Datasets:

tasksource
/

CREPE

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (3)

train · 3.46k rows

id stringlengths 10 10	question stringlengths 18 294	comment stringlengths 28 6.89k	passages sequence	presuppositions sequence	corrections sequence	labels sequence	raw_presuppositions sequence	raw_labels sequence	raw_corrections sequence
2018-10245	How do smart phones differentiate touch input between your finger vs any other object?	Usually they react to the electrical conductivity of your finger. This is why electronic stylus work on most touch screens.	[ "The \"capacitive shunt method\", described in an application note by Analog Devices (not to be confused with analog devices), senses the change in capacitance between a transmitter and receiver that are on opposite sides of the sensor. The transmitter creates an electric field which oscillates at 200–300 kHz. If a ground point, such as the finger, is placed between the transmitter and receiver, some of the field lines are shunted away, decreasing the apparent capacitance. Trackpads such as those found in some Blackberry smartphones work optically, like an optical computer mouse.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.\n\nMajor manufacturers include:\n\nBULLET::::- Alps Electric Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- Apple\n", "Although some standard Capacitance detection methods are projective, in the sense that they can be used to detect a finger through a non-conductive surface, they are very sensitive to fluctuations in temperature, which expand or contract the sensing plates, causing fluctuations in the capacitance of these plates. These fluctuations result in a lot of background noise, so a strong finger signal is required for accurate detection. This limits applications to those where the finger directly touches the sensing element or is sensed through a relatively thin non-conductive surface .\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Capacitive.:Projected capacitance.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Capacitive.:Projected capacitance.:Self-capacitance.\n\nSelf-capacitance sensors can have the same X-Y grid as mutual capacitance sensors, but the columns and rows operate independently. With self-capacitance, the capacitive load of a finger is measured on each column or row electrode by a current meter, or the change in frequency of an RC oscillator.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Capacitive.:Use of styli on capacitive screens.\n", "In 2015, the Apple Watch was launched. It uses skin tap sensing to deliver notifications and alerts from the mobile phone of the watch wearer.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Vibration.\n", "Resistive touchscreens typically have high resolution (4096 x 4096 DPI or higher), providing accurate touch control. Because the touchscreen responds to pressure on its surface, contact can be made with a finger or any other pointing device.\n\nSection::::Comparison with other touchscreen technology.\n", "Touchpads operate in one of several ways, including capacitive sensing and resistive touchscreen. The most common technology used in the 2010s senses the change of capacitance where a finger touches the pad. Capacitance-based touchpads will not sense the tip of a pencil or other similar ungrounded or non-conducting implement. Fingers insulated by a glove may also be problematic.\n", "Multi-touch sensing and processing occurs via an ASIC sensor that is attached to the touch surface. Usually, separate companies make the ASIC and screen that combine into a touch screen; conversely, a trackpad's surface and ASIC are usually manufactured by the same company. There have been large companies in recent years that have expanded into the growing multi-touch industry, with systems designed for everything from the casual user to multinational organizations.\n", "By 2019, mobile devices often contained sensors such as accelerometers, magnetometers and gyroscopes, allowing detection of orientation and motion. Mobile devices may provide biometric user authentication such as face recognition or fingerprint recognition.\n\nMajor global manufacturers of mobile devices are Apple, Samsung, Sony, Google, HTC, LG, Motorola Mobility and Nokia.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nDevice mobility can be viewed in the context of several dimensions:\n\nBULLET::::- Physical dimensions and weight\n\nBULLET::::- Whether or not the device is mobile or some kind of host to which it is attached to is mobile\n\nBULLET::::- What kind of host devices can be bound to\n", "In 2005, Synaptics sensors were featured in the Samsung B310, the first mobile phone to use capacitive-touch technology – and as early 2017, Samsung and many other Android phone manufacturers continued to use Synaptics sensors in their phones. In October 2006, Synaptics provided a live demonstration of the Onyx, a concept smartphone with a color touchscreen enabled by its ClearPad touch controller technology. The Onyx's touch sensor could also tell the difference between a finger and a cheek, preventing accidental inputs during calls. In 2007, LG launched its Prada phone, the world's first mobile phone with a capacitive touchscreen, featuring Synaptics' touch sensors. Synaptics' touchscreen technology was also featured in Logitech's Harmony line of universal remote controls with capacitive-touch capabilities, which debuted in 2008.\n", "In some designs, voltage applied to this grid creates a uniform electrostatic field, which can be measured. When a conductive object, such as a finger, comes into contact with a PCT panel, it distorts the local electrostatic field at that point. This is measurable as a change in capacitance. If a finger bridges the gap between two of the \"tracks\", the charge field is further interrupted and detected by the controller. The capacitance can be changed and measured at every individual point on the grid. This system is able to accurately track touches.\n", "A similar linear sensor uses two strips of Teledeltos, placed face to face. Pressure on the back of one (finger pressure is enough) presses the two conductive faces together to form a lower resistance contact. This may be used in similar potentiometric fashion to the conductive probe, but without requiring the special probe. This may be used as a classroom demonstration for another electronic musical instrument, with a ribbon controller keyboard, such as the Monotron. If crossed electrodes are used on each piece of Teledeltos, a two-dimensional resistive touchpad may be demonstrated.\n\nSection::::Sensors.:Capacitive sensors.\n", "Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips. The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.\n", "For example, during operation of a four-wire touchscreen, a uniform, unidirectional voltage gradient is applied to the first sheet. When the two sheets are pressed together, the second sheet measures the voltage as distance along the first sheet, providing the X coordinate. When this contact coordinate has been acquired, the voltage gradient is applied to the second sheet to ascertain the Y coordinate. These operations occur within a few milliseconds, registering the exact touch location as contact is made, provided the screen has been properly calibrated for variations in resistivity.\n", "Tactile imaging, as a medical imaging modality, translating the sense of touch into a digital image is based on the tactile sensors. Tactile imaging closely mimics manual palpation, since the probe of the device with a pressure sensor array mounted on its face acts similar to human fingers during clinical examination, deforming soft tissue by the probe and detecting resulting changes in the pressure pattern.\n", "Mutual capacitive sensors can provide a two-dimensional image of the changes in the electric field. Using this image, a range of applications have been proposed. Authenticating users , estimating the orientation of fingers touching the screen and differentiating between fingers and palms become possible. While capacitive sensors are used for the touchscreens of most smartphones, the capacitive image is typically not exposed to the application layer.\n\nPower supplies with a high level of electronic noise can reduce accuracy.\n\nSection::::Pen computing.\n", "The sensor uses capacitive touch to detect the user's fingerprint. The sensor has a thickness of 170 µm, with 500 pixels per inch resolution. The user's finger can be oriented in any direction and it will still be read. Apple says it can read sub-epidermal skin layers, and it will be easy to set up and will improve with every use. The sensor passes a small current through one's finger to create a \"fingerprint map\" of the user's dermis. Up to 5 fingerprint maps can be stored in the Secure Enclave.\n\nSection::::Security and privacy.\n", "There are two types of capacitive sensing system: mutual capacitance, where the object (finger, conductive stylus) alters the mutual coupling between row and column electrodes, which are scanned sequentially; and self- or absolute capacitance where the object (such as a finger) loads the sensor or increases the parasitic capacitance to ground. In both cases, the difference of a preceding absolute position from the present absolute position yields the relative motion of the object or finger during that time. The technologies are elaborated in the following section.\n\nSection::::Design.:Surface capacitance.\n", "The iPhone 6S and 6S Plus, introduced in 2015, feature 3D Touch displays which allows the screen to recognize how hard it is being pressed using pressure sensitive multi-touch technology. All subsequent iPhones with the exception of the iPhone SE and iPhone XR have this feature. An example of how this technology will be used is lightly pressing the screen to preview a photograph and pressing down to take it.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sensors.\n", "Several technologies can be used to detect touch. Resistive and capacitive touchscreens have conductive materials embedded in the glass and detect the position of the touch by measuring changes in electric current. Infrared controllers project a grid of infrared beams inserted into the frame surrounding the monitor screen itself, and detect where an object intercepts the beams.\n\nModern touchscreens could be used in conjunction with stylus pointing devices, while those powered by infrared do not require physical touch, but just recognize the movement of hand and fingers in some minimum range distance from the real screen.\n", "Section::::Hardware.\n\nTouch ID is built into the home button, which is built of laser-cut sapphire crystal, and does not scratch easily (scratching would prevent Touch ID from working). It features a stainless steel detection ring to detect the user's finger without pressing it. There is no longer a rounded square icon in the home button, nor is it concave.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Capacitive.:Surface capacitance.\n", "An integrated circuit (IC) is located either within the printed material or within an enclosure that cradles the printed material. This IC receives a signal when a switch is innervated. The firmware located within the IC communicates via Universal Serial Bus (USB) either connected to a cable, or using a wireless protocol adapter to a reference database that can reside on media within a computer or appliance. Upon receipt of the coordinate structure from the firmware, the database correlates the position with a pre-determined link or pathway to digital content or execution command for an application. After correlating the link with the pathway, a signal is sent to retrieve and render the terminal of the path.\n", "Due to the top layer of a PCT being glass, it is sturdier than less-expensive resistive touch technology. \n\nUnlike traditional capacitive touch technology, it is possible for a PCT system to sense a passive stylus or gloved finger. However, moisture on the surface of the panel, high humidity, or collected dust can interfere with performance.\n\nThese environmental factors, however, are not a problem with 'fine wire' based touchscreens due to the fact that wire based touchscreens have a much lower 'parasitic' capacitance, and there is greater distance between neighbouring conductors.\n", "Section::::Products.\n\nFollowing are the devices on which Force Touch or 3D Touch technology is featured:\n\nBULLET::::- MacBook (Retina), MacBook Pro from early 2015 onwards, MacBook Air 2018\n\nBULLET::::- iPhone 6s, iPhone 6s Plus, iPhone 7, iPhone 7 Plus, iPhone 8, iPhone 8 Plus, iPhone X, iPhone Xs, iPhone Xs Max\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Watch\n\nBULLET::::- Magic Trackpad 2\n\nThe iPhone SE and the iPhone XR, which were released in 2016 and 2018 respectively, do not have 3D Touch.\n\nSection::::Litigation.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Acoustic pulse recognition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12150	How the licence plate system is working in the USA ?	As far as I know, each state handles their own plates. So they are free to create as many custom plate styles as they see fit. Most of the custom plates are local government trying to get more money from you, as you have to pay more for these.	[ "Licence plate lookup systems of New Zealand\n\nSection 236 and 237 of the Land Transport Act 1998 (LTA) allows public access to the Motor Vehicle Register maintained by the NZ Transport Agency. The Motor Vehicle Register records information about vehicles used on New Zealand roads and the persons responsible for their use. The information from the Register can be sourced directly from the NZTA as well as from third parties who include the information with their vehicle information reports.\n\nSection::::Services available.\n\nServices provided directly by the New Zealand Transport Agency are listed on the official website \n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn August 2004 a presentation by John Dean, the Association of Chief Police Officers’ (ACPO) National ANPR Co-ordinator at IFSEC revealed how ANPR was being used to 'deny criminals the use of the road'.\n", "In the United States and Canada, an annual or biennial sticker is usually applied to the plate, with a few exceptions. For example, the District of Columbia and a few U.S. states use windscreen stickers, and some U.S. and Canadian jurisdictions issue permanent fleet licence plates. Also, some U.S. states, such as Virginia, require that a motorist obtain a vehicle licence from the city, county, or town government in addition to registering the vehicle with the appropriate agency of the state government, or, in some cases, the federal government.\n", "Both front and back number plates are being captured, on vehicles going both in and out – this gives up to four chances to capture the number plates of a vehicle entering and exiting the zone. This list is then compared with a list of cars whose owners/operators have paid to enter the zone – those that have not paid are fined. The registered owner of such a vehicle is looked up in a database provided by the DVLA.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Electronic toll collection.:South Africa.\n", "The second phase of the project ran between 1 June 2003 and 21 June 2004 and involved 23 police forces in total. The DVLA is also involved with Project Laser, using the system to gather details on unregistered and unlicensed vehicles and those without a valid MOT certificate or insurance cover.\n\n\"Eventually the database will link to most CCTV systems in town centres, meaning that all vehicles filmed on one of the many cameras protecting Bedford High Street, for instance, can be checked against the database and the movements of wanted cars traced to help with serious crime investigations.\"\n", "The technique is tested by the Swedish Police Authority at nine different locations in Sweden.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:Turkey.\n", "Novelty frames around Texas license plates were made illegal in Texas on 1 September 2003 by Texas Senate Bill 439 because they caused problems with ANPR devices. That law made it a Class C misdemeanor (punishable by a fine of up to US $200), or Class B (punishable by a fine of up to US $2,000 and 180 days in jail) if it can be proven that the owner did it to deliberately obscure their plates. The law was later clarified in 2007 to allow Novelty frames.\n", "Some of these jurisdictions have done away with the sticker, leaving registration status available only from a centralized database which authorities reference (by hand, or via automated number plate recognition).\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nIn Australia, historically a current registration sticker was required to be displayed on the windscreen of all vehicles, but all states and territories have now ceased issuing such stickers for light vehicles and adopted number plate recognition systems.\n\nWestern Australia has not required the display of a sticker since January 2010 and South Australia and Tasmania also do not require a sticker to be displayed.Form 2290\n", "Several State Police Forces, and the Department of Justice (Victoria) use both fixed and mobile ANPR systems. The New South Wales Police Force Highway Patrol were the first to trial and use a fixed ANPR camera system in Australia in 2005. In 2009 they began a roll-out of a mobile ANPR system (known officially as MANPR) with three infrared cameras fitted to its Highway Patrol fleet. The system identifies unregistered and stolen vehicles as well as disqualified or suspended drivers as well as other 'persons of interest' such as persons having outstanding warrants.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:Belgium.\n", "Section::::Licence plate design.\n\nThe licence plates may have one of the following designs:\n\nSection::::Licence plate design.:A – White reflective plate, black print.\n\nFor cars, trucks, buses, etc. taxed and fit to drive on public roads. Most cars in Norway have these plates.\n\nSection::::Licence plate design.:B – Black plate, yellow print.\n", "\"The Register\" has noted that \"in theory a system could be organised in such a way that records of law-abiding drivers weren't generated at all, but that hasn't been the way things have panned out.\"\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Car cloning.\n", "Currently at least one US ANPR provider (PlateSmart) claims their system has been independently reviewed as able to accurately recognize the US state jurisdiction of license plates, and one European ANPR provider claims their system can differentiate all EU plate jurisdictions.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Accuracy and measurement of ANPR system performance.\n", "Section::::National ANPR Data Centre.:Crosschecks.\n\nThe National ANPR Data Centre is connected to the Police National Computer to provide up-to-date lists of vehicles connected by the police to crimes such as burglary or theft of petrol.\n\nOther crosschecks will include insurance-industry data to identify uninsured drivers, vehicles without a valid MoT test certificates, vehicles who have failed to pay for valid vehicle excise duty, and/or with vehicles with unlawful number plates.\n", "Section::::Services available.:Stolen vehicle check.\n\nRun by the police this allows the public to check whether a vehicle has been reported stolen.\n\nSection::::Services available.:Basic vehicle information.\n\nMultiple vehicle report providers allow to check basic vehicle information free of charge by entering the registration plate number.\n\nSection::::Services available.:Owner confirmation.\n\nAlthough the personal information of vehicle owners is not available to the public, the ownership can generally be confirmed by entering the name or driver's license number of the owner. Some of the vehicle report providers (including CarJam, Checka, That Car) allow to confirm the owner free of charge.\n\nSection::::Services available.:Securities check.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:Ukraine.\n\nThe project of system integration «OLLI Technology» and the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine Department of State Traffic Inspection (STI) experiments on the introduction of a modern technical complex which is capable to locate stolen cars, drivers deprived of driving licenses and other problem cars in real time. The Ukrainian complex \"Video control\" working by a principle of video fixing of the car with recognition of license plates with check under data base.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:United Kingdom.\n", "Several Hungarian auxiliary police units also use a system called Matrix Police in cooperation with the police. It consists of a portable computer equipped with a web camera that scans the stolen car database using automatic number-plate recognition. The system is installed on the dashboard of selected patrol vehicles (PDA-based hand-held versions also exist) and is mainly used to control the license plate of parking cars. As the Auxiliary Police do not have the authority to order moving vehicles to stop, if a stolen car is found, the formal police is informed.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:Saudi Arabia.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:United States.:Laws.\n\nLaws vary among the states regarding collection and retention of license plate information. , 14 states have limits on how long the data may be retained, with the lowest being New Hampshire (3 minutes) and Colorado (3 years). The Supreme Court of Virginia ruled in 2018 that data collected from ALPRs can constitute personal information.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Average-speed cameras.\n\nANPR is used for speed limit enforcement in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Dubai (UAE), France, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, South Africa, the UK, and Kuwait.\n", "Often, registration plates are called \"licence plates\" (drivers are licensed, vehicles are registered), but the term \"licence plate\" is common in informal usage. On most licence plates, there is a small sticker, which indicates the month and year of plate renewal, that the driver sticks to the licence plates. Prior to June 14, 2019, in New Brunswick registration were officially named licence plates. \n", "Section::::Newly licensed drivers.:India.\n\nAll new drivers in India, upon receipt of a provisional licence, must display L plates at all times (usually on the front and rear of the vehicle) and be accompanied by another driver who has held a full and valid licence for the type of vehicle being driven and also be in a position to control the vehicle.\n\nAfter learners have passed the driving test for the appropriate vehicle, they can switch to a permanent driving license.\n\nSection::::Newly licensed drivers.:Isle of Man.\n", "The city of Mechelen uses an ANPR system since September 2011 to scan all cars crossing the city limits (inbound and outbound). Cars listed on 'black lists' (no insurance, stolen, etc.) generate an alarm in the dispatching room, so they can be intercepted by a patrol.\n\nAs of early 2012, 1 million cars per week are automatically checked in this way.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:Canada.\n\nThe police service in Ontario uses automatic licence-plate recognition software to nab drivers behind the wheels of vehicles with Ontario number plates.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Law enforcement.:Denmark.\n", "Section::::The ANPR CCTV network.\n\nIn 2005, the \"Independent\" reported that by the following year, most motorways, main roads, town centres, London's congestion charge zone, ports and petrol station forecourts have been covered by CCTV camera networks using automatic number plate recognition. Their report said existing traffic cameras in towns and cities are being converted to read number plates automatically as part of the new national surveillance network.\n", "The National ANPR Data Centre will make it possible for software to data mine previous sightings of license plate to identify patterns in the data. Patterns can be used to build up intelligence of a vehicle's movements on the road network or to find cloned vehicles by searching the database for impossibly quick journeys.\n", "In Alberta, temporary permits are not issued. Instead, the license plate is issued the day of registration from a registry.\n", "Export and tourist plates. No letters. Left and right is a red border with the month/year of expiry written vertically.\n\nSection::::Licence plate design.:Personalised number plates.\n\nStarting in 2017, it is possible to apply for personalised number plates bearing any combination of two to seven letters and digits, with certain exceptions, mainly for offensive words or phrases and registered trademarks. Subject to those conditions, and upon payment of a NOK 9 000 fee, the applicant is granted the exclusive right to use the requested registration number on any class A or E vehicle they own for ten years.\n\nSection::::Validation sticker.\n", "Speaking on 14 September 2008, Simon Davies, the director of Privacy International stated that the database would give police \"extraordinary powers of surveillance\" and claimed that \"this would never be allowed in any other democratic country\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01799	Why do soup cans have ridges?	Strength. It's the same sort of reason old metal fuel cans have the embossed X on the side of them. It makes the whole shape stiffer.	[ "BULLET::::- Seam bump - Seam bumps are a relatively short area of the double seam, where the seam thickness suddenly increases by 0.004\" (0.1 mm) or more. They are predominantly found on welded and two-piece cans with long body hooks and are usually seen on the can filler's end when hot filled products exceed 185 degrees (Fahrenheit). The cover hook radius may be pulled away from the body wall.\n", "In modern times, the majority of food cans in the UK have been lined with a plastic coating containing bisphenol A (BPA). The coating prevents acids and other substances from corroding the tin or aluminium of the can, but leaching of BPA into the can's contents was investigated as a potential health hazard.\n\nSection::::Standard sizes.\n\nCans come in a variety of shapes: two common ones are the \"soup tin\" and the \"tuna tin\". Walls are often stiffened with rib bulges, especially on larger cans, to help the can resist dents that can cause seams to split.\n", "The advent of pull tabs in beverage cans spread to the canning of various food products, such as pet food or nuts (and non-food products such as motor oil and tennis balls). The ends are known as \"easy open\" lids because they open without any tools or implements. An additional innovation developed for specifically for food cans uses a tab that is bent slightly upwards, creating a larger surface area for easier finger access.\n", "Can design and shape have changed drastically. The earliest cans were simple in terms of graphic design and were often corrugated in the middle two-thirds of the can. Cans with straight steel sides appeared next, finally settling on a more modern shape. Like the earlier cans, this type also starts as a flat sheet that is curled and seamed. Extruded steel is also used extensively. Aluminum coffee cans are almost non-existent, although UCC Black is a notable exception.\n\nSection::::Companies.\n", "In the mid-20th century, a few milk products were packaged in nearly rimless cans, reflecting different construction; in this case, one flat surface had a hole (for filling the nearly complete can) that was sealed after filling with a quickly solidifying drop of molten solder. Concern arose that the milk contained unsafe levels of lead leached from this solder plug.\n\nSection::::Advantages of steel cans.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Mechanical spalling.\n\nMechanical spalling occurs at high stress contact points, for example, in a ball bearing. Spalling occurs in preference to brinelling where the maximal shear stress occurs not at the surface, but just below, shearing the spall off.\n\nOne of the simplest forms of mechanical spalling is plate impact, in which two waves of compression are reflected on the free-surfaces of the plates and then interact to generate a region of high tensile stress inside one of the plates.\n", "Can seamer\n\nA can seamer is a machine used to seal the lid to the can body. The lid or \"end\" is usually tinplated steel while the body can be of metal (such as cans for beverages and soups), paperboard (whisky cans) or plastic.\n\nThe seam formed is generally leak proof, but this depends on the product being canned. The seam is made by mechanically overlapping the two layers to form a hook.\n\nDifferent parameters of the hook are measured and monitored to check the integrity of the seam under different conditions.\n", "An S-nut, or S-style nut, is shaped like an \"S\". It is designed to clip on the edge of a sheet metal object. The threads are provided by an integrated nut.\n\nSection::::Types.:Square style.\n", "Two piece steel cans can be made by \"drawing\" to form the bottom and sides and adding an \"end\" at the top: these do not have side seams. Cans can be fabricated with separate slip-on, or friction fit covers and with covers attached by hinges. Various easy opening methods are available.\n", "A square style clip-on nut does not clip onto the edge of the sheet metal, but rather the edges of a square hole or slot. It is a square nut that has a sheet metal retainer that protrudes down two sides of the nut. These legs are formed to have lips that grab onto the sheet metal object. Prior to tightening the nut, it can float in the hole or slot, but when the nut is tightened it presses the lips of the retainer out and anchors itself in place.\n\nSection::::Types.:U-nut.\n", "Once brought together in the seamer, the seaming head presses a first operation roller against the end curl. The end curl is pressed against the flange curling it in toward the body and under the flange. The flange is also bent downward, and the end and body are now loosely joined together. The first operation roller is then retracted. At this point five thicknesses of steel exist in the seam. From the outside in they are:\n\nBULLET::::- End\n\nBULLET::::- Flange\n\nBULLET::::- End Curl\n\nBULLET::::- Body\n\nBULLET::::- Countersink\n\nSection::::Methods.:Double seams.:Second operation.\n", "With mass-produced patties, it is not uncommon to find them with seemingly abnormal shapes or a bumpy perimeter. These groove-like bumps are caused by the machine that forms the patties. They are used in production to keep the patties in line, so they will not fall off the assembly line, and can be manipulated by the various machines. In other boxed patties, small punctures can be seen in the top and bottom sides of the patty. These punctures are there for similar reasons.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chicken patty\n\nBULLET::::- Jamaican patty\n\nBULLET::::- List of hamburgers\n\nBULLET::::- Patty melt\n\nBULLET::::- Meatball\n", "Matte printing gives steel cans a premium feel and stands out from more traditional gloss finishes. Scratch-resistant lacquers ensure the print is undamaged during filling, distribution, retail and consumption.\n\nSection::::Opening cans.\n\nThe first cans were heavy-weight containers that required ingenuity to open, with implements such as knives. Not until several years later, after can manufacturers started using thinner metal sheets, were any dedicated can openers developed.\n", "Most aluminum cans are made of two pieces. The bottom and body are \"drawn\" or \"drawn and ironed\" from a flat plate or shallow cup. After filling, the can \"end\" is sealed onto the top of the can. This is supplemented by a sealing compound to ensure that the top is air tight.\n\nThe advantages of aluminum over steel (tinplate) cans include;\n\nBULLET::::- light weight\n\nBULLET::::- competitive cost\n\nBULLET::::- usage of easy-open aluminum ends: no need for a can opener\n\nBULLET::::- clean appearance\n\nBULLET::::- aluminum does not rust\n", "A similar process is used to the same effect in Hrvatsko Zagorje, where čvarci are pressed in a potato press to achieve better fat extraction.\n\nSection::::Consumption.\n", "The body and end are brought together in a seamer and held in place by the base plate and chuck, respectively. The base plate provides a sure footing for the can body during the seaming operation and the chuck fits snugly into the end (lid). The result is the countersink of the end sits inside the top of the can body just below the flange. The end curl protrudes slightly beyond the flange.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Double seams.:First operation.\n", "Three-piece can construction results in top and bottom rims. In two-piece construction, one piece is a flat top and the other a deep-drawn cup-shaped piece that combines the (at least roughly) cylindrical wall and the round base. Transition between wall and base is usually gradual. Such cans have a single rim at the top. Some cans have a separate cover that slides onto the top or is hinged.\n", "Seamer setup is usually done by an experienced individual, typically using a lifter height gauge, lifter height pressure gauge, and feeler gauges (small pieces of metal for go/no go testing of the distances between the roll and chuck toolings). New products like the clearance gauge are able to let even novice users adjust seamers and optimize them, as well as locate problems with broken/damaged tooling, shank/bushing issues, seamer adjustment issues, or broken bearings.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSome common can seamer applications include, but are not limited to:\n\nBULLET::::- Cans\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive filters (oil and fuel)\n\nBULLET::::- Capacitors\n\nBULLET::::- Certain automotive mufflers (silencers)\n", "Section::::Evidence for existence.\n", "A particularly famous example of this variety is the Zena Rex peeler, invented in 1947 by Alfred Neweczerzal of Davos, Switzerland. Considered an icon of Swiss design, it was featured on a 2004 Swiss postage stamp. It has a one piece aluminum handle and a pivoting carbon steel blade with dual edges. The stainless steel handled variant, the Zena Star peeler, was the model popularized by legendary New York City street hawker Joe Ades.\n\nSection::::Other types.\n", "Invented in 1888 by Max Ams, modern double seams provide an airtight seal to the tin can. This airtight nature is crucial to keeping micro-organisms out of the can and keeping its contents sealed inside. Thus, double seamed cans are also known as Sanitary Cans. Developed in 1900 in Europe, this sort of can was made of the traditional cylindrical body made with tin plate. The two ends (lids) were attached using what is now called a double seam. A can thus sealed is impervious to contamination by creating two tight continuous folds between the can's cylindrical body and the lids. This eliminated the need for solder and allowed improvements in manufacturing speed, reducing cost.\n", "The US Army's flat ovoid M-1932 wartime-issue mess kit was made of galvanized steel (stainless steel in the later M-1942), and was a divided pan-and-body system. When opened, the mess kit consisted of two halves: the deeper half forms a shallow, flat-bottom, ovoid \"Meat can, body\", designed to receive the \"meat ration\", the meat portion of the pre-war canned \"Reserve Ration\". The \"Meat can, body\", with its folding handle extended, can double as a crude skillet. The \"Mess kit, plate\" (lid) is even shallower, and is pressed to form two compartments, with a center divide wide enough to accommodate the folding handle. The plate also has a very secure ring that is held in place by friction.\n", "Fabrication of most cans results in at least one \"rim\"—a narrow ring slightly larger than the outside diameter of the rest of the can. The flat surfaces of rimmed cans are recessed from the edge of any rim (toward the middle of the can) by about the width of the rim; the inside diameter of a rim, adjacent to this recessed surface, is slightly smaller than the inside diameter of the rest of the can.\n", "A J-nut is a nut that clips to the edge of the sheet metal. It is named after the way it is shaped; the thread is on the long side of the \"J\". The thread may either be of a speed nut form or have an integrated hex or square nut. Due to the short retaining leg the nut is allowed to float more, which can help with misalignment, but the nut is free to un-clip from the sheet metal as well.\n\nSection::::Types.:S-nut.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21664	If I turn on the hot water tap, why does it slowly warm up instead of being cold for a bit and then instantly hot?	along with the water in the pipes being cold, the pipes themselves are also cold. As the cold water clears out, the hot water comes in, and the cold pipes steal some of the heat from the water, hence the first of the hot water comes out just warm, with it taking a little while before the pipes are warmed up enough to not steal most of the heat from the water. & #x200B; There's also a small amount of mixing of the hot and cold water at the point where they meet, but mostly it's the pipes thing.	[ "BULLET::::- \"Intermittent-use:\" There is a short delay (1–3 seconds) between when the water begins to flow and when the heater's flow detector activates the heating elements or gas burner. In the case of continuous-use applications (showers, baths, washing machines) this is not an issue as the heater never stops heating. However, for intermittent-use applications (i.e., turning off/on a hot water faucet at a sink) this can result in initially hot water, followed by a small amount of cold water as the heater re-activates, followed again by hot water. This is particularly an issue if hot water pipes are poorly insulated. The user experience is that after initially getting hot water flowing, the user turns off the valve and then a short time later turns the valve back on again. Hot water starts flowing once again at the valve from the hot water already in the piping, but at the same time, some heaters must let some amount of cold water into the piping during the reactivation time. Some time later (depending on the length of piping from the tank to the valve) this cold section of water arrives at the sink, followed shortly thereafter by hot water again. The initial thought of the user can be that the heater is failing intermittently.\n", "The result is that the top pipe which received hot water, now has cold water leaving it at 20 °C, while the bottom pipe which received cold water, is now emitting hot water at close to 60 °C. In effect, most of the heat was transferred.\n\nSection::::Three current exchange systems.:Countercurrent flow—almost full transfer.:Conditions for higher transfer results.\n\nNearly complete transfer in systems implementing countercurrent exchange, is only possible if the two flows are, in some sense, \"equal\".\n", "If, for example, someone flushes a toilet while the shower is in use, the fixture suddenly draws a significant amount of cold water from the common supply line, causing a pressure drop. In the absence of a compensating mechanism, the relatively higher pressure in the hot water supply line will cause the shower temperature to rise just as suddenly, possibly reaching an uncomfortable or even dangerous level. Conversely, if someone opens a hot water faucet elsewhere, the relatively higher pressure in the cold water supply line will cause the shower temperature to drop suddenly.\n", "When the handle is pressed, cool tap water flows into the tank and displaces the near-boiling water, which flows out of the spout. On releasing the handle the valve closes and hot water stops flowing. The cool water is then heated to up to about ready for use however the Quooker PRO-VAQ water tank heats the water to meaning the water flows out of the spout at . It is widely acknowledged that the inventor of the boiling water tap was the founder of Quooker, Henri Peteri. \n", "The control system can be made to modulate the supply water temperature in two different ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. By acting as an operating control on the boiler burners, either modulated on/off, high/low fire, or fully modulating fire, depending on the burner construction. When modulating the actual boiler temperature lower, water temperature needs to have a low limit and be maintained above the flue gas condensation temperature for non-condensing type boilers, typically above . Condensing type boilers can be made to operate at temperatures below the flue gas condensation limit and raise stated efficiencies from the range.\n", "In this example, hot water at 60 °C enters the top pipe. It warms water in the bottom pipe which has been warmed up along the way, to almost 60 °C. A minute but existing heat difference still exists, and a small amount of heat is transferred, so that the water leaving the bottom pipe is at close to 60 °C. Because the hot input is at its maximum temperature of 60 °C, and the exiting water at the bottom pipe is nearly at that temperature but not quite, the water in the top pipe can warm the one in the bottom pipe to nearly its own temperature. At the cold end—the water exit from the top pipe, because the cold water entering the bottom pipe is still cold at 20 °C, it can extract the last of the heat from the now-cooled hot water in the top pipe, bringing its temperature down nearly to the level of the cold input fluid (21 °C).\n", "Section::::Operation.\n", "The term cold switching indicates that a switch is activated with no signal applied. Therefore, no current will flow when the switch is closed, and no current will be interrupted when the switch is opened. In contrast, in hot switching, voltage is present and current will flow immediately once the contacts close. When the switch is opened, this current will be interrupted and can cause arcing.\n", "Analogue stations have a temperature stabilization that operates as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- The heating element is working till the soldering tip reaches certain temperature, then the power switches off.\n\nBULLET::::- When the temperature becomes lower than a certain level the heating element is on again and the soldering tip is being heated.\n", "This is a popular arrangement where higher flow rates are required for limited periods. Water is heated in a pressure vessel that can withstand a hydrostatic pressure close to that of the incoming mains supply. A pressure reducing valve is sometimes employed to limit the pressure to a safe level for the vessel. In North America, these vessels are called \"hot water tanks\", and may incorporate an electrical resistance heater, a heat pump, or a gas or oil burner that heats water directly.\n", "First, depending on the width of the hysteresis gap and inertia in the process, there will be an oscillating error signal around the desired set point value (e.g., temperature), often saw-tooth shaped. Room temperature may become uncomfortable just before the next switch 'ON' event. Alternatively, a narrow hysteresis gap will lead to frequent\n\non/off switching, which is undesirable for, e.g., an electrically ignited gas heater.\n", "When flow starts from the uppermost outlet, cold water enters the tank at the bottom. This drop in temperature causes the thermostat to switch on the electric heating element at the bottom of the tank. When the water at the top of the tank is drawn off the hot water at the top is displaced by relatively cooler water, the top thermostat turns the top element on. When the flow stops, the elements stay on until their settings are met.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achieving cooler temperatures:\" Tankless water heaters often have minimum flow requirements before the heater is activated, and this can result in a gap between the cold water temperature, and the coolest warm water temperature that can be achieved with a hot and cold water mix.\n", "This excess flow will cause the temperature to over-shoot the set-point. Once the room sensor has detected this overflow it will close the actuator, causing a sharp drop in flow. The process will repeat itself in a phenomenon described as \"hunting\".\n\nSection::::Pressure-independent balancing and control valve.:Hunting.\n", "The simplest inrush-current limiting system, used in many consumer electronics devices, is a NTC resistor. When cold, its high resistance allows a small current to pre-charge the reservoir capacitor. After it warms up, its low resistance more efficiently passes the working current.\n\nMany active power factor correction systems also include soft start.\n", "BULLET::::- At power levels above a few watts, switching regulators are cheaper (for example, the cost of removing heat generated is less)\n\nSection::::Active regulators.:SCR regulators.\n", "The power supply of an electrical system tends to generate much heat. The higher the efficiency, the more heat is pulled away from the unit. There are many ways to manage the heat of a power supply unit. The types of cooling generally fall into two categories -- convection and conduction. Common convection methods for cooling electronic power supplies include natural air flow, forced air flow, or other liquid flow over the unit. Common conduction cooling methods include heat sinks, cold plates, and thermal compounds. \n\nSection::::Overload protection.\n", "BULLET::::- Many users may not fully understand the controls. A common error is leaving the output (or boost) control open at night, so that the heaters dissipate heat when they should be storing it, with a consequent increase in electricity consumption and cost. Alternatively they may set the input control to minimum at night instead of the output, which can mean there is no heat at all for the next day.\n", "Section::::Electrical engineering.\n\nSome electronic components develop lower resistances or lower triggering voltages (for nonlinear resistances) as their internal temperature increases. If circuit conditions cause markedly increased current flow in these situations, increased power dissipation may raise the temperature further by Joule heating. A vicious circle or positive feedback effect of thermal runaway can cause failure, sometimes in a spectacular fashion (e.g. electrical explosion or fire). To prevent these hazards, well-designed electronic systems typically incorporate current limiting protection, such as thermal fuses, circuit breakers, or PTC current limiters.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maintaining constant shower temperature:\" Similarly, unlike with a tank heater, the hot water temperature from a non-modulated tankless heater is inversely proportional to the rate of the water flow—the faster the flow, the less time the water spends in the heating element being heated. Mixing hot and cold water to the \"right\" temperature from a single-lever faucet (say, when taking a shower) takes some practice. Also, when adjusting the mixture in mid-shower, the change in temperature initially reacts as a tanked heater does, but this also changes the flow rate of hot water. Therefore, some finite time later the temperature changes again very slightly and requires readjustment. This is typically not noticeable in non-shower applications.\n", "The hot fluid heats the cold one, and the cold fluid cools down the warm one. The result is thermal equilibrium: Both fluids end up at around the same temperature: 40 °C, almost exactly between the two original temperatures (20 and 60 °C). At the input end, there is a large temperature difference of 40 °C and much heat transfer; at the output end, there is a very small temperature difference (both are at the same temperature of 40 °C or close to it), and very little heat transfer if any at all. If the equilibrium—where both tubes are at the same temperature—is reached before the exit of the liquid from the tubes, no further heat transfer will be achieved along the remaining length of the tubes.\n", "\"Continuous\" (as opposed to \"momentary\") implies that the device can function at this power level for long periods of time; that heat can be removed at the same rate it is generated, without temperature building up to the point of damage.\n", "A common arrangement where hot-water space heating is employed is for a boiler also to heat potable water, providing a continuous supply of hot water without extra equipment. Appliances that can supply both space-heating and domestic hot water are called \"combination\" (or \"combi\") boilers. Though on-demand heaters provide a continuous supply of domestic hot water, the rate at which they can produce it is limited by the thermodynamics of heating water from the available fuel supplies.\n\nSection::::Types of water heating appliances.:Electric shower heads.\n", "Hot water reset\n\nHot water reset is an energy-saving automatic control algorithm for hot water boilers that are typically fired with fuel oil or natural gas. A hot water reset control loop measures the outside air temperature; this information is used to estimate demand or heating load as the outdoor temperature varies. The supply hot water temperature is modulated up and down range in an inverse linear ratio to outside air temperature. The typical range for conventional boilers is to vary the supply water temperature from as the outside temperature varies from .\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "First we have the normally open, timed-closed (NOTC) contact. This type of contact is normally open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized). The contact is closed by the application of power to the relay coil, but only after the coil has been continuously powered for the specified amount of time. In other words, the direction of the contact's motion (either to close or to open) is identical to a regular NO contact, but there is a delay in closing direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil energization, this type of contact is alternatively known as a normally open, on-delay.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08900	why after a big meal you get sleepy	Digestion requires a lot of energy so a lot of oxygen rich blood is now going to your stomach/intestines instead of all to your brain or muscles	[ "Section::::Physiology.:Parasympathetic activation.\n\nIn response to the arrival of food in the stomach and small intestine, the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system increases and the activity of the sympathetic nervous system decreases. This shift in the balance of autonomic tone towards the parasympathetic system results in a subjective state of low energy and a desire to be at rest, the opposite of the fight-or-flight state induced by high sympathetic tone. The larger the meal, the greater the shift in autonomic tone towards the parasympathetic system, regardless of the composition of the meal.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Insulin, large neutral amino acids, and tryptophan.\n", "Section::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery.\n\nAlthough the passage of food into the gastrointestinal tract results in increased blood flow to the stomach and intestines, this is achieved by diversion of blood primarily from skeletal muscle tissue and by increasing the volume of blood pumped forward by the heart each minute. The flow of oxygen and blood to the brain is extremely tightly regulated by the circulatory system and does not drop after a meal.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Turkey and tryptophan.\n", "Many people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day about 12 hours apart—for example, at 2:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. At those two times, the body clock is activated. At about 2 p.m. (14:00), it overrides the homeostatic buildup of sleep debt, allowing several more hours of wakefulness. At about 2 a.m. (02:00), with the daily sleep debt paid off, it is activated again to ensure a few more hours of sleep.\n", "The process of digestion is initiated soon after a person has consumed his meals. The gastric juices and enzymes responsible for digestion are stimulated in the mean time. However, if a person walks after eating his dinner, the process of gastric emptying of the meal is accelerated leading to better digestion. This is turn, prevents various stomach complications such as acidity or indigestion that people usually complain after having their meals.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Boosts metabolism.\n", "The term had also been used earlier out of its traditional religious context by Albert Camus in his novel, \"The Stranger\" (1942): \"Masson remarked that we'd had a very early lunch, but really lunch was a movable feast, one had it when one felt like it.\"\n\nSection::::Chapters.\n", "Postprandial somnolence (colloquially known as the itis, food coma, after dinner dip, or postprandial sleep) is a normal state of drowsiness or lassitude following a meal. Postprandial somnolence has two components: a general state of low energy related to activation of the parasympathetic nervous system in response to mass in the gastrointestinal tract, and a specific state of sleepiness. While there are numerous theories surrounding this behavior, such as decreased blood flow to the brain, neurohormonal modulation of sleep through digestive coupled signaling, or vagal stimulation, very few have been explicitly tested. To date, human studies have loosely examined the behavioral characteristics of postprandial sleep, demonstrating potential shifts in EEG spectra and self-reported sleepiness. To date, the only clear animal models for examining the genetic and neuronal basis for this behavior are the fruit fly and the mouse.\n", "Sleep is important in regulating metabolism. Mammalian sleep can be sub-divided into two distinct phases - REM (rapid eye movement) and non-REM (NREM) sleep. In humans, NREM sleep has four stages, where the third and fourth stages are considered slow-wave sleep (SWS). SWS is considered deep sleep, when metabolism is least active.\n\nIn normal metabolic function, the pancreas releases insulin after blood glucose levels raise. Insulin signals muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose from food. As a result, blood glucose levels return to normal.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nMeal replacements have been a regular feature of science fiction, especially the space travel genre, at least since the film \"Santa Claus Conquers the Martians\" (1964) and TV's \"Lost in Space\" (1965).\n\nSection::::Countries.\n\nSection::::Countries.:EU.\n", "Section::::Appearances.\n", "Metabolism involves two biochemical processes that occur in living organisms. The first is anabolism, which refers to the build up of molecules. The second is catabolism, the breakdown of molecules. These two processes work to regulate the amount of energy the body uses to maintain itself. During non-REM sleep, metabolic rate and brain temperature are lowered to deal with damages that may have occurred during time of wakefulness.\n\nSection::::Normal metabolism.\n\nAfter eating, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin signals muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose from food. As a result, blood glucose levels return to normal.\n", "Section::::Fatty acids.:Cell uptake.\n\nAfter a meal, when the blood concentration of fatty acids rises, there is an increase in uptake of fatty acids in different cells of the body, mainly liver cells, adipocytes and muscle cells. This uptake is stimulated by insulin from the pancreas. As a result, the blood concentration of fatty acid stabilizes again after a meal.\n\nSection::::Fatty acids.:Cell secretion.\n\nAfter a meal, some of the fatty acids taken up by the liver is converted into very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) and again secreted into the blood.\n", "The word is from the Old French () \"disner\", meaning \"dine\", from the stem of Gallo-Romance \"desjunare\" (\"to break one's fast\"), from Latin \"dis-\" (which indicates the opposite of an action) + Late Latin \"ieiunare\" (\"to fast\"), from Latin \"ieiunus\" (\"fasting, hungry\"). The Romanian word \"dejun\" and the French \"déjeuner\" retain this etymology and to some extent the meaning (whereas the Spanish word \"desayuno\" and Portuguese \"desjejum\" are related but are exclusively used for breakfast). Eventually, the term shifted to referring to the heavy main meal of the day, even if it had been preceded by a breakfast meal (or even both breakfast and lunch).\n", "Another, but rarer form, is postprandial hypotension, a drastic decline in blood pressure that occurs 30 to 75 minutes after eating substantial meals. When a great deal of blood is diverted to the intestines (a kind of \"splanchnic blood pooling\") to facilitate digestion and absorption, the body must increase cardiac output and peripheral vasoconstriction to maintain enough blood pressure to perfuse vital organs, such as the brain. Postprandial hypotension is believed to be caused by the autonomic nervous system not compensating appropriately, because of aging or a specific disorder.\n", "Section::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.\n\nThe patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be divided into two distinct patterns, peristalsis and segmentation. Occurring between meals, the migrating motor complex is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes.\n\nThis cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.\n\nSection::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.:Peristalsis.\n", "Symptoms can begin to manifest at any point from the ingestion of the meal to 120 minutes thereafter. However, the more common range is between 30 seconds to 1 hour after the completion of a meal. Symptoms tend to cease when the ruminated contents become acidic.\n", "A common myth holds that turkey is especially high in tryptophan, resulting in sleepiness after it is consumed, as may occur at the traditional meal of the North American holiday of Thanksgiving. However, the tryptophan content of turkey is comparable to chicken, beef, and other meats and does not result in higher blood tryptophan levels than other common foods. Certain foods, such as soybeans, sesame and sunflower seeds, and certain cheeses, are high in tryptophan. Although it is possible these may induce sleepiness if consumed in sufficient quantities, this is not well-studied.\n\nSection::::Counteraction.\n", "BULLET::::- Caffè : Coffee is often drunk at the end of a meal, even after the \"digestivo\". Italians do not have milky coffees or drinks after meals (such as \"cappuccino\" or \"caffè macchiato\"), but strong coffee such as \"espresso\", which is often drunk very quickly in small cups while still hot.\n", "Section::::Dinner/Tea.\n", "When awake, our brainwaves are faster during the first half of the cycle, when we feel alert and focused, and then our brainwaves slow; in the last 20 minutes when we feel dreamy and perhaps a little tired, while our body is being readied for the alert part of the following cycle. \n", "In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight, or to the metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and absorption of a meal. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting. Some diagnostic tests are used to determine a fasting state. For example, a person is assumed to be fasting once 8–12 hours have elapsed since the last meal. Metabolic changes of the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal (typically 3–5 hours after eating).\n", "This enhanced secretory activity brought on by the thought or sight of food is a conditioned reflex. It only occurs when food is desired. When appetite is depressed this part of the cephalic reflex is inhibited.\n\nSection::::Effects on gastric secretion.\n\nThe cephalic phase induces ECL cells in the gastric glands to secrete histamine and increase HCl in the stomach. There will also be an influence on G cells to increase gastrin circulation. It will also stimulate Chief cells to release Pepsinogen.\n\nSection::::Chain of events (outline).\n", "BULLET::::- Postprandial hypotension is a drastic decline in blood pressure which happens after eating a meal.\n\nBULLET::::- Postprandial regurgitation is a unique symptom of rumination syndrome.\n\nBULLET::::- Postprandial thermogenesis is heat production due to metabolism after a meal, temporarily increasing the metabolic rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Distension of the duodenum inhibits stomach motility in order to prevent the over filling of the duodenum.\n\nBULLET::::- Presence of fat, low pH, and hypertonic solutions cause a decrease in motility of the stomach.\n\nBULLET::::- Sympathetic nervous system innervation inhibits gastric motility.\n\nBULLET::::- Parasympathetic nervous system innervation stimulates gastric motility.\n\nBULLET::::- Rate and motility are also dependent upon the meal composition. Meals that are solid and contain a greater macronutrient composition require slower and more forceful contraction in order to extract the maximum amount of nutrients throughout the GI tract.\n", "When the patient ingests just a small amount of food, the first response is a stretching of the wall of the stomach pouch, stimulating nerves which tell the brain that the stomach is full. The patient feels a sensation of fullness, as if they had just eaten a large meal—but with just a thimble-full of food. Most people do not stop eating simply in response to a feeling of fullness, but the patient rapidly learns that subsequent bites must be eaten very slowly and carefully, to avoid increasing discomfort or vomiting.\n", "A working pancreas continually secretes small amounts of insulin into the blood to maintain normal glucose levels, which would otherwise rise from glucose release by the liver, especially during the early morning dawn phenomenon. This insulin is referred to as \"basal insulin secretion\", and constitutes almost half the insulin produced by the normal pancreas.\n\nBolus insulin is produced during the digestion of meals. Insulin levels rise immediately as we begin to eat, remaining higher than the basal rate for 1 to 4 hours. This meal-associated (\"prandial\") insulin production is roughly proportional to the amount of carbohydrate in the meal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23166	What exactly causes sudden, explosive bursts of productivity, usually cleaning-based?	It's emergent stress of some sort. Could be caused by something you're worried about, could be caused by boredom. But it gives your body something productive to do and lets your brain fire off dopamine as you can see definable tasks being accomplished.	[ "As well as physical pressure, mental stress from the workplace can cause \"karōshi\". People who commit suicide due to mental stress are called \"\"karōjisatsu\" (過労自殺).\" The ILO also lists some causes of overwork or occupational stress that include the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. All-night, late-night or holiday work, both long and excessive hours. During the long-term economic recession after the collapse of the bubble economy in the 1980s and 1990s, many companies reduced the number of employees. The total amount of work, however, did not decrease, forcing each employee to work harder.\n", "Consequences of technostress include decreased job satisfaction, organizational commitment and productivity. A periodic assessment is necessary to check the level of technostress affecting professionals especially the physical and emotional aspects. Managers should organize technology-based trainings for employees to make them comfortable with technologies and awareness of their harmful effects. Technology skills for employees are important to consistently update their technological skills. Institutions, companies, and agencies are needed to employ IT specialists and troubleshooters to maximize system accessibility and provide a level of comfort to the employee.\n\nThe causes of technostress amount to:\n\nBULLET::::- The quick pace of technological change\n", "In contrast to transportation, which refers to damage and transaction costs associated with moving the product, motion refers to the damage and costs inflicted on what creates the product. This can include wear and tear for equipment, repetitive strain injuries for workers, or unnecessary downtime.\n\nSection::::The seven forms of waste.:Waiting.\n\nWhenever the product is not in transportation or being processed, it is waiting (typically in a queue). In traditional processes, a large part of an individual product's life is spent waiting to be worked on. \n\nSection::::The seven forms of waste.:Over-production.\n", "After the Web era, consumerization era (2010 and beyond) has risen. The range of mission critical is even more increased due to increase in social, mobile, and customer-facing applications. The consumerization of IT became greater, organizations increased and web and IT availabilities to the people increased. Social business, customer service, and customer support applications have increased greatly, so mission critical was expanded further. According to Gartner, native PC projects will be outnumbered by mobile development projects by the ratio of 4:1. Therefore, today's mission critical now encloses all subjects crucial for customer based service, business operation, employee productivity, and finance. The customers' expectations rose and small disruption can cause tremendous loss in the business. It was estimated that Amazon could have lost as much as $1,100 per second in net sales when it was suffering from an outage, and a five-minute outage of Google lost Google more than $545,000 . Failure in mission critical and even short time of outage can cause high price of downtime due to reputations damages. Longer periods of downtime of mission critical systems can result in even more serious problems to the industries or organizations.\n", "BULLET::::- Sean Blain - Until 3 years ago Sean worked in a bakery, but since losing that job single dad Sean has not found anything else in his local city of Liverpool, and has had to move back in with his parents who are helping him raise his little girl. Sean realizes it’s time to move away and look for work elsewhere in the country…. Even if it means having to be away from the daughter he dotes on.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Productivity is one of the main concerns of business management and engineering. Many companies have formal programs for continuously improving productivity, such as a production assurance program. Whether they have a formal program or not, companies are constantly looking for ways to improve quality, reduce downtime and inputs of labor, materials, energy and purchased services. Often simple changes to operating methods or processes increase productivity, but the biggest gains are normally from adopting new technologies, which may require capital expenditures for new equipment, computers or software. Modern productivity science owes much to formal investigations that are associated with scientific management. Although from an individual management perspective, employees may be doing their jobs well and with high levels of individual productivity, from an organizational perspective their productivity may in fact be zero or effectively negative if they are dedicated to redundant or value destroying activities.In office buildings and service-centred companies, productivity is largly influenced and affected by operational byproducts - meetings. The past few years have seen a positive uptick in the number of software solutions focused on improving office productivity. In truth, proper planning and procedures are more likely to help than anything else.\n", "Turnover as with the non resolution of an employee asset issue (E.g. Cyber : Opportunity & risk) and their course of work in the digital era.\n\nSection::::Costs.\n", "Section::::Individual and team productivity.:Detrimental impact of bullying, incivility, toxicity and psychopathy.\n\nWorkplace bullying results in a loss of productivity, as measured by self-rated job performance. Over time, targets of bullying will spend more time protecting themselves against harassment by bullies and less time fulfilling their duties. Workplace incivility has also been associated with diminished productivity in terms of quality and quantity of work.\n", "Some hold that one of the main productivity boosts from information technology is still to come: large-scale reductions in traditional offices as home offices become widespread, but this requires large and major changes in work culture and remains to be proven.\n\nSection::::Miscellaneous causes.:Cost overruns of software projects.\n\nIt is well known by software developers that projects typically run over budget and finish behind schedule.\n", "Section::::Consequences.:Physical effects.\n\nOne of the key indicators that an individual is being overworked, and not merely challenged, is if work-related stress begins to take a toll on their physical health and general lifestyle. It is easy to distinguish different types of physical symptoms, such as getting sick frequently due to a weakened immune system, depression and insomnia. All these symptoms can cause more fatigue-related errors at work and affect their personal lives.\n\nAccording to the Mayo Clinic, other physical symptoms may include headache, neck pain, lower back pain, depression, changes to appetite and chronic fatigue.\n\nSection::::By country.\n\nSection::::By country.:United States.\n", "In a healthcare context, staff turnover has been associated with worse patient outcomes.\n\nSection::::Internal versus external.\n\nLike recruitment, turnover can be classified as \"internal\" or \"external\". Internal turnover involves employees leaving their current positions and taking new positions within the same organization. Both positive (such as increased morale from the change of task and supervisor) and negative (such as project/relational disruption, or the Peter Principle) effects of internal turnover exist, and therefore, it may be equally important to monitor this form of turnover as it is to monitor its external counterpart. \n", "A toxic workplace is a workplace that is marked by significant drama and infighting, where personal battles often harm productivity. While employees are distracted by this, they cannot devote time and attention to the achievement of business goals. When toxic employees leave the workplace, it can improve the culture overall because the remaining staff become more engaged and productive. The presence of a workplace psychopath may have a serious detrimental impact on productivity in an organisation.\n", "The cycle of \"shturmovshchina\", associated with the tradition of monthly targets (on which bonuses and managers' positions depend), is described as follows. Despite the planned economy, required materials and tools were not always available on time, and the work could go slowly, or workers might have been reassigned to do something else, with the expectation that the job would be done when the materials arrive. However, when the end of a month comes closer, the management becomes nervous, substitute materials and improvised tools are used, the work goes into overtime and into overdrive. All this abruptly ends by the end of the month. At the beginning of the next month the workers slacken to recover from the previous storm, thereby continuing the next cycle.\n", "One possible consequence is that as developing country wages rise, U.S. companies may decide to automate the jobs but return the activity to the U.S., a phenomenon some refer to as \"re-shoring\" (as opposed to \"off-shoring\").\n\nAlthough U.S. manufacturing employment declined from 17 million workers to 12 million from 2000 to 2011, production has returned to 2000 levels. In other words, productivity, supported by significant automation or process improvements, may be a significant driver of job losses in that industry, along with off-shoring.\n", "Each company has its own unique turnover drivers so companies must continually work to identify the issues that cause turnover in their company. Further the causes of attrition vary within a company such that causes for turnover in one department might be very different from the causes of turnover in another department. Companies can use exit interviews to find out why employees are leaving and the problems they encountered in the workplace.\n", "Section::::Symptoms and outcomes.\n\nPsychological stress can manifest itself physically. Similarly there are a number of symptoms of technostress. The anxiety expressed by those experiencing technostress: insomnia, loss of temper, irritability, frustration and can increase errors in judgement and poor job performance if not dealt with.\n", "Forbes also concluded that some factors that may lead to failure for companies using outsourcing services, such as desire for in-house expertise and marketplace pressures.\n\nSection::::Emerging trends and strategy.\n", "Section::::Career.:2008–present: Disruptive Patterns, Amma Life.\n", ", which can be translated quite literally from Japanese as \"death from overwork\", is occupational sudden death. The major medical causes of karōshi deaths are heart attack and stroke due to stress.\n", "The US Bureau of Labor Statistics uses the term \"Quits\" to mean voluntary turnover and \"Total Separations\" for the combination of voluntary and involuntary turnover.\n\nSection::::Causes of high or low turnover.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Techno-overload\" describes situations where use of computers forces people to work more and work faster.\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Techno-invasion\" describes being “always exposed” where people can potentially be reached anywhere and any time and feel the need to be constantly connected. The regular work-day is extended, office work is done at all sorts of hours, and it is almost impossible to \"cut away.\"\n", "Section::::Sociological problems.\n\nSociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.\n", "This is when one group or person delays another person. A good example is a vice president making a lower-ranked employee wait in his outer office while he conducts business. Another good example is a valued worker who always shows up late to work but this is allowed due to his abilities. This kind of encroachment is very common in the workplace. Various cultures look at this differently—the Japanese are very punctual, while most Latin and Baltic cultures would be more relaxed with time, instead looking at social parameters.\n\nSection::::Future 'space'.\n", "Karōshi\n\n, which can be translated literally as \"overwork death\" in Japanese, is occupational sudden mortality. The major medical causes of \"karōshi\" deaths are heart attack and stroke due to stress and a starvation diet. This phenomenon is also widespread in other parts of Asia.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Brynjolfsson wrote an influential review of the \"IT Productivity Paradox\" and in separate research, documented a correlation between IT investment and productivity. His work provides evidence that the use of Information Technology is most likely to increase productivity when it is combined with complementary business processes and human capital.\n\nSection::::Family.\n\nErik Brynjolfsson's progeny Ari Eriksson is currently serving as a team leader with City Year Chicago at the James Weldon Johnson School of Excellence in the North Lawndale community.\n\nSection::::Selected publications.\n\nComputers, Productivity and Organizational Capital\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02274	Why is it that we can seemingly hear errors when someone is playing music, even if we have never heard that piece before.	In very simple terms, when an inaccurate note is played, it breaks the rhythm, cadence, or flow of the music. So in different terms, if we go 1,2,4,8 we see a pattern. We know that, in theory, 16 should come after. When 13 pops up it breaks the pattern, and looks weird, requiring us to reconsider the data set. Similarly with music, we don't know exactly what comes next, but ilwe expect it to fit a pleasing flow, or pattern. When it becomes discordant, it sounds "wrong" and we determine they made a mistake. In fact music designed to be unsettling often uses unusual patterns of tones to create a sense or unease.	[ "There is also a phenomenon known that while crossing a street, an individual can hear the sound of an oncoming car. However, when they look to the left the next car is a few blocks away so it is safe to cross. But when they look to the right, there is a car that is passing them that they did not even notice before. This occurs because the individual attributes the sound of oncoming traffic to the first car because they were unaware of the other, closer car. This therefore is an example of visual capture reassigning the audio cue to the incorrect visual cue, resulting in a mistake that could be far more costly than expected.\n", "The term \"a prima vista\" is also used, as Italian words and phrases are commonly used in music and music notation. To play a musical piece \"a prima vista\" means to play it 'at first sight'. According to Payne, \"the ability to hear the notes on the page is clearly akin to music reading and should be considered a prerequisite for effective performance... Egregious errors can occur when a student, analyzing a piece of music, makes no effort to play or hear the composition but mechanically processes the notes on the page\".\n", "This issue is part of the broader tempo/skill/action-slip fallacy, which concerns the relationship between tempo, skill and the level of action slips (performance errors). The fallacy is that it is possible to reliably compare the eye movement patterns of skilled and unskilled performers under the same conditions.\n\nSection::::Musical complexity.\n", "A UCLA study found that when watching or hearing music being played, neurons associated with the muscles needed for playing the instrument fire. Mirror neurons light up when musicians and non-musicians listen to a piece.\n\nSection::::Music pattern recognition.:Developmental issues.\n", "In the case of a musical performance, authenticity of expression may conflict with authenticity of performance. The player is true to their personal musical sense and does not imitate someone else's method of playing. Their performance may thus differ significantly from that of a player attempting to follow the style common at the time the musical work was composed.\n", "Section::::Atypical cases.:Savantism.\n", "Feedback interactions are particularly relevant in playing an instrument such as a violin, or in singing, where pitch is variable and must be continuously controlled. If auditory feedback is blocked, musicians can still execute well-rehearsed pieces, but expressive aspects of performance are affected. When auditory feedback is experimentally manipulated by delays or distortions, motor performance is significantly altered: asynchronous feedback disrupts the timing of events, whereas alteration of pitch information disrupts the selection of appropriate actions, but not their timing. This suggests that disruptions occur because both actions and percepts depend on a single underlying mental representation.\n", "BULLET::::- Audition – Though most of the input from one ear would go through the same ear, the opposite ear also receives some input. Therefore, the disconnection effects seems to be reduced in audition compared to the other systems. However, studies have shown that when the hemispheres are disconnected, the individual does not hear anything from the left and only hears from the right.\n\nBULLET::::- Movement – Apraxia and agraphia may occur where responding to any verbal instructions by movement or writing in the left hand is inhibited because the left hand cannot receive these instructions from the right hemisphere,\n", "The auditory findings are further concretized by research on shadowing tasks (Cherry, 1966). These tasks involve two distinct auditory messages presented simultaneously to both ears. One message in one ear is supposed to be shadowed (repeated) while the other message in the other ear is supposed to be ignored. Participants generally perform well at repeating familiar messages in the attended channel. However, when there was a significant change in frequency in the message in the unattended channel, it was detected; moreover, when their names were presented in the unattended channel, they noticed that as well. These shadowing tasks reinforce the idea that the gap between knowledge and experience is explained by our innate perceptual capacities that enhance our experience and optimize our knowledge gained from our environment.\n", "When listening to music from within one's own cultural tradition, repetition plays a key role in emotion judgments. American listeners who hear classical or jazz excerpts multiple times rate the elicited and conveyed emotion of the pieces as higher relative to participants who hear the pieces once.\n\nSection::::Emotion recognition.:Methodological limitations.\n", "Research has shown that vision is the most dominant sense out of the five senses that human beings possess. Vision can dominate over audition in localization judgement, over touch for shape judgement, and over proprioception when trying to determine the position of one's limb in space. Individuals’ perception of auditory stimuli is often influenced by visual stimuli. Visual dominance has been demonstrated in a multisensory illusion called the McGurk effect, where a visual stimulus paired with an incongruent auditory stimulus leads to the misperception of auditory information, resulting in individuals hearing a sound different from the real auditory input. According to Posner and colleagues individuals’ visual system lacks the capacity to properly alert them of possible threats. Therefore, it is possible that visual dominance results from the attention system's attempt to compensate for the visual system's improper alerting capabilities.\n", "\"I’m a big woman...so I could actually shoot a heavier bow than some of the smaller women I competed against. And I think, I’ve never had the best hearing, so when people were distracted by things around us, I might not have necessarily ever heard them. Not that I have bad hearing, but people would say, Didn’t you hear that? Or, Didn’t that bother you? I don’t know that my concentration was so good that I could block everything out, but I think sometimes I just didn’t hear things that other people heard, that they were distracted by.\"\n", "Many competing approaches have been proposed with most of them sharing a pipeline architecture, where each step in this pipeline performs a certain operation, such as detecting and removing staff lines before moving on to the next stage. A common problem with that approach is that errors and artifacts that were made in one stage are propagated through the system and can heavily affect the performance. For example, if the staff line detection stage fails to correctly identify the existence of the music staffs, subsequent steps will probably ignore that region of the image, leading to missing information in the output.\n", "Auditory exclusion\n\nAuditory exclusion is a form of temporary loss of hearing occurring under high stress.\n\nAs such it is related to tunnel vision and \"the slowing of time in the mind\".\n\nThe phenomenon is discussed in the literature on law enforcement officers and soldiers.\n\nIn 2016, the attorney for Tulsa police officer Betty Shelby wanted the jury to hear about how auditory exclusion could have played a role when the officer fatally shot Terence Crutcher, an unarmed 40-year-old black male.\n", "Section::::Interference.:Introversion and extroversion.\n", "Sight-reading also depends on familiarity with the musical idiom being performed; this permits the reader to recognize and process frequently occurring patterns of notes as a single unit, rather than individual notes, thus achieving greater efficiency. This phenomenon, which also applies to the reading of language, is referred to as chunking. Errors in sight-reading tend to occur in places where the music contains unexpected or unusual sequences; these defeat the strategy of \"reading by expectation\" that sight-readers typically employ.\n\nSection::::Professional use.\n", "The concept of the \"Mozart effect\" was described by French researcher Dr. Alfred A. Tomatis in his 1991 book \"Pourquoi Mozart?\" (\"Why Mozart?\"). He used the music of Mozart in his efforts to \"retrain\" the ear, and believed that listening to the music presented at differing frequencies helped the ear, and promoted healing and the development of the brain.\n\nSection::::Rauscher \"et al.\" 1993 study.\n", "A study conducted by the University of Messina (Italy) observed one hundred professional and nonprofessional musicians. When comparing performance anxiety in musicians expressing actual and future self-discrepancies to those without these discrepancies, findings show a distinct higher frequency of performance anxiety in the musicians possessing the internal discrepancies.\n\nFamily and professional self-discrepancies are present with higher levels of family-professional tradeoffs\n", "Enculturation also biases listeners' expectations such that they expect to hear tones that correspond to culturally familiar modal traditions. For example, Western participants presented with a series of pitches followed by a test tone not present in the original series were more likely to mistakenly indicate that the test tone was originally present if the tone was derived from a Western scale than if it was derived from a culturally unfamiliar scale. Recent research indicates that deviations from expectations in music may prompt out-group derogation.\n\nSection::::Memory.:Limits of enculturation.\n", "To describe how students learn music, Gordon outlines two main categories of learning based on his research on audiation: discrimination learning and inference learning.\n\nSection::::Learning sequences.:Discrimination learning.\n\nDiscrimination learning is defined as the ability to determine whether two elements are same or not the same. Gordon describes five sequential levels of discrimination: aural/oral, verbal association, partial synthesis, symbolic association, and composite synthesis.\n\nSection::::Learning sequences.:Discrimination learning.:Aural/oral.\n", "Retroactive Interference has also been investigated using pitch perception as the learning medium. The researcher found that the presentation of subsequent stimuli in succession causes a decrease in recalled accuracy. Massaro found that the presentation of successive auditory tones, confused perceptual short term memory, causing Retroactive Interference as the new tone inhibits the retrieval of previously heard tones.\n\nSection::::Retroactive interference.:Research.:Motor movement.\n", "One of the orchestra's first concerts was a public comparison with the Baltimore Chamber Orchestra in which both orchestras performed the same piece of music one after another so the audience could hear for itself how well digital orchestral instruments compare to their acoustic counterparts. On another occasion, recordings of Beethoven's Symphony No. 7 by such conductors as Roger Norrington and Fritz Reiner were mixed with Smith's recording with the Fauxharmonic and presented to music professors who incorrectly picked the live orchestras as being computer performances. \n", "It may be the case that it is not necessary and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for example. After obtaining at least a fundamental piece of information about phonemic structure of the perceived entity from the acoustic signal, listeners can compensate for missing or noise-masked phonemes using their knowledge of the spoken language. Compensatory mechanisms might even operate at the sentence level such as in learned songs, phrases and verses, an effect backed-up by neural coding patterns consistent with the missed continuous speech fragments, despite the lack of all relevant bottom-up sensory input.\n", "Working memory works with both phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, in the study performed by Jalbert and Saint-Aubin. They looked at the effects of articulatory suppression on visual similarity recall for where and when. Their experiment consisted of participants placing a series of colored squares into their appropriate locations, as presented before. During the experiment, participants who experienced articulatory suppression were hindered by similarity in recalling the location of the colored squares.\n", "In September 2007, two members of the Boston Audio Society and the Audio Engineering Society published their study in which about half of the 554 double-blind ABX test listening trials made by 60 respondents showed the correct identification of high-resolution or CD-standard sampling rate. The results were no better than flipping a coin, producing 274 correct identifications (49.5% success), and it would have required at least 301 correct identifications given 554 trials (a modest 54.3% success rate) to exceed a 95% statistical confidence of audible difference, which will happen about once in twenty such tests by chance alone.\n\nSection::::Counter-contrary evidence.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02502	What is the difference between lux, lumens, and candela	Candela is commonly referred to as candlepower. It is the base measurement for describing luminous intensity. It tells you how bright the light source is. The more candela, the further away it can still be seen. Lux measures illuminance, which is the amount of light on a surface per unit area. For example, if you place a 100 lumen light source so it shines on an area of 2m×2m, that surface will be lit at 25 lux. Lumen — luminous flux — measures the total amount of light output by a source. A 1 candela light bulb outputs ~12.6 lumen. If you obscure half the bulb, it only outputs ~6.3 lumen. ^[source]( URL_0 )	[ "BULLET::::- \"Polana helara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana helvola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana icara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana inclinata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana inimica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana insulana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana insulia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana intricata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana julna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana laca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana lamina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana lanara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana lerana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana luteonota\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana macuella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana macula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana mala\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana melalbida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana melella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana mella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana merga\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana minima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana miramara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana naja\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana nebulosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana nida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana nidula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana nigrolabes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana nisa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana obliqua\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana obtecta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana obtusa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana ocellata\"\n", "Gene loci orthologous to \"Arabidopsis\" \"ELF3\", \"ELF4\", and \"GI\" have also been found in \"P. sativum\", named \"HIGH RESPONSE TO PHOTOPERIOD\" (\"HR\"), \"DIE NEUTRALIS\" (\"DNE\"), and \"LATE BLOOMER1\" (\"LATE1\") respectively. However, they have not yet been discovered to form a functional complex equivalent to the EC in \"Arabidopsis\".\n\nSection::::Homologs.:Orthologs.:\"HvLUX1\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polana censora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana chelata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana chena\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana chifama\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana clarita\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana clavata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana cochlea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana concinna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana confusa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana coresa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana coverra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana cumbresa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana cupida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana danesa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana declivata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana desela\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana dispara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana diversita\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana docera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana elabora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana elera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana exornata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana extranea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana falsa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana fenestra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana fetera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana fina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana flectara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana fusconotata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana gatunana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana gelera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana gomezi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana gracilis\"\n", "Section::::Discovery.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Luidia amurensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia armata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia asthenosoma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia atlantidea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia australiae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia avicularia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia barbadensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia bellonae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia changi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia ciliaris\" – seven armed star\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia clathrata\" – slender armed starfish, gray sea star, lined sea star\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia columbia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia denudata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia difficilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia ferruginea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia foliolata\" – spiny mudstar, leafy flat star, sand star\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia gymnochora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia hardwicki\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia herdmani\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia heterozona\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia hexactis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia inarmata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia integra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia latiradiata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia lawrencei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luidia longispina\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Luzula johnstonii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula kjellmaniana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula kobayasii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula lactea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula leiboldii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula leptophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula × levieri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula longiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula lutea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula lutescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula luzulina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula luzuloides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula mannii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula masafuerana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula × media\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula melanocarpa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula mendocina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula meridionalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula modesta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula multiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula nipponica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula nivalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula nivea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula nodulosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula novae-cambriae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula oligantha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula orestera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula ostenii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula ovata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula pallescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula papuana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula parviflora\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ligyra latreillei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra leptyna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra leuconoe\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra macassarensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra maracaensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra mars\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra melanoptera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra merope\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra minerva\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra monacha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra nigripennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra nigrocostalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra niveifrons\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra obliqua\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra ochracea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra oenomaus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra orcus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra orest\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra orientalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra paludosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra paris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra peninsularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra pilad\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra pilatei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra prometheus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra proserpina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra punctipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra purpuraria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra robertsi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra satyrus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra semifuscata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra septentrionis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ligyra shirakii\"\n", "In 2000, the \"LUX\" gene was first sequenced in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" by a team at the Plant Gene Expression Center at UC Berkeley as a part of the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative. In 2003, scientists from the Plant Gene Expression Center and the Genomic Analysis Laboratory at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies collaborated to identify expression of the \"LUX\" gene in Arabidopsis using cDNA arrays. In 2005, scientists at the Center for Gene Research at Nagoya University and the Steve Kay lab at the Scripps Research Institute studied null mutations of \"LUX\" and the other Evening Complex genes to show that \"LUX\" was necessary for circadian rhythms in \"A. thaliana.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polana onara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana optata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana orbita\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana orcula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana ordinaria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana pandara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana papillata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana parca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana parvula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana peda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana pendula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana pensa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana piceata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana plumea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana portochuela\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana praeusta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana pressa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana principia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana putara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana quadrilabes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana quadrina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana quadrinotata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana quadripunctata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana quatara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana randa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana raseca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana resilara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana resupina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana retenta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana rixa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana robusta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana ruppeli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polana sana\"\n", "Gene loci homologous to \"A. thaliana PRR\" genes (\"PRR7\" and \"PRR9\"), \"ELF3\" and \"FT\" have also been found in \"H. vulgare\", named \"PHOTOPERIOD 1\" (\"Ppd-H1\"), \"HvELF3\", and \"HvFT1\", respectively.