moving people or dark objects disappear (because they are in any one spot for only a fraction of the exposure time), often adding a serene and otherworldly appearance to long exposure photos.\n", "The long-exposure multiple-flash technique is a method of night or low-light photography which use a mobile flash unit to expose various parts of a building or interior using a long exposure.\n", "Section::::Technique.:Light painting.\n\nIn this technique, a scene is kept very dark and the photographer or an assistant takes a light source—it can be small penlight—and moves it about in patterns. The light source can be turned off between strokes. Often, stationary objects in the scene are illuminated by briefly turning on studio lights, by one or more flashes from a strobe light, or by increasing the aperture.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Water and long exposure.\n", "Frequently, cameras are made from upcycled aluminum or tin cans which can be made light tight and are generally weather proof for the time needed to make the exposure. Apertures usually range in fractions of a millimeter\n", "Iskiography (from Medieval Greek ἥσκιος \"iskios\", \"shadow\" and γράφειν \"graphein\", \"write\") is a computerized video processing technique, used to depict, in a single image, the tracks of bird flight paths recorded in numerous video frames, invented by German photographer Lothar Schiffler.\n", "Long-exposure photography is often used in a night-time setting, where the lack of light forces longer exposures, if maximum quality is to be retained. Increasing ISO sensitivity allows for shorter exposures, but substantially decreases image quality through reduced dynamic range and higher noise. By leaving the camera's shutter open for an extended period of time, more light is absorbed, creating an exposure that captures the entire dynamic range of the digital camera sensor or film. If the camera is stationary for the entire period of time that the shutter is open, a very vibrant and clear photograph can be produced.\n", "The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that do not have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. It is quite possible to have exposures from one up to several seconds, usually for still-life subjects, and for night scenes exposure times can be several hours. However, longer shutter speeds blur motion, and shorter shutter speeds freeze motion. Therefore, moving subjects require fast shutter speeds.\n", "Long-exposure photography\n\nLong-exposure, time-exposure, or slow-shutter photography involves using a long-duration shutter speed to sharply capture the stationary elements of images while blurring, smearing, or obscuring the moving elements. Long-exposure photography captures one element that conventional photography does not: an extended period of time.\n\nThe paths of bright moving objects become clearly visible—clouds form broad bands, vehicle lights draw bright streaks, stars leave trails in the sky, and water waves appear smooth. Only bright objects leave visible trails, whereas dark objects usually disappear. Boats in long exposures disappear during daytime, but draw bright trails from their lights at night.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "With traditional film cameras, a long exposure is a single exposure, whereas with electronic cameras a long exposure can be obtained by integrating together many exposures. This averaging also permits there to be a time-windowing function, such as a Gaussian, that weights time periods near the center of the exposure time more strongly. Another possibility for synthesizing long exposure from a multiple exposure is to use an exponential decay in which the current frame has the strongest weight, and previous frames are faded out with a sliding exponential window.\n\nSection::::Scanning film with multiple exposure.\n", "When a scene includes both stationary and moving subjects (for example, a fixed street and moving cars or a camera within a car showing a fixed dashboard and moving scenery), a slow shutter speed can cause interesting effects, such as light trails.\n", "After the exposure, the pixel is read out and the following stages measure the signals S1 and S2. As the length of the light pulse is defined, the distance can be calculated with the formula:\n\nIn the example, the signals have the following values: S1 = 0.66 and S2 = 0.33. The distance is therefore:\n", "Long shot\n\nIn photography, filmmaking and video production, a long shot (sometimes referred to as a full shot or wide shot) typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surroundings. These are typically shot now using wide-angle lenses (an approximately 25 mm lens in 35 mm photography and 10 mm lens in 16 mm photography). However, due to sheer distance, establishing shots and extremely wide shots can use almost any camera type.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Methods (technical).:Medium: film or digital sensor.\n\nThe sensitivity to light, of the medium—the film or the digital camera sensor—is important in landscape photography, especially where great detail is required. In bright daylight, a \"slow film\" (low-ISO film), or low-ISO digital camera sensor sensitivity setting (typically ISO 100, or perhaps 200), is generally preferred, allowing maximum precision and evenness of image.\n", "In addition to direct photographic usage of the technique, fine artists' work has been inspired by the multiple exposure effect. Examples include Joan Semmel's oil on canvas \"Transitions\" from 2012, and Ian Hornak's acrylic on canvas \"Hanna Tillich's Mirror: Rembrandt's Three Trees Transformed Into The Expulsion From Eden\", from 1978 (depicted).\n\nSection::::Long exposures.\n", "Long exposures can blur moving water so it has mist-like qualities while keeping stationary objects like land and structures sharp. Varying the shutter speed can produce different effects, preserving some of the water's turbulence or smoothing it out entirely.\n\nSection::::Solargraphy.\n", "Long exposure time-lapse is less common because it is often difficult to properly expose film at such a long period, especially in daylight situations. A film frame that is exposed for 15 seconds will receive 750 times more light than its 1/50th of a second counterpart. (Thus it will be more than 9 stops over normal exposure.) A scientific grade neutral density filter can be used to compensate for the over-exposure.\n\nSection::::Time-lapse camera movement.\n", "Solargraphy is a technique in which a fixed pinhole camera is used to expose photographic paper for a length of time that is typically 6-months but can be as short as a few hours and last well over a year. Depending on the length of the exposure the resulting image shows the path of the Sun across the sky both from dawn until dusk, but also from North to South (or vice versa) between the solstices. Each light streak in a solargraphic image represents one day. Where light streaks are broken or missing indicates obstruction of the sun, which is caused by cloud cover.\n", "However, if there is movement in the scene, and the scene is in lower light—as with cloudy days, twilight, night, or in shaded areas—a higher ISO (up to the limits of the film or camera sensor, depending upon the shortage of light) may be desirable, to ensure that fast shutter speeds can be used to \"freeze\" the motion.\n\nSection::::Methods (technical).:Lighting and flash.\n\nNormally, landscape photography—being focused primarily on natural beauty—tends to be done with only naturally occurring ambient light.\n", "Light trails is another photographic effect where motion blur is used. Photographs of the lines of light visible in long exposure photos of roads at night are one example of effect. This is caused by the cars moving along the road during the exposure. The same principle is used to create star trail photographs.\n", "One example of this is a single six-month exposure taken by photographer Justin Quinnell, showing sun-trails over Clifton Suspension Bridge between 19 December 2007 and 21 June 2008. Part of the \"Slow light: 6 months over Bristol\" exhibition, Quinnell describes the piece as capturing \"a period of time beyond what we can perceive with our own vision.\" This method of solargraphy uses a simple pinhole camera securely fixed in a position which won't be disturbed. Quinnel constructed his camera from an empty drink can with a 0.25mm aperture and a single sheet of photographic paper.\n", "In the historical technique of chronophotography, dating back to the Victoria era, a series of instantaneous photographs were taken at short and equal intervals of time. These photographs could be overlayed for a single multiple exposure print.\n\nSection::::Multiple exposure techniques.\n\nSection::::Multiple exposure techniques.:Analogue.\n", "In photographic jargon, \"an exposure\" is a single shutter cycle. For example: a long exposure refers to a single, protracted shutter cycle to capture enough low-intensity light, whereas a multiple exposure involves a series of relatively brief shutter cycles; effectively layering a series of photographs in one image. For the same film speed, the accumulated \"photometric exposure\" (\"H\") should be similar in both cases.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Radiant exposure.\n\nRadiant exposure of a \"surface\",\n\ndenoted \"H\" (\"e\" for \"energetic\", to avoid confusion with photometric quantities) and measured in , is given by\n\nwhere\n", "Section::::Types of devices.:Range gated imagers.\n\nThese devices have a built-in shutter in the image sensor that opens and closes at the same rate as the light pulses are sent out. Because part of every returning pulse is blocked by the shutter according to its time of arrival, the amount of light received relates to the distance the pulse has traveled.\n", "For example, testing shows that Kodak Portra needs 1 extra stop for a nominal 8-second exposure, so in this case it would need 16 seconds.\n\nIn practice, moonlight photography often uses exposures of several minutes. Digital cameras generally have less reciprocity failure, but do show image noise in low light.\n\nSection::::Published night photographers.\n\nThis section includes significant night photographers who have published books dedicated to night photography, and some of their selected works.\n\nBULLET::::- Brassai\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paris de Nuit\", Arts et metiers graphiques, 1932.\n\nBULLET::::- Harold Burdekin and John Morrison\n\nBULLET::::- \"London Night\", Collins, 1934.\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Brouws\n", "Section::::History.:Modern era of film.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24125	How does this happen without the water freezing before it’s pulled out?	It looks like the water is supercooled. Ie it’s pure water that is below freezing temperature - when you cool water in this manner it won’t freeze until there is either an impurity for ice crystals to form around or if you shake the water (you can try this at home - buy a bottle of purified water and stick it in the freeezer for a few hours, carefully pull it out and it’ll likely still be liquid but will freeze if you shake it). When they dip the cherry in either ice crystals already on the cherry or the cherry itself provide a base for the ice crystals from the super cooled water to latch onto. The whole cup doesn’t freeze because forming ice releases heat energy into the surrounding environment (in the opposite process of how you need to add heat energy to ice to melt it), so the ice that does form warms the rest of the water to above freezing.	[ "Sometimes the freeflow will not stop when the backpressure is increased. This may be caused by very cold water freezing the first or second stage valve open, or a malfunction of either the first or second stages. If the freeflow is caused by freezing it will generally not be corrected except by closing the cylinder valve and allowing the ice to thaw, which requires an alternative air supply to breathe from while the valve is closed. As long as the freeflow continues, the refrigerating effect of the air expanding through the valves will keep the ice frozen, and air will continue to escape until either the cylinder valve is closed, or the cylinder is empty.\n", "A second stage freeze is also likely to happen with the valve open, causing a free flow, which may precipitate a first stage freeze if not immediately stopped. If the flow through the frozen second stage can be stopped before the first stage freezes, the process can be halted. This may be possible if the second stage is fitted with a shutoff valve, but if this is done, the first stage must be fitted with an overpressure valve, as closing the supply to the second stage disables its secondary function as an overpressure valve.\n", "The specific procedure of RAP was firstly described by Rosengart to restrict the hemodilution during CPB. When arterial cannulae and venous cannulae are prepared, the crystalloid prime (approximately 1L) is drained into a re-circulation bag. Before the beginning of the CPB, the crystalloid priming fluid is displaced by the autologous blood. There are three key steps for RAP to have a role to play. The first step is that crystalloid is flowing from the arterial line into the transfer bag. And then autologous blood flows through the arterial line and filter after the placement of arterial cannulae. The second step is crystalloid prime in the venous reservoir and oxygenator is replaced by blood through pressure gradients. Lastly, the remaining crystalloid priming fluid is collected and displaced from the venous line into the CPB bag on the onset of CPB. In each step, about 300ml CPB crystalloid prime volume is replaced by blood into the transfer bag. The entire process could be commonly finished within 5 to 8 minutes.\n", "A puzzling observation is the coexistence of and ions under anoxic conditions. No sulfide anions () are found in the system. This suggests an intricate and poorly understood interaction between the sulfur and the iron biochemical cycles.\n\nIn December 2014, scientists and engineers led by Mikucki returned to Taylor Glacier and used a probe called IceMole, designed by a German collaboration, to melt into the glacier and directly sample the salty water (brine) that feeds Blood Falls.