\n\nSection::::Homologs.:Orthologs.:\"ROC15\" and \"ROC75\".\n\nOrthologs have been found for all three members of the \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" Evening Complex, but it is currently unknown if the EC is formed in species other than \"A. thaliana\". Two orthologs of \"LUX\", \"ROC15\" and \"ROC75\", have been discovered in \"Chlamydomonas reinhardtii,\" but orthologs of \"ELF3\" and \"ELF4\" in \"C. reinhardtii\" have not yet been found.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Circadian Clock Associated 1\n\nBULLET::::- TOC1 (gene)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Licania boliviensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania boyanii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania bracteata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania brittoniana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania bullata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania buxifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cabrerae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania caldasiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania calvescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania canescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cardiophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cariae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania caudata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cecidiophora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania celiae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania chiriquiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania chocoensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cidii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania compacta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania conferruminata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cordata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania coriacea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania corniculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania costaricensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania couepiifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania crassivenia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cruegeriana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cuatrecasasii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cuprea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cuspidata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cuyabenensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cyathodes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania cymosa\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Licania laxiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania leptostachya\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania leucosepala\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania licaniiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania littoralis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania longicuspidata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania longipedicellata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania longipetala\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania longistyla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania macrocarpa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania macrophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania maguirei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania majuscula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania maranhensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania maritima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania marleneae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania maxima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania megalophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania membranacea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania mexicana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania michauxii\" – Gopher Apple, Ground Oak\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania micrantha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania microphylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania miltonii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania minuscula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania minutiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania mollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania montana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania morii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania naviculistipula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Licania nelsonii\"\n", "Luxim\n\nLuxim is a privately owned clean tech company based in Sunnyvale, California, which was founded in 2000.\n\nLuxim manufactures a solid-state electrodeless lamp lighting system. Luxim technology is used in general lighting, entertainment lighting, instrumentation lighting and specialty lighting.\n\nTheir light-emitting plasma (LEP) lamp is claimed to be able to operate up to 50% more efficiently than conventional high-intensity discharge lamps (HIDs) while generating the same maintained lumen as a conventional 400-watt system at about half the energy. Luxim's light-emitting plasma is designed to complement LED. LEP is designed for use in high illuminance applications. \n", "BULLET::::- \"Lixus carinicollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cariniger\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus carlinae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus caroli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus carthami\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus castellanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus catati\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus caucasicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus caudatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus caudifer\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus caudiger\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus causticus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cavatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cavicollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cavipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cenobita\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus centaureae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus centaurii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus chawneri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cheiranthi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus chevrolati\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus christophi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus chulliati\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cinerascens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cinereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cinnabarinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus circumcinctus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus circumdatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus circumscriptus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus clathratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus clatratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus clavipes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus cleoniformis\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Xenylla littoralis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla longicauda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla longispina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla longistriata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla louisiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla malasica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla malayana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla manusiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla marina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla maritima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla martynovae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla mediterranea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla mongolica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla mucronata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla murphyi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla myrmecophila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla neivai\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla nigeriana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla nirae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla nitida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla obscura\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla occidentalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla octooculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla orientalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla osetica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla pallescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla paludis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla piceeta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla portoricensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla proxima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla pseudobrevicauda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla pseudomaritima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenylla pyrenaica\"\n", "BULLET::::- Luxembourg Airport, IATA airport code LUX\n\nSection::::Science and technology.\n\nBULLET::::- Conway's LUX method for magic squares, an algorithm for creating magic squares\n\nBULLET::::- Large Underground Xenon experiment (LUX), at the Sanford Underground Research Facility, South Dakota, U.S.\n\nBULLET::::- LUX, a gene involved in the circadian rhythms of \"Arabidopsis thaliana\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lux operon, an operon related to bioluminescence; See Luminescent bacteria\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Dudek Lux, a Polish paraglider design\n\nBULLET::::- Lux (soap), a soap from Unilever\n\nBULLET::::- Lux, a Danish barley variety\n\nBULLET::::- Lux, a fictional resource in the video game Kingdom Hearts Union χ[Cross]\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Luzula alpestris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula alpina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula alpinopilosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula antarctica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula arcuata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula atlantica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula atrata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula australasica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula banksiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula × bogdanii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula bomiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula × bornmuelleriana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula × borreri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula brachyphylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula bulbosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula caespitosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula calabra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula campestris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula canariensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula capitata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula caricina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula celata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula chilensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula colensoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula comosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula confusa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula congesta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula crenulata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula crinita\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula × danica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula decipiens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luzula densiflora\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lixus lecontei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lefebvrei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus leleupi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus leninus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lentzi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lepidii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus leptosomus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus levantinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Lixus ligniticus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus likimiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus limbatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus limbifer\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lindiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus linearis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lineatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lineola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus linnei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lividus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lodingi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus longicollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus longipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus longulus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus loratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus loricatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus luculentus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lugens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lukjanovitshi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lupinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lusingaensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lutescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus luzonicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lycophoeus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lixus lycophorus\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Solariella bermejoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella cancapae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella cancilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella carvalhoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella chani\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella charopa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella chodon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella cincta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella cingulima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella cristata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella crossata\" (Dall, 1927)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella dedonderorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella diomedea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella dowi\" (taxon inquerendum)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella elegantula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella euteia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella exigua\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella flavida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella galkini\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella intermedia\" ( - intermediate solarelle\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella intermissa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella iris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella kempi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella lacunella\" (Dall, 1881) - channeled solarelle\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella lewisae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella lupe\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella lusitanica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella luteola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solariella margaritifera\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"M. lacrimans\" (bioluminescent)\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. lanuginosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. leptocephala\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. lucentipes\" (bioluminescent)\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. luteopallens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. luxaeterna\" (bioluminescent)\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. luxarboricola\" (bioluminescent)\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. lux-coeli\" (bioluminescent)\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. maculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. manipularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. marasmielloides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. metata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. minirubra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. multiplicata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. mustea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. nargan\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. nidificata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. noctilucens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. olida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. olivaceomarginata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. oregonensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. overholtsii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. pelianthina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. polygramma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. pseudostylobates\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. pura\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. pura\" complex\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. purpureofusca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. renati\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. rorida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"M. rosea\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lecanora subcrenulata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subflava\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subimmergens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subimmersa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subintricata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora sublivescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subpraesistens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subravida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subrugosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subsaligna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora substrobilina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subtecta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subtjibodasensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subumbrina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora subviridis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora sulcata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora sulphurea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora swartzii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora symmicta\"\n\nSection::::T.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora tenera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora thallophila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora thysanophora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora tjibodasensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora toroyensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora tropica\"\n\nSection::::U.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora ulrikii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora umbrina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora umbrosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora utahensis\"\n\nSection::::V.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora vainioi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora valesiaca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lecanora varia\"\n", "Natural hybrids of these species occur, and there are several varieties which are unresolved as to whether they constitute intermediate forms, hybrids or separate species. In addition there are naturally occurring hybrids between species of \"Astroloba\" and \"Tulista\" (formerly \"Haworthia Robustipedunculares\"), including the well-known ones named \"× Astrolista bicarinata\" (formerly \"x Astroworthia bicarinata / skinneri\") which are crosses between \"Astroloba corrugata\" and \"Tulista pumila\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Scleria baronii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria barteri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria benthamii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria bequaertii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria bicolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria biflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria boivinii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria boniana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria borii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria bourgeaui\" – Bourgeau's nutrush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria bracteata\" – bracted nutrush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria bradei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria brownii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria buekiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria buettneri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria bulbifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria burchellii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria calcicola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria camaratensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria canescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria carphiformis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria castanea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria catharinensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria catophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria chevalieri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria chlorocalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria ciliaris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleria ciliata\" – fringed nutrush\n\nBULLET::::- var. \"elliottii\"\n\nBULLET::::- var. \"glabra\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Benibotarus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brasilycus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bulenides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caenia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calcaeron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calochromus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calopteron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caloptognatha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cartagonum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cautires\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceratoprion\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cessator\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cladophorus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Conderis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cyrtopteron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dexoris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diatrichalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dictyoptera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dihammatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dilophotes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ditoneces\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Duliticola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Electropteron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Emplectus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eniclases\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eropterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eros\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Erotides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Falsocaenia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Falsocalleros\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Falsotrichalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Flabellodilophotes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Flabellotrichalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Greenarus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haplobothris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Helcophorus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hiekeolycus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Idiopteron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kolibacium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laterialis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptoceletes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptotrichalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Libnetis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Libnetisia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Libnetomorphus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lipernes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lolodorfus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lopheros\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lucaina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lycomorphon\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Chrysolina hyrcana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina inflata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina inornata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina interstincta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina jenisseiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina kuesteri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina laeviguttata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina latecincta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina lepida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina lichenis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina limbata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina lucida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina lucidicollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina lutea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina mactata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina magniceps\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina marcasitica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina marginata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina markamensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina milleri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina obenbergeri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina obscurella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina obsoleta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina oceanoripensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina ohoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina olivieri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina oricalcia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina orientalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina osellai\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina peregrina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina petitpierrei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina philotesia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysolina platypoda\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09099	Why does your cellphone get poor reception in some areas/rooms?	Depending on how the building is designed a lot of wires and piping could run around that room which would cause a room to act a bit like a faraday cage and block signals. Also, you have more layers of brick and building materials to degrade the signal the more inside you get. I have really bad signal in my work bathroom because 1) all the bathrooms' pipes are all near each other, the bathroom is basically the center of the building, and there are 4 floors above it.	[ "BULLET::::- multipath reflection along the street\n\nBULLET::::- diffraction through windows, and attenuated passage through walls, into the building\n\nBULLET::::- reflection, diffraction, and attenuated passage through internal walls, floors and ceilings within the building\n\nThe combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly complex, with multipath effects and extensive Rayleigh fading. For mobile phone services, these problems are tackled using:\n\nBULLET::::- rooftop or hilltop positioning of base stations\n\nBULLET::::- many base stations (usually called \"cell sites\"). A phone can typically see at least three, and usually as many as six at any given time.\n", "In areas where signal reception would normally be strong, other factors can have an effect on reception or may cause complete failure (see RF interference). From inside a building with thick walls or of mostly metal construction (or with dense rebar in concrete), signal attenuation may prevent a mobile phone from being used. Underground areas, such as tunnels and subway stations, will lack reception unless they are wired for cell signals. There may also be gaps where the service contours of the individual base stations (Cell towers) of the mobile provider (and/or its roaming partners) do not completely overlap.\n", "Section::::Reasons for weak signal.:Building size.\n\nLarge buildings, such as warehouses, hospitals, and factories, often lack cellular reception. Low signal strength also tends to occur in underground areas (such as basements, and in shops and restaurants located towards the centre of shopping malls). In these cases, an external antenna is usually used.\n\nSection::::Reasons for weak signal.:Multipath interference.\n", "Radio waves decrease rapidly in intensity by the inverse square of distance as they spread out from a transmitting antenna. So the cell phone transmitter, which is held close to the user's face when talking, is a much greater source of human exposure than the cell tower transmitter, which is typically at least hundreds of meters away from the public on a cell tower. A user can reduce their exposure by using a headset and keeping the cell phone itself further away from their body.\n", "A cellphone may not work at times because it is too far from a mast, or because the phone is in a location where cell phone signals are attenuated by thick building walls, hills, or other structures. The signals do not need a clear line of sight but greater radio interference will degrade or eliminate reception. When many people try to use the cell mast at the same time, e.g. during a traffic jam or a sports event, then there will be a signal on the phone display but it is blocked from starting a new connection. The other limiting factor for cell phones is the ability to send a signal from its low powered battery to the cell site. Some cellphones perform better than others under low power or low battery, typically due to the ability to send a good signal from the phone to the mast.\n", "Some materials cause absorption of electromagnetic waves, preventing it from reaching the receiver, in other cases, particularly with metallic or conductive materials reflection occurs. This can cause dead zones where no reception is available. Aluminium foiled thermal isolation in modern homes can easily reduce indoor mobile signals by 10 dB frequently leading to complaints about the bad reception of long-distance rural cell signals.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Difficulties.:Multipath fading.\n\nIn multipath fading two or more different routes taken by the signal, due to reflections, can cause the signal to cancel out at certain locations, and to be stronger in other places (upfade).\n\nSection::::Properties.:Difficulties.:Hidden node problem.\n", "Essentially there are two types of interference sources in the 800 MHz band: The LTE base stations and the mobile terminals — handsets, tablets, dongles — which are sometimes close to TV equipment. Although the base stations may be relatively far away from the TV equipment they may be adjacent to the TV antenna, or if further away they may be in the 'beam' of the TV antenna, i.e. in the direction which the TV antenna points, and considerably closer than the TV transmitter which it is desired to receive resulting in a high level of interfering signal in the TV system. In the case of apartments, hotels, schools, colleges, offices, etc. with communal TV antenna systems the base station may be very close indeed, even on the same roof.\n", "Most jurisdictions have only a limited number of frequencies legally available for use by wireless networks. Usually, adjacent APs will use different frequencies (Channels) to communicate with their clients in order to avoid interference between the two nearby systems. Wireless devices can \"listen\" for data traffic on other frequencies, and can rapidly switch from one frequency to another to achieve better reception. However, the limited number of frequencies becomes problematic in crowded downtown areas with tall buildings using multiple APs. In such an environment, signal overlap becomes an issue causing interference, which results in signal droppage and data errors.\n", "When using an Ethernet or ADSL home backhaul connection, an Access Point Base Station must either share the backhaul bandwidth with other services, such as Internet browsing, gaming consoles, set-top boxes and triple-play equipment in general, or alternatively directly replace these functions within an integrated unit. In shared-bandwidth approaches, which are the majority of designs currently being developed, the effect on quality of service may be an issue.\n", "My Paranoid Next Door Neighbor\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "In addition, the weather may affect the strength of a signal, due to the changes in radio propagation caused by clouds (particularly tall and dense thunderclouds which cause signal reflection), precipitation, and temperature inversions. This phenomenon, which is also common in other VHF radio bands including FM broadcasting, may also cause other anomalies, such as a person in San Diego \"roaming\" on a Mexican tower from just over the border in Tijuana, or someone in Detroit \"roaming\" on a Canadian tower located within sight across the Detroit River in Windsor, Ontario. These events may cause the user to be billed for \"international\" usage despite being in their own country, though mobile phone companies can program their billing systems to re-rate these as domestic usage when it occurs on a foreign cell site that is known to frequently cause such issues for their customers.\n", "Generally, a strong mobile phone signal is more likely in an urban area, though these areas can also have some \"dead zones\", where no reception can be obtained. Cellular signals are designed to be resistant to multipath reception, which is most likely to be caused by the blocking of a direct signal path by large buildings, such as high-rise towers. By contrast, many rural or sparsely inhabited areas lack any signal or have very weak fringe reception; many mobile phone providers are attempting to set up towers in those areas most likely to be occupied by users, such as along major highways. Even some national parks and other popular tourist destinations away from urban areas now have cell phone reception, though location of radio towers within these areas is normally prohibited or strictly regulated, and is often difficult to arrange.\n", "Another common reason is when a phone is taken into an area where wireless communication is unavailable, interrupted, interfered with, or jammed. From the network's perspective, this is the same as the mobile moving out of the coverage area.\n", "Cell service area may also vary due to interference from transmitting systems, both within and around that cell. This is true especially in CDMA based systems. The receiver requires a certain signal-to-noise ratio, and the transmitter should not send with too high transmission power in view to not cause interference with other transmitters. As the receiver moves away from the transmitter, the power received decreases, so the power control algorithm of the transmitter increases the power it transmits to restore the level of received power. As the interference (noise) rises above the received power from the transmitter, and the power of the transmitter cannot be increased anymore, the signal becomes corrupted and eventually unusable. In CDMA-based systems, the effect of interference from other mobile transmitters in the same cell on coverage area is very marked and has a special name, \"cell breathing\".\n", "Lower power levels at a receiver reduce the chance of successfully receiving a transmission. Low levels can be caused by at least three basic reasons: low transmit level, for example Wi-Fi power levels; far-away transmitter, such as 3G more than away or TV more than away; and obstruction between the transmitter and the receiver, leaving no clear path.\n\nNLOS lowers the effective received power. Near Line Of Sight can usually be dealt with using better antennas, but Non Line Of Sight is usually requires alternative paths or multipath propagation methods.\n", "Typically a completely clear line of sight between the dish and the satellite is required for the system to work optimally. In addition to the signal being susceptible to absorption and scattering by moisture, the signal is similarly impacted by the presence of trees and other vegetation in the path of the signal. As the radio frequency decreases, to below 900 MHz, penetration through vegetation increases, but most satellite communications operate above 2 GHz making them sensitive to even minor obstructions such as tree foliage. A dish installation in the winter must factor in plant foliage growth that will appear in the spring and summer.\n", "BULLET::::- Multipath distortion, because radio frequency waves may take paths of different length (by reflecting from buildings, transmission lines, aircraft, clouds, etc.) to reach the receiver. In addition, RF leaks may allow a signal to enter the set by a different path; this is most common in a large building such as a tower block or hotel where one TV antenna feeds many different rooms, each fitted with a TV aerial socket (known as pre-echo). By getting a better antenna or cable system it can be eliminated or mitigated.\n", "Because mobile phones and their base stations are two-way radios, they produce radio-frequency (RF) radiation in order to communicate, exposing people near them to RF radiation giving concerns about mobile phone radiation and health. Hand-held mobile telephones are relatively low power so the RF radiation exposures from them are generally low.\n\nThe World Health Organization has concluded that \"there is no convincing scientific evidence that the weak RF signals from base stations and wireless networks cause adverse health effects.\"\n", "The convergence of the Internet and phone, in particular has caused hospitals to increase their mobile phone exclusion zones. A study by Erik van Lieshout and colleagues (Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam) has found that the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) used in modern phones can affect machines from up to 3 meters away. The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) signals, used in 3G networks, have a smaller exclusion zone of just a few centimeters. The worst offenders in hospitals are the doctors.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- .mobi\n\nBULLET::::- Apache Mobile Filter\n\nBULLET::::- CTIA – The Wireless Association\n\nBULLET::::- Google\n", "Section::::W Face: \"Inside\".:Reception.\n", "IEE recommends these current demands and diversity factors for various loads to determine the load current and rating of overcurrent protective device.\n\nSection::::Residential wiring.:Special locations.\n\nSection::::Residential wiring.:Special locations.:Bathrooms.\n\nThe installation of electrical devices in bathrooms and shower rooms is regulated in Section 701 of BS 7671:2018, and Part P of the Building Regulations in England and Wales. For such rooms, four special zones are defined, in which additional protection is required for electrical facilities:\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 0 is the smallest cuboid volume that contains the bath, shower basin, etc.\n", "The quality of reception can be very different at places only short distances apart, and this phenomenon is more apparent as the transmission frequency increases. Inevitably small pockets of poor reception may exist within the main service area that cannot be shown on the map due to scale issues. Conversely, the use of sensitive equipment, high gain antennas, or simply being located on high ground can yield good signal strengths well outside the indicated area.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Weather conditions.\n\nA signal has two important factors: frequency and wavelength. If weather is fine and temperature is normal, the signal can be transmitted within given frequency and wavelength limits. The signal travels with velocity \"c\" ≤ 3*10 m/s, which is equal to the speed of light. For frequency \"f\" Hz and wavelength \"λ\" m, we have\n\nAs such, when weather conditions deteriorate, frequency \"f\" has to be increased. This causes the wavelength \"λ\" to decrease, which means that the signal then travels lesser distance.\n", "Section::::Common issues and concerns.\n\nSection::::Common issues and concerns.:Wireless signal loss.\n\nThe wireless signal strength of the standard residential wireless router may not be powerful enough to cover the entire house or may not be able to get through to all floors of multiple floor residences. In such situations, the installation of one or more wireless repeaters may be necessary.\n\nSection::::Common issues and concerns.:\"Leaky\" Wi-Fi.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06105	Why are the ends of fish hooks bent slightly to the right/left side?	There are many types of hooks used for many reasons, and also due to preference, not all are bent. If you slid a flat hook over a flat surface, it wouldn't catch, it would just slide over it. A bent hook would catch, however, if laying on the correct side. This can increase the chances of hooking a fish rather than the hook sliding out. A straight hook does require less force to set it, so there are some advantages to each. Some hooks are designed to prevent fouling a fish as well, and their shape affects how the tip can hook a fish, many of these will have a straight hook.	[ "The hook point is probably the most important part of the hook. It is the point that must penetrate fish flesh and secure the fish. The profile of the hook point and its length influence how well the point penetrates. The barb influences how far the point penetrates, how much pressure is required to penetrate and ultimately the holding power of the hook. Hook points are mechanically (ground) or chemically sharpened. Some hooks are barbless. Historically, many ancient fish hooks were barbless, but today a barbless hook is used to make hook removal and fish release less stressful on the fish. Hook points are also described relative to their offset from the hook shank. A kirbed hook point is offset to the left, a straight point has no offset and a reversed point is offset to the right. \n", "Forage fish occupy central positions in the ocean food webs. The position that a fish occupies in a food web is called its trophic level (Greek \"trophē\" = food). The organisms it eats are at a lower trophic level, and the organisms that eat it are at a higher trophic level. Forage fish occupy middle levels in the food web, serving as a dominant prey to higher level fish, seabirds and mammals.\n", "Commonly referred to parts of a fish hook are: its \"point\", the sharp end that penetrates the fish's mouth or flesh; the \"barb\", the projection extending backwards from the point, that secures the fish from unhooking; the \"eye\", the loop in the end of the hook that is connected to the fishing line or lure; the \"bend\" and \"shank\", that portion of the hook that connects the point and the eye; and the \"gap\", the distance between the shank and the point. In many cases, hooks are described by using these various parts of the hook, for example: wide gape, long shank, hollow point or out turned eye\".\"\n", "The circle hook's shape allows it to only hook onto an exposed surface, which in the case of a fish means the corner of its mouth. The fish takes the baited hook and swallows it, and as the hook is reeled in, it is safely pulled out of the fish until it reaches the mouth. At this point it will catch the corner of the mouth, resulting in fewer gut-hooked fish.\n", "The reason for this is to allow for the detection of two types of bite.\n\nThe first type of bite occurs when the fish takes the bait and moves away from the fisherman, causing the line to tighten and pull on the quiver tip. The second type of bite occurs when the fish takes the bait and moves towards the fisherman causing the line to slacken and the quiver tip to drop back/straighten.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Some reels with simple click drags are designed to be \"palmed\" when a fish runs with the line. Palming allows the angler to add additional drag with a light touch of the palm to the rim of the reel. On some reels, palming is difficult or impossible because the spool is fully skirted. With such reels, the only drag that an angler can apply to the line is with one or more fingers directly pinching the line.\n", "Inputs from the optic tectum and the lateral line help control which way the C-startle bends by biasing the mauthner cells when there are obstacles in the vicinity. In cases where movement away from the stimulus is blocked, the fish may bend towards the disturbance.\n\nSection::::Morphology and connections.:Axon cap.\n", "According to FishBase, a variant of sailfin sculpin occurs in Knight Inlet, British Columbia: the 'sail' of the first dorsal fin is described as appearing \"frail\" and \"more like a mast,\" and is dominated by the II, III, and I spines rather than the first four spines.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "There are many anglers who occupy strategic points on the pier, holding on to their line patiently waiting to hook a fish. Avoiding sophisticated angling gear, these people use their hands to hold the line instead of the angling rod. The anglers here are mostly labourers and daily-wage workers. \n", "Barbless hooks, which can be created from a standard hook by removing the barb with pliers or can be bought, are sometimes resisted by anglers because they believe that increased fish escapes. Barbless hooks reduce handling time, thereby increasing survival. Concentrating on keeping the line taut while fighting fish, using recurved point or \"triple grip\" style hooks on lures, and equipping lures that do not have them with split rings can significantly reduce escapement.\n\nSection::::Capacity for pain.\n", "The distinctive lure of \"Thaumatichthys\" is achieved by an \"upside-down\" orientation of the illicium (the \"fishing rod\"): its base is embedded in the skin fold connecting the anterior ends of the premaxillaries, and the short illicium projects down and back so that the esca at the tip hangs down from the roof of the mouth. The escal bulb terminates in a pair of forked tendrils and bears varying numbers of lateral lobes and a single curved denticle. The size of the transparent window in the bulb can be adjusted to change the amount of light emanating from the lure.\n", "Spontaneous preference in turn direction in young goldfish is correlated with one of the Mauthner cells being bigger than the other one. It is possible to change the preference of fish by raising them in conditions facilitating turns in a specific direction; this shift is accompanied by a correspondent change in M-cell sizes.\n\nSection::::History of research.\n\nThe Mauthner cell was first identified by the Viennese ophthalmologist Ludwig Mauthner in the teleost fish for its associated neural circuit which mediates an escape response called the C-start or C-startle to direct the fish away from a predator.\n", "An early written reference to a fish hook is found with reference to the Leviathan in the Book of Job 41:1; \"Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook?\" Fish hooks have been crafted from all sorts of materials including wood, animal and human bone, horn, shells, stone, bronze, iron, and up to present day materials. In many cases, hooks were created from multiple materials to leverage the strength and positive characteristics of each material. Norwegians as late as the 1950s still used juniper wood to craft Burbot hooks.\n", "Section::::Types.:Telescopic rods.\n", "In recreational fishing terminology, the hookset (setting the hook or striking) is a motion made with a fishing rod in order to \"set\" a fish hook into the mouth of a fish once it has bitten a fishing lure or bait. That is, in order to secure the fish on the hook, a sharp motion is performed to push the barb of the hook into the fish's mouth, preferably in the corner. If this motion were not performed, while it is possible for a fish to set itself, the likelihood of successfully landing the fish is minimal since, without the barb of the hook secured, the fish could shake the hook out of its mouth. The motion is usually a sharp, sweeping motion of the rod, either upwards or to the side, depending on the orientation of the rod at the moment the fish bites. Some fishermen will perform several hooksets in quick succession to ensure that the fish is securely hooked, especially on fish with tough mouths such as some saltwater species. In contrast, anglers using circle hooks needn't set the hook, since the hook's design allows it to set itself when the angler reels in. \n", "Section::::Fish arches.\n", "A fast action tip will be used when fishing jig type lures. The angler can feel and therefore control what the lure is doing quite easily. Since only the very tip of the rod bends, when a fish strikes the angler has ample rod shaft and backbone to set the hook correctly.\n", "A common type of seine is a purse seine, named such because along the bottom are a number of rings. A line (referred to as a purse-line) passes through all the rings, and when pulled, draws the rings close to one another, preventing the fish from \"sounding\", or swimming down to escape the net. This operation is similar to a traditional style purse, which has a drawstring.\n", "Charles Kirby designed an improved fishing hook in 1655 that remains relatively unchanged to this day. He went on to invent the Kirby bend, a distinctive hook with an offset point, still commonly used today.\n", "Contemporary hooks are manufactured from either high-carbon steel, steel alloyed with vanadium, or stainless steel, depending on application. Most quality fish hooks are covered with some form of corrosion-resistant surface coating. Corrosion resistance is required not only when hooks are used, especially in saltwater, but while they are stored. Additionally, coatings are applied to color and/or provide aesthetic value to the hook. At a minimum, hooks designed for freshwater use are coated with a clear lacquer, but hooks are also coated with gold, nickel, Teflon, tin and different colors.\n\nSection::::Hook types.\n", "Different hook shapes were probably specialized for certain tasks, for example, a strongly hooked uncinus was designed to stab prey at a constant angle and force, and sink in deeper if the prey tried to move away from the belemnite. Hook shapes and forms vary species to species. In \"Chondroteuthis\", large hooks were common near the mouth, and were either used for surrounding small prey or ramming into large prey; however, these large hooks were not present in a small specimen, indicating it was either a juvenile–and the development of different hooks coincided with a difference in prey selection–or the specimen was a female and the hooks were used by males for male-on-male combat or during copulation. In modern hook-bearing squid species, only matured males have hooks, indicating a reproductive purpose. It is possible the hooks, being analogous to suckers, could move.\n", "The shape of the hook shank can vary widely from merely straight to all sorts of curves, kinks, bends and offsets. These different shapes contribute in some cases to better hook penetration, fly imitations or bait holding ability. Many hooks intended to hold dead or artificial baits have sliced shanks which create barbs for better baiting holding ability. Jig hooks are designed to have lead weight molded onto the hook shank. Hook descriptions may also include shank length as standard, extra long, 2XL, short, etc. and wire size such as fine wire, extra heavy, 2X heavy, etc.\n", "Monofilament fishing line is also used sometimes in medicine to test the sense of touch. The transparency of monofilament fishing line makes it desirable for special effects where objects need to look like they are floating unsupported.\n\nIt has also been used for string trimmers, musical instrument strings, sewing thread and bent in the shape of a staple for use as a septum piercing retainer.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.\n", "The bending curve determines the way a rod builds up and releases its power. This influences not only the casting and the fish-fighting properties, but also the sensitivity to strikes when fishing lures, the ability to set a hook (which is also related to the mass of the rod), the control over the lure or bait, the way the rod should be handled and how the power is distributed over the rod. On a full progressive rod, the power is distributed most evenly over the whole rod.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Line weight.\n", "Section::::Stabilising images.\n" ]	[ "The ends of fish hooks are bent." ]	[ "Hooks can be bent and hooks can be straight because, fish hooks are used for different reasons and preferences." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The ends of fish hooks are bent.", "The ends of fish hooks are bent" ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hooks can be bent and hooks can be straight because, fish hooks are used for different reasons and preferences.", "Not all fish hooks have bent ends." ]
2018-00940	How does it work, when you flip the connector to the outlet 180°, it still works even when + and - are flipped?	That's because the current that comes into our homes is AC(Alternating current) which means that the polarity or flow of current changes from positive to negative and negative to positive after every specific interval. As the polarity of the points keep changing after fixed time intervals, The polarity of the switch board or the plug doesn't matter.	[ "In each case, the upper right output remains positive, and lower right output negative. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called \"reverse-polarity protection\". That is, it permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.\n", "Twist-on wire connectors are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. While their exterior covering is typically made from insulating plastic, their means of connection is a tapered coiled metal insert, which threads onto the wires and holds them securely. When such a connector is twisted onto the stripped and twisted-together ends of wires, the wires are drawn into the connector's metal insert and squeezed together inside it. Electrical continuity is maintained by both the direct twisted wire-to-wire contact and by contact with the metal insert. \n", "In practice this case usually does not happen because the pickup cartridge, an inductive voltage source, need have no connection to the turntable metalwork, and so the signal ground is isolated from the chassis or protective ground at that end of the link. Therefore, there is no current loop, and no hum problem due directly to the grounding arrangements.\n", "Another specialized connector version has a permanently attached wire pigtail protruding from the top of the insulated cap. The pigtail may be unterminated, or it may end in a preinstalled spade lug. If colored white, it typically may be used for splicing neutral wires in a device box, while leaving a pigtail free for connection to a device (such as a receptacle). If colored green, the assembly is intended to be used as a grounding pigtail, similar to the feedthrough twist-on wire connectors described in the previous paragraph.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Special feedthrough twist-on wire connectors differ from standard wire connectors in that they have an additional opening at the top of the insulated cap. This allows a single-conductor bare wire to be pushed through the hole, forming a \"pigtail\" section which can be attached to a grounding screw. These feedthrough connectors are typically green, and are also called \"screw-on grounding connectors\".\n", "Many of the other protocols break the ground loop at data baud rate frequency by fitting small ferrite cores around the connecting cables near each end, and/or just inside the equipment boundary. These form a common-mode choke which inhibit unbalanced current flow, without affecting the differential signal. This technique is equally valid for coaxial interconnects, and many camcorders have ferrite cores fitted to some of their auxiliary cables such as DC charging and external audio input, to break the high frequency current flow if the user inadvertently creates a ground loop when connecting external equipment.\n", "Since equipment often requires an input on a TRS phone jack or an XLR connector, Neutrik and Amphenol offer several models of combination connector that accept both XLR and 0.25 inch TS or TRS phone plugs.\n\nSection::::Technical usage information.:Four-pin – DC power.\n\nThe most common standard is for pin 1 to be ground and pin 4 to be 12 volts (nominal), with pins 2 and 3 unused. This configuration is used on most professional video cameras and is also common on audio equipment designed for location use. There are other non-standard arrangements, particularly found on older equipment.\n", "With XLR connectors, pins 1, 2, and 3 are usually used for the shield (earthed or chassis), the non-inverting signal, and the inverting signal, respectively. (The phrase \"ground, live, return\", corresponding to \"X, L, R\", is often offered as a memory aid, although the inverting signal is not simply a \"return.\") On TRS phone plugs, the tip is non-inverting, the ring is inverting, and the sleeve is ground. \n", "If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case in mains power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary winding of a high-frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The output transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.\n", "Some circuits and elements exhibiting negative resistance can also act in a similar way: negative impedance converters (NIC), neon lamps, tunnel diodes (e.g., a diode with an \"N\"-shaped current–voltage characteristic in the first quadrant), etc. In the last case, an oscillating input will cause the diode to move from one rising leg of the \"N\" to the other and back again as the input crosses the rising and falling switching thresholds.\n", "An example for a current source is shown in the figure on the right. The current generator and the resistor within the dotted line is the Norton representation of a circuit comprising a real generator and formula_16 is its internal resistance. If an INIC is placed in parallel to that internal resistance, and the INIC has the same magnitude but inverted resistance value, there will be formula_16 and formula_18 in parallel. Hence, the equivalent resistance is\n", "One design is a snap-on ferrite choke, fastened over the aerial cable just before it plugs into the TV set. The UHF signal is sent in differential-mode, that has equal and opposite currents running on the interior surfaces of the conductors. Those two opposite currents lie close enough together for their magnetic fields to cancel each other, and so those signal currents don't couple magnetically with the ferrite, and pass through unaffected.\n", "Signals in this connector (if following the standard) are not generally legally required (local regulations may still apply), which means that it is not mandatory to connect it if it is present.\n\nThis connector is basically the same as the 12N (ISO 1724) connector, but the center pin (pin 7) has changed gender to make the plug and outlet unique. Socket is replaced with pin in the plug, pin is replaced with socket in outlet.\n", "Typical professional audio sources, such as microphones, have three-pin XLR connectors. One is the shield or chassis ground, while the other two are signal connections. These signal wires carry two copies of the same signal, but with opposite polarity. (They are often termed \"hot\" and \"cold,\" and the AES14-1992(r2004) Standard [and EIA Standard RS-297-A] suggest that the pin that carries the positive signal that results from a positive air pressure on a transducer will be deemed 'hot'. Pin 2 has been designated as the 'hot' pin, and that designation serves useful for keeping a consistent polarity in the rest of the system.) Since these conductors travel the same path from source to destination, the assumption is that any interference is induced upon both conductors equally. The appliance receiving the signals compares the difference between the two signals (often with disregard to electrical ground) allowing the appliance to ignore any induced electrical noise. Any induced noise would be present in equal amounts and in identical polarity on each of the balanced signal conductors, so the two signals’ difference from each other would be unchanged. The successful rejection of induced noise from the desired signal depends in part on the balanced signal conductors receiving the same amount and type of interference. This typically leads to twisted, braided, or co-jacketed cables for use in balanced signal transmission.\n", "A similar but polarized connector has been made, but is not part of the standard. Sometimes called C7P, it is asymmetrical, with one side squared. Unpolarized C7 connectors can be inserted into the polarized inlets; however, doing so might be a safety risk if the device is designed for polarized power. Although not specified by IEC 60320, and not clear whether any formal written standard exists, the most common wiring appears to connect the squared side to the neutral, and the rounded to the hot line. Note: Clause 9.5 was added to IEC 60320-1:2015, this requires that \"It shall not be possible to engage a part of a non-standard appliance coupler with a complementary part of an appliance coupler complying with the standard sheets in any part of IEC 60320.\"\n", "An open switch is not equivalent to a component with infinite impedance, since in the former case, the stationary voltage in any loop in which it is involved can no longer be determined by Kirchhoff's laws. Consequently, the voltages across those \"critical\" components (such as the logic gate in the example on the right) which are only in loops involving the open switch are undefined, too.\n\nA pull-up resistor effectively establishes an additional loop over the critical components, ensuring that the voltage is well-defined even when the switch is open.\n", "William P. Marr emigrated from Scotland to Ontario, Canada early in the twentieth century. After settling in the Toronto area, he was employed as an electrician contractor for Ontario Hydro, converting gas-lit homes to electrical incandescent lighting.\n\nAt that time, the accepted practice for joining conductors was a process called “solder and tape”. Typically, a mechanic installed the insulated wires; then an electrician cleaned the exposed conductors, twisted them together, and dipped them into a pot of molten solder. After they cooled, the conductors were wrapped with insulating tape. \n", "BULLET::::- IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage reference with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.\n\nBULLET::::- Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.\n\nSection::::Pins.:Special pin functions.\n", "The IEC 60906-1 system also avoids the problems of the Schuko and French systems currently used in most of Europe and large parts of Asia:\n\nBULLET::::- Ambiguity between line and neutral on Schuko. Since the Schuko plug is non-polarized it can be inserted upside down, and therefore electronic equipment with Schuko plugs must be fitted with double pole switches and fuse links on both the line and neutral pins in order to be safe. Requiring these extra safety features can add to the manufacturing costs of electronic equipment.\n", "BULLET::::- Due to the hysteresis control the switching process is random by nature. Thus there are no peaks in the current spectrum. This further means that the audible noise of the machine is low\n\nBULLET::::- The intermediate DC circuit's voltage variation is automatically taken into account in the algorithm (in voltage integration). Thus no problems exist due to dc voltage ripple (aliasing) or dc voltage transients\n\nBULLET::::- Synchronization to rotating machine is straightforward due to the fast control; Just make the torque reference zero and start the inverter. The flux will be identified by the first current pulse\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nAS/NZS 3112 compliant plugs have two flat pins forming an inverted V-shape plus a vertical earthing pin. The flat blades measure with the active (line) and neutral pins long set 30° to the vertical and the vertical earth pin being in length. The pins are arranged at 120° angles around a common midpoint, with the active and neutral centred from the midpoint, and the earth pin centred away.\n", "The secondary winding \"(L2)\" is open-circuited, and connected to the output electrode of the device. In the Oudin coil, one side of the primary winding \"(L1)\" is grounded and the other side is connected to the secondary, so the primary and secondary are in series. There were two versions of the Oudin coil:\n", "The connector pins are mutually perpendicular, and are usually oriented to look like a capital T. In the state of Victoria, the top of the T is taken to look like a minus sign, and has been assigned to negative polarity. In the rest of Australia, the vertical pin is assigned to earth/chassis ground, consistent with Australian Standards for Type I 240 volt outlets; therefore, the top of the T is positive on a negative-earth vehicle. Older positive-earth vehicles are still in service, so actual polarity at the outlet can be random, and must be verified to avoid equipment damage.\n", "The male plug is sometimes used to feed power \"into\" a vehicle to recharge its battery, because it usually has no regulatory circuitry between the outlet and the car battery. For instance, portable solar battery maintainers generally connect to a vehicle's battery in this manner. Trickle chargers also sometimes connect in this way, eliminating the need to leave a vehicle's hood open, as well as eliminating the possibility of reversed polarity. Most cars nowadays are designed with a battery-negative earthing system and therefore have +12v positive power distribution. In such case the centre pin of a plug/socket will be +12V DC and the outer casing 0V. While polarity is not an issue for a cigarette lighter, it is prudent to verify correct matching of polarities when connecting other kinds of accessory. In some models, the cigarette lighter outlet is not powered when the ignition key is removed and charging is not possible.\n", "The female XLR connectors are designed to first connect pin 1 (the earth pin), before the other pins make contact, when a male XLR connector is inserted. With the ground connection established before the signal lines are connected, the insertion (and removal) of XLR connectors in live equipment is possible without picking up external signals (as usually happens with, for example, RCA connectors).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04575	why people snore when they sleep but not while awake	I think it's because your throat muscles are relaxed when you sleep. Also, if you snore then there's a good chance that you have sleep apnea. Adding another sentence so my reply doesn't get deleted.	[ "Set point of ventilation is different in wakefulness and sleep. pCO2 is higher and ventilation is lower in sleep. Sleep onset in normal subjects is not immediate, but oscillates between arousal, stage I and II sleep before steady NREM sleep is obtained. So falling asleep results in decreased ventilation and a higher pCO2, above the wakefulness set point. On wakefulness, this constitutes an error signal which provokes hyperventilation until the wakefulness set point is reached. When the subject falls asleep, ventilation decreases and pCO2 rises, resulting in hypoventilation or even apnea. These oscillations continue until steady state sleep is obtained. The medulla oblongata controls our respiration.\n", "As the muscle tone of the body ordinarily relaxes during sleep, and the airway at the throat is composed of walls of soft tissue, which can collapse, it is not surprising that breathing can be obstructed during sleep. Although a minor degree of OSA is considered to be within the bounds of normal sleep, and many individuals experience episodes of OSA at some point in life, a small percentage of people have chronic, severe OSA.\n", "There are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, is much more rare and has to do with the part of the brain that regulates breathing. The signal from the brain to the lungs is disrupted, resulting in pauses in breathing. \n", "Section::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Effect of arousals.\n\nArousals cause return of airway resistance and airflow to near awake values. Refer arousals in NREM sleep.\n\nSection::::Sleep and Breathing in High Altitudes.\n", "The term \"sleep-disordered breathing\" is commonly used in the U.S. to describe the full range of breathing problems during sleep in which not enough air reaches the lungs (hypopnea and apnea). Sleep-disordered breathing is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, high blood pressure, arrhythmias, diabetes, and sleep deprived driving accidents. When high blood pressure is caused by OSA, it is distinctive in that, unlike most cases of high blood pressure (so-called essential hypertension), the readings do \"not\" drop significantly when the individual is sleeping. Stroke is associated with obstructive sleep apnea.\n", "While sleeping, a normal individual is \"at rest\" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant. Any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide (even if tiny) strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative medicine.\n\nAmong the natural remedies are exercises to increase the muscle tone of the upper airway, and one medical practitioner noting anecdotally that professional singers seldom snore, but there have been no medical studies to fully link the two.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Snoring is a condition characterized by noisy breathing during sleep. Usually, any medical condition where the airway is blocked during sleeping, like obstructive sleep apnea, may give rise to snoring. Snoring, when not associated with an obstructive phenomenon is known as primary snoring. Apart from the specific condition of obstructive sleep apnea, other causes of snoring include alcohol intake prior to sleeping, stuffy nose, sinusitis, obesity, long tongue or uvula, large tonsil or adenoid, smaller lower jaw, deviated nasal septum, asthma, smoking and sleeping on one's back. Primary snoring is also known as \"simple\" or \"benign\" snoring, and is not associated with sleep apnea.\n", "Airway resistance increases by about 230% during NREM sleep. Elastic and flow resistive properties of the lung do not change during NREM sleep. The increase in resistance comes primarily from the upper airway in the retroepiglottic region. Tonic activity of the pharyngeal dilator muscles of the upper airway decreases during the NREM sleep, contributing to the increased resistance, which is reflected in increased esophageal pressure swings during sleep. The other ventilatory muscles compensate for the increased resistance, and so the airflow decreases much less than the increase in resistance.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Arterial blood gases.\n", "In a study of 19 healthy adults, the minute ventilation in NREM sleep was 7.18 ± 0.39(SEM) liters/minute compared to 7.66 ± 0.34 liters/minute when awake.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions.\n\nRib cage contribution to ventilation increases during NREM sleep, mostly by lateral movement, and is detected by an increase in EMG amplitude during breathing. Diaphragm activity is little increased or unchanged and abdominal muscle activity is slightly increased during these sleep stages.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Upper airway resistance.\n", "Polysomnography in diagnosing OSA characterizes the pauses in breathing. As in central apnea, pauses are followed by a relative decrease in blood oxygen and an increase in the blood carbon dioxide. Whereas in central sleep apnea the body's motions of breathing stop, in OSA the chest not only continues to make the movements of inhalation, but the movements typically become even more pronounced. Monitors for airflow at the nose and mouth demonstrate that efforts to breathe are not only present but that they are often exaggerated. The chest muscles and diaphragm contract and the entire body may thrash and struggle.\n", "Section::::Sleep-disordered breathing (abnormal sleep and breathing or sleep-related breathing disorders).\n\nSection::::Sleep-disordered breathing (abnormal sleep and breathing or sleep-related breathing disorders).:Primary snoring.\n", "In a study of 19 healthy adults, the minute ventilation in REM sleep was 6.46 +/- 0.29(SEM) liters/minute compared to 7.66 +/- 0.34 liters/minute when awake.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions.\n", "Section::::History.:The Walsingham Union workhouse.\n", "In pure central sleep apnea or Cheyne–Stokes respiration, the brain's respiratory control centers are imbalanced during sleep. Blood levels of carbon dioxide, and the neurological feedback mechanism that monitors them, do not react quickly enough to maintain an even respiratory rate, with the entire system cycling between apnea and hyperpnea, even during wakefulness. The sleeper stops breathing and then starts again. There is no effort made to breathe during the pause in breathing: there are no chest movements and no struggling. After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster (hyperpnea) for a period of time, a compensatory mechanism to blow off retained waste gases and absorb more oxygen.\n", "Section::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Ventilation.\n\nBreathing is remarkably regular, both in amplitude and frequency in steady NREM sleep. Steady NREM sleep has the lowest indices of variability of all sleep stages. Minute ventilation decreases by 13% in steady stage II sleep and by 15% in steady slow wave sleep (Stage III and Stage IV sleep). Mean inspiratory flow is decreased but inspiratory duration and respiratory cycle duration are unchanged, resulting in an overall decreased tidal volume.\n", "Sleep and breathing\n\nSignificant physiologic changes in breathing take place during normal sleep related to alterations in respiratory drive and musculature.\n\nSection::::Normal.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Sleep onset.\n", "Section::::Sleep-disordered breathing (abnormal sleep and breathing or sleep-related breathing disorders).:Obstructive sleep apnea (including hypopnea) syndrome.\n\nObstructive sleep apnea is apnea either as the result of obstruction of the air passages or inadequate respiratory muscle activity.\n\nSection::::Sleep-disordered breathing (abnormal sleep and breathing or sleep-related breathing disorders).:Central sleep apnea syndrome.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Sleep apnea.\n", "Statistics on snoring are often contradictory, but at least 30% of adults and perhaps as many as 50% of people in some demographics snore. One survey of 5,713 American residents identified habitual snoring in 24% of men and 13.8% of women, rising to 60% of men and 40% of women aged 60 to 65 years; this suggests an increased susceptibility to snoring with age.\n", "In a healthy person during sleep, breathing is regular so oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant: After exhalation, the blood level of oxygen decreases and that of carbon dioxide increases. Exchange of gases with a lungful of fresh air is necessary to replenish oxygen and rid the bloodstream of built-up carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in the body (called chemoreceptors) send nerve impulses to the brain, which then signals for reflexive opening of the larynx (enlarging the opening between the vocal cords) and movements of the rib cage muscles and diaphragm. These muscles expand the thorax (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it. In the absence of central apnea, any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide, even if small, strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe; the respiratory drive is so strong that even conscious efforts to hold one's breath do not overcome it.\n", "Upper airway resistance is expected to be highest during REM sleep because of atonia of the pharyngeal dilator muscles and partial airway collapse. Many studies have shown this, but not all. Some have shown unchanged airway resistance during REM sleep, others have shown it to increase to NREM levels.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Arterial blood gases.\n\nHypoxemia due to hypoventilation is noted in REM sleep but this is less well studied than NREM sleep. These changes are equal to or greater than NREM sleep\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Pulmonary arterial pressure.\n\nPulmonary arterial pressure fluctuates with respiration and rises during REM sleep.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nSnoring is the result of the relaxation of the uvula and soft palate. These tissues can relax enough to partially block the airway, resulting in irregular airflow and vibrations. Snoring can be attributed to one or more of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Throat weakness, causing the throat to close during sleep.\n\nBULLET::::- Mispositioned jaw, often caused by tension in the muscles.\n\nBULLET::::- Obesity that has caused fat to gather in and around the throat.\n\nBULLET::::- Obstruction in the nasal passageway.\n\nBULLET::::- Obstructive sleep apnea.\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep deprivation.\n\nBULLET::::- Relaxants such as alcohol or other drugs relaxing throat muscles.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleeping on one's back, which may result in the tongue dropping to the back of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In the third edition of the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD-3), Obstructive Sleep Apnea is classified amongst the Sleep Related Breathing Disorders and is divided in two categories, namely adult OSA and pediatric OSA. Obstructive Sleep Apnea is differentiated from Central Sleep Apnea (CSA) which is characterized by changes in the respiratory cycle during sleep but without the effort to breath during the apnea. The respiratory effort must then be assessed in order to correctly classify the apnea as obstructive given the specificity of the diaphragmatic activity in this condition: the inspiratory effort is continued or increased through the entire episode of absent airflow. When hypopneas are present alongside apneas, the term Obstructive Sleep Apnea-Hypopnea is used and when it is associated with daytime sleepiness and other daytime symptoms, it is called Obstructive Sleep Apnea-Hypopnea Syndrome. To be categorized as Obstructive, the hypopnea must meet one or more of the following symptoms: (1) snoring during the event, (2) increased oronasal flow flattening, and/or (3) thoraco-abdominal paradoxical respiration during the event If none of them are present during the event, it is categorized as central hypopnea.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07140	How big do batteries scale? Could a 55-inch smartphone still have 7-ish hours of battery life?	Battery capacity will be proportional to the battery's weight and volume. Assuming the device remains the same shape, i.e., it gets thicker as much as it gets longer and wider, then the battery volume will go up as the cube of the size whereas the screen area will only go up as the square of the size. So a much larger phone could have a screen with the same surface brightness (in nits) and still have a much longer battery life.	[ "Lithium-ion cells in pouch format are being investigated to power battery electric vehicles. While it is possible to use a large number of cells of small capacity to obtain required levels of power and energy to drive a vehicle, some manufacturers and research centres are looking into large-format lithium-ion cells of capacities exceeding 50 Ah for this purpose. With higher energy content per cell, the number of cells and electrical connections in a battery pack would certainly decrease but the danger associated with individual cells of such high capacity might be greater.\n", "In a demonstration at Columbia University, a demonstration transmitter unit ran off 1 milliwatt of power (equivalent power to Class 3 Bluetooth) and transmitted video simultaneously over a few metres to about 8 devices. Battery power may also be saved on the devices connected to the pCell technology compared to conventional 4G LTE.\n\nThe Artemis website shows 3 demonstration videos, the previously described Columbia University one, another at Code Conference with 20 iPads, and a lab demo showing 16 phones sharing 8 cells.\n", "Section::::Hardware.:Battery.\n\nThe average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500-2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used. It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:SIM card.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive battery sizes\n\nBULLET::::- Battery holder\n\nBULLET::::- Battery recycling\n\nBULLET::::- Battery (vacuum tube)\n\nBULLET::::- Button cell\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- List of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- Nine-volt battery\n\nBULLET::::- \"Search for the Super Battery\" (2017 PBS film)\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-1: Primary batteries - Part 1: General\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-2: Primary batteries - Part 2: Physical and electrical specifications\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-3: Primary batteries - Part 3: Watch batteries\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-4: Primary batteries - Part 4: Safety of lithium batteries\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI C18.1, Part 1 Portable Primary Cells and Batteries With Aqueous Electrolyte - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.1, Part 2 Portable Primary Cells and Batteries With Aqueous Electrolyte Safety Standard\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.2, Part 1 Portable Rechargeable Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.2, Part 2 Portable Rechargeable Cells and Batteries Safety Standard\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.3, Part 1 Portable lithium Primary Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.3, Part 2 Portable lithium Primary Cells and Batteries Safety Standard\n", "In 2005, handheld device battery designs by Toshiba were claimed to be able to accept an 80% charge in as little as 60 seconds. Scaling this characteristic up to the same 7 kilowatt-hour EV pack would result in the need for a peak of 340 kilowatts of power from some source for those 60 seconds. It is not clear that such batteries will work directly in BEVs as heat build-up may make them unsafe.\n\nSection::::Specifics.:Charging.:Recharging time.\n\nElectric cars like Tesla Model S, Renault Zoe, BMW i3, etc. can recharge their batteries at quick charging stations within 30 minutes to 80 percent.\n", "Lithium-ion cells are made in various sizes, often assembled into packs for portable equipment. Many types are also available with an internal protection circuit to prevent over-discharge and short-circuit damage. This can increase their physical length; for example, an 18650 is around long, but may be around long with an internal protection circuit. Safe and economic recharging requires a charger specified for these cells. Popular applications include laptop battery packs, electronic cigarettes, flashlights, electric vehicles, and cordless power tools.\n", "Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain, and propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is . There are also several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain, and the timing advance.\n", "Section::::Camera batteries.\n\nAs well as other types, digital and film cameras often use specialized primary batteries to produce a compact product. Flashlights and portable electronic devices may also use these types.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.:Lithium cells.\n\nCoin-shaped cells are thin compared to their diameter. Polarity is usually stamped on the metal casing.\n", "In 2015 researchers announced a device that employed the \"18650\" format. 18650 is a battery form factor commonly used in laptops, LED flashlights and the Tesla Model S, among other products. Its energy density was claimed to be 90 Wh/kg, a performance comparable to lithium iron phosphate battery.\n", "This battery size is most often used in small devices such as laser pointers, LED penlights, powered computer styluses, glucose meters, and small headphone amplifiers. These batteries are not as popular as AAA or AA type batteries, and consequently are not as commonly available.\n\nSome models of alkaline nine-volt battery contain six LR61 cells connected by welded tabs. These cells are similar to AAAA cells and can be used in their place in some devices, even though they are shorter.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Battery (electricity)\n\nBULLET::::- Battery nomenclature\n\nBULLET::::- Battery recycling\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "There are many high-capacity \"extended\" batteries available for the HTC Universal. 2600mAh, 3150mAh, 3200mAh, 3800mAh, 4800mAh and even 5200mAh models have been sold by various retailers, which allow the device to run for more than a week in many cases on a single charge (with light to medium use). All extended batteries have one big drawback though, they are all supplied with a new plastic back to hold the battery, which considerably increases the size and weight of the device.\n", "BULLET::::- Capacity in mAh: mAh stands for milli Ampere-hour and measures the amount of power flow that can be supplied by a certain power bank at a specific voltage. Many manufacturers rate their products at 3.7 V, the voltage of cell(s) inside. Since USB outputs at 5 V, calculations at this voltage will yield a lower mAh number. For example, a battery pack advertised with a 3000 mAh capacity (at 3.7 V) will produce 2220 mAh at 5 V. Power losses due to efficiency of the charging circuitry also occur.\n", "Battery\n\nThe device has a total battery life of about 3 hours when using video, backlight+screen and CPU-intensive tasks, and while running as a dedicated audio player it is closer to 6 hours. The original battery was a 1500mAh Li-Ion; third party replacements with 2000mAh capacity are still available from some manufacturers.\n\nSoftware\n", "Section::::Design and impact.\n", "Palm handheld modifications\n\nSeveral Palm (PDA) enthusiasts have successfully documented internal and external handheld battery modifications to allow longer charge times for their handheld device. Rapidly advancing battery technology allows smaller and longer-lasting batteries to be placed into the space of the original batteries. Modifications of this type can be technically challenging and will almost certainly void any manufacturer warranty and have the potential to damage the modified device permanently.\n\nSection::::Popular modifications.\n\nMany PDAs are not suitable for modification or do not require it; the newest devices include advanced high-capacity batteries, whilst some devices cannot be dismantled without permanent damage.\n", "BULLET::::- Lithium-Ion Power System for Small Satellites: The Low-Voltage Power System uses a low-weight Li-Ion battery that can store up to four times as much energy as a Ni-Cad battery, charged by triple junction solar cells. The Li-Ion rechargeable battery has a longer life and exhibits no memory effect.\n\nBULLET::::- Ultra Low-Power Demonstration: The CULPRiT is a new type of microelectronic device that allows circuits to operate at 0.5 Volts. The technology will greatly reduce power consumption while achieving a radiation tolerance of ~100 kRad total dose and latch-up immunity.\n", "BULLET::::- Scientists announce that they have found fragments of Rodinia, an ancient \"lost\" supercontinent, in what is now the Indian Ocean.\n\nBULLET::::- 25 February\n\nBULLET::::- Israel successfully tests its Arrow 3 missile defence system, designed to destroy enemy ballistic missiles while they are still high in the Earth's atmosphere.\n\nBULLET::::- 26 February\n\nBULLET::::- American engineers develop a wirelessly charged flexible battery that can continue to function even if stretched to three times its usual size. With further development, the invention could be used to power flexible smartphones, tablets and medical electronics.\n", "As of mid 2016, LiPo packs of 1.3 Ah exist, providing 95C continuous discharge, and short-time 190C bursts. In March 2017, LiPo packs were available in various configurations, most commonly up to 6400mAh, achieving a maximum 4.2V/cell, for powering certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions.\n", "Each space and house will have their own energy consumption profile and generation demand. Consequently, they must size their power equipment accordingly. To size battery systems to store captured energy or grid supplied energy to be used during times without power production from the rooftop solar, such as when there is inadequate insolation, you will need to know your generation capacity (as to not under or oversize your battery bank), the type of batteries used, their individual capacity (Ah), the discharge rate allowable per cycle (%), the size of loads (W or Wh), how long they will be run, and how many days or hours of storage you want to build. Battery sizing calculators are available online to simplify this process. Additionally, battery balancers, sensors that can read and recalibrate the available capacity, or state of charge, between different battery cells, can be added to extend the life of your battery system as to prohibit voltage offset or non-ideal current flow, potentially damaging or capacity reducing to batteries over time. Note that batteries are rated in terms of amp-hours with their discharge rate and capacity will be set by the manufacturer at a specific amperage and total amount of time as voltage differs with temperature and power will vary with rate of discharge. \n", "All these lithium cells are rated nominally 3 volts (on-load), with open circuit voltage about 3.6 volts. Manufacturers may have their own part numbers for IEC standard size cells. The capacity listed is for a constant resistance discharge down to 2.0 volts per cell.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.:Silver oxide and alkaline cells.\n\nRound button cells have heights less than their diameter. The metal can is the positive terminal, and the cap is the negative terminal.\n", "In 2014, researchers at Virginia Tech published their research on a new kind of glucose fueled fuel cell that improves efficiency over previous cells, resulting in a total energy density closely competing with lithium-ion batteries. The new cell have a potential energy density of 596 Ah kg−1, which is higher than lithium-ion batteries. If these fuel cells are proven, they could be used as soon as three years from now. These fuel cells can be used to power a cell phone for ten days, unlike the current lithium-ion batteries that can only be used for one day. \n", "The main concerns reported by those participating in the U.S. during the first year trial were range anxiety and lack of public charging infrastructure, as the country had only 734 public charging stations, most located in California. Another concern was the range on a fully charged battery reducing to between 80 to during very cold weather. In the UK, an abnormally harsh winter also showed how very low temperatures diminished power output until the battery ‘warmed-up’. There was one report of the range dropping below in sub-zero weather. There were issues reported with exterior charging points as winter temperatures dropped dramatically.\n", "A popular early mobile phone battery was the nickel metal-hydride (NiMH) type, due to its relatively small size and low weight. Lithium ion batteries are also used, as they are lighter and do not have the voltage depression due to long-term over-charging that nickel metal-hydride batteries do. Many mobile phone manufacturers use lithium–polymer batteries as opposed to the older lithium-ion, the main advantages being even lower weight and the possibility to make the battery a shape other than strict cuboid.\n\nSection::::SIM card.\n", "Section::::Design and management.:Management.:Volume expansion.\n\nCurrent research has been primarily focused on finding new materials and characterising them by means of specific capacity (mAh/g), which provides a good metric to compare and contrast all electrode materials. Recently, some of the more promising materials are showing some large volume expansions which need to be considered when engineering devices. Lesser known to this realm of data is the volumetric capacity (mAh/cm) of various materials to their design.\n\nSection::::Nanotechnology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03533	How come constellations are the same no matter where you are on the planet?	The earth is spinning around its north-south axis once every 24 hours. From the equator, Japan and the USA are about the same distance to the north pole. From the perspective of the sun, the place where the USA is now will be the same where Japan will be in about eight hours (give or take, I'm not sure what the distance is nor is it relevant). As such the star constellations you see in Japan are the same as the ones you will see in the USA. If Japan and the USA would have been at the opposite site of the equator, like Japan and Australia are, then you would see different constellations.	[ "The eighty-eight modern constellation names and boundaries were standardised by Eugene Delporte for the IAU in 1930, under an international agreement, removing any possible astronomical ambiguities between astronomers from different countries. Nearly all former or defunct constellations differ in their designated boundaries inasmuch as they have outlines that do not follow the exact lines of right ascension and declination.\n\nSection::::Noteworthy former constellations.\n\nSection::::Noteworthy former constellations.:Argo Navis.\n", "Furthermore, exploration by Europeans to other parts of the globe exposed them to stars unknown to them. Two astronomers particularly known for greatly expanding the number of southern constellations were Johann Bayer (1572–1625) and Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1713–1762). Bayer had listed twelve figures made out of stars that were too far south for Ptolemy to have seen; Lacaille created 14 new groups, mostly for the area surrounding South Celestial Pole. Many of these proposed constellations have been formally accepted, but the rest have historically remained as asterisms.\n", "Some of the early constellations were never universally adopted. Stars were often grouped into constellations differently by different observers, and the arbitrary constellation boundaries often led to confusion as to which constellation a celestial object belonged. Before astronomers delineated precise boundaries (starting in the 19th century), constellations generally appeared as ill-defined regions of the sky. Today they now follow officially accepted designated lines of Right Ascension and Declination based on those defined by Benjamin Gould in epoch 1875.0 in his star catalogue \"Uranometria Argentina\".\n", "As viewed from the North Pole, all fully visible constellations north of the celestial equator are circumpolar, and likewise for constellations south of the celestial equator as viewed from the South Pole. As viewed from the Equator, no circumpolar constellations are visible. As viewed from mid-northern latitudes (40–50° N), circumpolar constellations may include Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Draco, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, and the less-known Camelopardalis.\n", "Section::::History.:The Constituent Modern Constellations.\n", "Some of the northern sky's former constellations were placed in the less populated regions between the traditional brighter constellations just to fill gaps. In the southern skies, new constellations were often created from about the 15th century by voyagers who began journeying south of the equator. European countries like England, France, the Netherlands, German or Italian states, etc., often supported and popularised their own constellation outlines. In some cases, different constellations occupied overlapping areas and included the same stars. These former constellations are often found in older books, star charts or star catalogues. \n", "Historically, the origins of the constellations of the northern and southern skies are distinctly different. Most northern constellations date to antiquity, with names based mostly on Classical Greek legends. Evidence of these constellations has survived in the form of star charts, whose oldest representation appears on the statue known as the Farnese Atlas, based perhaps on the star catalogue of the Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Southern constellations are more modern inventions, sometimes as substitutes for ancient constellations (e.g. Argo Navis). Some southern constellations had long names that were shortened to more usable forms; e.g. Musca Australis became simply Musca.\n", "BULLET::::- Capricorn and Gemini have an ascension of one hour and fifty minutes\n\nBULLET::::- Cancer and Sagittarius have an ascension of two hours and thirty minutes\n\nBULLET::::- Leo and Scorpio have an ascension of two hours and forty minutes\n\nBULLET::::- Virgo and Libra have an ascension of two hours and forty-five minutes\n\nAt higher latitudes, these differences become even more marked. At the latitude of St. Petersburg, Russia:\n\nBULLET::::- Pisces and Aries have an ascension of thirty-five minutes\n\nBULLET::::- Aquarius and Taurus have an ascension of forty-five minutes\n", "Many of the 88 IAU-recognized constellations in this region first appeared on celestial globes developed in the late 16th century by Petrus Plancius, based mainly on observations of the Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. These became widely known through Johann Bayer's star atlas \"Uranometria\" of 1603. more were created in 1763 by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille appearing in his star catalogue, published in 1756.\n", "In the northern hemisphere, the signs of Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus and Gemini take much less time than the theoretical two hours to cross the eastern horizon, whilst the signs of Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio and Sagittarius take much longer than two hours to do so. For example, at the latitude of Paris, France:\n\nBULLET::::- Pisces and Aries take only one hour to cross the eastern horizon (this is referred to as the \"length of ascension\" or simply as the sign's \"ascension\")\n\nBULLET::::- Aquarius and Taurus have an ascension of one hour and fifteen minutes\n", "The boundaries developed by Delporte used data that originated back to epoch B1875.0, which was when Benjamin A. Gould first made his proposal to designate boundaries for the celestial sphere, a suggestion upon which Delporte would base his work. The consequence of this early date is that because of the precession of the equinoxes, the borders on a modern star map, such as epoch J2000, are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal. This effect will increase over the years and centuries to come.\n\nSection::::Dark cloud constellations.\n", "Although stars in constellations appear near each other in the sky, they usually lie at a variety of distances away from the Earth. Since stars have their own independent motions, all constellations will change slowly over time. After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, familiar outlines will generally become unrecognizable. Astronomers can predict the past or future constellation outlines by measuring individual stars' common proper motions or cpm by accurate astrometry and their radial velocities by astronomical spectroscopy.\n\nSection::::History of the early constellations.\n\nSection::::History of the early constellations.:Lascaux Caves Southern France.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Broken Engagement Ring\" in Ursa Major, at 10:51 / +56°10' (preceding β Ursae Majoris, Merak).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Napoleon's Hat\" (Picot 1) in Bootes (south of α Bootis, Arcturus).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Aboriginal astronomy\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese constellation\n\nBULLET::::- Former constellations\n\nBULLET::::- Nakshatra\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Allen, Richard Hinckley (1969). \".\" Dover Publications Inc. (Reprint of 1899 original). .\n\nBULLET::::- Burnham, Robert (1978). \"Burnham's Celestial Handbook\" (3 vols). Dover Publications Inc. , , .\n\nBULLET::::- Michanowsky, George (1979). \"The Once and Future Star.\" Barnes and Noble Books. .\n", "Donald H. Menzel, director of the Harvard Observatory, gathered several traditional groups in his popular account, \"A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets\" (1975), and adjusted and regularized them so that his handful of groups covered all 88 of the modern constellations.\n", "If the Sun were to be observed from the Alpha Centauri system, the nearest star system to ours, it would appear to be a 0.46 magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, and would create a \"/W\" shape instead of the \"W\" as seen from Earth. Due to the proximity of the Alpha Centauri system, the constellations would, for the most part, appear similar. However, there are some notable differences with the position of other nearby stars; for example, Sirius would appear about one degree from the star Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion. Also, Procyon would appear in the constellation Gemini, about 13 degrees below Pollux.\n", "Former constellations are old historical western constellations that for various reasons are no longer recognized or were not adopted as official constellations by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Prior to 1930, many of these defunct constellations were traditional in one or more countries or cultures. Some only lasted decades but others were referred to over many centuries. All are now recognised only for having classical or historical value. Many former constellations had complex Latinised names after objects, people, or mythological or zoological creatures. Others with unwieldy names were shortened for convenience. For example, Scutum Sobiescianum was reduced to Scutum, Mons Mensae to Mensa, and Apparatus Sculptoris to Sculptor.\n", "Other star patterns or groups called asterisms are not constellations per se but are used by observers to navigate the night sky. Asterisms may be several stars within a constellation, or they may share stars with more than one constellation. Examples of asterisms include the Pleiades and Hyades within the constellation Taurus and the False Cross split between the southern constellations Carina and Vela, or Venus' Mirror in the constellation of Orion.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Delporte drew the boundaries along vertical and horizontal lines of right ascension and declination; however, he did so for the epoch B1875.0, which means that due to precession of the equinoxes, the borders on a modern star map (e.g., for epoch J2000) are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal. This skew will increase over the years and centuries to come. However, this does not change the solid angle of any constellation.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of astronomical objects\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Constellations – Ian Ridpath\n\nBULLET::::- Constellations – RASC Calgary Centre\n", "Section::::Story.:A larger family.\n", "Section::::History of the early constellations.:Classical antiquity.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Rihannsu\" series of \"Star Trek\" novels by Diane Duane, in particular the second book \"The Romulan Way\", states that the proto-Romulans visited several stars within the Triangulum constellation after leaving the planet Vulcan. They eventually settled two planets orbiting the fictional G9-class star 128 Trianguli, which would become known to the United Federation of Planets as Romulus and Remus upon their later discovery. The star Alpha Trianguli later lent its name to the treaty between the Federation and the Romulan Star Empire that established the Romulan Neutral Zone between the two powers.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSome constellations are no longer recognized by the IAU, but may appear in older star charts and other references. Most notable is Argo Navis, which was one of Ptolemy's original 48 constellations.\n\nSection::::Modern constellations.\n\nThe 88 constellations depict 42 animals, 29 inanimate objects and 17 humans or mythological characters.\n\nSection::::Modern constellations.:Abbreviations.\n", "Section::::Early modern astronomy.\n", "Other asterisms that are formed from stars in more than one constellation.\n", "The sky was divided into constellations by historic astronomers, according to perceived patterns in the sky. At first, only the shapes of the patterns were defined, and the names and numbers of constellations varied from one star map to another. Despite being scientifically meaningless, they do provide useful reference points in the sky for human beings, including astronomers. In 1930, the boundaries of these constellations were fixed by Eugène Joseph Delporte and adopted by the IAU, so that now every point on the celestial sphere belongs to a particular constellation.\n\nSection::::Galaxies.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Constellations are the same no matter where you are on the planet" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Countries on the opposite side of the equator see different constellations." ]
2018-11704	Why does the camera add 10 pounds?	It’s a psychological pick at your own brain. Long story short, you finally get to see yourself “as is”, and because of that people feel the notion that they’re too fat, have too many wrinkles, or have to dye their hair to look more youthful, simply because they don’t like how they see themselves.	[ "BULLET::::- Weston Harris as a child in the social service office\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- The latter (e.g., Google Glass, GoPro), are commonly mounted on the head, and capture conventional video (around 35fps) that allows to capture fine temporal details of interactions. Consequently, they offer potential for in-depth analysis of daily or special activities. However, since the camera is moving with the wearer head, it becomes more difficult to estimate the global motion of the wearer and in the case of abrupt movements, the images can result blurred.\n\nIn both cases, since the camera is worn in a naturalistic setting, visual data present a huge variability in terms of illumination conditions and object appearance.\n", "Research by Martin and Xavier (2010) shows that people feel more pressure from society to be thin after viewing ads featuring a slim model. Ads featuring a larger sized model resulted in less pressure to be thin. People also felt their actual body size was larger after viewing a slim model as compared to a larger model.\n", "Moreover, the camera wearer is not visible in the image and what he/she is doing has to be inferred from the information in the visual field of the camera, implying that important information about the wearer, such for instance as pose or facial expression estimation, is not available.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The lighting when the shot is taken can also have a large effect on a person's perceived attractiveness. Also, a person's face may look different depending on the angle and intensity of the light being reflected off the face. But, lighter skin tones and features may appear washed out when taken from a flash camera. This effect is magnified when a flash camera is used and may cause undesirable features, such as ridges or bumps, to appear more pronounced than they otherwise would.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- How To Be Photogenic at wikiHow\n\nBULLET::::- Forum about the definition of 'Photogenic'\n", "Celebrity culture is known as one of the main influences on body image for this generation. Studies in this area have been carried out with the majority proving that viewing media images affects participants abilities to correctly estimate the size and parts of their own bodies. We are subjected to photoshop so often when they were shown a range of photos of famous celebrities the women with body dissatisfaction consistently choose the photos of the celebrity being photoshopped to look skinnier than the original.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "The film then cuts to the supermodel altering her physical features; smooth skin, enlarged neck, and broader eyes. We then see the three models she has eaten: the one without the dress, the gymnast, and the other supermodel. One throws up a shoe, and the model coughs it up. She then alters her features more, with a bigger and slimmer abdomen. Another advertisement shows her all altered features.\n", "Body image can have a wide range of psychological effects and physical effects. Throughout history, it has been extremely difficult for people to live up to the standards of society and what they believe the ideal body is. Many factors contribute to a person's body image; some of these include: family dynamics, mental illness, biological predispositions and environmental causes for obesity or malnutrition, and cultural expectations (e.g., media and politics). People who are either underweight or overweight can have poor body image. However, when people are constantly told and shown the cosmetic appeal of weight loss and are warned about the risks of obesity, those who are normal or overweight on the BMI scale have higher risks of poor body image. This is something that can lead to a change in a person's body image. Often, people who have a low body image will try to alter their bodies in some way, such as by dieting or by undergoing cosmetic surgery. \"We expected women would feel worse about their bodies after seeing ultra-thin models, compared to no models if they have internalized the thin ideal, thus replicating previous findings.\"\n", "In \"Slob Evolution,\" the role of the model is taken by a teenage boy who, instead of having make-up applied in the time-lapse sequence, is given fast food, alcoholic beverages, and cigarettes, transforming over the course of thirty seconds into an overweight middle-aged slob. Further adjustments are made in a similar image-editing interface to that used in \"Evolution,\". The subject's neck is shortened, his features made more asymmetric, and a tattoo is added. The image is transferred to a billboard advertisement for the fictional \"Lardo\" brand of \"man cream\", and the piece ends with a fade to the statement, \"Thank God our perception of reality is distorted. No one wants to look at ugly people.\"\n", "Mariko Takahashi's Fitness Video for Being Appraised as an "Ex-fat Girl"\n", "Customers have also reported seeing unrealistic smoothness on their skin when taking a selfie by an automatic filter. Observers have noted that this face-smoothing effect is likely (and unintentionally) caused by the new Smart HDR camera feature on the XS and XS Max. This technology combines multiple photos of varying exposures to increase dynamic range on the iPhones' photos, but can also lead to less pronounced facial imperfections and decreased highlights in selfies. Some speculated this was the result of a hidden “beauty mode” (an actual feature in some smartphones) and dubbed the issue “Beautygate.” There has been a general dispute in the community as to whether the camera actually \"intends\" to \"perfect\" faces or if they just appear that way as result of a better quality camera.\n", "Less is usually known about the pressures models in the industry face, but striving hard to meet the requirements of their agency or brand is a main facet. Among the group, 69% were told to tone up, while 62% cited that their agencies required them to lose weight or change their body shape. Another 54% of models revealed that they would be dropped by their agencies if they failed to comply. Hence, models habitually weigh themselves under the healthy Body Mass Index (BMI) level. A study published in the International Journal of Eating Disorders, discovered that a majority of models had a body mass index (BMI) of 17.41, which qualifies for anorexia.\n", "The state of being photogenic may or may not necessarily be related to one's physical attractiveness in real life. Models are usually described as photogenic. The bone structure of their faces may represent something that is not generally pretty or may be even unattractive or frail looking, but when photographed, their features can turn into something that is physically attractive.\n\nSection::::Charisma.\n", "For the print advertising aspect of the campaign, Palen used a photograph he had taken of another of the film's co-stars, Heather Matarazzo. The photograph showed Matarazzo \"hanging upside down, her face contorted, the veins in her neck bulging, a tiny rivulet of snot dripping from her nose.\" The M.P.A.A. approved this image for release in newspapers and other print media.\n", "Spot metering is not influenced by other areas in the frame. It is commonly used to shoot very high contrast scenes. For example, in a backlit situation a rising sun may be behind a person whose face will be much darker than the bright halo around the body and hairline. Spot metering allows the camera to measure the light reflected from the person's face and expose properly for that, instead of adjusting exposure for the much brighter light around the hairline. With the face properly exposed, the area around the back and hairline will become over-exposed. In many cases spot metering will over or underexpose a portion of the scene, so that the point of interest will be correctly exposed. \n", "The analyses of images in women's magazines observed from 1901 to 1980 and from 1959 to 1999 show that the featured models have become thinner over time, making the thin ideal even more difficult to achieve.\n\nSection::::Media.:Women on television.\n\nAccording to researchers, 94% of females on television are thinner than the average women (168.5lbs) in the United States.\n", "Because they are typically taken much closer to the subject's face than a conventional photograph, phone selfies tend to distort the subject's face. When conventional photographers take head shots, they typically use a narrower lens (or zoom in) and stand at a normal distance, instead of getting physically closer to the subject's face. Front-facing cell phone cameras, on the other hand, feature wide-angle lenses and are held closer to the face, since the human arm is only so long. This results in extension distortion, where objects closer to the camera appear much larger than they actually are. Though this distortion has a slimming effect, it also exaggerates the auto-photographer's nose and chin, since those parts are closer to the camera than the rest of the face.\n", "Unfortunately thin-idealized bodies are attributed with self control, success and discipline, and therefore proclaimed as being desirable and socially valued. “Being slim means resisting the temptations that surround consumers in countries of overabundance and wealth” (Thompson et al 1995: Halliwell et al 2004).\n\nSection::::Bad effect.:Effects on young men.\n", "Section::::Positive Effects.:Business opportunities.\n", "Two years later, \"Numéro TOKYO\" was criticized for having airbrushed model Karlie Kloss' visible ribcage out in a photo of her shot by Greg Kadel for the October 2012 issue. According to \"The Daily Mail\", \"Numéro\" hoped to avoid the possibility of controversy over Kloss' thin appearance because of an incident in December 2011 when photos of her shot by Steven Meisel were taken down from \"Vogue Italia's\" website because of anorexia concerns.\n", "Academic researchers Philip Myers Jr. and Frank Biocca concluded, in their study published in the \"Journal of Communication\", that a woman's self-perceived body image can change after watching a half-an-hour of television programming and advertising. Researchers Yoku Yamamiya and Thomas F. Cash concluded through their study that \"Even a 5 minute exposure to thin-and-beautiful media images results in a more negative body image state than does exposure to images of neutral object.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Liis Windischmann is a plus-size model from North America who frequently comments in the media on diversity, fashion and body image. She is the Director of Ben Barry Agency and she is also the Fashion Insider for \"LouLou\" magazine's 14+.\n", "Gregg said, \"...This video is dedicated to the mainstream media, to the fashion industry, to internet bullies, and to anyone else who thinks it's their right to try to make us feel less than because of their insecurities.\" Aboulhosn said, \"For me, this video is to show all of my followers that you define your definition of beauty...\" Munster said, \"This is OUR way of giving an 'eff you' to the critics that say we promote obesity, that we have no place in the fashion industry.\"\n", "At the Seven 'til Midnight shoot, the client is very impressed with Ivory, less so with Dominic. Janice interviews that she is adamantly opposed to plus-size models because she has worked her entire career to remain thin. Nathan takes Janice aside and explains to her that plus-size models are needed to keep the agency afloat. Janice lets Ivory know how pleased the client is with her and then has to leave. The plus-size models spark a spirited discussion among several of the existing models about diet, body type and weight issues. Xian in particular mentions that she is happy with her body and will not make herself unhealthy for the sake of modeling.\n", "Ruby Dhalla appeared in the film as a police officer, and was featured prominently on the film's promotional poster. She explained at the time of the film's release that her image had been digitally altered. \"They've contoured my body a bit,\" she said. \"In India, thin is not as in.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02376	Just how much less nutritious is food that has been frozen such as frozen fruits/meals	Calories should stay exactly the same. Mineral content will also be exactly the same. Some vitamins can be changed by various environmental factors including temperature. Vitamin C, for example, is degraded by exposure to oxygen. Freezing can actually help protect against oxidizing since liquid water more efficiently transports oxygen than frozen water. I honestly don't know chemistry details on most of the other vitamins, so hopefully someone else can weigh in there. Freezing will primarily change the texture of food. This happens mostly because cell walls and other microstructures in the food get destroyed by the expansion and crystallization of water when it freezes. This is why thawed frozen fruits are almost always more mushy than fresh fruits. This destruction will make the food degrade very fast after the food is thawed. This is why most frozen foods are meant to be eaten directly after defrost and often instruct you to avoid refreezing them. With frozen meals, the makers know that freezing will change textures to be less palatable. This is often alleviated by making meals that are heavily dependent on sauces which usually means adding considerable salt and simple sugars. Carb-heavy foods like potatoes are also more likely to reheat deliciously than most meats, fruits, and some veggies. This can make frozen meals tough to fit with some diet goals.	[ "A 1997 study performed by the University of Illinois, 2007 study performed by University of California - Davis and a 2003 Austrian study support that canned or frozen produce has no substantial nutritional difference not attributable to the presence of added salt, syrup or other flavouring, and in fact suggest that canned or frozen produce is nutritionally superior because of the very rapid deterioration of nutrients in fresh produce. \n", "Frozen vegetables have some advantages over fresh ones, in that they are available when the fresh counterpart is out-of-season, they have a very long shelf life when kept in a freezer and that they often have been processed a step or more closer to eating. In many cases, they may be more economical to purchase than their fresh counterparts.\n\nThe history of frozen fruits can date back to the Liao Dynasty of China, with the \"frozen\" pear being a classic delicacy eaten by the Khitan tribes in the Northeastern region of China.\n\nSection::::Health benefits and risks.\n", "Section::::Reaction.\n\nAccording to a study, an American consumes on average 71 frozen foods a year, most of which are pre-cooked frozen meals.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of frozen food brands\n\nBULLET::::- List of frozen dessert brands\n\nBULLET::::- List of ice cream brands\n\nBULLET::::- Refrigerator\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Arsdel, Wallace, B. Van, Michael, J Copley, and Robert, L. Olson. \"Quality and Stability of Frozen Foods: TIme-Temperature Tolerance and its Significance\". New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,INC, 1968.\n", "BULLET::::- Oxygen generators\n\nSection::::Effects on nutrients.\n\nSection::::Effects on nutrients.:Vitamin content of frozen foods.\n", "Because of its light weight per volume of reconstituted food, freeze-dried products are popular and convenient for hikers, as military rations, or astronaut meals. A greater amount of dried food can be carried compared the same weight of wet food. In replacement of wet food, freeze dried food can be easily be rehydrated with water if desired and shelf-life of the dried product is longer than fresh/wet product making it ideal for long trips taken by hikers, military personnel, or astronauts. The development of freeze drying increased meal and snack variety to include items like shrimp cocktail, chicken and vegetables, butterscotch pudding, and apple sauce.\n", "BULLET::::- Vitamin B (Thiamin): A vitamin loss of 25 percent is normal. Thiamin is easily soluble in water and is destroyed by heat.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin B (Riboflavin): Not much research has been done to see how much freezing affects Riboflavin levels. Studies that have been performed are inconclusive; one study found an 18 percent vitamin loss in green vegetables, while another determined a 4 percent loss. It is commonly accepted that the loss of Riboflavin has to do with the preparation for freezing rather than the actual freezing process itself.\n", "The freezing process tends to degrade the taste of food and the meals are thus heavily processed with extra salt and fat to compensate. In addition, stabilizing the product for a long period typically means that companies will use partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for some items (typically dessert). Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are high in trans fats and are shown to adversely affect cardiovascular health. The dinners are almost always significantly less nutritious than fresh food and are formulated to remain edible after long periods of storage, thus often requiring preservatives such as butylated hydroxytoluene. There is, however, some variability between brands.\n", "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nNatural food freezing (using winter frosts) had been in use by populations in cold climates for centuries.\n", "Frozen vegetables\n\nFrozen vegetables are vegetables that have had their temperature reduced and maintained to below their freezing point for the purpose of storage and transportation (often for far longer than their natural shelf life would permit) until they are ready to be eaten. They may be commercially packaged or frozen at home. A wide range of frozen vegetables are sold in supermarkets.\n", "Cryogenic or (flash freezing) of food is a more recent development, but is used by many leading food manufacturers all over the world. Cryogenic equipment uses very low temperature gases – usually liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide – which are applied directly to the food product.\n\nSection::::Packaging.\n\nFrozen food packaging must maintain its integrity throughout filling, sealing, freezing, storage, transportation, thawing, and often cooking. As many frozen foods are cooked in a microwave oven, manufacturers have developed packaging that can go straight from freezer to the microwave.\n", "An advantage that frozen vegetables have over canned is that many brands contain little or no added salt because the freezing process by itself is able to stop bacterial growth. However, many canned vegetable brands with little or no sodium have become available and many frozen brands do have salt added for more flavour.\n\nHowever, there may be some risk in eating poorly cooked frozen vegetables. For example, a 2007 Australian study found that frozen vegetables may contain a bacterium called Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) which is resistant to extreme cold and hot temperatures.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Frozen food\n", "Over the years, there has been controversy as to whether frozen vegetables are better or worse than fresh ones. Generally, reports show that frozen vegetables are as nutritionally beneficial when compared to fresh ones.\n", "Examples of frozen vegetables which can be found in supermarkets include spinach, broccoli, cauliflower, peas, corn, yam (in Asia) either packaged as a single ingredient or as mixtures. There are occasions when frozen vegetables are mixed with other food types, such as pasta or cheese.\n\nSome popular brands include Birds Eye, Sunbulah and Green Giant, as well as supermarkets' 'store brand' items.\n", "Small amounts of freeze-dried ingredients are sometimes available for sale from emergency supply outlets or from stores specific to camping. Freeze-dried ingredients that have not been combined into a meal are often hard to find, however, and are often sought out by campers.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Dehydrated meals & ingredients.\n\nDehydration can reduce the weight of the food by sixty to ninety percent by removing water through evaporation. Some foods dehydrate well, such as onions, peppers, and tomatoes. Dehydration often produces a more compact, albeit slightly heavier, end result than freeze-drying.\n", "The speed of the freezing has a direct impact on the size and the number of ice crystals formed within a food product's cells and extracellular space. Slow freezing leads to fewer but larger ice crystals while fast freezing leads to smaller but more numerous ice crystals. Large ice crystals can puncture the walls of the cells of the food product which will cause a degradation of the texture of the product as well as the loss of its natural juices during thawing. That is why there will be a qualitative difference observed between food products frozen by ventilated mechanical freezing, non-ventilated mechanical freezing or cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen.\n", "More advanced attempts include food frozen for Eleanor Roosevelt on her trip to Russia. Other experiments, involving orange juice, ice cream and vegetables were conducted by the military near the end of World War II.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n\nThe freezing technique itself, just like the frozen food market, is developing to become faster, more efficient and more cost-effective.\n", "In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle-class working wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence Birdseye) found their success in sales of juice concentrates and \"TV dinners\". Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and this same appeal contributes to the success of convenience foods today.\n\nSection::::Benefits and drawbacks.\n\nSection::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Benefits.\n", "In planning for the long-duration Apollo missions, NASA conducted extensive research into space food. One of the techniques developed in 1938 by Nestlé was freeze drying. In the United States, Action Products later commercialized this technique for other foods, concentrating on snack food resulting in products like Space ice cream. The foods are cooked, quickly frozen, and then slowly heated in a vacuum chamber to remove the ice crystals formed by the freezing process. The final product retains 98% of its nutrition and weighs much less than before drying. The ratio of weight before and after drying depends strongly on the particular food item but a typical freeze-dried weight is 20% of the original weight.\n", "In general, boiling vegetables can cause them to lose vitamins. Thus, the process of blanching does have deleterious effects on some nutrients. In particular, vitamin C and folic acid are susceptible to loss during the commercial process, and canned or frozen broccoli for instance loses the entirety of its most valuable nutrient. In addition, studies have shown that thawing frozen vegetables before cooking can accelerate the loss of vitamin C.\n", "Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Boiling.\n", "Temperature data loggers and time temperature indicators can record the temperature history of a shipment to help estimate their remaining shelf life.\n\nAccording to the USDA, \"foods kept frozen continuously are safe indefinitely.\"\n\nSection::::Packaging.\n", "BULLET::::- [∗∗] : min temperature = . Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is 1 month\n\nBULLET::::- [∗∗∗] : min temperature = . Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is between 3 and 12 months depending on type (meat, vegetables, fish, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- [∗∗∗∗] : min temperature = . Maximum storage time for pre-frozen or frozen-from-fresh food is between 3 and 12 months\n", "These processes have the advantage that preparation and cooking of meals is not tied to the times when the food is to be served, enabling staff and equipment to be used more efficiently. A properly managed operation is capable of supplying high quality meals economically despite high initial equipment costs. There are potential problems; careful attention has to be paid to hygiene, as there are a number of points in the process where food pathogens can gain access. This requires careful attention to both the control of the process and to staff training.\n\nSection::::Scientific use.\n", "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n", "BULLET::::- Vitamin C: Usually lost in a higher concentration than any other vitamin. A study was performed on peas to determine the cause of vitamin C loss. A vitamin loss of ten percent occurred during the blanching phase with the rest of the loss occurring during the cooling and washing stages. The vitamin loss was not actually accredited to the freezing process. Another experiment was performed involving peas and lima beans. Frozen and canned vegetables were both used in the experiment. The frozen vegetables were stored at and the canned vegetables were stored at room temperature . After 0, 3, 6, and 12 months of storage, the vegetables were analyzed with and without cooking. O'Hara, the scientist performing the experiment said, \"From the view point of the vitamin content of the two vegetables when they were ready for the plate of the consumer, there did not appear to be any marked advantages attributable to method of preservation, frozen storage, processed in a tin, or processed in glass.\"\n" ]	[ "Frozen food is less nutritious.", "Frozen food is less nutritious than fresh food." ]	[ "Frozen food can be just as nutritious, it just changes texture which can affect the taste.", "Frozen food is just as nutritious as fresh food. It is only the texture and ability of the food to last after thawing that changes." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Frozen food is less nutritious.", "Frozen food is less nutritious than fresh food." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Frozen food can be just as nutritious, it just changes texture which can affect the taste.", "Frozen food is just as nutritious as fresh food. It is only the texture and ability of the food to last after thawing that changes." ]
2018-13250	why can you feel a large thunderclap shake the floor?	It's vibrating through air. If you're really close the vibrations can reach the floor and shake it	[ "Section::::Echo.\n\nClapping hands or snapping one’s fingers whilst standing next to perpendicular sheets of corrugated iron (for example, in a fence) will produce a high-pitched echo with a rapidly falling pitch. This is due to a sequence of echoes from adjacent corrugations. \n", "Intra-cloud lightning most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so-called \"sheet lightning\". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.\n", "A 20-year-old man in Busti, New York, shot of Tannerite on January 13, 2013, that sent a particularly \"loud boom\" through much of southern Chautauqua County, New York, and extending as far south as Pennsylvania, at least 3 miles away. Multiple other sounds of explosions were also reported in the incident. The explosive noise caused numerous phone calls to the Chautauqua County Sheriff's Office, the New York State Police, and other law enforcement in the area.\n", "Small objects or structures can be attached directly to the shaker table. With some types of shakers, an armature is often attached to the body to be tested by way of piano wire (pulling force) or stinger (Pushing force). When the signal is transmitted through the piano wire or the stinger, the object responds the same way as impact testing, by attenuating some and amplifying certain frequencies. These frequencies are measured as modal frequencies. Usually a load cell is placed between the shaker and the structure to obtain the excitation force.\n", "“...if you listen carefully, you may just hear the essence of tremors emanating from that town placed right in ‘the middle of nowhere’. You see, they make them loud in Westville. “\n\nSection::::History.:2012.\n", "Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, kinetic theory dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a shock wave audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by acoustic echoing from terrain, and by the usually multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.\n", "Residents of the worst affected areas, including parts of Shrewsbury, reported lateral shaking and swaying to the walls of their houses at the height of the tremor, which was preceded and then accompanied by a rumbling noise that gained strength over a period of 15 to 30 seconds before reaching and sustaining peak intensity during the most severe shaking. Finally, the movement and accompanying sound tailed off much more rapidly than it had first built up, stopping altogether within just a few seconds from the peak activity.\n", "Seismic glass-break detectors, generally referred to as shock sensors, are different in that they are installed on the glass pane. When glass breaks it produces specific shock frequencies which travel through the glass and often through the window frame and the surrounding walls and ceiling. Typically, the most intense frequencies generated are between 3 and 5 kHz, depending on the type of glass and the presence of a plastic interlayer. Seismic glass-break detectors feel these shock frequencies and in turn generate an alarm condition.\n", "Zapdos is always seen in conjunction with thunderstorms, because it gathers energy from the electricity in the atmosphere, and is said to live in such clouds. It also causes massive crackling and snapping sounds when it flies; these are contributed to the lightning bolts it is said to shed when airborne.\n\nSection::::Appearances.\n\nSection::::Appearances.:In the video games.\n", "Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation. Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects.\n", "Section::::Natural modes.\n\nThe sound wave has reflections at the walls, floor and ceiling of the room. The incident wave then has interference with the reflected one. This action creates standing waves that generate nodes and high pressure zones.\n", "British occultist Aleister Crowley reported witnessing what he referred to as \"globular electricity\" during a thunderstorm on Lake Pasquaney in New Hampshire in 1916. He was sheltered in a small cottage when he \"noticed, with what I can only describe as calm amazement, that a dazzling globe of electric fire, apparently between six and twelve inches (15–30 cm) in diameter, was stationary about six inches below and to the right of my right knee. As I looked at it, it exploded with a sharp report quite impossible to confuse with the continuous turmoil of the lightning, thunder and hail, or that of the lashed water and smashed wood which was creating a pandemonium outside the cottage. I felt a very slight shock in the middle of my right hand, which was closer to the globe than any other part of my body.\"\n", "The story was parodied in the \"Time and Punishment\" section of \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Treehouse of Horror V\".\n\nSection::::Influence.\n", "There is a legend that on the day of the 1957 earthquake, Dr. Leonardo Zeevaert was inspecting something or other on the roof of the tower, and that he got to see and feel how his tower withstood the quake while the surrounding buildings collapsed. The truth is that during the September, 1985 earthquake, which took place at 7:19, Adolfo Zeevaert was already inside his office on the 25th floor. From that vantage point he was able to witness the destruction taking place while several buildings collapsed and the dust cloud that followed, all the while feeling the movement inside the tower. It could arguably be said that it was the first time that a builder and designer of a tall building witnessed firsthand its behavior during a powerful earthquake.\n", "In his books, Orfeo Angelucci says he was particularly terrified of thunderstorms and was attracted to California because he had heard that thunderstorms were very rare there. Angelucci wrote the first version of his theories of matter, energy and life, \"The Nature of Infinite Entities\" in 1952, based on \"research\" done earlier in Trenton, including the launching of a giant cluster of weather balloons.\n", "Cloud-ground lightning typically consist of two or more return strokes, from ground to cloud. Later return strokes have greater acoustic energy than the first.\n\nSection::::Perception.\n", "The ESA and NASA spacecraft SOHO records sunquakes as part of its mission to study the Sun.\n\nSection::::Starquake.\n", "Infrasound\n\nInfrasound, sometimes referred to as low-frequency sound, is sound that is lower in frequency than 20 Hz or cycles per second, the \"normal\" limit of human hearing. Hearing becomes gradually less sensitive as frequency decreases, so for humans to perceive infrasound, the sound pressure must be sufficiently high. The ear is the primary organ for sensing infrasound, but at higher intensities it is possible to feel infrasound vibrations in various parts of the body.\n", "Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around the base of the tower.\n", "Dear Uncle Ezra,\n\nWhat is that sound coming from the Johnson Museum? It's a pingy type sound that I guess could be some kind of wind chime but it seems like it's coming from the building itself.\n\n— Just wondering\n\nDear Chiming In,\n", "BULLET::::- Thermonuclear explosions by providing extra material for electrical conduction and a very turbulent localized atmosphere, have been seen triggering lightning flashes within the mushroom cloud. In addition, intense gamma radiation from large nuclear explosions may develop intensely charged regions in the surrounding air through Compton scattering. The intensely charged space charge regions create multiple clear-air lightning discharges shortly after the device detonates.\n\nSection::::Scientific study.\n\nSection::::Scientific study.:Properties.\n\nThunder is heard as a rolling, gradually dissipating rumble because the sound from different portions of a long stroke arrives at slightly different times.\n", "The most prominent figure in the creation of the place theory of hearing is Hermann von Helmholtz, who published his finished theory in 1885. Helmholtz claimed that the cochlea contained individual fibers for analyzing each pitch and delivering that information to the brain. Many followers revised and added to Helmholtz's theory and the consensus soon became that high frequency sounds were encoded near the base of the cochlea and that middle frequency sounds were encoded near the apex. Georg von Békésy developed a novel method of dissecting the inner ear and using stroboscopic illumination to observe the basilar membrane move, adding evidence to support the theory.\n", "A diminished sense of vibration is known as \"pallhypesthesia\". To determine whether a patient has diminished or absent pallesthesia, testing can be conducted using a tuning fork at 128 Hz by placing it on the skin overlying a bone. This works because bones are good resonators of vibrations.\n\nSection::::Receptors.\n", "A very bright flash of lightning and an almost simultaneous sharp \"crack\" of thunder, a \"thundercrack\", therefore indicates that the lightning strike was very near.\n\nClose-in lightning has been described first as a clicking or cloth-tearing sound, then a cannon shot sound or loud crack/snap, followed by continuous rumbling. The early sounds are from the leader parts of lightning, then the near parts of the return stroke, then the distant parts of the return stroke.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Thunderbolt\n\nBULLET::::- Thunderstorm\n\nBULLET::::- Brontophobia (fear of thunder)\n\nBULLET::::- Castle Thunder sound effect\n\nBULLET::::- Lightning\n\nBULLET::::- List of thunder gods\n\nBULLET::::- Mistpouffers\n", "Wind shear can have a pronounced effect upon sound propagation in the lower atmosphere, where waves can be \"bent\" by refraction phenomenon. The audibility of sounds from distant sources, such as thunder or gunshots, is very dependent on the amount of shear. The result of these differing sound levels is key in noise pollution considerations, for example from roadway noise and aircraft noise, and must be considered in the design of noise barriers. This phenomenon was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s, contributing to the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07020	Cars) Why can't cylinder deactivation be used at idle?	Idle can be defined as the lowest rpm at which an engine will operate. It will turn no slower without stopping. So at that low speed it needs all the cylinders firing smoothly.	[ "The 'dead centre' of a piston engine with cranks is when the piston is at the \"exact\" top or bottom of the stroke and so the piston cannot exert any torque on the crankshaft. If a steam engine stops on dead centre, it will be unable to restart from that position.\n", "In order to deactivate a cylinder, the exhaust valve is prevented from opening after the power stroke and the exhaust gas charge is retained in the cylinder and compressed during the exhaust stroke. Following the exhaust stroke, the intake valve is prevented from opening. The exhaust gas in the cylinder is expanded and compressed over and over again and acts like a gas spring. As multiple cylinders are shut off at a time (cylinders 1, 4, 6 and 7 for a V8), the power required for compression of the exhaust gas in one cylinder is countered by the decompression of retained exhaust gas in another. When more power is called for, the exhaust valve is reactivated and the old exhaust gas is expelled during the exhaust stroke. The intake valve is likewise reactivated and normal engine operation is resumed. The net effect of cylinder deactivation is an improvement in fuel economy and likewise a reduction in exhaust emissions. General Motors was the first to modify existing, production engines to enable cylinder deactivation, with the introduction of the Cadillac \"L62\" \"V8-6-4\" in 1981.\n", "Musgrave's solution was more complex: using two cylinders, additional connecting rod linkages, and geometry to avoid the problem.\n\nDead centre is rarely a problem for internal combustion engines, as these usually require cranking over to provide cylinder compression and so do not attempt to self-start from stationary. Some large stationary diesel engines, where these used a compressed air starting mechanism, have suffered from the problem of dead centres and so used a small manual barring gear.\n\nSection::::Geometry.\n", "Section::::Present.\n\nThere are currently two main types of cylinder deactivation mechanizations used today, depending on the type of the engine's valvetrain. The first is for pushrod designs which uses solenoids to alter oil pressure delivered to lock pins in the lifters. With lock pin out of place, the lifters are collapsed and unable to elevate their companion pushrods under the valve rocker arms, resulting in valves that remain closed when the cam pushes on the part in lost motion. \n", "Several solutions to this have been applied. One of the simplest is to try not to stop in this position, the crudest to apply a strong arm with a crowbar to turn the engine over a little. Small steam barring engines were also used to move the engine away from dead centre before starting. If the engine has multiple cylinders, most geometries for these are arranged so that all cylinders are never at dead centre together and so one may always be used for starting.\n", "Thus, a high-powered, large-displacement engine is highly inefficient and wasteful when being used for normal driving conditions. This is the motivation for cylinder deactivation, to effectively spread the work load of the engine over fewer active cylinders which then operate under higher individual loads and therefore at higher efficiency.\n\nSection::::Pumping loss.\n", "In 2012 Volkswagen introduced \"Active Cylinder Technology\" (ACT), the first manufacturer to do so in 4-cylinder engines.\n\nIn November 2016 Ford announced its compact 3 cylinder Ecoboost engine with deactivation on one of the cylinders. This is the smallest engine so far to use deactivation, and will allow the benefits to be applied in small cars. \n\nIn November 2017, Mazda announced standard cylinder deactivation in all 2018 CX-5 models, and availability on Mazda6 models. \n\nSection::::Related technologies.\n", "In the past, the engine break-in period was very important to the overall life and durability of the engine. The break-in period required has changed over the years with improved piston ring materials and designs. In reference to small engines, the break-in period now (5-10 hours) is short in comparison with that of engines of the past. Aluminum cylinder bore engine piston rings break-in faster than those used on cast iron cylinder bores. \n\nSection::::Engine break-in.:Preparation.\n", "A so-called \"pumping loss\" is also cited as causing extra work for the engine to do under partial load conditions because the pistons have to work harder to suck in the fuel-air mixture when the throttle position results in low intake-manifold pressure. Under this scenario, deactivating some of the cylinders allows the remaining active ones to have less manifold vacuum to overcome during the intake stroke.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "Steam locomotives normally have at least two double acting cylinders, which enables the cranks to be set so that at least one piston will always be off the dead centre and no starting assistance is required. In the common case of a two piston locomotive, the cranks are set at right angles, so that whenever one piston is at dead centre the other is in mid-stroke, and giving four equally spaced power strokes per revolution. \n\nSection::::Other machines.\n", "This is why port/runner volumes are so important; the volumes of successive parts of the port/runner control the flow during all transition periods. That is, any time a change occurs in the cylinder – whether positive or negative – such as when the piston reaches maximum speed.\n", "More generally, the dead centre is any position of a crank where the applied force is straight along its axis, meaning no turning force can be applied. Many sorts of machines are crank driven, including unicycles, bicycles, tricycles, various types of machine presses, gasoline engines, diesel engines, steam locomotives, and other steam engines. Crank-driven machines rely on the energy stored in a flywheel to overcome the dead centre, or are designed, in the case of multi-cylinder engines, so that dead centres can never exist on all cranks at the same time. A steam locomotive is an example of the latter, the connecting rods being arranged such that the dead centre for each cylinder occurs out of phase with the other one (or more) cylinders.\n", "The main area of controversy among engine break-in instructions is whether to run the engine slowly or quickly to initiate the process. Those who promote raising the power settings steadily will recommend changing the engine setting from low to high powers as to not work the engine too hard and create excessive wear on the cylinder wall (which would require the pistons to be removed and wall fixed). Other experts disagree and believe that to start the engine at a high power is the best way to effectively set in the pistons. The following are examples of how the two processes can be carried out:\n", "Some modern consumer-grade small engines use a monobloc design where the cylinder head, block, and half the crankcase share the same casting. One reason for this, apart from cost, is to produce an overall lower engine height. The disadvantage can be that repairs become more time-consuming and perhaps impractical. \n\nAn example of engines with integrated cylinder heads are the Honda GC-series and GXV-series engines, which are sometimes called \"Uniblock\" by Honda.\n\nSection::::Monoblocs.:Integrated transmission.\n", "Many designs also shut off the internal combustion engine when it is not needed in order to save energy. That concept is not unique to hybrids; Subaru pioneered this feature in the early 1980s, and the Volkswagen Lupo 3L is one example of a conventional vehicle that shuts off its engine when at a stop. Some provision must be made, however, for accessories such as air conditioning which are normally driven by the engine. Furthermore, the lubrication systems of internal combustion engines are inherently least effective immediately after the engine starts; since it is upon startup that the majority of engine wear occurs, the frequent starting and stopping of such systems reduce the lifespan of the engine considerably. Also, start and stop cycles may reduce the engine's ability to operate at its optimum temperature, thus reducing the engine's efficiency.\n", "If an internal combustion engine hydrolocks while idling or under low power conditions, the engine may stop suddenly with no immediate damage. In this case the engine can often be purged by unscrewing the spark plugs or injectors and turning the engine over to expel the liquid from the combustion chambers after which a restart may be attempted. Depending on how the liquid was introduced to the engine, it possibly can be restarted and dried out with normal combustion heat, or it may require more work, such as flushing out contaminated operating fluids and replacing damaged gaskets.\n", "There is less, if any, advantage for ongoing servicing during the life of the car. Some aspects have clear disadvantages, particularly when previous simple servicing operations are made more complicated. This is acceptable because of the greatly increased intervals between major servicing for modern cars. Many cars today will go for their entire lifetimes of over 100 thousand miles without having their engine removed or dismantled.\n\nSpecific disadvantages are:\n", "The need for barring the engine during starting is most obvious on single-cylinder engines, where a careless engine operator might stop the engine with the piston in or near dead center. Once stopped in this state, the engine cannot be started under its own power, so it must be barred to a more favorable position for starting.\n", "An alternative solution was the monobloc engine, where the block and head were formed as one piece. This solved the sealing problem, but complicated manufacture and maintenance. Particularly when routine maintenance still required frequent head removal for de-coking, on a monobloc engine this required the removal of the pistons from the crankshaft end beneath.\n", "It consisted of two fixed discs, secured to the valve spindle, and two junk rings, each carrying a Bull ring and four valve rings and both free to move longitudinally on the spindle. When the regulator is opened, steam forces the loose valve bodies against their respective fixed discs, and they then act as units similar to ordinary piston valves. When steam is shut off, the loose valve heads become detached from their respective discs and remain in their idle positions near the centre of the steam chest, while the valve spindle and fixed disks continue their reciprocating motion with the spindle sliding freely through the now stationary loose valve heads, and with the steam and exhaust ports now in communication. With both ends of the cylinders now in communication, the use of ordinary by-bass or snifting valves became unnecessary.\n", "Section::::Engine break-in.:Goal.\n\nThe goal of modern engine break-ins is the settling of piston rings into an engine's cylinder wall. A cylinder wall is not perfectly smooth but has a deliberate slight roughness to help oil adhesion. As the engine is powered up, the piston rings between the pistons and cylinder wall will begin to seal against the wall's small ridges. \n", "Section::::Problems.\n\nThere were a number of issues with the Gresley gear. \n\nBecause the conjugation apparatus was mounted at the opposite end of the valve spindles from the valve gear, as the valve spindles lengthened with the heat of steam in the cylinders the valve timing would be affected, and the gear would need to be removed before it was possible to remove valves for maintenance. However, the B17 Class \"Footballer\"/\"Sandringham\" 4-6-0s avoided this particular problem by being designed with the conjugated gear behind, rather than in front of, the cylinders. \n", "In the processes 1–2 the piston does work on the gas and in process 3–4 the gas does work on the piston during those isentropic compression and expansion processes, respectively. Processes 2–3 and 4–1 are isochoric processes; heat is transferred into the system from 2—3 and out of the system from 4—1 but no work is done on the system or extracted from the system during those processes. No work is done during an isochoric (constant volume) process because addition or removal of work from a system requires the movement of the boundaries of the system; hence, as the cylinder volume does not change, no shaft work is added to or removed from the system.\n", "Dead centre (engineering)\n\nIn a reciprocating engine, the dead centre is the position of a piston in which it is either farthest from, or nearest to, the crankshaft. The former is known as top dead centre (TDC) while the latter is known as bottom dead centre (BDC).\n", "As with the 2-10-2, the major problem with the 2-6-2 is that these engines have a symmetrical wheel layout, with the centre of gravity almost over the centre driving wheel. The reciprocation rods, when working near the centre of gravity, induce severe side-to-side nosing which results in intense instability if unrestrained either by a long wheelbase or by the leading and trailing trucks. Though some engines, like the Chicago and Great Western of 1903, had the connecting rod aligned onto the third driver, most examples were powered via the second driver and were prone to the nosing problem.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Australia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20049	Why does a red sky at night mean sailor’s delight, while a red sky in morning means sailors take warning?	The rhyme is a rule of thumb used for weather forecasting during the past two millennia. It is based on the reddish glow of the morning or evening sky, caused by haze or clouds related to storms in the region.[2][3][5] If the morning skies are red, it is because clear skies over the horizon to the east permit the sun to light the undersides of moisture-bearing clouds. The saying assumes that more such clouds are coming in from the west. Conversely, in order to see red clouds in the evening, sunlight must have a clear path from the west, so therefore the prevailing westerly wind must be bringing clear skies. There are occasions where a storm system might rain itself out before reaching the observer (who had seen the morning red sky). For ships at sea however, the wind and rough seas from an approaching storm system could still be a problem, even without rainfall. Source: Wikipedia following a quick search.	[ "Red sky at morning\n\nThe common phrase \"red sky at morning\" is a line from an ancient rhyme often repeated by mariners:\n\npoem\n\nRed sky at night, sailors' delight.\n\nRed sky at morning, sailors take warning\n\n/poem\n\nThe concept is over two thousand years old and is referenced in the New Testament as established wisdom that prevailed among the Jews of the Second Temple Period by Jesus in . \n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "This saying actually has some scientific validity, although it assumes storms systems will approach from the west, and is therefore generally correct only at mid-latitudes where, due to the rotation of the Earth, prevailing winds travel west to east. If the morning skies are red, it is because clear skies over the horizon to the east permit the sun to light the undersides of moisture-bearing clouds. Conversely, in order to see red clouds in the evening, sunlight must have a clear path from the west, so therefore the prevailing westerly wind must be bringing clear skies.\n\nSection::::Bad luck.:Jonah.\n", "There are variations of the phrase, some including the plural word \"sailors\":\n\npoem\n\nRed sky at night, sailors' delight.\n\nRed sky at morning, sailors' warning.\n\n/poem\n\nAnother version uses the word \"shepherds\":\n\npoem\n\nRed sky at night, shepherds' delight.\n\nRed sky in the morning, shepherds' warning.\n\n/poem\n\nAnother version uses \"pink\" in place of \"red\":\n\npoem\n\nPink sky at night, sailors' delight.\n\nPink sky in the morning, sailors' take warning.\n\n/poem\n\nAnother version uses \"forlorn\" in place of \"warning\":\n\npoem\n\nRed sky at night, sailors' delight.\n\nRed sky in the morn', sailors' forlorn.\n\n/poem\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Diffraction\n", "Sailors are taught if the sunrise is red to take warning. The day ahead will be dangerous.\n\n\"Red Sky at night, Sailors delight; Red Sky in the morning, Sailors take warning.\"\n", "The rhyme is a rule of thumb used for weather forecasting during the past two millennia. It is based on the reddish glow of the morning or evening sky, caused by haze or clouds related to storms in the region. If the morning skies are red, it is because clear skies over the horizon to the east permit the sun to light the undersides of moisture-bearing clouds. The saying assumes that more such clouds are coming in from the west. Conversely, in order to see red clouds in the evening, sunlight must have a clear path from the west, so therefore the prevailing westerly wind must be bringing clear skies.\n", "Red Sky at Morning\n\nRed Sky at Morning may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red sky at morning\", part of a common verse meant to help predict weather\n\nBULLET::::- Literature\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky at Morning\" (Speth book), a 2004 book by James Gustave Speth\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky at Morning\" (Bradford novel), a 1968 novel by Richard Bradford\n\nBULLET::::- Film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky at Morning\" (1971 film), a film based on the Bradford novel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky at Morning\" (1944 film), a drama by Australian author Dymphna Cusack\n\nBULLET::::- Other uses\n", "There are occasions where a storm system might rain itself out before reaching the observer (who had seen the morning red sky). For ships at sea however, the wind and rough seas from an approaching storm system could still be a problem, even without rainfall.\n\nBecause of different prevailing wind patterns around the globe, the traditional rhyme is generally not correct at lower latitudes of both hemispheres, where prevailing winds are from east to west. The rhyme is generally correct at mid-latitudes where, due to the rotation of the Earth, prevailing winds travel west to east.\n\nSection::::Other versions.\n", "When weather systems predominantly move from west to east, a red sky at night indicates that the high pressure air (and better weather) is westwards. In the morning the light is eastwards, and so a red sky then indicates the high pressure (and better weather) has already passed, and an area of low pressure is following behind.\n\nSection::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Low pressure regions.\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:When Clouds Look Like Black Smoke.\n\nThick, moisture laden storm clouds absorb sunlight. It gives them an appearance that somewhat resembles black smoke.\n\nSection::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Red sky at night.\n", "According to the university, the Latin motto \"Sidere mens eadem mutato\" can be translated to \"the stars change, the mind remains the same.\" Francis Merewether, later Vice Provost, in 1857 proposed \"Coelum non animum mutant\" from Horace (Ep.1.11.27) but after objections changed it to a metrical version including \"Sidus\" (Star), a neat reference to the Southern Cross and perhaps the Sydney family link with Sir Philip Sidney's \"Astrophel (Star-Lover) & Stella (Star)\". Author and university alumnus Clive James quipped in his 1981 autobiography that the motto loosely implies \"Sydney University is really Oxford or Cambridge laterally displaced approximately 12,000 miles.\"\n", "Another example would be Qantas flights from Los Angeles to Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne, and flights from Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport to Sydney), generally leaving 10 pm to 11 pm and arriving from 5 am to 8 am. While they do fly during the night - this is more a product of large time zone differences - the flights take around 15 hours (giving more time to sleep) and westward flight stretches out the local length of day and night. Furthermore, as the flight crosses the International Date Line, flights arrive roughly 2 days later in local time\n\nSection::::Examples.:Brazil.\n", "Red Sky at Morning is a 1968 novel by Richard Bradford. It was made into a 1971 film of the same name. The book follows Josh Arnold, a young man whose family relocates from Mobile, Alabama to Corazon Sagrado, New Mexico during World War II. It was regarded as a \"true delight\" (\"Washington Post Book World\") and a \"novel of consequence\" (\"New York Times Book Review\"). Today, it is still regarded as a classic coming-of-age story. The title of the novel comes from a line in an ancient mariner's rhyme, \"\"Red sky at morning, sailor take warning\"\".\n\nSection::::Characters/Plot details.\n", "Other phrases in weather lore take mackerel skies as a sign of changeable weather. Examples include \"Mackerel sky, mackerel sky. Never long wet and never long dry\", and \"A dappled sky, like a painted woman, soon changes its face\".\n", "The meaning of this verse is that if Asellus Borealis or Gamma Cancris is hidden by clouds, the wind will be from the south and that situation will be reversed if Asellus Australis is obscured. There is some doubt however as to the accuracy of this as Allen notes: \"Our modern Weather Bureau would probably tell us that if one of these stars were thus concealed, the other also would be.\" (Allen, 1898)\n", "Section::::Origin of E.T..\n", "The Dawning of the Day\n\n\"The Dawning of the Day\" (, literally \"The bright ring of the day\") is the name of two old Irish airs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fáinne Geal an Lae\" (sometimes called \"The Golden Star\"), an air composed by the harpist Thomas Connellan in the 17th century.\n", "Sharp cites Baring-Gould's suggestion of an astronomical mnemonic, the Gemini twins (Castor and Pollux) or \"signs for Spring\". In support of this, Gemini is the northernmost constellation in the zodiac, therefore high in the winter sky in the northern hemisphere where the Aurora Borealis on occasion clothes the heavenly twins in green.\n", "Red Sky at Morning (1971 film)\n\nRed Sky at Morning is a 1971 American drama film based on the 1968 Richard Bradford novel of the same name. Directed by James Goldstone, it stars Richard Thomas, Catherine Burns, and Desi Arnaz, Jr.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nThe film follows Josh Arnold (Thomas), whose family relocates to Corazon Sagrado, New Mexico during World War II. The title of the book/film comes from a line in an ancient mariner's rhyme, \"\"Red sky at morning, sailor take warning\"\"\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Thomas as Joshua Arnold\n\nBULLET::::- Catherine Burns as Marcia Davidson\n", "Section::::Popular culture.\n\nIn 1624, German astronomer Jakob Bartsch equated the constellation Argo Navis with Noah's Ark, linking Corvus and Columba to the crow and dove that feature in the story in Genesis.\n", "5. Variation on a Theme from the James Tourish Collection \n", "Research published in 2018 demonstrated that Ngarrindjeri Aboriginal people from South Australia observed the variability of Antares and incorporated it into their oral traditions as Waiyungari (meaning 'red man').\n\nSection::::Observation.:Occultations and Conjunctions.\n", "Red Sky\n\nRed Sky may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky\" (EP), an EP by Thrice\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Skies\", a song by the Fixx from \"Shuttered Room\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky\" (song), a song by Status Quo from \"In the Army Now\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky\" (2011 film), a 2011 Greek film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky\" (2014 film), an action film directed by Mario Van Peebles\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky\" (\"Stargate SG-1\"), an episode of \"Stargate SG-1\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red Sky Music Festival, a music festival in Omaha, Nebraska, USA\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Sky\", an episode of \"V\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red Skies\", a novel by Jenny Oldfield\n", "Red Sky in the Morning\n\nRed Sky in the Morning is a young adult novel by Elizabeth Laird, first published in 1988. The novel was published as \"Loving Ben\" in its initial American release.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Noted critic Leslie Rees wrote of the play that:\n", "BULLET::::- \"French and English Tragedy\" (1823), magazine article by the Rev. George Croly. Croley, in describing the white nights of St. Petersburg, writes \"To the ordinary eye the heavens, though clear, are almost starless; only brilliants like \"Vega\" and Arcturus have power to make an impression upon the retina. Summer midnight in the Russian capital is thus a simple twilight...\" (sky)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01614	when playing music at a rock show, what's the purpose of feeding a loudspeaker back into a microphone?	Guitar amps & speakers aren't like stereo amps & speakers. They tend to color (or even distort) the sounds coming out of them based on how loud they are. If a guitarist likes the amp sitting at a "6" but you need a "9" to be heard, it will ruin the sound. You also need to consider that guitar amps just aren't big enough to give you good sound in a large club or stadium. To get that level of volume, you need PA system with much larger amplifiers (that, ideally, don't distort sounds). If you mic up all the guitar amps, you can run it all through a central mixing board where the sound guy and make sure everyone's playing at the right volume to sound good everywhere in the venue.	[ "BULLET::::- In room miking a distant mic, referred to as the room mic, is used in conjunction with a close mic, \"typically placed far enough past the critical distance in a room that the room's ambience and reverberations transduce at an equivalent, if not greater, volume than the sound source itself.\" Ubiquitous in pop, it is the industry standard for tracking rhythm guitars in rock. A \"celebrated\" example is the rhythm guitar on Led Zeppelin's \"Communication Breakdown\" while other examples include John Frusciante's electric guitar parts on \"BloodSugarSexMagik\", Noel Gallagher's lead-guitar on \"Champagne Supernova\", and Billy Corgan's guitar on \"Cherub Rock\", \"Today\", \"Bullet With Butterfly Wings\", \"Zero\", and \"Fuck You (An Ode To No One)\".\n", "In the studio and on stage, pop-screens and foam shields can be useful for reasons of hygiene, and protecting microphones from spittle and sweat. They can also be useful coloured idents. On location the basket shield can contain a suspension system to isolate the microphone from shock and handling noise.\n", "In some styles of music, drummers use electronic effects on drums, such as individual noise gates that mute the attached microphone when the signal is below a threshold volume. This allows the sound engineer to use a higher overall volume for the drum kit by reducing the number of \"active\" mics which could produce unwanted feedback at any one time. When a drum kit is entirely miked and amplified through the sound reinforcement system, the drummer or the sound engineer can add other electronic effects to the drum sound, such as reverb or digital delay.\n", "In \"miking\" a drum kit, dynamic microphones, which can handle high sound-pressure levels, are usually used to close-mic drums, which is the predominant way to mic drums for live shows. Condenser microphones are used for overheads and room mics, an approach which is more common with sound recording applications. Close miking of drums may be done using stands or by mounting the microphones on the rims of the drums, or even using microphones built into the drum itself, which eliminates the need for stands for these microphones, reducing both clutter and set-up time, as well as isolating them.\n", "those mics which gives you a nice depth of field on the strings due to mic bleed (i.e., strings \n\nbleeding into the brass mics on the other side of the stage)″. For some Classical recordings, the spacious sound of mic bleed is simulated. The ″SPACE programming module... uses delay and phasing to emulate positioning and microphone bleed within a heavily multi-miked sound stage that has come to define that [orchestral] film score sound we are all used to hearing″.\n", "A number of accessories make microphone stands more useful. Most of these are designed to get the microphone closer to the user without placing the upright portion of the stand directly in front of the performer.\n", "The band's recording gear and methods were profiled in a 2003 article in \"Electronic Musician\", in which it was noted that they recorded many of their guitar arrangements (played at that time on a 1960s Italian Eko Edsel) through microphones, rather than through a DI unit.\n", "BULLET::::- In ambient or distant miking, a microphone — typically a sensitive one — is placed at some distance from the sound source. The goal of this technique is to get a broader, natural mix of the sound source or sources, along with ambient sound, including reverberation from the room or hall. Example include The Jesus and Mary Chain's \"Psychocandy\" (excepting the vocals), Robert Plant's vocals on songs from \"Physical Graffiti\", Tom Waits's lead vocals on his \"junkyard\" records, and Mick Jagger's lead-vocals on songs from \"Exile On Main Street\".\n", "The technique is especially useful for \"softening\" stereo drum tracks. By pointing the monitors away from each other and miking each speaker individually, the stereo image can be well preserved and a new sense of \"depth\" can be added to the track. It is important for audio engineers to check that the microphones being used are in phase to avoid problems with the mix.\n\nSection::::Example.\n", "Playing back a signal from recording studio equipment directly into a guitar amplifier can cause unwanted side-effects such as input-stage distortion, treble loss or overemphasis, and ground-loop hum; thus there is sometimes a need for impedance conversion, level-matching, and ground alteration. Like running a guitar signal through a guitar effects pedal that is set to Bypass, re-amping introduces some degree of sonic degradation compared to playing a guitar live directly into a guitar amp rig.\n", "BULLET::::- 1974: Loudspeaker - Sensurround movie sound system for \"Earthquake\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1974: Loudspeaker - Dolby Stereo 70 mm Six Track\n\nBULLET::::- 1975: Loudspeaker - touring - McCune JM-3 John Meyer\n\nBULLET::::- 1979: Loudspeaker - Meyer Sound Laboratories - Grateful Dead wall of sound\n\nBULLET::::- 1983: Loudspeaker - THX movie sound system for \"Star Wars\"\n\nSection::::Transportation support.\n\nEfficient and timely transportation is essential for live event productions.\n\nSection::::Transportation support.:Touring packaging.\n", "It was at WEXL in 1962 that 16-year-old staff engineer Ed Wolfrum incorporated his newly created passive direct interface box – later known at the \"Wolfbox\" when he went to \"Motown\" – as an interface from the high-impedance output of church PA systems to the microphone input of broadcast audio mixers. This \"DI unit\" later influenced what became known at \"The Motown Sound\" as a more transparent alternative to recording instrument amplifiers.\n", "This method of communication attracted attention due to its use by Occupy Wall Street. It was deployed at large general assemblies to help ensure everyone could hear announcements, because New York had regulations prohibiting the use of conventional megaphones.\n\nSection::::As a form of protest.\n", "The live mixing technique he is often credited with is adding a high mid \"click\" to the bass drum, which evolved early on with Metallica as a means of lifting Lars Ulrich's bass drums out of the bottom heavy sound. A more recent crusade is to encourage engineers to start soundchecks with ambient microphones (such as vocal microphones) working through to close-miked or gated instruments such as drums. This is in direct opposition to the usual soundcheck which starts with the kick drum and ends with the vocals, but actually makes a lot of sense since the final sound of any instrument is going to be the combination of the ambient and close microphones it can be heard through.\n", "However, there is at least one practical application that exploits those weaknesses: the use of a medium-size woofer placed closely in front of a \"kick drum\" (bass drum) in a drum set to act as a microphone. A commercial product example is the Yamaha Subkick, a woofer shock-mounted into a 10\" drum shell used in front of kick drums. Since a relatively massive membrane is unable to transduce high frequencies while being capable of tolerating strong low-frequency transients, the speaker is often ideal for picking up the kick drum while reducing bleed from the nearby cymbals and snare drums. \n", "To reduce the volume leakage or to prevent blowing the speaker or microphone, a power attenuator is sometimes used between the tube power amp and the guitar speaker in the isolation box. This reduces the power delivered to the speaker and thus the volume, but has some effect on speaker and microphone response.\n", "Another challenge with doing live sound for individuals who are speaking at a conference is that, in comparison with professional singers, individuals who are invited to speak at a forum may not be familiar with how microphones work. Some individuals may accidentally point the microphone towards a speaker or monitor speaker, which may cause audio feedback \"howls\". In some cases, when an individual who is speaking does not speak enough directly into the microphone, the audio engineer may ask the individual to wear a lavaliere microphone, which can be clipped onto a lapel. \n", "A \"boom arm\" attaches to the top of the stand so the microphone can move in the horizontal plane. A guitar player, for example, might use this to place the microphone directly in front of his mouth without having the upright portion of the stand in the way of the guitar. It also lets musicians have the microphone closer to the sound source when floor space is at a premium. This can be particularly useful when placing microphones on a drum stand when the microphone stands must compete for space with things like cymbal stands. Boom arms are offered both in fixed length and adjustable (telescoping) lengths.\n", "BULLET::::- 1940: Overhead projector Later used for psychedelic light shows\n\nBULLET::::- 1950: Slide projector 35 mm Kodak Carousel\n\nBULLET::::- 1965: Thomas Wilfred describes A highly detailed system to create event scenery using rear projections\n\nBULLET::::- 1967: Liquid Projector psychedelic Liquid light shows\n\nBULLET::::- Joshua Light Shows at The Fillmore for The Grateful Dead, Big Brother and the Holding Company and many other Summer of Love bands\n\nSection::::Audio support.\n\nSection::::Audio support.:Live event sound reinforcement.\n\nSection::::Audio support.:Live event sound reinforcement.:Introduction.\n", "In some cases, to play the bass through PA amplification, it is plugged into a \"direct box\" or \"DI\", which routes the signal to the bass amp while also sending the signal directly into a mixing console, and thence to the main and monitor speakers. When a recording of bass is being made, engineers may use a microphone set up in front of the amplifier's speaker cabinet for the amplified signal, a direct box signal that feeds the recording console, or a mix of both.\n", "Heil also had a unique technique to handle the feedback problems; a small second microphone taped behind each main microphone. He stated \"We would run the microphones out of phase from the monitors, something that nobody had been doing yet. Since they were out of phase with the microphones and the FOH system, anything that leaked in from the monitors would be canceled out. As a result, we could get these things incredibly loud before they would feed back. That's one of the things that Jerry Garcia really loved.\"\n", "Section::::Audio support.:Live event sound reinforcement.:Timeline.\n\nBULLET::::- 1876: Loudspeaker Alexander Graham Bell\n\nBULLET::::- 1878: Carbon microphone / amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- 1924: Loudspeaker - moving-coil -patent Chester W. Rice & E. Kellogg\n\nBULLET::::- 1924: Loudspeaker - ribbon Walter H. Schottky\n\nBULLET::::- 1930: Vacuum tube amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- 1937: Loudspeaker - Shearer Horn movie theatre system\n\nBULLET::::- 1939: public address outdoor system 1939 New York World's Fair\n\nBULLET::::- 1945: Loudspeaker - coaxial Altec \"Voice of the Theatre\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1953: Loudspeaker - electrostatic -patent Arthur Janszen\n\nBULLET::::- 1953: Microphone - wireless\n\nBULLET::::- 1965: Loudspeaker - woofer\n\nBULLET::::- 1965: Loudspeaker - subwoofer\n\nBULLET::::- 1970: Microphone - condenser\n", "Also featured at the concert was a 'Blockheads light' that was presumably a piece of on-stage equipment that falls over and fails to work at the same time Ian Dury breaks his microphone. This can be heard at the start of \"My Old Man\".\n", "Microphones (\"mics\") are used with drums to pick up the sound of the drums and cymbals for a sound recording and/or to pick up the sound of the drum kit so that it can be amplified through a PA system or sound reinforcement system. While most drummers use microphones and amplification in live shows in the 2010s, so that the sound engineer can adjust and balance the levels of the drums and cymbals, some bands that play in quieter genres of music and that play in small venues such as coffeehouses play acoustically, without mics or PA amplification. Small jazz groups such as jazz quartets or organ trios that are playing in a small bar will often just use acoustic drums. Of course if the same small jazz groups play on the mainstage of a big jazz festival, the drums will be mic'ed so that they can be adjusted in the sound system mix. A middle-ground approach is used by some bands that play in small venues; they do not mic every drum and cymbal, but rather mic only the instruments that the sound engineer wants to be able to control in the mix, such as the bass drum and the snare.\n", "Mars and his bandmates used Sennheiser microphones and wireless receivers. Mars' monitor engineer James Berry was the influence behind selecting Sennheiser over other industry standards such as Shure after finding Sennheiser's sonic character paired well with Mars' voice. Derek Brenner, front-of-house engineer, tested several capsules and transmitter combinations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04098	Why can't an insect with an exoskeleton grow to be the size of a car?	Oxygen content in the air. They don't have developed circulatory system and uses diffusion to get their cells oxygenated. Bigger the body, more complex the network of oxygen transfer needs to be and they cannot support their body with current oxygen contents in the air	[ "Nervous systems are one of the principal factors that limit shrinking body size. The entire central nervous system forms 6% of the body mass of \"M. mymaripenne\", and the brain itself makes up 2.9%. Of the wasp's 7400 neurons, 4600 are located in the brain. A small insect from other families often deals with the issue of having a large brain in relation to its head size by shifting its brain into its thorax and even abdomen. However, wasps cannot, as to keep their heads flexible, the head's connection to the thorax is relatively limited.\n", "As an insect grows it molts, growing a new exoskeleton under its old one and then shedding the old one to allow the new one to swell to a new size and harden.\n", "Many insects are able to lift twenty times their own body weight like Rhinoceros beetle and may jump distances that are many times greater than their own length. This is because their energy output is high in relation to their body mass. \n", "The simplistic construction of the vehicle follows Colin Chapman's philosophy of maximizing the power-to-weight ratio by minimising weight rather than simply adding power. Early monocoque racing cars such as the Lotus 25 had their chassis exposed but the term exoskeletal is more usually reserved for vehicles with an exposed space frame, such as sandrails, dune buggies or specialized light weight track cars.\n\nSection::::Examples of exoskeleton cars.\n\nBULLET::::- Ariel Atom\n\nBULLET::::- Deronda Type F\n\nBULLET::::- KTM X-Bow\n\nBULLET::::- MEV Rocket, Atomic, tR1ke, Missile, Eco-Exo and Exocet\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Vehicle frame\n\nBULLET::::- Monocoque\n\nBULLET::::- Dune buggy\n\nBULLET::::- List of motorized trikes\n", "Section::::Development.\n", "The respiratory system is an important factor that limits the size of insects. As insects get larger, this type of oxygen transport is less efficient and thus the heaviest insect currently weighs less than 100 g. However, with increased atmospheric oxygen levels, as were present in the late Paleozoic, larger insects were possible, such as dragonflies with wingspans of more than two feet.\n", "Section::::Growth.\n", "Section::::Limitations and design issues.:Skeleton.\n\nEarly exoskeletons used inexpensive and easy-to-mold materials, such as steel and aluminium. However, steel is heavy and the powered exoskeleton must work harder to overcome its own weight, reducing efficiency. Aluminium alloys are lightweight, but fail through fatigue quickly. Fiberglass, carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes have considerably higher strength per weight. \"Soft\" exoskeletons that attach motors and control devices to flexible clothing are also under development.\n\nSection::::Limitations and design issues.:Actuators.\n", "However, in most Arthropoda the bodily tagmata are so connected and jointed with flexible cuticle and muscles that they have at least some freedom of movement, and many such animals, such as the Chilopoda or the larvae of mosquitoes are very mobile indeed. \n", "In either case, in contrast to the carapace of a tortoise or the cranium of a vertebrate, the exoskeleton has little ability to grow or change its form once it has matured. Except in special cases, whenever the animal needs to grow, it moults, shedding the old skin after growing a new skin from beneath.\n\nSection::::Microscopic structure.\n", "If an animal were isometrically scaled up by a considerable amount, its relative muscular strength would be severely reduced, since the cross section of its muscles would increase by the \"square\" of the scaling factor while its mass would increase by the \"cube\" of the scaling factor. As a result of this, cardiovascular and respiratory functions would be severely burdened.\n", "A drawback to the exoskeleton is that there is no chance to cut doors through the upper suspension tubes. The car style is thus restricted to low-slung cars, for agile drivers prepared to climb out over their high sills.\n", "Section::::Smallest adult size.:Male dwarfism.\n", "The insect outer skeleton, the cuticle, is made up of two layers: the epicuticle, which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and a lower layer called the procuticle. The procuticle is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers: an outer layer known as the exocuticle and an inner layer known as the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, criss-crossing each other in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and hardened. The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many insects during their larval stages, e.g., caterpillars. It is also reduced in soft-bodied adult insects.\n", "The subject was covered in some detail by Wood (1982:192):\n", "Section::::Maximum size.:Historical claims.\n\nSection::::Maximum size.:Historical claims.:Misidentifications.\n", "On gigantic arthropods, Charles Q. Choi stated that, if the atmosphere had a higher percentage of oxygen, arthropods would be able to grow quite a bit larger before their trachea became too large and could not grow any more. In fact, in the early years of the earth, when the atmosphere was more oxygen-rich, dragonflies the size of crows were not an uncommon sight.\n\nSection::::Animation.\n", "Humans exhibit a wide range of physical size differences in both skeletal bone lengths and limb and torso girth, so exoskeletons must either be adaptable or fitted to individual users. In military applications, it may be possible to address this by requiring the user to be of an approved physical size in order to be issued an exoskeleton. Physical body size restrictions already occur in the military for jobs such as aircraft pilots, due to the problems of fitting seats and controls to very large and very small people. For soft exoskeletons, this is less of a problem.\n", "Section::::External.\n\nSection::::External.:Exoskeleton.\n", "As an insect grows it needs to replace the rigid exoskeleton regularly. Moulting may occur up to three or four times or, in some insects, fifty times or more during its life. A complex process controlled by hormones, it includes the cuticle of the body wall, the cuticular lining of the tracheae, foregut, hindgut and endoskeletal structures.\n\nThe stages of molting:\n", "An external skeleton can be quite heavy in relation to the overall mass of an animal, so on land, organisms that have an exoskeleton are mostly relatively small. Somewhat larger aquatic animals can support an exoskeleton because weight is less of a consideration underwater. The southern giant clam, a species of extremely large saltwater clam in the Pacific Ocean, has a shell that is massive in both size and weight. \"Syrinx aruanus\" is a species of sea snail with a very large shell.\n\nSection::::Types of skeletons.:Endoskeleton.\n", "Adult males of the parasitic wasp \"Dicopomorpha echmepterygis\" can be as small as 139 μm long, smaller than some species of protozoa (single-cell creatures); females are 40% larger.\n\n\"Megaphragma caribea\" from Guadeloupe, measuring 170 μm long, is another contender for smallest known insect in the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Beetles\n\nBeetles of the tribe Nanosellini are all less than 1 mm long; the smallest confirmed specimen is of \"Scydosella musawasensis\" at 325 μm long; a few other nanosellines are reportedly smaller, in historical literature, but none of these records have been confirmed using accurate modern tools. These are among the tiniest non-parasitic insects.\n\nBULLET::::- Butterflies\n", "Because the individual lenses are so small, the effects of diffraction impose a limit on the possible resolution that can be obtained (assuming they do not function as phased arrays). This can only be countered by increasing lens size and number. To see with a resolution comparable to our simple eyes, humans would require compound eyes that would each reach the size of their heads. Compound eyes fall into two groups: apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, and superposition eyes, which form a single erect image. Compound eyes grow at their margins by the addition of new ommatidia.\n\nSection::::External.:Head.:Antennae.\n", "The evolution of multicellularity has required the suppression of cancer to some extent, and connections have been found between the origins of multicellularity and cancer. In order to build larger and longer-lived bodies, organisms required greater cancer suppression. Evidence suggests that large organisms such as elephants have more adaptations that allow them to evade cancer. The reason that intermediate-sized organisms have relatively few of these genes may be because the advantage of preventing cancer these genes conferred was, for moderately-sized organisms, outweighed by their disadvantages—particularly reduced fertility.\n", "Section::::Paleontological significance.\n" ]	[ "An insect with an exoskeleton should be able to grow to be the size of a car." ]	[ "Insects don't possess the developed circulatory system and/or the use of diffusion to get their cells oxygenated." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "An insect with an exoskeleton should be able to grow to be the size of a car.", "An insect with an exoskeleton should be able to grow to be the size of a car." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Insects don't possess the developed circulatory system and/or the use of diffusion to get their cells oxygenated.", "Insects don't possess the developed circulatory system and/or the use of diffusion to get their cells oxygenated." ]
2018-00679	What is thunderbolt 3 and why are laptops without it thought to be "non-future-proof"?	Thunderbolt was originally developed as a faster alternative for USB, which also offers some additional functionality like being able to connect screens. However, unlike USB, the chips needed for thunderbolt devices, connectors and cables could only be made by intel, and they charged a lot of money for it. For most users, the hefty price tag wasn't worth the advantages over USB, so it never caught on outside of Apple devices. Starting this year, intel allows third party companies to make their own thunderbolt hardware, so it is going to become a lot cheaper than it was until now. But regardless of that, "non-future-proof" is just marketing language. Connectors like that tend to stick around for years after they've become all but obsolete: For example, the display port connector, introduced more than a decade ago, still has not completely replaced the older HDMI and DVI connectors in spite of being superior in many ways. You will still be able to buy USB devices in 10 years, even if Thunderbolt is going to replace it. And we still don't know if that is even going to happen.	[ "Thunderbolt 3 was introduced in late 2015, with several motherboard manufacturers and OEM laptop manufacturers including Thunderbolt 3 with their products. Gigabyte and MSI, large computer component manufacturers, enter the market for the first time with Thunderbolt 3 compatible components.\n\nDell was the first to include Thunderbolt 3 ports in laptops with their XPS Series and their Dell Alienware range.\n\nApple Mac machines with Thunderbolt 3 include: iMac Pro, iMac 2017, Mac Mini 2018, MacBook Pro 2016 onwards, MacBook Air 2018.\n", "Section::::History.:Thunderbolt 1.\n\nCNET's Brooke Crothers said it was rumored that the early-2011 MacBook Pro update would include some sort of new data port, and he speculated it would be Light Peak (Thunderbolt). At the time, there were no details on the physical implementation, and mock-ups appeared showing a system similar to the earlier Intel demos using a combined USB/Light Peak port. Shortly before the release of the new machines, the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) announced they would not allow such a combination port, and that USB was not open to modification in that way.\n", "Pegasus R4 and R6 are the first 4-bay and 6-bay high performance hardware RAID featuring Thunderbolt technology. Thunderbolt technology is a new, high-speed, dual-protocol I/O technology designed for performance, simplicity, and flexibility. This high-speed I/O technology is capable of delivering two channels of 10 Gbit/s (1.25 GB/s) per port of performance.\n\nPegasus J2\n\nThe Pegasus J2, the smallest Thunderbolt-equipped storage device available, is ideal for creative professionals and power users who work on the go.\n\nPegasus J4\n", "Apple released its first Thunderbolt-equipped computer in early 2011 with the MacBook Pro. The first Thunderbolt peripheral devices appeared in retail stores only in late 2011, with the relatively expensive \"Pegasus R4\" (4-drive) and \"Pegasus R6\" (6-drive) RAID enclosures by Promise Technology aimed at the prosumer and professional market, initially offering up to 12 TB of storage, later increased to 18 TB. Sales of these units were hurt by the 2011 floods in Thailand (who manufacture much of the world's supply of hard-drives) resulting in a cut to worldwide hard-drive production and a subsequent driving-up of storage costs, hence the retail price of these Promise units increased in response, contributing to a slower take-up of the devices.\n", "Apple states that up to six daisy-chained peripherals are supported per Thunderbolt port, and that the display should come at the end of the chain, if it does not support daisy chaining.\n\nIn February 2011, Apple introduced its new line of MacBook Pro notebook computers and announced that the technology's commercial name would be \"Thunderbolt\", with MacBook Pros being the first machines to feature the new I/O technology.\n\nIn May 2011, Apple announced a new line of iMacs that include the Thunderbolt interface.\n", "In October 2016, Apple announced the updated MacBook Pro which features two or four Thunderbolt 3 ports, depending on the model. In June 2017, Apple announced new iMac models that feature two Thunderbolt 3 ports, as well as the iMac Pro, which would feature four ports when released in December 2017.\n\nOn 8 January 2018, Intel announced a product refresh (codenamed Titan Ridge) which enhanced robustness and added support for DisplayPort 1.4. The new peripheral controller is now capable of acting as a USB sink (compatible with regular USB-C ports).\n", "Thunderbolt 2 incorporates DisplayPort 1.2 support, which allows for video streaming to a single 4K video monitor or dual QHD monitors. Thunderbolt 2 is backwards compatible, which means that all Thunderbolt cables and connectors are compatible with Thunderbolt 1.\n\nThe first Thunderbolt 2 product for the consumer market was Asus's Z87-Deluxe/Quad motherboard, announced on 19 August 2013, but the first full product released with Thunderbolt 2 was Apple's late 2013 Retina MacBook Pro, on 22 October 2013.\n\nSection::::History.:Thunderbolt 3.\n", "Support was added to Intel's Skylake architecture chipsets, shipping during late 2015 into early 2016.\n\nDevices with Thunderbolt 3 ports began shipping at the beginning of December 2015, including notebooks running Microsoft Windows (from Acer, Asus, Clevo, HP, Dell, Dell Alienware, Lenovo, MSI, Razer, and Sony), as well as motherboards (from Gigabyte Technology), and a 0.5 m Thunderbolt 3 passive USB-C cable (from Lintes Technology).\n", "Section::::Software.\n\nThe ThunderBolt shipped with Android 2.2 (Froyo) and it was later updated in September 2011 to Android 2.3 (Gingerbread). In early February 2013, the ThunderBolt was updated to Android 4.0.4 (Ice Cream Sandwich) and Sense 3.6.\n", "After Apple killed off MagSafe, one of the best features on MacBook in 2016, the latest MacBook Pros now feature USB-C Thunderbolt 3 ports. Those ports serve both data and power, but no longer keep your device safe while connecting, leading to the possibility of someone tripping over the cable and yanking the computer onto the floor.\n\nThunderMag wants to bring both MagSafe used experience and latest data transmission function to every USB-C device and user.\n\nFeatures:\n\n100W Power Delivery \n", "The late 2013 Retina MacBook Pro was the first product to have Thunderbolt 2 ports, following which manufacturers started to update their model offerings to those featuring the newer, faster, 20 Gbit/s connection throughout 2014. Again, among the first was Promise Technology, who released updated \"Pegasus 2\" versions of their R4 and R6 models along with an even larger R8 (8-drive) RAID unit, offering up to 32 TBs of storage. Later, other brands similarly introduced high capacity models with the newer connection type, including G-Technology (with their \"G-RAID Studio\" models offering up to 24 TB) and LaCie (with their \"5big\", and rack mounted \"8big\" models, offering up to 48 TB). LaCie also offering updated designed versions of their \"2big\" mainstream consumer models, up to 12 TB, using new 6 TB hard-drives.\n", "Intel announced that a developer kit would be released in the second quarter of 2011, while manufacturers of hardware-development equipment have indicated they will add support for the testing and development of Thunderbolt devices. The developer kit is being provided only on request.\n\nIn July 2011, Sony released its Vaio Z21 line of notebook computers that had a \"Power Media Dock\", using the optical iteration of Thunderbolt (Light Peak) to connect to an external graphics card using a combination port that behaves like USB electrically, but that also includes the optical interconnect required for Thunderbolt.\n\nSection::::History.:Thunderbolt 2.\n", "The 4.0.4 update brought many new features to the Thunderbolt, including new camera filters and features, the ability to capture screenshots, and facial recognition to unlock the device. It also improved the device's stability and improved connectivity issues. Connectivity issues were the reason why HTC and Verizon Wireless did not immediately release the 4.0.4 update. The \"Fit the puzzle piece\" unlock screen prompt was replaced by “Drag down to unlock.”\n", "On 4 May 2010, in Brussels, Intel demonstrated a laptop with a Light Peak connector, indicating that the technology had shrunk enough to fit inside such a device, and had the laptop send two simultaneous HD video streams down the connection, indicating that at least some fraction of the software/firmware stacks and protocols were functional. At the same demonstration, Intel officials said they expected hardware manufacturing to begin around the end of 2010.\n\nIn September 2010, some early commercial prototypes from manufacturers were demonstrated at Intel Developer Forum 2010.\n\nSection::::History.:Introduction.:Copper vs. optical.\n", "Apple first included on-board FireWire in some of its 1999 Macintosh models (though it had been a build-to-order option on some models since 1997), and most Apple Macintosh computers manufactured in the years 2000 through 2011 included FireWire ports. However, in February 2011 Apple introduced the first commercially available computer with Thunderbolt. Apple released its last computers with FireWire in 2012. By 2014, Thunderbolt had become a standard feature across Apple's entire line of computers effectively becoming the spiritual successor to FireWire in the Apple ecosystem. Apple's last products with FireWire, the Thunderbolt Display and 2012 13-inch MacBook Pro, were discontinued in 2016.\n", "In June 2013, Intel announced that the next generation of Thunderbolt, based on the controller code-named \"Falcon Ridge\" (running at 20 Gbit/s), is officially named \"Thunderbolt 2\" and entered production in 2013. The data-rate of 20 Gbit/s is made possible by joining the two existing 10 Gbit/s-channels, which does not change the maximum bandwidth, but makes using it more flexible. Thunderbolt 2 was announced by Apple in June 2013 on their developer-conference WWDC to be shipped in the next generation of Mac Pro. Thunderbolt 2 is shipping in the 2013 MacBook Pro, released on 22 October 2013.\n", "Other implementations of the technology began in 2012, with desktop boards offering the interconnection now available.\n", "It also took some time for other storage manufacturers to release products: most were smaller devices aimed at the professional market, and focused on speed rather than high capacity. Many storage devices were under 1 TB in size, with some featuring SSDs for faster external-data access rather than standard hard-drives.\n", "With the introduction of Thunderbolt 3, Intel announced that otherwise-standard passive USB-C cables would be able to connect Thunderbolt devices at lower speeds than full active Thunderbolt cables, but still faster than USB 3.1. This allows for cheaper connections to new Thunderbolt devices, with inexpensive USB-C cables costing significantly less than active Thunderbolt cables.\n\nSection::::Controllers.\n\nIntel Thunderbolt Controllers\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- MacBook Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Computer bus\n\nBULLET::::- Parallel optical interface\n\nBULLET::::- Optical communication\n\nBULLET::::- Interconnect bottleneck\n\nBULLET::::- Optical fiber cable\n\nBULLET::::- DisplayPort / Mini DisplayPort\n\nBULLET::::- IEEE 1394 (FireWire)\n\nBULLET::::- USB 3.0\n\nBULLET::::- ePCIe\n\nBULLET::::- Lightning Bolt\n\nBULLET::::- Lightning\n", "Before March 2019 there were no AMD chipsets or computers with Thunderbolt support released or announced because of royalty situation (problem was Intel's refusal to certify non-Intel platforms). However, the YouTuber Wendell Wilson from Level1 Techs was able to get Thunderbolt 3 support on an AMD computer with a Threadripper CPU and Titan Ridge add-in card working by modifying the firmware, indicating that the lack of Thunderbolt support on non-Intel systems is not due to any hardware limitations. As of May 2019, it is possible to have Thunderbolt 3 support on AMD using add-in card without any problems. And motherboards like ASRock X570 Creator already have integrated Thunderbolt 3 support.\n", "Elgato introduced two firewire external hard drives in September 2012 called Thunderbolt Drive. Benchmark tests by MacWorld and Tom's Hardware said that the hard drive was slower than other products they tested, despite being connected through a faster Thunderbolt port, rather than Firewire. The following year, in 2013, Elgato replaced them with similar drives identified as \"Thunderbolt Drive +\", which added USB 3.0 support and was claimed to be faster than the previous iteration. A CNET review of a Thunderbolt Drive+ drive gave it a 4.5 out of 5 star rating. It said the drive was \"blazing fast\" and \"the most portable drive to date\" but was also expensive. An article in \"The Register\" explained that the original drives introduced in 2012 didn't perform well in benchmark tests, but the newer \"plus\" version had impressive speed results during testing.\n", "The Gateway Handbook remains one of the smallest laptops ever produced and was a precursor to Netbooks such as the Asus Eee PC, the Dell Inspiron Mini Series, and the Acer Aspire One. The Acer Aspire One is about the same size as the Handbook, and exists in a Gateway-branded form as the Gateway LT1004u.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Linux on a Handbook 486\n\nBULLET::::- Retrofitting a Handbook 486 with modern components\n\nBULLET::::- OpenBSD on a Handbook 486\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 Byte magazine comparison of this laptop with other laptops of the same era\n", "The base UCFF motherboard and kit without Thunderbolt or USB 3 are codenamed \"Golden Lake\" (D33217GK) and \"Ice Canyon\" (DC3217IY) respectively. The Thunderbolt capable UCFF motherboard and kit are codenamed \"Campers Lake\" (D33217CK) and \"Box Canyon\" (DC3217BY) respectively. The USB 3 capable UCFF motherboard and kit are codenamed \"Rend Lake\" (D53427RK) and \"Horse Canyon\" (DC53427HY) respectively.\n", "On 24 May 2017, Intel announced that Thunderbolt 3 would become a royalty-free standard to OEMs and chip manufacturers in 2018, as part of an effort to boost the adoption of the protocol. The Thunderbolt 3 specification was later released to the USB-IF on 4 March 2019, making it royalty-free (though not public yet), to be used to form the basis of USB4. Intel says it will retain control over certification of all Thunderbolt 3 devices, though it will not be mandatory. \n", "BULLET::::- MacBook Pro (Late 2016): Apple released a Thunderbolt 3 to Thunderbolt 2 Adapter for enabling the Thunderbolt 3 ports of MacBook Pro (Late 2016) to connect to Thunderbolt 2 devices. The Thunderbolt Display must be connected using its built-in octopus cable, as the adapter will not work with a Thunderbolt 2 cable connected to the Thunderbolt Display's rear Thunderbolt port.\n\nSection::::Using multiple displays.:MacBook Air.\n\nBULLET::::- MacBook Air (Mid 2011): 1+1 Displays: Can use one Apple Thunderbolt display, in addition to the MacBook Air's own display.\n" ]	[ "Laptops without Thunderbolt 3 connectors are non-future-proof." ]	[ "USB devices will still be available in the future." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Laptops without Thunderbolt 3 connectors are non-future-proof." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "USB devices will still be available in the future." ]