\n", "BULLET::::- Cryosurgery- A cryoprobe is passed down the long saphenous vein following saphenofemoral ligation. Then the probe is cooled with NO or CO to −85 F. The vein freezes to the probe and can be retrogradely stripped after 5 seconds of freezing. It is a variant of Stripping. The only point of this technique is to avoid a distal incision to remove the stripper.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Procedures.:Sclerotherapy.\n", "A similar effect occurs with the second stage. Air which has already expanded and cooled through the first stage expands again and cools further at the demand valve of the second stage. This cools the components of the second stage and water in contact with them may freeze. Metal components around the moving parts of the valve mechanism allow heat transfer from the surrounding slightly warmer water, and from exhaled air from the diver, which is considerably warmer than the surroundings.\n", "The two first stages are mounted on independently closable valves, as a first stage freeze free-flow can only be stopped by shutting off the air supply from the cylinder until the valve has thawed out. The second regulator is there to supply the remaining gas when the first regulator is shut off. A second-stage isolation valve used in conjunction with a first-stage overpressure relief valve may be effective as a quick method to manage demand valve free-flow.\n\nBULLET::::- Regulators should be checked to ensure that they perform effectively at low temperatures before use far from a free surface.\n", "Section::::Controlling the porous structure.:Morphological instabilities.\n", "David Auerbach describes an effect that he observed in samples in glass beakers placed into a liquid cooling bath. In all cases the water supercooled, reaching a temperature of typically before spontaneously freezing. Considerable random variation was observed in the time required for spontaneous freezing to start and in some cases this resulted in the water which started off hotter (partially) freezing first.\n", "This freezing can be avoided by preventing water from coming into direct contact with cooled moving parts of the regulator mechanism, or by increasing the heat flow from the surrounding environment so that freezing does not occur. Both strategies are used in regulator design.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Regulator freezing.:Second stage freeze.\n", "There can be many update messages during a session.\n\nFinally, the subscriber has ended the session, and the client sends a termination message to the server containing the last Used-Units. The server can use the termination message to clear any related reservations made in the back-end balance management system. If the subscriber did not terminate the session himself but instead depleted his balance then the server would have responded earlier with reject to an update message, possibly telling the client/control-point to redirect traffic (this normally only makes sense for HTTP/WAP traffic).\n\nSection::::Message flows.:AVP matrix.\n", "BULLET::::- Freezing: In cold conditions the cooling effect of gas expanding through a valve orifice may cool either first or second stage sufficiently to cause ice to form. External icing may lock up the spring and exposed moving parts of first or second stage, and freezing of moisture in the air may cause icing on internal surfaces. Either may cause the moving parts of the affected stage to jam open or closed. If the valve freezes closed, it will usually defrost quite rapidly and start working again, and may freeze open soon after. Freezing open is more of a problem, as the valve will then free-flow and cool further in a positive feedback loop, which can normally only be stopped by closing the cylinder valve and waiting for the ice to thaw. If not stopped, the cylinder will rapidly be emptied.\n", "Afterdrop\n\nAfterdrop is a continued cooling of a patient's core temperature during the initial stages of rewarming from hypothermia.\n", "BULLET::::- Another way to ensure the bladder does not start a breakout of microbes is to let out as much water as possible from it, and freeze it as soon as possible. This technique makes use of the property that microbes cannot propagate under freezing conditions.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Clearing the hose between drinks.\n\nTwo views exist on the practice of blowing air back through the bite valve, to force the liquid out of the hose and back into the bladder.\n", "If the water in direct contact with the pressure transfer mechanism (diaphragm or piston and the spring balancing the internal pressure) of the regulator freezes, the mechanism will be locked in the position at which the freezing takes place, as the ice will prevent the movement required to close. Since the cooling takes place during flow through the regulator, it is common for the freezing to occur when the first stage valve is open, and this will freeze the valve open, allowing a continuous flow through the first stage. This will cause the inter-stage pressure to rise until the second stage opens to relieve the excess pressure, the pressure relief valve on the first stage opens, or a low pressure hose or fitting bursts. All of these effects will allow the flow through the first stage to continue, so the cooling will continue, and this will keep the ice causing the problem frozen. To break the cycle it is necessary to stop the gas flow or expose the ice to a heat source capable of melting it. While underwater, it is unlikely to find a heat source to thaw the ice and stopping the flow is only option. Clearly the flow will stop when the pressure in the cylinder drops to ambient, but this is undesirable as it means total loss of the breathing gas. The other option is to close the cylinder valve, shutting off the pressure at the source. Once this is done, the ice will normally melt as heat from the surrounding water is absorbed by the slightly colder ice, and once the ice has melted, the regulator will function again.\n", "BULLET::::3. Another device, used in antiquity, was called a \"water thief\" or \"clepsydra.\" Carl Sagan described it in his book \"Cosmos\" as \"... a brazen sphere with an open neck and small holes in the bottom, it is filled by immersing it in water. If you pull it out with the neck uncovered, the water pours out of the holes, making a small shower. But if you pull it out properly, with the neck covered, the water is retained in the sphere until you lift your thumb.\"\n", "Section::::Observations.:Modern context.\n\nMpemba and Osborne describe placing samples of water in beakers in the ice box of a domestic refrigerator on a sheet of polystyrene foam. They showed the time for \"freezing to start\" was longest with an initial temperature of and that it was much less at around . They ruled out loss of liquid volume by evaporation as a significant factor and the effect of dissolved air. In their setup most heat loss was found to be from the liquid surface.\n", "Section::::Control.:Mechanical control.\n\nThese methods include stabilizing freeze without restricting water flow, such as implementing weirs and ice booms, installing water jets to break up any accumulation that might occur, and using manual labour to rake away the accumulation. This final method is often not preferred because of high labour costs, cold, wet and late night working conditions. Back flushing is another technology that uses the idea of cancelling out the differential pressure caused by the frazil ice accumulation. This technology creates a high pressure on the downstream side of objects to reverse the differential pressure.\n\nSection::::Control.:Thermal control.\n", "The University of Bristol have produced a paper entitled \"Investigation and development of an innovative pigging technique for the water supply industry.\" in which they have detailed the research that they have carried out. It looks particularly at how the properties of the ice pig behave with different ice fractions and varied levels of particulate loading as well as looking into the effects of shear strength, viscosity and heat transfer characteristics.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "Section::::How water freezes.\n", "If the crossings found by the algorithm do not need to be stored once they have been found, the space used by the algorithm at any point in time is formula_15: each of the formula_1 input line segments corresponds to at most one node of the binary search tree \"T\", and as stated above the event queue contains at most formula_12 elements. This space bound is due to ; the original version of the algorithm was slightly different (it did not remove crossing events from formula_18 when some other event causes the two crossing segments to become non-adjacent) causing it to use more space.\n", "Swedes usually consume surströmming after the third Thursday of August, labeled as \"Surströmming day\", through early September. Because of the strong smell, surströmming is often eaten outdoors. The pressurized can is usually opened some distance away from the dining table and is often initially punctured while immersed in a bucket of water, or after tapping and angling it upwards at 45 degrees, to prevent the escaping gas from spraying any brine. \n", "BULLET::::- Blood containing excess salt and water is withdrawn from a patient using peripheral or central venous catheters and passed through a special filter. Using a form of ultrafiltration, the filter separates the excess salt and water from the blood and the blood is returned to the patient while the fluid is collected in a bag for later disposal.\n", "After the freeze-drying process is complete, the vacuum is usually broken with an inert gas, such as nitrogen, before the material is sealed.\n\nAt the end of the operation, the final residual water content in the product is extremely low, around 1% to 4%.\n\nSection::::Applications of freeze drying.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Initial zone: nucleation and growth mechanisms.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02239	Why does if take so long for a movie to release on DVD/Blu-ray after it stops showing in theaters?	Because if the movie came out immediately, then no one would see it in theaters and movie theaters won’t bother to show a movie no one is going to see.	[ "Radius-TWC announced a release date in the United States of February 13, 2015, simultaneously releasing it in select theatres and on VOD. It was previously set for release in the United Kingdom on December 12, 2014, but was later pushed back to February 6, in line with its US release. Icon Film Distribution then pushed the release date back indefinitely, and they have not yet announced a new date.\n\nSection::::Release.:Box office.\n", "Feature films that have been released directly to YouTube or other streaming sites include \"Home\" (2009), \"The Cult of Sincerity\" (2008), \"Life in a Day\" (2011), \"\" (2012) and \"\" (2007).\n\nSection::::Film release.:Shrinking of the theatrical window.\n\nWhile originally conceived for a six months duration, the theatrical window has today been reduced to an average of four weeks. Major movie studios have reportedly been pushing to shrink the duration of the theatrical window in an attempt to make up for the substantial losses in the DVD market they've been suffering from since the 2004 sales peak.\n", "To be eligible for award consideration, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences requires that a film be shown in a theater in Los Angeles County, California, for at least seven consecutive days during which it is advertised in print media. Studios hoping to position a film for some nominations usually satisfy that minimum requirement, then ease them into wide release from then until the nominations and/or awards ceremony. The flexibility this marketing strategy requires means that screens be available, and studios limit their releases of new films during this time to that end. As critic Ty Burr explained in a 2013 \"New York Times Magazine\" article on the mediocrity of new releases in the first month of the year: \"[T]he studios ... know our attention is elsewhere.\"\n", "Section::::Release and reception.:Commercial.\n", "The process may involve finding a film distributor. A film's marketing may involve the film being shown at a film festival or trade show to attract distributor attention and, if successful, may then be released through a chosen distributor.\n\nSection::::Film.:Delayed release.\n\nA delayed release or late release in the film industry refers to the relatively late release of a film to the public. A release can be postponed due to the sometimes difficult transition of the production or post-production to the sales and distribution phase of the film production cycle. \n", "Hollywood won't know the impact of simultaneous release until a studio tries it with a big-budget movie, such as a Star Wars sequel. But those movies do very well in the current window system, so it is unlikely that Warner Bros. would take a chance with one of them. What is likely to be seen instead is a further narrowing of the time between theatrical and DVD releases. That makes cinema owners nervous too, but not as much as simultaneous release.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The initial theatrical release was deliberately small-scale, most likely undertaken to ensure that \"Going Clear\" met the eligibility criteria for an Oscar nomination. Due to continuing public demand, HBO announced in July 2015 that it would be releasing the film more widely from September 25 through the ArcLight Cinemas chain's theaters in California, Chicago, Washington D.C., New York City, Texas and a few other locations around the US.\n", "The Academy Awards occur every late February and films that win awards typically see a boost in sales. To take advantage of this, the studios release films they deem \"Oscar worthy\" in the fall, before the eligibility cut-off, so that the films remain fresh in the memories of critics and Academy members right before the Awards, increasing their chances of being nominated.\n\nSection::::Campaigning.\n", "One notable exception is \"The Rocky Horror Picture Show\", which premiered in 1975 and is still shown only in limited fashion; it is the longest-running theatrical release in film history.\n\nSection::::Platform release.