2018-00640	Why large store chains closing down?	Retail has always been a challenging business due to cash flow issues for maintaining inventory, selecting the correct inventory, etc. Certainly eCommerce has hurt a great deal... both because people choose it out of convenience and also because it allows for easy price comparison shopping. It cuts down on margins and means stores have to be more competitive on pricing as well as experience. Those that are failing also fall into a middle ground where they are neither discount nor luxury. Shoppers used to stick to particular chains based on socioeconomic class — you were Wal-Mart people, JC Penny people, Nordstrom people, etc. Now people trade up and down all the time in particular categories. So those who would’ve shopped at high end stores might buy their work suits there but buy cheap workout clothes at Wal-Mart. The lower income person who loves to cook might splurge on luxury cookware while shopping dollar stores for everything else. And due to cash limitations, chains like Sears, K-Mart and JC Penny haven’t invested in modernizing stores or category mix to entice shoppers in. They feel dated and depressing so people don’t want to shop there. They are more costly than all out discounters and frumpier than quick fashion places like H & M, etc. or outlet store options. They don’t offer the glamor or style of high end places. They don’t offer the prices of Home Depot or national electronics/appliance retailers.	[ "Since at least 2010, various economic factors have resulted in the closing of a large number of North American retailers, particularly in the department store industry. For instance, Sears Holdings, which had 4,038 Kmart and Sears stores in the United States and Canada in 2011 with 312,000 employees (the company had 355,000 employees at its peak in 2006 with 3,843 stores), including Orchard Supply Hardware locations that were spun off in 2012, those now spun off to Sears Hometown and Outlet Stores on October 11, 2012 and a de-consolidation of Sears Canada on October 16, 2014, was down to 1,002 in the United States in 2018 with 89,000 employees, with more closures scheduled, and will be down to 425 stores and 50,000 employees after the store closures are completed by March 2019. Kmart operated 2,486 stores, including 2,323 in the U.S., at its peak in 1994, a number that has since dwindled to 432 in 2018 with further closures planned and will be down to 202 stores after the store closures are completed by March 2019.\n", "One study showed that small, local businesses are better for a local economy than the introduction of new chain stores. By opening up new national level chain stores, the profits of locally owned businesses greatly decrease and many businesses end up failing and having to close. This creates an exponential effect. When one store closes, people lose their jobs, other businesses lose business from the failed business, and so on. In many cases, large firms displace just as many jobs as they create.\n", "As the 21st century takes shape, some indications suggest that large retail stores have come under increasing pressure from online sales models and that reductions in store size are evident. Under such competition and other issues such as business debt, there has been a noted business disruption called the retail apocalypse in recent years which several retail businesses, especially in North America, are sharply reducing their number of stores, or going out of business entirely.\n\nSection::::Retail strategy.\n", "The retail apocalypse or retailpocalypse is the closing of a large number of North American brick-and-mortar retail stores, especially those of large chains, starting in 2010 and continuing onward. Over 12,000 physical stores have been closed, due to factors such as over-expansion of malls, rising rents, bankruptcies of leveraged buyouts, low quarterly profits outside holiday binge spending, delayed effects of the Great Recession, and changes in spending habits. North American consumers have shifted their purchasing habits due to various factors, including experience-spending versus material goods and homes, casual fashion in relaxed dress codes, as well as the rise of e-commerce, mostly in the form of competition from juggernaut companies such as Amazon.com and Walmart.\n", "Another cited factor is the \"death of the American middle class,\" resulting in large-scale closures of retailers such as Macy's and Sears, which traditionally relied on spending from this market segment. Particularly in rural areas, variety stores such as Dollar General, once thought to be unaffected by the apocalypse since they have continued growing rapidly, are now perceived as being at best a symptom of the phenomenon, and at worst a direct cause of rural, independent retailers collapsing, unable to compete with the lower margins that national chains can sustain.\n", "The main factor cited in the closing of retail stores in the retail apocalypse is the shift in consumer habits towards online shopping. Holiday sales for e-commerce were reported as increasing by 11% for 2016 compared with 2015 by Adobe Digital Insights, with Slice Intelligence reporting an even more generous 20% increase. Comparatively, brick-and-mortar stores saw an overall increase of only 1.6%, with physical department stores experiencing a 4.8% decline. \n", "The final factor in poor brick-and-mortar sales performance is a combination of poor retail management coupled with an overcritical eye towards quarterly dividends: a lack of accurate inventory control creates both underperforming and out-of-stock merchandise, causing a poor shopping experience for customers in order to optimize short-term balance sheets, the latter of which also influences the desire to understaff retail stores in order to keep claimed profits high. Furthermore, many long-standing chain retailers are overloaded with debt, often from leveraged buyouts from private equity firms, which hinders the profitable operation of retail chains.\n\nSection::::Affected retailers.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Decline.\n\nBrick-and-mortar chain stores have been in decline as retail has shifted to online shopping, leading to historically high retail vacancy rates. The hundred-year-old Radio Shack chain went from 7,400 stores in 2001 to 400 stores in 2018. FYE (retailer) is the last remaining music chain store in the United States and has shrunk from over 1000 at its height to 270 locations in 2018. In 2019, Payless ShoeSource stated that it would be closing all remaining 2,100 stores in the US.\n\nSection::::Restaurant chains.\n", "BULLET::::- Small businesses lost out to larger chains. Between 1997 and 2002, independent general stores were estimated to close at the rate of one per day, and specialist stores at the rate of 50 per week; customers chose to shop elsewhere.\n", "BULLET::::- La Senza, owned by L Brands since 2006, had over 800 stores worldwide at its peak in 2010. By January 2017, more than half of these locations were closed, while 329 stores remained open.\n\nBULLET::::- The Limited filed for bankruptcy in January 2017, went out of business and closed its remaining 250 stores, but Sycamore Partners bought its IP\n\nBULLET::::- LifeWay Christian Resources, the publishing arm of the Southern Baptist Convention, announced that it would close all of its 170 LifeWay Christian Stores by the end of 2019 and shift its focus to its e-commerce business.\n", "The displacement of independent businesses by chains has sparked increased collaboration among independent businesses and communities to prevent chain proliferation. These efforts include community-based organizing through Independent Business Alliances (in the U.S. and Canada) and \"buy local\" campaigns. In the U.S., trade organizations such as the American Booksellers Association and American Specialty Toy Retailers do national promotion and advocacy. NGOs like the New Rules Project and New Economics Foundation provide research and tools for pro-independent business education and policy while the American Independent Business Alliance provides direct assistance for community-level organizing.\n\nSection::::Regulation and exclusion.\n", "BULLET::::- GUESS? closed 60 stores in 2017 and is expected to close more than 100 stores in 2018, leaving roughly half from its high of 400 stores.\n\nBULLET::::- Guitar Center laid off 180 of its 7,000 employees in 2015; by 2018, the retailer was said to be on the verge of bankruptcy due to unsustainable debt loads and the decreasing popularity of musical instruments.\n", "BULLET::::- The Andersons, a conglomerate based out of Toledo, Ohio, announced in January 2017 that it would close its remaining stores in Ohio. The stores closed in June 2017 after 65 years in business.\n\nBULLET::::- Arden B closed all stores by 2015 as part of a turnaround plan by parent company Wet Seal.\n", "BULLET::::- M. Victor Janulaitis surveyed 278 organization in 2018 on why disaster recovery and business continuity plans fail and found that after 12 months 51% of small to mid-sized business were not able to re-open their doors.\n\nSection::::After Closing.\n", "The retail apocalypse has had a domino effect on suppliers; Hasbro, for example, cited the loss of the Toys R Us chain as a major cause for lost revenue and layoffs the company imposed in October 2018.\n\nSection::::Factors.\n", "J. C. Penney announced in February 2017 that it would close 138 stores in 2017. Liquidation sales began on May 22, and stores closed by July 31. Another 8 stores and a distribution center closed in 2018. J. C. Penney announced plans to close a total of 30 stores in 2019.\n\nJ. Crew closed 61 stores in 2017, and closed additional stores in the first quarter of 2018.\n\nPayless ShoeSource plans to close all its 2,000 stores in the US and Canada, and is going out of business in 2019.\n", "BULLET::::- BCBG Max Azria announced the closure of its stores in 2017 and going to department stores and online only. BCBG Max Azria Group filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on February 28, 2017, and was taken over by Marquee Brands and Global Brands Group.\n\nBULLET::::- Bebe announced plans to close all stores and focus solely on online sales. At its peak, Bebe operated a total of 312 stores, but by March 2017, this was down to 172.\n", "BULLET::::- The Bon-Ton, a regional department store operator, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on February 5, 2018. The company said it would close 42 stores. On April 17, 2018 they announced plans to go out of business after being purchased by two liquidators.\n\nBULLET::::- Borders Group, which included its namesake chain, along with Waldenbooks, filed for bankruptcy and closed all of its stores in 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- GNC plans to close up to 900 stores in 2019, including between 300 and 400 of the chain's 800 shopping mall locations, which have been particularly hard-hit by declining foot traffic at malls overall.\n\nBULLET::::- Golfsmith filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and closed all stores in 2016. Assets were taken over by Dick's Sporting Goods and a select amount of locations became Golf Galaxy.\n\nBULLET::::- Gordmans filed for bankruptcy in March 13, 2017, with half of its 100 stores bought up by Stage Stores.\n", "BULLET::::- Blockbuster Inc. filed for bankruptcy in 2010; a vast majority of locations closed within years. As of 2018, only one store, in Bend, Oregon, remains.\n\nBULLET::::- Bed Bath and Beyond announced in April 2019 that it will close 40 stores, and also open 15 new stores this year.\n", "BULLET::::- Fred's announced in April 2019 that 159 stores would close by the end of May due to declining sales and lease expirations, and subsequently announced in May that an additional 104 stores would close by the end of June, it was announced in June that an additional 49 stores would close by the summer, and it was announced in July that an additional 129 stores would close. The four rounds of closures will cut the company's 557 store count as of April 2019 to 80 stores.\n", "List of retailers affected by the retail apocalypse\n\nThe following retailers have all either closed or announced plans to close large numbers of retail locations during the time period known as the retail apocalypse and in some cases gone out of business entirely.\n\nSection::::Retailers affected by the retail apocalypse.\n\nSection::::Retailers affected by the retail apocalypse.:A–D.\n\nBULLET::::- Abercrombie & Fitch has closed 300 stores under its own brands including Hollister Co. and abercrombie kids since 2015.\n", "BULLET::::- J. C. Penney announced in February 2017 that it would close 138 stores in 2017. Liquidation sales began on May 22, and stores closed by July 31. Another 8 stores and a distribution center closed in 2018. JCPenney plans to close 30 stores in 2019.\n\nBULLET::::- J. Crew closed 61 stores in 2017 and sporadically closed additional individual stores in the first quarter of 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- Kenneth Cole Productions shut down its 63 outlet stores in 2016 to focus its efforts on its e-commerce site.\n", "BULLET::::- Chico's FAS closed 120 stores by 2017 and another 50 stores are expected to be closed in 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- Claire's filed for bankruptcy on March 19, 2018 and will close 92 stores in the process. It emerged from bankruptcy in October.\n\nBULLET::::- Coldwater Creek closed all stores in 2014 and became an online-only retailer operated by Sycamore Partners, until a new store opened in Burlington, MA in early 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- Crate & Barrel's children's line Land of Nod closed nearly all of its retail stores in February 2018.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Formula restaurant\n\nBULLET::::- List of bookstore chains\n\nBULLET::::- List of Canadian clothing store chains\n\nBULLET::::- List of current and defunct clothing & footwear stores in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- List of restaurant chains\n\nBULLET::::- List of supermarket chains\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Carroll, Glenn R., and Magnus Thor Torfason. \"Restaurant Organizational Forms and Community in the US in 2005.\" \"City & Community\" 10#1 (2011): 1-24.\n\nBULLET::::- Ingram, Paul, and Hayagreeva Rao. \"Store Wars: The Enactment and Repeal of Anti‐Chain‐Store Legislation in America.\" \"American Journal of Sociology\" 110#2 (2004): 446-487.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09782	How do the carcinogens in cigarettes cause the cell mutation that causes cancer?	At least one mechanism I know of has to do with the shape of the molecule. You've seen pictures of your DNA that look like ladders, right? Well some chemicals are flat and can slip in-between the steps on the ladder. But these molecules also really really want to change so sometimes they can slip inside the ladder, then change and not be able to come out again. When your body makes new cells it needs to be able to slide easily along this ladder and make a copy of it. If there's a molecule that got stuck in there it's going to get in the way and mess up the copy. And if the copy gets messed up enough times in enough ways then it changes what your cell actually does and can lead to cancer. Hopefully that was ELI5 enough, it's a bit of a complex subject.	[ "Section::::Due to tobacco.\n\nThe most important chemical compounds in smoked tobacco that are carcinogenic are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. These compounds and their genotoxic effects are listed in the article Cigarette. The top three compounds are acrolein, formaldehyde and acrylonitrile, all known carcinogens.\n\nSection::::Due to infection.\n\nSection::::Due to infection.:Viruses.\n", "Additional DNA damages can arise from exposure to exogenous agents. As one example of an exogenous carcinogeneic agent, tobacco smoke causes increased DNA damage, and these DNA damages likely cause the increase of lung cancer due to smoking. In other examples, UV light from solar radiation causes DNA damage that is important in melanoma, helicobacter pylori infection produces high levels of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA and contributes to gastric cancer, and the Aspergillus metabolite, aflatoxin, is a DNA damaging agent that is causative in liver cancer.\n", "There is a strong association of smoking with lung cancer; the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer increases significantly in smokers. A large number of known carcinogens are found in cigarette smoke. Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, such as benzo[a]pyrene), Benzene, and Nitrosamine. The tar from cigarette smoke is similar to that of marijuana smoke and contains similar carcinogens.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of carcinogenicity.\n", "Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of over 5,000 identified chemicals, of which 98 are known to have specific toxicological properties. The most important chemicals causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause. \n", "The most important chemical compounds causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause. \n", "Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of over 5,000 identified chemicals, of which 98 are known to have specific toxicological properties. The most important chemicals causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause.\n\nSection::::Health effects and regulation.:Psychology.\n", "Exposure to particular substances have been linked to specific types of cancer. These substances are called \"carcinogens\".\n\nTobacco smoke, for example, causes 90% of lung cancer. It also causes cancer in the larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, esophagus and pancreas. Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nSmoking is by far the leading risk factor for lung cancer. Cigarette smoke contains more than 6,000 components, many of which lead to DNA damage (see table of tobacco-related DNA damages in Tobacco smoking).\n\nOther causes include radon, exposure to secondhand smoke, exposure to substances such as asbestos, chromium, nickel, beryllium, soot, or tar, family history of lung cancer, and air pollution.\n\nIn general, DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Though most DNA damages are repairable, leftover un-repaired DNA damages from cigarette smoke are the likely cause of NSCLC.\n", "Smoke contains several carcinogenic pyrolytic products that bind to DNA and cause genetic mutations. Particularly potent carcinogens are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are toxicated to mutagenic epoxides. The first PAH to be identified as a carcinogen in tobacco smoke was benzopyrene, which has been shown to toxicate into an epoxide that irreversibly attaches to a cell's nuclear DNA, which may either kill the cell or cause a genetic mutation. If the mutation inhibits programmed cell death, the cell can survive to become a cancer cell. Similarly, acrolein, which is abundant in tobacco smoke, also irreversibly binds to DNA, causes mutations and thus also cancer. However, it needs no activation to become carcinogenic.\n", "Many of the gene mutations and copy number alterations occur in pathways whose deregulation seems to be important for the initiation and progression of the tumor. Specifically, KEAP1 and NFE2L2 belong to the oxidative stress response pathways; alterations in these genes tend to occur in a mutually exclusive fashion, and therefore this pathway is overall altered in more than 30% of the cases. Similarly, the squamous cell differentiation pathway, whose components include SOX2, TP63 and NOTCH1, is altered in 44% of the tumors.\n", "It is impossible to determine the initial cause for most specific cancers. In a few cases, only one cause exists; for example, the virus HHV-8 causes all Kaposi's sarcomas. However, with the help of cancer epidemiology techniques and information, it is possible to produce an estimate of a likely cause in many more situations. For example, lung cancer has several causes, including tobacco use and radon gas. Men who currently smoke tobacco develop lung cancer at a rate 14 times that of men who have never smoked tobacco, so the chance of lung cancer in a current smoker being caused by smoking is about 93%; there is a 7% chance that the smoker's lung cancer was caused by radon gas or some other, non-tobacco cause. These statistical correlations have made it possible for researchers to infer that certain substances or behaviors are carcinogenic. Tobacco smoke causes increased exogenous DNA damage, and these DNA damages are the likely cause of lung cancer due to smoking. Among the more than 5,000 compounds in tobacco smoke, the genotoxic DNA damaging agents that occur both at the highest concentrations and which have the strongest mutagenic effects are acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide and isoprene.\n", "Approximately 26 different genes can mutate into one type of lung cancer, known as carcinoma. An example is the MAP pathway, which is inhibited by ME (a lung cancer treatment). The risk of developing lung cancer is higher for those with a family history of the disease. A second way the risk could go up is if the individual lives with a smoker.\n\nSection::::Chromosomes involved.\n", "Section::::Effects on miRNA.\n", "BULLET::::- Some toxic gases (methyl ether (technical grade), and bis-(chloromethyl) ether, sulfur mustard, MOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen mustard-procarbazine mixture) and fumes from painting)\n\nBULLET::::- Rubber production and crystalline silica dust\n\nBULLET::::- There is a small increase in the risk of lung cancer in people affected by systemic sclerosis.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n\nSimilar to many other cancers, lung cancer is initiated by either the activation of oncogenes or the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. Carcinogens cause mutations in these genes that induce the development of cancer.\n", "Lung cancer risk is highly affected by smoking with up to 90% of cases being caused by tobacco smoking. Risk of developing lung cancer increases with number of years smoking and number of cigarettes smoked per day. Smoking can be linked to all subtypes of lung cancer. Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (SCLC) is the most closely associated with almost 100% of cases occurring in smokers. This form of cancer has been identified with autocrine growth loops, proto-oncogene activation and inhibition of tumour suppressor genes. SCLC may originate from neuroendocrine cells located in the bronchus called Feyrter cells.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Lung cancer.\n\nSome of these cancers have environmental causes such as smoking. When a tobacco product is inhaled, the smoke paralyzes the cilia, causing mucus to enter the lungs. Frequent smoking, over time causes the cilia hairs to die and can no longer filter mucus. Tar from the smoke inhaled enters the lungs, turning the pink-coloured lungs black. The accumulation of this tar could eventually lead to lung cancer, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n", "Many chromosomes are involved in the development of lung cancer, but those that greatly increase one's susceptibility to developing lung cancer are loci 15q25, 5p15, and 6p21. The locus 5p15 spans about 181 million base pairs on the short arm of chromosome 5, which is the largest chromosome. The locus 15q25 on chromosome 15 has genetic variants such as the CHRNA5-CHRNA3 locus, which also increases lung cancer susceptibility. Smoke is one of these risk factors: rs12914385, and rs8042374 are treated in cases where smoking is the known cause of lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Gene expression, carcinogenic mechanisms, susceptibility chromosomes.\n", "Large scale studies such as The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) have systematically characterized recurrent somatic alterations likely driving lung squamous-cell carcinoma initiation and development.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Pathogenesis.:Gene mutations and copy number alterations.\n\nSquamous-cell lung carcinoma is one of the tumor types with the highest number of mutations since smoking, the main driver of the disease, is a strong mutagenic factor.\n", "Variants of inherited genes may predispose individuals to cancer. In addition, environmental factors such as carcinogens and radiation cause mutations that may contribute to the development of cancer. Finally random mistakes in normal DNA replication may result in cancer causing mutations. A series of several mutations to certain classes of genes is usually required before a normal cell will transform into a cancer cell. On average, for example, 15 \"driver mutations\" and 60 \"passenger\" mutations are found in colon cancers. Mutations in genes that regulate cell division, apoptosis (cell death), and DNA repair may result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and cancer.\n", "One of the most known diseases caused by smoking is lung cancer. A few carcinogens commonly found in tar include benzene, acrylamide and acrylonitrile. Smoking exposes delicate cells inside the lungs directly to these compounds. This causes mutations in the DNA of the cells, which leads to cancer. According to the World Health Organization's report, \"Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking\", 90 percent of all cases of lung cancer are attributable to smoking.\n\nSection::::Long term effects.:Third-hand smoking and its effects.\n", "Methylation of SFTPA2 and SFTPA1 promoter sequences has also been found in lung cancer tissue.\n\nSection::::Gene regulation.\n", "Cancer develops after genetic damage to DNA and epigenetic changes. Those changes affect the cell's normal functions, including cell proliferation, programmed cell death (apoptosis), and DNA repair. As more damage accumulates, the risk for cancer increases.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Smoking.\n", "As indicated as in the article Carcinogenesis, mutations in DNA repair genes occasionally occur in cancer. However, deficiencies of DNA repair due to epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence DNA repair gene expression occur much more frequently in cancer.\n", "Both basaloid and squamous cell carcinomas have been shown to arise from pre-malignant lesions of dysplasia in the airways of the lung. After continued exposure to tobacco smoke or other carcinogenic stimuli, cells in areas of severe dysplasia can suffer additional genetic damage that results in progression to a basaloid or squamous cell carcinoma \"in situ\" (CIS). CIS is a fully malignant lesion, but by definition, the cancer cells have not yet invaded beyond the tissue delimiting their original site of genesis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Tobacco smoke is one of the main risk factors for head and neck cancer, and one of the most carcinogenic compounds in tobacco smoke is acrylonitrile. (See Tobacco smoking). Acrylonitrile appears to indirectly cause DNA damage by increasing oxidative stress, leading to increased levels of 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) and formamidopyrimidine in DNA (see image). Both 8-oxo-dG and formamidopyrimidine are mutagenic. DNA glycosylase NEIL1 prevents mutagenesis by 8-oxo-dG and removes formamidopyrimidines from DNA.\n\nHowever, cigarette smokers have a lifetime increased risk for head and neck cancers that is 5- to 25-fold increased over the general population.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21466	When you get a stomach bug and vomit, why do nausea and vomiting continue even after the stomach is empty?	You usually vomit in response to toxins produced by the microbe in your stomach and intestines. These toxins irritate the lining of your guts, causing nausea and vomiting. Even once you throw up, the lining of your stomach is still extremely irritated and some of the toxins may still be present. You will continue to feel crappy until the irritation goes away and your gastrointestinal tract has purged out the rest of the microbes and their nastiness.	[ "Taking a thorough patient history may reveal important clues to the cause of nausea and vomiting. If the patient's symptoms have an acute onset, then drugs, toxins, and infections are likely. In contrast, a long-standing history of nausea will point towards a chronic illness as the culprit. The timing of nausea and vomiting after eating food is an important factor to pay attention to. Symptoms that occur within an hour of eating may indicate an obstruction proximal to the small intestine, such as gastroparesis or pyloric stenosis. An obstruction further down in the intestine or colon will cause delayed vomiting. An infectious cause of nausea and vomiting such as gastroenteritis may present several hours to days after the food was ingested. The contents of the emesis is a valuable clue towards determining the cause. Bits of fecal matter in the emesis indicate obstruction in the distal intestine or the colon. Emesis that is of a bilious nature (greenish in color) localizes the obstruction to a point past the stomach. Emesis of undigested food points to an obstruction prior to the gastric outlet, such as achalasia or Zenker's diverticulum. If patient experiences reduced abdominal pain after vomiting, then obstruction is a likely etiology. However, vomiting does not relieve the pain brought on by pancreatitis or cholecystitis.\n", "While some only experience symptoms following some meals, most experience episodes following any ingestion, from a single bite to a large meal. However, some long-term patients will find a select couple of food or drink items that do not trigger a response.\n\nUnlike typical vomiting, the regurgitation is typically described as effortless and unforced. There is seldom nausea preceding the expulsion, and the undigested food lacks the bitter taste and odour of stomach acid and bile.\n", "Gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying) may occur and is due to metabolic causes (e.g. poorly controlled diabetes mellitus), decreased gastric motility (e.g. due to head injury) or pyloric obstruction (e.g. pyloric stenosis). Delayed gastric emptying usually only affects the emptying of the stomach of high-cellulose foods such as vegetables. Gastric emptying of clear fluids such as water or black coffee is only affected in highly progressed delayed gastric emptying.\n", "Random positioning of the stomach is often one of the first signals of situs ambiguus upon examination. Malrotation of the entire intestinal tract, or improper folding and bulging of the stomach and intestines, results in bowel obstruction. This impairment leads to vomiting, abdominal distention, mucus and blood in the stool. Patients may also experience abdominal pain. Intestinal malrotation is more commonly identified in patients with right atrial isomerism than in those with left atrial isomerism.\n", "Because there is currently no single antiemetic available is especially effective on its own, experts recommend a multimodal approach. Anesthetic strategies to prevent vomiting include using regional anesthesia whenever possible and avoiding medications that cause vomiting. Medications to treat and prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting are limited by both cost and the adverse effects. People with risk factors likely warrant preventative medication, whereas a \"wait and see\" strategy is appropriate for those without risk factors.\n\nSection::::Management.:Preoperative fasting.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nPrompt surgical treatment is necessary for intestinal malrotation when volvulus has occurred:\n\nBULLET::::- First, the patient is resuscitated with fluids to stabilize them for surgery\n\nBULLET::::- The volvulus is corrected (counterclockwise rotation of the bowel),\n\nBULLET::::- The fibrous Ladd's bands over the duodenum are cut,\n\nBULLET::::- The mesenteric pedicle is widened by separation of the duodenum and cecum,\n\nBULLET::::- The small and large bowels are placed in a position that reduces their risk of future volvulus\n", "Fasting guidelines often restrict the intake of any oral fluid after two to six hours preoperatively. However, it has been demonstrated in a large retrospective analysis in Torbay Hospital that unrestricted clear oral fluids right up until transfer to theatre could significantly reduce the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting without an increased risk in the adverse outcomes for which such conservative guidance exists.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.\n\nA multimodal approach to treating a patient with PONV can be efficacious. Numerous patient factors as well as medication adverse effects must be taken into consideration when selecting a treatment regimen.\n", "The signs and symptoms of paracetamol toxicity occur in three phases. The first phase begins within hours of overdose, and consists of nausea, vomiting, a pale appearance, and sweating. However, patients often have no specific symptoms or only mild symptoms in the first 24 hours of poisoning. Rarely, after massive overdoses, patients may develop symptoms of metabolic acidosis and coma early in the course of poisoning.\n", "BULLET::::3. There are repeated cycles of periods (of varying duration) with intense/acute nausea, with or without vomiting, with or without severe pain, followed by periods of reduced symptoms, followed by gradual increase in CVS symptoms until it peaks (peak intensity is generally relative to cycle intensity).\n\nBULLET::::4. Exclusion of metabolic, gastrointestinal, genitourinary or central nervous system structural or biochemical disease, e.g., individuals with specific physical causes (such as intestinal malrotation)\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "A 2008 study compared 121 Japanese patients who experienced PONV after being given the general anesthetic propofol to 790 people who were free of post-operative nausea after receiving it. Those with a G at both copies of rs1800497 were 1.6 times more likely to experience PONV within six hours of surgery compared to those with the AG or AA genotypes. But they were not significantly more likely to experience PONV more than six hours after surgery.\n\nPostoperative nausea and vomiting results from patient factors, surgical & anesthetic factors.\n", "Gastrointestinal infection is one of the most common causes of acute nausea and vomiting. Chronic nausea may be the presentation of many gastrointestinal disorders, occasionally as the major symptom, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, functional dyspepsia, gastroparesis, peptic ulcer, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, Crohn's disease, hepatitis, upper gastrointestinal malignancy, and pancreatic cancer. Uncomplicated \"Helicobacter pylori\" infection does not cause chronic nausea.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Food poisoning.\n", "Symptoms can begin to manifest at any point from the ingestion of the meal to 120 minutes thereafter. However, the more common range is between 30 seconds to 1 hour after the completion of a meal. Symptoms tend to cease when the ruminated contents become acidic.\n", "This integrates the emetic response. This is the area in which \"a final decision is made\" about whether to evoke an emetic response or not. This decision is based heavily on the information which the CTZ relays to the rest of the vomiting center, but also the chemoreceptors in the GI tract, the information sent to the vomiting center by the vestibular system, and higher order centers located in the cortex. The vomiting center is not a discrete or specific place in the brain, but rather an area consisting of many nuclei, axons, and receptors that together cause the physical changes necessary to induce vomiting. Also, emesis can occur by direct neural stimulation of the vomiting center.\n", "Signals from any of these pathways then travel to the brainstem, activating several structures including the nucleus of the solitary tract, the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, and central pattern generator. These structures go on to signal various downstream effects of nausea and vomiting. The body's motor muscle responses involve halting the muscles of the gastrointestinal tract, and in fact causing reversed propulsion of gastric contents towards the mouth while increasing abdominal muscle contraction. Autonomic effects involve increased salivation and the sensation of feeling faint that often occurs with nausea and vomiting.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.\n\nThe patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be divided into two distinct patterns, peristalsis and segmentation. Occurring between meals, the migrating motor complex is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes.\n\nThis cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.\n\nSection::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.:Peristalsis.\n", "Gastroparesis is another common misdiagnosis. Like rumination syndrome, patients with gastroparesis often bring up food following the ingestion of a meal. Unlike rumination, gastroparesis causes vomiting (in contrast to regurgitation) of food, which is not being digested further, from the stomach. This vomiting occurs several hours after a meal is ingested, preceded by nausea and retching, and has the bitter or sour taste typical of vomit.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "A drug's pharmacological effects can only occur once it has been fully solubilized and has entered the blood stream. For most drugs administered orally, the drug must be ingested, pass through the stomach, and into the small intestine, where the drug molecules enter the blood stream through the villi and microvilli. Gastric emptying time can vary from 0 to 3 hours, and therefore plays a major role in onset of action for orally administered drugs. For intravenous administration, the pathway is much shorter because the drug is administered (usually already in solution) directly to the bloodstream.\n", "Fecal vomiting occurs when the bowel is obstructed for some reason, and intestinal contents cannot move normally. Peristaltic waves occur in an attempt to decompress the intestine, and the strong contractions of the intestinal muscles push the contents backwards through the pyloric sphincter into the stomach, where they are then vomited. \n\nFecal vomiting can also occur in cats.\n\nFecal vomiting does not include vomiting of the proximal small intestine contents, which commonly occurs during vomiting.\n", "Gastroparesis can be diagnosed with tests such as barium x-rays, manometry, and gastric emptying scans. For the x-ray, the patient drinks a liquid containing barium after fasting which will show up in the x-ray and the physician is able to see if there is still food in the stomach as well. This can be an easy way to identify whether the patient has delayed emptying of the stomach. The clinical definition for gastroparesis is based solely on the emptying time of the stomach (and not on other symptoms), and severity of symptoms does not necessarily correlate with the severity of gastroparesis. Therefore, some patients may have marked gastroparesis with few, if any, serious complications.\n", "Once formal investigations to rule out gastrointestinal or other causes have been conducted, these tests do not need to be repeated in the event of future episodes.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Diagnostic criteria.\n\nAlthough there are differences between early-onset CVS (babies and children) and late-onset CVS (in adults), there are established criteria to aid in diagnosis of CVS, namely:\n\nBULLET::::1. A history of three or more periods of intense, acute nausea and unremitting vomiting, as well as pain in some cases, lasting hours to days and even weeks or months\n\nBULLET::::2. Intervening symptom-free or reduced-symptom intervals, lasting weeks to months\n", "Paralysis of the intestine is often termed paralytic ileus, in which the intestinal paralysis need not be complete, but it must be sufficient to prohibit the passage of food through the intestine and lead to intestinal blockage. Paralytic ileus is a common side effect of some types of surgery, commonly called postsurgical ileus. It can also result from certain drugs and from various injuries and illnesses, such as acute pancreatitis. Paralytic ileus causes constipation and bloating. On listening to the abdomen with a stethoscope, no bowel sounds are heard because the bowel is inactive.\n", "Occasionally, gastroesophageal reflux (GERD) may be associated with delayed gastric emptying of solids, but clear liquids are not affected. Raised intra-abdominal pressure (e.g. in pregnancy or obesity) predisposes to regurgitation. Certain drugs such as opiates can cause marked delays in gastric emptying, as can trauma, which can be determined by certain indicators such as normal bowel sounds and patient hunger.\n\nSection::::Minimum fasting times.\n", "BULLET::::- Peripheral Pathways: These pathways are triggered via chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as other organs such as the heart and kidneys. Common activators of these pathways include toxins present in the gastrointestinal lumen and distension of the gastrointestinal lumen from blockage or dysmotility of the bowels. Signals from these pathways travel via multiple neural tracts including the vagus, glossopharyngeal, splanchnic, and sympathetic nerves.\n", "Section::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.\n\nThe time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes less than an hour after a meal for 50% of stomach contents to empty into the intestines while total emptying takes around 2 hours. Subsequently, 50% emptying of the small intestine takes between 1 and 2 hours. Finally, transit through the colon takes 12 to 50 hours with wide variation between individuals.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Immune function.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Immune function.:Immune barrier.\n", "Traditionally, nothing by mouth was considered to be mandatory in all cases, but gentle feeding by enteral feeding tube may help to restore motility by triggering the gut's normal feedback signals, so this is the recommended management initially. When the patient has severe, persistent signs that motility is completely disrupted, nasogastric suction and parenteral nutrition may be required until passage is restored. In such cases, continuing aggressive enteral feeding causes a risk of perforating the gut.\n" ]	[ "Vomiting completely empties the stomach.", "Once your stomach is empty, you should stop vomiting." ]	[ "After vomiting, some toxins may still be present in the stomach lining.", "You can continue to have toxins in your body which your body wants to get rid of even after vomiting all of the stomach's contents." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vomiting completely empties the stomach.", "Once your stomach is empty, you should stop vomiting." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "After vomiting, some toxins may still be present in the stomach lining.", "You can continue to have toxins in your body which your body wants to get rid of even after vomiting all of the stomach's contents." ]
2018-00988	How can Netflix get away with making one season of a show that already has multiple seasons, before signing with Netflix, and still call it a “Netflix Original”?	"Netflix Original" is a term Netflix made up. There's no law preventing it, so there's nothing to "get away" with.	[ "Not long after the announcement, the show's producing studio Sony Pictures Television entered in talks with CBS in hopes of a revival for the series to air to the network's streaming service CBS All Access. A clause in Netflix's contract with SPT however prevents another streaming provider from carrying new episodes of the series for a period of two to three years, excluding traditional cable or broadcast networks. This complicated any agreement which used that avenue to continue the series.\n", "A request to dismiss Onza's lawsuit by Sony was denied on February 15, 2017.\n\nSection::::Production.:Cancellation and reprieve.\n", "In 2015, Netflix and Cinedigm were sued by Corinth Films over its streaming of the 1948 Italian film \"Bicycle Thieves\"; although the film itself was considered public domain in the United States, distinct subtitling or dubbing of the film can still be considered a separate and copyrightable work. Corinth alleged that the specific version of the film, registered by Richard Feiner & Co. and owned by Corinth, was being licensed by Cinedigm to Netflix without permission. The parties later settled.\n\nSection::::Other controversies.:Firing of Jonathan Friedland.\n", "A \"Netflix Original\" is content that is produced, co-produced, or distributed by Netflix exclusively on their services. Netflix funds their original shows differently than other TV networks when they sign a project, providing the money upfront and immediately ordering two seasons of most series.\n", "A revival series, a later remake of a preexisting show, is not a spin-off. An exception can be made to series such as \"The Transformers\" where the lines of continuity are blurred. If a television pilot was written but never shot, it is not considered a spin-off. When a show undergoes a name change, it is not necessarily a spin-off.\n", "In November 2017, the series was no longer set to air on Freeform. The pilot for the series was said to have \"tested through the roof\", with high-level executives at Disney taking interest in the project. Marvel wanted the series to air in 2018, but Freeform found that it did not have room in its schedule for the series, and agreed to give the project back to Marvel; the studio would shop the series to new partners who could release the series in 2018, potentially only looking at companies that are Disney-owned, and hoping to secure a two-season pick-up from the new network. In June 2018, Loeb said Marvel was still looking for a network to air the series.\n", "In May 2013, Original Entertainment confirmed to have agreed to a five-picture deal with Millennium Films to produce Bollywood remakes of \"First Blood\", \"The Expendables\", \"16 Blocks\", \"88 Minutes\", and \"Brooklyn's Finest\", with the productions for \"Rambo\" and \"The Expendables\" expected to start at the end of that year.\n", "In May 2013, it was revealed that an English-language adaptation of the 2012 series was being developed by Paul Abbott and FremantleMedia, with the working title \"They Came Back\". In September 2013, it was revealed that Abbott was no longer involved with the project, which A&E would develop. In April 2014, A&E ordered 10 episodes for the first season. On March 5, 2015, it was announced Netflix had acquired global rights to the show and would air it internationally each week, via its streaming service, following A&E's airing.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "In June 2018, Z-Man Games issued a licensed co-operative board game called \"Choose Your Own Adventure: House of Danger\" inspired by R. A. Montgomery's book in the series. \n\nOn January 11, 2019, Chooseco initiated a trademark infringement legal challenge against Netflix for the film \"\".\n\nSection::::Format.\n", "Netflix picked up Locke and Key after Hulu passed in March, 2018. The Hulu pass was a surprise since Locke & Key had been ordered to pilot in April 2017 and had a green light from Hulu's creative team. They had already established a writers room and built sets.\n\nNetflix will redevelop and recast the show and not use the existing Hulu pilot written by Joe Hill.\n", "On September 9, 2016, Greg Weisman gave response to questions on his website \"Station Eight\" regarding the possibility of Netflix picking up the show for a third season. He stated, \"I think there's a decent chance of the show coming back. Not a guarantee, mind you, but a solid decent chance. I don't say that lightly either.\"\n", "The streaming service Hulu later picked up the show, in anticipation of the show's revival in 2017, with the entire series also carried on NBC.com. Around the same time, NBC's classic subchannel network Cozi TV picked up the series and airs it four times nightly, and promotes it as \"The Original Series\" to avert confusion with the current-day run.\n", "On October 23, 2015, it was announced that NBC was developing a reboot of the series with Bryan Fuller writing the pilot episode and executive producing alongside Justin Falvey and Darryl Frank. Production companies involved with the series were set to include Universal Television. Steven Spielberg was not expected to be involved with the new series. On May 5, 2017, NBC and Universal Television were formally notified that their option rights to the \"Amazing Stories\" properties had been withdrawn. Rights for the development of a genre television series under the name \"Amazing Stories\" were subsequently sold to Experimenter Media LLC.\n", "On March 14, 2019, Netflix announced that the series had been cancelled after three seasons. After the cancellation announcement, executive producers Gloria Calderon Kellett and Mike Royce began the search to the find the series a potential new home on another streaming service or network. All the while fans of the series began a campaign using the hashtag #SaveODAAT in hope of getting the series revived.\n", "20th Century Fox filed a lawsuit in 2016, after Marco Waltenberg and Tara Flynn left the company for Netflix. Its claim argued that Netflix was enticing executives to break their employment contracts with Fox.\n\nSection::::Other controversies.:\"Bicycle Thieves\" copyright issue.\n", "Following the remixed release on Netflix, several of the cast members, including Jason Bateman, Will Arnett, Michael Cera and David Cross, requested additional compensation for the remixed episodes, which they state include unused footage shot for the original format of the season's episodes. Representatives for the actors also consider that the remixed version makes it a potential vehicle for syndication that would lead to financial gain for 20th Century Fox Television but not for the actors. According to these representatives, 20th Century has stated that they have the right to reedit the episodes as they see fit without consulting the actors.\n", "In March 2010, Tollin/Robbins sued Warner Bros. over claims of misdealing in the amount of $100 million over the profits of the \"Smallville\" series in selling the show to affiliates The WB and The CW and by later including DC Comics as a profit participate. In January 2013, Tollin Productions settled out of court with Warner Bros.\n\nSection::::Movies.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hardwood Dreams\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Show\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Good Burger\" for Nickelodeon Movies\n\nBULLET::::- \"Varsity Blues\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Big Fat Liar\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Perfect Score\" co-produced with Paramount Pictures\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nick Hoops\" for Universal Pictures and Regency Enterprises\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hardball\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Summer Catch\"\n", "In October 2012, the parties agreed to a settlement, under which Netflix agreed to pay $755,000 in legal fees, caption its entire library by 2014, and have captions available for all new content within 7 days by 2016. In April 2015, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals issued an unpublished decision ruling that the ADA did not apply to Netflix in this case, as it is \"not connected to any actual, physical place\" and thus not a \"place of public accommodation\" that applies to the Act.\n", "In July 2017, it was announced that the series has been renewed for fourth season that completed production in January 2018 before the third season had aired. On May 22, 2018, it was reported that the fourth season had been acquired by Hulu. The streaming service would distribute the series exclusively as a \"Hulu Original\" in the United States for a set set period of time before the episodes are to air on Lifetime. On July 16, 2018, the fourth season was released on Hulu.\n\nSection::::Distribution.:International.\n", "In 2016, Sullivan Entertainment announced it would launch their own streaming service called \"Gazebo TV\" that would feature the \"Anne of Green Gables\" series among other titles produced by the company. The service launched in early 2017.\n\nSection::::Lawsuits.\n", "Seasons one to three of \"Lexx\" were released on VHS and Region 2 DVD in the UK by Contender Limited, although the Season 3 DVDs were initially exclusive to the MVC Entertainment chain of stores and all volumes have since been deleted. Contender failed to obtain the rights to Season 4, which instead went to Momentum Pictures (a subsidiary of Alliance Atlantis). Momentum Pictures has not yet released any DVDs.\n\nMediumRare Entertainment released the complete run of Lexx in a 19-disc boxset in the UK in early 2011.\n", "In recent years, kabel eins has regularly taken over TV series from ProSieben when they were not successful enough or had already been broadcast several times. The best example of this is \"Without a Trace\", which was considered a failure on ProSieben but is quite successful on kabel eins.\n\nIt also acquired several shows from RTL II.\n\nSection::::Programming.\n\nSection::::Programming.:Imported.\n\nBULLET::::- \"24\" (2009-2016)\n\nBULLET::::- \"ALF\" (2002-2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Angel\" (2007-2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Booker\" (1995-1996)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" (\"Buffy – Im Bann der Dämonen\") (2006-2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cagney & Lacey\" (2000-2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Castle\n\nBULLET::::- \"Charmed\" (\"Charmed – \")\n", "The settlement was criticized because it paid out $2.5 million to attorneys for fees and costs, while offering only coupons to the class members.\n\nThe Terms of Use have since been amended with terms that indicate such a suit would not be possible in the future:\n", "On October 23, 2015, it was announced that NBC was developing a reboot of the 1985 anthology television series \"Amazing Stories\" created by Steven Spielberg. Bryan Fuller was expected to write the pilot episode and executive produce alongside Justin Falvey and Darryl Frank. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Universal Television. At that time, Spielberg was not expected to be involved with the series.\n", "In April 2016 the independent television company Little Island optioned the \"Sin Eater's Daughter\" trilogy with the intent to adapt it for television.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n" ]	[ "Netflix is getting away with something when they call something a Netflix Original.", "Netflix should not be able to call a show a Netflix original if they posted it online before signing with the show." ]	[ "Netflix created the term and can use it for whatever they want. ", "The term Netflix original is actually false, and there is no law that prevents Netflix from making their false claim." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Netflix is getting away with something when they call something a Netflix Original.", "Netflix should not be able to call a show a Netflix original if they posted it online before signing with the show." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Netflix created the term and can use it for whatever they want. ", "The term Netflix original is actually false, and there is no law that prevents Netflix from making their false claim." ]
2018-06565	How does the digital twin concept make manufacturing more efficient?	You make a model of the system inside a computer. Then you can experiment with the computer simulation in order to find good ideas for improvement — which you then implement in the real one.	[ "Section::::Manufacturing industry.:Firm-level dynamics.\n\nWhen looking more specifically on a firm-level, several incumbent firms are investing in a digital twin increase effectiveness. Some of these firms are: General Electric, Arctic Wind, and Mechanical Solutions Inc.\n", "In the sense of the manufacturing industry, modularity can be described as the design and customization of products and production modules. By adding modularity to the manufacturing models, manufacturers gain the ability to tweak models and machines. Digital twin technology enables manufacturers to track the machines that are used and notice possible areas of improvement in the machines. When these machines are made modular, by using digital twin technology, manufacturers can see which components make the machine perform poorly and replace these with better fitting components to improve the manufacturing process.\n\nSection::::Future directions for new players.\n", "Due to the Internet of Things, digital twins have become more affordable and could drive the future of the manufacturing industry. A benefit for engineers lays in real-world usage of products that are virtually being designed by the digital twin. Advanced ways of product and asset maintenance and management come within reach as there is a digital twin of the real ‘thing’ with real-time capabilities.\n", "Remembering that a definition of digital twin is a real time digital replica of a physical device, manufacturers are embedding digital twin in their device. Proven advantages are improved quality, earlier fault detection and better feedback on product usage to product designer.\n\nSection::::Healthcare industry.\n\nSection::::Healthcare industry.:Industry-level dynamics.\n", "Section::::Automotive Industry.:Firm-level Dynamics (Volkswagen & Tesla).\n", "The technology of a digital twin creates several opportunities for new players that want to tap into this emerging market. Since the technology can be brought into a more operational framework, not only the incumbents can exploit the opportunities that arise. In the following part we discuss two start-ups that try to exploit the opportunities that emerge around this new technology.\n", "The physical manufacturing objects are virtualized and represented as digital twin models (Avatars) seamlessly and closely integrated in both the physical and cyber spaces. Physical objects and twin models interact in a mutually beneficial manner.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing industry.:Industry-level dynamics.\n", "The concept and model of the Digital Twin was publicly introduced in 2002 by Dr. Michael Grieves, then of the University of Michigan, at a Society of Manufacturing Engineers conference in Troy, Michigan. The concept which had a few different names was subsequently called the Digital Twin by John Vickers of NASA in a 2010 Roadmap Report. The Digital Twin consists of three parts: The physical product, the virtual product, and the connection between the two products. \n", "Section::::The characteristics of digital twin technology.:Digital traces.\n\nAnother characteristic that can be observed, is the fact that digital twin technologies leave digital traces. These traces can be used by engineers for example, when a machine malfunctions to go back and check the traces of the digital twin, to diagnose where the problem occurred. These diagnoses can in the future also be used by the manufacturer of these machines, to improve their designs so that these same malfunctions will occur less often in the future.\n\nSection::::The characteristics of digital twin technology.:Modularity.\n", "Also, connectivity with customers can be increased.\n\nServitization is the process of organizations that are adding value to their core corporate offerings through services. In the case of the example of engines, the manufacturing of the engine is the core offering of this organization, they then add value by providing a service of checking the engine and offering maintenance.\n\nSection::::The characteristics of digital twin technology.:Homogenization.\n", "“In the past, factory managers had their office overlooking the factory so that they could get a feel for what was happening on the factory floor. With the digital twin, not only the factory manager, but everyone associated with factory production could have that same virtual window to not only a single factory, but to all the factories across the globe.” (Grieves, 2014, p. 5)\n\nSection::::The characteristics of digital twin technology.:Reprogrammable and Smart.\n", "Digital technologies have certain characteristics that distinguish them from other technologies. These characteristics, in turn, have certain consequences. Digital twins has some of these characteristics.\n\nSection::::The characteristics of digital twin technology.:Connectivity.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nAn example of how digital twins are used to optimize machines is with the maintenance of power generation equipment such as power generation turbines, jet engines and locomotives.\n\nIn Enterprise Architecture, architects create EA blueprints as digital twin for the organization.\n", "As data is increasingly digitized, it can be transmitted, stored and computed in fast and low-cost ways. According to Moore's law, computing power will continue to increase exponentially over the coming years, while the cost of computing decreases significantly. This would, therefore, lead to lower marginal costs of developing digital twins and make it comparatively much cheaper to test, predict, and solve problems on virtual representations rather than testing on physical models and waiting for physical products to break before intervening.\n", "Another industry that has been disrupted by digital twin technology is the automobile industry. Digital twins in the automobile industry are implemented by using existing data in order to facilitate processes and reduce marginal costs. Currently, automobile designers expand the existing physical materiality by incorporating software-based digital abilities. A specific example of digital twin technology in the automotive industry is where automotive engineers use digital twin technology in combination with the firm's analytical tool in order to analyze how a specific car is driven. In doing so, they can suggest incorporating new features in the car that can reduce car accidents on the road, which was previously not possible in such a short time frame \n", "Digital twins offer a great amount of business potential by predicting the future instead of analyzing the past of the manufacturing process. The representation of reality created by digital twins allows manufacturers to evolve towards ex-ante business practices. The future of manufacturing drives on the following four aspects: modularity, autonomy, connectivity and digital twin. As there is an increasing digitalization in the stages of a manufacturing process, opportunities are opening up to achieve a higher productivity. This starts with modularity and leading to higher effectiveness in the production system. Furthermore, autonomy enables the production system to respond to unexpected events in an efficient and intelligent way. Lastly, connectivity like the Internet of Things, makes the closing of the digitalization loop possible, by then allowing the following cycle of product design and promotion to be optimized for higher performance. This may lead to increase in customer satisfaction and loyalty when products can determine a problem before actually breaking down. Furthermore, as storage and computing costs are becoming less expensive, the ways in which digital twins are used are expanding.\n", "Section::::Healthcare industry.:Firm-level dynamics.\n\nLooking more specifically on a firm-level, several incumbent firms are investing and developing healthcare solution with the digital twin. Firstly, Philips came up with the idea of a digital version of yourself. Digital twins present the opportunity to track the status of physical systems and connected devices, so why not manage your own health by tracking the status and create the ability to act preventive instead of reactive.\n", "One of the main characteristics of digital twin technology is its connectivity. The recent development of the Internet of Things (IoT) brings forward numerous new technologies. The development of IoT also brings forward the development of digital twin technology. This technology shows many characteristics that have similarities with the character of the IoT, namely its connective nature. First and foremost, the technology enables connectivity between the physical component and its digital counterpart. The basis of digital twins is based on this connection, without it, digital twin technology would not exist. Like described in the previous section, this connectivity is created by sensors on the physical product which obtain data and integrate and communicate this data through various integration technologies. Digital twin technology enables increased connectivity between organizations, products, and customers. For example, connectivity between partners in a supply chain can be increased by enabling members of this supply chain to check the digital twin of a product or asset. These partners can then check the status of this product by simply checking the digital twin.\n", "Another example of digital twins is the use of 3D modeling to create digital companions for the physical objects. It can be used to view the status of the actual physical object, which provides a way to project physical objects into the digital world. For example, when sensors collect data from a connected device, the sensor data can be used to update a \"digital twin\" copy of the device's state in real time. The term \"device shadow\" is also used for the concept of a digital twin. The digital twin is meant to be an up-to-date and accurate copy of the physical object's properties and states, including shape, position, gesture, status and motion.\n", "As stated earlier, a digital twin makes it possible to make remote adjustments through the digital component of a twin. It enables a physical product to be reprogrammable in a certain way. Furthermore, the digital twin is also reprogrammable in an automatic manner. Through the sensors on the physical product, artificial intelligence technologies, and predictive analytics, A consequence of this reprogrammable nature is the emergence of functionalities. If we take the example of an engine again, digital twins can be used to collect data about the performance of the engine and if needed adjust the engine, creating a newer version of the product. Also, servitization can be seen as a consequence of the reprogrammable nature as well. Manufactures can be responsible for observing the digital twin, making adjustments, or reprogramming the digital twin when needed and they can offer this as an extra service.\n", "In February 2016, the company opened a design center in Irvine, California's \"Technology Corridor\", and an office in Milan, Italy, for better access to local engineering talent. The Milan office, also a design center, was reportedly focusing on mixed-signal analog chips, including digital power control designs. The Irvine design center became the company’s new headquarters.\n", "One of the incumbent automobile firms that is incorporating digital twin technology in their business processes is Volkswagen. The use of this technology, which they refer to as a “virtual twin”, has allowed Volkswagen to create digital 3D prototypes of their different car models, such as the Golf. The Pre-Series Center in Wolfsburg is the specialized department of the Virtual Prototype team, where they put together digital representations of the vehicles, that are used from the point of assembly and throughout the lifecycle of the cars. The digital twins support the production process and development of the cars, by providing all employees worldwide with detailed and real-time data of the model. Leingang, one of the leaders of the Virtual Prototype team, describes how the implementation of digital twins helps Volkswagen to optimize their product lifecycle management. \"Our work helps people in design, quality assurance, body construction, and assembly. (...) This is because the ‘digital twin’ lets our colleagues know early on what exactly needs to be done when mounting a particular component.”. At another innovative department in Wolfsburg, Volkswagen’s Virtual Engineering Lab, further develops the use of digital representations and digital tools in combination with Augmented Reality. Here they make use of the Microsoft Hololens, which enables engineers and designers to view and modify digital twins, assisted by other technologies such as gesture control and voice commands.\n", "Lastly, Mechanical Solutions Inc. (MSI), a company which specializes in turbomachines, used Siemens STAR-CMM+ software. This software enables product development organizations to make use of a digital twin. MSI successfully implemented this software in their process chain as a troubleshooting and design tool. This enabled the cost-efficient engineering process to solve very complex problems, they could not have solved without the digital twin.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing industry.:Embedded digital twin.\n", "The digital twin is disrupting the entire Product Lifecycle Management (PLM), from manufacturing to service and operations. Nowadays, PLM is very time consuming in terms of efficiency, manufacturing, intelligence, service phases and sustainability in product design. A digital twin can merge the product physical and virtual space. Besides, the digital twin enables companies to have a digital footprint of all of their products, from design to development and throughout the entire product life cycle. More specifically, industries that are being highly disrupted by digital twins are industries with manufacturing as an important component. In the manufacturing process, the digital twin is like a virtual replica of the near-time occurrences in the factory. Thousands of sensors are being placed throughout the physical manufacturing process, all collecting data from different dimensions, such as environmental conditions, behavioural characteristics of the machine and work that is being performed. All this data is continuously communicating and collected by the digital twin.\n", "Another opportunity that is exploited by a new player is the reduce of risks associated with cost and schedule overruns in the industry of capital projects. By creating a digital twin of a construction site, VEERUM enables project teams to be more sure in making decisions about design and construction of the project. VEERUM enables project teams to see the progress of the construction of a building on a working site. Due to the fact that they have a virtual version of the working site, they can predict and solve issues in the virtual environment before they occur in the real world. These issues could be noted before they will actually happen, and a lot of costs and issues with schedule overruns could be prevented.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00659	How is light a longitudinal wave?	First, you've got your terminology backward: an oscillation perpendicular to the direction of travel is a transverse wave. Light is in fact transverse, not longitudinal. But second, don't think about photons: remember that light behaves as both a particle and a wave, and the transverse vs longitudinal thing only makes sense from the wave perspective. As a wave, light is an oscillation in the electric and magnetic fields. These fields point perpendicular to the direction of travel, which is why we say light is transverse. But unlike other kinds of waves, nothing's actually moving perpendicular to the direction of travel... Light's weird.	[ "To explain the origin of colors, Robert Hooke (1635–1703) developed a \"pulse theory\" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665 work \"Micrographia\" (\"Observation IX\"). In 1672 Hooke suggested that light's vibrations could be perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678, and published it in his \"Treatise on light\" in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the \"Luminiferous ether\". As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium.\n", "In the early development of electromagnetism, there were some like Alexandru Proca (1897-1955) known for developing relativistic quantum field equations bearing his name (Proca's equations) for the massive, vector spin-1 mesons. In recent decades, some extended electromagnetic theorists, such as Jean-Pierre Vigier and Bo Lehnert of the Swedish Royal Society, have used the Proca equation in an attempt to demonstrate photon mass as a longitudinal electromagnetic component of Maxwell's equations, suggesting that longitudinal electromagnetic waves could exist in a Dirac polarized vacuum.\n", "In a medium, light usually does not propagate at a speed equal to \"c\"; further, different types of light wave will travel at different speeds. The speed at which the individual crests and troughs of a plane wave (a wave filling the whole space, with only one frequency) propagate is called the phase velocity \"v\". An actual physical signal with a finite extent (a pulse of light) travels at a different speed. The largest part of the pulse travels at the group velocity \"v\", and its earliest part travels at the front velocity \"v\".\n", "The value of formula_2 is a point of space, specifically in the region where the wave is defined. In mathematical terms, it is usually a vector in the Cartesian three-dimensional space formula_5. However, in many cases one can ignore one or two dimensions, and let formula_2 be a point of the Cartesian plane formula_7. This is the case, for example, when studying vibrations of a drum skin. One may even restrict formula_2 to a point of the Cartesian line formula_7 — that is, the set of real numbers. This is the case, for example, when studying vibrations in a violin string or recorder. The time formula_3, on the other hand, is always assumed to be a scalar; that is, a real number.\n", "The direction in which the wave vector points must be distinguished from the \"direction of wave propagation\". The \"direction of wave propagation\" is the direction of a wave's energy flow, and the direction that a small wave packet will move, i.e. the direction of the group velocity. For light waves, this is also the direction of the Poynting vector. On the other hand, the wave vector points in the direction of phase velocity. In other words, the wave vector points in the normal direction to the surfaces of constant phase, also called wavefronts.\n", "This equation is typically described as having only one space dimension \"x\", because the only other independent variable is the time \"t\". Nevertheless, the dependent variable \"u\" may represent a second space dimension, if, for example, the displacement \"u\" takes place in y-direction, as in the case of a string that is located in the x–y plane.\n\nSection::::Wave equation in one space dimension.:Derivation of the wave equation.\n", "After Heaviside's attempts to generalize Maxwell's equations, Heaviside came to the conclusion that electromagnetic waves were not to be found as longitudinal waves in \"\"free space\"\" or homogeneous media. But Maxwell's equations do lead to the appearance of longitudinal waves under some circumstances, for example, in plasma waves or guided waves. Basically distinct from the \"free-space\" waves, such as those studied by Hertz in his UHF experiments, are Zenneck waves. The longitudinal modes of a resonant cavity are the particular standing wave patterns formed by waves confined in a cavity. The longitudinal modes correspond to those wavelengths of the wave which are reinforced by constructive interference after many reflections from the cavity's reflecting surfaces. Recently, Haifeng Wang et al. proposed a method that can generate a longitudinal electromagnetic (light) wave in free space, and this wave can propagate without divergence for a few wavelengths.\n", "The corpuscular theory of light, favored by Isaac Newton and accepted by nearly all of Fresnel's seniors, easily explained rectilinear propagation: the corpuscles obviously moved very fast, so that their paths were very nearly straight. The wave theory, as developed by Christiaan Huygens in his \"Treatise on Light\" (1690), explained rectilinear propagation on the assumption that each point crossed by a traveling wavefront becomes the source of a secondary wavefront. Given the initial position of a traveling wavefront, any later position (according to Huygens) was the common tangent surface (envelope) of the secondary wavefronts emitted from the earlier position. As the extent of the common tangent was limited by the extent of the initial wavefront, the repeated application of Huygens' construction to a plane wavefront of limited extent (in a uniform medium) gave a straight, parallel beam. While this construction indeed predicted rectilinear propagation, it was difficult to reconcile with the common observation that wavefronts on the surface of water can bend around obstructions, and with the similar behavior of sound waves — causing Newton to maintain, to the end of his life, that if light consisted of waves it would \"bend and spread every way\" into the shadows.\n", "When the values of formula_11 are vectors, the wave is said to be a longitudinal wave if the vectors are always collinear with the vector formula_4, and a transverse wave if they are always orthogonal (perpendicular) to it.\n\nSection::::Special types.\n\nSection::::Special types.:Traveling plane wave.\n\nOften the term \"plane wave\" refers specifically to a traveling plane wave, whose evolution in time can be described as simple translation of the field at a constant wave speed formula_14 along the direction perpendicular to the wavefronts. Such a field can be written as \n", "BULLET::::- 1821 — Augustin-Jean Fresnel derives a mathematical demonstration that polarization can be explained only if light is \"entirely\" transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.\n\nBULLET::::- 1825 — Augustin Fresnel phenomenologically explains optical activity by introducing circular birefringence\n", "Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave that it be distinctly vibratory.\n\nOne difference between wave and particle conceptions is thus in the spatial dimensionality of their moving objects.\n\nOn one hand, a ray can be regarded as the orbit of a particle of light. It successively punctures the wave surfaces. The successive punctures can be regarded as defining the trajectory of the particle.\n", "For any dimension formula_25 (1, 2, or 3), the wave's domain is then a subset formula_26 of formula_27, such that the function value formula_1 is defined for any point formula_2 in formula_26. For example, when describing the motion of a drum skin, one can consider formula_26 to be a disk (circle) on the plane formula_7 with center at the origin formula_33, and let formula_1 be the vertical displacement of the skin at the point formula_2 of formula_26 and at time formula_3.\n\nSection::::Mathematical Description.:Wave families.\n", "Most often, the known wave parameters are the wave height \"H\", mean water depth \"h\", gravitational acceleration \"g\", and either the wavelength \"λ\" or else the period \"τ\". Then the above relations for \"λ\", \"c\" and \"τ\" are used to find the elliptic parameter \"m\". This requires numerical solution by some iterative method.\n\nSection::::Periodic wave solutions.:Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation.\n\nThe Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation (BBM equation), or regularised long wave (RLW) equation, is in dimensional form given by:\n", "BULLET::::- formula_7 is the temporal angular frequency of the wave, describing how many oscillations it completes per unit of time, and related to the period formula_8 by the equation formula_9,\n\nBULLET::::- formula_1 is the spatial angular frequency (wavenumber) of the wave, describing how many oscillations it completes per unit of space, and related to the wavelength by the equation formula_11.\n", "It is worth noting that these somewhat tricky points confused no less a figure than Albert Einstein in his 1937 paper on gravitational waves (written long before the modern mathematical machinery used here was widely appreciated in physics).\n", "To understand how this situation appears in the Brinkmann chart, notice that when is large, our timelike geodesic unit vector field becomes approximately\n\nSuppressing the last term, we have\n", "Maxwell's equations lead to the prediction of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, which are transverse (in that the electric fields and magnetic fields vary perpendicularly to the direction of propagation). However, waves can exist in plasmas or confined spaces, called plasma waves, which can be longitudinal, transverse, or a mixture of both. Plasma waves can also occur in force-free magnetic fields. \n", "Given the initial beam parameter, \"q\", one can use the ray transfer matrix of an optical system, formula_3, to find the resulting beam parameter, \"q\", after the beam has traversed the system:\n\nIt is often convenient to express this equation in terms of the reciprocals of \"q\":\n", "The simplest form of a wavefront is the plane wave, where the rays are parallel to one another. The light from this type of wave is referred to as collimated light. The plane wavefront is a good model for a surface-section of a very large spherical wavefront; for instance, sunlight strikes the earth with a spherical wavefront that has a radius of about 150 million kilometers (1 AU). For many purposes, such a wavefront can be considered planar over distances of the diameter of Earth.\n\nWavefronts travel with the speed of light in all directions in an isotropic medium.\n", "Since we are interested in the variations of the \"magnitude\" of V along the line (as a function of x), we shall solve instead for the squared magnitude of that quantity, which simplifies the mathematics. To obtain the squared magnitude we multiply the above quantity by its complex conjugate:\n\nDepending on the phase of the third term, the maximum and minimum values of V (the square root of the quantity in the equations) are (1 + \|Γ\|)\|A\| and (1 − \|Γ\|)\|A\| respectively, for a standing wave ratio of:\n", "Waves in plasmas can be classified as electromagnetic or electrostatic according to whether or not there is an oscillating magnetic field. Applying Faraday's law of induction to plane waves, we find formula_1, implying that an electrostatic wave must be purely longitudinal. An electromagnetic wave, in contrast, must have a transverse component, but may also be partially longitudinal.\n", "BULLET::::- \"y\" is the amplitude of the oscillations,\n\nBULLET::::- \"c\" is the speed of the wave; and\n\nBULLET::::- \"ω\" is the angular frequency of the wave.\n\nThe quantity \"x\"/\"c\" is the time that the wave takes to travel the distance \"x\".\n\nThe ordinary frequency (\"f\") of the wave is given by\n\nThe wavelength can be calculated as the relation between a wave's speed and ordinary frequency.\n\nFor sound waves, the amplitude of the wave is the difference between the pressure of the undisturbed air and the maximum pressure caused by the wave.\n", "In this steady flow, the discharge \"Q\" through each vertical cross section is a constant independent of \"ξ\", and because of the horizontal bed also the horizontal momentum flux \"S\", divided by the density \"ρ\", through each vertical cross section is conserved. Further, for this inviscid and irrotational flow, Bernoulli's principle can be applied and has the same Bernoulli constant \"R\" everywhere in the flow domain. They are defined as:\n", "The absolute value of this function gives the wave amplitude, and the complex phase of the function corresponds to the phase of the wave. formula_17 is referred to as the complex amplitude.\n\nWith formula_22 slits, the total wave at point formula_23 on the screen is\n", "the amplitude becomes a sinusoid with \"phase\" speed . It is this modulation that represents the signal content. Since each amplitude \"envelope\" contains a group of internal waves, this speed is usually called the group velocity, \"v\".\n\nIn a given medium, the frequency is some function of the wave number, so in general, the phase velocity and the group velocity depend on the frequency and on the medium. The ratio between the speed of light c and the phase velocity \"v\" is known as the refractive index, . \n" ]	[ "light is a longitudinal wave", "Light is considered a longitudinal wave. " ]	[ "light is actually a transverse wave", "Light is not a longitudinal wave, the correct term for the wave of light is a transverse wave." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "light is a longitudinal wave", "Light is considered a longitudinal wave. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "light is actually a transverse wave", "Light is not a longitudinal wave, the correct term for the wave of light is a transverse wave." ]
2018-03514	What's actually happening to your body that gives you that weird elevator feeling when going up or down?	This is force due to acceleration. When we change how fast we are going, we experience a force. The normal experience is when the elevator first starts to move. We are quit familiar with going from stopped to moving. We are also familiar with going from moving to stopped......in a car. In the car we can usually see that we are about to stop or slow down. We are mentally prepared for it. Elevators don't have windows and while they do have floor indicators, for the most part we aren't sure when the elevator will start to slow down. It feels weird because we are suddenly experiencing a force even though we are slowing down.	[ "Elevators are typically controlled from the outside by a call box, which has up and down buttons, at each stop. When pressed at a certain floor, the button (also known as a \"hall call\" button) calls the elevator to pick up more passengers. If the particular elevator is currently serving traffic in a certain direction, it will only answer calls in the same direction unless there are no more calls beyond that floor.\n", "The pilot, following the passengers' requests for sights, flew toward the Statue of Liberty at an altitude ranging from above ground level (agl), then proceeded to the Brooklyn Bridge and Central Park. After contacting the tower at LaGuardia Airport to request entry into its controlled airspace, the pilot started to climb to approximately agl. During the climb, he noticed the front passenger had removed his restraint, and reminded the passenger to keep the restraint fastened, as the passengers in the left front, left rear, and right rear seats were supposed to stay restrained while the inboard passengers in the center rear seats were allowed to unclip their restraints and sit on the floor with their feet on the skids.\n", "Before the widespread use of elevators, most residential buildings were limited to about seven stories. The wealthy lived on lower floors, while poorer residents—required to climb many flights of stairs—lived on higher floors. The elevator reversed this social stratification, exemplified by the modern penthouse suite.\n\nEarly users of elevators sometimes reported nausea caused by abrupt stops while descending, and some users would use stairs to go down. In 1894, a Chicago physician documented \"elevator sickness\".\n", "Another origin story for the elevator pitch is from Elisha Graves Otis, the inventor of a device meant for elevator safety, which dates back to the 1850s. In 1852, Otis began developing a device that would improve the safety of elevators, specifically related to the hoists used to lift heavy equipment to upper floors. The device was created out of steel wagon spring meshing and provided a backup catch and hold mechanism if the rope lifting the elevator gave way. In 1854, in the Crystal Palace Exposition in New York in front of a big audience, Otis revealed his device. He did so by lifting an elevator, like normal, but as it was positioned approximately halfway up the elevator shaft, the rope was cut. The elevator platform was held in place by Otis' device.\n", "After entering an express elevator at approximately 11:00 p.m. (EDT) Friday on October 15, 1999, Nicholas White, an employee of the building, who was going down to take a cigarette break, became trapped after a brief power dip caused the elevator to stop between the 13th and 14th floors. Though he signaled an alarm and there was surveillance video inside the elevator cab, White was not rescued until approximately 4:00 p.m. on Sunday, October 17, nearly 41 hours later, after security guards spotted him in the surveillance cameras.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Elevator surfing typically occurs in skyscrapers or on college campuses, especially those with tall buildings. Most large buildings have groups of elevators close together, which are most commonly used.\n", "In an elevator either stationary or moving at constant velocity, the normal force on the person's feet balances the person's weight. In an elevator that is accelerating upward, the normal force is greater than the person's ground weight and so the person's perceived weight increases (making the person feel heavier). In an elevator that is accelerating downward, the normal force is less than the person's ground weight and so a passenger's perceived weight decreases. If a passenger were to stand on a weighing scale, such as a conventional bathroom scale, while riding the elevator, the scale will be reading the normal force it delivers to the passenger's feet, and will be different than the person's ground weight if the elevator cab is \"accelerating\" up or down. The weighing scale measures normal force (which varies as the elevator cab accelerates), not gravitational force (which does not vary as the cab accelerates).\n", "Indeed, as well as the distinction between the motor and cognitive systems, another factor leading to the after-effect has been argued to be fear-related mechanisms. The fear of falling if somehow the elevator moved could be enough to adopt a precautionary behaviour despite knowledge that it is broken. Fear-related mechanisms are indeed known to be impervious to cognitive control.\n", "There are many origin stories for the elevator pitch. One commonly-known origin story is that of Ilene Rosenzweig and Michael Caruso, two former journalists active in the 1990s. According to Rosenzweig, Caruso was a senior editor at \"Vanity Fair\" and was continuously attempting to pitch story ideas to the Editor-In-Chief at the time, but could never pin her down long enough to do so simply because she was always on the move. So, in order to pitch her ideas, Caruso would join her during short free periods of time she had, such as on an elevator ride. Thus, the concept of an elevator pitch was created, as says Rosenzweig.\n", "On the morning of February 2, 2016, a 44-year-old elevator repair technician working for Slade Elevator was accidentally killed inside an elevator shaft of Tower II while doing scheduled monthly maintenance on that elevator. The worker became entangled between the elevator door and the upper portion of the elevator car and was dragged upwards. He was pronounced dead at the scene. While Occupational Safety and Health Administration embarked on an investigation to determine the worker's official cause of death, the building's management stated publicly that while there was no indication that this was caused by an elevator malfunction, the elevators would be operated entirely by attendants, and their automatic functions suspended, until their safety could be verified through inspection.\n", "Crosby, who worked as a quality test technician, and then later as the Director of Quality at International Telephone and Telegraph, recounted how an elevator pitch could be used to push for change within the company. He planned a speech regarding the change he wanted to see and waited at the ITT headquarters elevator. Crosby stepped onto an elevator with the CEO of the company in order to deliver his speech. Once they reached the floor in which the CEO was getting off, Crosby was asked to deliver a full presentation on the topic at a meeting for all of the general managers.\n", "The concept of an elevator pitch, as created by Crosby, did not receive much popularity until two statisticians, Gerry Hahn from General Electric and Tom Boardman, a professor at the University of Colorado, started to push the concept onto other statisticians. The two pushed this concept in order to help other statisticians in promoting what they have to offer. Boardman pushed the concept much further than Hahn, resulting in the elevator pitch ultimately being linked to Boardman and his professional life.\n", "Experience from the vestibular system is called equilibrioception. It is mainly used for the sense of balance and for spatial orientation. When the vestibular system is stimulated without any other inputs, one experiences a sense of self-motion. For example, a person in complete darkness and sitting in a chair will feel that he or she has turned to the left if the chair is turned to the left. A person in an elevator, with essentially constant visual input, will feel she is descending as the elevator starts to descend. There are a variety of direct and indirect vestibular stimuli which can make people feel they are moving when they are not, not moving when they are, tilted when they are not, or not tilted when they are. Although the vestibular system is a very fast sense used to generate reflexes, including the righting reflex, to maintain perceptual and postural stability, compared to the other senses of vision, touch and audition, vestibular input is perceived with delay.\n", "BULLET::::- An alarm button or switch, which passengers can use to warn the premises manager that they have been trapped in the elevator.\n", "Section::::Disney California Adventure and Walt Disney Studios Park versions.:Ride experience.\n\nInstead of the autonomous vehicle found in the original incarnation, the new ride system limits the elevator car to a single shaft. As the elevator doors close, the lights of the service elevator flicker out. The redesigned, multiple-cars-per-shaft, multilevel-boarding ride system requires that one elevator load while another be in the drop shaft progressing through the ride cycle. As such, the first movement guests experience is horizontal, as the elevator itself is pulled back from the doors as Rod Serling's voice is heard:\n", "BULLET::::- Marburg, Germany – some parts of the historic city core built on higher ground (Uppertown, \"Oberstadt\" in German) are accessible from the lower street level by elevators. These elevators are unique in servicing also various buildings partially embedded in the steep-sloping terrain\n\nBULLET::::- Monaco – seven elevators\n\nBULLET::::- Nagasaki, Japan – Skyway\n\nBULLET::::- Naples, Italy – three public elevators\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Vestibular system.\n\nThe role of the vestibular system in the inducement of the sopite syndrome or related symptoms may be difficult to ascertain. Researchers must compare the results of test subjects experiencing a motion environment to a control environment lacking motion. Experimental subjects who suffered increased fatigue in a rotating environment apparently recovered from this side effect when the same environment ceased motion. In similar studies, control subjects lacking vestibular function did not experience the motion-induced drowsiness associated with the sopite syndrome, while subjects with normal-functioning vestibular systems did experience increased fatigue in the rotating environments.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Visual stimulus.\n", "Elevators can be rope dependent or rope-free. There are at least four means of moving an elevator:\n\nSection::::Types of hoist mechanisms.:Traction elevators.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Geared and gearless traction elevators\"\n\nGeared traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared machines use worm gears to control mechanical movement of elevator cars by \"rolling\" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high-speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to .\n\nSection::::Types of hoist mechanisms.:Regenerative drives.\n", "This activity typically takes place when there is not much movement with the elevators, which lowers the risk and involvement. Accomplices will sometimes press buttons on the inside of the elevators to provide the movement. Movement can also be provided by means of service controls located on top of the elevator car, which allow complete control over the movement of the elevator, but at a reduced speed.\n", "In some towns where terrain is difficult to navigate, elevators are used as part of urban transport systems.\n\nExamples:\n\nBULLET::::- Alexandria, Virginia, USA – public inclined elevators connect to Huntington station\n\nBULLET::::- Almada, Portugal – Boca do Vento Elevator\n\nBULLET::::- Bad Schandau, Germany – Bad Schandau Elevator\n\nBULLET::::- Barcelona, Spain – elevator and cableway line connecting the port terminal to Montjuïc hill\n\nBULLET::::- Bilbao, Spain – Casco Viejo station (fare-paying elevator connecting upper and lower neighbourhoods, as well as the station)\n", "Guests ascending to the 67th, 69th, and 70th level observation decks (dubbed \"Top of the Rock\") atop the GE Building at Rockefeller Center in New York City ride a high-speed glass-top elevator. When entering the cab, it appears to be any normal elevator ride. However, once the cab begins moving, the interior lights turn off and a special blue light above the cab turns on. This lights the entire shaft, so riders can see the moving cab through its glass ceiling as it rises and lowers through the shaft. Music plays and various animations are also displayed on the ceiling. The entire ride takes about 60 seconds.\n", "The same destination scheduling concept can also be applied to public transit such as in group rapid transit.\n\nSection::::Special operating modes.\n\nSection::::Special operating modes.:Anti-crime protection.\n\nThe anti-crime protection (ACP) feature will force each car to stop at a pre-defined landing and open its doors. This allows a security guard or a receptionist at the landing to visually inspect the passengers. The car stops at this landing as it passes to serve further demand.\n\nSection::::Special operating modes.:Up peak.\n", "When the old gentleman asked if he could be helped for his fear of riding in an elevator, I told him I could probably scare the pants off him in another direction. He told me that nothing could be worse than his fear of an elevator.br\n", "It can also improve accessibility, as a mobility-impaired passenger can move to his or her designated car in advance.\n\nInside the elevator there is no call button to push, or the buttons are there but they cannot be pushed — except door opening and alarm button — they only indicate stopping floors.\n\nThe idea of destination control was originally conceived by Leo Port from Sydney in 1961, but at that time elevator controllers were implemented in relays and were unable to optimise the performance of destination control allocations.\n", "However, there is another known potential origin story that dates back prior to the story of Rosenzweig and Caruso. Philip Crosby, author of \"The Art of Getting Your Own Sweet Way\" (1972) and \"Quality Is Still Free\" (1996) suggested individuals should have a pre-prepared speech that can deliver information regarding themselves or a quality that they can provide within a short period of time, namely the amount of time of an elevator ride for if an individual finds themselves on an elevator with a prominent figure. Essentially, an elevator pitch is meant to allow an individual to pitch themselves or an idea to a person who is high up in a company, with very limited time.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23480	After seeing Peter Jackson's Restored Footage, why is a lot of old footage look like it's in fast-forward?	So, video of all sorts is just a series of still images that gets changed really quickly. Each image is called a frame, and how many images you see per second is called the framerate. Old footage, as people have noted, used hand-cranked reels to expose the pictures, and these had a pretty low framerate that wasn't quite consistent. However, playback devices would play that film back at a single standard speed. Let's say for math's sake that 30 frames per second is your playback speed. If you recorded at about 15 frames per second, then each "second" of your video is only going to take half of a second when played back, making it look like your video is running in fast motion. Similarly, slow-motion cameras that we have today record in speeds of like 5,000 frames per second, but we play them back at 30 or 60 frames per second (Depending on the format), and so every 1 second of original video takes ~10-20 seconds to replay. Nowadays, with digital video files, if you have something that was recorded at 30 frames per second and need to replay it at 60 frames per second due to a newer standard, it will insert computer-generated "tween" frames that try to get a good approximation of what should happen between the two frames to make sure the film plays at its' original runtime and doesn't look sped up.	[ "Section::::Usage in video.\n\nAnalogue VCRs provided fast-forward by simply playing the tape faster. The resulting loss of synchronization of the video was accepted because it was still possible to make out approximately what was happening in the video to find the desired playback point. Modern digital video systems such as DVR and Video on Demand systems use 'trick mode' to present an apparently faster stream by only displaying selected frames.\n", "Fast-forwarding is the exact opposite of rewinding, in which tape, music, etc., are moved backward at a user's discretion. In either operation, because of sound distortion, volume is usually muted or severely reduced.\n", "As the frame rate of time-lapse approaches normal frame rates, these \"mild\" forms of time-lapse are sometimes referred to simply as fast motion or (in video) fast forward. This type of borderline time-lapse resembles a VCR in a fast forward (\"scan\") mode. A man riding a bicycle will display legs pumping furiously while he flashes through city streets at the speed of a racing car. Longer exposure rates for each frame can also produce blurs in the man's leg movements, heightening the illusion of speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Episode 1 Star Wars, The Dating Game, 60 Minutes\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 2 The Flying Nun, Flipper, The Book Show, Dumb Street\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 3 Apocalypse Now, America's Funniest Bloopers, Backchat, Amazing Stories, A Current Affair\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 4 Frankenstein, Mother and Son, Donahue\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 5 Hard Copy, Godzilla, New Faces, The Book Show, Edith Piaf\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 6 The Movie Show, Burke's Backyard, The Hunt for Red October, Four Corners\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 7 Picnic at Hanging Rock, Four Corners\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 8 The Wizard of Oz, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat\n", "The use of different camera speeds also appeared around 1900 in the films of Robert W. Paul and Hepworth. Paul shot scenes from \"On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus\" (1899) with the camera turning very slowly. When the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed. Hepworth used the opposite effect in \"The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz Powder\" (1901). The Chief's movements are sped up by cranking the camera much faster than 16 frames per second. This gives what we would call a \"slow motion\" effect.\n", "Fast forward\n\nTo fast-forward is to move forward through a recording at a speed faster than that at which it would usually be played. The recordings are usually audio, video or computer data. It is colloquially known as 'f-forwarding'. On media control symbols, such as player buttons and interfaces, the function is commonly represented by two solid arrows pointing right and these typical icons were correctly recognised by 75% of a sample of European consumers. This symbol is represented in unicode as .\n\nSection::::Usage in audio.\n", "The opposite of fast motion is slow motion. Cinematographers refer to fast motion as \"undercranking\" since it was originally achieved by cranking a handcranked camera slower than normal. \"Overcranking\" produces slow motion effects.\n\nSection::::How time-lapse works.\n\nFilm is often projected at 24 frame/s, meaning 24 images appear on the screen every second. Under normal circumstances, a film \"camera\" will record images at 24 frame/s. Since the projection speed and the recording speed are the same.\n", "So a film recorded at 12 frames per second will appear to move twice as fast. Shooting at camera speeds between 8 and 22 frames per second usually falls into the undercranked fast motion category, with images shot at slower speeds more closely falling into the realm of time-lapse, although these distinctions of terminology have not been entirely established in all movie production circles.\n\nThe same principles apply to video and other digital photography techniques. However, until very recently , video cameras have not been capable of recording at variable frame rates.\n", "With the advent of inexpensive digital music media, fast-forwarding has most likely lost its past meaning related to the speed of a tape deck motor (or record turntable, or another device allowing fast-forwarding) and now may, especially as cassette tapes and other analogue media are used less and less by younger generations, only apply to the operation of moving ahead in a recording's time frame—accomplished today by simple clicking, dragging a slide image, or even via speech-recognition software. (Still, some CD and DVD players offer tape-style fast-forwarding, so that the user can detect when the destination is reached and stop.)\n", "This frequent use of stock footage saved production money, but often resulted in sacrifice of continuity. This was countered by cutting from one stock shot to another after only a second or two, long enough to set the scene but before the eye could notice all of the unexplained errors. This became part of the Filmation style during a period when most television and motion picture productions tended to run minimum shots of 4–5 seconds.\n", "Even if the film camera is set to record at a slower speed, it will still be projected at 24 frame/s. Thus the image on screen will appear to move faster.\n\nThe change in speed of the onscreen image can be calculated by dividing the projection speed by the camera speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Episode 24 Gilligan's Island\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 25 Cleopatra/The Fall of the Roman Empire, Agatha Christie\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 26 Pride and Prejudice, The Munsters\n\n1991 Series \n\nBULLET::::- Episode 1 MAS*H\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 3 Family Feud\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 4 Batman, Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 5 Star Trek\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 6 Donahue\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 7 Are You Being Served?\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 8 Miami Vice\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 9 The Adventures of Robin Hood\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 10 Blind Date\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 11 The Six Million Dollar Man\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 12 Dallas\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 13 The Poseidon Adventure\n", "BULLET::::- Episode 14 I Love Lucy\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 15 Dracula\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 16 Skippy, Embassy\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 17 Sherlock Holmes and The Hound of the Baskervilles\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 18 Charlie's Angels\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 19 Petticoat Junction\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 20 Alien, All Creatures Great and Small\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 21 Lost in Space\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 22 Fantastic Voyage\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 23 Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 24 Oprah, Young Talent Time\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 25 Miss Teen USA\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 26 The Midday Show, The Saturday Show\n\n1992 Series \n", "BULLET::::- René Dahinden stated that \"the footage of the horses prior to the Bigfoot film looks jerky and unnatural when projected at 24 frame/s.\" And Dahinden experimented at the film site by having people walk rapidly over the creature's path and reported: \"None of us ... could walk that distance in 40 seconds [952 frames / 24 frame/s = 39.6 s], ... so I eliminated 24 frame/s.\"\n", "Section::::Frame rate differences.:Other pulldown patterns.\n\nSimilar techniques must be used for films shot at “silent speeds” of less than 24 frame/s, which includes home movie formats (the standard for Standard 8 mm film was 16 fps, and 18 fps for Super 8 mm film) as well as silent film (which in 35 mm format usually was 16 fps, 12 fps, or even lower).\n\nBULLET::::- 16 frame/s (actually 15.985) to NTSC 30 frame/s (actually 29.97): pulldown should be 3:4:4:4\n", "BULLET::::- \"Time Warp\" was centered around the use of high-speed cameras to slow things down that are usually too fast to see with the naked eye.\n\nBULLET::::- High-speed cameras are frequently used in television productions of many major sporting events for slow motion instant replays when normal slow motion is not slow enough, such as international Cricket matches.\n\nSection::::Uses in science.\n", "The film had variables speed of frames per second (fps) whether it was 16, 12, 8, 4 or 1 fps. In order to control the chair movement and the man action at a normal speed, the camera should capture the chair at half speed, 12 frames per second, and the man at 1/2 speed. However, if the chair action was difficult to control, the camera would have to capture it at 6 fps which end up the chair moving at 1/4 speed. If the camera have to capture the chair movement at a high speed and the man at a normal speed, it would have to record the chair at 8 fps and the man at 1/3 speed. In order to maintain a balance between the camera and the man or the chair action, the result was to slow them down at the same amount of speed.\n", "2:2 pulldown is also used to transfer shows and films, photographed at 30 frames per second, like \"Friends\" and \"Oklahoma!\" (1955), to NTSC video, which has 60 Hz scanning rate.\n\nAlthough the 4% speed increase has been standard since the early days of PAL and SECAM television, recently a new technique has gained popularity, and the resulting speed and pitch of the telecined presentation are identical to that of the original film.\n", "Speed ramping, or simply \"ramping\", is a process whereby the capture frame rate of the camera changes over time. For example, if in the course of 10 seconds of capture, the capture frame rate is adjusted from 60 frames per second to 24 frames per second, when played back at the standard movie rate of 24 frames per second, a unique time-manipulation effect is achieved. For example, someone pushing a door open and walking out into the street would appear to start off in slow-motion, but in a few seconds later within the same shot, the person would appear to walk in \"realtime\" (normal speed). The opposite speed-ramping is done in \"The Matrix\" when Neo re-enters the Matrix for the first time to see the Oracle. As he comes out of the warehouse \"load-point\", the camera zooms into Neo at normal speed but as it gets closer to Neo's face, time seems to slow down, foreshadowing the manipulation of time itself within the Matrix later in the movie.\n", "Section::::Viewing Motion Diagrams.\n\nOne of the major usages of motion diagrams is to present film through a series of frames taken by a camera. Viewing an object on a motion diagram allows one to determine if an object is at a constant rest, speeding up, or slowing down. As the frames are taken, it can be assumed that an object is at a constant rest if it occupies the same position over time. It can be assumed that an object is speeding up if there is a visible increase in the space between objects as time\n", "BULLET::::- Episode 11 The Adventures of Superman, Donahue\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 12 Prisoner, Floyd on Australian Cooking\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 13 Play School, Mister Ed\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 14 Sale of the Century, That's Dancing\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 15 The Patty Duke Show\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 16 Sale of the Century, James Bond \"Goldfinger\"\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 17 Perry Mason\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 18 Bonanza, Seven Samurai\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 19 Fantasy Island, Dick Smith\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 20 Skippy, Bewitched, Wheel of Fortune\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 21 The Partridge Family\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 22 The Sullivans\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 23 Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, To the Manor Born\n", "When used in motion pictures and on television, fast motion can serve one of several purposes. One popular usage is for comic effect. A slapstick comic scene might be played in fast motion with accompanying music. (This form of special effect was often used in silent film comedies in the early days of the cinema; see also liquid electricity).\n", "In motion pictures, the manipulation of time and space is a considerable contributing factor to the narrative storytelling tools. Film editing plays a much stronger role in this manipulation, but frame rate selection in the photography of the original action is also a contributing factor to altering time. For example, Charlie Chaplin's \"Modern Times\" was shot at \"silent speed\" (18 fps) but projected at \"sound speed\" (24 fps), which makes the slapstick action appear even more frenetic.\n", "When shooting with old cameras, 50 Hz interlaced video (usually used with most forms of PAL and SECAM) can be relatively easily processed to give 25 progressive frames per second, which is the framerate that the PAL/SECAM telecine process also uses. Every two video fields can be \"blended\" together, every other field can be decimated and the remaining fields can be shown for double the length (this noticeably reduces vertical resolution), or a motion estimation process can be applied to achieve one frame out of every two fields. This technique is sometimes called Field-removed video or FRV. Some modern PAL video cameras do offer the ability to produce 25 frame-per-second progressive video, negating the requirement of post-processing the video to get a temporal similarity to film.\n", "A variation of these are rigs that move the camera during exposures of each frame of film, blurring the entire image. Under controlled conditions, usually with computers carefully making the movements during and between each frame, some exciting blurred artistic and visual effects can be achieved, especially when the camera is mounted on a tracking system that enables its own movement through space.\n\nThe most classic example of this is the \"slit-scan\" opening of the \"stargate\" sequence toward the end of Stanley Kubrick's \"\" (1968), created by Douglas Trumbull.\n\nSection::::Time-lapse camera movement.:Related techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- Bullet time\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperlapse\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05554	Why do finger nails grow at a much higher rate than toe nails?	Resource management! Fingernails are the protective covers for our work tools. And because our top work tools (hands) are used and damaged much more than our bottom work tools (feet) they get replacement parts/ protective covers at a different interval. Now, if we never invented shoes, and still used our toes to dig around in the ground, hands and feet would get new protective covers at same intervals.	[ "In mammals, the growth rate of nails is related to the length of the terminal phalanges (outermost finger bones). Thus, in humans, the nail of the index finger grows faster than that of the little finger; and fingernails grow up to four times faster than toenails.\n\nIn humans, nails grow at an average rate of a month. Fingernails require three to six months to regrow completely, and toenails require twelve to eighteen months. Actual growth rate is dependent upon age, sex, season, exercise level, diet, and hereditary factors. \n", "A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and:\n\nBULLET::::1. expanded apical pads (fingertips),\n\nBULLET::::2. developed epidermal ridges (fingerprints),\n\nBULLET::::3. broadened distal parts of distal phalanges (fingertip bones), and\n\nBULLET::::4. reduced flexor and extensor tubercles (attachments areas for finger muscles on bones).\n", "The main contributor to onychocryptosis is footwear, particularly ill-fitting shoes with inadequate toe-box room and tight stockings that apply pressure to the top or side of the foot. Other factors may include the damp atmosphere of enclosed shoes, which soften the nail-plate and cause swelling on the epidermal keratin (eventually increasing the convex arch permanently), genetics, trauma and disease. Improper cutting of the nail may cause the nail to cut into the side-fold skin from growth and impact, whether or not the nail is truly \"ingrown\". The nail bends inwards or upwards depending on the angle of its cut. If the cutting tool, such as scissors, is at an attitude in which the lower blade is closer to the toe than the upper blade, the toenail will tend to grow upwards from its base, and vice versa. The process is visible along the nail as it grows, appearing as a warp advancing to the end of the nail. The upper corners turn more easily than the center of the nail tip. Holding the tool at the same angle for all nails may induce these conditions; as the nail turns closer to the skin, it becomes harder to fit the lower blade in the right attitude under the nail. When cutting a nail, it is not just the correct angle that is important, but also how short it is cut. A shorter cut will bend the nail more, unless the cut is even on both top and bottom of the nail.\n", "Insufficient vitamin B12 can lead to excessive dryness, darkened nails, and rounded or curved nail ends. Insufficient intake of both vitamin A and B results in fragile nails with horizontal and vertical ridges. Some over-the-counter vitamin supplements such as certain multivitamins and biotin may help in growth of strong nails, although this is quite subjective.\n", "In tetrapods, claws are made of keratin and consist of two layers. The unguis is the harder external layer, which consists of keratin fibers arranged perpendicular to the direction of growth and in layers at an oblique angle. The subunguis is the softer, flaky underside layer whose grain is parallel to the direction of growth. The claw grows outward from the nail matrix at the base of the unguis and the subunguis grows thicker while travelling across the nail bed. The unguis grows outward faster than the subunguis to produce a curve and the thinner sides of the claw wear away faster than their thicker middle, producing a more or less sharp point. Tetrapods use their claws in many ways, commonly to grasp or kill prey, to dig and to climb and hang.\n", "Section::::Nail dust generation.\n\nHealthcare providers may use podiatry drills on onychauxic (thickened) nails of patients to alleviate or eliminate pain, prevent or treat subungual ulcerations, allow better penetration of topical antifungal agents, or improve cosmesis, all in effort to improve the patient’s “quality of life.” In a study conducted by Miller, 65% of respondents reported routinely drilling thickened toenails. However, the improved effectiveness of antifungal drugs such as itraconazole and terbinafine reduces the need to drill these infected nails. \n", "The most common digit to become ingrown is the big toe, but ingrowth can occur on any nail. Ingrown nails can be avoided by cutting nails straight across; not along a curve, not too short and no shorter than the flesh around it. Footwear that is too small or too narrow, or with too shallow a \"toe box\", will exacerbate any underlying problem with a toenail. Sharp square corners may be uncomfortable and cause snagging on socks. Proper cutting leaves the leading edge of the nail free of the flesh, precluding it from growing into the toe. Filing of the corner is reasonable. Some nails require cutting of the corners far back to remove edges that dig into the flesh; this is often done as a partial wedge resection by a podiatrist. Ingrown toe nails can be caused by injury, commonly blunt trauma in which the flesh is pressed against the nail causing a small cut that swells. Injury to the nail can cause it to grow abnormally, making it wider or thicker than normal, or even bulged or crooked.\n", "However, the spread of the infection is not limited to skin. Toe nails become infected with fungi in the same way as the rest of the foot, typically by being trapped with fungi in the warm, dark, moist inside of a shoe. Fungal infection of the nails is called tinea unguium, and is not included in the medical definition of \"athlete's foot\", even though toe nails are part of the foot. Fungi are more difficult to kill inside and underneath a nail than on and in the skin. But if the nail infection is not cured, then the fungi can readily spread back to the rest of the foot. The fungi can also spread to hair, grow inside hair strands, and feed on the keratin within hair, including the hair on the feet, the hair of one's beard, and the hair on one's head. From hair, the fungi can spread back to skin.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nThe treatment of an ingrown toenail partly depends on its severity.\n\nSection::::Management.:Conservative treatment.\n", "Section::::Avulsion procedure.\n", "Section::::Wedge resection.:Recurrence.\n", "Since 500 B.C., some researchers have believed that the physical condition of the fingernails and toenails can indicate various systemic diseases. Careful examination of the fingernails and toenails may provide clues to underlying systemic diseases , since some diseases have been found to cause disruptions in the nail growth process. The nail plate is the hard keratin cover of the nail. The nail plate is generated by the nail matrix located just under the cuticle. As the nail grows, the area closest to becoming exposed to the outside world (distal) produces the deeper layers of the nail plate, while the part of the nail matrix deeper inside the finger (proximal) makes the superficial layers. Any disruption in this growth process can lead to an alteration in the shape and texture.\n", "Inherited accessory nail of the fifth toe occurs where the toenail of the smallest toe is separated, forming a smaller \"sixth toenail\" in the outer corner of the nail. Like any other nail, it can be cut using a nail clipper.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Effect of nutrition.\n\nVitamin A is an essential micro-nutrient for vision, reproduction, cell and tissue differentiation, and immune function. Vitamin D and calcium work together in cases of maintaining homeostasis, creating muscle contraction, transmission of nerve pulses, blood clotting, and membrane structure. A lack of vitamin A, vitamin D, or calcium can cause dryness and brittleness.\n", "Ingrown nail\n\nAn ingrown nail (also known as onychocryptosis from (\"onyx\", \"nail\") + κρυπτός (\"kryptos\", \"hidden\") is a common form of nail disease. It is an often painful condition in which the nail grows so that it cuts into one or both sides of the paronychium or nail bed. While ingrown nails can occur in the nails of both the hands and the feet, they occur most commonly with the toenails (as opposed to fingernails), and for the most part are only problematic and painful on the big toe.\n", "Section::::Distribution.\n\n\"Pseudogymnoascus destructans\" is believed to originate from Europe. The current \"P. destructans\" European distribution includes Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.\n\nThe North American geographic distribution of \"P. destructans\" continues to increase each year since its initial introduction to New York State in 2006. Its current distribution includes 38 states in the U.S.A. and at least 7 Canadian provinces.\n\nSection::::Bat species affected by \"P. destructans\".\n", "The nail is an \"unguis\", meaning a keratin structure at the end of a digit. Other examples of \"ungues\" include the claw, hoof and talon. The nails of primates and the hooves of running mammals evolved from the claws of earlier animals.\n", "When toenailing, nails can be driven from the inside or outside of the joint, depending on access available to use the hammer. Skew nailing is also a technique used by other woodworkers, for example a drawer or box can be glued and skew-nailed with finer nails or panel pins. Skew nailing will fasten the joint, while the glue sets, avoiding the use of clamps. A variation of toenailing is to use screws for the same purpose, which might be called toenailing or \"toe-screwing\".\n", "The trait can be observed on either one or both feet, where there is a separation of the toenail situated on the smallest toe. The separated part of the nail forms a smaller \"sixth toenail\" on the corner of the larger, or \"main\" section of the toenail, on the outermost side of the foot, which protrudes outwards from the corner of the larger nail. The additional \"nail\" can be cut with a nail clipper, just like any other nail.\n\nSection::::Removal.\n", "Human nails grow at a rate which varies with many factors: age, and the finger or toe in question as well as nutrition. However, typically in healthy populations fingernails grow at about 0.1mm/day and toenails at about 0.05mm/day. With this in mind the date of the stress causing Beau's lines and other identifiable marks on nails can be estimated. As the nail grows out, the ridge visibly moves upwards toward the nail edge. When the ridge reaches the tip of the digit involved, the nail edge recedes and the fingertip can become quite sore due to the mis-shapen nail pressing into the flesh deeper than usual, and exposing the sensitive nail bed (the quick) at the nail edge where the nail has receded back.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Onychogryposis\", also called \"ram's-horn nail\", is a thickening and increase in curvature of the nail. It is usually the result of injury to the matrix. It may be partially hereditary and can also occur as a result of long-term neglect. It is most commonly seen in the great toe but may be seen in other toes as well as the fingernails. An affected nail has many grooves and ridges, is brownish in color, and grows more quickly on one side than on the other. The thick curved nail is difficult to cut, and often remains untrimmed, exacerbating the problem.\n", "Section::::Vandenbos procedure.\n", "In order to clinically diagnose pachyonychia congenita, the clinical triad of toenail thickening, plantar keratoderma, and plantar pain must be present. This triad is present in 97% of individuals with PC by the age of 10 years old.\n", "Causes may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Shoes causing a bunching of the toes in the developmental stages of the foot (frequently in people under 21), which can cause the nail to curl and dig into the skin. This is particularly the case in ill-fitting shoes that are too narrow or too short, but any toed shoes may cause an ingrown nail.\n\nBULLET::::- Poor nail care, including cutting the nail too short, rounded off at the tip or peeled off at the edges instead of being cut straight across.\n\nBULLET::::- Broken toenails.\n", "Ingrown toe nail is a disorder where the nail starts to grow into the soft fleshy area of the toe. It causes intense redness, pain and swelling. Ingrown toe nails often affect the big toe. The best treatment for ingrown toe nails is to get the nail partially or completely removed.\n\nSection::::Arthritic foot conditions.\n", "The matrix produces cells that become the nail plate. The width and thickness of the nail plate is determined by the size, length, and thickness of the matrix, while the shape of the fingertip itself shows if the nail plate is flat, arched, or hooked. The matrix will continue to produce cells as long as it receives nutrition and remains in a healthy condition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03530	Why does a banana skin decompose quicker when its been peeled?	After the banana is peeled, the skin(peel) isn't sealed up anymore so air can get to the insides. The oxygen in the air causes a reaction with the insides that makes it turn brown faster. Non-5 explanation: There are enzymes within the skin and pulp of the peel that are released when the skin is bruised, peeled, or cut. When oxygen comes into contact with the enzymes a chemical reaction takes place that produces melanins that give a brown pigment.	[ "With additional process of blanching, dried mango can retain the content of its carotenoids and vitamin C.\n\nSection::::Types.:Shelf life.\n", "Bananas are a popular fruit consumed worldwide with a yearly production of over 165 million tonnes in 2011. Once the peel is removed, the fruit can be eaten raw or cooked and the peel is generally discarded. Because of this removal of the banana peel, a significant amount of organic waste is generated.\n\nBanana peels are sometimes used as feedstock for cattle, goats, pigs, monkeys, poultry, fish, zebras and several other species, typically on small farms in regions where bananas are grown. There are some concerns over the impact of tannins contained in the peels on animals that consume them.\n", "An average plantain has about 220 calories and is a good source of potassium and dietary fiber. The sap from the fruit peel, as well as the entire plant, can stain clothing and hands, and can be very difficult to remove.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "Before the drying process begins, the mango that has been sliced will usually have moisture on the surface. In the drying process, warm air that has little moisture will be used to pick up the moisture on the surface of the sliced mango. As the water on the surface is being evaporated, the water from inside the mango is also being drawn out to the surface to replace the lost moisture. The process of water being drawn out from the center of the material to the surface is called diffusion. Then the moisture will also be taken away by the warm air. As moisture is being drawn out to the surface, moisture on the surface will be less visible until it reached a point where the surface will no longer look wet. The rate of moisture removal will also be slower as time goes on. As moisture is being drained out of the mango, its cellular structure will begin to break down, causing the mango to shrink. At high temperature, moisture can be drawn out too quick that a thick hard layer is formed in the surface of the mango. The thick layer will trap moisture inside the mango making it really difficult to entirely dehydrate the mango. This phenomenon of developing hard skin-like outer layer is called case-hardening.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Cultural roles.:Unicode.\n\nThe Unicode standard includes the emoji character .\n\nSection::::Culture.:Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- The large leaves may be used as umbrellas.\n\nBULLET::::- Banana peel may have capability to extract heavy metal contamination from river water, similar to other purification materials. In 2007, banana peel powder was tested as a means of filtration for heavy metals and radionuclides occurring in water produced by the nuclear and fertilizer industries (cadmium contaminant is present in phosphates). When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy metals, and this can be repeated.\n", "A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The study suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.\n\nSection::::Modern cultivation.:Storage and transport.\n", "The peeled layers are used by farmers as a binding rope for packaging agricultural produce, such as flowers, betel leaves, etc. The dried stem peels are slit into fine threads and are used for weaving mats, stringing garlands and wrapping packages. Juice from the stem and the peel have also been used traditionally in first aid for burns and minor abrasions.\n\nVazhaithandu is a Tamil word for the stem and it is used in various soups, stews, stir-fries, and koottus.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n", "Bananas are green when they are picked because of the chlorophyll their skin contains. Once picked, they begin to ripen; hormones in the bananas convert amino acids into ethylene gas, which stimulates the production of several enzymes. These enzymes start to change the color, texture and flavor of the banana. The green chlorophyll supply is stopped and the yellow color of the carotenoids replaces it; eventually, as the enzymes continue their work, the cell walls break down and the bananas turn brown.\n\nSection::::Science and nature.:Biology.:Fish.\n", "The coefficient of friction of banana peel on a linoleum surface was measured at just 0.07, about half that of lubricated metal on metal. Researchers attribute this to the crushing of the natural polysaccharide follicular gel, releasing a homogenous sol. This unsurprising finding was awarded the 2014 Ig Nobel Prize for physics.\n\nSection::::Peeling methods.\n", "Section::::Use of plant components.:Plantain leaves.\n", "Some foods, such as bananas, are picked when unripe, are cooled to prevent ripening while they are shipped to market, and then are induced to ripen quickly by exposing them to propylene or ethylene, chemicals produced by plants to induce their own ripening; as flavor and texture changes during ripening, this process may affect those qualities of the treated fruit.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition.\n", "Covered fruit ripening bowls are commercially available. The manufacturers claim the bowls increase the amount of ethylene and carbon dioxide gases around the fruit, which promotes ripening.\n\nClimacteric fruits are able to continue ripening after being picked, a process accelerated by ethylene gas. Non-climacteric fruits can ripen only on the plant and thus have a short shelf life if harvested when they are ripe.\n\nSome fruits can be ripened by placing them in a plastic bag with a ripe banana, as the banana will release ethylene.\n\nSection::::Ripening indicators.\n", "Depending on the thickness and taste, fruit peel is sometimes eaten as part of the fruit, such as with apples. In some cases the peel is unpleasant or inedible, in which case it is removed and discarded, such as with bananas or grapefruits.\n\nThe peel of some fruits — for example, pomegranates — is high in tannins and other polyphenols, and is employed in the production of dyes.\n", "The nutritional value of banana peel depends on the stage of maturity and the cultivar; for example plantain peels contain less fibre than dessert banana peels, and lignin content increases with ripening (from 7 to 15% dry matter). On average, banana peels contain 6-9% dry matter of protein and 20-30% fibre (measured as NDF). Green plantain peels contain 40% starch that is transformed into sugars after ripening. Green banana peels contain much less starch (about 15%) when green than plantain peels, while ripe banana peels contain up to 30% free sugars.\n", "When the tip of a banana is pinched with two fingers, it will split and the peel comes off in two clean sections. The inner fibres, or \"strings\", between the fruit and the peel will remain attached to the peel and the stem of the banana can be used as a handle when eating the banana.\n\nSection::::Psychoactive effects of banana peels.\n", "Alternative ways of cooking \"lontong\" include placing uncooked rice into a muslin bag then letting the water seep in and cause the rice to form a solid mass. Another popular and easier method is by using commercially available plastic pouches; rice-filled and punctured with needle to create small holes to allow the water to seep into the package, which are then boiled until the rice becomes cooked and have fully filled up the pouch. This method was meant to imitate the banana leaf's liquid permeability. Nevertheless, the use of organic banana leaf is highly recommended for better health and ecological reasons.\n", "Conventionally, the seeds of the unripe palm are eaten. But ripe palm is also used in various ways. Sweet ripe palm is used to extract pulp for food purpose. Skin of the fruit is removed. The whole fruit is de-seeded. Manually or mechanically, the juice is extracted from each of the de-seeded parts. This extracted juice is reserved in a container for further use.\n\nSection::::Popular foods.\n\nConventionally, the whole fruit of palm is eaten, though this food is ripe or unripe. But the Bengali people make the various dishes using the pulp or juice of ripe palm fruit. These include:\n", "Section::::Use of plant components.:Plantain shoot.\n", "After cooking the mixture, the banana leaves can be prepared and cut that shall serve as wrappers for the mixture. It is suggested to have two tablespoon of mixture in each of the cut banana leaf. Every individual pieces are brushed with butter. After wrapping a piece, it is sealed with a string. Lastly, the wrapped pieces are cooked through steaming in about half an hour. After the moron is cooled, it can now be served.\n\nSection::::Consumption.\n", "Banana powder is formed by using banana pulp, which is mechanically chopped and then processed with hydraulic shear using a colloid mill, turning it into a paste. Sodium metabisulfite is then used to brighten the yellow color of the paste. The paste is then dried by either spray- or drum-drying, although the latter is more common, because none of the paste is lost while drying. Drum-drying also produces about 2% more powder and dries it more thoroughly. Regardless of the drying process, banana powder can generally only stay fresh on the shelf for about a year.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Farming activities.:Exporting.\n\nAt the boxing plant, the bananas selected are hung on a conveyor and removed by hand from the stalk. They are then placed in tanks of water for at least four minutes to wash off the latex and other impurities. Every precautionary method must be taken against damage to the skin of the fruit. Wad wrapping and polythene bags are commonly used. The latex flow tends to be absorbed by the wad wrapping. \n", "During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas ethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a \"starchier\" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.\n", "Section::::Plantain dishes.:Philippines.\n", "Most people peel a banana by cutting or snapping the stem and divide the peel into sections while pulling them away from the bared fruit. Another way of peeling a banana is done in the opposite direction, from the end with the brownish floral residue—a way usually perceived as \"upside down\". This way is also known as the \"monkey method\", since it is how monkeys are said to peel bananas.\n", "Fruits, vegetable, and nut peeling is also important in food processing. When almonds or pistachios are blanched, the skin of the nut (botanically the seed coat surrounding the embryo) softens and can be easily removed later. Steam peeling produces less environmental pollution and peeling losses, as compared to chemical or manual peeling processes.\n\nOther uses of blanching are enhancing drying rate and product quality, decreasing microbial load, removing pesticide and toxic residues, increasing extraction of bioactive compounds, surface cleaning, removing damaged seeds or foreign materials, killing parasites and their eggs, and reducing oil uptake.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03761	How do distressing events or trauma lead to PTSD and other disorders?	In a very natural very human way. (It's a little more complex than this but it's the gist) If you are in a war zone for example, where your life is constantly in danger. Your body naturally reacts to protect you - this means highened awareness of surroundings, your body is more tense because it wants to be ready to run away or fight at any moment. The thing is, once your life/safety has been threatened (or when your body perceives a threat), your body often stays ready to fight or run away even when the danger is gone. Once your are in safety and your body is still acting like it's in danger, some problematic things can happen. You might have problems functioning "normally". Like you might be unable to trust enough to date or hold a job. Other people who haven't shared your experience won't understand why you act the way you do. They may think youre crazy since the threat isn't there anymore. Also, when your defenses are on all the time, physically it can very exhausting. Basically it's like high stress 24/7 - just unsustainable. Treatments for PTSD often involve teaching someone's brain and body that a) their reaction is normal but also b) the threat is gone.	[ "There has been some study with combat veterans, people who carry out executions or torture, police who shoot in the line of duty, people who commit criminal homicide, abortion staff, and others. Much of the study was previous to the official definition of PTSD, and symptoms have shown up in personal stories throughout history, and in the keen observations of the writers of great literature, most notably \"Macbeth\" by William Shakespeare.\n\nSection::::As a psychiatric disorder.:Severity.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Associated medical conditions.\n\nTrauma survivors often develop depression, anxiety disorders, and mood disorders in addition to PTSD.\n\nDrug abuse and alcohol abuse commonly co-occur with PTSD. Recovery from posttraumatic stress disorder or other anxiety disorders may be hindered, or the condition worsened, when substance use disorders are comorbid with PTSD. Resolving these problems can bring about improvement in an individual's mental health status and anxiety levels.\n\nIn children and adolescents, there is a strong association between emotional regulation difficulties (e.g. mood swings, anger outbursts, temper tantrums) and post-traumatic stress symptoms, independent of age, gender, or type of trauma.\n", "To focus on this particular issue and figure out if it is trauma exposure or PTSD symptoms that are necessary for the development of OGM, Moore and Zoellner reviewed 24 studies. They concluded that trauma alone is not sufficient to produce OGM and that PTSD symptoms are significantly associated with OGM. While the causal direction between OGM and PTSD is still unknown, Moore and Zoellner conclude that PTSD symptoms, such as intrusive memories and avoidance of reminders, are necessary for OGM.\n\nSection::::Associations with mental health.:Childhood trauma.\n", "PTSD is an anxiety disorder caused by exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal involving the occurrence or threat of physical harm. It is one of the most severe and well-known of the different types of psychological trauma, mostly due to its prevalence in war veterans. It can manifest itself as early as after the first year of life. As mentioned above, the stress of PTSD can have severe effects on the hippocampus, causing problems with transferring short-term to long-term memory. There is no one way that patients' memories are affected by PTSD, as shown by a variety of studies. Typically symptoms include avoidance of reminders of the traumatic event or mention thereof, irritability, trouble sleeping, emotional numbness and exaggerated reactions to surprises. One of the most common and powerful symptoms, is the recurrence of random intense memories from the event (intrusive thoughts). This can manifest itself in different ways such as flashbacks of the event and unwanted thoughts about the trauma (e.g. \"why did this happen to me?\"). PTSD patients who have gone through different traumatic experiences will have small variances in their symptoms, mostly insignificant. For example, PTSD patients who were rape victims will have aversion to words such as touch and dirty while patients who were in a fire or war experience will respond similarly to words like burn or fight.\n", "BULLET::::- with C. Catani, E. Schauer, T. Elbert, I. Missmahl, and J. P. Bette. 2009. War trauma, child labor, and family violence: Life adversities and PTSD in a sample of school children in Kabul. Journal of Traumatic Stress 22: 163–171.\n\nBULLET::::- with S. Schaal, and T. Elbert. 2009. Narrative exposure therapy versus group interpersonal psychotherapy – a controlled clinical trial with orphaned survivors of the Rwandan genocide. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 78: 298–306.\n", "Several of the symptoms are capable of causing or allowing for renewed acts of violence. The outbursts of anger can have an impact in domestic violence and street crime. The sense of emotional numbing, detachment and estrangement from other people can also contribute to these, along with contributing to participation in further battle activities or to apathetic reactions when violence is done by others. Associated substance abuse may also have connections to acts of violence.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nPerpetrator trauma was documented among the perpetrators of the Holocaust, the Indonesian Communist Purges, the Cambodian genocide, and South African apartheid.\n", "When a traumatic experience cannot be assimilated into a currently held cultural worldview, the anxiety-buffering mechanisms are disrupted. ABDT argues that individuals face overwhelming anxiety which leads to the symptoms of PTSD including re-experiencing, hyper-arousal, avoidance and disassociation. The dissociation causes atypical responses to mortality salience compared with individuals who do not suffer from an anxiety buffer disruption When the anxiety buffer disruption is mild, exaggerated coping responses, such as rejecting or taking offense at other cultures, is expected. When the anxiety buffer disruption is severe, there can be a total breakdown of coping mechanisms. The theory was proposed by Tom Pyszczynski and Pelin Kesebir.\n", "Infants and children begin to create internal representations of their external environment, and in particular, key attachment relationships, shortly after birth. Violent and victimizing attachment figures impact infants' and young children's internal representations. The more frequently a specific pattern of brain neurons is activated, the more permanent the internal representation associated with the pattern becomes. This causes sensitization in the brain towards the specific neural network. Because of this sensitization, the neural pattern can be activated by decreasingly less external stimuli. \n", "PTSD symptoms may result when a traumatic event causes an over-reactive adrenaline response, which creates deep neurological patterns in the brain. These patterns can persist long after the event that triggered the fear, making an individual hyper-responsive to future fearful situations. During traumatic experiences the high levels of stress hormones secreted suppress hypothalamic activity that may be a major factor toward the development of PTSD.\n", "There may be evolutionary explanations for differences in resilience to traumatic events. Thus, PTSD is rare following traumatic fire that may be explained by events such as forest fires' long being part of the evolutionary history of mammals. On the other hand, PTSD is much more common following modern warfare, which may be explained by modern warfare's being a new development and very unlike the quick inter-group raids that are argued to have characterized the paleolithic.\n", "Often psychodynamic aspects of trauma are overlooked even by health professionals: \"If clinicians fail to look through a trauma lens and to conceptualize client problems as related possibly to current or past trauma, they may fail to see that trauma victims, young and old, organize much of their lives around repetitive patterns of reliving and warding off traumatic memories, reminders, and affects.\"\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "Triggers and cues act as reminders of the trauma and can cause anxiety and other associated emotions. Often the person can be completely unaware of what these triggers are. In many cases this may lead a person suffering from traumatic disorders to engage in disruptive behaviors or self-destructive coping mechanisms, often without being fully aware of the nature or causes of their own actions. Panic attacks are an example of a psychosomatic response to such emotional triggers.\n", "Section::::Scope.:Disasters.\n\nNatural disasters and man-made hazards can cause severe psychological stress in victims surrounding the event. Emergency management often includes psychiatric emergency services designed to help victims cope with the situation. The impact of disasters can cause people to feel shocked, overwhelmed, immobilized, panic-stricken, or confused. Hours, days, months and even years after a disaster, individuals can experience tormenting memories, vivid nightmares, develop apathy, withdrawal, memory lapses, fatigue, loss of appetite, insomnia, depression, irritability, panic attacks, or dysphoria.\n", "The person may not remember what actually happened, while emotions experienced during the trauma may be re-experienced without the person understanding why (see Repressed Memory). This can lead to the traumatic events being constantly experienced as if they were happening in the present, preventing the subject from gaining perspective on the experience. This can produce a pattern of prolonged periods of acute arousal punctuated by periods of physical and mental exhaustion. This can lead to mental health disorders like acute stress and anxiety disorder, traumatic grief, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, conversion disorders, brief psychotic disorder, borderline personality disorder, adjustment disorder, etc.\n", "Low cortisol levels may predispose individuals to PTSD: Following war trauma, Swedish soldiers serving in Bosnia and Herzegovina with low pre-service salivary cortisol levels had a higher risk of reacting with PTSD symptoms, following war trauma, than soldiers with normal pre-service levels. Because cortisol is normally important in restoring homeostasis after the stress response, it is thought that trauma survivors with low cortisol experience a poorly contained—that is, longer and more distressing—response, setting the stage for PTSD.\n", "Hyperresponsiveness in the norepinephrine system can also be caused by continued exposure to high stress. Overactivation of norepinephrine receptors in the prefrontal cortex can be connected to the flashbacks and nightmares frequently experienced by those with PTSD. A decrease in other norepinephrine functions (awareness of the current environment) prevents the memory mechanisms in the brain from processing that the experience, and emotions the person is experiencing during a flashback are not associated with the current environment.\n", "People who go through these types of extremely traumatic experiences often have certain symptoms and problems afterward. The severity of these symptoms depends on the person, the type of trauma involved, and the emotional support they receive from others. The range of reactions to and symptoms of trauma can be wide and varied, and differ in severity from person to person. A traumatized individual may experience one or several of them.\n", "People with PTSD have decreased brain activity in the dorsal and rostral anterior cingulate cortices and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, areas linked to the experience and regulation of emotion.\n", "Trauma can be caused by a wide variety of events, but there are a few common aspects. There is frequently a violation of the person's core assumptions about the world and their human rights, putting the person in a state of extreme confusion and insecurity. This is seen when institutions depended upon for survival violate, humiliate, betray, or cause major losses or separations instead of evoking aspects like positive self worth, safe boundaries and personal freedom.\n", "A study looked at dissociation responses and PTSD in students who survived the 2005 Zarand earthquake in Iran. The earthquake measured 6.4 on the Richter scale, killed more than 1,500 people and displaced more than 6,700 for two months or more. It looked at dissociation one month later then two years later to see if level of dissociation predicted PTSD.\n\nFour weeks after the earthquake, researchers solicited for volunteers at local universities. All of the participants met the DSM-IV criterion for a Class A1 trauma. Many were wearing black mourning clothes or had injuries from the earthquake.\n", "PTSD can affect several parts of the brain such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and the prefrontal cortex. The amygdala controls our memory and emotional processing; the hippocampus helps with organizing, storing and memory forming. Hippocampus is the most sensitive area to stress. The prefrontal cortex helps with our expression and personality and helps regulate complex cognitive and our behavior functions.\n\nSection::::Anxiety disorders.:Social anxiety disorder.\n", "Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that can occur after exposure to horrific events, or after a terrifying ordeal where there is immense physical harm that directly or indirectly affects a person. When the memories of these traumas do not subside, a person may begin to avoid anything that would cause them to relive these events. When this persists over an extended period of time, one may be said to be suffering from PTSD. Examples of events that could lead to the onset of PTSD are war, rape, assault, and childhood neglect. It is estimated that approximately 8% of American may suffer from this disease which can lead to long-term problems.\n", "When it comes to types of trauma, medical and psychological traumatology go hand in hand. Types of trauma include car accidents, gunshot wounds, concussions, PTSD from incidents, etc. Medical traumas are repaired with surgeries; however, they can still cause psychological trauma and other stress factors. For example, a teenager in a car accident who broke his wrist and needed extensive surgery to save their arm may experience anxiety when driving in a car post-accident. PTSD can be diagnosed after a person experiences one or more intense and traumatic events and react with fear with complaints from three categorical symptoms lasting one month or longer. These categories are: re-experiencing the traumatic event, avoiding anything associated with the trauma, and increased symptoms of increased psychological arousal.\n", "Paramedics, amongst other first responders, can suffer from posttraumatic stress symptoms and depressive symptoms as a result of repeated exposure to human pain and suffering on a daily basis. A study of paramedics reported more than 80% of paramedics in a large urban area experienced: the death of a patient while in their care, the death of a child, and violence. In addition to this, the same study reported that 70% had been assaulted on the job and 56% reported experiencing events which could have resulted in their own death. Often small scale triggers (in combination with larger events), such as the lonely death of an elderly person or a death by suicide which can trigger emotional responses.\n", "Preliminary or \"distal\" causes contribute to the formation of a cognitive vulnerability that ultimately, via immediate or proximal causes, leads to the individual manifesting symptoms of the disorder. Immediate cognitive and emotional responses trigger imagery and assumptions formed in the past leading to offsetting, defensive behavior and in turn reinforcing mistaken beliefs or other cognitive vulnerabilities.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Attachment theory.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00702	When leaving the house for a few hours, is it more efficient to leave the heater on or should I turn it off and then back on upon return?	Off and back on. Ahoy, matey! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [Which is more cost effective; Turning the heat on/off throughout the day or leaving it at one temperature all day? ]( URL_1 ) ^(_ > 100 comments_) 1. [ELI5. Is it better to have your thermostat turned down when you are out of the house and have it come back on when you get home or to keep it at a constant temp? ]( URL_0 ) ^(_19 comments_) 1. [ELI5: In the winter, is it more energy/cost efficient to keep your house at a constant temperature during the day (say 71 degrees) even if you're away, or to lower it during the day when you're away, and reheat it when you come home. ]( URL_2 ) ^(_6 comments_)	[ "Storage heaters can provide two power circuits, one for on-peak and one for off-peak electricity, and two power switches, which are switched off during the summer when heat is not required. During other months the off-peak switch can be left on at all times, with the on-peak switch being used when insufficient energy has been stored during off-peak times. The amount of heat that is stored can be altered using the controls on the storage heater unit.\n", "BULLET::::- The heat stored during the night will be released into the living area during the next day, regardless of need (due to the inevitable heat transfer through the storage heater's insulation). Thus if the homeowner is unexpectedly absent that day (and therefore does not need the house to be warmed) or is only at home for a small part of the day, the heat has already been purchased and is already there, and eventually comes out\n", "For example: A lunch room in an office setting has limited hours of operation. During low-use periods a \"monitor\" level of heat () is provided by the central heating system. Peak use times between the hours of 11:00 and 14:00 are heated to \"comfort levels\" (). Significant savings can be realized in overall energy consumption, since infrared radiation losses through thermal radiation are not as large with a smaller temperature gradient both between this space and unheated outside air, as well as between the refrigerator and the (now cooler) lunch room.\n", "BULLET::::- Many users may not fully understand the controls. A common error is leaving the output (or boost) control open at night, so that the heaters dissipate heat when they should be storing it, with a consequent increase in electricity consumption and cost. Alternatively they may set the input control to minimum at night instead of the output, which can mean there is no heat at all for the next day.\n", "Block heaters are frequently used in regions with cold winters such as the northern United States, Canada, Russia and Scandinavia. In colder climates, block heaters are often standard equipment in new vehicles. In extremely cold climates, electrical outlets are sometimes found in public or private parking lots, especially in multi-storey car parks. Some parking lots cycle the power on for 20 minutes and off for 20 minutes, to reduce electricity costs.\n", "Section::::Comparison to other heating systems.\n\nSection::::Comparison to other heating systems.:Advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Storage heaters, while often still more expensive than equivalent gas- or oil-fired heating systems, are cheaper than running the same amount of electrical heating using electricity at regular daytime rates\n\nBULLET::::- Users of gas central heating & some other systems often turn off the heating during the night as an economy measure, with the result that the house is cold at night and early morning; but because night storage heaters are on at night, the house is still warm at those times\n", "The position of the input switch may be changed to reflect how cold the next day is predicted to be. The input switch is normally thermostatic, cutting off the charge when the room reaches a certain temperature overnight. The exact setting needed will depend on the size of the storage heater, the desired room temperature during the day, the number of hours that this needs to be maintained, and the room's rate of heat loss under a given set of circumstances. Some experimenting may be needed to find the relationship between forecast outside temperature and best input setting for a particular room. Most storage heater users follow simpler guidelines; for example, in the middle of winter, it is often appropriate to turn the input switch to its maximum setting. There is no need to touch the input switch on a daily basis if the same sort of weather prevails for weeks at a time. There is no need to touch the input switch during the day, as storage heaters only use electricity at night.\n", "The principle change of heat source positioning allows it to respond within minutes to changing weather and internal demand requirements such as life style being in/out, at work, rest, sleep, more people present/cooking, etc.\n\nSection::::Space heating.:Lighting system.\n", "Section::::Zoned systems.\n\nRather than controlling the temperature of the whole house, zoned systems can control individual rooms. This can increase energy savings, for example by heating or cooling only a Home-office and not the bedrooms and other areas that are empty during the day.\n\nSection::::Learning zoned systems.\n\nThe most advanced smart thermostats combine both: they are able to learn when each room of a house is normally occupied and automatically schedule the heating for that room appropriately. Currently, the only such system available for home use is Heat Genius.\n\nSection::::Studies.\n\nSection::::Studies.:Internal Studies.\n", "In warm climates where air conditioning is used, any household device that gives off heat will result in a larger load on the cooling system. Items such as stoves, dish washers, clothes dryers, hot water and incandescent lighting all add heat to the home. Low-power or insulated versions of these devices give off less heat for the air conditioning to remove. The air conditioning system can also improve in efficiency by using a heat sink that is cooler than the standard air heat exchanger, such as geothermal or water.\n", "In common with other forms of direct electric heating, storage heaters are not necessarily environmentally friendly because the source of electricity may be generated using fossil fuels, with up to two-thirds of energy in the fuel lost at the power station and in transmission losses. In Sweden the use of direct electric heating has been restricted since the 1980s for this reason, and there are plans to phase it out entirely—see Oil phase-out in Sweden—while Denmark and Germany have banned the installation of electric space heating in new buildings for similar reasons (though in Germany the ban was lifted in 2013).\n", "Both of these convection processes immediately begin to slow down, and eventually stop, as soon as the burners turn off.\n\nSection::::Efficiency.\n", "The night storage heaters and hot water boilers are generally on a separate circuit which is only switched on when the night rate is activated, although any electrical appliance on an ordinary circuit during this period also runs at the lower rate of billing, such as a dishwasher or washing machine set to start using a timing device. Some such machines have timers built-in partly for this purpose.\n", "Office equipment and other plug loads emit heat which may require the building to supply additional cooling, a side-effect which contributes to total energy consumption. However, when heating is needed, waste heat from plug loads also supplies part of the energy requirement for heating. Heating a space with electric heating is environmentally less effective than using the electricity for heat pumps, however if the electricity is being consumed anyway this is not a factor.\n\nSection::::Plug load energy efficiency.\n", "Storage heater\n\nA storage heater or heat bank (Australia) is an electrical heater which stores thermal energy during the evening, or at night when base load electricity is available at lower cost, and releases the heat during the day as required.\n\nSection::::Principle of operation.\n", "Section::::Application.\n\nStorage heaters are usually used in conjunction with a two-tariff electricity meter which records separately the electricity used during the off-peak period so that it can be billed at a lower rate. In order to enjoy the lower rates, the house must be on a special electricity tariff. In most countries, storage heaters are only economical (compared to other forms of heating) when used with such a special tariff. In the United Kingdom the Economy 7 tariff is appropriate.\n", "In some cases it is possible to use waste heat, for instance in heating homes by cogeneration. However, by slowing the release of the waste heat, these systems always entail a reduction of efficiency for the primary user of the heat energy.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cogeneration and trigeneration.\n", "In newer houses, a digital meter automatically switches to record both ranges. The wiring in the house is rarely different for Economy 7. Many consumers will however choose to set devices such as storage heaters and water heaters to turn on during the hours of Economy 7 to save money. Few houses now have devices controlled solely by the timer on the electricity meter itself.\n", "The efficiency of any system depends on the definition of the boundaries of the system. For an electrical energy customer the efficiency of electric space heating is almost 100% because almost all purchased energy is converted to building heat (the only exception being fan noise and indication lights which demand very little electricity and virtually none at all when compared to the extremely large energy draw of the heating itself). However, if a power plant supplying electricity is included, the overall efficiency drops drastically. For example, a fossil-fuel power station may only deliver 3 units of electrical energy for every 10 units of fuel energy released. Even though the electric heater is 100% efficient, the amount of fuel needed to produce the heat is more than if the fuel were burned in a furnace or boiler at the building being heated. If the same fuel could be used for space heating by a consumer, it would be more efficient overall to burn the fuel at the end user's building. On the other hand, replacing electric heating with fossil fuel burning heaters, isn't necessary good as it removes the ability to have renewable electric heating, this can be achieved by sourcing the electricity from a renewable source.\n", "Electric heaters are usually part of a fan coil which is part of a central air conditioner. They circulate heat by blowing air across the heating element which is supplied to the furnace through return air ducts. Blowers in electric furnaces move air over one to five resistance coils or elements which are usually rated at five kilowatts. The heating elements activate one at a time to avoid overloading the electrical system. Overheating is prevented by a safety switch called a limit controller or limit switch. This limit controller may shut the furnace off if the blower fails or if something is blocking the air flow. The heated air is then sent back through the home through supply ducts.\n", "There are other factors that cause discrepancies even between studies that all look at actual data. Most studies compare total energy consumption of a house from year to year to determine energy savings, as opposed to looking at just the energy that is used for heating and cooling. Due to this, there could be other factors that change the energy consumption of a house, and it might be incorrect to state that the thermostat is responsible for all energy savings in a house. For example, it is possible that other new energy efficient practices/appliances are partially responsible for the savings in addition to the thermostat. \n", "Storage heaters usually have two controls: a charge control (often called \"input\"), which controls the amount of heat stored, and the draught control (often called \"output\"), which controls the rate at which heat is released. These controls may be controlled by the user, or may operate automatically once the user selects the target room temperature on a thermostat.\n\nStorage heaters may also incorporate an electric heater (utilizing either resistance heaters or heat pumps), which can be used to increase heat output. Such added heating, if it is resistance heating, is expensive, as it occurs during the high-tariff time of day.\n", "In some countries, the current design of the electrical generating system may result in a surplus of electricity from base load power stations during off-peak periods, and storage heaters may then be able to make use of this surplus to increase the net efficiency of the system as a whole. However, future changes in supply and demand—for example as a result of energy conservation measures or a more responsive generating system—may then reverse this situation, with storage heaters preventing a reduction in the national base load. Other technologies may incorporate demand response electronics to sense when there is a change in supply and demand. Thereby, they ensure that these loads only use off-peak electricity. Further advances in supply technology could provide for a more bespoke 'supply and demand' tariff system to make smart grid sensing technologies like dynamic demand a more viable financial prospect.\n", "The impact of energy efficiency on peak demand depends on when the appliance is used. For example, an air conditioner uses more energy during the afternoon when it is hot. Therefore, an energy-efficient air conditioner will have a larger impact on peak demand than off-peak demand. An energy-efficient dishwasher, on the other hand, uses more energy during the late evening when people do their dishes. This appliance may have little to no impact on peak demand.\n\nSection::::Building design.\n", "Modern bachelor grillers have controller knobs to control cooking temperatures. These are steadystates, a combination of a potentiometer and a thermostat, which ensure that the temperature stays stable.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe expression is at least 100 years old, with early versions generally powered by gas. The expression derives from the stereotypical idea that a bachelor will not cook anything properly, if at all. There has never been a brand name for these appliances called \"Bachelor\"; it has just become common parlance in the United Kingdom.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00837	why can people drink coffee at the same temperature that can cause burns to the skin?	Your mouth makes saliva, which is mostly water (which takes a lot of energy to heat) and at your body's temperature. Mixing 10 mL (2 tsp) of very hot liquid and perhaps 20 mL of saliva, means that the very hot liquid is quickly cooled. Your skin has no saliva, so the heat from your coffee transfers to a small part of your body, dramatically raising the temperature of the affected area and giving you a burn.	[ "In \"Bogle v. McDonald's Restaurants Ltd.\" (2002), a similar lawsuit in England failed when the court rejected the claim that McDonald's could have avoided injury by serving coffee at a lower temperature.\n\nSince \"Liebeck\", major vendors of coffee, including Chick-Fil-A, Starbucks, Dunkin' Donuts, Wendy's, Burger King, hospitals, and McDonald's have been defendants in similar lawsuits over coffee-related burns.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Coffee temperature.\n", "Other documents obtained from McDonald's showed that from 1982 to 1992 the company had received more than 700 reports of people burned by McDonald's coffee to varying degrees of severity, and had settled claims arising from scalding injuries for more than $500,000. McDonald's quality control manager, Christopher Appleton, testified that this number of injuries was insufficient to cause the company to evaluate its practices. He argued that all foods hotter than constituted a burn hazard, and that restaurants had more pressing dangers to worry about. The plaintiffs argued that Appleton conceded that McDonald's coffee would burn the mouth and throat if consumed when served.\n", "In 2012, the National Institutes of Health–AARP Diet and Health Study analysed the relationship between coffee drinking and mortality. They found that higher coffee consumption was associated with lower risk of death, and that those who drank any coffee lived longer than those who did not. However the authors noted, \"whether this was a causal or associational finding cannot be determined from our data.\" A 2014 meta-analysis found that coffee consumption (4 cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a 16% lower risk), as well as cardiovascular disease mortality specifically (a 21% lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not with cancer mortality. Additional meta-analysis studies corroborated these findings, showing that higher coffee consumption (2–4 cups per day) was associated with a reduced risk of death by all disease causes. An association of coffee drinking with reduced risk for death from various sources was confirmed by a widely cited prospective cohort study of ten European countries in 2017.\n", "A 2017 review of clinical trials found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daily. Exceptions include possible increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a possible increased risk in pregnant women of fetal loss or decreased birth weight. Results were complicated by poor study quality, and differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Mortality.\n", "BULLET::::- Dermatosis neglecta\n\nBULLET::::- Edema blister (edema bulla, hydrostatic bulla, stasis blister)\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical burn\n\nBULLET::::- Equestrian perniosis\n\nBULLET::::- Erythema ab igne (fire stains, toasted skin syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Erythrocyanosis crurum\n\nBULLET::::- Favre–Racouchot syndrome (Favre–Racouchot disease, nodular cutaneous elastosis with cysts and comedones)\n\nBULLET::::- Foreign body reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Fracture blister\n\nBULLET::::- Friction blister\n\nBULLET::::- Frostbite\n\nBULLET::::- Garrod's pad (violinist's viola pad)\n\nBULLET::::- Harpist's finger\n\nBULLET::::- Heel stick wound\n\nBULLET::::- Heat edema\n\nBULLET::::- Hot tar burn\n\nBULLET::::- Hunan hand syndrome (chili burn)\n\nBULLET::::- Hydroa vacciniforme (Bazin's hydroa vacciniforme)\n\nBULLET::::- Jogger's nipple\n\nBULLET::::- Juvenile spring eruption\n\nBULLET::::- Kairo cancer\n\nBULLET::::- Kang cancer\n", "BULLET::::- Tuberoeruptive xanthoma (tuberous xanthoma)\n\nBULLET::::- Tumoral calcinosis\n\nBULLET::::- Variegate porphyria (mixed hepatic porphyria, mixed porphyria, South African genetic porphyria, South African porphyria)\n\nBULLET::::- Verruciform xanthoma\n\nBULLET::::- Waxy skin\n\nBULLET::::- Wilson's disease (hepatolenticular degeneration)\n\nBULLET::::- Xanthelasma palpebrarum (xanthelasma)\n\nBULLET::::- Xanthoma diabeticorum\n\nBULLET::::- Xanthoma planum (plane xanthoma)\n\nBULLET::::- Xanthoma striatum palmare\n\nBULLET::::- Xanthoma tendinosum (tendinous xanthoma)\n\nBULLET::::- Xanthoma tuberosum\n\nSection::::Resulting from physical factors.\n\nSkin conditions resulting from physical factors occur from a number of causes, including, but not limited to, hot and cold temperatures, friction, and moisture.\n\nBULLET::::- Abrasion\n\nBULLET::::- Acrocyanosis\n", "BULLET::::- Zone of stasis surrounds the coagulation area, where tissue is potentially salvageable. This is the main area of focus when treating burn injuries.\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of hyperemia is the area surrounding the zone of stasis. Perfusion is adequate due to patent blood vessels, and erythema occurs due to increased vascular permeability.\n\nSection::::Factors.\n", "There are three (or sometimes four) degrees of burns, in ascending order of severity and depth. For more info, see Burn#Signs and symptoms.\n\nAccording to Jackson's thermal wound theory, there are three zones of major burn injury.\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of coagulation is the area that sustained maximum damage from the heat source. Proteins become denaturated, and cell death is imminent due to destruction of blood vessels, resulting in ischemia to the area. Injury at this area is irreversible (coagulative necrosis & gangrene)\n", "BULLET::::- Kangri ulcer\n\nBULLET::::- Lightning burn\n\nBULLET::::- Loop mark\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetic resonance imaging burn (MRI burn)\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury granuloma\n\nBULLET::::- Miliaria crystallina (miliaria crystalline, sudamina)\n\nBULLET::::- Miliaria profunda (mammillaria)\n\nBULLET::::- Miliaria pustulosa\n\nBULLET::::- Miliaria rubra (heat rash, prickly heat)\n\nBULLET::::- Narcotic dermopathy\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusion miliaria\n\nBULLET::::- Painful fat herniation (painful piezogenic pedal papules, piezogenic papules)\n\nBULLET::::- Peat fire cancer\n\nBULLET::::- Photoaging (dermatoheliosis)\n\nBULLET::::- Photosensitivity with HIV infection\n\nBULLET::::- Phototoxic tar dermatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Photosenitization\n\nBULLET::::- Phytophotodermatitis (Berloque dermatitis)\n\nBULLET::::- Pinch mark\n\nBULLET::::- Polymorphous light eruption (polymorphic light eruption)\n\nBULLET::::- Postmiliarial hypohidrosis\n\nBULLET::::- Postoperative hematoma\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure ulcer (decubitus ulcer)\n", "BULLET::::- Actinic prurigo (familial polymorphous light eruption of American Indians, hereditary polymorphous light eruption of American Indians, Hutchinson's summer prurigo, hydroa aestivale)\n\nBULLET::::- Aerosol burn\n\nBULLET::::- Benign summer light eruption\n\nBULLET::::- Beryllium granuloma\n\nBULLET::::- Black heel and palm (black heel, calcaneal petechiae, chromidrose plantaire, post-traumatic punctate intraepidermal hemorrhage, tache noir, talon noir)\n\nBULLET::::- Callus (callosity, clavus, corn, heloma, heloma durum, heloma molle, intractable plantar keratosis, tyloma)\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon stain\n\nBULLET::::- Chilblains (pernio, perniosis)\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic actinic dermatitis (actinic reticuloid, chronic photosensitivity dermatitis, persistent light reactivity, photosensitive eczema)\n\nBULLET::::- Colloid milium\n\nBULLET::::- Coma blister\n\nBULLET::::- Coral cut\n\nBULLET::::- Delayed blister\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Cardiovascular disease.\n", "Moderate coffee consumption is not a risk factor for coronary heart disease. A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a lower rate of heart failure, with the biggest effect found for those who drank more than four cups a day. A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease, such as coronary artery disease and stroke, is less likely with three to five cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day, but more likely with over five cups per day. A 2016 meta-analysis showed that coffee consumption was associated with a reduced risk of death in patients who have had a myocardial infarction.\n", "The effects of coffee consumption on cancer risk remain unclear, with reviews and meta-analyses showing either no relationship or a slightly lower risk of cancer onset. Studies suggest that coffee consumption of 2 cups per/day was associated with a 14% increased risk of developing lung cancer, but only among people who smoke.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nOne psychoactive chemical in coffee is caffeine, an adenosine receptor antagonist that is known for its stimulant effects. Coffee also contains the monoamine oxidase inhibitors β-carboline and harmane, which may contribute to its psychoactivity.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Parkinson's disease.\n\nMeta-analyses have consistently found that long-term coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Type II diabetes.\n\nIn a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 prospective observational studies, representing over one million participants, every additional cup of caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumed in a day was associated, respectively, with a 9% and 6% lower risk of type 2 diabetes.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Cancer.\n", "Drinking four or more cups of coffee per day does not affect the risk of hypertension compared to drinking little or no coffee; however, drinking one to three cups per day may be at a slightly increased risk.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Mental health.\n", "A subtler issue is \"which\" solubles are dissolved – this depends on solubility of different substances at different temperatures, changes over the course of extraction (different substances are extracted during the first 1% of extraction than in the period from 19% extraction to 20% extraction), and is primarily affected by \"temperature.\"\n", "At temperatures greater than , proteins begin losing their three-dimensional shape and start breaking down. This results in cell and tissue damage. Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin. They include disruption of the skin's sensation, ability to prevent water loss through evaporation, and ability to control body temperature. Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nIn the United States, over two million people required medical attention for thermal burns every year. About 1 in 30 of those victims (75,000) are hospitalized for thermal burns every year, with a third of those patients staying in the hospital for more than two months. About 14,000 Americans die each year from burns.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Children.\n", "Section::::Health hazards.:Carcinogenicity.\n\nInstant coffee has been associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer in women when compared to regular coffee, whereas for men both instant and regular coffee have been associated with an increased bladder cancer risk. However, current review research suggests that there is no dose-response relationship between coffee drinking and bladder cancer, and that previous studies may have been confounded by unidentified risks of bladder cancer.\n\nPer an FDA survey, brewed instant coffee has acrylamide levels of 3-7 ppb which is less than brewed regular coffee, i.e. 6-13 ppb.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "In 2016, the UK Food Standards Agency launched a campaign called \"Go for Gold\", warning of the possible cancer risk associated with cooking potatoes and other starchy foods at high temperatures.\n\nIn 2018, a judge in California ruled that the coffee industry had not provided sufficient evidence that acrylamide contents in coffee were at safe enough levels to not require a Proposition 65 warning.\n\nSection::::Occurrence in cigarettes.\n\nCigarette smoking is a major acrylamide source. It has been shown in one study to cause an increase in blood acrylamide levels three-fold greater than any dietary factor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Since \"Liebeck\", McDonald's has not reduced the service temperature of its coffee. McDonald's policy today is to serve coffee at , relying on more sternly worded warnings on cups made of rigid foam to avoid future liability, though it continues to face lawsuits over hot coffee. The Specialty Coffee Association of America supports improved packaging methods rather than lowering the temperature at which coffee is served. The association has successfully aided the defense of subsequent coffee burn cases. Similarly, as of 2004, Starbucks sells coffee at , and the executive director of the Specialty Coffee Association of America reported that the standard serving temperature is .\n", "BULLET::::- Localized heat contact urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Mast cell-independent urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Physical urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Primary cold contact urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure urticaria (delayed pressure urticaria)\n\nBULLET::::- Reflex cold urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Schnitzler syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Secondary cold contact urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Solar urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic capillary leak syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Urticarial allergic eruption\n\nBULLET::::- Urticaria-like follicular mucinosis\n\nBULLET::::- Vibratory angioedema\n\nSection::::Vascular-related.\n\nVascular-related cutaneous conditions result from dysfunction of the blood or blood vessels in the dermis, or lymphatics in the subcutaneous tissues.\n\nBULLET::::- Aagenaes syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Acroangiodermatitis (acroangiodermatitis of Mali, Mali acroangiodermatitis, Pseudo-Kaposi's sarcoma)\n", "BULLET::::- Acne necrotica\n\nBULLET::::- Acquired generalized hypertrichosis (acquired hypertrichosis lanuginosa, hypertrichosis lanuginosa acquisita)\n\nBULLET::::- Acquired perforating dermatosis (acquired perforating collagenosis)\n\nBULLET::::- Acrokeratosis paraneoplastica of Bazex (acrokeratosis neoplastica, Bazex syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Acroosteolysis\n\nBULLET::::- Acute paronychia\n\nBULLET::::- Alopecia areata\n\nBULLET::::- Alopecia neoplastica\n\nBULLET::::- Anagen effluvium\n\nBULLET::::- Androgenic alopecia (androgenetic alopecia)\n\nBULLET::::- Anhidrosis (hypohidrosis)\n\nBULLET::::- Anonychia\n\nBULLET::::- Apparent leukonychia\n\nBULLET::::- Beau's lines\n\nBULLET::::- Blue nails\n\nBULLET::::- Bromidrosis (apocrine bromhidrosis, fetid sweat, malodorous sweating, osmidrosis)\n\nBULLET::::- Bubble hair deformity\n\nBULLET::::- Central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia (follicular degeneration syndrome, pseudopelade of the central scalp)\n\nBULLET::::- Chevron nail (herringbone nail)\n\nBULLET::::- Chromhidrosis (colored sweat)\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic paronychia\n", "BULLET::::- Immediate photosensitivity. This is typical of XLDPP and EPP. Following a variable period of sun exposure—typically about 30 minutes—patients complain of severe pain, burning, and discomfort in exposed areas. Typically, the effects are not visible, though occasionally there may be some redness and swelling of the skin.\n", "Increased levels of catecholamines and cortisol can cause a hypermetabolic state that can last for years. This is associated with increased cardiac output, metabolism, a fast heart rate, and poor immune function.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n" ]	[ "Humans should not be able to drink something that can burn skin." ]	[ "Saliva prevents the mouth from burning when drinking hot coffee." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans should not be able to drink something that can burn skin.", "Humans should not be able to drink something that can burn skin." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Saliva prevents the mouth from burning when drinking hot coffee.", "Saliva prevents the mouth from burning when drinking hot coffee." ]