\n\nA platform release is a type of limited release in which a film opens in fewer theaters (typically 599 or fewer) than a wide release. If the film receives positive word of mouth, it is gradually expanded to more theaters, as the marketing campaign gains momentum. A successful film released in this manner has even the possibility of expanding into a wide release.\n", "Section::::Time gap until home video release.\n\nA time period is usually allowed to elapse between the end of theatrical release and the home video release to encourage movie theater patronage and discourage piracy. Home video release dates used to be five or six months after the theatrical release, but now most films have been arriving on video after three or four months. Christmas and other holiday-related movies were generally not released on home video until the following year when that holiday was celebrated again, but this practice ended starting with holiday movies that were released in 2015.\n", "Opponents of simultaneous release on other grounds include director M. Night Shyamalan, who believes movies will lose their \"magic\" if they don't play in cinemas. Shyamalan calls simultaneous release \"heartless and soulless and disrespectful.\" The sentiment was echoed by Peter Brown, the chief executive of AMC Entertainment, who claimed that reducing films to direct-to-video products would amount to \"crass commercialism.\" Exhibitors are especially frightened of this development, as many feared that they would eventually lose their exclusive release windows for more mainstream films such as Star Wars. \n", "Andy Whittaker of Dogwoof Pictures stated that simultaneous releasing is a natural step for independent movies. This is the only way that entrepreneurs and independents stand a chance to have a shot in an industry run by the studios.\n\nStaggering the release of each movie between the various release formats has been a cash cow for many years, and it might not be easy to dislodge that model because it is also very lucrative. \n", "Due to several factors a film release can be delayed: \n\nBULLET::::1. Problems during post-production of an artistic nature.\n\nBULLET::::2. Political problems regarding the film.\n\nBULLET::::3. Economic problems relating to limitations in the film budget.\n\nThese problems can be resolved by overcoming artistic problems, making politically correct or commercially successful changes to the film/or relieving budgetary problems.\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nIn the music industry, a release usually is a creative output from an artist, available for sale or distribution; a broad term covering the many different formats music can be released in, and different forms of pieces (singles, albums, extended plays, etc.).\n", "Section::::Physical format releases.:Direct-to-video films screened theatrically.\n\nOccasionally, a studio that makes a movie that was prepared as a direct-to-video film will release it theatrically at the last minute due to the success of another film with a similar subject matter or an ultimate studio decision. \"\" is an example of this. However, despite the movie's critically acclaimed success, its box-office performance was very poor, which has been attributed to its last minute decision to be released theatrically. The film had much better commercial success in its subsequent home video releases. \n", "Producers of relatively smaller-budget movies are also utilizing new release strategies. In 2009, the movie \"The House of the Devil\" premiered on VOD systems on October 1, and received a limited theatrical release one month later. In August 2010, it was announced that the movie \"Freakonomics\" would be released on video on demand on September 3, one month before its theatrical release. The British sci-fi movie \"Monsters\" has also undergone the same release timetable. After Netflix bought the worldwide distribution rights to \"Beasts of No Nation\", the film was simultaneously released theatrically and online through its subscription video-on-demand (SVOD) service on October 16, 2015.\n", "Some movie critics have called on the studios to change their release schedules and improve the quality of new films during the dump months. Paul Shirey of JoBlo.com calls on the studios start releasing better films then. \"Rather than saving them to win statues, why not put them out to reap some box office and fill an otherwise dead month with something worth seeing?\"\n", "Section::::Preventative measures.:Protected distribution.\n\nTo prevent piracy of films, the standard drill of film distribution is to have a movie first released through movie theaters (theatrical window), on average approximately 16 and a half weeks,\n", "For that reason, \"Mama\" was rescheduled from October 2012 to the following January. In October 2013, Paramount decided to delay the release of \"\" from the weekend before Halloween to March 2014, and replaced it not with another horror offering but the comedy \"\", leaving the month with only one highly anticipated horror film, the third adaptation of Stephen King's \"Carrie\".\n", "The standard release routine for a movie is regulated by a business model called \"release windows\". The release windows system was first conceived in the early 1980s, on the brink of the VHS home video market, as a strategy to keep different instances of a movie from competing with each other, allowing the movie to take advantage of different markets (cinema, home video, TV, etc.) at different times.\n\nIn the standard process, a movie is first released through movie theaters (theatrical window), then, after approximately 16 and one-half weeks,\n", "The chief opposition to simultaneous release comes from cinema owners who expect to be disadvantaged financially from the loss of their exclusive windows. Commenting on simultaneous release in January 2006, John Fithian, president of the National Association of Theater Owners, said \"It's the biggest threat to the viability of the cinema industry today.\"\n", "Other strategies are also being deployed in order to make up for slow DVD sales. Most major studios have considered making movies available to VOD services shortly after their theatrical release for a premium price. In July 2010 Netflix secured a deal with Relativity Media in which the latter agreed to distribute a number of major movies to the aforementioned VOD service before Pay TV.\n", "Some theater chains threatened not to screen the film at all when distributor 20th Century Fox announced plans to rush it to VHS and DVD a mere six weeks after its opening weekend, but Fox ultimately relented and pushed the release date back a number of months. After underperforming its first weekend, Fox reinstated the original release schedule and the film was released via VHS and DVD on August 26, 2003.\n\nSection::::Release.:Box office.\n", "In July 2005, UK / US micro budget indie \"EMR\" directed by James Erskine & Danny McCullough became the first simultaneous release, released theatrically, to DVD and to the Internet all on the same day. Producer John Lentaigne said: \"The filmmakers believe that the choice as to how consumers view films should rest with the consumer and that theatrical, DVD and Internet forms of distribution need not threaten each other, and may indeed be mutually complimentary .”\n", "These attempts have encountered the firm opposition of theater owners, whose profits depend solely upon attendance and therefore benefit from keeping a movie available on their screens.\n\nIn early 2010, Disney announced it would be putting out the DVD and Blu-ray versions of Tim Burton's \"Alice in Wonderland\" 14 weeks after the movie's release date (instead of the then usual 17) in order to avoid competition from the 2010 World Cup. In response to such statements, theater owners made threats not to show the movie on their screens, but later reconsidered their position before the movie was released.\n", "The film's release date and release pattern became the subject of some media and public discussion. The film had been originally scheduled for release in 2006. The release was postponed as the editing process became extended and internal disputes arose. The film was subsequently scheduled for a wide release on approximately 1000 US screens on September 28, 2007. In early September 2007, Sony announced that the release would be brought forward to September 14, 2007, with a \"platform release\" pattern starting on a small number of screens—with additional screens to be added in subsequent weeks.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03295	How does belly button lint happen? This thought has crossed my mind since my childhood, so I call on Reddit to end my lifelong quest for the sacred knowledge.	Belly button lint is the combination of static electricity (from your body hair rubbing your clothes) and the particles of those same clothes that are attracted to the static electricity.	[ "It is possible to compost lint retrieved from the lint screen on a dryer by adding it to other materials being composted. The texture of the material allows the organic matter within it to compost quickly and easily, but depending on the source, it may include inorganic fibers and materials which never break down.\n\nSection::::Uses of lint.:Forensic science.\n", "Lint (material)\n\nLint is the common name for visible accumulations of textile fibers and other materials, usually found on and around clothing. Certain materials used in the manufacture of clothing, such as cotton, linen, and wool, contain numerous, very short fibers bundled together. During the course of normal wear, these fibers may either detach or be jostled out of the weave of which they are part. This is the reason that heavily used articles like shirts and towels become thin over time, and why these particles collect in the lint screen of a clothes dryer.\n", "Section::::Varieties of lint.:Pocket lint.\n\nPocket lint (also known as gnurr) is debris including bits of fabric as well as small shreds of paper and tissue that are often found in pockets. It may be caused by running the clothing through a washing machine one or more times, causing the pocket lining or contents to compact and shred.\n", "Stephen C. Johnson, a computer scientist at Bell Labs, came up with lint in 1978 while debugging the yacc grammar he was writing for C and dealing with portability issues stemming from porting Unix to a 32-bit machine. The term \"lint\" was derived from the name of the undesirable bits of fiber and fluff found in sheep's wool. In 1979, lint was used outside of Bell Labs for the first time in the seventh version (V7) of the Unix operating system.\n", "Over the years, different versions of lint were developed for many C and C++ compilers and while modern-day compilers have lint-like functions, lint-like tools have also advanced their capabilities. For example, Gimpel's PC-Lint, used to analyze C++ source code, is still being sold even though it was introduced in 1985.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Lint is useful to examine in forensic science because it is accumulated over time, and because the fibers shed from clothing adhere to not only that clothing, but also other particles to which the carrier is exposed. The lint on a person's clothing is therefore likely to contain material transferred from the various environments through which that person has passed, enabling forensic examiners to collect and examine lint to determine the movements and activities of the wearer. Examiners may use various chemicals to isolate lint fibers from different articles of clothing based on differences in color and other characteristics.\n", "Section::::Varieties of lint.:Navel lint.\n", "According to the Belly Button Biodiversity Project at North Carolina State University, there are two types of microorganisms found in the navel and surrounding areas. Transient bacteria (bacteria that does not reproduce) forms the majority of the organisms found in the navel, and an estimated 1400 various strains were found in 95% of participants of the study.\n", "Because of their low surface area, static cling causes fibers that have detached from an article of clothing to continue to stick to one another and to that article or other surfaces with which they come in contact. Other small fibers or particles also accumulate with these clothing fibers, including human and animal hair and skin cells, plant fibers, and pollen, dust, and microorganisms.\n", "Section::::Problems related to lint.:Mechanical problems.\n\nLint contamination also presents what may be the most serious threat of damage to delicate mechanical devices. In order to prevent lint contamination, workers entering clean rooms are generally required to wear an outer layer of clothing made from artificial fibers that are longer and thicker, and therefore much less likely to shed any material. Lint-resistant clothing materials include elastic fabrics like spandex (or Lycra), for which the fibers will tend to stretch rather than break, and longer, stronger non-woven polyolefin fibers.\n\nSection::::Problems related to lint.:Other problems.\n", "\"Staphylococcus\" and \"Corynebacterium\" were among the most common types of bacteria found in the navels of this project's volunteers and these types of bacteria have been found to be the most common types of bacteria found on the human skin in larger studies of the skin microbiome (of which the Belly Button Biodiversity Project is a part). (In these larger studies it has been found that females generally have more \"Staphylococcus\" living in their skin microbiomes (usually \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\") and that men have more \"Corynebacterium\" living in their skin microbiomes.) \n", "Inhalation of excessive amounts of lint, as observed in early textile workers, may lead to diseases of the lungs, such as byssinosis. Lint shed from clothing during the course of wear may also carry bacteria and viruses. For this reason, the presence of lint presents a danger during surgery, when it might carry microorganisms into open wounds. It has been demonstrated that due to the abrasive contact between clothing and skin, \"a person wearing a standard cotton scrub suit actually sheds more bacteria than without clothing\". Lint is also a component of \"toe jam\", described by UMPC as \"that gunk located between your toes, can result if you’re not properly cleaning feet and toes. Like ear wax, mucus, and many other bodily residues (...). But the issue can have several different causes—some of them more serious than others — so it pays to give your feet special attention.\" Lint also presents a threat to the environment in spaces that generally do not experience human contact, constituting \"one of the primary polluters\" in cave exploration.\n", "The etymology of the modern word \"lint\" is related to \"linting\", the term used for the cultivation of the shorter fibers from the cotton plant (\"Gossypium\"), also called \"lint\", from which lower-quality cotton products are manufactured. Lint is composed of threads of all colors, which blend hues and may appear to be a uniform grey.\n\nSection::::Varieties of lint.\n\nSection::::Varieties of lint.:Dryer lint.\n\nDryer lint is lint generated by the drying of clothes in a clothes dryer; it typically accumulates on a dryer screen. Underwriters Laboratories recommends cleaning the lint filter after every cycle for safety and energy efficiency.\n", "Navel lint (also known by names such as navel fluff, belly button lint, belly button fluff, and dip lint) is an accumulation of fluffy fibers in the navel cavity. Many people find that, at the beginning and end of the day, a small lump of fluff has appeared in the navel cavity. This lint is an accumulation of cloth fibers that are scraped by body hair. The reasons for its accumulation in the navel are a subject of speculation. A likely hypothesis is that rubbing of navel hairs and clothing contributes to a build-up of static electricity, resulting in the collection of clothing fibers and to a lesser extent, dead skin cells.\n", "Lint (software)\n\nlint, or a linter, is a tool that analyzes source code to flag programming errors, bugs, stylistic errors, and suspicious constructs. The term originates from a Unix utility that examined C language source code.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Dryer lint, which collects on the lint screen of a clothes dryer, is highly flammable and therefore presents a fire hazard. However, because of this flammability, dryer lint may be collected for use as tinder, although burning man-made fibres can produce toxic fumes.\n\nSection::::Uses of lint.\n\nSection::::Uses of lint.:Composting.\n", "Lint on clothing is generally considered unattractive and unprofessional. Furthermore, lint may be abrasive and may damage the clothing itself. For these reasons, visible lint is often removed with a lint remover or clothes brush. The accumulation of lint during clothes cleaning can be reduced with the use of a fabric softener, which reduces the amount of static electricity on clothing surfaces and therefore prevents the lint from sticking to the clothes.\n", "The Belly Button Biodiversity Project is ongoing and has now taken swabs from over 500 people. The project was designed with the aim of countering that misconception that bacteria are always harmful to humans and that humans are at war with bacteria. In actuality, most strains of bacteria are harmless if not beneficial for the human body. Another of the project's goals is to foster public interest in microbiology. Working in concert with the Human Microbiome Project, the Belly Button Biodiversity Project also studies the connections between human microbiomes and the factors of age, sex, ethnicity, location and overall health.\n", "As pocket lint is an amalgamation of the contents of the pockets, pocket lint can be helpful when determining whether drugs have been previously stored in the pockets, by testing it with various drug tests. In a survival situation, pocket lint can be used as tinder for starting a fire.\n\nThe Infocom game, \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\", was sold with a collection of \"props\" that included a small bag of \"pocket fluff\".\n\nSection::::Problems related to lint.\n\nSection::::Problems related to lint.:Biological problems.\n", "Due to its coarse texture, it is not commonly used in modern apparel. However, this roughness gave it a use in a religious context for mortification of the flesh, where individuals may wear an abrasive shirt called a cilice or \"hair shirt\" and in the wearing of \"sackcloth\" on Ash Wednesday. During the Great Depression in the US, when cloth became relatively scarce in the largely agrarian parts of the country, many farming families used burlap cloth to sew their own clothes. However, prolonged exposure to the material can cause rashes on sensitive skin.\n", "The main use of cotton lint is as textile for clothing. The fibres are spun into yarns and these are woven into fabrics, in the farm or house or in factories. Cotton as a fabric is much appreciated because of its comfortable, breathable properties, its resistance and also because it is easily stained. \n", "The analysis performed by lint-like tools can also be performed by an optimizing compiler, which aims to generate faster code. In his original 1978 paper, Johnson addressed this issue, concluding that \"the general notion of having two programs is a good one\" because they concentrated on different things, thereby allowing the programmer to \"concentrate at one stage of the programming process solely on the algorithms, data structures, and correctness of the program, and then later retrofit, with the aid of lint, the desirable properties of universality and portability\".\n", "The Belly Button Biodiversity Project began at North Carolina State University in early 2011 with two initial groups of 35 and 25 volunteers. Volunteers were given sterile cotton swabs and were asked to insert the cotton swabs into their navels, to turn the cotton swab around three times and then return the cotton swab to the researchers in a vial that contained a 0.5 ml 10% phosphate saline buffer. Researchers at North Carolina State University, led by Jiri Hulcr, then grew the samples in a culture until the bacterial colonies were large enough to be photographed and then these pictures were posted on the Belly Button Biodiversity Project's website (volunteers were given sample numbers so that they could view their own samples online). These samples then were analyzed using 16S rDNA libraries so that strains that did not grow well in cultures could be identified.\n", "Even though modern compilers have evolved to include many of lint's historical functions, lint-like tools have also evolved to detect an even wider variety of suspicious constructs. These include \"warnings about syntax errors, uses of undeclared variables, calls to deprecated functions, spacing and formatting conventions, misuse of scope, implicit fallthrough in switch statements, missing license headers, [and]...dangerous language features\".\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nExcision biopsy is required to confirm the diagnosis of saree cancer. In many cases local excision with skin grafting is considered the appropriate treatment.\n\nDifferent ways of wearing the petticoat may help saree-wearers to prevent saree cancer. Some such strategies are:\n\nBULLET::::- Loosening the petticoat\n\nBULLET::::- Changing the usual rope-like belt to broader ones that reduce pressure on the area\n\nBULLET::::- Continuously changing the level at which the petticoat is tied\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14616	In sports betting what is the difference between -145 and +145 on the over and under?	A positive sign means you bet 100 to win that value, a negative sign means you need to bet that amount to win 100.	[ "The purpose of a straddle is to \"buy\" the privilege of last action, which on the first round with blinds is normally the player in the big blind. A straddle or sleeper blind may count as a raise towards the maximum number of raises allowed, or it may count separately; in the latter case this raises the maximum total bet of the first round. For example, straddling is permitted in Nevada and Atlantic City but illegal in other areas on account of differences in state and local laws.\n\nSection::::Straddle and sleeper bets.:Live straddle.\n", "Moneyline odds are often referred to as \"American odds\". A \"moneyline\" wager refers to odds on the straight-up outcome of a game with no consideration to a point spread. In most cases, the favorite will have negative moneyline odds (less payoff for a safer bet) and the underdog will have positive moneyline odds (more payoff for a risky bet). However, if the teams are evenly matched, \"both\" teams can have a negative line at the same time (e.g. -110 -110 or -105 -115), due to house take.\n\nSection::::Gambling usage.:Wholesale odds.\n", "Section::::Straddle and sleeper bets.:Mississippi straddle.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Total (Over/Under) bets\" are wagers made based on the total score between both teams. Example, if an MLB game has a total of 10.5, an over bettor will want the combined total to be greater, and the opposite for a bettor taking the under. If the combined total is the same as the proposed total, the bet is a push.\n", "Implied pot odds, or simply implied odds, are calculated the same way as pot odds, but take into consideration estimated future betting. Implied odds are calculated in situations where the player expects to fold in the following round if the draw is missed, thereby losing no additional bets, but expects to gain additional bets when the draw is made. Since the player expects to always gain additional bets in later rounds when the draw is made, and never lose any additional bets when the draw is missed, the extra bets that the player expects to gain, excluding his own, can fairly be added to the current size of the pot. This adjusted pot value is known as the implied pot.\n", "Normally, if these bets are played together as a parlay, a bettor will win $260 on a $100 bet. However, with a teaser, the bettor will win $100 on a $110 bet, 10 to 11 odds. The reasoning is that one will get 6 points to adjust the spread (in either direction).\n\nIf one bets on Pittsburgh, a +2.5 underdog, they are now +8.5 underdogs (+2.5 + 6).\n\nIf one bets on Green Bay, a -2.5 favorite, they now become +3.5 underdogs (-2.5 + 6).\n\nBet on the over and the line is 39.5 (45.5 - 6).\n", "The player immediately to the left of the big blind (\"under the gun\", UTG) may place a \"live straddle\" blind bet. The straddle must be the size of a normal raise over the big blind. A straddle is a live bet; but does not become a \"bigger blind\". The straddle acts as a minimum raise but with the difference being that the straddler still gets their option of acting when the action returns to them. In a No-Limit game if any other player wants to make a raise with a straddle on board, the minimum raise will be the difference between the big blind and the straddle.\n", "Section::::Game-play.\n", "In North American sports betting many of these wagers would be classified as \"over-under\" (or, more commonly today, \"total\") bets rather than spread bets. However, these are for one side or another of a total only, and do not increase the amount won or lost as the actual moves away from the bookmaker's prediction. Instead, over-under or total bets are handled much like \"point-spread\" bets on a team, with the usual 10/11 (4.55%) commission applied. Many Nevada sports books allow these bets in parlays, just like team point spread bets. This makes it possible to bet, for instance, \"team A and the over\", and be paid if \"both\" team A \"covers\" the point spread and the total score is higher than the book's prediction. (Such parlays usually pay off at odds of 13:5 with no commission charge, just as a standard two-team parlay would.)\n", "The main differences from Tippen are outlined below and are based on Katira, except where stated.\n\nBULLET::::- Permanent Trump. 7 / 7 is the permanent, 2nd-highest trump, ranking just below the Trump Ace / Sow.\n", "Example: Small Blind is 5, Big Blind is 10, a Straddle would be 20. The minimum raise would be 10, for a total of 30, it doesn't need to double to 40.\n", "Section::::Straddle and sleeper bets.:Sleepers.\n", "In fixed-limit games, the size of bets and raises is determined by the specified stakes. For example, in $3/$6 fixed limit hold 'em, during the first two betting rounds (preflop and flop) the big blind is $3, the opening bet after the flop must be for $3 and all raises must be for $3. For the last two betting rounds (turn and river) the opening bet must be for $6 and all raises must be for $6. As in no-limit and pot-limit games, these amounts will be over-ridden by table stakes rules (so for example, in $3/$6 fixed limit hold 'em a player could bet, raise or call for only $2 at any time if that is their remaining stake).\n", "Straddling is considered poor long-term strategy by most experts, since the benefit of obtaining last action is more than offset by the cost of making a blind raise. Because straddling has a tendency to enrich the average pot size without a corresponding increase in the blinds (and antes if applicable), players who sit at tables that allow straddling can increase their profits considerably simply by choosing not to straddle themselves.\n\nSection::::Straddle and sleeper bets.:Live straddle.:Mandatory straddles.\n", "This is not equitable; it's simple enough to consider that the small blind has made a half bet and must complete that bet for $15 to call, or raise, or fold for $10.\n\nSection::::Limits.:No limit.\n\nA game played with a no-limit betting structure allows each player to raise the bet by any amount up to and including their entire remaining stake at any time (subject to the table stakes rules and any other rules about raising). There is generally a minimum opening bet, and raises usually must be at least the amount of the previous raise.\n\nSection::::Limits.:Cap limit.\n", "Section::::Algebraic interpretation.\n\nReturns on any bet may be considered to be calculated as 'stake unit' × 'odds multiplier'. The \"overall\" 'odds multiplier' is a combined decimal odds value and is the result of all the individual bets that make up a full cover bet, including singles if needed. E.g. if a successful £10 Yankee returned £461.35 then the overall 'odds multiplier' (OM) is 46.135.\n", "An over–under or over/under (O/U) bet is a wager in which a sportsbook will predict a number for a statistic in a given game (usually the combined score of the two teams), and bettors wager that the actual number in the game will be either higher or lower than that number. For example, in Super Bowl XXXIX, most Las Vegas casinos set the over–under for the score of the game at 46.0. A bettor could wager that the combined score of the two teams would be either more than or less than that number. Since the combined score of that game was 45, anyone who had bet on \"under\" won.