2018-04463	Why do bank tellers seperate money into two piles when counting?	As a bank teller, there's a million reasons. It could be personal habit- I like to make piles of £100 when counting notes it could be I've just been given some of the old style banknotes which, while retaining face value, are not legal tender and so are sent back seperately to the bank of england. And, sometimes, I seperate between nice, clean notes and ones that will jam my cash machine if i were to put them in.	[ "Various devices can also be used to facilitate counting, such as hand tally counters and abacuses.\n\nSection::::Inclusive counting.\n", "Traditionally, a count room would be operated by at least three people. The first two people independently counted stacks of currency and recorded the results on a count card. The third person examined the two count cards to ensure that the first two people recorded the same amount. If there was a difference between the amounts recorded on the two count cards, the currency would be recounted. Some smaller volume cash businesses still operate a count room in this fashion.\n\nThe counting is currently done by accounting professionals called soft counters, usually using computer spreadsheets. \n", "Counting sometimes involves numbers other than one; for example, when counting money, counting out change, \"counting by twos\" (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ...), or \"counting by fives\" (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ...).\n", "In order to balance (or settle) the cash drawer, first, the manager (or sometimes the cashier) prepares to count the money in the register. Counting the money is usually done in the back office: the drawer is removed from the register and taken into the office. By preparing to count the money, all large bills, checks and coupons and food stamps (if any) are removed and put to the side. Next, the person counting the money counts it back to its \"starting amount.\" The starting amount is the amount of money that was in the drawer at the beginning of the shift. As this is being done, there will be additional bills and change that will be put off to the side along with the larger bills. Once the drawer is reset back to its starting amount for the next cashier's shift, it is either placed in the safe or given to another cashier that is starting their shift.\n", "Tally counters have also been used in religion to count prayers, often replacing traditional prayer beads. Shri Vidya initiates often use them to keep track of the number of repetitions of the Mula Mantra into which they are initiated. Sikhs may use them to keep track of the number of times they chant the Mul Mantar. Buddhists have also been known to use them to count mantras. Gaudiya Vaishnava Hindus may use tally counters to keep track of the number of times that they chant the Hare Krishna Mahamantra. Initiated devotees are required to chant a certain number of 'rounds' each day, each round consisting of 108 repetitions.\n", "In the conservation of numbers task, Piaget gave children a row of egg cups and a bunch of eggs, placing them in rows of equal length, but not equal number. Piaget then asked the children to take just enough eggs to fill the cups, and when the children attempted to do so, they were surprised to find that they had too many or too few eggs. Again, centration is present here, where the child pays attention to the length of the rows and not the numbers within each row.\n", "Count room\n\nA count room or counting room is a room that is designed and equipped for the purpose of counting large volumes of currency. Count rooms are operated by central banks and casinos, as well as some large banks and armored car companies that transport currency.\n\nA count room may be divided into two separate areas, one for counting banknotes (sometimes referred to as soft count) and one for counting coins (sometimes referred to as hard count). Some high-volume cash businesses, especially casinos, will operate two distinct rooms.\n\nSection::::Surveillance.\n", "Section::::In Germania.\n\nTacitus, in Chapter X of his \"Germania\" (circa 98 ), describes casting lots as a practice used by the Germanic tribes. He states:\n", "Double counting (accounting)\n\nDouble counting in accounting is an error whereby a transaction is counted more than once, for whatever reason. But in social accounting it also refers to a conceptual problem in social accounting practice, when the attempt is made to estimate the new value added by Gross Output, or the value of total investments.\n\nSection::::What is the problem?\n", "Skip counting\n\nSkip counting is a mathematics technique taught as a kind of multiplication in reform mathematics textbooks such as TERC. In older textbooks, this technique is called counting by twos (threes, fours, etc.).\n\nIn skip counting by twos, a person can count to 10 by only naming every other number: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10. Combining the base (two, in this example) with the number of groups (five, in this example) produces the standard multiplication equation: two multiplied by five equals ten.\n", "Ranch sorting is a western-style equestrian sport that evolved from the common ranch work of separating cattle into pens for branding, doctoring, or transport. Ranch Sorting is an event that pits a team of two riders on horseback against the clock. Teamwork is the key with both riders working in harmony to cut out the correct cattle and drive them to the pen while keeping the wrong numbered cattle back. There are several variations of ranch sorting with one, two or three riders on the team, but all require sorting the cattle from one pen to the other in the correct order.\n", "The hypothesized use of yupana, an Inca counting system, placed up to five counters in connected trays for calculations.\n\nIn each place value, the Chinese abacus uses four or five beads to represent units, which are subitized, and one or two separate beads, which symbolize fives. This allows multi-digit operations such as carrying and borrowing to occur without subitizing beyond five.\n\nEuropean abacuses use ten beads in each register, but usually separate them into fives by color.\n\nSection::::Educational applications.:Twentieth century teaching tools.\n", "We also come across the phrase in Sabina's opening monologue from Thornton Wilder's 1942 Pulitzer Prize winning play \"The Skin of Our Teeth:\" \"The whole world's at sixes and sevens, and why the house hasn't fallen down about our ears long ago is a miracle to me.\"\n\nSection::::Similar phrases.\n", "The most prominent and best recorded use of the split tally stick or \"nick-stick\" being used as a form of currency was when Henry I introduced the tally stick system in medieval England in around 1100. He would accept the tally stick only for taxes, and it was a tool of the Exchequer for the collection of taxes by local sheriffs (tax farmers \"farming the shire\") for seven centuries. The split tally of the Exchequer was in continuous use until 1826. In 1834 tally sticks representing six centuries worth of financial records were ordered to be burned in a stove in the Houses of Parliament. The resulting fire set the chimney ablaze and then spread until most of the building was destroyed. This event was described by Charles Dickens in an 1855 article on administrative reform.\n", "The guests may start throwing coins at them and when the \"money sweeping\" starts, as they grab the coins from the floor, they kick the coins around making them harder to retrieve, thus representing the joint housework and simulating the ups and downs in life. In some regions this tradition is so popular that some guests bring large numbers of coins. No-one is allowed to stop the money sweeping, but the \"vőfély\" can help by asking the guests after some time that they can help the pair instead of giving them a hard time.\n", "Often, when counting objects, one does not keep track of what numerical label corresponds to which object: one only keeps track of the subgroup of objects which have already been labeled, so as to be able to identify unlabeled objects necessary for Step 2. However, if one is counting persons, then one can ask the persons who are being counted to each keep track of the number which the person's self has been assigned. After the count has finished it is possible to ask the group of persons to file up in a line, in order of increasing numerical label. What the persons would do during the process of lining up would be something like this: each pair of persons who are unsure of their positions in the line ask each other what their numbers are: the person whose number is smaller should stand on the left side and the one with the larger number on the right side of the other person. Thus, pairs of persons compare their numbers and their positions, and commute their positions as necessary, and through repetition of such conditional commutations they become ordered.\n", "Counting to three is common in situations where a group of people wish to perform an action in synchrony: \"Now, on the count of three, everybody pull!\" Assuming the counter is proceeding at a uniform rate, the first two counts are necessary to establish the rate, and the count of \"three\" is predicted based on the timing of the \"one\" and \"two\" before it. Three is likely used instead of some other number because it requires the minimal amount counts while setting a rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul McCartney's count off of \"one—two—three—\"four!\"\" was recorded on the ninth take of the song, and then edited on to a different take comprising the rest of the song; George Martin liked the \"spirited\" raw live feel of the count off and decided to have it spliced onto a better performance.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wooly Bully\" by Sam the Sham and the Pharaohs (1965)\n\nBULLET::::- The song features a bilingual count off of \"uno, dos, one, two, tres, cuatro\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Taxman\" by the Beatles (1966)\n", "At sixes and sevens\n\n\"At sixes and sevens\" is an English idiom used to describe a condition of confusion or disarray.\n\nSection::::Origin and early history.\n", "In the 12th century, the English monarchy introduced an early version of the bill of exchange in the form of a notched piece of wood known as a tally stick. Tallies originally came into use at a time when paper was rare and costly, but their use persisted until the early 19th century, even after paper money had become prevalent. The notches denoted various amounts of taxes payable to the Crown. Initially tallies were simply a form of receipt to the taxpayer at the time of rendering his dues. As the revenue department became more efficient, they began issuing tallies to denote a promise of the tax assessee to make future tax payments at specified times during the year. Each tally consisted of a matching pair – one stick was given to the assessee at the time of assessment representing the amount of taxes to be paid later, and the other held by the Treasury representing the amount of taxes to be collected at a future date.\n", "Counting board\n\nThe counting board is the precursor of the abacus, and the earliest known form of a counting device (excluding fingers and other very simple methods). Counting boards were made of stone or wood, and the counting was done on the board with beads, or pebbles etc. Not many boards survive because of the perishable materials used in their construction. \n", "The origin of the term \"bankers' rounding\" remains more obscure. If this rounding method was ever a standard in banking, the evidence has proved extremely difficult to find. To the contrary, section 2 of the European Commission report \"The Introduction of the Euro and the Rounding of Currency Amounts\" suggests that there had previously been no standard approach to rounding in banking; and it specifies that \"half-way\" amounts should be rounded up.\n", "In pre-modern Europe, double-entry bookkeeping had theological and cosmological connotations, recalling \"both the scales of justice and the symmetry of God's world\".\n\nSection::::Accounting entries.\n", "The first automatic bill counting machines (or money counting machines) were introduced in the 1920s in the United States and were produced by the Federal Bill Counter Company of Washington, D.C. These machines were designed to increase efficiency in tellers in the Federal Reserve Bank and reduce human error. The machine would stop once a set “batch” of notes was reached allowing a teller to insert a wooden block to keep batches separate.\n", "If a contestant reveals a double tile, he or she then selects a letter in the word \"spotlight\", which is positioned above their game board. The value associated with the letter selected is doubled and added to the contestant's bank.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00663	How do scientists know if one atomic clock is more accurate than the other?	By comparing many atomic clocks and taking an average. The US Naval Observatory uses around 80 atomic clocks. Statistics are gathered and a clock which is not stable is easily spotted.	[ "The accuracy of an atomic clock depends on two factors: the first is temperature of the sample atoms—colder atoms move much more slowly, allowing longer probe times, the second is the frequency and intrinsic linewidth of the electronic or hyperfine transition. Higher frequencies and narrow lines increase the precision.\n", "Often, one standard is used to fix another. For example, some commercial applications use a rubidium standard periodically corrected by a global positioning system receiver (see GPS disciplined oscillator). This achieves excellent short-term accuracy, with long-term accuracy equal to (and traceable to) the U.S. national time standards.\n", "The principle of operation of an atomic clock is based on atomic physics; it measures the electromagnetic signal that electrons in atoms emit when they change energy levels. Early atomic clocks were based on masers at room temperature. Since 2004, more accurate atomic clocks first cool the atoms to near absolute zero temperature by slowing them with lasers and probing them in atomic fountains in a microwave-filled cavity. An example of this is the NIST-F1 atomic clock, one of the national primary time and frequency standards of the United States.\n", "In March 2008, physicists at NIST described a quantum logic clock based on individual ions of beryllium and aluminium. This clock was compared to NIST's mercury ion clock. These were the most accurate clocks that had been constructed, with neither clock gaining nor losing time at a rate that would exceed a second in over a billion years. In February 2010, NIST physicists described a second, enhanced version of the quantum logic clock based on individual ions of magnesium and aluminium. Considered the world's most precise clock in 2010 with a fractional frequency inaccuracy of , it offers more than twice the precision of the original.\n", "In August 2016 the French LNE-SYRTE in Paris and German PTB in Braunschweig reported the comparison and agreement of two fully independent experimental strontium lattice optical clocks in Paris and Braunschweig at an uncertainty of via a newly established phase-coherent frequency link connecting Paris and Braunschweig, using of telecom fibre-optic cable. The fractional uncertainty of the whole link was assessed to be , making comparisons of even more accurate clocks possible.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The power consumption of atomic clocks varies with their size. Atomic clocks on the scale of one chip require less than 30 milliwatt; Primary frequency and time standards like the United States Time Standard atomic clocks, NIST-F1 and NIST-F2, use far higher power.\n\nSection::::Evaluated accuracy.\n\nThe evaluated accuracy \"u\" reports of various primary frequency and time standards are published online by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Several frequency and time standards groups as of 2015 reported \"u\" values in the to range.\n", "Similar atomic fountain clocks, with comparable accuracy, are operated by other time and frequency laboratories, such as the Paris Observatory, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the United Kingdom and the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt in Germany.\n\nSection::::Accuracy.\n\nAs of 2013, the clock's uncertainty was about 3.1 × 10. It is expected to neither gain nor lose a second in more than 100 million years.\n\nSection::::Evaluated accuracy.\n\nThe evaluated accuracy \"u\" reports of various primary frequency and time standards are published online by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).br\n", "The solid-state nuclear clock approach was further developed in 2010 by W.G. Rellergert et al. with the result of an expected long-term accuracy of about 2·10. Although expected to be less accurate than the single-ion nuclear clock approach due to line-broadening effects and temperature shifts in the crystal lattice environment, this approach may have advantages in terms of compactness, robustness and power consumption. The expected stability performance was investigated by G. Kazakov et al. in 2012.\n", "Section::::Calibration.:Tip calibration.\n", "GPS Time (GPST) is a continuous time scale and theoretically accurate to about 14 ns. However, most receivers lose accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 ns.\n", "Section::::Modern experiments.:Fast moving clocks.\n\nA considerably higher precision has been achieved in modern variations of Ives–Stilwell experiments. In heavy ion storage rings, as the TSR at the MPIK or ESR at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research, the Doppler shift of lithium ions traveling at high speed is evaluated by using saturated spectroscopy or optical-optical double resonance.\n\nDue to their frequencies emitted, these ions can be considered as optical atomic clocks of high precision. Using the framework of Mansouri-Sexl a possible deviation from special relativity can be quantified by\n", "The evaluated accuracy (\"u\") reports of various primary frequency and time standards are published online by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).\n\nThe first in-house accuracy evaluation of NIST-F2 reported a \"u\" of . In March 2014 and March 2015 the NIST-F2 caesium fountain clock reported a \"u\" of in the BIPM reports of evaluation of primary frequency standards.\n", "The first in-house accuracy evaluation of NIST-F2 reported a \"u\" of . However, a published scientific criticism of that NIST F-2 accuracy evaluation described problems in its treatment of distributed cavity phase shifts and the microwave lensing frequency shift, which is treated significantly differently than in the majority of accurate fountain clock evaluations. The next NIST-F2 submission to the BIPM in March, 2015 again reported a \"u\" of , but did not address the standing criticism. There have been neither subsequent reports to the BIPM from NIST-F2 nor has an updated accuracy evaluation been published.\n", "Especially a high sensitivity of a nuclear clock for potential time variations of fundamental constants, e.g., the fine-structure constant, has been highlighted. The central idea is that a nuclear transition couples differently to the fine-structure constant than an atomic shell transition does. For this reason a comparison of the frequency of a nuclear clock with an atomic clock could lead to an extraordinary high sensitivity for potential time variations of the fine structure constant. The achievable factor of sensitivity, however, remains subject to speculation. A recent measurement is consistent with enhancement factors between 1 (no enhancement) and 10.\n", "Using ytterbium-171 atoms, a new record for stability with a precision of over a 7-hour period was published on 22 August 2013. At this stability, the two optical lattice clocks working independently from each other used by the NIST research team would differ less than a second over the age of the universe (); this was better than previous experiments. The clocks rely on atoms cooled to and trapped in an optical lattice. A laser at excites the atoms between two of their energy levels. Having established the stability of the clocks, the researchers are studying external influences and evaluating the remaining systematic uncertainties, in the hope that they can bring the clock's accuracy down to the level of its stability. An improved optical lattice clock was described in a 2014 Nature paper.\n", "Atomic clocks are very precise and have nearly no clock drift. Even the Earth's rotation rate has more drift and variation in drift than an atomic clock due to tidal acceleration and other effects. The principle behind the atomic clock has enabled scientists to re-define the SI unit second in terms of exactly 9 192 631 770 oscillations of the caesium atom. The precision of these oscillations allows atomic clocks to drift roughly only one second in a hundred million years; as of 2015, the most accurate atomic clock loses one second every 15 billion years. The International Atomic Time (TAI) time standard and its derivatives (such as the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)) are based on weighted averages of atomic clocks worldwide.\n", "21st century experimental atomic clocks that provide non-caesium-based secondary representations of the second are becoming so precise that they are likely to be used as extremely sensitive detectors for other things besides measuring frequency and time. For example, the frequency of atomic clocks is altered slightly by gravity, magnetic fields, electrical fields, force, motion, temperature and other phenomena. The experimental clocks tend to continue improving, and leadership in performance has been shifted back and forth between various types of experimental clocks.\n\nSection::::Research.:Quantum clocks.\n", "BULLET::::- National Research Council Canada, FAQ: \"“What is a ‘cesium atomic clock’?”\"\n\nBULLET::::- National Research Council Canada, archived content: Optical frequency standard based on a single trapped ion\n\nBULLET::::- United States Naval Observatory Time Service Department\n\nBULLET::::- PTB Braunschweig, Germany - with link in English language\n\nBULLET::::- National Physical Laboratory (UK) time website\n\nBULLET::::- NIST Internet Time Service (ITS): Set Your Computer Clock Via the Internet\n\nBULLET::::- NIST press release about chip-scaled atomic clock\n\nBULLET::::- NIST website\n\nBULLET::::- Web pages on atomic clocks by The Science Museum (London)\n\nBULLET::::- Optical Atomic Clock BBC, 2005\n", "In June 2015, the European National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Teddington, UK; the French department of Time-Space Reference Systems at the Paris Observatory (LNE-SYRTE); the German German National Metrology Institute (PTB) in Braunschweig; and Italy’s labs have started tests to improve the accuracy of current state-of-the-art satellite comparisons by a factor 10, but it will still be limited to one part in . These 4 European labs are developing and host a variety of experimental optical clocks that harness different elements in different experimental set-ups and want to compare their optical clocks against each other and check whether they agree. In a next phase these labs strive to transmit comparison signals in the visible spectrum through fibre-optic cables. This will allow their experimental optical clocks to be compared with an accuracy similar to the expected accuracies of the optical clocks themselves. Some of these labs have already established fibre-optic links, and tests have begun on sections between Paris and Teddington, and Paris and Braunschweig. Fibre-optic links between experimental optical clocks also exist between the American NIST lab and its partner lab JILA, both in Boulder, Colorado but these span much shorter distances than the European network and are between just two labs. According to Fritz Riehle, a physicist at PTB, \"Europe is in a unique position as it has a high density of the best clocks in the world\".\n", "In 2011, the NPL-CsF2 caesium fountain clock operated by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), which serves as the United Kingdom primary frequency and time standard, was improved regarding the two largest sources of measurement uncertainties — distributed cavity phase and microwave lensing frequency shifts. In 2011 this resulted in an evaluated frequency uncertainty reduction from \"u\" = to \"u\" = ;— the lowest value for any primary national standard at the time. At this frequency uncertainty, the NPL-CsF2 is expected to neither gain nor lose a second in about 138 million () years.\n", "As of the 2010s, atomic clocks are the most accurate clocks in existence. They are considerably more accurate than quartz clocks as they can be accurate to within a few seconds over trillions of years. Atomic clocks were first theorized by Lord Kelvin in 1879. In the 1930s the development of Magnetic resonance created practical method for doing this. A prototype ammonia maser device was built in 1949 at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now NIST). Although it was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, it served to demonstrate the concept. The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. Calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale \"ephemeris time\" (ET). As of 2013, the most stable atomic clocks are ytterbium clocks, which are stable to within less than two parts in 1 quintillion ().\n", "Nuclear clock\n\nA nuclear clock or nuclear optical clock is a notional clock that would use the frequency of a nuclear transition as its reference frequency \n\n, in the same manner as an atomic clock uses the frequency of an electronic transition in an atom's shell. Such a clock is expected to be by a factor of about 10 more accurate than the best current atomic clocks, with an achievable accuracy approaching the 10 level.\n", "Section::::Research.:Secondary representations of the second.\n\nA list of frequencies recommended for secondary representations of the second is maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) since 2006 and is available online. The list contains the frequency values and the respective standard uncertainties for the rubidium microwave transition and for several optical transitions. These secondary frequency standards are accurate at the level of parts in ; however, the uncertainties provided in the list are in the range of parts in – since they are limited by the linking to the caesium primary standard that currently (2015) defines the second.\n", "BULLET::::- atoms packed in a three-dimensional quantum gas optical lattice.\n\nThese techniques allow the atoms or ions to be highly isolated from external perturbations, thus producing an extremely stable frequency reference.\n\nAtomic systems under consideration include Al, Hg, Hg, Sr, Sr, In, Mg, Ca, Ca, Yb, Yb and Th.\n", "THz-TDS measurements are typically not single-shot measurements.\n\nSection::::Detection.:Photoconductive detection.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02373	What's the difference between Chinese Taipei & Taiwan (if any)?	Once upon a time, "China" referred to both Mainland China and the Island of Formosa (now Taiwan). While, to most people, "China" and "Taiwan" very obviously refer to Mainland China (People's Republic of China - PRC) and the island of Formosa (Republic of China - ROC), the political status of the two countries is much more complicated. ROC was the government of both Chinas before the communist revolution. During the Revolution, the PRC took over the mainland and pushed the ROC government to Taiwan, ending in somewhat of a standstill. PRC, however, doesn't want to recognize the legitimacy of the ROC so they insist that Taiwan is just a rogue province under the control of a rebel group (ie - they're still the rightful ruler of Formosa). To further this, they put huge amounts of pressure on other nations and international organizations to not officially recognize ROC as a country. Because of this, you get things like "Chinese Taipei" that let the IOC recognize the reality of their being two Chinas without having to officially say "Taiwan is independent of China". Similarly, the US doesn't formally recognize Taiwan so we don't have "embassies" but we have an "American Institute in Taiwan" and they have the "Taipei Economic and Cultural Representation Office" in the US. The idea of "nations" and "sovereignty" seems pretty straightforward until you start looking into it in detail. This is just one of the many special cases you're going to find around the world.	[ "BULLET::::- (1981)\n\nBULLET::::- (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- (1979)\n\nBULLET::::- (The Holy See) (1942)\n", "BULLET::::- Kingdom of Tungning, a Southern Ming stronghold in the early Qing Dynasty\n\nBULLET::::- Spanish Formosa, Spanish colonies on the island\n\nBULLET::::- Dutch Formosa, a Dutch colony headquartered in present-day Tainan\n\nBULLET::::- Republic of Taiwan, better known as the Republic of Formosa, a state that briefly existed in Taiwan in 1895\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan Area, better known as the Free area of the Republic of China, the territory of ROC not lost to the Chinese Communists\n\nBULLET::::- Various present-day designations of Taiwan as Chinese territory:\n", "BULLET::::- Fongshan County: one town, 8 Chinese villages, 73 uncivilized native villages, 8 civilized native villages\n\nBULLET::::- Kagi County: one town, 4 Chinese villages, 22 uncivilized native villages, 8 civilized native villages\n\nBULLET::::- Changhwa County: one town, 16 villages\n\nThe subprefectures (, \"tīng\") were:\n\nBULLET::::- Pescadores Subprefecture\n\nBULLET::::- Tamsui Subprefecture: one town, 132 farms, 70 native villages\n\nSection::::1875-1887.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nSection::::Usage.:The United Nations and the ISO.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:1945–Today – Post World War II status.:1952 – Treaty of Peace with Japan (San Francisco).\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:1945–Today – Post World War II status.\n\nSection::::Historical overview.:1945–Today – Post World War II status.:1947 – 228 Incident.\n", "Section::::Translation compromise.\n", "Section::::Note on terminology.:\"De facto\" vs. \"de jure\" and whether ROC ceased to exist.\n", "Section::::History.:Post-war.\n", "Since the ROC lost its United Nations seat as \"China\" in 1971 (replaced by the PRC), most sovereign states have switched their diplomatic recognition to the PRC, recognizing the PRC as the representative of all China, though the majority of countries avoid clarifying what territories are meant by \"China\" in order to associate with both the PRC and ROC. and the Holy See, although informal relations are maintained with nearly all others. Agencies of foreign governments such as the American Institute in Taiwan operate as \"de facto\" embassies of their home countries in Taiwan, and Taiwan operates similar \"de facto\" embassies and consulates in most countries under such names as \"Taipei Representative Office\" (TRO) or \"Taipei Economic and Cultural (Representative) Office\" (TECO). In certain contexts, Taiwan is also referred to as Chinese Taipei.\n", "Section::::Other alternative references to the Republic of China.:Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu.\n\nThe World Trade Organization officially uses \"Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu\" for the Republic of China, but \"Chinese Taipei\" is frequently used in official documents and elsewhere.\n\nSection::::Other alternative references to the Republic of China.:Taiwan.\n", "The term is deliberately ambiguous. To the PRC, \"Chinese Taipei\" is ambiguous about the political status or sovereignty of the ROC/Taiwan; to the ROC, it is a more inclusive term than just \"Taiwan\" (which the Kuomintang political party of the ROC, in power at the time, considers just one part of \"China\", which it, similarly to the PRC, claims to be the rightful government of \"\"China\"\" in its entirety, and to the PRC the use of \"Taiwan\" as a national name is associated with independence of the area from the PRC) and \"Taiwan, China\" might be construed as a subordinate area to the PRC.\n", "Section::::Background and ambiguity over \"China\".\n", "Section::::Bilateral relations.:El Salvador.\n", "In 1885, work started to create an independent Fokien-Taiwan Province, which was officially declared in 1887. The capital of the island, or \"Taiwan-fu\", was intended to be moved from the south to the center of the island, but was temporarily moved north to Taipeh.\n", "BULLET::::- Public Diplomacy Coordination Council\n\nBULLET::::- Department of NGO International Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- The Office of Parliamentarian Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of Consular Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- Institute of Diplomacy and International Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan–Japan Relations Association\n\nBULLET::::- Coordination Council for North American Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- Central Taiwan Office\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Taiwan Office\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Taiwan Office\n\nBULLET::::- Southwestern Taiwan Office\n\nSection::::Budget.\n", "BULLET::::- International Olympic Committee (IOC) (as Chinese Taipei)\n\nBULLET::::- International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) (as Chinese Taipei)\n\nBULLET::::- World Confederation of Labour (WCL)\n\nBULLET::::- World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)\n\nBULLET::::- World Trade Organization (WTO) (as Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu, \"Chinese Taipei\")\n\nThe Republic of China is excluded from:\n\nBULLET::::- United Nations\n\nBULLET::::- The Republic of China was a founding member of the UN, but was expelled in 1971 in favor of the PRC, through UNGA Resolution 2758\n\nBULLET::::- On 23 July 2007, the Republic of China's (15th) request to join the UN was rejected.\n", "Section::::Bilateral relations.:Singapore.\n", "For countries with which the Republic of China does not have formal diplomatic relations, representation is often referred to as the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office, Taipei Economic and Cultural Representatives Office or Taipei Representative Offices, which serve the same function as embassy or consulate.\n\nSection::::Foreign Missions in the Republic of China.\n\nBULLET::::- Embassy of the Republic of Nauru\n\nBULLET::::- Embassy of Saint Christopher and Nevis\n\nBULLET::::- Embassy of Belize\n\nBULLET::::- Embassy of the Republic of Palau\n\nBULLET::::- Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands\n\nBULLET::::- Embassy of the Republic of Honduras\n\nBULLET::::- Embassy of the Soloman Islands\n", "The Republic of China participates in most international forums and organizations under the name \"Chinese Taipei\" due to diplomatic pressure from the People's Republic of China. For instance, it is the name under which it has competed at the Olympic Games since 1984, and its name as an observer at the World Health Organization.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:From prehistory until the 16th century.\n", "BULLET::::- Timeline of diplomatic relations of Taiwan\n\nSection::::History of Taiwan.:By period.\n\nSection::::History of Taiwan.:By period.:Mainland before 1949.\n\nBULLET::::- Economic history of China\n\nBULLET::::- Military history of China (pre-1911)\n\nBULLET::::- List of earthquakes in China\n\nSection::::History of Taiwan.:By period.:Taiwan.\n\nBULLET::::- Prehistory 50000 BCE – 1540 CE\n\nBULLET::::- Kingdom of Middag 1540–1732\n\nBULLET::::- European Taiwan 1624–1662\n\nBULLET::::- Kingdom of Tungning 1662–1683\n\nBULLET::::- Qing Taiwan 1683–1895\n\nBULLET::::- Republic of Taiwan 1895\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese Taiwan 1895–1945\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwanese Communist Party\n\nBULLET::::- Post-War Taiwan 1945–present\n\nBULLET::::- 19 March 2004 assassination attempt in Taiwan\n\nSection::::History of Taiwan.:By region.\n", "Section::::State cultural policy overview.:Historical context.\n", "Section::::Transport and communications.\n\nSection::::Transport and communications.:Air links.\n\nThe dispute over Taiwan's status affects the island's air links with the outside world, particularly Europe, North America and Australia.\n", "Section::::Bilateral relations.:Dominican Republic.\n", "Section::::Usage.:International airlines.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07388	Why was Euro Disney (Disneyland Paris) such a financial disaster when it opened ?	What i understand from my hospitality and culture classes, is that Disney tried to copy and paste Disney World into Disney Europe. Like everything was the same, company culture, work ethics whatsoever. Since Europeans and Americans are most definitely not the same type of people that completely backlashed and made them consider the cultural differences.	[ "Despite these efforts, in May 1992 daily park attendance was around 25,000 (some reports give a figure of 30,000) instead of the predicted 60,000. \"Euro Disney's\" stock price spiraled downwards and on July 23, 1992, the Resort announced an expected net loss in its first year of operation of approximately 300 million French francs. During \"Euro Disney's\" first winter, hotel occupancy was such that it was decided to close Disney's Newport Bay Club hotel for the season. Initial hopes were that each visitor would spend around US$33 per day, but near the end of 1992, analysts reckoned spending to be around 12% lower.\n", "Euro Disney S.C.A. responded in an interview with \"The Wall Street Journal\", in which Robert Fitzpatrick claimed only 1,000 people had left their jobs. In response to the financial situation, Fitzpatrick ordered that the Disney-MGM Studios Europe project would be put on hiatus until a further decision could be made. Prices at the hotels were reduced.\n", "In 1994, the company was still having financial difficulties. There were rumours that Euro Disney was getting close to having to declare bankruptcy. The banks and the backers had meetings to work out some of the financial problems facing Euro Disney. In March 1994 Team Disney went into negotiations with the banks so that they could get some help for their debt. As a last resort, the Walt Disney Company threatened to close the Disneyland Paris park, leaving the banks with the land.\n\nSection::::History.:Financial, attendance and employment struggles.\n", "Despite these efforts in May 1992, park attendance was around 25,000 (some reports give a figure of 30,000) instead of the predicted 60,000. The Euro Disney Company stock price spiralled downwards and on 23 July 1992, Euro Disney announced an expected net loss in its first year of operation of approximately 300 million French francs. During Euro Disney's first winter, hotel occupancy was so low that it was decided to close the Newport Bay Club hotel during the season.\n", "In response to the financial situation, Fitzpatrick ordered that the \"Disney-MGM Studios Europe\" project would be put on hiatus until a further decision could be made. Prices at the resort's hotels were also reduced significantly.\n", "Section::::Walt Disney Parks and Resorts.:Disneyland Paris.\n\nIn May 1992, entertainment magazine The Hollywood Reporter reported that about 25% of \"Euro Disney\"'s workforce — approximately 3,000 men and women — had resigned their jobs due to unacceptable working conditions. It also reported that the park's attendance was far behind expectations. Euro Disney S.C.A., the company that operates Disneyland Paris, responded in an interview with The Wall Street Journal, in which the company's president, Robert Fitzpatrick, claimed only 1,000 people had left their jobs.\n", "As of March 2002, Euro Disney underwent a name change to Disneyland Resort Paris. In 2002, Euro Disney S.C.A. and the Walt Disney Company announced another annual profit for Disneyland Paris. However, it then incurred a net loss in the three years following. By March 2004, the Walt Disney Company had agreed to write off all debt that Euro Disney S.C.A. owed to the Walt Disney Company. On 1 December 2003, Euro Disney S.C.A launched the 'Need Magic' campaign, which lasted until March 2006 to bring new, first-time European visitors to the resort. And by 2005, having been open fewer than fifteen years, Disneyland Paris had become the number one tourist destination for Europe, outselling the Louvre and the Eiffel Tower.\n", "Section::::Ownership.\n\nWalt Disney announced a €1 billion ($1.25 billion) bailout plan to rescue its subsidiary Disneyland Paris, the Financial Times reported on 6 October 2014. The park is burdened by its debt, which is calculated at about €1.75 billion ($2.20 billion) and roughly 15 times its gross average earnings. \n", "Efforts to improve attendance included serving alcoholic beverages with meals inside the \"Euro Disneyland\" theme park, in response to a presumed European demand, which began June 12, 1993.\n", "On 25 July 1995, Euro Disney S.C.A. reported its first quarterly profit of US$35.3 million. On 15 November 1995, the results for the fiscal year ending 30 September 1995, were released; in one year the theme park's attendance had climbed from 8.8 million to 10.7 million – an increase of 21%. Hotel occupancy had also climbed from 60 to 68.5%. After debt payments, Disneyland Paris ended the year with a net profit of US$22.8 million.\n\nSection::::History.:2000 onwards.\n", "In May 1992, entertainment magazine \"The Hollywood Reporter\" reported that about 25% of Euro Disney's workforce – approximately 3,000 people – had resigned from their jobs because of unacceptable working conditions. It also reported that the park's attendance was far behind expectations. The disappointing attendance can be at least partly explained by the recession and increased unemployment, which was affecting France and most of the rest of the developed world at this time; when construction of the resort began, the economy was still on an upswing.\n", "By the summer of 1994, Euro Disney was burdened with $3 billion worth of debt. Disney CFO Richard Nanula and Wall Street financier Steve Norris worked with Alwaleed's business advisor Mustafa Al Hejailan to rescue the overleveraged company. In that deal, the Walt Disney Corporation's 49 percent stake was reduced to 39 percent, the banks agreed to forego interest payments until 1997, Disney wrote off royalties and fees until 1999, and Alwaleed agreed to pay $345 million for a 24 percent stake in Euro Disney.\n\nSection::::History.:1995 turnaround.\n", "Section::::History.:1990s.\n\nIn 1990 The Disney Company issued US$2.25 billion in convertible bonds through Merrill Lynch to fund building Euro Disneyland . with an additional US$770 million in bonds offered by Euro Disney in October. The second international Disney theme park, Euro Disneyland, opens as part of Euro Disney Resort in Marne-la-Vallée, France on 12 April 1992, with five theme lands: Adventureland, Discoveryland, Fantasyland, Frontierland, and Main Street plus Festival Disney resort area.\n\nSection::::History.:2000s.\n\nIn 2005 Euro Disney delisted from the London Stock Exchange\n\nSection::::History.:2010s.\n\nIn 2013, Virginie Calmels became the chairman of Euro Disney's supervisory board.\n", "A new Indiana Jones roller-coaster ride was opened at Euro Disney in 1993. A few weeks after the ride opened there were problems with the emergency brakes which resulted in guest injuries.\n", "Initial hopes were that each visitor would spend around US$33 per day, but near the end of 1992, analysts found spending to be around 12% lower. Efforts to improve attendance included serving alcoholic beverages with meals inside the Euro Disneyland park, in response to a presumed European demand, which began 12 June 1993.\n", "In March 2006, Disneyland Resort Paris launched the advertising campaign, \"believe in your dreams\" and paired with the TGV East European Line to encourage European family attendance to the resort. Shortly after announcing a 12% increase in revenues for the fiscal year of 2007, Euro Disney S.C.A. implemented a \"reverse split\" consolidation of shares of 100 to 1. August 2008 brought the resort's 200 millionth visitor, and made for the third consecutive year of growth in revenues for the resort as well as record a record of 15.3 million visitors in attendance.\n", "Euro Disney opened for employee preview and testing in March 1992. During this time visitors were mostly park employees and their family members, who tested facilities and operations. The press were able to visit the day before the park's opening day on 12 April.\n", "On 31 May 1995, a new attraction opened at the theme park. had been planned since the inception of Euro Disneyland under the name \"Discovery Mountain\", but was reserved for a revival of public interest. With a redesign of the attraction (which had premiered as Space Mountain at the Walt Disney World Resort's Magic Kingdom in 1975) including a \"cannon launch\" system, inversions, and an on-ride soundtrack, the US$100 million attraction was dedicated in a ceremony attended by celebrities such as Elton John, Claudia Schiffer, and Buzz Aldrin.\n", "Unlike Disney's American theme parks, Euro Disney aimed for permanent employees (an estimated requirement of 12,000 for the theme park itself), as opposed to seasonal and temporary part-time employees. Casting centres were set up in Paris, London, and Amsterdam. However, it was understood by the French government and Disney that \"a concentrated effort would be made to tap into the local French labour market\". Disney sought workers with sufficient communication skills, who spoke two European languages (French and one other), and were socially outgoing. Following precedent, Euro Disney set up its own Disney University to train workers. 24,000 people had applied by November 1991.\n", "The Resort is a result of an agreement signed on 24 March 1987 between The Walt Disney Company and the French Authorities for the development of a new tourist destination, and construction began within a year. Since opening on 12 April 1992, the Resort has created more than 30,000 jobs (both directly and indirectly) in the region to the east of Paris. Today it is the number one tourist destination in Europe with 16 million visits recorded for Financial Year 2012 .\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:1980s.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bull Run\" details one of the Disney Company's rare failures: its abortive attempt in 1993 to build a new theme park in Haymarket, Virginia, because of protests against the proposed development's proximity to the Manassas battlefield. In particular, Hiaasen contrasts the Virginians' experience with Disney's representatives with that of Floridians' – specifically, that Disney is so used to deference and gratitude from Orlando's communities and politicians that it was unprepared for the level of resistance it encountered.\n", "Disney countered by saying that a ruling that barred them from imposing such an employment standard could threaten the image and long-term success of the park. \"For us, the appearance code has a great effect from a product identification standpoint,\" said Thor Degelmann, Euro Disney's personnel director. \"Without it we couldn't be presenting the Disney product that people would be expecting.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Opening day and early years.\n", "Until June 2017, Disney only held a majority stake in the resort, when they bought the remaining shares. In 2017, The Walt Disney Company offered an informal takeover of Euro Disney S.C.A., buying 9% of the company from Kingdom Holding and an open offer of 2 euros per share for the remaining stock. This brought The Walt Disney Company's total ownership to 85.7%. The Walt Disney company will also invest an additional 1.5 Billion euros to strengthen the company.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Seeking a location for a European resort.\n", "In 2009, the resort demonstrated dedication to the recruitment of new employment positions, especially for the Christmas and summer seasons, which continued in 2010 and 2011 when 2,000 and 3,000 employment contracts being offered, respectively. The 2009 fiscal year saw a decrease in revenues by 7% and a net loss of 63 million followed by stable revenues at 1.2 billion in fiscal 2010. Euro Disney S.C.A. refinanced their debt to Walt Disney Company again for 1.3 billion euros in September 2012.\n", "The present-day site of Disney California Adventure was acquired by Walt Disney in the 1950s and functioned as the parking lot of Disneyland for over 40 years. After succeeding with the multi-park business model at Walt Disney World in Florida, the Disney company decided to turn Walt Disney's original theme park into a multi-park resort complex as well. In 1991, Disney announced plans to build WestCOT, a west coast version of what was then known as EPCOT Center, on the site of Disneyland's parking lot. The high price tag of the proposed park as well as the company's financial and public relations problems with the newly opened Euro Disneyland (now Disneyland Paris) led Disney to cancel WestCOT in 1995.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13755	Why doesn’t reptiles and amfibians seem to mind just chilling in your hand, after you’ve caught them?	Usually freeze response from the fight-or-flight-or-freeze response. All different types of prey animals freeze and play dead so the predator looses interest.	[ "As said, temperature can play a part in the antipredator behavior of the common garter snake. Temperature can also be the factor that determines whether the snake stays passive or attacks when provoked by a predator. For example, one study found that snakes are less likely to escalate in response to an attack when the temperature is lower. One study tested the activity of the snake in response to different temperatures while being provoked by touching or by almost touching. By recording the popular responses as passive or aggressive, the study concluded that as temperature goes down, so does the antipredator response and general activity of the snake. Thus, temperature is important in determining the snake's antipredatory responses.\n", "Animals have many different tactics for defending themselves, depending on the severity of the threat they are encountering. Stages of threat vary along a spectrum referred to as the \"predatory imminence continuum,\" spanning from low-risk (pre-encounter) to high-risk (interaction) threats. The main assumption of the predatory imminence continuum is that as threat levels increase, defensive response strategies change. During the pre-encounter period, an animal may engage in activities like exploration or foraging. But if the animal senses that a predator is nearby, the animal may begin to express species specific defense reactions such as freezing in an attempt to avoid detection by the predator. However, in situations where a threat is imminent, once the animal is detected by its predator, freezing may no longer be the optimal behaviour for survival. At this point, the animal enters the circa-strike phase, where its behaviour will transition from passive freezing to active flight, or even attack if escape is not possible.\n", "Post-encounter defensive behaviours are avoidance behaviours performed when a predator is present and has been detected. When this stage of threat has been reached, behaviours are limited to species-specific defence reactions. These behaviours are commonly freezing, fleeing or threatening. The goal of a post-encounter defensive behaviour is to prevent the predatory imminence from further increasing. The dominant post-encounter defensive behaviour can depend on whether the predator has also detected the prey and how far away the two animals are from one another. Varying levels of predatory imminence, even in post-encounter situations, can affect the expressed defensive behaviour. If the prey has yet to be detected, the goal of the post-encounter behaviour will be to prevent the predator from detecting the prey. If both the predator and prey have detected each other, the goal will be to avoid making contact with the predator. Freezing behaviour in rats is an example of a post-encounter defensive behaviour which has been well studied. Freezing in rats is characterized by sudden, extended immobility, followed by a decreased heart rate and an increased respiration rate. This behaviour is often the dominant post-encounter defence behaviour in rats. In the laboratory setting, post-encounter defensive behaviours can be elicited by pairing a neutral stimulus, such as a light, with an aversive stimulus, such as a shock. The rat will engage in its post-encounter defensive behaviour when it becomes aware of the neutral stimulus, as the stimulus is acting as a predictor for the shock. Since the freezing behaviour is dominant in these situations, it can be assumed that it serves an adaptive function by preventing an additional increase in predatory imminence. Freezing is the dominant post-encounter behaviour because even when there are alternative defensive reactions available, freezing has been observed to be the rat's response the majority of the time. Even when a clear method of escape was made available, rats would freeze instead of fleeing. Freezing can prevent the perceived level of threat from increasing in several ways. If a rat becomes aware of a predator before the predator is aware of the prey, freezing can reduce the likelihood that the prey will be detected. As well, since many predators rely on motion to keep track of their prey, freezing may cause the predator to either lose site of their prey or shift their attention to a more active object.\n", "Section::::Reptiles and amphibians.\n\nBasking is common to most active diurnal reptiles. Lizards, crocodiles, terrapins, and snakes routinely make use of the morning sun to raise their body temperature. Freshwater turtles and terrapins have been found to bask and raise their body temperature close to the highest temperatures that they can tolerate.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n\nSome mammals make use of the sun to warm their body or to provide comfort. It has been suggested that early mammals. which may have been small and nocturnal, may have basked to rapidly warm their bodies based on observations made on a nocturnal marsupial, \"Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis\".\n\nSection::::Insects.\n", "The nerve fibers in the pit organ are constantly firing at a very low rate. Objects that are within a neutral temperature range do not change the rate of firing; the neutral range is determined by the average thermal radiation of all objects in the receptive field of the organ. The thermal radiation above a given threshold causes an increase in the temperature of the nerve fiber, resulting in stimulation of the nerve and subsequent firing, with increased temperature resulting in increased firing rate. The sensitivity of the nerve fibers is estimated to be 0.001 °C.\n", "In humans, temperature sensation from thermoreceptors enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn. The axons of these second order neurons then decussate, joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus.\n\nA study in 2017 shows that the thermosensory information passes to the lateral parabrachial nucleus rather than to the thalamus and this drives thermoregulatory behaviour.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared sensing in snakes\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared sensing in vampire bats\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "To cope with low temperatures, some fish have developed the ability to remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing; some use natural antifreeze or antifreeze proteins to resist ice crystal formation in their tissues. Amphibians and reptiles cope with heat loss by evaporative cooling and behavioral adaptations. An example of behavioral adaptation is that of a lizard lying in the sun on a hot rock in order to heat through radiation and conduction.\n\nSection::::Classification of animals by thermal characteristics.:Endothermy.\n", "Section::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.:Habituation.\n\nHabituation is one of the simplest forms of animal learning. It has been stated there are no qualitative or quantitative differences between vertebrate species in this form of learning indicating there is no difference between mammals and amphibians in this process.\n\nSection::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.:Associative learning.\n\nNewts are capable of associative learning. They are able to associate chemical signals from a novel predator with another chemical stimulus when the second stimulus is the skin extract of another newt.\n\nSection::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.:Numeracy.\n", "In those conditions, \"it [i]s highly unlikely an alligator would have been active\" said Matt Aresco, a local herpetologist authorities had consulted. \"All they are doing is maintaining their body temperature ... Fifty-eight degrees is too cold for an alligator to be interested in food at all.\"\n", "Slow lorises produce a secretion from their brachial gland (a scent gland on the upper arm near the axilla) that is licked and mixed with their saliva. In tests, three predators—binturongs, clouded leopards (\"Neofelis nebulosa\"), and sun bears—retreated or showed other signs of displeasure when presented with cotton swabs anointed with a mixture of the toxic secretion and the saliva, whereas the toxic secretion alone generated mild interest. Before stashing their offspring in a secure location, female slow lorises will lick their brachial glands, and then groom their young with their toothcomb, depositing the toxin on their fur. When threatened, slow lorises may also lick their brachial glands and bite their aggressors, delivering the toxin into the wounds. Slow lorises can be reluctant to release their bite, which is likely to maximize the transfer of toxins. This toxic bite is a rare trait among mammals and unique to lorisid primates. It may also be used for defense against other slow lorises and parasites. According to Nekaris, this adaptation—along with vocalizations, movement, and coloration patterns similar to those of true cobras—may have evolved through Müllerian mimicry to protect slow lorises when they need to move across the ground due to breaks in the canopy.\n", "The name \"gwardar\" is a word meaning \"go the long way around\" in an Aboriginal language . This may be regarded as advice for people who come across the species in the wild: that is, while \"P. nuchalis\" is generally cautious, shy, and inclined to retreat rather than attack, it will defend itself if cornered.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Tawny frogmouths do not consume prey collected on the ground or in flight on the spot unless it is very small. The captured prey is held in the tip of the beak and taken to a nearby branch, where it is then processed. Insects are generally pulped at the rim of the beak before being swallowed, and larger prey such as lizards or mice are generally killed before consumption by being bashed against a branch with great force.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and ecology.:Bonding and breeding.\n", "The pit organ will adapt to a repeated stimulus; if an adapted stimulus is removed, there will be a fluctuation in the opposite direction. For example, if a warm object is placed in front of the snake, the organ will increase in firing rate at first, but after a while will adapt to the warm object and the firing rate of the nerves in the pit organ will return to normal. If that warm object is then removed, the pit organ will now register the space that it used to occupy as being colder, and as such the firing rate will be depressed until it adapts to the removal of the object. The latency period of adaptation is approximately 50-150 ms.\n", "Freezing behavior or the freeze response is a reaction to specific stimuli, most commonly observed in prey animals. When a prey animal has been caught and completely overcome by the predator, it may respond by \"freezing up\" of in other words by staying complety still. Studies typically assess a conditioned freezing behavior response to stimuli that typically or innately do not cause fear, such as a tone or shock. Freezing behavior is most easily characterized by changes in blood pressure and lengths of time in crouching position, but it also is known to cause changes such as shortness of breath, increased heart rate, sweating, or choking sensation. However, since it is difficult to measure these sympathetic responses to fear stimuli, studies are typically confined to simple crouching times. A response to stimuli typically is said to be a \"fight or flight\", but is more completely described as \"fight, flight, or freeze.\" In addition, freezing is observed to occur before or after a fight or flight response.\n", "Torpor saves energy for the bat when ambient temperatures are below throughout the year and in the winter; instead of expending energy to maintain a constant body temperature, it allows its body to cool and physiological activity to slow.\n\nWhile in torpor, its heart rate drops from up to 210 beats per minute to as few as 8 beats per minute.\n\nThe exception to this rule is females at the end of pregnancy, which no longer have the ability to thermoregulate, and therefore must roost in warm places.\n", "This family of the order Diprotodontia, which can be found in the east coast and inland of Australia and in some islands of New Guinea, is characterized by their very small size, which has side effects: because their mass-to-surface-area ratio is so small, heat escapes quicker from their bodies than it would in larger animals (the larger the mass-to-surface-area ratio, the harder it is to get rid of heat). Therefore, when temperature drops or food is scarce, they have trouble maintaining their body temperature and they enter a state known as torpidity (not to be confused with hibernation, which is not known in marsupials) which can last between one day and two weeks. In this state, the animal's breathing slows down, its temperature drops to almost that of its surroundings, and the animal becomes unresponsive.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nThermography, a method which produces pictures of the distribution of temperatures on an object, was used to investigate temperature variation across facial structures of the common vampire bat. The nasal structure has a temperature of 9 °C lower than the rest of the face. The thermal insulation of the nasal structure and maintained temperature difference may possibly prevent interference of self-emitted thermal radiation. Warm receptors located in the nose may then optimally detect outside sources of infrared radiation.\n", "An example of this is seen in white-tailed deer fawns, which experience a drop in heart rate in response to approaching predators. This response, referred to as \"alarm bradycardia\", causes the fawn's heart rate to drop from 155 to 38 beats per minute within one beat of the heart. This drop in heart rate can last up to two minutes, causing the fawn to experience a depressed breathing rate and decrease in movement, called tonic immobility. Tonic immobility is a reflex response that causes the fawn to enter a low body position that simulates the position of a dead corpse. Upon discovery of the fawn, the predator loses interest in the \"dead\" prey. Other symptoms of alarm bradycardia, such as salivation, urination, and defecation, can also cause the predator to lose interest.\n", "Unkenreflex\n\nUnkenreflex – interchangeably referred to as unken reflex (\"Unke\" is the German word for the genus of fire-bellied toads) – is a defensive posture adopted by several branches of the amphibian class – including salamanders, toads, and certain species of frogs. Implemented most often in the face of an imminent attack by a predator, unkenreflex is characterized by the subject’s contortion or arching of its body to reveal previously hidden bright colors of the ventral side, tail, or inner limb; the subject remains immobile while in unkenreflex. \n", "Section::::Behavioral and ecological implications.\n", "Estivation is similar to hibernation, however, it usually occurs in hot periods to allow animals to avoid high temperatures and desiccation. Both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrate and vertebrates enter into estivation. Examples include lady beetles (\"Coccinellidae\"), North American desert tortoises, crocodiles, salamanders, cane toads, and the water-holding frog.\n\nDaily torpor occurs in small endotherms like bats and hummingbirds, which temporarily reduces their high metabolic rates to conserve energy.\n\nSection::::Variation in animals.\n\nSection::::Variation in animals.:Normal human temperature.\n", "All slow loris species produce a toxin in glands on the insides of their elbows. This is spread across their bodies and those of their offspring using the toothcomb while grooming. When threatened with predators, the Sunda slow loris can bite, roll into a ball exposing its toxic saliva-covered fur, or roll up and drop from the trees. However, the primary method of predator avoidance is crypsis, whereby it hides. The Asiatic reticulated python, the changeable hawk-eagle and the Bornean orangutan have been recorded as predators of the Sunda slow loris.\n\nSection::::Behavior and ecology.:Social systems.\n", "As they have adapted to live in close proximity to human populations, tawny frogmouths are at high risk of exposure to pesticides. Continued widespread use of insecticides and rodent poisons are hazardous as they remain in the system of the target animal and can be fatal to a tawny frogmouth that eats them. The effect of these toxins is often indirect, as they can be absorbed into fatty tissue with the bird experiencing no overt signs of ill health until the winter, when the fat deposits are drawn on and the poison enters the bloodstream.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "In some species of insect, drawing blood meals is a behavior not normally witnessed that could be brought on by a sudden lack of avoidance of vertebrate odor. Food preference in insects is not always about attraction to certain odors but the lack of repellant response to the odor. The fruit-piercing moth (\"Calyptrata thalictri\") has been known to draw blood from mammalian hosts when the number of a particular group of olfactory sensing neurons that generally produce a repellent response to vertebrate volatiles is reduced. This halts their usually innate repulsive behavior to vertebrate odors and increases the chance that they will attempt to draw blood from a host. Because this is a change not in Or83b but in a population of olfactory sensory neurons, dispersing molecules to inhibit Or83b would not stop the behavior and a new strategy would have to develop.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04490	Why does smoking tobacco cause cancer, but smoking marijuana does not?	It does. It's the burning part that creates carcinogenic compounds. That's one of the major reasons that e-cigarettes are a better option (for both tobacco and marijuana). The incidence is lower with marijuana because most people smoke marijuana less frequently than tobacco.	[ "Some data on the correlation of an increase in the incidence of lung cancer and cannabis smoking are conflicting. A systematic review evaluating 19 studies from 1966 to 2006 found no significant tobacco-adjusted association between cannabis smoking and lung cancer development despite evidence of precancerous histopathologic changes of the respiratory mucosa. \n\nCannabis smoke was listed as a cancer agent in California in 2009. Cannabis smoke contains many of the same carcinogens as tar from tobacco smoke.\n", "Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke, and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke, including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene. Cannabis smoke is also inhaled more deeply than tobacco smoke. , there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer. Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco. A 2015 review found an association between cannabis use and the development of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs), particularly non-seminoma TGCTs. A 2015 analysis of six studies found little evidence that long-term or regular cannabis smoking was associated with lung cancer risk, though it could not rule out whether an association with heavy smoking exists. Another 2015 meta-analysis found no association between lifetime cannabis use and risk of head or neck cancer. Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.\n", "Marijuana smoke contains many of the same carcinogens as those in tobacco smoke. However, the effect of smoking cannabis on lung cancer risk is not clear. A 2013 review did not find an increased risk from light to moderate use. A 2014 review found that smoking cannabis doubled the risk of lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Radon gas.\n", "A 2007 study found that while tobacco and cannabis smoke are quite similar, cannabis smoke contained higher amounts of ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, and nitrogen oxides, but lower levels of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This study found that directly inhaled cannabis smoke contained as much as 20 times as much ammonia and 5 times as much hydrogen cyanide as tobacco smoke and compared the properties of both mainstream and sidestream (smoke emitted from a smouldering 'joint' or 'cone') smoke. Mainstream cannabis smoke was found to contain higher concentrations of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) than sidestream tobacco smoke. However, other studies have found much lower disparities in ammonia and hydrogen cyanide between cannabis and tobacco, and that some other constituents (such as polonium-210, lead, arsenic, nicotine, and tobacco-specific nitrosamines) are either lower or non-existent in cannabis smoke.\n", "Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke, and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke, including nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene. Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco. Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis edibles.\n", "Regular cannabis smokers show pathological changes in lung cells similar to those that precede the development of lung cancer in tobacco smokers. Gordon and colleagues in a 2013 literature review said: \"Unfortunately, methodological limitations in many of the reviewed studies, including selection bias, small sample size, limited generalizability, and lack of adjustment for tobacco smoking, may limit the ability to attribute cancer risk solely to marijuana use.\" Reviewing studies adjusted for age and tobacco use, they said there was a risk of lung cancer even after adjusting for tobacco use, but that the period of time over which the risk increases is uncertain.\n", "In the United States research about medical cannabis has been hindered by federal law. Smoking any substance could possibly carry similar risks as smoking tobacco due to carcinogens in all smoke,\n\nCannabis use disorder is defined as a medical diagnosis in the fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Cannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors.\n", "Section::::Physical health.:Cancer.\n\nA 2012 review examining the relation of cancer and cannabis found little direct evidence that cannabinoids found in cannabis, including THC, are carcinogenic. Cannabinoids are not mutagenic according to the Ames test. However, cannabis \"smoke\" has been found to be carcinogenic in rodents and mutagenic in the Ames test. Correlating cannabis use with the development of human cancers has been problematic due to difficulties in quantifying cannabis use, unmeasured confounders, and that cannabinoids may have anti-cancer effects.\n", "Although there is ongoing research, claims that cannabis has been proved to cure cancer are, according to Cancer Research UK, both prevalent on the internet and \"highly misleading\".\n\nThere is no good evidence that cannabis use helps reduce the risk of getting cancer. Whether smoking cannabis increases cancer risk in general is difficult to establish since it is often smoked mixed with tobaccoa known carcinogenand this complicates research. Cannabis use is linked to an increased risk of a type of testicular cancer.\n", "Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemicals, including many of the same carcinogens as tobacco smoke. A 2012 special report by the British Lung Foundation concluded that cannabis smoking was linked to many adverse effects, including bronchitis and lung cancer. They identified cannabis smoke as a carcinogen and also said awareness of the danger was low compared with the high awareness of the dangers of smoking tobacco particularly among younger users. They said there was an increased risk from each cannabis cigarette due to drawing in large puffs of smoke and holding them. Cannabis smoke has been listed on the California Proposition 65 warning list as a carcinogen since 2009, but leaves and pure THC are not.\n", "There are also other difficulties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis also smoke tobacco. This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.\n", "The association of cannabis use with head and neck carcinoma may differ by tumor site, with both possible pro- and anticarcinogenic effects of cannabinoids. Additional work is needed to rule out various sources of bias, confounds and misclassification of cannabis exposure.\n\nSection::::Research by medical condition.:Dementia.\n", "According to a 2013 literature review, cannabis could be carcinogenic, but there are methodological limitations in studies making it difficult to establish a link between cannabis use and cancer risk. The authors say that bladder cancer does seem to be linked to habitual cannabis use, and that there may be a risk for cancers of the head and neck among long-term (more than 20 years) users. Gordon and colleagues said, \"there does appear to be an increased risk of cancer (particularly head and neck, lung, and bladder cancer) for those who use marijuana over a period of time, although what length of time that this risk increases is uncertain.\"\n", "Many chromosomes are involved in the development of lung cancer, but those that greatly increase one's susceptibility to developing lung cancer are loci 15q25, 5p15, and 6p21. The locus 5p15 spans about 181 million base pairs on the short arm of chromosome 5, which is the largest chromosome. The locus 15q25 on chromosome 15 has genetic variants such as the CHRNA5-CHRNA3 locus, which also increases lung cancer susceptibility. Smoke is one of these risk factors: rs12914385, and rs8042374 are treated in cases where smoking is the known cause of lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Gene expression, carcinogenic mechanisms, susceptibility chromosomes.\n", "Tobacco smoke, besides being an irritant and significant indoor air pollutant, is known to cause lung cancer, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and other serious diseases in smokers (and, according to some, in non-smokers as well). The actual mechanisms by which smoking can cause so many diseases remain largely unknown. Many attempts have been made to produce lung cancer in animals exposed to tobacco smoke by the inhalation route, without success. It is only by collecting the \"tar\" and repeatedly painting this on to mice that tumors are produced, and these tumors are very different from those tumors exhibited by smokers. Tobacco smoke is associated with an increased risk of developing respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, pneumonia, and asthma. Tobacco smoke aerosols generated at temperatures below 400 ℃ did not test positive in the Ames assay.\n", "In 2013 the International Lung Cancer Consortium found no significant additional lung cancer risk in tobacco users who also smoked cannabis. Nor did they find an increased risk in cannabis smokers who did not use tobacco. They concluded that \"[o]ur pooled results showed no significant association between the intensity, duration, or cumulative consumption of cannabis smoke and the risk of lung cancer overall or in never smokers.\" They cautioned that \"[o]ur results cannot preclude the possibility that cannabis may exhibit an association with lung cancer risk at extremely high dosage.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Tobacco: The leading cause of cancer, and death from cancer. Smoking is associated with increased risk of cancers of the lung, larynx, mouth, oesophagus, throat, bladder, kidney, liver, stomach, pancreas, colon, rectum, cervix and acute myeloid leukemia. Smokeless tobacco (snuff or chewing tobacco) is associated with increased risks of cancers of the mouth, oesophagus, and pancreas.\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol: Can increase risk of cancer of the mouth, throat, oesophagus, larynx, liver, and breast. The risk of cancer is much higher for those who drink alcohol and also use tobacco.\n", "A 2012 literature survey by the British Lung Foundation identified cannabis smoke as a carcinogen and also found awareness of the danger was low, with 40% of under 35s thinking that cannabis (when smoked) was not harmful. Other observations include lack of research on the effect of cannabis smoke alone due to common mixing of cannabis and tobacco and frequent cigarette smoking by cannabis users; low rate of addiction compared to tobacco; and episodic nature of cannabis use compared to steady frequent smoking of tobacco.\n", "Section::::Physical health.:Cancer.:Lung.\n\nThere have been a limited number of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy cannabis smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.\n", "There is a strong association of smoking with lung cancer; the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer increases significantly in smokers. A large number of known carcinogens are found in cigarette smoke. Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, such as benzo[a]pyrene), Benzene, and Nitrosamine. The tar from cigarette smoke is similar to that of marijuana smoke and contains similar carcinogens.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of carcinogenicity.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nSmoking is by far the leading risk factor for lung cancer. Cigarette smoke contains more than 6,000 components, many of which lead to DNA damage (see table of tobacco-related DNA damages in Tobacco smoking).\n\nOther causes include radon, exposure to secondhand smoke, exposure to substances such as asbestos, chromium, nickel, beryllium, soot, or tar, family history of lung cancer, and air pollution.\n\nIn general, DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Though most DNA damages are repairable, leftover un-repaired DNA damages from cigarette smoke are the likely cause of NSCLC.\n", "Exposure to particular substances have been linked to specific types of cancer. These substances are called \"carcinogens\".\n\nTobacco smoke, for example, causes 90% of lung cancer. It also causes cancer in the larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, esophagus and pancreas. Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.\n", "In contrast, a 1999 review of tobacco smoke carcinogens published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute states that \"levels of polonium-210 in tobacco smoke are not believed to be great enough to significantly impact lung cancer in smokers.\" In 2011 Hecht has also stated that the \"levels of Po in cigarette smoke are probably too low to be involved in lung cancer induction ...\"\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Oxidation and inflammation.\n", "The IARC monographs concluded that the application of cigarette-smoke condensates onto the skin of mice induces tumors, of both benign and malignant variety. Although the carcinogenicity of tobacco smoke was first established in humans, various types of animals have also been exposed to tobacco smoke inhalation in attempts to yield further experimental proof and control for various experimental factors, including types of tobacco and levels of exposure, which would be considered unethical in human studies. The IARC monographs, referencing studies which used various methods of smoke inhalation, concluded that a significantly greater number of pulmonary tumors occurred among mice exposed to smoke than those in the control groups. Since the 1960s, the animal most used in testing the carcinogenicity of tobacco smoke has been the Syrian Golden Hamster due to its resistance to pulmonary infections and the infrequency with which it spontaneously develops pulmonary tumors. According to the IARC monographs these studies have proven, and repeatedly confirmed, the carcinogenicity of tobacco smoke for hamsters.\n", "Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of over 5,000 identified chemicals, of which 98 are known to have specific toxicological properties. The most important chemicals causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause. \n" ]	[ "Smoking marijuana does not cause cancer.", "Marijuana does not cause cancer. " ]	[ "Smoking marijuana can cause cancer, as the burning part creates carcinogenic compounds.", "Marijuana does cause cancer, it is just perceived to not cause it due to smokers smoking Marijuana less frequently than tobacco." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Smoking marijuana does not cause cancer.", "Marijuana does not cause cancer. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Smoking marijuana can cause cancer, as the burning part creates carcinogenic compounds.", "Marijuana does cause cancer, it is just perceived to not cause it due to smokers smoking Marijuana less frequently than tobacco." ]
2018-09256	Why is there an option to overwrite my hard drives with 0 MULTIPLE times when formatting	It's due to a theoretical attack to recover information. When you write a 1 or 0 to a mechnical harddrive you are basically stamping a magnet dot on the platter. However the exact placement of that dot is not precise. Since you need the head to be able to read that dot later on you make the dot big enough that even if the two are not lined up perfectly (the head over the exact center of the dot) the head will still be over part of the dot and so will read the correct information (a 1 or a 0). This creates the possiblity that someone could take apart the harddrive in a lab, scan it with a high precision head and then try to reassemble the data by looking for previous dots that where not perfectly overwritten - essentially looking for the edges of previous dots peeking out from under the current dot because it wasn't lined up perfectly with the old one. To my knowledge this hasn't actually been done in a practical scenario and most people that concerned someone would go to such lengths (such as governments or big companies) simply follow the practice of erasing the data and then violently shredding the harddrive.	[ "which disables the warning even if strict aliasing is in effect. This makes use of the fact that reading from a different union member than the one most recently written to (called \"[[type punning]]\") is common, and explicitly allowed even if strict aliasing is in force, provided the memory is accessed through the union type directly. However, this is not strictly the case here, since the function pointer is copied to be used outside the union. Note that this trick may not work on platforms where the size of data pointers and the size of function pointers is not the same.\n", "One popular method for performing only the zero-fill operation on a hard disk is by writing zero-value bytes to the drive using the Unix dd utility with the /dev/zero stream as the input file and the drive itself (or a specific partition) as the output file. This command may take many hours to complete, and can erase all files and file systems.\n\nAnother method for SCSI disks may be to use the sg_format command to issue a low-level SCSI Format Unit Command.\n", "Today, an end-user, in most cases, should never perform a low-level formatting of an IDE or ATA hard drive, and in fact it is often not possible to do so on modern hard drives because the formatting is done on a servowriter before the disk is assembled into a drive in the factory.\n\nSection::::Disk formatting process.:Low-level formatting (LLF) of hard disks.:Disk reinitialization.\n", "Zero-filling a drive is not necessarily a secure method of erasing sensitive data, or of preparing a drive for use with an encrypted filesystem. Zero-filling voids the plausible deniability of the process.\n\nSection::::Disk formatting process.:Partitioning.\n\nPartitioning is the process of writing information into blocks of a storage device or medium that allows access by an operating system. Some operating systems allow the device (or its medium) to appear as multiple devices; i.e. partitioned into multiple devices.\n", "/dev/full\n\nIn Linux and FreeBSD, or the always full device is a special file that always returns the error code (meaning \"No space left on device\") on writing, and provides an infinite number of zero bytes to any process that reads from it (similar to ). This device is usually used when testing the behaviour of a program when it encounters a \"disk full\" error.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Because the result 0010 is non-zero, we know the second bit in the original pattern was set. This is often called \"bit masking\". (By analogy, the use of masking tape covers, or \"masks\", portions that should not be altered or portions that are not of interest. In this case, the 0 values mask the bits that are not of interest.)\n", "\"Overwriting\": In Windows Vista and upwards the non-quick format will overwrite as it goes. Not the case in Windows XP and below.\n\n\"OS/2\": Under OS/2, if you use the codice_16 parameter, which specifies a \"long\" format, then format will overwrite the entire partition or logical drive. Doing so enhances the ability of CHKDSK to recover files.\n\nSection::::Formatting.:Unix-like operating systems.\n", "From the perspective of preventing the recovery of sensitive data through recovery tools, the data must either be completely overwritten (every sector) with random data before the format, or the format program itself must perform this overwriting, as the DOS codice_21 command did with floppy diskettes, filling every data sector with the format filler byte value (typically codice_1).\n", "Officially introduced with DOS 3.31 and not used by DOS 3.2, some DOS 3.2 utilities were designed to be aware of this new format already. Official documentation recommends to trust these values only if the logical sectors entry at offset 0x013 is zero.\n\nA simple formula translates a volume's given cluster number codice_1 to a logical sector number codice_2:\n", "To combat this behavior, the System BIOS often includes an option to prevent software from writing to the first sector of any attached hard drives; it could thereby protect the Master Boot Record containing the partition table from being overwritten accidentally, but not the Volume Boot Records in the bootable partitions. Depending on the BIOS, attempts to write to the protected sector may be blocked with or without user interaction. Most BIOSes, however, will display a popup message giving the user a chance to override the setting.\n", "In Maximum security mode, the device can be unlocked only with the User password. If the User password is not available, the only remaining way to get at least the bare hardware back to a usable state is to issue the SECURITY ERASE PREPARE command, immediately followed by SECURITY ERASE UNIT. In Maximum security mode, the SECURITY ERASE UNIT command requires the Master password and will completely erase all data on the disk. Word 89 in the IDENTIFY response indicates how long the operation will take.\n", "The simplest overwrite technique writes the same data everywhere—often just a pattern of all zeros. At a minimum, this will prevent the data from being retrieved simply by reading from the media again using standard system functions.\n\nIn an attempt to counter more advanced data recovery techniques, specific overwrite patterns and multiple passes have often been prescribed. These may be generic patterns intended to eradicate any trace signatures, for example, the seven-pass pattern: 0xF6, 0x00, 0xFF, random, 0x00, 0xFF, random; sometimes erroneously attributed to the US standard DOD 5220.22-M.\n", "An early nuisance of this kind, pre-dating the Internet and even text terminals, was the confusion between \"l\" (lowercase letter \"L\") / \"1\" (the number \"one\") and \"O\" (capital letter for vowel \"o\") / \"0\" (the number \"zero\"). Some typewriters in the pre-computer era even combined the ell and the one; users had to type a lowercase L when the number one was needed. The zero/oh confusion gave rise to the tradition of crossing zeros, so that a computer operator would type them correctly. Unicode may contribute to this greatly with its combining characters, accents, several types of hyphen-alikes, etc., often due to inadequate rendering support, especially with smaller fonts sizes and wide variety of fonts.\n", "BULLET::::- Enhanced overwriting involves three passes; each sector is overwritten first with 1s, then with 0s, and then with randomly generated 1s and 0s.\n\nRegardless of which level is used, verification is needed to ensure that overwriting was successful.\n\nApart from overwriting, other methods could be used, such as degaussing, or physical destruction of the media. With some inexpensive media, destruction and replacement may be cheaper than sanitisation followed by reuse. ATA Secure Erase is not approved. Different methods apply to different media, ranging from paper to CDs to mobile phones.\n", "The first SPD specification was issued by JEDEC and tightened up by Intel as part of its PC100 memory specification. Most values specified are in binary-coded decimal form. The most significant nibble can contain values from 10 to 15, and in some cases extends higher. In such cases, the encodings for 1, 2 and 3 are instead used to encode 16, 17 and 18. A most significant nibble of 0 is reserved to represent \"undefined\".\n", "These mechanisms are intended to prevent only accidental data loss or attacks by computer viruses. A determined user can easily circumvent them either by covering a notch with adhesive tape or by creating one with a punch as appropriate, or sometimes by physically altering the media transport to ignore the write-protect mechanism.\n\nSection::::Write blocking.\n", "Doing the same using only codice_1 results in as many passes as there are elements to remove. For each of these passes, all elements after the erased element have to be moved, which is more time-consuming than shifting elements in a single pass.\n\nSection::::Limitation.\n\nThe erase–remove idiom cannot be used for containers that return codice_9 (e.g.: set)\n\ncodice_10 and codice_11 do not maintain elements that are removed (unlike codice_12, codice_13). Thus, erase–remove can only be used with containers holding elements with full value semantics without incurring resource leaks.\n", "Traditional file systems, such as ext2 or FAT which were designed for use on magnetic media typically update their data structures in-place, with data structures like inodes and directories updated on-disk after every modification. This concentrated lack of wear-levelling makes conventional file systems unsuitable for read-write use on flash devices.\n", "As a general rule, formatting a disk leaves most if not all existing data on the disk medium; some or most of which might be recoverable with special tools. Special tools can remove user data by a single overwrite of all files and free space.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "OBJ files, due to their list structure, are able to reference vertices, normals, etc. either by their absolute position (1 represents the first defined vertex, N representing the Nth defined vertex), or by their relative position (-1 represents the latest defined vertex). \n\nHowever, not all software supports the latter approach, and conversely some software inherently writes only the latter form (due to the convenience of appending elements without needing to recalculate vertex offsets, etc.), leading to occasional incompatibilities.\n\nSection::::Material template library.\n", "Reads do not require an erase of the flash memory, so they are not generally associated with write amplification. In the limited chance of a read disturb error, the data in that block is read and rewritten, but this would not have any material impact on the write amplification of the drive.\n\nSection::::Garbage collection.:Background garbage collection.\n", "BULLET::::- For FAT32 devices, the lower 16 bits of the physical address is normally retained in the directory entry, but the high bits of the address are zeroed down. Many recovery programs ignore this fact and fail to recover data correctly.\n\nChances of recovering deleted files is often higher on FAT12 and FAT16 as compared to FAT32 volumes due to the typically larger cluster sizes used by the former systems and due to loss of upper 16 bits of logical cluster address for FAT32.\n", "The signature is checked for by most System BIOSes since (at least) the IBM PC/AT (but not by the original IBM PC and some other machines). Even more so, it is also checked by most MBR boot loaders before passing control to the boot sector. Some BIOSes (like the IBM PC/AT) perform the check only for fixed disk / removable drives, while for floppies and superfloppies it is enough to start with a byte greater or equal to 06h and the first nine words not to contain the same value, before the boot sector is accepted as valid, thereby avoiding the explicit test for 0x55, 0xAA on floppies. Since old boot sectors (f.e. very old CP/M-86 and DOS media) sometimes do not feature this signature despite the fact that they can be booted successfully, the check can be disabled in some environments.\n", "In some cases, zero-byte files may be used to convey information like file metadata (for example, its filename may contain an instruction to a user viewing a directory listing such as documents-have-been-moved-to-partition-D, etc.); or to put in a directory to ensure that it is nonempty, since some tools such as backup and revision control software may ignore the empty directories.\n", "The first use of the term is generally attributed to Signetics in 1972. Signetics published some \"write-only memory\" literature as the result of an inside practical joke, which is frequently referenced within the electronics industry, a staple of software engineering lexicons, and included in collections of the best hoaxes.\n\nSection::::Signetics.\n\nThe datasheet was created \"as a lark\" by Signetics engineer John G 'Jack' Curtis and was inspired by a fictitious and humorous vacuum tube datasheet from the 1940s. It was seen as \"an icebreaker\" and was deliberately included in the Signetics catalog.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04971	How are satellites for tv and radio able to broadcast thousands of signals at once? Do they have an individual antenna for each signal?	TV and radio satellites do have multiple antenna arrays that send out their signals on individual frequencies. Those antennas are called "transponders". Each satellite can have dozens of transponders, each receiving, amplifying and then re-broadcasting between 20 to a couple hundred channels. For more information, also see URL_0	[ "Satellite space segment: the satellite which comprises the platform and the payload\n\nBULLET::::- Control Segment: the ground equipment to control the satellite\n\nBULLET::::- Anchor facilities: while mesh configurations are possible most X band satcom systems use anchor facilities to exploit the link budget benefits from large antennas and to provide terrestrial connectivity\n\nBULLET::::- Network management: the facilities to manage the communication network in particular the baseband elements\n", "Section::::Characteristics of SHF Satcom systems.\n\nSHF Satcom systems often possess features designed to meet the needs of military users and to counter threats to the system. Features include \n\nBULLET::::- Steerable beams\n\nBULLET::::- High power spectral density\n\nBULLET::::- Protection against nuclear events and space weather\n\nBULLET::::- Military grade cryptography on the telecommand system\n\nBULLET::::- Protection against laser threats\n\nBULLET::::- Military specification control facilities\n\nBULLET::::- Protection against jamming attacks\n\nBULLET::::- Flexible connectivity\n\nSection::::Components of SHF Satcom systems.\n\nLike other Satellite Communications X band satellite communication systems comprise the following segments\n", "Antenna combiners are implemented to use the same antenna for several TRXs (carriers), the more TRXs are combined the greater the combiner loss will be. Up to 8:1 combiners are found in micro and pico cells only.\n", "BULLET::::- Operating temperature: from -30 to +70 °C\n\nSection::::Subsystems.:Antennas.\n\nThere are 4 monopole antennas on LS-1: three UHF antennas and one VHF antenna. Each antenna is made of approx. 0.2 mm thick and 5 mm wide spring steel measurement tape. In deployed configuration, all UHF antennas are pointed towards the Z+ body axis direction and VHF antenna is pointed toward –Z body axis.\n\nSection::::Mission control.\n", "BULLET::::- Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations. The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle.\n\nThe bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite. Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission. This is typically known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value.\n\nSection::::Frequency Allocation for satellite systems.\n", "One can communicate with MEO or LEO satellites that move in the sky in three ways, using:\n\nBULLET::::- more diffuse or completely omnidirectional ground antennas capable of communicating with one or more satellites visible in the sky at the same time, but at significantly higher transmit power than fixed geostationary dish antennas (due to the lower gain), and with much poorer signal-to-noise ratios for receiving the signal\n\nBULLET::::- motorized antenna mounts with high-gain, narrow beam antennas tracking individual satellites\n", "Small satellites can use conventional radio systems in UHF, VHF, S-band and X-band, although often miniaturized using more up-to-date technology as compared to larger satellites. Tiny satellites such as nanosats and small microsats may lack the power supply or mass for large conventional radio transponders, and various miniaturized or innovative communications systems have been proposed, such as laser receivers, antenna arrays and satellite-to-satellite communication networks. Few of these have been demonstrated in practice.\n", "The satellites are also able to transfer mobile units to different channels and time slots within the same spot beam.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Ground Stations.\n", "Individual adjacent or near-adjacent pairs (such as Glorystar on 97°W and 101°W) may be received, due to their close proximity, with two LNB's on what otherwise looks geometrically to be a standard parabolic dish. The outputs from these individual LNB's may then be fed through a switch to a receiver, providing access to all signals on both satellites.\n\nSection::::Common features.:Electronic program guide.\n", "An alternative approach to that provided by single cable distribution of the signal from a single LNB to multiple receivers, or receivers with multiple tuners, is offered by the use of fibre satellite distribution using optical fibre. The high bandwidth of optical connections allows for the full satellite spectrum received at the dish to be accommodated on one fibre optic cable, which can be easily optically split to provide that full spectrum signal to a large number of receivers.\n", "Once these correction messages are generated, the WMSs send them to two pairs of Ground Uplink Stations (GUS), which then transmit to satellites in the Space segment for rebroadcast to the User segment.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Ground segment.:Reference stations.\n\nEach FAA Air Route Traffic Control Center in the 50 states has a WAAS reference station, except for Indianapolis. There are also stations positioned in Canada, Mexico and Puerto Rico. See List of WAAS reference stations for the coordinates of the individual receiving antennas.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Space segment.\n", "The first three WGS satellites form Block I of the space segment. The next three, WGS satellites 4, 5, and 6, make up Block II. The next four, WGS 7, 8, 9, and 10, make up Block II Follow-On.\n\nSection::::Launches.\n\nSection::::Launches.:Block I.\n", "The satellite operators in charge of commanding and monitoring the satellite's bus and payload systems as well as managing the network operating over the satellite are the control segment. Like the DSCS constellation that WGS will replace, spacecraft bus will be commanded by the 4th Space Operations Squadron of Schriever AFB, Colorado. Payload commanding and network control will be handled by the Army 53rd Signal Battalion headquartered at nearby Peterson AFB, Colorado with subordinate elements A Co. at Fort Detrick, Maryland, B Co. at Fort Meade, Maryland, E Co. at Fort Buckner, Okinawa Japan, C Co. Landstuhl Germany, and, D Co. Wahiawa, Hawaii.\n", "Section::::K band satellite truck.\n", "The measured ranges, called pseudoranges, contain clock errors. In a simplified idealization in which the ranges are synchronized, these true ranges represent the radii of spheres, each centered on one of the transmitting satellites. The solution for the position of the receiver is then at the intersection of the surfaces of these spheres. Signals from at minimum three satellites are required, and their three spheres would typically intersect at two points. One of the points is the location of the receiver, and the other moves rapidly in successive measurements and would not usually be on Earth's surface.\n", "Signals at the studio playout centre or outside broadcast unit are typically MPEG-4 compressed and transmitted in DVB-S2 for turnaround uplink to the DTH satellites, without additional processing, although IP-over-satellite transmission may also be used.\n\nSection::::Advanced applications.\n", "Mass is also set in CubeSat standard, the highest possible mass for 1U CubeSat is 1300 grams.\n\nSection::::Design.:Communications.\n\nCommunication from the satellite is made at two International Amateur Radio Unions registered frequencies\n\nBULLET::::- 437.250 MHz\n\nBULLET::::- 437.505 MHz\n", "BULLET::::- \"Communications satellites\" – Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geostationary orbit above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cellular and PCS systems\" use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.\n", "Mobile phone towers also often take advantage of diversity - each face (sector) of a tower will often have two antennas; one is transmitting and receiving, while the other is a receive only antenna. Two receivers are used to perform diversity reception. \n\nThe use of multiple antennas at both transmit and receive results in a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system. The use of diversity techniques at both ends of the link is termed space–time coding.\n\nSection::::Antenna diversity for MIMO.\n", "The complete spectrum of Ku-band satellite reception stretches from 10.70 GHz-12.75 GHz across two signal polarisations, or a bandwidth of about 4000 MHz. This cannot be carried on a single coaxial cable and so in a conventional satellite reception system, just one of four sub-bands (received in vertical and horizontal polarization, and high and low frequency,) is sent from the antenna to the indoor receiver as 0.95 GHz-2.15 GHz IF. Which sub-band is required is signalled from the receiver to the antenna’s LNB by a 13/18V and 0/22 kHz tone on the LNB supply sent up the same coaxial cable. In a single antenna distribution system, special quattro LNB supplies all four sub-bands at once, from four outputs and these are supplied as required to each of the multiple outlets connected to an IF multiswitch.\n", "It is also possible to use multiple active elements and combine them together with transmission lines to produce a similar system where the phases add up to reinforce the output. The antenna array and very similar reflective array antenna consist of multiple elements, often half-wave dipoles, spaced out on a plane and wired together with transmission lines with specific phase lengths to produce a single in-phase signal at the output. The log-periodic antenna is a more complex design that uses multiple in-line elements similar in appearance to the Yagi-Uda but using transmission lines between the elements to produce the output.\n", "Section::::Characteristics of the SHF frequency band.:Terminal size v data rates.\n", "In addition to SHF capacity the Skynet satellites also have UHF capacity.\n\nSection::::Satellite communication systems operating at X band.:Wideband Global SATCOM system (WGS).\n\nThe WGS system is a constellation of military communications satellites procured by the U.S. Air Force MILSATCOM Systems Directorate at Los Angeles Air Force Base (AFB). Each WGS satellite provides capacity in both the X and Ka frequency bands. Each WGS satellite is digitally channelized and transponded. International partners participating on the program are Australia, Canada, Denmark, Luxembourg, The Netherlands and New Zealand.\n\nSection::::Satellite communication systems operating at X band.:XTAR-EUR.\n", "Some of these satellites are separated from each other by as little as one tenth of a degree longitude. This corresponds to an inter-satellite spacing of approximately 73 km. The major consideration for spacing of geostationary satellites is the beamwidth at-orbit of uplink transmitters, which is primarily a factor of the size and stability of the uplink dish, as well as what frequencies the satellite's transponders receive; satellites with discontiguous frequency allocations can be much closer together.\n", "Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the K band. The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their K band transponders.\n\nThe American Dish Network DBS service has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's \"must-carry\" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10634	what determines each person's own food preferences?	Well I have heard that enjoying the taste of cilantro is genetic. There is a gene that makes it taste good or taste like dirt. I believe it's mostly what you were introduced to as a child. I have heard that your taste preference changes about every ten years. Humans are programmed to seek variety. So some things you like now you might not in the future due to wanting new a different.	[ "Many environmental cues influence food choice and intake, although consumers may not be aware of their effects (see mindless eating). Examples of environmental influences include portion size, serving aids, food variety, and ambient characteristics (discussed below).\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Portion size.\n", "Awareness Although the presence and behavior of others can have a strong impact on eating behavior, many individuals are not aware of these effects, and instead tend to attribute their eating behavior primarily to other factors such as hunger and taste. Relatedly, people tend to perceive factors like cost and health effects as significantly more influential than social norms in determining their own fruit and vegetable consumption.\n\nSection::::Social influences.:Weight bias.\n", "In 2010, for the first time, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) highlighted the role of the food environment in American food choices and recommended changes in the food environment to support individual behavior modification. The influence of environmental cues and other subtle factors have increased interest in using the principles of behavioral economics to change food behaviors.\n\nSection::::Social influences.\n\nSection::::Social influences.:Presence and behavior of others.\n\nThere is a substantial amount of research indicating that the presence of others influences food intake (discussed below). In reviewing this literature, Herman, Roth, and Polivy have outlined three distinct effects:\n", "Personal factors determine food choice. They are preference, associations, habits, ethnic heritage, tradition, values, social pressure, emotional comfort, availability, convenience, economy, image, medical conditions, and nutrition.\n\nSection::::Number of options and paradox.\n", "Plate color has also been shown to influence perception and liking; in one study individuals perceived a dessert to be significantly more likable, sweet, and intense when it was served on a white versus a black plate.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Food variety.\n", "Researchers have found that consumers cite taste as the primary determinant of food choice. Genetic differences in the ability to perceive bitter taste are believed to play a role in the willingness to eat bitter-tasting vegetables and in the preferences for sweet taste and fat content of foods. Approximately 25 percent of the US population are supertasters and 50 percent are tasters. Epidemiological studies suggest that nontasters are more likely to eat a wider variety of foods and to have a higher body mass index (BMI), a measure of weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.\n", "Section::::Socio-economic status.\n", "Section::::CFS dimensions.:Food environments.\n\nCFS is largely determined by the overall well-being of a community including multiple economic and social factors within the food environment. The food environment refers to the many conditions that affect food choice and access. The following are examples of food environments that affect CFS.\n\nBULLET::::- At the \"individual and household\" level one's personal values, income, and time available to prepare food, and overall capacity and resources to access and use food can greatly affect food consumption.\n\nBULLET::::- One's social support \"networks\" such as friends and family can influence food choices and behaviours.\n", "Even the \"perceived\" variety of food can increase consumption; individuals consumed more M&M candies when they came in ten versus seven colors, despite identical taste. Furthermore, simply making a food assortment appear more disorganized versus organized can increase intake.\n\nIt has been suggested that this variety effect may be evolutionarily adaptive, as complete nutrition cannot be found in a single food, and increased dietary variety increases the likelihood of meeting nutritional requirements for various vitamins and minerals.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Salience.\n", "Food choice of older adults\n\nFood preferences in older adults and seniors takes into consideration how people's experiences change with aging; that is, including conditions like taste, diet (nutrition) and food choice. Primarily, this occurs when most people approach the age of 70 or older. Influencing variables can include: social and cultural environment; male or female sex; personal habits; as well as physical and mental health. Scientific studies explain why people like or dislike certain foods.\n\nSection::::Science of food preferences.\n", "1. Social facilitation – When eating in groups, people tend to eat more than they do when alone.\n", "3. Impression management – When people eat in the presence of others who they perceive to be observing or evaluating them, they tend to eat less than they would otherwise eat alone.\n", "Across the lifespan, different eating habits can be observed based on socio-economic status, workforce conditions, financial security, and taste preference amongst other factors. A significant portion of middle-aged and older adults responded to choosing foods due to concerns with body-weight and heart disease, whereas adolescents select food without consideration of the impact on their health. Convenience, appeal of food (taste and appearance), and hunger and food cravings were found to be the greatest determinants of an adolescent’s food choice. Food choice can change from an early to mature age as a result of a more sophisticated taste palate, income, and concerns about health and wellness.\n", "Food choice is the subject of research in nutrition, food science, psychology, anthropology, sociology, and other branches of the natural and social sciences. It is of practical interest to the food industry and especially its marketing endeavors. Social scientists have developed different conceptual frameworks of food choice behavior. Theoretical models of behavior incorporate both individual and environmental factors affecting the formation or modification of behaviors. Social cognitive theory examines the interaction of environmental, personal, and behavioral factors.\n\nSection::::Taste preference.\n", "Early studies of modeling effects investigated food intake alone versus in the presence of others who either ate either a very small amount (1 cracker) or a larger amount (20-40 crackers). Findings were consistent, with individuals consuming more when paired with a high-consumption companion than a low-consumption companion, whereas eating alone was associated with an intermediate amount of intake. Research manipulating eating social norms within real-life actual friendships has also demonstrated modeling effects, as individuals ate less in the company of friends who had been instructed to restrict their intake versus those who had not been given these instructions. Furthermore, these modeling effects have been reported across a range of diverse demographics, affecting both normal-weight and overweight individuals, as well as both dieters and non-dieters. Finally, regardless of whether individuals are very hungry or very full, modeling effects remain very strong, suggesting that modeling may trump signals of hunger or satiety sent from the gut.\n", "Section::::Food Distribution.:Dieting.\n", "Over 70 percent of one's total intake is consumed using serving aids such as plates, bowls, glasses, or utensils. Consequently, serving aids can act as visual cues or cognitive shortcuts that inform us of when to stop serving, eating, or drinking.\n", "Section::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Distractions.\n\nDistractions can increase food intake by initiating patterns of consumption, obscuring ability to accurately monitor consumption, and extending meal duration. For example, greater television viewing has been associated with increased meal frequency and caloric intake. A study in Australian children found that those who watched two or more hours of television per day were more likely to consume savory snacks and less likely to consume fruit compared to those who watched less television. Other distractors such as reading, movie watching, and listening to the radio have also been associated with increased consumption.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Temperature.\n", "In a series of studies by Mori, Chaiken and Pliner, individuals were given an opportunity to snack while getting acquainted with a stranger. In the first study, both males and females tended to eat less while in the presence of an opposite-sex eating companion, and for females this effect was most pronounced when the companion was most desirable. It also seems that women may consume less in order to exude a feminine identity; in a second study, women who were made to believe that a male companion viewed them as masculine ate less than women who believed they were perceived as feminine.\n", "Section::::Food Distribution.:Psychology and Disorders.\n", "Food choice\n\nResearch into food choice investigates how people select the food they eat. An interdisciplinary topic, food choice comprises psychological and sociological aspects (including food politics and phenomena such as vegetarianism or religious dietary laws), economic issues (for instance, how food prices or marketing campaigns influence choice) and sensory aspects (such as the study of the organoleptic qualities of food).\n\nFactors that guide food choice include taste preference, sensory attributes, cost, availability, convenience, cognitive restraint, and cultural familiarity. In addition, environmental cues and increased portion sizes play a role in the choice and amount of foods consumed.