\n", "Also known as \"Total\" in Quebec, \"Over/Under\" is similar to those games offered by other bookmakers where bettors are wagering that the number of points scored in each match are over or under the quoted total. Bettors can make predictions on the outcomes of two to twelve games, depending on the province. The payouts offered vary by province.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Odds.\n", "In a half-pot limit game, no player can raise more than the half of the size of the total pot. Half-pot limit games are often played at non-high-low games including Badugi in South Korea.\n\nSection::::Limits.:Pot limit.\n\nIn a pot-limit game no player can raise more than the size of the total pot, which includes:\n\nBULLET::::1. Chips collected from previous betting rounds (Starting pot)\n\nBULLET::::2. Previous action in the current betting round (Trail)\n\nBULLET::::3. A call from the player making the raise\n", "IRS is not clear on whether QQQ, DIA and SPY options should be treated as section 1256 contracts. On one hand, these do not settle in cash (most Section 1256 contracts do), but on the other hand they meet the definition of a \"broad-based\" index option. Instead, the IRS grants penalty relief if a broker determines in good faith that an index is, or is not, a narrow-based index, following published guidelines.\n\nSection::::Tax advantages.\n", "Though this bet is most commonly made with the combined score of the two teams, many other statistics can be used, including:\n\nBULLET::::- In American football, a player's or team's total rushing yards or attempts, down conversions (first or third), interceptions, completions, field goal percentage, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- In basketball, a player's or team's total assists, blocks, turnovers, steals, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- In baseball, a player's or team's total number of home runs, RBIs, etc.\n\nSection::::Dice.\n", "At race tracks where the altitude is above 1,500 feet above sea level (mostly in Divisions 5, 6, and 7 in the NHRA), tracks will have an Altitude Correction Factor multiplied into the index time. The index time will be multiplied by the Altitude Correction Factor to obtain the official time used by the NHRA. At Bandimere Speedway, the index is 9.50 seconds, and at The Strip at Las Vegas Motor Speedway, the index is 9.05 seconds.\n", "Section::::Racing career.:1794: four-year-old season.\n", "The long position in the underlying instrument is said to provide the \"cover\" as the shares can be delivered to the buyer of the call if the buyer decides to exercise.\n", "All other cards have their face value\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Chicago variation.\n\nChicago variation follows the standard rules but with these differences:\n\nBULLET::::- 9: value is 0 and the next player is skipped.\n\nBULLET::::- 10: value is -10 only.\n\nBULLET::::- K: value is 99 no matter previous deck value.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Hawaii variation.\n\nHawaii variation follows the standard rules but with these differences:\n\nBULLET::::- 10: value is -10 only.\n\nBULLET::::- 5: value is -5\n\nBULLET::::- J: value is 99 no matter previous deck value.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Iceland variation.\n\nIceland variation follows the standard rules but with these differences:\n\nBULLET::::- A: value is 1 or 14.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21848	If cancer gets caused because the cells don’t stop dividing then why are the chances so low of getting it at aan early age	What causes cells to go haywire is genetic damage. Some damage can be repaired, some has no effect, some causes the cell to be inefficient, or to die. A very small percent of genetically damaged cells will turn cancerous though. When cells divide they copy their genetic instructions over to the new cell. That means they copy the damaged bits along with the good bits. So as you age, and accumulate more and more genetically damaged cells the risk of one of them becoming cancer increases.	[ "Familial and genetic factors are identified in 5-15% of childhood cancer cases. In <5-10% of cases, there are known environmental exposures and exogenous factors, such as prenatal exposure to tobacco, X-rays, or certain medications. For the remaining 75-90% of cases, however, the individual causes remain unknown. In most cases, as in carcinogenesis in general, the cancers are assumed to involve multiple risk factors and variables.\n\nAspects that make the risk factors of childhood cancer different from those seen in adult cancers include:\n", "Depending on their location, cells can be damaged through radiation, chemicals from cigarette smoke, and inflammation from bacterial infection or other viruses. Each cell has a chance of damage. Cells often die if they are damaged, through failure of a vital process or the immune system, however sometimes damage will knock out a single cancer gene. In an old person, there are thousands, tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of knocked-out cells. The chance that any one would form a cancer is very low.\n", "Replication stress, along with the selection for inactivating mutations in DNA damage response genes in the evolution of the tumor, leads to downregulation and/or loss of some DNA damage response mechanisms, and hence loss of DNA repair and/or senescence/programmed cell death. In experimental mouse models, loss of DNA damage response-mediated cell senescence was observed after using a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) to inhibit the double-strand break response kinase ataxia telangiectasia (ATM), leading to increased tumor size and invasiveness. Humans born with inherited defects in DNA repair mechanisms (for example, Li-Fraumeni syndrome) have a higher cancer risk.\n", "In general, mutations in both types of genes are required for cancer to occur. For example, a mutation limited to one oncogene would be suppressed by normal mitosis control and tumor suppressor genes, first hypothesised by the Knudson hypothesis. A mutation to only one tumor suppressor gene would not cause cancer either, due to the presence of many \"backup\" genes that duplicate its functions. It is only when enough proto-oncogenes have mutated into oncogenes, and enough tumor suppressor genes deactivated or damaged, that the signals for cell growth overwhelm the signals to regulate it, that cell growth quickly spirals out of control. Often, because these genes regulate the processes that prevent most damage to genes themselves, the rate of mutations increases as one gets older, because DNA damage forms a feedback loop.\n", "Examples of autosomal dominant cancer syndromes are autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (Canale-Smith syndrome), Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome (although 85% of cases are sporadic), Birt–Hogg–Dubé syndrome, Carney syndrome, familial chordoma, Cowden syndrome, dysplastic nevus syndrome with familial melanoma, familial adenomatous polyposis, hereditary breast-ovarian cancer syndrome, hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC), hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (Lynch syndrome), Howel–Evans syndrome of eosophageal cancer with tylosis, juvenile polyposis syndrome, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1/2, multiple osteochondromatosis, neurofibromatosis type 1/2, nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome), Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, familial prostate cancer, hereditary leiomyomatosis renal cell cancer (LRCC), hereditary papillary renal cell cancer (HPRCC), hereditary paraganglioma-pheochromocytoma syndrome, retinoblastoma, tuberous sclerosis, von Hippel-Lindau disease and Wilm's tumor.\n", "In labile cells, it is not a speed-up in the segments of the cell cycle (i.e. G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase and M phase), but rather a short or absent G0 phase that is responsible for the cells' constant division.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nConstantly dividing cells have a higher risk of becoming malignant and develop cancer, dividing uncontrollably. This is why muscle cancer is very rare, even though muscle tissue accounts for ~50% of total body weight, since muscle cells are not constantly dividing cells, and therefore not considered labile.\n", "Although there are over 50 identifiable hereditary forms of cancer, less than 0.3% of the population are carriers of a cancer-related genetic mutation and these make up less than 3–10% of all cancer cases. The vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary (\"sporadic cancers\"). Hereditary cancers are primarily caused by an inherited genetic defect. A cancer syndrome or family cancer syndrome is a genetic disorder in which inherited genetic mutations in one or more genes predisposes the affected individuals to the development of cancers and may also cause the early onset of these cancers. Although cancer syndromes exhibit an increased risk of cancer, the risk varies. For some of these diseases, cancer is not the primary feature and is a rare consequence.\n", "BULLET::::- Melanoma: Localized melanoma in AYAs may have clinically different features than in older adults. Adolescents and young adults also tend to have higher stages of melanoma at diagnosis. Younger age at diagnosis and high mitotic rate may correlate with a greater likelihood of metastasis to the lymph nodes.\n", "Neuroblastoma is a form of childhood cancer that can develop at any age but typically presents between the ages of 18 months and five years. It affects a little over 600 children per year in the United States. Most are diagnosed with stage IV disease, the most advanced form. Even with aggressive therapy, stage IV neuroblastoma carries a poor prognosis, with a three-year survival rate of 30–40%.\n", "In the United States, about 160,000 new cases of colorectal cancer are diagnosed each year. Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer is responsible for approximately 2 percent to 7 percent of all diagnosed cases of colorectal cancer. The average age of diagnosis of cancer in patients with this syndrome is 44 years old, as compared to 64 years old in people without the syndrome.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "The vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary (sporadic). Hereditary cancers are primarily caused by an inherited genetic defect. Less than 0.3% of the population are carriers of a genetic mutation that has a large effect on cancer risk and these cause less than 3–10% of cancer. Some of these syndromes include: certain inherited mutations in the genes \"BRCA1\" and \"BRCA2\" with a more than 75% risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer, and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome), which is present in about 3% of people with colorectal cancer, among others.\n", "Advanced parental age has been associated with increased risk of childhood cancer in the offspring. There are preventable causes of childhood malignancy, such as delivery overuse and misuse of ionizing radiation through computed tomography scans when the test is not indicated or when adult protocols are used.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Types.\n", "A cancer syndrome or family cancer syndrome is a genetic disorder in which inherited genetic mutations in one or more genes predispose the affected individuals to the development of cancers and may also cause the early onset of these cancers. Cancer syndromes often show not only a high lifetime risk of developing cancer, but also the development of multiple independent primary tumors. Many of these syndromes are caused by mutations in tumor suppressor genes, genes that are involved in protecting the cell from turning cancerous. Other genes that may be affected are DNA repair genes, oncogenes and genes involved in the production of blood vessels (angiogenesis). Common examples of inherited cancer syndromes are hereditary breast-ovarian cancer syndrome and hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (Lynch syndrome).\n", "More than one mutation is necessary for carcinogenesis. In fact, a series of several mutations to certain classes of genes is usually required before a normal cell will transform into a cancer cell.\n\nDamage to DNA can be caused by exposure to radiation, chemicals, and other environmental sources, but mutations also accumulate naturally over time through uncorrected errors in DNA transcription, making age another risk factor. Oncoviruses can cause certain types of cancer, and genetics are also known to play a role.\n", "Internationally, the greatest variation in childhood cancer incidence occurs when comparing high-income countries to low-income ones. This may result from differences in being able to diagnose cancer, differences in risk among different ethnic or racial population subgroups, as well as differences in risk factors. An example of differing risk factors is in cases of pediatric Burkitt lymphoma, a form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that sickens 6 to 7 children out of every 100,000 annually in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, where it is associated with a history of infection by both Epstein-Barr virus and malaria. In industrialized countries, Burkitt lymphoma is not associated with these infectious conditions.\n", "Many of these syndromes are caused by mutations in tumor suppressor genes that regulate cell growth. Other common mutations alter the function of DNA repair genes, oncogenes and genes involved in the production of blood vessels. Certain inherited mutations in the genes \"BRCA1\" and \"BRCA2\" with a more than 75% risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer. Some of the inherited genetic disorders that can cause colorectal cancer include familial adenomatous polyposis and hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer; however, these represent less than 5% of colon cancer cases. In many cases, genetic testing can be used to identify mutated genes or chromosomes that are passed through generations.\n", "BULLET::::- Sarcoma: Adolescents and young adults often fare worse than young children with the same histologic type of sarcoma. In Ewing sarcoma, survival is inversely related to age and tumor size diagnosis. Adolescents and young adults with rhabdomyosarcoma have a much lower survival rate at 5 years than children, 27% compared with 61%.\n\nA stronger understanding of the different biologic and genomic processes seen in some adolescent and young adult cancers will help to develop new and better treatments for these cancers.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Education.\n", "People who are diagnosed with cancer between the ages of 15 and 39 fit the definition of “adolescent and young adults” according to the Report of the Adolescent and Young Adult Oncology Progress Review Group. While this age range is commonly used in the United States, age ranges used to characterize adolescent and young adult populations in terms of cancer care and research may vary by country, region, or study. For example, throughout much of Europe and in Australia, adolescence and young adulthood in terms of cancer is defined as ages 15 through 24, while the age range accepted by the Canadian Cancer Society is 15 through 29.\n", "Section::::In cancer.\n\nCancer can be seen as a disruption of normal restriction point function, as cells continually and inappropriately reenter the cell cycle, and do not enter G. Mutations at many steps in the pathway towards the restriction point can result in cancerous growth of cells. Some of the genes most commonly mutated in cancer include Cdks and CKIs; overactive Cdks or underactive CKIs lower the stringency of the restriction point, allowing more cells to bypass senescence.\n", "Tumors in children who develop OMS tend to be more mature, showing favorable histology and absence of n-myc oncogene amplification than similar tumors in children without symptoms of OMS. Involvement of local lymph nodes is common, but these children rarely have distant metastases and their prognosis, in terms of direct morbidity and mortality effects from the tumor, is excellent. The three-year survival rate for children with non-metastatic neuroblastoma and OMS was 100% according to Children’s Cancer Group data (gathered from 675 patients diagnosed between 1980 and 1994); three-year survival in comparable patients with OMS was 77%. Although the symptoms of OMS are typically steroid-responsive and recovery from acute symptoms of OMS can be quite good, children often suffer lifelong neurologic sequelae that impair motor, cognitive, language, and behavioral development.\n", "Although the age-related increase in cancer risk is well-documented, the age-related patterns of cancer are complex. Some types of cancer, like testicular cancer, have early-life incidence peaks, for reasons unknown. Besides, the rate of age-related increase in cancer incidence varies between cancer types with, for instance, prostate cancer incidence accelerating much faster than brain cancer.. It has been proposed that the age distribution of cancer incidence can be viewed as the distribution of probability to accumulate the required number of driver events by the given age.\n", "Compared with other types of cancer, neuroblastoma is rare. Scientific advances have allowed the development of individualized treatments, with techniques such as immunotherapy being targeted to specific kinds of cancer. However, because of the rising cost of drug development, which is approaching $1 billion, pharmaceutical companies are not likely to develop drugs that are specific to neuroblastoma or other rare disorders.\n\nSection::::Projects.\n\nThe Band of Parents' first project was the development of a humanized antibody, Hu3F8.\n", "For cancer, the same time-at-risk is assumed for simplicity, and let’s say that the incidence of cancer in the area is estimated at 1 in 250 per year, giving a population probability of cancer of:\n\nFor simplicity, let’s say that any association between a family history of primary hyperparathyroidism and risk of cancer is ignored, so the relative risk for the individual to have contracted cancer in the first place is similar to that of the population (RR = 1):\n\nHowever, hypercalcemia only occurs in, very approximately, 10% of cancers, (r = 0.1), so:\n", "Fetal cells are most sensitive to carcinogens during the early stages of gestation. Notably, early in the gestational period, there is a high rate of cell division. Additionally, the cells exhibit undifferentiated characteristics. These compounding factors illustrate the basis for this heightened cellular sensitivity to genotoxic agents. For example, it has been proven that during exposure nicotine binds to receptors of the fetal cells through which developmentally important signaling occurs in many developing organs and tissues. Because the binding of these receptors is unanticipated by the regulated activity of the fetal cells it can be inferred that this is a disruption in the cellular process which can lead to detrimental effects such as the deregulation of vital signaling, expression, or repair. As indicated above, should this exposure occur during the early stages of gestation, the fetus will be more susceptible to such damage. In addition to receptor binding, it has also been proven that fetal tissues are suspected as “privileged targets of neoplastic changes” in light of the vast amount of cell proliferation and differentiation taking place. Notably, tumors are arrived at via proliferating cells. In the event that proliferating cells become uncontrolled, by any measure, this mutated activity would certainly be characteristic of an increased risk in one’s chances of developing cancer.\n", "The age-standardized 5-year relative survival rate is 23.6%. Patients with this tumor are 46 times more likely to die than matched members of the general population. It is important to note that prognosis across age groups is different especially during the first three years post-diagnosis. When the elderly population is compared with young adults, the excess hazard ratio (a hazard ratio that is corrected for differences in mortality across age groups) decreases from 10.15 to 1.85 at 1 to 3 years, meaning that the elderly population are much more likely to die in the first year post-diagnosis when compared to young adults (aged 15 to 40), but after three years, this difference is reduced markedly. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04845	Why does the spicy sensation linger in your mouth after eating spicy foods?	Typically if you're eating something spicy it contains peppers that have oils that cause "burning" on your tongue. Water and milk aren't super effective because they aren't removing the oil from the peppers from your tongue.	[ "Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.\n", "Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n", "When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk is an effective way to relieve the burning sensation (due to caseins having a detergent effect on capsaicin); and room-temperature sugar solution (10%) at is almost as effective. The burning sensation will slowly fade away over several hours if no actions are taken.\n\nCapsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Effects on weight loss and regain.\n", "The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-\"N\"-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called \"capsaicinoids\". The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit. \n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "In addition, Capsiate Capsicum extract is obtained from Tap de Cortí, which contains spicy substances (capsinoids), with the ability to increase the metabolism, thus increasing energy consumption and diminishing accumulation of fat in the body.\n\nSection::::Conservation and care.\n\nTo get the best yield, the paprika Tap de Cortí should be consumed within the first two years of life. During this period the aroma, taste and colour reflect the highest quality, after this time lose its properties.\n", "BULLET::::- Chinese style sauces such as black bean and chili.\n\nSection::::Heat.\n\nThe heat, or burning sensation, experienced when consuming hot sauce is caused by capsaicin and related capsaicinoids. The burning sensation is not \"real\" in the sense of damage being wrought on tissues. The mechanism of action is instead a chemical interaction with the neurological system.\n", "Capsinoid chemicals provide the distinctive tastes in \"C. annuum\" variants. In particular, capsaicin creates a burning sensation (\"hotness\"), which in extreme cases can last for several hours after ingestion. A measurement called the Scoville scale has been created to describe the hotness of peppers and other foods.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Traditional medicine.\n\nHot peppers are used in traditional medicine as well as food in Africa. English botanist John Lindley described \"C. annuum\" in his 1838 \"Flora Medica\" thus:\n\nIn Ayurveda, \"C. annuum\" is classified as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Guna\" (properties) – \"ruksha\" (dry), \"laghu\" (light) and \"tikshna\" (sharp)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasa\" (taste) – \"katu\" (pungent)\n", "Capsaicin is used as an analgesic in topical ointments and dermal patches to relieve pain, typically in concentrations between 0.025% and 0.1%. It may be applied in cream form for the temporary relief of minor aches and pains of muscles and joints associated with arthritis, backache, strains and sprains, often in compounds with other rubefacients.\n", "To prepare red mojo it is necessary to dry the peppers. Once dry, peppers can be kept for a long time before preparation. Before making mojo, peppers are soaked in water so they lose their spiciness. Then, grains and fibers are removed but for a few that will make the mojo spicy. In the case of green mojo, spiciness will be regulated by the amount of garlic, and can be also intensified by adding ground coriander seeds.\n\nSection::::Canarian mojo.:Canarian variations.\n", "Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators and microbes, in particular a fusarium fungus carried by hemipteran insects that attack certain species of chili peppers, according to one study. Peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungal predation on the plant's seeds.\n\nSection::::Intensity.:Common peppers.\n\nA wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:\n\nSection::::Intensity.:Notable hot chili peppers.\n\nSome of the world's hottest chili peppers are:\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Culinary uses.\n", "Repeated topical applications of capsaicin, are followed by a prolonged period of reduced skin sensibility referred to as desensitization, or nociceptor inactivation. Capsaicin not only depletes substance P but also results in a reversible degeneration of epidermal nerve fibers. Nevertheless, benefits appear modest with standard (low) strength preparations, and topical capsaicin can itself induce pain.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Surgical Interventions.\n\nIn some cases a nerve block can be used to treat.\n", "BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n", "\"Siling haba\" has a \"hot\" rating in the Scoville scale, at 50,000 SHU. However, some or most of the heat is neutralized by the cheese and the fact that the seeds are removed. The heat can be adjusted by using another type of pepper. Jalapeño or serrano peppers, for example, will lower the spiciness; while habanero peppers will increase it. Another method is to mix the stuffing with finely chopped native labuyo peppers, which are much hotter than \"siling haba\", with a Scoville scale rating of 80,000 to 100,000 SHU. Some of the seeds of the \"siling haba\" can also be retained to make it hotter, though too much can make it taste bitter.\n", "The trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) provides information concerning the general texture of food as well as the taste-related sensations of peppery or hot (from spices).\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Pungency (also spiciness or hotness).\n", "Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.\n", "The fruit of most species of \"Capsicum\" contains capsaicin (methyl-n-vanillyl nonenamide), a lipophilic chemical that can produce a strong burning sensation (pungency or spiciness) in the mouth of the unaccustomed eater. Most mammals find this unpleasant, whereas birds are unaffected. The secretion of capsaicin protects the fruit from consumption by insects and mammals, while the bright colors attract birds that will disperse the seeds.\n", "Early research showed capsaicin to evoke a long-onset current in comparison to other chemical agonists, suggesting the involvement of a significant rate-limiting factor. Subsequent to this, the TRPV1 ion channel has been shown to be a member of the superfamily of TRP ion channels, and as such is now referred to as . There are a number of different TRP ion channels that have been shown to be sensitive to different ranges of temperature and probably are responsible for our range of temperature sensation. Thus, capsaicin does not actually cause a chemical burn, or indeed any direct tissue damage at all, when chili peppers are the source of exposure. The inflammation resulting from exposure to capsaicin is believed to be the result of the body's reaction to nerve excitement. For example, the mode of action of capsaicin in inducing bronchoconstriction is thought to involve stimulation of C fibers culminating in the release of neuropeptides. In essence, the body inflames tissues as if it has undergone a burn or abrasion and the resulting inflammation can cause tissue damage in cases of extreme exposure, as is the case for many substances that cause the body to trigger an inflammatory response.