\n", "Section::::Distinguishing taste-based and statistical discrimination.\n", "A home’s nutritional gatekeeper usually has the biggest food influence in the nutrition life of most people. They are the biggest food influence in the lives of their children as well as in the life of their spouse or partner. They also influence the restaurant orders of their family by what they recommend or order themselves.\n", "Leary and Kowalski define impression management in general as the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them. Previous research has shown that certain types of eating companions make people more or less eager to convey a good impression, and individuals often attempt to achieve this goal by eating less. For example, people who are eating in the presence of unfamiliar others during a job interview or first date tend to eat less.\n", "As a given food is increasingly consumed, the hedonic pleasantness of the food's taste, smell, appearance, and texture declines, an effect commonly referred to as sensory-specific satiety. Consequently, increasing the variety of foods available can increase overall food intake. This effect has been observed across both genders and across multiple age groups, although there is some evidence that it may be most pronounced in adolescence and diminished among older adults.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01219	How do additive alphabetic numeral systems express decimals or numbers several orders of magnitude larger than their largest numeral? Or are they necessarily limited compared to positional numeral systems?	I believe I've seen some examples of using multiplication to describe large numbers, like "their army numbered one thousand thousands" and such. Decimals by definition require a numbering system like ours, but if in general you mean tiny fractions, I have seen expressions like "the hundredth part" or "like one drop in the ocean".	[ "This type of numeral systems employs the letters of a script, in the specified order of the alphabet, to express the numerals. Alphabet of a script is ordered to the numbers: 1 through 9, 10 through 90, 100 through 900, and so on, in the case of a decimal base system. Each exponent of 10, and multiple of the exponents are represented with one letter-sign, numbers are represented with these signs additively. Since the Greek alphabet has 24 letters, so it requires three episemons to reach the 27 signs needed to get as high as 900, the Hebrew alphabet's 22 letter made possible to express hundreds up to 400, while Arabic abjad has 28 consonant signs, so they could represent numbers up to 1000 with them, meanwhile the old Aramaic alphabets had enough letters not only to reach 900, but up to 9000. As the alphabet ends, higher numbers are represented with various multiplicative methods. Since alphabets of various writing systems have different number of letters, so the level of the multiplicative structuring appears at different numbers. Most commonly at the first level – above 1000 – the multiplication by 1000, and at the second level the multiplication by 10.000. In mathematical and astronomical manuscripts other different methods were used to represent higher numbers.\n", "Some historical numeral systems may be described as non-standard positional numeral systems. E.g., the sexagesimal Babylonian notation and the Chinese rod numerals, which can be classified as standard systems of base 60 and 10, respectively, counting the space representing zero as a numeral, can also be classified as non-standard systems, more specifically, mixed-base systems with unary components, considering the primitive repeated glyphs making up the numerals.\n\nHowever, most of the non-standard systems listed below have never been intended for general use, but were devised by mathematicians or engineers for special academic or technical use.\n\nSection::::Bijective numeration systems.\n", "Numeral-phrases of the ciphered alphabetic numeral systems became more concise than cumulative-additive ones – e.g. roman numerals, attic numerals – but it requires their users to be familiar with many more signs.\n\nIn S. Chrisomalis multidimensional categorization the cumulative-additive acrophonic numerals – roman numerals, attic numerals – don’t belong to this group of systems, since their letter-numerals don’t follow the order of an alphabet. Furthermore, these are not strictly acrophonic, while not all of their letter-digits are the first letter of the numeral’s name. \n", "Numerals invariably involve composition of glyphs as a limited number of characters are composed to make other numerals. For example, the sequence 9–9–0 in Arabic numerals composes the numeral for nine hundred ninety (990). In Roman numerals, the same number is expressed by the composed numeral Ⅹↀ or ⅩⅯ. Each of these is a distinct numeral for representing the same abstract number. The semantics of the numerals differ in particular in their composition. Hindu-Arabic digits are positional-value compositions, while the Roman numerals are sign-value and they are additive and subtractive depending on their composition.\n\nSection::::Numerals by numeric property.\n", "As comparison these numerals represented with the cumulativ-additiv roman numerals:\n\nHebrew alphabetic numerals:\n\nWhile Hebrew writing system has only twenty-four consonant signs, so numbers can be expressed with single individual signs only up to 400, higher hundreds – 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 – can be written only with various cumulativ-additiv combinations of the lower hundreds (direction of writing is right to left): \n\nArmenian numeral signs (minuscule letters): \n\nUnlike many alphabetic numeral systems, the Armenian system doesn’t use multiplication by 1000, or 10,000, in order to express higher values, these were written out in full using lexical numerals.\n", "There is no common feature of all the systems. The most common structure is ciphered-additive with a decimal base, with or without the use of multiplicative-additive structuring for the higher numbers. Exception is the Armenian notation of Shirakatsi, which is multiplicative-additive and sometimes uses a base 1000, and the Greek and Arabic astronomical notations are quasi-positional and involve a sexagesimal base for fractions.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Numeral signs.\n\nNumeral sign-sets of some alphabetic systems are in the following tables:\n\nGreek alphabetic numerals – \"Ionian\" or \"Milesian numerals\" – (minuscule letters):\n\nSome numbers represented with the Greek alphabetic numerals:\n", "The numerals used when writing numbers with digits or symbols can be divided into two types that might be called the arithmetic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) and the geometric numerals (1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000 ...), respectively. The sign-value systems use only the geometric numerals and the positional systems use only the arithmetic numerals. A sign-value system does not need arithmetic numerals because they are made by repetition (except for the Ionic system), and a positional system does not need geometric numerals because they are made by position. However, the spoken language uses \"both\" arithmetic and geometric numerals.\n", "Numerals (often called \"numbers\" in Unicode) are characters or sequences of characters that denote a number. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system (base-10) is used widely in various writing systems throughout the world and all share the same semantics for denoting numbers. However, the graphemes representing the numerals differ widely from one writing system to another. To support these grapheme differences, Unicode includes encodings of these numerals within many of the script blocks. The decimal digits are repeated in 22 separate blocks. In addition to many forms of the Hindu-Arabic numerals, Unicode also includes several less common numerals such as: Aegean numerals, Roman numerals, counting rod numerals, Cuneiform numerals and ancient Greek numerals. There is also a large number of typographical variations of the Arabic numerals provided for specialized mathematical use and for compatibility with earlier character sets, and also composite characters containing Arabic numerals such as ½.\n", "Alphabetic numeral systems are a type of numeral systems that were developed in the antiquity and during the early middle ages. In this type of systems, glyphs of the numerals are letter-signs of a writing system. Alphabet of a writing system is ordered to numerical values, so numbers are represented by these character sets. Unlike acrophonic systems, where a numeral is represented with the first letter of the lexical name of the numeral, in these systems letter-numerals follow the order of the alphabet. Its history spans over two thousand years, from the development of the Greek numerals around 600 BC to the present day. After appearing of the Arabic and western positional numeral systems, their use of contexts became increasingly limited, for religious functions, pagination or stichometry.\n", "English has derived numerals for multiples of its base (\"fifty, sixty,\" etc), and some languages have simplex numerals for these, or even for numbers between the multiples of its base. Balinese, for example, currently has a decimal system, with words for 10, 100, and 1000, but has additional simplex numerals for 25 (with a second word for 25 only found in a compound for 75), 35, 45, 50, 150, 175, 200 (with a second found in a compound for 1200), 400, 900, and 1600. In Hindustani, the numerals between 10 and 100 have developed to the extent that they need to be learned independently.\n", "Dehaene's \"number sense\" theory suggests that approximate numerosities are automatically ordered in an ascending manner on a mental number line. The mechanism to represent and process non-symbolic magnitude (e.g., number of dots) is often known as the \"approximate number system\" (ANS), and a core deficit in the precision of the ANS, known as the \"magnitude representation hypothesis\" or \"number module deficit hypothesis\", has been proposed as an underlying cause of developmental dyscalculia.\n", "Non-standard positional numeral systems\n\nNon-standard positional numeral systems here designates numeral systems that may loosely be described as positional systems, but that do not entirely comply with the following description of standard positional systems:\n\nThis article summarizes facts on some non-standard positional numeral systems. In most cases, the polynomial form in the description of standard systems still applies.\n", "Alphasyllabic numeral systems are a type of numeral systems, developed mostly in India starting around 500 AD. Based on various alphasyllabic scripts, in this type of numeral systems glyphs of the numerals are not abstract signs, but syllables of a script, and numerals are represented with these syllable-signs. On the basic principle of these systems, numeric values of the syllables are defined by the consonants and vowels which constitute them, so that consonants and vowels are - or are not in some systems in case of vowels - ordered to numeric values. While there are many hundreds of possible syllables in a script, and since in alphasyllabic numeral systems several syllables receive the same numeric value, so \n", "Attic numerals were used by ancient Greeks, possibly from the 7th century BC. They were also known as Herodianic numerals because they were first described in a 2nd-century manuscript by Herodian. They are also known as acrophonic numerals because all of the symbols used derive from the first letters of the words that the symbols represent: 'one', 'five', 'ten', 'hundred', 'thousand' and 'ten thousand'. See Greek numerals and acrophony.\n\nSection::::Numerals by script.:Roman numerals.\n", "By using a dot to divide the digits into two groups, one can also write fractions in the positional system. For example, the base 2 numeral 10.11 denotes .\n\nIn general, numbers in the base \"b\" system are of the form:\n\nThe numbers \"b\" and \"b\" are the weights of the corresponding digits. The position \"k\" is the logarithm of the corresponding weight \"w\", that is formula_2. The highest used position is close to the order of magnitude of the number.\n", "Section::::UDC structure.:Organization of classes.\n\nConcepts are organized in two kinds of tables in UDC:\n\nBULLET::::- Common auxiliary tables (including certain auxiliary signs). These tables contain facets of concepts representing, general recurrent characteristics, applicable over a range of subjects throughout the main tables, including notions such as place, language of the text and physical form of the document, which may occur in almost any subject. UDC numbers from these tables, called common auxiliaries are simply added at the end of the number for the subject taken from the main tables. There are over 15,000 of common auxiliaries in UDC.\n", "The direction of numerals follows the writing system’s direction, so it is left to right in Greek alphabetic, Coptic, Ethiopic, Gothic, Armenian, Shirakatsi's notation, Georgian, Glagolitic, Cyrillic numerals, meanwhile the direction is right to left in the Hebrew, Syriac alphabetic numerals, Arabic abjad numerals and Fez numerals.\n\nSection::::Fractions.\n\nSection::::Fractions.:Unit fractions.\n", "Decimal representation refers exclusively, in common use, to the written numeral system employing arabic numerals as the digits for a radix 10 (\"decimal\") positional notation; however, any numeral system based on powers of 10, e.g., Greek, Cyrillic, Roman, or Chinese numerals may conceptually be described as \"decimal notation\" or \"decimal representation\".\n", "In computers, the main numeral systems are based on the positional system in base 2 (binary numeral system), with two binary digits, 0 and 1. Positional systems obtained by grouping binary digits by three (octal numeral system) or four (hexadecimal numeral system) are commonly used. For very large integers, bases 2 or 2 (grouping binary digits by 32 or 64, the length of the machine word) are used, as, for example, in GMP.\n", "Hexadecimal digits in Unicode are not separate characters; existing letters and numbers are used. These characters have marked Character properties codice_1, and codice_2 when appropriate.\n\nSection::::Numerals by script.\n\nSection::::Numerals by script.:Hindu-Arabic numerals.\n", "Grouped by their numerical property as used in a text, Unicode has four values for Numeric Type. First there is the \"not a number\" type. Then there are decimal-radix numbers, commonly used in Western style decimals (plain 0-9), there are numbers that are not part of a decimal system such as Roman numbers, and decimal numbers in typographic context, such as encircled numbers. Not noted is a numbering like \"A. B. C.\" for chapter numbering.\n\nSection::::Hexadecimal digits.\n", "In many languages, such as Chinese, numerals require the use of numeral classifiers. Many sign languages, such as ASL, incorporate numerals.\n\nSection::::Larger numerals.\n", "Example of Gothic numerals:\n\nIn the Ethiopic numerals – Geʽez – the signs have marks both above and below them to indicate that their value is numerical, although the Ethiopic numerals are the exception, where numeral signs are not letters of their script. This practice is universal only from the 15 century onwards.\n\nNumeral signs of Ethiopic numerals with marks both above and below the letters:\n\nSection::::Structure.:Direction of writing.\n", "Representations of integer numbers in ternary do not get uncomfortably lengthy as quickly as in binary. For example, decimal 365 corresponds to binary 101101101 (nine digits) and to ternary 111112 (six digits). However, they are still far less compact than the corresponding representations in bases such as decimalsee below for a compact way to codify ternary using nonary and septemvigesimal.\n", "Some languages have a very limited set of numerals, and in some cases they arguably do not have any numerals at all, but instead use more generic quantifiers, such as 'pair' or 'many'. However, by now most such languages have borrowed the numeral system or part of the numeral system of a national or colonial language, though in a few cases (such as Guarani ), a numeral system has been invented internally rather than borrowed. Other languages had an indigenous system but borrowed a second set of numerals anyway. An example is Japanese, which uses either native or Chinese-derived numerals depending on what is being counted.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00411	Why do your hands hurt when you slap water flat?	Imagine a big heavy jug of water, the sort that would sit on top of a water cooler. They're heavy aren't they? That's because water has a fair bit of mass to it. It's dense stuff. If you slap down onto some water, the water has to flow out of the way to the sides, and it can't do that all that quickly, so it acts like something a lot more solid than it looks. If you translate that up to falling into water from a height, you can do real damage. That's one of the reasons oil rigs are as dangerous as they are. If there's a problem well simple, just jump over the railing into the water, right? Wrong. If you did that off an oil platform, that's typically at least 150 feet or so, and you'd probably be killed on impact with the water, or at the very least, break a leg.	[ "Stings are most common in the hours before and after low tide (especially at springs), so one possible precaution is to avoid bathing or paddling at these times. Weever stings have been known to penetrate wet suit boots even through a rubber sole (if thin), and bathers and surfers should wear sandals, \"jelly shoes\", or wetsuit boots with relatively hard soles, and avoid sitting or \"rolling\" in the shallows. Stings also increase in frequency during the summer (to a maximum in August), but this is probably the result of the greater number of bathers.\n", "Most human stings are inflicted by the lesser weever, which habitually remains buried in sandy areas of shallow water and is thus more likely to come into contact with bathers than other species (such as the greater weever, which prefers deeper water); stings from other species are generally limited to anglers and commercial fishermen. Even very shallow water (sometimes little more than damp sand) may harbour lesser weevers. The vast majority of injuries occur to the foot and are the result of stepping on buried fish; other common sites of injury are the hands and buttocks. \n", "Conversely, the water absorbing collapsing waterball or waterbag is generally caught with one hand. Because it collapses on impact on the water or in your hand, it is easier and safer to play with young children ages 4+.\n", "The LSI is temperature sensitive. The LSI becomes more positive as the water temperature increases. This has particular implications in situations where well water is used. The temperature of the water when it first exits the well is often significantly lower than the temperature inside the building served by the well or at the laboratory where the LSI measurement is made. This increase in temperature can cause scaling, especially in cases such as hot water heaters. Conversely, systems that reduce water temperature will have less scaling.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Indices.:Ryznar Stability Index (RSI).\n", "Shawn and K38 had a feature story titled 'Heavy Water' in Surfing's Greatest Misadventures – Dropping in on the Unexpected, edited by Paul Diamond, 2006. This story was based on the rescue of professional surfer Ian Armstrong at a big wave surfing location called Dungeons, during the Red Bull Big Wave Africa surfing contest waiting period.\n", "Less common forms of impact play include punching and face slapping.\n\nThe sensations produced by impact play depend on the area in which the impact is concentrated. Wide implements such as an open hand, paddle or flogger produce a dull \"thuddy\" sensation. Narrow implements such as a cane, riding crop, belt or single tail produce a sharp \"stingy\" sensation.\n\nA slapper or smacker may also be used. This consists of a broad (3 to 4 inch wide) semi flexible leather paddle with rounded and tapered edges, designed to minimize the severity of tip strike.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Flagellation\n", "Section::::Effects unaccounted for.\n\nSection::::Effects unaccounted for.:The hydrophobic effect.\n", "BULLET::::- Rag dolled: When underwater, the power of the wave can shake the surfer around as if he/she were a rag doll\n\nBULLET::::- Tombstone: When surfer is held underwater and tries to climb up their leash the board is straight up and down.\n\nSection::::About people.\n\nBULLET::::- Dilla: A surfer who is low maintenance, without concern, worry or fuss, One who is confidently secure in being different or unique\n\nBULLET::::- Grom/Grommet: A young surfer\n", "The waterbag exchanges its fluid contents on impact and it changes its shape as it collapses on impact. There is no bouncing or minimal bouncing action. Slow acting on impact is an intended design characteristic that is very pleasing and safe in high-speed play action. The \"rolling action\" of the waterbag that is referred to a \"low skip profile\" on the water surface that again collapses on impact with the water surface or player's hand. This makes the waterbag less active and easier to catch. The waterbag is both fast in action and slow acting on impact.\n\nSection::::Safety issues.\n", "The 1958 Bermuda Bowl was held in Como, Italy. The Italian team was leading and, as was usual at the time, were holding their hands over their heads so that kibitzers could see them and follow the action. However, Tobias Stone claimed that the Italians were holding their hands aloft only when they were strong but lower when weak. The officials asked the Italians, who felt insulted by the insinuation, to keep their hands low at all times.\n", "Section::::Dangers.:Collisions.\n\nUnder the wrong set of conditions, anything that a surfer's body can come in contact with is a potential hazard, including sand bars, rocks, small ice, reefs, surfboards, and other surfers. Collisions with these objects can sometimes cause injuries such as cuts and scrapes and in rare instances, death.\n", "Fisherman Matt Boyd is fishing in Lake Victoria when a small earthquake hits, splitting the lake floor and causing a whirlpool. Boyd falls in, and is ripped apart by a school of piranhas that emerge from the chasm.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Floater: Riding up on the top of the breaking part of the wave, and coming down with it\n\nBULLET::::- Goofy foot: Surfing with the left foot on the back of board (less common than regular foot)\n\nBULLET::::- Hang Heels: Facing backwards and putting the surfers' heels out over the edge of a longboard\n\nBULLET::::- Hang-five/hang ten: Putting five or ten toes respectively over the nose of a longboard\n\nBULLET::::- Off the Top: A turn on the top of a wave, either sharp or carving\n\nBULLET::::- Pearl: Accidentally driving the nose of the board underwater, generally ending the ride\n", "Rainbow trout naturally avoid novelty (i.e. they are neophobic). Braithwaite describes a study in which a brightly coloured Lego brick is placed in the tank of rainbow trout. Trout injected in the lip with a small amount of saline strongly avoided the Lego brick, however, trout injected with acetic acid spent considerably more time near the Lego block. When the study was repeated but with the fish also being given morphine, the avoidance response returned in those fish injected with acetic acid and could not be distinguished from the responses of saline injected fish.\n", "The \"Liverpool Daily Post\" review, February 2009:\n", "As a result, John sued Andrew for damages for this assault. As section 5 of the Accident Compensation Act [1972] prohibits suing for damages for physical injury, John sued for exemplary damages for the hammer attack.\n\nSection::::Decision.\n", "The horizontal and vertical components of the hydrostatic force acting on a submerged surface are given by the following:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- is the pressure at the centroid of the vertical projection of the submerged surface\n\nBULLET::::- is the area of the same vertical projection of the surface\n\nBULLET::::- is the density of the fluid\n\nBULLET::::- is the acceleration due to gravity\n\nBULLET::::- is the volume of fluid directly above the curved surface\n\nSection::::Liquids (fluids with free surfaces).\n", "This method of judging a hit relies on the agreement and honesty between players as to what constitutes a direct vs. glancing water stream hit. Some groups employ the rule that a 'fist-sized' area should be dampened on an opponent's clothing to be counted as a hit while others are more liberal, allowing almost any level of water contact (apart from simply mist) as counting as a hit. Depending on the type of game being played, a hit would count either as a point or may result in a player being temporarily eliminated from gameplay. Other methods that have historically been counted as \"hits\" include \"suiciding\" (the act of running up to an opponent, and directly hitting them with the balloon still in your hand) also considered valid is \"medieval oiling\" the act of purposely breaking a balloon in your hands, directly over the opponent, thus wetting them from above. The rule of thumb to the validity of a \"hit\" involves what is deliberate and what is not deliberate. For example, if a balloon \"accidentally\" popped in a players hand and led to an opponent getting wet, it would not count as this is not deliberate. However, if a player purposely breaks a balloon in their hand to wet an opponent in a shotgun like fashion, it is generally counted.\n", "A study of unilateral contact problems, solvability and rigid body displacements with numerical solution based on Lemke's algorithm for the LCP can be found in \n\nSection::::Contact between rough surfaces.\n", "BULLET::::- Tandem surfing: Two people riding one board. Usually the smaller person is balanced above (often held up above) the other person\n\nBULLET::::- Tube riding/Getting barreled: Riding inside the hollow curl of a wave\n\nSection::::Accidental.\n\nBULLET::::- Over the falls: When a surfer falls off the board and the wave sucks him or her up in a circular motion along with the lip of the wave. Also referred to as the \"wash cycle\", being \"pitched over\" and being \"sucked over\"\n\nBULLET::::- Wipe out: Falling off, or being knocked off, the surfboard when riding a wave\n", "Movement induced dynamic pressure increase is sometimes the subject of urban myths and marketing arguments for diver's watches with high water resistance ratings. When a diver makes a fast swimming movement of 10 m/s (32.8 ft/s) (the best competitive swimmers and finswimmers do not move their hands nor swim that fast) physics dictates that the diver generates a dynamic pressure of 50 kPa or the equivalent of 5 metres of additional water depth.\n", "BULLET::::- Harry (Alex Dimitriades) Harry is a self-made man, a mechanic with his own business. He has the perfect wife, the perfect child, the perfect house by the beach...but now all of that is being threatened by a single slap. He'd done it without thinking, although in his opinion, the kid deserved it.\n", "BULLET::::- Open hand tips and dinks are not allowed in two-man beach volleyball as they would allow players to score points too easily.\n\nBULLET::::- A touch off the block counts as one of the three allowed touches in beach volleyball, and either player may make the subsequent touch after the block.\n\nBULLET::::- It is legal to cross under the net in beach volleyball as long as it does not interfere with opponents' play.\n", "A sealed ball displaces and bounces on water as it interacts with the water surface. On impact with the water surface or a player's hand, the sealed waterball deforms and deflects and transfers its energy in the opposite direction as it bounces on impact. But a sealed waterball no matter how soft still maintains its spherical shape and ball like properties. The fluid dynamics and shape characteristics are relatively unchanged as the sealed waterball does not change its density.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03713	Ohm's law applies on alternate current till 220V but not further, why ?	Ohm's law always applies, I don't know where you heard it doesn't apply past 220V... sometimes Ohm's law can not be used for weird voltage curves (such as average voltage = 0, but alternates between + and -), but there's absolutely nothing special about 220V	[ "One case of voltage regulation is in a transformer. The unideal components of the transformer cause a change in voltage when current flows. Under no load, when no current flows through the secondary coils, \"V\" is given by the ideal model, where \"V = V*N/N\". Looking at the equivalent circuit and neglecting the shunt components, as is a reasonable approximation, one can refer all resistance and reactance to the secondary side and clearly see that the secondary voltage at no load will indeed be given by the ideal model. In contrast, when the transformer delivers full load, a voltage drop occurs over the winding resistance, causing the terminal voltage across the load to be lower than anticipated. By the definition above, this leads to a nonzero voltage regulation which must be considered in use of the transformer.\n", "Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n", "The TO-220 case is found on semiconductor devices handling less than 20 amperes and operating at less than a few hundred volts. These devices operate at DC or relatively low (audio) frequencies, since the TO-220 package is not intended for devices operating at radio frequencies. In addition to bipolar, bipolar Darlington, and power MOSFET transistors, the TO-220 case is also used for fixed and variable linear voltage regulator integrated circuits, and for Schottky diode pairs. \n\nSection::::Related packages.\n\nBULLET::::- TO-257 is a hermetically sealed metal package that is otherwise considered equivalent to TO-220.\n", "Section::::Protection.\n\nA resistor in series with the line can be used to limit the current charging input capacitors. However, this approach is not very efficient, especially in high-power devices, since the resistor will have a voltage drop and dissipate some power.\n", "BULLET::::- Java applet demo of MOSFET thermal runaway\n\nSection::::Electrical engineering.:Metal oxide varistors (MOVs).\n\nMetal oxide varistors typically develop lower resistance as they heat up. If connected directly across an AC or DC power bus (a common usage for protection against electrical transients), a MOV which has developed a lowered trigger voltage can slide into catastrophic thermal runaway, possibly culminating in a small explosion or fire. To prevent this possibility, fault current is typically limited by a thermal fuse, circuit breaker, or other current limiting device.\n\nSection::::Electrical engineering.:Tantalum capacitors.\n", "The junction-to-case thermal resistance of a TO-220 packaged device (which typically matters less than the case-to-ambient thermal resistance), depends on the thickness and the area of the semiconductor die inside the package, typically in a range between 0.5 °C/W and 3 °C/W (according to one textbook) or 1.5 °C/W and 4 °C/W (according to another).\n", "On the other hand, KVL relies on the fact that the action of time-varying magnetic fields are confined to individual components, such as inductors. In reality, the induced electric field produced by an inductor is not confined, but the leaked fields are often negligible.\n\nModelling real circuits with lumped elements\n", "One method of deriving Millman's theorem starts by converting all the branches to current sources (which can be done using Norton's theorem). A branch that is already a current source is simply not converted. In the expression above, this is equivalent to replacing the formula_4 term in the numerator of the expression above with the current of the current generator, where the kth branch is the branch with the current generator. The parallel conductance of the current source is added to the denominator as for the series conductance of the voltage sources. An ideal current source has zero conductance (infinite resistance) and so adds nothing to the denominator.\n", "The reactive power at the terminals of the STATCOM depends on the amplitude of the voltage source. For example, if the terminal voltage of the VSC is higher than the AC voltage at the point of connection, the STATCOM generates reactive current; conversely, when the amplitude of the voltage source is lower than the AC voltage, it absorbs reactive power.\n", "In contrast to a SELV circuit, a PELV circuit can have a protective earth (ground) connection. A PELV circuit, just as with SELV, requires a design that guarantees a low risk of accidental contact with a higher voltage. For a transformer, this can mean that the primary and secondary windings must be separated by an extra insulation barrier, or by a conductive shield with a protective earth connection.\n\nA typical example for a PELV circuit is a computer with a Class I power supply.\n\nSection::::Types.:Functional extra-low voltage (FELV).\n", "PMOS versions ran on -9 or -15 volts and consumed around 6 mA, Output logic levels were therefore not compatible with TTL logic. The NMOS and CMOS parts ran on a TTL-style +5 volts and could be interoperated with 5 volt logic. \n", "The simplest inrush-current limiting system, used in many consumer electronics devices, is a NTC resistor. When cold, its high resistance allows a small current to pre-charge the reservoir capacitor. After it warms up, its low resistance more efficiently passes the working current.\n\nMany active power factor correction systems also include soft start.\n", "However, in overhead transmission work on or near high-voltage lines, safety rules require connecting a conductor to earth ground during maintenance, since induced voltages and currents on a conductor may be sufficient to cause electrocution or serious injury.\n\nSection::::Origins.:Capacitive leakage through insulation.\n\nAlternating current is different from direct current in that the current can flow through what would ordinarily seem to be a physical barrier. In a series circuit, a capacitor blocks direct current but passes alternating current.\n", "No physical current source is ideal. For example, no physical current source can operate when applied to an open circuit. There are two characteristics that define a current source in real life. One is its internal resistance and the other is its compliance voltage. The compliance voltage is the maximum voltage that the current source can supply to a load. Over a given load range, it is possible for some types of real current sources to exhibit nearly infinite internal resistance. However, when the current source reaches its compliance voltage, it abruptly stops being a current source.\n", "Electric utilities aim to provide service to customers at a specific voltage level, for example, 220 V or 240 V. However, due to Kirchhoff's Laws, the voltage magnitude and thus the service voltage to customers will in fact vary along the length of a conductor such as a distribution feeder (see Electric power distribution). Depending on law and local practice, actual service voltage within a tolerance band such as ±5% or ±10% may be considered acceptable. In order to maintain voltage within tolerance under changing load conditions, various types of devices are traditionally employed:\n", "Switching power supplies must pay more attention to the skin effect because it is a source of power loss. At 500 kHz, the skin depth in copper is about – a dimension smaller than the typical wires used in a power supply. The effective resistance of conductors increases, because current concentrates near the surface of the conductor and the inner portion carries less current than at low frequencies.\n", "When using a lumped element model, it is assumed that there are no magnetic fields in the region surrounding the circuit and that the effects of these are contained in 'lumped elements', which are idealized and self-contained circuit elements used to model physical components. If the assumption of negligible leaked fields is too inaccurate, their effects can be modelled by parasitic components.\n", "Further, this power dissipation will remain as long as the overload exists, which means that the devices must be capable of withstanding it for a substantial period. This power dissipation will be substantially less than if no current limiting circuit had been provided. In this technique, beyond the current limit the output voltage will decrease to a value depending on the current limit and load resistance.\n\nSection::::Single power-supply circuits.\n\nAn issue with the previous circuit is that Q1 will not be saturated unless its base is biased about 0.5 volts above V.\n", "In densely populated areas, there are pylons which carry circuits for both traction current and for three-phase alternating current for general power. Such lines are found where right of ways are rare. In particular the parallel route of 110 kV and 220 kV three-phase AC is common. The use of 380 kV power lines on the same pylon requires 220 kV insulators for the traction current line, because in case the 380 kV line fails, voltage spikes can occur along the traction current line, which the 110 kV insulators cannot handle.\n", "Most of the literature on power network analysis deals with the issue of computing the worst voltage drops in the power network. Electromigration is an equally serious concern, but is attacked with almost identical methods. Instead of the voltage at each node, EM analysis solves for current in each branch, and instead of a voltage limit, there is a current limit per wire, depending on its layer and width.\n", "Not all equipment requires voltage correction. These transformers are used when electrical equipment has a voltage requirement that is slightly out of tolerance with the incoming power supply. This is most common when using 240 V equipment in a business with 208 V service or vice versa. \n", "The above proof assumes fixed source resistance formula_16. When the source resistance can be varied, power transferred to the load can be increased by reducing formula_20. For example, a 100 Volt source with an formula_20 of formula_22 will deliver 250 watts of power to a formula_22 load; reducing formula_20 to formula_25 increases the power delivered to 1000 watts.\n\nNote that this shows that maximum power transfer can also be interpreted as the load voltage being equal to one-half of the Thevenin voltage equivalent of the source.\n\nSection::::In reactive circuits.\n", "Section::::Calculus-based proof for purely resistive circuits.\n\nIn the diagram opposite, power is being transferred from the source, with voltage and fixed source resistance , to a load with resistance , resulting in a current . By Ohm's law, is simply the source voltage divided by the total circuit resistance:\n\nThe power dissipated in the load is the square of the current multiplied by the resistance:\n\nThe value of for which this expression is a maximum could be calculated by differentiating it, but it is easier to calculate the value of for which the denominator\n", "In Norway, it has been required in all new homes since 2002, and on all new sockets since 2006. This applies to 32 A sockets and below. The RCD must trigger after a maximum 0.4 seconds for 230 V circuits, or 0.2 seconds for 400 V circuits.\n\nSection::::Regulation and adoption.:South Africa.\n\nSouth Africa mandated the use of Earth Leakage Protection devices in residential environments (e.g. houses, flats, hotels, etc.) from October 1974, with regulations being refined in 1975 and 1976.\n", "For large transformers with low winding resistance and high inductance, these inrush currents can last for several seconds until the transient has died away (decay time proportional to \"X\"/\"R\") and the regular AC equilibrium is established. To avoid magnetic inrush, only for transformers with an air gap in the core, the inductive load needs to be synchronously connected near a supply voltage peak, in contrast with the zero-voltage switching, which is desirable to minimize sharp-edged current transients with resistive loads such as high-power heaters. But for toroidal transformers only a premagnetising procedure before switching on allows to start those transformers without any inrush-current peak.\n" ]	[ "Ohm's law applies on alternate current till 220V." ]	[ "Ohm's law always applies." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Ohm's law applies on alternate current till 220V." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Ohm's law always applies." ]
2018-00408	What's special about mushroom cells?	Plants have cell walls made of cellulose and produce chlorophyll. Fungi have cell walls made of chitin. Animals don't have cell walls.	[ "Section::::Description.:Microscopic characteristics.\n", "Section::::\"Drosophila melanogaster\".:Cellular memory traces.\n", "Current research focuses on mushrooms that may have hypoglycemic activity, anti-cancer activity, anti-pathogenic activity, and immune system-enhancing activity. Recent research has found that the oyster mushroom naturally contains the cholesterol-lowering drug lovastatin, mushrooms produce large amounts of vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, and that certain fungi may be a future source of taxol. To date, penicillin, lovastatin, ciclosporin, griseofulvin, cephalosporin and psilocybin are the most famous drugs that have been isolated from the fifth kingdom of life.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ethnomycology\n\nBULLET::::- Fungal biochemical test\n\nBULLET::::- List of mycologists\n\nBULLET::::- List of mycology journals\n\nBULLET::::- Mushroom hunting\n", "In 2005, in a classification reflecting the consensus at the time, the Chromalveolata were regarded as one of the six major clades of eukaryotes. Although not given a formal taxonomic status in this classification, elsewhere the group had been treated as a Kingdom. The Chromalveolata were divided into four major subgroups:\n\nBULLET::::- Cryptophyta\n\nBULLET::::- Haptophyta\n\nBULLET::::- Stramenopiles (or Heterokontophyta)\n\nBULLET::::- Alveolata\n\nOther groups that may be included within, or related to, chromalveolates, are:\n\nBULLET::::- Centrohelids\n\nBULLET::::- Katablepharids\n\nBULLET::::- Telonemia\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achlya ornata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya oviparvula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya papillosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya primoachlya\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya prolifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya proliferoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya racemosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya radiosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya recurva\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya rodrigueziana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya sparrowii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya spiralis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya stellata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achlya treleaseana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces astaci\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces cladogamus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces cochlioides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces euteiches\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces euteiches f. sp. phaseoli \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces frigidophilus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces helicoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces invadans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces iridis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces laevis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces piscicida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces repetans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces cf. repetans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces salsuginosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces scaber\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces sinensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphanomyces stellatus\"\n", "Mushroom bodies are usually described as neuropils, i.e. as dense networks of neuronal processes (dendrite and axon terminals) and glia. They get their name from their roughly hemispherical \"calyx\", a protuberance that is joining to the rest of the brain by a central nerve tract or \"peduncle\". They were first identified in 1850 by the French biologist Félix Dujardin.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium flabelliforme\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium flustroides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium foliaceum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium gelatinosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium hauffi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium hirsutum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium hydrocoalitum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium irregulare\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium kermadecense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium lutosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium maculosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium mamillatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium multigemmatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium nanum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium nipponicum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium nodosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium nostoch\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium pachydermatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium papillatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium parasiticum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium pedunculatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium pelagosphaerum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium polyoum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium polypylum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium proboscideum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium protoseideum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium pseudodisciforme\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium pulvinatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium radicellatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium rhomboidale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium rylandi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium sagamianum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alcyonidium sanguineum\"\n", "Section::::Fungal cell walls.\n\nThere are several groups of organisms that have been called \"fungi\". Some of these groups (Oomycete and Myxogastria) have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of chitin and other polysaccharides. True fungi do not have cellulose in their cell walls.\n\nSection::::Fungal cell walls.:True fungi.\n\nIn fungi, the cell wall is the outer-most layer, external to the plasma membrane. The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cazia flexiascus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromelosporium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromelosporium carneum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromelosporium macrospermum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Delastria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Delastria rosea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Delastria supernova\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Elderia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Elderia arenivaga\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Galactinia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Galactinia pseudosylvestris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glischroderma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hapsidomyces\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hapsidomyces venezuelensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnobolites\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnobolites californicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnobolites cerebriformis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnoplicata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnoplicata convoluta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnotryopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnotryopsis gautierioides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnotryopsis gilkeyae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydnotryopsis setchellii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Imaia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Imaia gigantea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Iodophanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Iodophanus carneus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Iodophanus hyperboreus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Iodophanus testaceus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Iodowynnea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Iodowynnea auriformis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kalaharituber\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kalaharituber pfeilii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luteoamylascus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luteoamylascus aculeatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mattirolomyces\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mattirolomyces austroafricanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mattirolomyces mexicanus\"\n", "BULLET::::- The \"emplacement\" is the rounded mass of hyphae at the lower, narrow end of the fruiting body which attaches it to the growing surface.\n\nMicroscopic characters\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tunica\": a thin membrane that is the outermost covering layer of the peridioles.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortex\": in this article, the cortex refers to the tissue layer comprising the wall of the peridiole.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spores\":\n\nSection::::Species.\n\nThe following list of species is compiled from Brodie's monograph (1975) and subsequent revision (1984), as well as articles written since then describing new species or reducing others to synonymy.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Boletus regius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Boletus subappendiculatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bovista nigrescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calocybe gambosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cantharellus amethysteus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cantharellus cibarius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cantharellus ferruginascens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cantharellus subpruinosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cantharellus friesii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Choiromyces venosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chroogomphus helveticus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chroogomphus rutilus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clavariadelphus pistillaris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clavulina rugosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clitocybe alexandri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clitocybe costata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clitocybe geotropa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clitocybe gibba\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clitocybe odora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clitopilus prunulus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Collybia fusipes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coprinus comatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius alboviolaceus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius largus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cortinarius praestans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus cornucopioides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus cinereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus crispus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus ianthinoxanthus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus konradii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus lutescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus melanoxeros\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Craterellus tubaeformis\"\n", "Venturiaceae\n\nThe Venturiaceae are a family of fungi in the order Pleosporales. Several of the species in this family are plant pathogens.\n\nSection::::List of genera.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Acantharia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antennularia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apiosporina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arkoola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atopospora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Botryostroma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caproventuria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coleroa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crotone\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dibotryon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gibbera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lasiobotrys\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lineostroma\" - placement in this family uncertain\n\nBULLET::::- \"Metacoleroa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Phaeocryptopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Phragmogibbera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Platychora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polyrhizon\" - placement in this family uncertain\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pseudoparodia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pseudoparodiella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pyrenobotrys\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rhizogene\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rosenscheldiella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sivanesaniella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichodothella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichodothis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uleodothis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Venturia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xenomeris\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "\"To make a meal from most mushrooms, you probably hope to find at least a half dozen to a dozen, depending on the size. The large \"Calvatia\" species are special, because one or two at the most will probably be sufficient for a dinner for two. While this puffball does not have a strong flavor of its own, it is still quite good, and its ability to absorb flavors makes it a rewarding find.\"\n\nSection::::Distribution in Australia.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tricholoma cingulatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma colossus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma columbetta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma gausapatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma inocyboides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma myomyces\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma orirubens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma portentosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma scalpturatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma squarrulosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tricholoma terreum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber aestivum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber blotii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber borchii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber brumale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber macrosporum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber mesentericum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber uncinatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Verpa bohemica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Verpa conica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Volvariella bombycina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Volvariella speciosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Volvariella volvacea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus armeniacus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus badius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus chrysenteron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus communis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus ferrugineus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus lanatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus pruinatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus rubellus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus subtomentosus\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Geastrales and Phallales (related to Cantharellales),\n\nBULLET::::- Basidiomycetes : Phallales : Geastraceae : \"Geastrum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Geastrum coronatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Geastrum fornicatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Geastrum saccatum\" -\n\nBULLET::::- Sclerodermatales (related to Boletales)\n\nBULLET::::- Basidiomycetes : Boletales : Sclerodermataceae : \"Scleroderma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma areolatum\" -\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma bovista\" -\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma cepa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma citrinum\" -\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma meridionale\" -\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma michiganense\" -\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma polyrhizum\" -\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scleroderma septentrionale\" -\n\nBULLET::::- and various false-truffles (hypogaeic gasteromycetes) related to different hymenomycete orders.\n\nSimilarly, the true truffles (Tuberales) are gasteroid Ascomycota. Their ascocarps are called tuberothecia.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "'Mushroom materials' are a novel class of renewable biomaterial grown from fungal mycelium and low-value non-food agricultural materials using a patented process developed by Ecovative Design. After being left to grow in a former in a dark place for about five days during which time the fungal mycelial network binds the mixture, the resulting light robust organic compostable material can be used within many products, including building materials, thermal insulation panels and protective packaging.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Glomus diaphanum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus eburneum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus etunicatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus fasciculatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus fistulosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus fragilistratum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus geosporum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus globiferum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus heterosporum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus hoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus intraradices\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus lacteum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus lamellosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus luteum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus manihotis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus microaggregatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus monosporum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus mosseae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus multicaule\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus pansihalos\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus pustulatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus sinuosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus spurcum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus tortuosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus trimurales\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus verruculosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus versiforme\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glomus viscosum\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Glomalin\n\nBULLET::::- Glomeromycota\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Genus \"Glomus\"\" at the Catalogue of Life Checklist\n", "BULLET::::- A third class, the Haplomitriopsida is newly recognized as the sister group of the other liverworts; it comprises the genera \"Haplomitrium\", \"Treubia\", and \"Apotreubia\".\n\nAn updated classification by Söderström et al. 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Marchantiophyta\n\nBULLET::::- Haplomitriopsida\n\nBULLET::::- Haplomitriales\n\nBULLET::::- Treubiales\n\nBULLET::::- Marchantiopsida\n\nBULLET::::- Blasiidae\n\nBULLET::::- Blasiales\n\nBULLET::::- Marchantiidae\n\nBULLET::::- Neohodgsoniales\n\nBULLET::::- Sphaerocarpales (bottle liverworts)\n\nBULLET::::- Lunulariales\n\nBULLET::::- Marchantiales (complex thalloids)\n\nBULLET::::- Jungermanniopsida\n\nBULLET::::- Pelliidae\n\nBULLET::::- Pelliales\n\nBULLET::::- Pallaviciniales\n\nBULLET::::- Fossombroniales\n\nBULLET::::- Metzgeriidae\n\nBULLET::::- Pleuroziales\n\nBULLET::::- Metzgeriales\n\nBULLET::::- Jungermanniidae (leafy liverworts)\n\nBULLET::::- Porellales\n\nBULLET::::- Ptilidiales\n\nBULLET::::- Jungermanniales\n", "BULLET::::- as might be expected from its \"dry\" fibrous appearance, it is resistant to decay (whereas most mushrooms in the Boletaceae are soft and decompose notoriously rapidly).\n\nSection::::Taxonomy and classification.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes nakaharai\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes novaesi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes ocreus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes parvus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes paucispinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes personatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes psidii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes purpurellus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes purpureus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes quadratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes quadrilineatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes rarus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes reunionensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes rhizophorae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes rotundus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes royenae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes rubens\" (red wax scale)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes rufus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes rusci\" (fig scale)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes rusticus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes sanguineus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes schrottkyi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes simplex\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes sinensis\" (Chinese wax scale)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes singularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes sinoiae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes speciosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes spicatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceroplastes stenocephalus\"\n", "Trama (mycology)\n\nIn mycology, trama is the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium. \n\nIn essence, the ball is the tissue that is commonly referred to as the \"flesh\" of mushrooms and similar fungi.\n", "Section::::Description.:Microscopic characteristics.\n", "Section::::Description.:Microscopic characteristics.\n", "There is a spectrum of secotioid species ranging from the open form to the closed form in the following respects:\n\nBULLET::::- there may be an evident stipe, or there may be only a remnant consisting of a column of non-fertile tissue,\n\nBULLET::::- if there is a stipe the edge of the cap may separate from it (partially opening), or may not,\n\nBULLET::::- there may be recognizable gills (though oriented in all directions and very convoluted), or the fertile interior may be uniform like the gleba of gasteroid fungi, and\n", "The spores are roughly spherical, thick-walled, 3–6 µm in diameter (although some specimens collected in the US range from 7.2 to 9.5 µm), and are covered with minute spines or warts. The use of scanning electron microscopy has revealed that these ornamentations on the spores are typically 0.95 µm long. Spore ultrastructure is distinctive among \"Calvatia\" species, and has been used to help verify taxonomic groupings and confirm the status of species within the genus. The capillitia (coarse, thick-walled hyphae in the gleba) are septate, with branches that are narrowed towards the tips; they are 3–8 µm in diameter. When grown in pure culture in the laboratory, \"C. sculpta\" is, under certain conditions, able to grow structures called \"mycelial strands\". These are linear aggregates of hyphae whereby older \"leading\" hyphae become enclosed by coiled layers of newer \"tendril\" hyphae. Mycelial strands provide a conduit for transporting water and nutrients across non-nutrient material, allowing the fungus to reach new sources of food. They are also implicated in the formation of fruit bodies and sclerotia. The mycelia of \"C. sculpta\" can be induced to form mycelial strands when there is a permeable physical barrier between it and the agar substrate. The wide hyphae in the center of the mycelial strands contain protein-dense structures on their cell walls that are shaped like a torus. Their function is unknown.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05039	How it is possible to have a cellphone conversation with a person on the other side of the planet in near real time...	No, they are radio waves. Sound waves are matter moving and compressing, just like a physical water wave. Light, radio waves, and the like, are electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light.	[ "In the 2000s (decade), many of the concepts seen in used in the early stages of the interplanetary communication and the developments made during the 1990s in MANETs were combined and used to develop and deploy a complete networking on satellites orbiting numerous planets. This network, often referred to as the Interplanetary Internet, has helped to unify the research of MANETs and traditional interplanetary communication into a common area of delay-tolerant networking.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nCell Broadcast allows a text or binary message to be defined and distributed to all mobile terminals connected to a set of cells.\n", "With the exclusion of Earth-based communication to space, there was little research in the 1980s and early 1990s in communication with the presence of a delay or disruption. With the micronization of computers, the 1990s brought about the fields of mobile ad hoc routing and vehicular ad hoc networking as areas of increased interest.\n\nSection::::Mobile Ad Hoc Networking (MANET) research.\n", "Zambia: In collaboration with the UC Santa Barbara’s Mobility Management and Networking Laboratory (Moment Lab) a cellular network was deployed to study the economic feasibility of bringing cellular networks to remote regions. The deployment of the network provided the remote village of Macha in Zambia with the capability of making and receiving calls and sending and receiving local SMS messages. The network also allowed for outgoing global calls and outgoing global SMS text messages on a trial basis.\n", "This is managed by the Hadoop software, that was originally developed by Yahoo. The NSA created its own version, called Accumulo, which can manage extremely large data sets and also includes granular access controls. The successor of the Real Time Regional Gateway is named Nexus 7 and is now under development at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) \n", "Section::::P7 Real-Time Communication.\n", "Section::::White spaces devices.:United States.:United States tests.\n\nOn October 16, 2009, researchers at Microsoft Research Redmond, Washington built and deployed a white space network called \"WhiteFi\". In this network, multiple clients connected to a single access point over UHF frequencies. The deployment included experiments to test how much data could be sent before interference became audible to nearby wireless microphones.\n", "The prototype of the Real Time Regional Gateway (RT-RG) was designed by the military and intelligence contractor SAIC. Instead of storing all data in centralized databases, as was NSA's traditional approach, RT-RG uses distributed computing, which means hundreds or even thousands of individual computers work together on one task.\n", "Radiolocation is also used in cellular telephony via base stations. Most often, this is done through trilateration between radio towers. The location of the Caller or handset can be determined several ways:\n\nBULLET::::- angle of arrival (AOA) requires at least two towers, locating the caller at the point where the lines along the angles from each tower intersect\n\nBULLET::::- time difference of arrival (TDOA) resp. time of arrival (TOA) works using multilateration, except that it is the networks that determine the time difference and therefore distance from each tower (as with seismometers)\n", "A more specific application of the CGI is to roughly determine a mobile phone's geographical position. If a cell phone is connected to a GSM network then the position of that particular cell phone can be determined using CGI of the cell which is covering that cell phone. There is a series of related technologies that were developed based on CGI that enhances the location precision: Cell Global Identity with Timing Advance (CGI+TA), Enhanced CGI (E-CGI), Cell ID for WCDMA, Uplink Time Difference Of Arrival (U-TDOA) and Any Time Interrogation (ATI), and the high accuracy terminal based method Assisted Global Positioning System (A-GPS).\n", "TDM can be further extended into the time-division multiple access (TDMA) scheme, where several stations connected to the same physical medium, for example sharing the same frequency channel, can communicate. Application examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- The GSM telephone system\n\nBULLET::::- The Tactical Data Links Link 16 and Link 22\n\nSection::::Multiplexed digital transmission.\n", "ANT uses an adaptive isochronous network technology to ensure coexistence with other ANT devices. This scheme provides the ability for each transmission to occur in an interference free time slot within the defined frequency band. The radio transmits for less than 150 µs per message, allowing a single channel to be divided into hundreds of time slots. The ANT messaging period (the time between each node transmitting its data) determines how many time slots are available.\n", "At interstellar distances, the difficulties in designing radio systems that can achieve any throughput at all are massive. In these cases, maintaining communication is a bigger issue than how long that communication takes.\n\nSection::::Examples of latency or throughput dominated systems.:Offline data transport.\n\nTransportation is concerned almost entirely with throughput, which is why physical deliveries of backup tape archives are still largely done by vehicle.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bitrate\n\nBULLET::::- Measuring network throughput\n\nBULLET::::- Network traffic measurement\n\nBULLET::::- Response time\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Fall, Kevin, \"A Delay-Tolerant Network Architecture for Challenged Internets\", Intel Corporation, February, 2003, Doc No: IRB-TR-03-003\n", "BULLET::::- Signal latency: The information transport of digital signals in many steps need time. In a telecommunicated conversation, an increased latency (time lag) larger than about 150–300 ms becomes noticeable and is soon observed as unnatural and distracting. Therefore, next to a stable large bandwidth, a small total round-trip time is another major technical requirement for the communication channel for interactive videoconferencing.\n", "RTP was developed by the Audio-Video Transport Working Group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and first published in 1996 as , superseded by in 2003.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "A mobile terminal, while connected using a RAT, performs neighbour cell measurements and sends measurement report to the network. Based on this measurement report provided by the mobile terminal, the network can initiate handover from one RAT to another, e.g. from WCDMA to GSM or vice versa. Once the handover with the new RAT is completed, the channels used by the previous RAT are released.\n", "BULLET::::5. US 6,377,825—Hands-Free Wireless Communication in a Vehicle (Dual-Processor Multi-Bus)\n\nBULLET::::6. US 5,479,479—Method and Apparatus for Transmission of and Receiving Signals Having Digital Information Using an Air Link (Vehicle Server)\n\nBULLET::::7. US 5,732,074—Mobile Portable Wireless Communication System (Vehicle Server)\n\nBULLET::::8. US 6,122,514—Communications Channel Selection (Link Select Router)\n\nBULLET::::9. US 6,430,164—Communications Involving Disparate Protocol Network/Bus Device Subsystems (Mobile Application Platform)\n\nBULLET::::10. US 6,516,192—Communications Channel Selection (Link Select Router)\n\nBULLET::::11. US 7,346,370—Enabling Interoperability Between Distributed Devices Using Different Communication Link Technologies (CP Connect) US Publication No. 2005/0245272A1 is a related publication\n\nBULLET::::12. US 7,366,892—Secure Telematics (VeeZee)\n\nBULLET::::13. US 8,719,592—Secure Telematics (VeeZee)\n", "The amount of research studying real-time database systems will increase because of commercial applications such as web based auction houses like e-bay. More developing countries are expanding their phone systems, and the number of people with cell phones in the United States as well as other places in the world continues to grow. Also likely to spur real-time research is the exponentially increasing speed of the microprocessor. This also enables new technologies such as web-video conferencing and instant messenger conversations in sound and high-resolution video, which are reliant on real-time database systems. Studies of temporal consistency result in new protocols and timing constraints with the goal of handling real-time transactions more effectively.\n", "Section::::Calculating the time difference in a TDOA system.\n\nThe basic measurements are the TOAs of multiple signals (formula_7) at the vehicle (navigation) or at the stations (surveillance). The distance formula_8 in equation is the wave speed (formula_9) times transit time, which is unknown, as the time of transmission is not known. A TDOA multilateration system calculates the time differences (formula_10) of a wavefront touching each receiver. The TDOA equation for receivers \"m\" and 0 is\n", "Bell Labs researcher Gerard J. Foschini’s paper submitted in September 1996 and published in October of the same year also theorized that MIMO could be used to significantly increase the capacity of point-to-point wireless links. Bell Labs demonstrated a prototype MIMO system based on its BLAST (Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time) technology in late 1998.\n", "The humans and others are on a satellite in synchronous orbit above the explorers on the ground. Unfortunately, the planet's slow rotation means that they are about 10 million kilometres above the surface, and signals take over 30 seconds to travel to the satellite. Real-time conversations are therefore impossible.\n", "BULLET::::2. Via hotline (Phone number: +34 956 59 94 29), using a time information broadcasting protocol widely used in Europe (European Telephone Code Standard). The access is limited to two minutes per call and admits international calls.\n\nBULLET::::3. NTP Protocol (Network Time Protocol), through two Internet servers placed in San Fernando and a third one placed in Madrid (NTP Servers: hora.roa.es and minuto.roa.es, both available through ntp.roa.es).\n", "One of the developers of the RT-RG, was Pedro \"Pete\" Rustan from the US National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). In a 2010 interview he said that the system was designed to put together pieces from a different types of data sources, looking for patterns, and make this available directly to American warfighters on the ground.\n", "BULLET::::10. \"The Steroids\": The steroids are wireless, Voice over IP (VoIP), and file sharing and are used on personal digital devices like mobile phones, iPods, and personal digital assistants; on instant messaging; and on VoIP phones. Digital, mobile, personal, and virtual as well as all analog content and processes (from entertainment to photography, to word processing) can be digitized and therefore shaped, manipulated, and transmitted; and these processes can be done at high speed with total ease; mobile can be done anywhere and anytime by anyone; and can be done to anyone.\n\nSection::::Summary.:Proposed remedies.\n", "On 27 February 2007 the NPL started tests of the new time signal transmissions from Anthorn. The Anthorn station was operated by VT Communications from its opening in 2007 until 2010, when it was acquired by Babcock International.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02857	Why do elderly people’s noses get so large and often bumpy? Does this serve a biological purpose? Can it be avoided?	Because your nose and ears are supported by cartilage instead of bone they keep growing your whole life. That is why they tend to get large. As to why they get bumpy, that is just how their noses grow.	[ "A common anatomic variant is an air-filled cavity within a concha known as a concha bullosa. In rare cases a polyp can form inside a bullosa. Usually a concha bullosa is small and without symptoms but when large can cause obstruction to sinus drainage.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nNo consensus criteria exist for the diagnosis of ENS; it is typically diagnosed by ruling out other conditions, with ENS remaining the likely diagnosis if the signs and symptoms are present. A \"cotton test\" has been proposed, in which moist cotton is held where a turbinate should be, to see if it provides relief; while this has not been validated nor is it widely accepted, it may be useful to identify which people may benefit from surgery.\n", "In New Zealand, nose pressing (\"hongi\") is a traditional greeting originating among the Māori people. However it is now generally confined to certain traditional celebrations.\n\nThe Hanazuka monument enshrines the mutilated noses of at least 38,000 Koreans killed during the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592 to 1598.\n\nThe septal cartilage can be destroyed through repeated nasal inhalation of drugs such as cocaine. This, in turn, can lead to more widespread collapse of the nasal skeleton.\n", "The nasal mucosa contains a rich blood supply that can be easily ruptured and cause bleeding. Rupture may be spontaneous or initiated by trauma. Nosebleeds are reported in up to 60% of the population with peak incidences in those under the age of ten and over the age of 50 and appear to occur in males more than females. An increase in blood pressure (e.g. due to general hypertension) tends to increase the duration of spontaneous epistaxis. Anticoagulant medication and disorders of blood clotting can promote and prolong bleeding. Spontaneous epistaxis is more common in the elderly as the nasal mucosa (lining) becomes dry and thin and blood pressure tends to be higher. The elderly are also more prone to prolonged nose bleeds as their blood vessels are less able to constrict and control the bleeding.\n", "Some other possible risk factors may include the location the implant is placed, type of implant placed and the age of the subject, as it was found that these factors had significant influences on bleeding on probing (BOP).\n\nAlthough it is uncertain whether increased abutment roughness will cause an increase in plaque accumulation and hence increase the risk of peri-implant mucositis, a 12-month comparative analysis in humans found that “a further reduction of the surface roughness, below a certain \"\"threshold R(a)\" (0.2 microns), has no major impact on the supra‐ and subgingival microbial composition.\"”\n", "With the increase in age, there is an increased loss of the olfactory function. On average, individuals begin to lose function of their olfactory system by the age of 65. Of the individuals who do suffer a loss of olfactory function, half of the losses begin between the ages of 65 and 80. Also three quarters of these occur after the age of 80. This plays a role in diagnosing Alzheimer's.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Causes of olfactory dysfunction.:Viral infections.\n\nThe most common cause of permanent hyposmia and anosmia are upper respiratory infections. Such dysfunctions show no change over time and can sometimes reflect damage not only to the olfactory epithelium, but also to the central olfactory structures as a result of viral invasions into the brain. Among these virus-related disorders are the common cold, hepatitis, influenza and influenza-like illness, as well as herpes. Most viral infections are unrecognizable because they are so mild or entirely asymptomatic.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Causes of olfactory dysfunction.:Exposure to toxic chemicals.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnostic tests may be conducted for various reasons. Firstly, some tests are needed to confirm or refute the diagnosis. Secondly, some are needed to identify any potential complications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Telangiectasias.\n\nThe skin and oral cavity telangiectasias are visually identifiable on physical examination, and similarly the lesions in the nose may be seen on endoscopy of the nasopharynx or on laryngoscopy. The severity of nosebleeds may be quantified objectively using a grid-like questionnaire in which the number of nosebleed episodes and their duration is recorded.\n", "Skin lipomas occur relatively often in the normal population. However, facial and nasal lipomas are rare, especially in childhood. However, the Pai syndrome often present with facial and nasal polyps. These skin lipomas are benign, and are therefore more a cosmetic problem than a functional problem.\n\nThe skin lipomas can develop on different parts of the face. The most common place is the nose. Other common places are the forehead, the conjunctivae and the frenulum linguae. The amount of skin lipomas is not related to the severity of the midline clefting.\n", "BULLET::::1. Skin cancer. The most common cause (etiology) for a nasal reconstruction is skin cancer, especially the lesions to the nose of melanoma and basal-cell carcinoma. This oncologic epidemiology occurs more readily among the aged and people who reside in very sunny geographic areas; although every type of skin is susceptible to skin cancer, white-skin is most epidemiologically prone to developing skin cancer. Furthermore, regarding plastic surgical scars, the age of the patient is a notable factor in the timely, post-surgical healing of a skin cancer defect (lesion); in terms of scarrification, the very elastic skin of young people has a greater regenerative propensity for producing scars that are thicker (stronger) and more noticeable. Therefore, in young patients, the strategic placement (hiding) of the rhinoplastic scars is a greater aesthetic consideration than in elder patients; whose less elastic skin produces scars that are narrower and less noticeable.\n", "In children the nose is a common site of foreign bodies. The nose is one of the exposed areas that is susceptible to frostbite.\n\nBecause of the special nature of the blood supply to the human nose and surrounding area, it is possible for retrograde infections from the nasal area to spread to the brain. For this reason, the area from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose, including the nose and maxilla, is known as the danger triangle of the face.\n", "For patients who desire definitive close, surgery is the only option. Prior to determining candidacy for surgical closure, the etiology of the perforation must be determined. Often this requires a biopsy of the perforation to rule out autoimmune causes. If a known cause such as cocaine is the offending agent, it must be ensured that the patient is not still using the irritant.\n", "The respiratory epithelium that covers the erectile tissue (or lamina propria) of the conchae plays a major role in the body's first line of immunological defense. The respiratory epithelium is partially composed of mucus-producing goblet cells. This secreted mucus covers the nasal cavities, and serves as a filter, by trapping air-borne particles larger than 2 to 3 micrometers. The respiratory epithelium also serves as a means of access for the lymphatic system, which protects the body from being infected by viruses or bacteria.\n\nSection::::Function.:Smell.\n", "Most people with HHT have a normal lifespan. The skin lesions and nosebleeds tend to develop during childhood. AVMs are probably present from birth, but don't necessarily cause any symptoms. Frequent nosebleeds are the most common symptom and can significantly affect quality of life.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Robinow noted the resemblance of affected patients' faces to that of a fetus, using the term \"fetal facies\" to describe the appearance of a small face and widely spaced eyes. Clinical features also may include a short, upturned nose, a prominent forehead, and a flat nasal bridge. The upper lip may be \"tented\", exposing dental crowding, \"tongue tie\", or gum hypertrophy.\n", "If other interventions have failed, several operations have been reported to provide benefit. One is septal dermoplasty or Saunders' procedure, in which skin is transplanted into the nostrils, and the other is Young's procedure, in which the nostrils are sealed off completely.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Skin and digestive tract.\n\nThe skin lesions of HHT can be disfiguring, and may respond to treatment with long-pulsed . Skin lesions in the fingertips may sometimes bleed and cause pain. Skin grafting is occasionally needed to treat this problem.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Development of the nose.\n", "Unless there are unusual complications, there is no swelling or discoloration of the external nose or face with septoplasty alone. Packing is rare with modern surgical techniques, but splinting the inside of the nose for a few days is common; the splints are not visible externally. One percent of patients can experience excessive bleeding afterwards — the risk period lasts up to two weeks. This could require packing or cautery, but is generally handled safely and without compromise of the ultimate surgical result. Septal perforation and septal hematoma are possible, as is a decrease in the sense of smell. Temporary numbness of the front upper teeth after surgery is common. Sometimes the numbness extends to the upper jaw and the tip of the nose. This almost always resolves within several months. \n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Telangiectasias.\n\nTelangiectasia (small vascular malformations) may occur in the skin and mucosal linings of the nose and gastrointestinal tract. The most common problem is nosebleeds (epistaxis), which happen frequently from childhood and affect about 90–95% of people with HHT. Lesions on the skin and in the mouth bleed less often but may be considered cosmetically displeasing; they affect about 80%. The skin lesions characteristically occur on the lips, the nose and the fingers, and on the skin of the face in sun-exposed areas. They appear suddenly, with the number increasing over time.\n", "A third condition that may be caused by a mutation in the PRDM12 gene is Midface toddler excoriation syndrome (MiTES). MiTES is an newly discovered condition that has recently been reported in three children who were unrelated. Persistent scratching around the nose and eyes from the first year of life results in deep, scarring wounds in the patients with this condition. Doctors say because of these wounds, it is easy to mistake this condition with child abuse. Researchers found that four out of the five patients with MiTES have the same autosomal recessive mutations in the PRDM12 gene that causes HSAN VIII.\n", "A nosebleed (epistaxis) usually occurs in the anterior part of the nose from an area known as Kiesselbach's plexus which consists of arteries. Woodruff's plexus is a venous plexus in the posterior part and a nosebleed here accounts for only between 5 and 10 per cent of nosebleeds. Older adults are most often affected.\n\nA posterior source presents a greater risk of airway compromise, aspiration of blood, and greater difficulty in controlling bleeding.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Treatment.\n\nPosterior nasal packing is needed for posterior epistaxis.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Treatment.:Posterior nasal packing.\n", "Nosebleeds can occur due to a variety of reasons. Some of the most common causes include trauma from nose picking, blunt trauma (such as a motor vehicle accident), or insertion of a foreign object (more likely in children). Relative humidity (including centrally heated buildings), respiratory tract infections, chronic sinusitis, rhinitis or environmental irritants can cause inflammation and thinning of the tissue in the nose, leading to a greater likelihood of bleeding from the nose.\n", "Radiography (x-ray) of the head can be used to assess the severity of the skull deviation, and endoscopy can be used to assess any abnormalities in the soft palate and the nasal passages. Mild cases of wry nose will not require treatment, but severe deviations will need reconstructive surgery. Such surgery requires significant aftercare, the cosmetic appearance cannot be guaranteed, athletic performance is likely to be poor, and further surgeries may be required. Euthanasia is indicated if the surgery is unlikely to be successful.\n", "Nasal septum deviation is the most common cause of nasal obstruction. A history of trauma to the nose is often present including trauma from the process of birth or microfractures. A medical professional, such as an otolaryngologist (ears, nose, and throat doctor), typically makes the diagnosis after taking a thorough history from the affected person and performing a physical examination. Imaging of the nose is sometimes used to aid in making the diagnosis as well.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "\"Microsporum audouinii\" causes the infections Tinea capitis (scalp ringworm) and Tinea corporis. These superficial dermal diseases are generally found in prepubescent children (starting at 6 months) and rarely affect adults. There are a few reasons why children are more susceptible to \"M. audouinii\". Differences in the chemical composition and quantity of the triglycerides in hair sebum secreted are the primary reasons. In instances whereby the triglyceride content in the sebum decreases so does the susceptibility of a person to the fungus. Cases like those are seen in postmenopausal women of whom suffer hormonal changes which can contribute to triglyceride reduction. In addition, increased sweat production as well as the presence of \"Pityrosporum ovale\" decreases the ability for \"M. audouinii\" to thrive. \"Pityrosporum ovale\" is an opportunistic lipophilic yeast that is a part of the human cutaneous flora in adults. In most cases of adult onset Tinea capitis due to \"M. audouinii\", there is at least one predisposing factor such as immunocompromise (e.g., diabetes mellitus, systemic lupus, organ transplant and HIV), a local animal reservoir (e.g., infected pet or farm animal) and hormonal changes in postmenopausal women.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23555	Why are the concrete floors at my work creaking?	It is the way the concrete and other materials are reacting to various temperature, humidity,and other environmental elements throughout the day and night. Think a house “settling” but on a larger building.	[ "LEED 2009 standards contain guidelines for using polished concrete flooring to qualify for LEED credits.\n\nSection::::New or retrofit.\n\nIn simple terms, the process of polishing concrete is similar to sanding wood. Heavy-duty polishing machines, for example concrete grinder, are used to gradually grind down surfaces to the desired degree of shine and smoothness. The closest equivalent example would be polished granite or marble.\n\nPolished concrete floor installation is categorized into two types: new floors, and retrofit floors.\n\nSection::::New or retrofit.:New floors.\n", "The reason for this is that invariably when a ceiling is being worked on plaster will fall and splash onto the walls. However a texture mix doesn't need to be smoothed out when it starts to set:\n\nBULLET::::- thus a retardant such as \"Cream of tartar\" or sugar can be used to prolong the setting time, and is easily scraped off the walls.\n\nBULLET::::- and since time is not as restraining of a factor on textured ceilings a large mix, or back-to-back mixes can be done and all ceilings covered at the same time.\n", "BULLET::::- This Parquet Flooring in Herringbone, Double Herringbone, as well as Chevron style can be reclaimed from buildings typically undergoing demolition or renovation. Typically the flooring has been in its original home for over 100 years. Occasionally very rare woods, including old growth Teak, Mahoganies, or Oaks are used, sometimes more exotic timbers such as Panga, Wenge, Bubinga and others are utilized.\n\nBULLET::::- Some of these woods [Rhodesian Teak] are simply not in production any more, due to forestry or importation limits.\n", "After the floor is prepared, the sanding begins. The \"first cut\" is done with coarse-grit papers to remove old coatings and to make the floor flat. The differences in height between the boards are removed. The large sanders are used across the grain of the timber. The most common paper used for the first cut is 40 grit. is recommended.\n\nSection::::Issues.\n\nSanding removes all patina, and can change the character of old floors. The result does not always suit the character of the building.\n", "When asbestos fibers can easily be made into airborne dust, the material is known as \"friable\". For example, a popcorn ceiling is extremely friable, whereas asbestos floor tile is considered non-friable. Friable materials, such as popcorn ceiling tiles, have a lifespan between 20 - 40 years plus; whereas non-friable materials, such as asbestos roofing tiles, have a lifespan of 50 - 100 years and beyond. \n", "Wood floors, particularly older ones, will tend to 'squeak' in certain places. This is caused by the wood rubbing against other wood, usually at a joint of the subfloor. Firmly securing the pieces to each other with screws or nails may reduce this problem.\n", "Inferior glueless laminate floors may gradually become separated, creating visible gaps between planks. It is important to \"tap\" the planks back together using the appropriate tool as gaps are noticed in order to prevent dirt filling the gaps, thus making it more difficult to put into place.\n\nQuality glueless laminate floors use joining mechanisms which hold the planks together under constant tension which prevent dirt entering the joints and do not need \"tapping\" back together periodically.\n\nSection::::Advocacy.\n", "Section::::Creep.\n\nCreep is the permanent movement or deformation of a material in order to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep. Short-duration forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do not cause creep. Creep can sometimes reduce the amount of cracking that occurs in a concrete structure or element, but it also must be controlled. The amount of primary and secondary reinforcing in concrete structures contributes to a reduction in the amount of shrinkage, creep and cracking.\n\nSection::::Water retention.\n", "Section::::Process.\n\nPreparation is the first stage of the sanding process. All nails which protrude above the boards are punched down. Nails can severely damage the sanding machines which are being used. Staples or tacks used to fasten previous coverings (if any) are removed to reduce the possibility of damage. Some brands or types of adhesives which have been used to secure coverings may need to be removed. Some adhesives clog papers and running gear of the machines used, and some can even make sanding impossible.\n", "of change of pore humidity (i.e., relative vapor pressure in the pores). For small specimen thickness, the creep during drying greatly exceeds the sum of the drying shrinkage at no load and the creep of a loaded sealed specimen (Fig. 1 bottom). The difference, called the drying creep or Pickett effect (or stress-induced shrinkage), represents a hygro-mechanical coupling between strain and pore humidity changes.\n\nDrying shrinkage at high humidities (Fig. 1 top and middle) is caused mainly by compressive stresses in\n", "BULLET::::- Finally, one may have a brand new trowel \"not yet broken-in\" which he will used for \"grinding\"; this is when the plaster is nearly hardened and he is smoothing out any bumps or filling in any small dips (cat faces) to make the wall look like a uniform sheet of glossy white plaster.\n", "BULLET::::- For use in setting it is mixed with fine washed sand in the ratio of one to three.\n\nBULLET::::- For cornices and for setting when the second coat is not allowed time to dry properly, a special compound must be used. This is often gauged stuff, composed of three or four parts of lime putty and one part of plaster of Paris, mixed up in small quantities immediately before use. The plaster in the material causes it to set rapidly, but if it is present in too large a proportion the work will crack in setting.\n", "There are some characteristics that are common to each category: solid wood is more frequently site-finished, is always in a plank format, is generally thicker than engineered wood, and is usually installed by nailing. Engineered wood is more frequently pre-finished, has bevelled edges, is very rarely site-finished, and is installed with glue or as a floating installation. \n", "In contrast, the tiles and other parts of a dropped or stretch ceiling are easily removed to allow access to the area above the grid to do any necessary wiring or plumbing modifications. In the event of remodelling, nearly all components of the grid can be dismantled and reassembled somewhere else.\n", "Section::::Coconut timber flooring.\n\nCoconut timber is a hardwood substitute from coconut palm trees. Coconut palm wood flooring is cheaper than teak, with the wood hardness comparable to mahogany. Coconut palm wood is made from matured (60 to 80 years old) coconut palm trees that no longer bear fruits.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Reclaimed Flooring Parquet\n", "Section::::The Need for Sustainable Slip Resistance.\n\nThe widely accepted principle of safety by design, as well as U.S. laws and building codes, require that flooring be slip-resistant over its life cycle — not just at the time of installation. Safety criteria based solely on static coefficient of friction, often used in the U.S. for assessing safety, are too often misleading where flooring gets wet or otherwise lubricated in use.\n", "After long use the surface can start to break up: this can be ignored, or a further screed of lime-ash composition can be laid over the original floor. This was often done in the past but does increase the weight of the structure. Damp can cause fungi to rot the bedding material, or insects to gnaw away the laths and indeed the joists, taking with it the floor. Knocking through service ducts without due care can destroy the floor, as can overloading due to change of use or addition of partition walls.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Laying a new floor.\n", "In reinforced concretes intact regions will sound solid whereas delaminated areas will sound hollow. Tap testing large concrete structures is carried about either with a hammer or with a chain dragging device for horizontal surfaces like bridge decks. Bridge decks in cold climate countries which use de-icing salts and chemicals are commonly subject to delamination and as such are typically scheduled for annual inspection by chain-dragging as well as subsequent patch repairs of the surface.\n\nSection::::Delamination Resistance Testing Methods.\n\nSection::::Delamination Resistance Testing Methods.:Coating Delamination Tests.\n", "Concrete slabs, block walls and pipelines are susceptible to cracking during ground settlement, seismic tremors or other sources of vibration, and also from expansion and contraction during adverse temperature changes.\n\nSection::::Thermal damage.\n", "Wiring and piping installed behind traditional plaster or wallboard ceilings is extremely difficult to modify once the finished ceiling is in place. Wires must either be fished through hollow spaces in the walls behind the finished ceiling, or the ceiling must be demolished in order for wiring or piping changes to be made.\n", "Penetrants are typically accommodated by plumbers and electricians, who prepare for them by installing sleeves in concrete walls and floors, before they are poured. In the case of masonry walls, electricians and plumbers tend to be there first and hang sleeves around their piping, ductwork and conduit, where they know from their drawings that block walls will be erected, in order to avoid the time and expense of having to \"cut\" openings in existing walls and floors.