\n", "Physical pathological sensation, as occurs in IBS, COPD, and other illnesses, is also influential in affective sensation and response. The emotional response to especially a chronic illness can be correlated with its severity. This has been shown in COPD, where emotionally-driven descriptions of sensation due to breathing impairments may reflect the severity of the illness and probability of long-term, responsal behavior changes. Additionally, in IBS patients, affective sensation and its correlative brain areas including the ACC, insula, and VMPFC demonstrated heightened fMRI activity in response to painful visceral stimuli, and an inability to down-regulate their activation and modulate the emotional response to pain. This link between perceptual intensity and affective sensation persists in the case of chili pepper consumption. Those individuals who eat chili peppers more often, and presumably enjoy them, also report less burning sensation in response to eating chilis. While this could be due to either individual taste-perception differences or intensity judgement differences, it is more likely due to the latter because previous spicy food-consumption experiences do not correlate with the differences in affective sensation responses.\n", "Yellow ají is one of the ingredients of Peruvian cuisine and Bolivian cuisine. It is used as a condiment, especially in many dishes and sauces. In Peru the chilis are mostly used fresh, and in Bolivia dried and ground. Common dishes with ají \"amarillo\" are the Peruvian stew \"Ají de gallina\" (\"Hen Chili\"), \"Papa a la Huancaína\" and the Bolivian \"Fricase Paceno\", among others. In Ecuadorian cuisine, Ají amarillo, onion, and lemon juice (amongst others) are served in a separate bowl with many meals as an optional additive.\n", "Chili pepper pods, which are berries, are used fresh or dried. Chilies are dried to preserve them for long periods of time, which may also be done by pickling.\n\nDried chilies are often ground into powders, although many Mexican dishes including variations on chiles rellenos use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño.\n", "BULLET::::- Som tam, a green papaya salad from Thai and Lao cuisine, traditionally has, as a key ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.\n\nFresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand. Dried chilies are also used to infuse cooking oil.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Ornamental plants.\n", "Capsaicin is also used to deter pests, specifically mammalian pests. Targets of capsaicin repellants include voles, deer, rabbits, squirrels, bears, insects, and attacking dogs. Ground or crushed dried chili pods may be used in birdseed to deter rodents, taking advantage of the insensitivity of birds to capsaicin. The Elephant Pepper Development Trust claims that using chili peppers as a barrier crop can be a sustainable means for rural African farmers to deter elephants from eating their crops. Notably, an article published in the Journal of Environmental Science and Health in 2006 states that \"Although hot chili pepper extract is commonly used as a component of household and garden insect-repellent formulas, it is not clear that the capsaicinoid elements of the extract are responsible for its repellency.\"\n", "Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04987	Why does the middle of ice get all milky/cloudy?	Near the surface of the ice, dissolved gasses are able to be forced out as the water freezes. Further down, the gasses are forced out of solution as it freezes and are trapped. This is also why slowly freezing ice makes it clearer than quickly.	[ "Relatively small amounts of regular ice appear white because plenty of air bubbles are present, and also because small quantities of water appear to be colorless. In glaciers, on the other hand, the pressure causes the air bubbles, trapped in the accumulated snow, to be squeezed out increasing the density of the created ice. Large quantities of water appear blue, therefore a large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, would also appear blue.\n\nSection::::Color of water samples.\n", "In the case of glaciers, the ice is more tightly pressed together and contains little air. As sunlight enters the ice, more light of the red spectrum is absorbed, so the light scattered will be bluish.\n", "On the surface of lakes, or other bodies of still freshwater, \"congelation ice\" is often called \"black Ice\". This ice has frozen without many air bubbles trapped inside, making it transparent. Its transparency reveals the colour, usually black, of the water beneath it, hence the name. This is in contrast to \"snow ice\", sometimes called \"slush ice\", which is formed when slush (water saturated snow) refreezes. Snow ice is white due to the presence of air bubbles.\n", "In central Greenland a typical year might produce two or three feet of winter snow, plus a few inches of summer snow. When this turns to ice, the two layers will make up no more than a foot of ice. The layers corresponding to the summer snow will contain bigger bubbles than the winter layers, so the alternating layers remain visible, which makes it possible to count down a core and determine the age of each layer. As the depth increases to the point where the ice structure changes to a clathrate, the bubbles are no longer visible, and the layers can no longer be seen. Dust layers may now become visible. Ice from Greenland cores contains dust carried by wind; the dust appears most strongly in late winter, and appears as cloudy grey layers. These layers are stronger and easier to see at times in the past when the earth's climate was cold, dry, and windy.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "Commercially made ice cubes may be clear, compared to domestically made ice cubes. Cloudy ice cubes occur when water is frozen quickly, or when the water is high in dissolved solids. When water is cooled to its freezing point, and ice starts to form, dissolved gases can no longer stay in solution and come out as microscopic bubbles. However, as ice floats in water, once there is enough ice to form a layer on the surface, the ice layer traps all bubbles within the ice cube. Commercial ice-makers use a flowing source of purified water to make ice with cooling elements at the bottom, allowing the bubbles to be washed away from the top as the cube grows.\n", "When the temperature is below freezing and the wind is calm, such as under a high atmospheric pressure at night in the fall, a thin layer of ice will form over open water of a lake. If the depth of the body of water is large enough, its color is black and can be seen through the ice, thus the name black ice.\n", "Cirrus floccus is a type of cirrus cloud. The name \"cirrus floccus\" is derived from Latin, meaning \"a lock of wool\". Cirrus floccus occurs as small tufts of cloud, usually with a ragged base. The cloud can have virga falling from it, but the precipitation does not reach the ground. The individual tufts are usually isolated from each other. At formation, the cirrus floccus clouds are bright white and can be mistaken for altocumulus clouds; however, after a few minutes, the brightness begins to fade, indicating they are made up of pure ice, and are therefore at a higher level.\n", "Scientists think that water ice was transported downward by snow at night. It sublimated (went directly from ice to vapor) in the morning. Throughout the day convection and turbulence mixed it back into the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Climate.:Climate cycles.\n", "Section::::Color of glaciers.\n\nGlaciers are large bodies of ice and snow formed in cold climates by processes involving the compaction of fallen snow. While snowy glaciers appear white from a distance, up close and when shielded from direct ambient light, glaciers usually appear a deep blue due to the long path lengths of the internal reflected light.\n", "Section::::Defrosting.\n\nIn the spring, various shapes appear because frost is disappearing from the surface, exposing the underling dark soil. Also, in some places dust is blown out of in geyser-like eruptions that are sometimes called \"spiders.\" If a wind is blowing, the material creates a long, dark streak or fan.\n\nSection::::Glaciers.\n", "Cirrus clouds that produced snow were sighted in \"Phoenix\" imagery. The clouds formed at a level in the atmosphere that was around -65 °C, so the clouds would have to be composed of water-ice, rather than carbon dioxide-ice because the temperature for forming carbon dioxide ice is much lower—less than -120 °C. As a result of the mission, it is now believed that water ice (snow) would have accumulated later in the year at this location.\n", "Three other definitions of black ice by the World Meteorological Organization are:\n\nBULLET::::- A thin ice layer on a fresh or salt water body which appears dark in colour because of its transparency;\n\nBULLET::::- A mariner's term for a dreaded form of icing sometimes sufficiently heavy to capsize a small ship;\n\nBULLET::::- Another term for ice on rocks in the mountains known equally as \"verglas\" (glaze ice).\n\nSection::::Formation.\n\nSection::::Formation.:On roads and pavements.\n", "Water sky\n\nWater sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink. It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth, in Antarctica and in the Arctic.\n", "Cores are often drilled in areas such as Antarctica and central Greenland where the temperature is almost never warm enough to cause melting, but the summer sun can still alter the snow. In polar areas, the sun is visible day and night during the local summer and invisible all winter. It can make some snow sublimate, leaving the top inch or so less dense. When the sun approaches its lowest point in the sky, the temperature drops and hoar frost forms on the top layer. Buried under the snow of following years, the coarse-grained hoar frost compresses into lighter layers than the winter snow. As a result, alternating bands of lighter and darker ice can be seen in an ice core.\n", "An ice core is a vertical column through a glacier, sampling the layers that formed through an annual cycle of snowfall and melt. As snow accumulates, each layer presses on lower layers, making them denser until they turn into firn. Firn is not dense enough to prevent air from escaping; but at a density of about 830 kg/m it turns to ice, and the air within is sealed into bubbles that capture the composition of the atmosphere at the time the ice formed. The depth at which this occurs varies with location, but in Greenland and the Antarctic it ranges from 64 m to 115 m. Because the rate of snowfall varies from site to site, the age of the firn when it turns to ice varies a great deal. At Summit Camp in Greenland, the depth is 77 m and the ice is 230 years old; at Dome C in Antarctica the depth is 95 m and the age 2500 years. As further layers build up, the pressure increases, and at about 1500 m the crystal structure of the ice changes from hexagonal to cubic, allowing air molecules to move into the cubic crystals and form a clathrate. The bubbles disappear and the ice becomes more transparent.\n", "Arctic haze was first noticed in 1750 when the Industrial Revolution began. Explorers and whalers could not figure out where the foggy layer was coming from. \"\"Poo-jok\"\" was the term the Inuit used for it. Another hint towards clarifying this issue was relayed in notes approximately a century ago by Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen. After trekking through the Arctic he found dark stains on the ice. The term \"Arctic haze\" was coined in 1956 by J. Murray Mitchell, a US Air Force officer stationed in Alaska, to describe an unusual reduction in visibility observed by North American weather reconnaissance planes. From his investigations, Mitchell thought the haze had come from industrial areas in Europe and China. He went on to become an eminent climatologist.\n", "This cloud consists mainly of water droplets. By definition of cumulonimbus cloud, at its top water droplets are transformed into ice crystals. But for cumulonimbus calvus, content of ice crystals are meager and polar are in early stage, so cloud tops still look round and puffy.\n", "Built-in icemakers are engineered to fit under a kitchen or bar counter, but they can be used as freestanding units. Some produce crescent-shaped ice like the ice from a freezer icemaker; the ice is cloudy and opaque instead of clear, because the water is frozen faster than in others which are clear cube icemakers. In the process, tiny air bubbles get trapped, causing the cloudy appearance of the ice. However, most under-counter ice makers are clear ice makers which in which the ice is missing the air bubbles, and therefore the ice is clear and melts much slower.\n\nSection::::Industrial icemakers.\n", "Other colors can appear in the presence of light absorbing impurities, where the impurity is dictating the color rather than the ice itself. For instance, icebergs containing impurities (e.g., sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear brown, grey or green.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Phases.\n\nIce may be any one of the 18 known solid crystalline phases of water, or in an amorphous solid state at various densities.\n", "Glaze (ice)\n\nGlaze or glaze ice, also called glazed frost, is a smooth, transparent and homogeneous ice coating occurring when freezing rain or drizzle hits a surface. It is similar in appearance to clear ice, which forms from supercooled water droplets. It is a relatively common occurrence in temperate climates in the winter when precipitation forms in warm air aloft and falls into below-freezing temperature at the surface.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Some places in Protonilus Mensae display lines of pits. These pits may have formed when ground ice converted to a gas, thus leaving a void. When surface material collapses into voids, pits are created.\n\nSection::::Climate change caused ice-rich features.\n", "Small amounts of regular ice appear to be white because of air bubbles inside them and also because small quantities of water appear to be colourless. In glaciers, the pressure causes the air bubbles to be squeezed out, increasing the density of the created ice. Large quantities of water appear to be blue, as it absorbs other colours more efficiently than blue. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, similarly appears blue.\n", "On June 19, 2008 (sol ), NASA announced that dice-sized clumps of bright material in the \"Dodo-Goldilocks\" trench dug by the robotic arm had vaporized over the course of four days, strongly implying that they were composed of water ice which sublimed following exposure. While dry ice also sublimes, under the conditions present it would do so at a rate much faster than observed.\n", "Section::::Soft rime.\n\nSoft rime is a white ice deposition that forms when the water droplets in light freezing fog or mist freeze to the outer surfaces of objects, with calm or light wind. The fog freezes usually to the windward side of tree branches, wires, or any other solid objects. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02438	Why do you see scientists use electron microscopes for small bugs when normal microscopes can even see cells?	That electron microscope shot is zoomed out far so you can see what you're looking at. 80x is barely any zoom, they can get beyond 10,000x with a well prepared sample which is far beyond an optical microscope. [This is a far better demonstration of it's capabilities]( URL_0 ) Electron microscopes are used when you need to see really tiny things. They're often used in failure analysis of electronics so you can see which tiny transistor blew up.	[ "One of the latest discoveries made about using an electron microscope is the ability to identify a virus. Since this microscope produces a visible, clear image of small organelles, in an electron microscope there is no need for reagents to see the virus or harmful cells, resulting in a more efficient way to detect pathogens.\n\nSection::::History.:Scanning probe microscopes.\n", "Additionally, methods such as electron or X-ray microscopy use a vacuum or partial vacuum, which limits their use for live and biological samples (with the exception of an environmental scanning electron microscope). The specimen chambers needed for all such instruments also limits sample size, and sample manipulation is more difficult. Color cannot be seen in images made by these methods, so some information is lost. They are however, essential when investigating molecular or atomic effects, such as age hardening in aluminium alloys, or the microstructure of polymers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Digital microscope\n\nBULLET::::- Köhler illumination\n\nBULLET::::- Microscope slide\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "The main preparation techniques are not required in the environmental SEM outlined below, but some biological specimens can benefit from fixation.\n\nSection::::Sample preparation.:Biological samples.\n\nFor SEM, a specimen is normally required to be completely dry, since the specimen chamber is at high vacuum. Hard, dry materials such as wood, bone, feathers, dried insects, or shells (including egg shells) can be examined with little further treatment, but living cells and tissues and whole, soft-bodied organisms require chemical fixation to preserve and stabilize their structure.\n", "Since the early 1970s individuals have been using the microscope as an artistic instrument. Websites and traveling art exhibits such as the Nikon Small World and Olympus Bioscapes have featured a range of images for the sole purpose of artistic enjoyment. Some collaborative groups, such as the Paper Project have also incorporated microscopic imagery into tactile art pieces as well as 3D immersive rooms and dance performances.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Close-up\n\nBULLET::::- Digital microscope\n\nBULLET::::- Macro photography\n\nBULLET::::- Microphotograph\n\nBULLET::::- Microscopy\n\nBULLET::::- USB microscope\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Unlike electron microscope methods, specimens do not require a partial vacuum but can be observed in air at standard temperature and pressure or while submerged in a liquid reaction vessel.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n\nThe detailed shape of the scanning tip is sometimes difficult to determine. Its effect on the resulting data is particularly noticeable if the specimen varies greatly in height over lateral distances of 10 nm or less.\n", "Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image. As these microscopes do not use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to the same resolution limit as the optical and electron microscopes described above.\n\nSection::::Types.:Optical.\n", "For best results, one must select an appropriate sensor for a given application. Because microscope images have an intrinsic limiting resolution, it often makes little sense to use a noisy, high resolution detector for image acquisition. A more modest detector, with larger pixels, can often produce much higher quality images because of reduced noise. This is especially important in low-light applications such as fluorescence microscopy.\n", "Due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample. This is exemplified by the micrograph of pollen shown above. A wide range of magnifications is possible, from about 10 times (about equivalent to that of a powerful hand-lens) to more than 500,000 times, about 250 times the magnification limit of the best light microscopes.\n\nSection::::Sample preparation.\n", "Moreover, one must also consider the temporal resolution requirements of the application. A lower resolution detector will often have a significantly higher acquisition rate, permitting the observation of faster events. Conversely, if the observed object is motionless, one may wish to acquire images at the highest possible spatial resolution without regard to the time required to acquire a single image.\n\nSection::::2D image techniques.\n", "“High-content” or visual biology technology has two purposes, first to acquire spatially or temporally resolved information on an event and second to automatically quantify it. Spatially resolved instruments are typically automated microscopes, and temporal resolution still requires some form of fluorescence measurement in most cases.This means that a lot of HCS instruments are (fluorescence) microscopes that are connected to some form of image analysis package. These take care of all the steps in taking fluorescent images of cells and provide rapid, automated and unbiased assessment of experiments.\n", "Section::::Image acquisition methods.:Static imaging particle analysis.\n\nStatic image acquisition is the most common form. Almost all microscopes can be easily adapted to accept a digital camera via a C mount adaptor. This type of set-up is often referred to as a digital microscope, although many systems using that name are used only for displaying an image on a monitor.\n", "In order to study the reactions of particles in gaseous environments, a STEM may be modified with a differentially pumped sample chamber to allow gas flow around the sample, whilst a specialized holder is used to control the reaction temperature. Alternatively a holder mounted with an enclosed gas flow cell may be used.\n\nNanoparticles and biological cells have been studied in liquid environments using liquid-phase electron microscopy in STEM, accomplished by mounting a microfluidic enclosure in the specimen holder.\n\nSection::::Other STEM techniques.:Low-voltage STEM.\n", "Over the 1980s, Hansma worked in conjunction with IBM Zurich, researching the use of probe microscopy and its use in a variety of different fields. As a part of this work, he co-developed three scanning tunneling microscopes for the University of California, Santa Barbara. In the late 1980s, Hansma then worked on the development of atomic force microscopes and their use in research. This included the use of AFMs in genetic research, using them to observe DNA and RNA molecules in manner that did not disturb their natural interactions during the late 1990s.\n", "Specimens are observed in high vacuum in conventional SEM, or in low vacuum or wet conditions in variable pressure or environmental SEM, and at a wide range of cryogenic or elevated temperatures with specialized instruments.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A typical STEM is a conventional transmission electron microscope equipped with additional scanning coils, detectors and necessary circuitry, which allows it to switch between operating as a STEM, or a CTEM; however, dedicated STEMs are also manufactured.\n\nHigh resolution scanning transmission electron microscopes require exceptionally stable room environments. In order to obtain atomic resolution images in STEM, the level of vibration, temperature fluctuations, electromagnetic waves, and acoustic waves must be limited in the room housing the microscope.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Botanical Microtomy Technique: hard materials like wood, bone and leather require a sledge microtome. These microtomes have heavier blades and cannot cut as thin as a regular microtome.\n\nBULLET::::- Spectroscopy (especially FTIR or Infrared spectroscopy) Technique: thin polymer sections are needed in order that the infra-red beam will penetrate the sample under examination. It is normal to cut samples to between 20 and 100 µm in thickness. For more detailed analysis of much smaller areas in a thin section, FTIR microscopy can be used for sample inspection.\n", "BULLET::::- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is quite similar to the compound light microscope, by sending an electron beam through a very thin slice of the specimen. The resolution limit in 2005 was around 0.05 nanometer and has not increased appreciably since that time.\n\nBULLET::::- Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) visualizes details on the surfaces of specimens and gives a very nice 3D view. It gives results much like those of the stereo light microscope. The best resolution for SEM in 2011 was 0.4 nanometer.\n", "Spatial resolution is dependent on the tip radius, the substrate to tip distance, the precision of the electronics, and other considerations.\n\nSection::::Instrumentation.\n", "The technique was not developed further until the 1970s, when Albert Crewe at the University of Chicago developed the field emission gun and added a high quality objective lens to create a modern STEM. He demonstrated the ability to image atoms using an annular dark field detector. Crewe and coworkers at the University of Chicago developed the cold field emission electron source and built a STEM able to visualize single heavy atoms on thin carbon substrates.\n", "BULLET::::- Fixed (and potentially also cleared) samples can be glued to a simple support or holder and can stay in their fixing solution during imaging.\n\nBULLET::::- Larger living organisms are usually sedated and mounted in a soft gel cylinder that is extruded from a (glass or plastic) capillary hanging from above into the sample chamber.\n\nBULLET::::- Adherent cells can be grown on small glass plates that are hanging in the sample chamber.\n", "Microscopes can be divided into two general classes: those that illuminate the sample with a beam, and those that use a physical scanning probe. Scanning probe microscopies raster a small probe across the surface of a sample and monitor the interaction of the probe with the sample. The resolution of scanning probe microscopies is set by the size of the interaction region between the probe and the sample, which can be sufficiently small to allow atomic resolution. Using a physical tip (e.g. AFM or STM) does have some disadvantages though including a reasonably small imaging area and difficulty in observing structures with a large height variation over a small lateral distance.\n", "One challenge among \"in vitro\" MEAs has been imaging them with microscopes that use high power lenses, requiring low working distances on the order of micrometers. In order to avoid this problem, \"thin\"-MEAs have been created using cover slip glass. These arrays are approximately 180 μm allowing them to be used with high-power lenses.\n", "New types of scanning probe microscope have continued to be developed as the ability to machine ultra-fine probes and tips has advanced.\n\nSection::::History.:Fluorescence microscopes.\n\nThe most recent developments in light microscope largely centre on the rise of fluorescence microscopy in biology. During the last decades of the 20th century, particularly in the post-genomic era, many techniques for fluorescent staining of cellular structures were developed. The main groups of techniques involve targeted chemical staining of particular cell structures, for example, the chemical compound DAPI to label DNA, use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent reporters, see\n", "As a result, specimens can be examined faster and more easily, avoiding complex and time consuming preparation methods, without modifying the natural surface or creating artifacts by the preceding preparation work, or the vacuum of the SEM. Gas/liquid/solid interactions can be studied dynamically in situ and in real time, or recorded for post processing. Temperature variations from subzero to above 1000 °C and various ancillary devices for specimen micro-manipulation have become a new reality. Biological specimens can be maintained fresh and live. Therefore, ESEM constitutes a radical breakthrough from conventional electron microscopy, where the vacuum condition precluded the advantages of electron beam imaging becoming universal.\n", "Small, stable specimens such as carbon nanotubes, diatom frustules and small mineral crystals (asbestos fibres, for example) require no special treatment before being examined in the electron microscope. Samples of hydrated materials, including almost all biological specimens have to be prepared in various ways to stabilize them, reduce their thickness (ultrathin sectioning) and increase their electron optical contrast (staining). These processes may result in \"artifacts\", but these can usually be identified by comparing the results obtained by using radically different specimen preparation methods. Since the 1980s, analysis of cryofixed, vitrified specimens has also become increasingly used by scientists, further confirming the validity of this technique.\n" ]	[ "Normal microscopes can see everything they would need to see." ]	[ "Normal microscopes cannot see nearly as much as an electron microscope. However sometimes it is still usefull to see an only slightly zoomed image which an electron microscope can still achieve so it is easier to just use one microscope that can produce any image you need. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Normal microscopes can see everything they would need to see." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Normal microscopes cannot see nearly as much as an electron microscope. However sometimes it is still usefull to see an only slightly zoomed image which an electron microscope can still achieve so it is easier to just use one microscope that can produce any image you need. " ]

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.