\n", "Floor sanding\n\nFloor sanding is the process of removing the top surfaces of a wooden floor by sanding with abrasive materials.\n\nA variety of floor materials can be sanded, including timber, cork, particleboard, and sometimes parquet. Some floors are laid and designed for sanding. Many old floors are sanded after the previous coverings are removed and suitable wood is found hidden beneath. Floor sanding usually involves three stages: Preparation, sanding, and coating with a protective sealant.\n\nSection::::Machines.\n", "Concrete or cement finished floor is also used for its ability to be treated for different feel and its durability, such as polished concrete. Epoxy resurfacing of concrete flooring is used to update or upgrade concrete floor surfaces in commercial and residential applications – see seamless polymer flooring section below.\n", "A natural stone polishing contractor, who was starting work on a palace in Tunisia, instructed his \"new\" crew to polish a concrete floor. Believing they knew it was to be polished wet as was customary with marble, granite and natural stone, he left them alone. When he arrived several hours later to check on their progress, he realized they were dry polishing and ordered them to stop. Upon further inspection, he had his crew continue polishing dry after he discovered how beautiful the floor was looking.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Section::::Plastering.:Traditional plastering.:Interior plastering techniques.:Textured.\n\nTexturing is usually reserved for closets, ceilings and garage walls.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18047	How does weather work? Where do weather fronts come from and why do they interact the way they do? Do storms only happen when two fronts meet? What the heck even is a weather front?!	The sun heats up half the Earth while the other half cools. This creates pressure differences in the air. Furthermore, the rotation of the Earth itself causes large cyclic currents of air. Combine these, and air is moving all over the Earth. Different temperatures result in different amounts of water being absorbed or condensed, affecting humidity and causing precipitation.	[ "If the air mass is relatively stable, rainfall will increase until the front reaches the location, at which time the clouds can extend all the way to the earth’s surface as fog. Once the front passes, the location experiences some warming and clearing. If the air mass is unstable, thunderstorms may precede and follow the front and temperature changes will be larger.\n\nIn the northern hemisphere, a warm front causes a shift of wind blowing from southeast to southwest, and in the southern hemisphere a shift from winds blowing from northeast to northwest. Common characteristics associated with warm fronts include:\n", "Section::::Where they form.:Lee of warm water bodies in the winter.\n\nIn the cases of Lake-effect snow and polar lows, the convective systems form over warm water bodies when cold air sweeps over their surface and leads to an increase in moisture and significant vertical motion. This vertical motion leads to the development of showers and thunderstorms in areas of cyclonic flow on the backside of extratropical cyclones.\n\nSection::::Their remnants.\n", "Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is invariably a wind shift. \n", "Section::::Surface weather analysis.\n", "Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is invariably a wind shift.\n", "BULLET::::- polar-continental air masses, cold and dry in winter, hot and dry in summer; arisen from east and northeast;\n\nBULLET::::- arctic-maritime air masses pervade from North Atlantic Ocean, within the pale of polar circulation. Determine frosty weather and relatively wet in winter, and in spring and autumn frosts;\n\nBULLET::::- tropical-maritime air masses, that pervade from the south and southwest, determine during the winter mists and heavy snow falls, and in summer determine atmospheric instability;\n", "Charles A. Doswell III\n\nCharles A. Doswell III (b. November 5, 1945) is an American meteorologist and prolific severe convective storms researcher. Doswell is a seminal contributor, along with Leslie R. Lemon, to the modern conception of the supercell, which was developed originally by Keith Browning. He also has done research on forecasting and forecast verification, especially for severe convective storms, and is an advocate of ingredients-based forecasting. \n", "Section::::Synoptic scale features.:Fronts.:Cold front.\n", "Cold fronts are the leading edge of cooler air masses, hence the name \"cold front\". They have stronger temperature changes during the fall (autumn) and spring and during the middle of winter. Temperature changes associated with cold fronts can be as much as 50 °F (30 °C). When cold fronts come through, there is usually a quick, yet strong gust of wind, that shows that the cold front is passing. In surface weather observations, a remark known as FROPA is coded when this occurs. The effects from a cold front can last from hours to days. The air behind the front is cooler than the air it is replacing and the warm air is forced to rise, so it cools. As the cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, clouds form and rain occurs.\n", "Section::::Development of cold fronts.\n", "Section::::Synoptic scale features.:Fronts.:Warm front.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nThere are two different meanings used within meteorology to describe weather around a frontal zone. The term \"anafront\" describes boundaries which show instability, meaning air rises rapidly along and over the boundary to cause significant weather changes. A \"katafront\" is weaker, bringing smaller changes in temperature and moisture, as well as limited rainfall.\n\nSection::::Types.:Cold front.\n", "Section::::Movement.\n", "Weather fronts mark the boundary between two masses of air of different temperature, humidity, and densities, and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena. Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Such fronts form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east; warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. Warm fronts move poleward ahead of the cyclone path. Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center.\n", "Air masses are large bodies of air with similar properties of temperature and humidity that form over source regions. The warm air mass behind a warm front is not only warmer, but often (but not always) also higher in humidity than the colder air preceding it. Because of a warm air mass’s higher temperature and thus lesser density, mixing between the two air masses is unlikely. Being light, the warm air mass is unable to displace the cooler air mass and instead is forced upward along the upper boundary of the colder air in a process known as overrunning. The boundary between the two air masses has a gradual slope of 1:200 and lifting is slow but persistent.\n", "After the passage of the cold front, the sky usually clears as high pressure builds in behind the system, although significant amounts of cumulus or stratocumulus, often in the form of long bands called \"cloud streets\" may persist if the air mass behind the front remains humid. Small and unchanging amounts of cumulus or cirrus clouds in an otherwise clear sky are usually indications of continuing fair weather as long as the barometric pressure remains comparatively high.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.\n", "Fronts are the principal cause of significant weather. \"Convective precipitation\" (showers, thundershowers, and related unstable weather) is caused by air being lifted and condensing into clouds by the movement of the cold front or cold occlusion under a mass of warmer, moist air. If the temperature differences of the two air masses involved are large and the turbulence is extreme because of wind shear and the presence of a strong jet stream, \"roll clouds\" and tornadoes may occur.\n", "A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities, and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena. In surface weather analyses, fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols, depending on the type of front. The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity.\n", "Section::::Synoptic scale features.:Fronts.:Occluded front.\n", "Warm fronts mark the position on the Earth's surface where a relatively warm body of air has displaced colder air. The temperature increase is located on the equatorward edge of the gradient in isotherms, and lies within broader low pressure troughs than is the case with cold fronts. Warm fronts move more slowly than do the cold fronts because cold air is denser, and harder to displace from the Earth's surface. This causes temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale. The warm air mass overrides the cold air mass and temperature changes occur at higher altitudes before those at the surface. Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches. Fog can also occur preceding a warm front passage. Clearing and warming is usually rapid after the passage of a warm front. If the warm air mass is unstable, mixing of the warm moist air will produce thunderstorms that are embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front, and after frontal passage, thundershowers may continue. On weather maps, the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of half circles pointing in the direction of travel.\n", "A cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure. It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone, at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern, which is also known as the cyclone's dry conveyor belt circulation. Temperature differences across the boundary can exceed from one side to the other. When enough moisture is present, rain can occur along the boundary. If there is significant instability along the boundary, a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone. If instability is less, a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front, which increases the temperature difference across the boundary. Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer.\n", "Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is invariably a wind shift.\n", "BULLET::::- Low pressure – a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower in relation to the surrounding area\n\nBULLET::::- Storm – any disturbed state of the atmosphere and strongly implying severe weather\n\nBULLET::::- Flooding – an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges the land; a deluge\n\nBULLET::::- Nor'easter – a macro-scale storm along the East Coast of the United States, named for the winds that come from the northeast\n\nBULLET::::- Wind – the flow of air or other gases that compose an atmosphere; caused by rising heated air and cooler air rushing in to occupy the vacated space.\n", "A surface low can form in a variety of ways. Topography can create a surface low. Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows that are initially warm core. The disturbance can grow into a wave-like formation along the front and the low is positioned at the crest. Around the low, the flow becomes cyclonic. This rotational flow moves polar air towards the equator on the west side of the low, while warm air move towards the pole on the east side. A cold front appears on the west side, while a warm front forms on the east side. Usually, the cold front moves at a quicker pace than the warm front and \"catches up\" with it due to the slow erosion of higher density air mass out ahead of the cyclone. In addition, the higher density air mass sweeping in behind the cyclone strengthens the higher pressure, denser cold air mass. The cold front over takes the warm front, and reduces the length of the warm front. At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also known as a trowal.\n", "Section::::Types.:Tropical cyclone.\n\nA tropical cyclone is a fairly symmetric storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on the heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapour contained in the moist air. It is fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European windstorms, and polar lows, leading to their classification as \"warm core\" storm systems.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19135	How does dust get in closed places like closets and drawers that are rarely opened?	There are two main ways. Firstly there are cracks in the doors and panels which does allow air through which will bring some dust as well. Once inside there is less airflow so the dust tend to settle. Secondly most materials will give off dust by itself over time as it crumbles. If you were to study the dust in a drawer which have been closed for some time you will notice that most of the dust is tiny sawdust from the walls and ceiling of the drawer.	[ "The best way to prevent damage from dust is to control and prevent substantial buildup of dust in the first place. This can be done by using air filters in the heating and air conditioning systems as well as using vacuum cleaners equipped with HEPA filters when possible. Limiting the amount of exposed surface areas of collections can also prevent dust from settling on objects. This can be done by storing objects in acid-free boxes, object specific enclosures, in drawers or covering open shelves with a polyethylene sheet.\n\nSection::::Storage and Upkeep.\n", "Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers and is directed into the baghouse compartment. The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside depending on cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter media surface until air can no longer move through it. When a sufficient pressure drop (ΔP) occurs, the cleaning process begins. Cleaning can take place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline (in isolation). When the compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes.\n", "Dust\n\nDust is made of fine particles of solid matter. On Earth, it generally consists of particles in the atmosphere that come from various sources such as soil, dust lifted by wind (an aeolian process), volcanic eruptions, and pollution. Dust in homes, offices, and other human environments contains small amounts of plant pollen, human and animal hairs, textile fibers, paper fibers, minerals from outdoor soil, human skin cells, burnt meteorite particles, and many other materials which may be found in the local environment.\n\nSection::::Dust Mites.\n", "Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces. As well as making the surfaces dirty, when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean. Various tools have been invented for dust removal: Feather and lamb's wool dusters, cotton and polyester dust cloths, furniture spray, disposable paper \"dust cloths\", dust mops for smooth floors and vacuum cleaners. Vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove dirt not just from carpets and rugs, but also from hard surfaces and upholstery. Dusting is very important in hospital environments.\n", "House dust mites are present indoors wherever humans live. Positive tests for dust mite allergies are extremely common among people with asthma. Dust mites are microscopic arachnids whose primary food is dead human skin cells, but they do not live on living people. They and their feces and other allergens which they produce are major constituents of house dust, but because they are so heavy they are not suspended for long in the air. They are generally found on the floor and other surfaces until disturbed (by walking, for example). It could take somewhere between twenty minutes and two hours for dust mites to settle back down out of the air.\n", "A large fraction of the bacteria found in indoor air and dust are shed from humans. Among the most important bacteria known to occur in indoor air are Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae.\n\nSection::::Common pollutants.:Asbestos fibers.\n", "BULLET::::- Methods of disposal – Methods of dust removal and disposal vary with the material, plant process, volume, and type of collector used. Collectors can unload continuously or in batches. Dry materials can create secondary dust problems during unloading and disposal that do not occur with wet collectors. Disposal of wet slurry or sludge can be an additional material-handling problem; sewer or water pollution problems can result if wastewater is not treated properly.\n\nSection::::Fan and motor.\n\nThe fan and motor system supplies mechanical energy to move contaminated air from the dust-producing source to a dust collector.\n", "Although, from a global perspective, harmful indoor air pollution is caused by cooking and heating with solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves, especially in poorly ventilated rooms, indoor air pollutants may also come from heating and cooling equipment, electronic appliances, cleaning products, air fresheners, insecticides, and construction materials.\n", "Dust particles are generated by the disturbance/agitation of rock/mineral, dry grain, timber, or fiber material. The particles generated can range in size from 1μm to 100μm, and can \"become airborne depending on their origin, physical characteristics and ambient conditions.\"\n\nSection::::Occupational Dust.:Occupational Dust Examples.\n\nTypes of dust present in the occupational setting include:\n\nBULLET::::- Rock/mineral dusts\n\nBULLET::::- Metallic dusts\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical dusts\n\nBULLET::::- Grain and produce dusts\n\nBULLET::::- Molds and spores\n\nSection::::Occupations and Dust Hazards.\n\nSection::::Occupations and Dust Hazards.:Mining.\n", "A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (HCO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.\n", "\"Chelifer cancroides\" is the species most commonly found in homes, where they are often observed in rooms with dusty books. There the tiny animals () can find their food like booklice and house dust mites. They enter homes by \"riding along\" attached to insects (known as phoresy). The insects employed are necessarily larger than the pseudoscorpion, or they are brought in with firewood.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n", "Buildings constantly evolve as a result of the changes in the environment around them as well as the occupants, materials, and activities within them. The various surfaces and the air inside a building are constantly interacting, and this interaction results in changes in each. For example, we may see a window as changing slightly over time as it becomes dirty, then is cleaned, accumulates dirt again, is cleaned again, and so on through its life. In fact, the “dirt” we see may be evolving as a result of the interactions among the moisture, chemicals, and biological materials found there.\n", "Section::::Setting.\n", "Air quality must also be taken into consideration. Dust tends to absorb moisture, providing a suitable environment to attract mold growth and insects. Dust can also become acidic when combined with skin oils and the surface of paper.\n", "During the stages of wood processing, wood dust is generated. 'Wood dust' is \"any wood particle arising from the processing or handling of woods.\" Sawing, routing, sanding, among other activities, form wood dust, which can then become airborne during the process of dust removal from furniture, maintenance, or equipment cleanup.\n\nSection::::Occupations and Dust Hazards.:Agriculture.\n", "Section::::Assessment.:Sampling.:Bulk and Dust Sampling.\n", "BULLET::::- Inside the house, the narrator talks about the thick carpeting. The butler gets into the carpet and he sinks deeply inside it.\n\nBULLET::::- The narrator then presents how to get moisture in the room. Just pressing a button reveals a rain cloud that floats across the room.\n", "Dust collection system\n\nA dust collection system is an air quality improvement system used in industrial, commercial, and home production shops to improve breathable air quality and safety by removing particulate matter from the air and environment. Dust collection systems work on the basic formula of \"capture\", \"convey\" and \"collect\".\n\nFirst, the dust must be \"captured\". This is accomplished with devices such as capture hoods to catch dust at its source of origin. Many times, the machine producing the dust will have a port to which a duct can be directly attached.\n", "Modern office work with use of office equipment has raised concerns about possible adverse health effects. Since the 1970s, reports have linked mucosal, skin, and general symptoms to work with self-copying paper. Emission of various particulate and volatile substances has been suggested as specific causes. These symptoms have been related to Sick Building Syndrome, which involves symptoms such as irritation to the eyes, skin, and upper airways, headache and fatigue.\n", "Section::::Common museum pests.:Insects.\n\nBULLET::::- Fabric pests: There are two groups of Fabric pests that are common in museums: carpet beetles and clothes moths. These pest eat proteins like wool, fur, feathers, dead animals and horns. These pests are known to burrow into materials such as storage bins or little used drawers.\n\nBULLET::::- Wood pests: The most common wood pests are the wood boring beetle and the dry wood termites. These pest are known to attack and damage objects made of wood and often go undetected on the surface as they burrow into the wood.\n", "Certain types of insects and larvae feed on clothing and textiles, such as the Black carpet beetle and Clothing moths. To deter such pests, clothes may be stored in cedar-lined closets or chests, or placed in drawers or containers with materials having pest repellent properties, such as Lavender or mothballs. Airtight containers (such as sealed, heavy-duty plastic bags) may also deter insect pest damage to clothing materials.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Non-iron.\n", "Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "Dust mites are found worldwide, but are found more commonly in humid regions. The species \"Blomia tropicalis\" is typically found only in tropical or subtropical regions. Detectable dust mite allergen was found in the beds of about 84% of surveyed United States homes. In Europe, detectable Der p 1 or Der f 1 allergen was found in 68% of surveyed homes.\n\nSection::::Health issues.\n\nSection::::Health issues.:Allergies.\n\nSection::::Health issues.:Allergies.:House dust mite allergy.\n", "Occupational dust exposure\n\nOccupational dust exposure can occur in various settings, including agriculture, forestry, and mining. Dust hazards include those that arise from handling grain and cotton, as well as from mining coal. Wood dust, commonly referred to as \"sawdust\", is another occupational dust hazard that can pose a risk to workers' health.\n\nWithout proper safety precautions, dust exposure can lead to occupational lung diseases.\n\nSection::::Occupational Dust.\n", "Even when no visible dirt is present, contamination by microorganisms, especially pathogens, can still cause an object or location to be considered dirty. For example, computer keyboards are especially dirty as they contain on average 70 times more microbes than a lavatory seat.\n\nPeople and animals may eat dirt. This is thought to be caused by mineral deficiency and so the condition is commonly seen in pregnant women.\n\nSection::::Neurosis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04441	Why does someone lose all or part of their pension that they paid into for years and years if they are fired? At minimum shouldn't they get their investment back?	There's a subtle difference between a "pension" and a "retirement fund". A pension is a reward your employer gives you, paid for with their money for for years of service while a retirement fund is your money that you've invested.	[ "Pension spiking is often seen in public sector employers (who do not typically offer Golden Parachutes to employees the private sector does) and is an example of the principal–agent problem. In the classic principal–agent problem, a principal hires an agent to work on his behalf. The agent then seeks to maximize his own well being within the confines of the engagement laid out by the principal. The agent, or bureaucrat in this instance, has superior information and is able to maximize his benefit at the cost of the principal. In other words, there is asymmetric information.\n", "In the case of pension spiking the general public (the principal) elects officials to hire the bureaucrat who then hires the public servants, who are the ultimate agents of the general public. Thus, the principal is three steps removed from the bureaucrat. In the case of pension spiking, some have written that the public has allowed a pension system to be created which is based on the compensation in the last year of service and delegated the setting of this cost to the bureaucrat. The bureaucrat, who will often himself or herself benefit from a spiked pension or the same laws permitting pension spiking, fails to stop the practice, a clear conflict of interest. \n", "Upon retirement any employee transitions from receiving a paycheck from the employer to a pension check drawn on the assets of the retirement fund; this amount is typically determined as a percentage of the employee's regular salary by state law or statute. When an employee due to retire receives a \"spike\", the amount of money the employee will receive does not reflect the percentage of salary the employee and employer haves contributed for the majority of the employee's career, and places a burden on the economic viability of the pension fund. This practice is considered a significant contributor to the high cost of public sector pensions.\n", "In the 1990s, some corporations (IBM, GE, and Verizon Communications) were known to include pension fund earnings as the basis of bonuses when the actual corporate earnings are negative, and discontinuing the practice when the bull market ended and these earnings turned to losses. In one notable case of executive bonus justification, Verizon Communications not only used $1.8 billion of pension income to turn a corporate loss into a $289 million profit, but created the $1.8 billion income from a $3.1 billion loss by projecting (optimistic) future returns of 9.25 percent on pension assets.\n", "Several states including Illinois have passed laws making it more difficult for employees to spike their pensions. The California CalPERS system outlawed this practice in 1993, but as of 2012 it remained legal in the 20 counties which did not participate in this public employee retirement system.\n", "An example of how pensions have been used as \"stealthy\" compensation mentioned above was a change in the formula for determining the pension that one retiring CEO (Terrence Murray of FleetBoston Financial) made shortly before his departure. While his original contract based his pension on his average annual salary and bonus over the five years before retirement, that was changed to his average taxable compensation over the three years he received the most compensation. This change of a few words more than doubled the pension payout from $2.7 million to an estimated $5.8 million, but these numbers did not appear on the SEC-required executive compensation tables or in the annual report footnotes. The numbers were revealed only because a newspaper covering the story hired an actuary to calculate the new basis. A banking analyst from Prudential Securities noted that while the CEO was in charge, FleetBoston's shares `underperformed the average bank for a decade,` and groused: `What happened to getting a gold watch?`\"\n", "In May 2018, President Trump nominated Gordon Hartogensis to be PBGC's next director. The Senate Finance Committee approved the nomination in November, but it expired with the end of the Senate's term in December 2018. Trump re-nominated Hartogensis in January 2019 and the Senate confirmed him in April 2019.\n\nSection::::Pensions and bankruptcy.\n", "Non-Executive Director: Duncan Howorthbr\n\nFormer CEO of Jardine Lloyd Thompson PLC.\n\nNon-Executive Director: Emma Douglasbr\n\nHead of L&G Investment Management, appointed non-executive director as a part of the L&G investment in the company.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "If an individual chose this sort of second pension, in lieu of being 'contracted-in', it should give them roughly the same amount one would get from the Additional Pension. Whether it does or not rests on the investment returns from the rebate being sufficient to purchase additional income (usually in the form of an annuity.) One may still need to think about whether this predetermined level of pension would be enough to support the lifestyle one had planned when they retired.\n", "The due diligence process includes detailed assessment of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Company accounts\n\nBULLET::::- Track record\n\nBULLET::::- Business Plan\n\nBULLET::::- Projections for the individual business and the business sector in which it operates\n\nBULLET::::- Motivations and future plans of the business owner(s)/director(s)\n\nBULLET::::- The existing pensions of the business owner(s)/director(s)\n\nSection::::Risks.\n\nLike any form of investment, PLF is not without risk.\n\nSection::::Risks.:Regulatory risk.\n", "It was also possible to use a stakeholder pension or a personal pension plan to build up retirement funds without contracting out of the Additional Pension, but if this was done, they was no rebate. A person will usually get tax relief on all their contributions into a private pension at the basic rate of income tax (22 percent in tax year 2006/07) irrespective of income tax actually paid. If they have paid income tax at the higher rate (40 per cent in 2006/07) also, their contributions are relieved at this rate, but only against that income on which the higher rate was paid.\n", "BULLET::::- The complicated rules that govern the PBGC's pension guarantee for business owners are simplified.\n\nBULLET::::- If PBGC takes over a terminated plan, the plan sponsor is required to pay a \"termination premium\" of $1,250 per participant per year for three years.\n\nSection::::No insurance for defined contribution plans.\n", "If the pension plan allows for early retirement, payments are often reduced to recognize that the retirees will receive the payouts for longer periods of time. In the United States, under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, any reduction factor less than or equal to the actuarial early retirement reduction factor is acceptable.\n", "Pension spiking\n\nPension spiking, sometimes referred to as \"salary spiking\", is the process whereby public sector employees are granted large raises, bonuses, incentives or otherwise artificially inflate their compensation in the time immediately preceding retirement in order to receive larger pensions than they otherwise would be entitled to receive. This artificially inflates the pension payments due to the retirees. \n", "Another growing challenge is the recent trend of states and businesses in the United States purposely under-funding their pension schemes in order to push the costs onto the federal government. For example, in 2009, the majority of states have unfunded pension liabilities exceeding all reported state debt. Bradley Belt, former executive director of the PBGC (the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, the federal agency that insures private-sector defined-benefit pension plans in the event of bankruptcy), testified before a Congressional hearing in October 2004, \"I am particularly concerned with the temptation, and indeed, growing tendency, to use the pension insurance fund as a means to obtain an interest-free and risk-free loan to enable companies to restructure. Unfortunately, the current calculation appears to be that shifting pension liabilities onto other premium payers or potentially taxpayers is the path of least resistance rather than a last resort.\"\n", "The pension replacement rate, or percentage of a worker's pre-retirement income that the pension replaces, varies widely from state to state. It bears little correlation to the percentage of state workers who are covered by a collective bargaining agreement. For example, the replacement rate in Missouri is 55.4%, while in New York it is 77.1%. In Colorado, replacement rates are higher but these employees are barred from participating in Social Security.\n", "The Pension Protection Act of 2006 represents the most significant pension legislation since ERISA. Some of the provisions of the Act that affect the PBGC include:\n\nBULLET::::- The method for calculating the \"variable-rate\" PBGC premium is changed.\n\nBULLET::::- If PBGC takes over a terminated plan, the guarantee of employees' pension benefits is frozen as of the date of the plan sponsor's bankruptcy filing, which may be months or years before the plan terminates.\n\nBULLET::::- The PBGC's guarantee of pension benefits that become payable on a plant shutdown is limited if the shutdown occurred within five years of the bankruptcy filing.\n", "Those who contract in gain the security of a known pension level which is not determined by investment returns or annuity rates but lose the flexibility to take their pension before state pension age, receive a tax-free lump sum payment on retirement.\n\nOne advantage of contracting out is that the funds are invested privately on behalf of the individual. This means that they are protected against future government changes to the pension system.\n\nSection::::Help for lower earners.\n\nAs previously stated, this comes from\n\nBULLET::::- Treating all low earners as though their earnings were at least £12,500 (2006/07) for entitlement purposes\n", "BULLET::::- 80% of the pension protection levy will be raised via the risk-based levy. This levy depends on the level of underfunding in the scheme and the probability of the employer becoming insolvent over the following year. The probability of insolvency was estimated by Dun & Bradstreet until 31 March 2014, with Experian taking over this role from the end of October 2014. No insolvency risk data will be collected in the interim.\n", "Given that many public pension funds have been in existence for decades, it seems that it is the case that pension fund participants have found a way to manipulate an existing system to their benefit, rather than constructed a unique system. Issues also exist when pension funds allow the inclusion of overtime when determining the retiree's final pensionable salary.\n", "Section::::Premium rates.\n\nPension plans that are qualified under the U.S. tax code pay yearly insurance premiums to the PBGC based on the number of participants in the plan and the funded status of the plan.\n\nThe Bipartisan Budget Act, which was signed by President Obama on November 2, 2015, set PBGC premiums as follows for single-employer pension plans:\n\nFlat-rate premium\n\nBULLET::::- $64 per participant for plan years starting in 2016\n\nBULLET::::- $69 per participant for plan years starting in 2017\n\nBULLET::::- $74 per participant for plan years starting in 2018\n\nBULLET::::- $80 per participant for plan years starting in 2019\n", "After the first year of operation the levy is based on a scheme based element and a risk based element:\n\nBULLET::::- 20% of the pension protection levy will be raised via the Scheme Levy.\n", "As an example, a 30-year-old could have a pension review in an effort to give their pension a good start. They may find out they are paying 5% in annual fees across their three pension funds and that they are invested in low-risk options, but if they consolidate into a single fund in medium-risk investments their annual fees would drop to 1.1% and the fund is more likely, but not guaranteed, to grow at a faster rate.\n", "The age bias, reduced portability and open ended risk make defined benefit plans better suited to large employers with less mobile workforces, such as the public sector (which has open-ended support from taxpayers). This coupled with a lack of foresight on the employers part means a large proportion of the workforce are kept in the dark over future investment schemes.\n", "In PERCO, employers have to offer several investment funds to employees with different portfolios. Employees can save at most one quarter of their gross annual salary. For employers, it is compulsory to contribute, but the minimum amount is not established. The maximum amount saved in a year horizon is 5,149 euros in total of employer’s and employee’s contributions. It is not possible use the money before retirement. Contributions made by employees subject to income tax, but return of investment and retirement benefits not.\n" ]	[ "People should get pension back after being fired to get investment back." ]	[ "A pension is not an investment by the employee but a reward from the employer." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People should get pension back after being fired to get investment back." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A pension is not an investment by the employee but a reward from the employer." ]
2018-02551	Why do different hose lengths affect water flow	Resistance. The interior of the hose is contacting the water and providing resistance. Flow rate is the difference between the pressure at either ends of the hose divided by the resistance. Resistance is calculated as (8 * viscosity of the liquid * hose length) / (pi * hose radius^4 ) See Poiseuille's law if you're interested. Also, if not on flat ground: gravity. Are you running the hose up hill at all?	[ "BULLET::::- Commonly carried on U.S. fire engines to pull water from fire hydrants for distribution with the engine's on-board pump. Some of these hoses will have Storz to 4.5-4 NH thread adapters (often with wide handles) already connected to them, in order to facilitate connection to fire hydrants without Storz ports (likely the vast majority of hydrants in the U.S.)\n\nSection::::Supply Line Hose.\n\nBULLET::::- 4″ hose with 4-4 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- 4″ hose with 4″ Storz (100 mm) couplings (allowed by NFPA 1963)\n\nBULLET::::- 4″ hose with 4.5-4 NH NFPA threads\n", "BULLET::::- 1″ hose with 1-11.5NPSH ASME threads\n\nBULLET::::- 1″ hose with 1¼-11.5NPSH ASME threads\n\nBULLET::::- 1″ hose with 1.5-9 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement, but not commonly used in the U.S. or Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- 1″ hose with 1½-11.5NPSH ASME threads instead of NFPA threads in the U.S. and Canada, without any regulation specifying its use, and contrary to NFPA 1963. This is perhaps a direct result of the 1918 War Industries Board recommendation noted above, combined with 1″ 1.5-9 NH NFPA couplings not being standardized until 1957.\n\nBULLET::::- 1″ with 1.5-9 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nSection::::Forestry Hose.\n", "To reduce drafting friction and obtain a larger flow or higher lift, a larger cross-section of suction hose is employed. For example, using a five-inch (127 mm) hose, a pump that could lift 500 US gallons per minute (30 L/s) up 23 feet (7 m) would only be able to lift the same amount of water 12.5 feet (4 m) through a 3.5-inch (76 mm) hose. Fire engines are often seen carrying two or three 10-foot (3 m) lengths of suction hose, but the longer the lift, the lower the flow, for a fixed-diameter suction hose and a given pump. Multiple relays could be used if the need arises, with a suction pump drafting up to 10 metres (30 ft) and discharging at great distances.\n", "In the hydrodynamic entrance region, the wall shear stress (τw ) is highest at the pipe inlet, where the boundary layer thickness is the smallest. Shear stress decreases along the flow direction. That is why the pressure drop is highest in the entrance region of a pipe, which increases the average friction factor for the whole pipe. This increase in the friction factor is negligible for long pipes.brIn fully developed region the pressure gradient and the shear stress in flow are in balance.\n\nSection::::Hydrodynamic entrance length.:Calculating hydrodynamic entrance length.\n", "BULLET::::- ″ hose with ¾-11.5NH ASME threads (¾-11.5NHR for rolled threads)\n\nSection::::Booster Hose.\n\nAccording to NFPA 1963, all nozzles used on booster hose shall have the 1-8 NH standard thread.\n\nBULLET::::- ″ hose with ½-14NPSH ASME threads\n\nBULLET::::- ″ hose with ¾-14NPSH ASME threads\n\nBULLET::::- ″ hose with 0.75-8 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- ″ hose with 1-8 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n", "Section::::Braiding around metal hoses.:Functional principle of the metal braid.\n\nWire braiding functions on the lazy tongs principle. When axial tension is applied to the hose, the braid reaches its extension limit. This means that the wires lie tightly spaced with the smallest crossing angle, creating a hose braiding of the smallest possible diameter and the largest possible length. When the hose is axially compressed, the crossing angle and diameter increase to maximum values.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Koch, Hans-Eberhard: 100 Jahre Metallschlauch Pforzheim, 1995\n\nBULLET::::- Witzenmann Group: company archives\n\nBULLET::::- Company history of Witzenmann GmbH, by Gregor Mühlthaler\n", "In case of a non-circular cross- section of a pipe, the same formula can be used to find the entry length with a little modification. A new parameter “hydraulic diameter” relates the flow in non-circular pipe to that of circular pipe flow. This is valid until the cross sectional area shape is not too exaggerated. Hydraulic Diameter is defined as:\n\nformula_9\n\nWhere, formula_10 is the area of cross-section and formula_11 is the Perimeter of the wet part of the pipe\n\nSection::::Hydrodynamic entrance length.:Average velocity of fully developed flow.\n", "BULLET::::- 4″ hose with 4-8NPSH ASME threads\n\nBULLET::::- 5″ hose with 5-4 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- 5″ hose with 5″ Storz (125 mm) couplings (allowed by NFPA 1963)\n\nBULLET::::- 6″ hose with 6-4 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement, but not commonly used in the U.S.)\n\nBULLET::::- 8″ hose with 8-4 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement, but not commonly used in the U.S.; only added to NFPA 1963 in the 2003 edition)\n\nNon-standard hose couplings\n\nBULLET::::- 1″ NPSH threads (used in Canada and the U.S.)\n\nBULLET::::- 1″ BSP (British Standard Pipe Thread; OD: 1.882″; pitch: 11)\n", "Cut-off factor\n\nCut-off factor (AKA \"cut-off length\") is a factor used to calculate the length of a hose cut to achieve the desired overall length of hose plus fittings. It is commonly seen in hydraulic hose and fitting specifications. The cut-off factor is specific to a particular hose fitting.\n\nThe formula used in calculating the optimum overall length is:\n\nformula_1.\n\nIn this formula, C1 represents the cut-off factor of the first hose end and C2 represents the cut-off factor of the second hose end.\n", "The standard interstage hose is long, but hoses are standard for Octopus regulators and hoses are popular for technical diving, particularly for cave and wreck penetration where space constraints may make it necessary to swim in single file while sharing gas. Other lengths are also available. Most low pressure ports are threaded 3/8\"UNF, but a few regulators were marketed with one 1/2\"UNF port intended for the primary demand valve. High pressure ports are almost exclusively 7/16\"UNF. There is no possibility of connecting a hose to the wrong pressure port.\n\nSection::::Mechanism and function.:Single-hose two-stage open-circuit demand regulators.:Second-stage or Demand valve.\n", "BULLET::::- Used as a secondary suction port on most fire engines, when the volume provided by a larger diameter hose is not needed but the flexibility of a smaller hose is\n\nBULLET::::- 4″ hose with 4″ Storz (100 mm) couplings\n\nBULLET::::- 5″ hose with 5″ Storz (125 mm) couplings\n", "BULLET::::- 2″ attack port with 2.5-7.5 NH threads (two ports per hydrant; NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- 4″ pumper (steamer) port with either 4.5-4 NH threads or a 5-inch Storz port (one port per hydrant; NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nSection::::Suction Hose.\n", "BULLET::::- 4″ hose with 4.5-4 NH NFPA threads\n\nSection::::Attack Line Hose.\n\nBULLET::::- 2″ hose with 2.5-7.5 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- 3″ hose with 2.5-7.5 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- 3″ hose with 3-6 NH NFPA threads (not commonly used in the U.S.)\n\nBULLET::::- 3″ hose with 3-8NPSH ASME threads\n\nBULLET::::- 3″ hose with 3.5-6 NH NFPA threads (NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- 3″ hose with 3½-8NPSH ASME threads\n\nSection::::Fire Hydrant Ports.\n\nAccording to NFPA 1963, all U.S. fire hydrants should have the following ports:\n", "BULLET::::- 1″ hose with 1.5-9 NH NFPA threads (USDA 5100-107d specification and NFPA 1963 requirement, but not in common use)\n\nBULLET::::- 1″ hose with Forestry Coupling (CAN/ULC-S551-13 specification and USDA 5100-192 specification)\n\nBULLET::::- 2″ hose with 1½-11.5NPSH ASME threads (USDA 5100-107d specification, but not in common use)\n\nBULLET::::- 2″ hose with 2½-8NPSH ASME threads (USDA 5100-107d specification, but not in common use)\n\nBULLET::::- 2″ hose with 2.5-7.5 NH NFPA threads (USDA 5100-107d specification and NFPA 1963 requirement)\n\nBULLET::::- 2″ hose with Forestry Coupling (USDA 5100-192 specification, but only in use near the Canadian border)\n", "The concentration entrance length describes the length needed for the concentration profile in a flow to be fully developed. The concentration entrance length can be determined by relating it to the hydrodynamic entrance length with the Schmidt number or by experimental techniques. The Schmidt number describes the ratio of momentum diffusivity to mass diffusivity.\n\nformula_34\n\nwhere:\n\nformula_35\n\nformula_25\n\nformula_37\n\nformula_38\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nUnderstanding the entrance length is important for design and analysis of flow systems. The entrance region will have different velocity, temperature, and other profiles than exist in the fully developed region of the pipe.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Flow meters.\n", "In other countries, a British Standard Pipe (BSP) thread is used, which is and 14 TPI (male part outside diameter is ). The GHT and BSP standards are not compatible, and attempting to connect a GHT hose to a BSP fitting, or vice versa, will damage the threads.\n\nVarious adaptors made of metal or plastic are available to interconnect GHT, BSP, NPT, hose barb, and quick connect fittings.\n\nSection::::Quick connectors.\n", "The length of tube (measured from initial pinch point near the inlet to the final release point near the outlet) does not affect the flow rate. However, a longer tube implies more pinch points between inlet and outlet, increasing the pressure that the pump can generate.\n\nThe flow rate of a peristaltic pump is in most cases not linear. The effect of pulsation at the inlet of the pump changes the filling degree of the peristaltic hose. With high inlet pulsation the peristaltic hose with become oval and this is resulting in less flow.\n", "ISO 1307:2006, Rubber and plastics hoses—Hose sizes, minimum and maximum inside diameters, and tolerances on cut-to-length hoses specifies nominal diameters for four different types of plastic hoses, including \"Type C\", which includes the typical garden hose. Each nominal diameter specifies different ID minimum and maximum values. Notice that the nominal size is a Renard Series.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:ISO 6708 Nominal Diameter.\n", "In addition, these major U.S. areas have their own standards (sometimes two standards per city) for ″ through 6″ fire hose threads:\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Hose Thread\n\nBULLET::::- New York Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- New York City Fire Department\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Hose Thread (Crane Standard)\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Fire Department\n\nBULLET::::- Pittsburgh Gauge Hose Thread\n\nBULLET::::- Pacific Coast Thread\n\nBULLET::::- was originally developed by Valley Foundry of Fresno, California. They were designed primarily as hose fittings used in the wine industries.\n\nSection::::Timeline of Hose Coupling Design.\n\nThese are all of the major international fire hose couplings, in order of definition or first use.\n", "Section::::Timeline of North American Fire Hose Coupler Standards.\n\nThe content in this table is based on a compilation of all the sources cited in this article, plus the NFPA Technical Committee Report of 1967, \"Report of Committee on Fire Department Equipment\".\n\nANSI/ASME B1.7M-1984\n\nASME B1.7-2006: Screw Threads: Nomenclature, Definitions, and Letter Symbols.\n\nSection::::Standards.\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI/ASME B1.20.7-1991\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI B26\n\nBULLET::::- NFPA 1901\n\nBULLET::::- NFPA 1963 (old name NFPA 194)\n\nBULLET::::- NFPA 1964 Spray Nozzles\n\nBULLET::::- USDA Specification 5100-107d: \"USDA Forest Service Specification for Fire Hose Connections and Fittings\"\n\nBULLET::::- USDA 5100-192 (19 mm, 25 mm, 38 mm, and 64 mm hose sizes.)\n", "The bite valve may be installed with a right-angle extension between it and the hose, to achieve a preferred positioning and angle of the valve relative to the user's mouth.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Plumbing.:Hose anchors.\n\nPosition and angle may also be adjusted by clips that clip usually to a pack strap and (for instance by clipping to the hose, or looping around it and snapping to themselves to close the loop) control the hose's path\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Insulation.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Insulation.:Hose.\n", "Typical \"C\" factors used in design, which take into account some increase in roughness as pipe ages are as follows:\n\nSection::::Pipe equation.\n\nThe general form can be specialized for full pipe flows. Taking the general form\n\nand exponentiating each side by gives (rounding exponents to 3-4 decimals)\n\nRearranging gives\n\nThe flow rate , so\n\nThe hydraulic radius (which is different from the geometric radius ) for a full pipe of geometric diameter is ; the pipe's cross sectional area is , so\n\nSection::::Pipe equation.:U.S. customary units (Imperial).\n", "There are two basic variants of corrugated hoses that differ in their type of corrugation: annular corrugation and helical corrugation. In hoses with helical corrugation, usually a right-handed coil with a constant pitch that runs along the whole length of the hose.\n\nThe annular corrugation, on the other hand, consists of a large number of equally-spaced parallel corrugations whose main plane is perpendicular to the hose axis. Hoses with annular corrugation have decided advantages over those with helical corrugation:\n\nBULLET::::- When installed properly, they are free of damaging torsional strain during pressure surges.\n", "Components of a hydraulic system [sources (e.g. pumps), controls (e.g. valves) and actuators (e.g. cylinders)] need connections that will contain and direct the hydraulic fluid without leaking or losing the pressure that makes them work. In some cases, the components can be made to bolt together with fluid paths built-in. In more cases, though, rigid tubing or flexible hoses are used to direct the flow from one component to the next. Each component has entry and exit points for the fluid involved (called ports) sized according to how much fluid is expected to pass through it.\n", "Many types of flow instrumentation, such as flow meters, require a fully developed flow to function properly. Common flow meters, including vortex flow meters and differential-pressure flow meters, require hydrodynamically fully developed flow. Hydraulically fully developed flow is commonly achieved by having long, straight sections of pipe before the flow meter. Alternatively, flow conditioners and straightening devices may be used to produce the desired flow.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Wind tunnels.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18756	Why do toothbrush commercials always demonstrate most of the dirt being brushed off but always leave a little bit left?	They probably cannot guarantee 100% of the bacteria to be gone. Most likely for legal reasons.	[ "It is mentioned in the film \"Withnail & I\" by the character Uncle Monty. \"I often wonder where Norman is now. Probably wintering with his mother in Guildford. A cat and rain. Vim under the sink and both bars on. But old now. Old. There can be no true beauty without decay.\"\n", "Depending on application, conveying medium and tube material, the following methods of tube cleaning are available:\n\nSection::::Lost tubes.\n", "The band STS9 (Sound Tribe Sector 9) samples a Vim commercial for its song \"Instantly.\" In Season 2 Episode 5 of \"Grantchester\" Mrs Maguire (a war widow) turns down an invitation to a local dance from Jack Chapman with the excuse that she's \"vimming the sink\".\n\nIn the film adaptation of ’Steptoe and Son’, Albert Steptoe uses Vim as Bath soap when he’s washing himself in the kitchen sink\n\nIt is shown in the German-language film The Counterfeiters (2007), where protagonist Solly Sorowitsch is scouring the toilet using Vim, when a nazi guard urinates on him.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Section::::Processes.:Dry compound.\n\nAn absorbent, 98% biodegradable cleaning compound may be spread evenly over carpet and brushed or scrubbed in. For small areas, a household hand brush can work such a compound into carpet pile; dirt and grime is attracted to the compound, which is then vacuumed off, leaving carpet immediately clean and dry. For commercial applications, a specially designed cylindrical counter-rotating brushing system is used, without a vacuum cleaner. Machine scrubbing is more typical, in that hand scrubbing generally cleans only the top third of carpet.\n\nSection::::Processes.:Encapsulation.\n", "Section::::Proper Application of Dry Shampoos.\n\nThe product is applied to the scalp or roots of the hair, either through aerosol form or directly applying the powder, the powder within the product is allowed to sit on the hair for an extended period of time, and then the powder is massaged or brushed through the scalp. Allowing the product to sit in the hair before brushing it out allows more time for the product to absorb the sebum oils in the hair and brushing out the product would reduce the powder's potentially noticeable appearance.\n", "Chemical tube cleaning is understood to be the use of cleaning liquids or chemicals for removing layers and deposits. A typical example is the deliming of a coffee maker where scale is removed by means of acetic acid or citric acid. Depending on the field of application and tube material, special cleaning liquids may be used which also require a multi-stage treatment:\n\nBULLET::::- chemical activation\n\nBULLET::::- cleaning\n\nBULLET::::- rinsing\n", "Section::::Mechanical process.:On-line process.\n", "The action of such brushes is mostly from the sides, not the tip, contact with which releases material held by capillary action.\n\nBULLET::::- Paintbrush (house decoration)\n\nBULLET::::- Paintbrush (fine art)\n\nBULLET::::- Wall-paper brush\n\nBULLET::::- Shoe-polish brush (polish applicator)\n\nBULLET::::- Makeup brush\n\nBULLET::::- Mascara brush\n\nBULLET::::- Nail-polish brush\n\nBULLET::::- Finger-print forensic brush\n\nBULLET::::- Pastry brush\n\nBULLET::::- Ink brush\n\nBULLET::::- Shaving brush\n\nBULLET::::- Gilding brush\n\nSection::::By function.:Combing.\n", "Passive cleaning bodies may be a matter of brushes or special constructions like scrapers or so-called \"pigs\", for instance, which are conveyed through the tubes by means of pressurized air, water, or other media. In most cases, cleaning is implemented through the oversize of the cleaning bodies compared to the tube inner diameter. The types range from brushes with bristles of plastic or steel to scrapers (with smaller tube diameters) and more expensive designs with spraying nozzles for pipelines. This method is applied for tube and pipe diameters from around 5 mm to several metres. Also belonging to this field is the cleaning of obstructed soil pipes of domestic sewage systems that is done by means of a rotating, flexible shaft.\n", "Section::::Mechanical process.\n\nA mechanical tube cleaning system is a cleaning body that is moved through the tube in order to remove deposits from the tube wall. In the most simple case it is a matter of a brush that is moved in the tube by means of a rod or a flexible spring (device). In large-scale technology and industrial sector, however, several processes have developed which necessitate a more detailed definition.\n\nSection::::Mechanical process.:Off-line process.\n", "When cleaning equipment it is near impossible to remove all the loose molecules. It is almost certain that traces of the chemical used to clean the equipment will remain on its surfaces, forming a microscopically thin layer.\n", "BULLET::::- Wetshaving also has exfoliating properties: first, the action of moving a shaving brush vigorously across the face washes the face and removes dead skin at the same time. After applying the lather with a brush, the use of a double-edged safety razor or straight razor removes dead skin simply because the razor is dragged much more closely across the skin, and removes dead skin more effectively than a cartridge or electric razor.\n\nSection::::Types.:With hair removal.:Dermaplaning.\n", "It is mentioned in the series \"Yes, Prime Minister\". When trying to illustrate government wasteful spending, the character Sir Humphrey Appleby alleges that the government of the United Kingdom has spent enough money to \"accumulate a million tins of Vim!\" In \"Midsomer Murders\", one character shakes Vim all over the cakes of a murdered character in the episode \"Death of a Hollow Man\".\n", "Tooth brushing is the most common cause of dental abrasion, which is found to develop along the gingival margin, due to vigorous brushing in this area. The type of toothbrush, the technique used and the force applied when brushing can influence the occurrence and severity of resulting abrasion. Further, brushing for extended periods of time (exceeding 2-3 min) in some cases, when combined with medium/hard bristled toothbrushes can cause abrasive lesions.\n", "Vim is often referred to in John Mortimer's series, \"Rumpole of the Bailey\", as an example of the extravagant purchases made by his wife, referred to as \"She Who Must Be Obeyed\". It's seen in the countryside of Haiti around 1950: \"For three hours the only passer by was a young girl who shuffled along with a tin of Vim balanced on her head, and her hands hanging idle.\" \n", "Section::::Thermal process.\n", "BULLET::::- Time – The longer the contact time the deeper the graffiti remover will penetrate. The more sensitive the surface the shorter the time the graffiti product is on the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature – Warmer weather speeds up the rate in which the graffiti remover products operate.\n\nBULLET::::- Agitation – When graffiti removal products are applied by means of hard bristled brushes or scourers, it assists in breaking the bond between the graffiti and the surface. NOTE: be careful on sensitive surfaces, otherwise the underlying surface may be damaged.\n", "When wet-shampoo chemistry standards converted from coconut oil soaps to synthetic detergents as a base, the shampoos dried to a powder, and loosened dirt would attach to the powder components, requiring vacuuming by the consumer the day after cleaning.\n\nSection::::Dry-cleaning.:Dry foam carpet cleaning.\n", "Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists' offices, also cause a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed \"polishing\" action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.\n", "There are other researchers who would state that occlusal forces have nothing to do with the lesions along the CEJ and that it is the result of abrasion from toothbrush with toothpaste that causes these lesions.\n", "Traditional sugaring is done with only a ball of sugar paste- no strips are needed. This method includes applying the paste to the area against the direction of hair growth and removing the sugar paste in the direction of hair growth. This produces less pressure on the hair shaft, leading to less breakage, and resulting in smoother skin than traditional wax or sugar waxing. \n", "Oil-based drybrushing can also be scrubbed onto paper, canvas or absorbent gesso with stiff bristle brushes to impart smooth airbrushed or pastel-style effects. Next is that drybrush is sometimes mixed with other painting techniques\n\nComing from the dry brush technique, an autonomous painting technique developed in a comparatively short time:\n", "Section::::Care.:Effervescent cleansers.\n", "BULLET::::- Modern motion picture film scanners many have an option for an infrared CCD channel for dirt mapping, that can be used to automatically or in post manually remove dirt-dust spots on the film. The IR camera channel can be used with IR dirt and scratch removal system or made output on a four IR channel for downstream dirt and dirt and scratch removal systems. Popular downstream dirt and dirt and scratch removal systems are PF Clean and Digital ICE.\n", "Drybrush\n\nDrybrush is a painting technique in which a paint brush that is relatively dry, but still holds paint, is used. Load is applied to a dry support such as paper or primed canvas. The resulting brush strokes have a characteristic scratchy look that lacks the smooth appearance that washes or blended paint commonly have.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03067	Why do monkeys try to see human breasts?	confirmation bias. monkeys are curious little dudes that investigate the insides of everyone's clothes, breast or no	[ "Berger's 1980 volume \"About Looking\" includes an influential chapter, \"Why Look at Animals?\" It is cited by numerous scholars in the interdisciplinary field of animal studies. The chapter was later reproduced in a Penguin Great Ideas selection of essays of the same title.\n", "When assuming the absence of human percipients (for example in the pre-human past), Barfield says we should no longer naively speak of the world as if phenomena like those of human beings were present. Yet archaeologists and evolutionary biologists still do so all the time, forgetting what physics has been telling us.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.:§1: The Rainbow.\n", "Another study on men and women's patterns of sexual arousal confirmed that men and women have different patterns of arousal, independent of their sexual orientations. The study found that women's genitals become aroused to both human and nonhuman stimuli from movies showing humans of both genders having sex (heterosexual and homosexual) and from videos showing non-human primates (bonobos) having sex. Men did \"not\" show any sexual arousal to non-human visual stimuli, their arousal patterns being in line with their specific sexual interest (women for heterosexual men and men for homosexual men).\n", "BULLET::::2. Seeing a familiar, same-sex monkey on the other side of a clear barrier\n\nBULLET::::3. A mirror showing a reflection of the monkey\n\nWith scenario 1, females appeared anxious and avoided eye-contact, while males made threatening gestures. In scenario 2, there was little reaction by either males or females.\n", "Artist, scientist, and inventor S. Mann also created a wearable interactive art piece, the HeartCam, July 2001 in order to reverse the male gaze. Others, including Nestle, have built upon this concept of reversing the \"male gaze\" using a bra as a point-of-view for a camera.\n\nSection::::In art.:Invisibility/Aposematic Suit.\n", ", but not for monkeys. The mirror test has been criticized by researchers because it is entirely focused on vision, the primary sense in humans, while other species rely more heavily on other senses such as the sense of smell in dogs.\n", "The representations of hartebeest, more numerous (73 for the region) and in 13 cases associated with the presence of a human, show despite the absence of the spheroid \"which may have been the object of rites associating it with men,\" that it \"held an eminent place in the beliefs of the ancient populations of the South Oranians. As for the lion, represented with facing head in the old hartebeest stage where it is only a single time associated with a man, but shown in profile in the decadent style where its associations with humans are on the contrary quite frequent, it seems to have replaced hartebeest and rams. One should be able, according to Lhote, \"to interpret this phenomenon as a radical modification in the behaviour of south Oranians, a real change, unless it represents the arrival of new human populations.\"\n", "Male baboons and squirrel monkeys sometimes gesture with an erect penis as both a warning of impending danger and a threat to predators. In male squirrel monkeys, this gesture is used for social communication.\n\nSection::::Vertebrates.:Mammals.:Humans.\n", "BULLET::::- Pavlovian conditioning: The sexualisation of objects or locations is recognised in the animal breeding world. For example, male animals may become sexually aroused upon visiting a location where they have been allowed to have sex before, or upon seeing a stimulus previously associated with sexual activity such as an artificial vagina. Sexual preferences for certain cues can be artificially induced in rats by pairing scents or objects with their early sexual experiences. The primary motivation of this behaviour is Pavlovian conditioning, and the association is due to a conditioned response (or association) formed with a distinctive \"reward\".\n", "Surbeck and Hohmann showed in 2008 that bonobos sometimes do hunt monkey species. Five incidents were observed in a group of bonobos in Salonga National Park, which seemed to reflect deliberate cooperative hunting. On three occasions, the hunt was successful, and infant monkeys were captured and eaten.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Similarity to humans.\n", "Visual neurons in the inferior temporal cortex of the monkey fire selectively to hands and faces. These cells are selective in that they do not fire for other visual objects important for monkeys such as fruit and genitalia. Research finds that some of these cells can be trained to show high specificity for arbitrary visual objects, and these would seem to fit the requirements of gnostic/grandmother cells. In addition, evidence exists for cells in the human hippocampus that have highly selective responses to gnostic categories including highly selective responses to individual human faces.\n", "These studies suggest that men and women are different in terms of sexual arousal patterns and that this is also reflected in how their genitals react to sexual stimuli of both genders or even to non-human stimuli. Sexual orientation has many dimensions (attractions, behavior, identity), of which sexual arousal is the only product of sexual attractions which can be measured at present with some degree of physical precision. Thus, the fact that women are aroused by seeing non-human primates having sex does not mean that women's sexual orientation includes this type of sexual interest. Some researchers argue that women's sexual orientation depends less on their patterns of sexual arousal than men's and that other components of sexual orientation (like emotional attachment) must be taken into account when describing women's sexual orientations. In contrast, men's sexual orientations tend to be primarily focused on the physical component of attractions and, thus, their sexual feelings are more exclusively oriented according to sex.\n", "Then at a bit more than 75 meters it seems that the sanctuary (properly so-called) begins, with more than 50 deer (the majority female), the horses about half that number, and the cattle (aurochs and bison) fewer, strategically placed dominating the most visible places. In this sanctuary there have been found an anthropomorph, a vulva, linear and dotted symbols, a square and a great quantity of tectiforms, about as many as the deer.\n", "This case may provide some argument or protection in the area of reasonable expectation of privacy in one's home and curtilage given the rapid advancement of drone technology, particularly given law enforcements' stated intent to deploy these technologies. This question may well turn on the court's interpretation of the \"naked eye\" test (described in the earlier \"Ciraolo\" case) in relation to the \"enhanced view\" test. It would seem enhanced view(s) are achievable through the use of drone technology. See also: \"Kyllo v. United States,\" 533 U.S. 27 (2001) (precludes enhanced views from outside a home without a warrant, using thermal imaging).\n", "Section::::Visual dominance in animals.\n", "As well as the central issue of genetically programmed behaviour, Denton has studied also higher cognitive function in chimpanzees – explicitly self-awareness. Hitherto it was established by Gallup and others that chimpanzees used mirror reflections to examine otherwise visually inaccessible parts of the body e.g. genitalia or arm pit.\n", "Tinbergen's field observations on priming have been supported by a number of experiments. For example, Pietrewicz and Kamil (1977, 1979) presented blue jays with pictures of tree trunks upon which rested either a moth of species A, a moth of species B, or no moth at all. The birds were rewarded for pecks at a picture showing a moth. Crucially, the probability with which a particular species of moth was detected was higher after repeated trials with that species (e.g. A, A, A...) than it was after a mixture of trials (e.g. A, B, B, A, B, A, A...). These results suggest again that sequential encounters with an object can establish an attentional predisposition to see the object.\n", "Chimpanzees have passed the False Belief Test (see above) involving anticipating the gaze of humans when objects have been removed.\n\nSection::::In nonhuman primates.:Other primates.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nSpatial view cells can be characterized by the following features:\n\nBULLET::::- respond to a region of visual space being looked at, relatively independently of where the monkey is located\n\nBULLET::::- respond to a small number of visual cues generally within a 30° receptive field\n\nBULLET::::- activated when doing spatial tasks which include active walking in a spatial environment\n\nBULLET::::- fire relatively independent of the place where the monkey is located\n\nBULLET::::- represent the place at which the monkey is looking\n\nBULLET::::- generally stimulated by at least 3 cues present in optimal view\n", "These six researchers attempted to answer the question, \"Why?\" in their next experiment. They found that dogs were more successful in finding hidden food and in completing a learned task than wolves were. The most prominent observation these researchers made was that the dogs would look into the eyes of the human as if looking for a clue and the wolves would not look at the faces of the humans. They concluded that this is a genetic difference between the two species as a result of evolution.\n\nSection::::Monkeys.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:\"Ways of Seeing\": the Renaissance nude.\n", "Section::::The study in different species.:Chicks.\n", "BULLET::::- Viewing images: A study using four adult male rhesus macaques (\"Macaca mulatta\") showed that male rhesus macaques will give up a highly valued item, juice, to see images of the faces or perineum of high-status females. Encouraging captive pandas to mate is problematic. Showing young male pandas \"panda pornography\" is credited with a recent population boom among pandas in captivity in China. One researcher attributed the success to the sounds on the recordings.\n", "BULLET::::- The waves that wash Betty to shore on an island spank her once. Then she walks ashore and takes off her wet outer clothes out of sight behind what appears to be a boulder, but it turns out to be a turtle that sticks out its head and legs and walks off, exposing Betty in her underwear and bra. She blushes and runs behind some shrubs, where she puts on a skirt made of palm leaves (with her bra exposed) before reappearing.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Is My Palm Read at YouTube\n", "Studies that use visual stimulation as a means for sexual stimulation find that sexual arousal is predominantly correlated with an activation in limbic and paralimbic cortex and in subcortical structures, along with a deactivation in several parts of the temporal cortex. These same areas are activated during physical sexual stimulation highlighting how powerful visual stimulation can be as a means of sexual arousal.\n\nSection::::Alternative routes.:Olfactory and evolutionary.\n" ]	[ "Monkies try to see human breasts." ]	[ "Monkies are just curious and want to look inside of anything they can." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Monkies try to see human breasts." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Monkies are just curious and want to look inside of anything they can." ]
2018-03963	Why do skin tags bleed so much when you remove them?	Skin tags are benign tumours and so have their own blood supply. So, in a sense your body "knows" to deliver more blood to them. It does this by creating a greater network of vessels, some of which are larger than typical capillaries you would find in the outer layers of skin. So when removed, they typically bleed more because more clotting is required.	[ "Section::::Etiology.\n", "Metal tags usually have their information embossed or engraved onto, or stamped into, their surface. The characters created by embossing or engraving are made by removing some of the tag's surface and are not typically as deep as stamped characters, which are made by stamping the tag with a metal die. Stamped tags are therefore often more durable than engraved tags, though some drag-engraving and laser engraving methods can be as deep, or deeper, than the stamped versions.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2009, the FDA announced a public health advisory warning of the risk of burns during MRI scans from transdermal drug patches with metallic backings. Patients should be advised to remove any medicated patch prior to an MRI scan and replace it with a new patch after the scan is complete.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2009, an article in \"Europace\" journal detailed stories of skin burns that occurred with transdermal patches that contain metal (usually as a backing material) caused by shock therapy from external as well as internal cardioverter defibrillators (ICD).\n\nSection::::Components.\n\nThe main components to a transdermal patch are:\n", "Elevated blood sugar and insulin is linked to an increased incidence of skin tags through an unknown mechanism.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nLike moles, removal of skin tags poses a threat of exacerbation of the tumorous site. Though rare, it is possible to develop a malignant tumor by removal. If removal is desired or warranted, it can be achieved using a home treatment kit, dermatologist, general practitioner or similarly trained professional who may use cauterisation, cryosurgery, excision, laser, or surgical ligation to remove the acrochorda.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Molluscum contagiosum (a viral disease which is similar in appearance and grows in similar areas)\n", "Legacy items sometimes need to be marked, as well. If it is determined that a legacy machine needs to be marked, the EID used to generate a UII must be of the organization ensuring uniqueness rather than any previous marks.\n\nSection::::Marking Quality.\n\nFinally, there are also specifications regarding the marking quality of an MRI. \n\n- Linear Bar Code: Unless otherwise specified in the contract or order, ISO/IEC 15416 is the protocol for measuring the print quality of a linear bar code.\n", "The diagnosis is clinical. Amalgam tattoo can be distinguished from other causes of localized oral pigmentation because it does not change significantly in size or color, although it may appear to slowly enlarge for several months after the initial implantation of the metal particles. Some amalgam tattoos appear radio-opaque on radiographs (i.e. they show up on x-rays), although in many cases amalgam tattoos have no radiographic features since the responsible particle(s) of amalgam are very small even though clinically the area of discolored mucosa is much larger.\n", "NFC Tags that \"do\" comply with NFC Forum Type 1 or Type 2 compatibility protocols\n\nSection::::Compatibility.:Tag encoding.\n", "Immediately after the freeze branding iron is removed from the skin, an indented outline of the brand will be visible. Within seconds, however, the outline will disappear and within several minutes after that, the brand outline will reappear as swollen, puffy skin. Once the swelling subsides, for a short time, the brand will be difficult or impossible to see, but in a few days, the branded skin will begin to flake, and within three to four weeks, the brand will begin to take on its permanent appearance.\n\nSection::::Horse branding regulations.\n", "Plastic chips can be etched or printed, come in many colors, and may be highly reflective to enhance visibility at night. Some plastics are sensitive to ultraviolet light and the color and even composition can fade over time. ABS plastics are among the most durable for use as pet ID tags. \n\nSome tags use dye-sublimation to print images and artwork to aluminum tags. The image is permanent and resists fading and wear. 3D printing is also used to create tags from a variety of materials.\n", "The tagging pattern can also be varied to enable sorting of mail according to the service class.\n\nSection::::Methods and detection.\n\nSection::::Methods and detection.:Fluorescence.\n\nUpon absorption of light, fluorescent materials emit light upon of a longer wavelength (lower energy) than the absorbed radiation, but cease to do so once immediately, when the illumination is stopped. The tagging of stamps uses substances that absorb ultraviolet light of wavelengths between 300 nm and 450 nm (\"Black light\", UVA, long-wave UV) and emit light in the visible spectrum. Under UV illumination they usually glow a greenish or yellowish colour.\n", "Some tags (along with similar items such as MedicAlert bracelets) are used also by civilians to identify their wearers and specify them as having health problems that may br\n\n\"(a)\" suddenly incapacitate their wearers and render them incapable of providing treatment guidance (as in the cases of heart problems, epilepsy, diabetic coma, accident or major trauma) and/or br \n\n\"(b)\" interact adversely with medical treatments, especially standard or \"first-line\" ones (as in the case of an allergy to common medications) and/or br\n\n\"(c)\" provide in case of emergency (\"ICE\") contact information and/or br \n", "Microdermal implants can be placed practically anywhere on the surface of the skin on the body, but are different from conventional piercings in that they are composed of two components: an anchor, which is implanted underneath the skin, with a step protruding from (or flush with) the surface of the surrounding skin, and the changeable jewellery, which is screwed into the threaded hole in the step of the anchor.\n\nThey should not be implanted in hands, feet, wrists, collarbones or any area where it is not flat or that is near a joint.\n\nSection::::Microdermal implants.:Procedure.\n", "BULLET::::- The original T-ferrule design is the seamless aluminium ferrule, intended for galvanized or bright wire ropes. It corresponds to European standard, EN 13411-3. From size 8 and upwards fully traceable (ISO 9001) and marked with size, type and manufacturing batch number.\n\nBULLET::::- The UM-ferrule (Ultagrip Metal) is a cylindrical ferrule, smaller in diameter after pressing than the T-ferrule.\n", "Section::::Information provided.\n", "These characteristics are much different compared to the old battery tags, which would read fine if not mounted properly. As such, some toll patrons attempt to hold up their sticker tags when driving through the toll lanes, and appear mystified when they do not work as their old tags did.\n\nThe new tag uses three different protocols, or communications methods, with the tag readers—ATA, eGo and SeGo.\n", "Transdermal\n\nTransdermal is a route of administration wherein active ingredients are delivered across the skin for systemic distribution. Examples include transdermal patches used for medicine delivery.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Obstacles.\n", "Of course, there are exceptions to the MRI marking routine as well. COTS (Commercial Off The Shelf) items that are clearly marked with some sort of commercial identification (firm name, logo, trademark, part number, etc.) and are not subject to IUID marking may be exempt from additional marking requirements, as long as the item presents no identification difficulty. Furthermore, parts within an assembly or subassembly that are not expected to be removed, repaired, or replaced are exempt from MRI marking unless it is otherwise stated in the contract.\n", "Other mechanisms designed to protect privacy for RFID item tagging for retail use are the EPCglobal kill command and the RSA blocker tag. \n\nSection::::Clipped tag development.\n", "The procedure is usually performed using a dermal punch or needle. When a dermal piercing is done with a punch, the pouch is made in a different way. When using a needle, the pouch is made by separating the skin. When using a dermal punch, the pouch is made by removing a bit of tissue. A microdermal punch is less painful and therefore commonly used. The process starts by identifying the point of piercing on the sterilized area that will be marked with a surgical marker. The microdermal punch is then used to remove skin tissues. The anchor is then placed under the skin and a piece of jewelry is placed using surgical forceps.\n", "BULLET::::- Autologen, an injectable dermal material made from the patient's own skin. No risk of allergy exists but the results are very temporary because the body quickly absorbs the material.\n\nBULLET::::- Collagen requires an allergy test because the material is extracted from bovine hides. It lasts anywhere from four weeks to three months because it is also absorbed into the body. However, the allergy test must be observed for four weeks.\n", "In an effort to prevent the passive “skimming” of RFID-enabled cards or passports, the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) issued a set of test procedures for evaluating electromagnetically opaque sleeves. For shielding products to be in compliance with FIPS-201 guidelines, they must meet or exceed this published standard. Shielding products currently evaluated as FIPS-201 compliant are listed on the website of the U.S. CIO's FIPS-201 Evaluation Program. The United States government requires that when new ID cards are issued, they must be delivered with an approved shielding sleeve or holder.\n", "For items that are under the control of the Department of Defense and subject for marking, there are many specifications that must be met for a proper mark. These requirements state that all marking must be applied to a metal or stiff plastic identification plate, identification band, identification tag, or identification label that is securely fastened to the item. Additionally, the marking may even be applied directly to the surface of the item itself – provided of course it can still meet the requirements described below.\n", "BULLET::::1. Triangular flaps; For this technique the circumference between the two borders must be measured. Depending on the difference the number of triangular flaps can be decided. With a triangular flap you can create more skin.\n", "Transdermal implant\n\nTransdermal implants is a form of body modification used both in a medical and aesthetic context. In either case, they consist of an object placed partially below and partially above the skin, thus \"trans\"dermal. The skin around it generally heals as if it were a piercing.\n\nIn the body piercing community, these types of modification are generally called fairly \"heavy\" due to the complexity of the procedure and the social implications. Two types of implants can be used.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "Skin tags are thought to occur from skin rubbing up against skin, since they are so often found in skin creases and folds. Studies have shown existence of low-risk HPV 6 and 11 in skin tags, hinting at a possible role in its pathogenesis although one 2012 study found no association between skin tags and low risk or high risk human papillomaviruses. Acrochorda have been reported to have a prevalence of 46% in the general population. A causal genetic component is thought to exist. They also are more common in women than in men. Acrochorda were once thought to be associated with colorectal polyps, but studies have shown no such connection exists. Rarely, they can be associated with the Birt–Hogg–Dubé syndrome, acromegaly, and polycystic ovary syndrome.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04128	What's the difference between frozen rain, snow, sleet, hail?	Snow is frozen water foam, if you will. Aerated ice. Freezing rain is liquid and turns into ice on impact with the frozen ground. Hail is frozen rain drops. Sleet is similar to hail, but finer.	[ "BULLET::::- \"Winter storm\" — Winter storms may constitute any combination of sleet, snow, ice, and wind that accumulates or more of snow in 12 hours or less; or or more in 24 hours or of ice.\n\nSection::::Classification of snow events.:Precipitation.\n\nPrecipitation may be characterized by type and intensity.\n\nSection::::Classification of snow events.:Precipitation.:Type.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Hail.\n", "Precipitation can fall in either liquid or solid phases, or transition between them at the freezing level. Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and drizzle. Rain or drizzle which freezes on contact within a subfreezing air mass gains the preceding adjective \"freezing\", becoming known as freezing rain or freezing drizzle. Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice crystals, ice pellets (sleet), hail, and graupel. Their respective intensities are classified either by rate of fall, or by visibility restriction.\n\nSection::::Phases.\n\nPrecipitation falls in many forms, or phases. They can be subdivided into:\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid precipitation:\n\nBULLET::::- Drizzle (DZ)\n\nBULLET::::- Rain (RA)\n", "Hail\n\nHail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets (American English \"sleet\"), though the two are often confused. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Ice pellets fall generally in cold weather while hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures.\n", "Section::::Terminology.\n\nIce pellets are known as sleet in the United States, the official term used by the U.S. National Weather Service. However, the term sleet refers to a mixture of rain and snow in most Commonwealth countries, including Canada. Because of this, Environment Canada never uses the term \"sleet\", and uses the terms \"ice pellets\" or \"wet snow\" instead.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "This precipitation type is commonly known as sleet in most Commonwealth countries, including Canada. However, the United States National Weather Service uses the term sleet to refer to ice pellets.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "There is a long history of northern and alpine cultures describing snow in their different languages, including Inupiat, Russian and Finnish. However, the lore about the multiplicity of Eskimo words for snow originates from controversial scholarship on a topic that's difficult to define, because of the structures of the languages involved.\n\nSection::::Classification of snow events.\n\nSnow events reflect the type of storm that generates them and the type of precipitation that results. Classification systems use rates of deposition, types of precipitation, visibility, duration and wind speed to characterize such events.\n\nSection::::Classification of snow events.:Snow-producing events.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Slush\" — Slush is substantially melted snow with visible water in it.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Snirt\" — Snirt is an informal term for snow covered with dirt, especially where strong winds pick up topsoil from uncovered farm fields and blow it into nearby snowy areas. Also, dirty snow left over from plowing operations.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spring snow\" — Spring snow describes a variety of temperature and moisture conditions with corn snow.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Watermelon snow\" — Watermelon snow is reddish pink, caused by a red-colored green algae called \"Chlamydomonas nivalis\".\n\nSection::::Other cultures.\n", "Section::::Accumulation.:Snow events.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ice pellet\" — Ice pellets have two manifestations, \"sleet\" and \"small hail\", that result in irregular spherical particles, which typically bounce upon impact. Sleet comprises grains of ice that form from refreezing of largely melted snowflakes when falling through into a frozen layer of air near the surface. Small hail forms from snow pellets encased in a thin layer of ice caused either by accretion of droplets or by refreezing of each particle's surface.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hail\" — Hail forms in cumulonimbus clouds as irregular spheres of ice (\"hailstones\") with a diameter of 5 mm or more.\n", "Studies of the Sami languages of Norway, Sweden and Finland, conclude that the languages have anywhere from 180 snow-and-ice-related words and as many as 300 different words for types of snow, tracks in snow, and conditions of the use of snow.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Glacier\n\nBULLET::::- Ice\n\nBULLET::::- METAR — a format for reporting weather information\n\nBULLET::::- The wrong type of snow\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Why and How to Study a Snowcover – contains an extensive taxonomy of show terminology borrowed from Inuit and some other languages\n", "BULLET::::- Spring conditions — Spring conditions describe a variety of melting snow surfaces, including mushy powder or granular snow, which refreeze at night.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wet\" — Wet refers to warm snow with a high moisture content.\n\nSection::::Classifications of snow on the ground.:Informal classification.\n\nSkiers and others living with snow provide informal terms for snow conditions that they encounter.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Corn snow\" — Corn snow is coarse, granular snow, subject to freeze-thaw.\n", "Section::::Natural formation.:In the air.:Hail.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Snow pellet\" — Snow pellets (also \"soft hail\", \"graupel\", \"tapioca snow\") consist of spherical or conical ice particles, based on a snowlike structure, with diameters between 2 mm and 5 mm. They form by accretion of supercooled droplets near or slightly below the freezing point and rebound off a hard surfaces upon landing.\n\nSection::::Classification of snow events.:Precipitation.:Intensity.\n\nIn the US, the intensity of snowfall is characterized by visibility through the falling precipitation, as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Light snow\": visibility of or greater\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moderate snow\": visibility between and\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heavy snow\": visibility of less than\n\nSection::::Snow crystal classification.\n", "Classifications of snow\n\nClassifications of snow describe and categorize the attributes of snow-generating weather events, including the individual crystals both in the air and on the ground, and the deposited snow pack as it changes over time. Snow can be classified by describing the weather event that is producing it, the shape of its ice crystals or flakes, how it collects on the ground, and thereafter how it changes form and composition. Depending on the status of the snow in the air or on the ground, a different classification applies.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Ice pellets.\n\nIce pellets or sleet are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. Ice pellets are usually (but not always) smaller than hailstones. They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.\n", "The following terms are consistent with the classifications of United States National Weather Service and the Meteorological Service of Canada:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blizzard —\" Blizzards are characterized by sustained wind or frequent gusts of or greater and falling or blowing snow that frequently lowers visibility to less than over a period of 3 hours or longer.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cold front\" — A cold front is the leading edge of unstable cold air, replacing warmer, circulating around an extratropical cyclone, which may cause instability snow showers or squalls.\n", "Rain and snow mixed\n\nRain and snow mixed is precipitation composed of rain and partially melted snow. Unlike ice pellets, which are hard, and freezing rain, which is fluid until striking an object, this precipitation is soft and translucent, but it contains some traces of ice crystals, from partially fused snowflakes. In any one location, it usually occurs briefly as a transition phase from rain to snow or vice versa. Its METAR code is RASN.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Precipitation (disambiguation)\n\nPrecipitation may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Precipitation, the meteorological phenomenon consisting of rain, sleet, hail, snow, and other forms of water falling from the sky.\n\nBULLET::::- Basic precipitation, a type of meteorological precipitation characterized by high alkalinity\n\nBULLET::::- Precipitation (chemistry), the condensation of a solid from a solution during a chemical reaction:\n\nBULLET::::- Ammonium sulfate precipitation, a method of purifying proteins\n\nBULLET::::- Precipitation hardening, a method used to strengthen malleable materials\n\nBULLET::::- Protein precipitation, a method of separating contaminants from biological products\n\nBULLET::::- Ethanol precipitation, a method of concentrating DNA\n\nBULLET::::- Precipitation (horse), a racehorse\n", "BULLET::::- Cloudburst\n\nBULLET::::- Sunshower\n\nBULLET::::- Freezing precipitation:\n\nBULLET::::- Freezing drizzle (FZDZ)\n\nBULLET::::- Freezing rain (FZRA)\n\nBULLET::::- Rain and snow mixed / Slush (RASN)\n\nBULLET::::- Drizzle and snow mixed / Slush (DASN)\n\nBULLET::::- Frozen precipitation:\n\nBULLET::::- Snow (SN)\n\nBULLET::::- Snow grains (SG)\n\nBULLET::::- Ice pellets / Sleet (PL)\n\nBULLET::::- Hail (GR)\n\nBULLET::::- Snow pellets / Graupel (GS)\n\nBULLET::::- Ice crystals (IC)\n\nThe parenthesized letters are the METAR codes for each phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n", "BULLET::::- Rain – precipitation in which separate drops of water fall to the Earth from clouds, a product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor\n\nBULLET::::- Snow – precipitation in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes that fall from clouds\n\nBULLET::::- Freezing rain – precipitation that falls from a cloud as snow, melts completely on its way down, then passes through a layer of below-freezing air becoming supercooled, at which point it will freeze upon impact with any object encountered\n", "Section::::Classification.\n\nThe \"International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground\" has a more extensive classification of deposited snow than those that pertain to airborne snow. A list of the main categories (quoted together with their codes) comprises:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Precipitation particles (PP)\" (See below)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Machine-made snow (MM)\" – May be round polycrystalline particles from freezing of very small water droplets from the surface inward or crushed ice particles from crushing and forced distribution\n", "Snowfall arises from a variety of events that vary in intensity and cause, subject to classification by weather bureaus. Some snowstorms are part of a larger weather pattern. Other snowfall occurs from lake effects or atmospheric instability near mountains. Falling snow takes many different forms, depending on atmospheric conditions, especially vapor content and temperature, as it falls to the ground. Once on the ground, snow crystals metamorphose into different shapes, influenced by wind, freeze-thaw and sublimation. Snow on the ground forms a variety of shapes, formed by wind and thermal processes, all subject to \"formal\" classifications both by scientists and by ski resorts. Those who work and play in snowy landscapes have \"informal\" classifications, as well.\n", "A concept used in precipitation measurement is the hydrometeor. Any particulates of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere are known as hydrometeors. Formations due to condensation, such as clouds, haze, fog, and mist, are composed of hydrometeors. All precipitation types are made up of hydrometeors by definition, including virga, which is precipitation which evaporates before reaching the ground. Particles blown from the Earth's surface by wind, such as blowing snow and blowing sea spray, are also hydrometeors, as are hail and snow.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Satellite estimates.\n", "Wintry showers is a somewhat informal meteorological term, used primarily in the United Kingdom, to refer to various mixtures of rain, graupel and snow. Though no \"official\" criteria exist for the term, in the United Kingdom the term is not used when any significant accumulation of snow on the ground takes place. It is often used when the temperature of the ground surface is above , preventing accumulation from occurring even if the air temperature is marginally below ; but even then, the falling precipitation must generally be something other than exclusively snow.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02823	What causes fingers to readily leave fingerprints? How are they so easily found/recorded by police?	The body oils in your hands leave the prints. The police put powder on things and dust it off, the oils will keep the powder in the same spot.	[ "When a dysfunctional family gathers for Thanksgiving at their New England home, past demons reveal themselves as one son returns for the first time in three years.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Julianne Moore as Mia\n\nBULLET::::- Roy Scheider as Hal\n\nBULLET::::- Hope Davis as Margaret\n\nBULLET::::- Blythe Danner as Lena\n\nBULLET::::- Noah Wyle as Warren\n\nBULLET::::- Laurel Holloman as Leigh\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Vartan as Jake\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Bauer as Jerry\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSet in New England, the film was shot in Andover, Bethel, and Waterville, Maine (Colby College).\n", "Section::::Criminals.\n\nBULLET::::- Stewart Otis (William O'Leary, season 1): Stewart is a registered pedophile with a long record starting at age twelve. He has been in and out of prison for years and as a forensic countermeasure, he cut off his fingerprints and put them back on in a different arrangement, so that if his prints ever did come up at a crime scene they wouldn't register in the system. He has shown to be doing this a long time as he avoids cameras with ease and is very calculating.\n", "Fingerprints at a crime scene may be detected by simple powders, or by chemicals applied \"in situ\". More complex techniques, usually involving chemicals, can be applied in specialist laboratories to appropriate articles removed from a crime scene. With advances in these more sophisticated techniques, some of the more advanced crime scene investigation services from around the world were, as of 2010, reporting that 50% or more of the fingerprints recovered from a crime scene had been identified as a result of laboratory-based techniques.\n\nSection::::Forensic laboratories.\n", "A fingerprint is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of partial fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Moisture and grease on a finger result in fingerprints on surfaces such as glass or metal. Deliberate impressions of entire fingerprints can be obtained by ink or other substances transferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a smooth surface such as paper. Fingerprint records normally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, although fingerprint cards also typically record portions of lower joint areas of the fingers.\n", "Exemplar prints, or known prints, is the name given to fingerprints deliberately collected from a subject, whether for purposes of enrollment in a system or when under arrest for a suspected criminal offense. During criminal arrests, a set of exemplar prints will normally include one print taken from each finger that has been rolled from one edge of the nail to the other, plain (or slap) impressions of each of the four fingers of each hand, and plain impressions of each thumb. Exemplar prints can be collected using live scan or by using ink on paper cards.\n\nSection::::Fingerprinting techniques.:Latent.\n", "Offenders who wear gloves tend to use their hands and fingers very freely, and thus, because their gloves give them a false sense of protection, leave easily distinguishable glove prints on the surfaces they handle. If when either a fingerprint is able to pass through a glove, or when, because of holes in a glove, finger and glove prints appear together, investigators are now able to better distinguish between prints made by friction ridges and prints made by gloves. Many times this also happens because criminals also opt to wear gloves that are both tight-fitting and relatively short, which makes the occurrence of prints being made by the butt of the palm and the wrist (palm prints) more common as the gloves may slip, thus exposing areas of the skin that may leave prints. Also, many times criminals would discard their gloves at crime scenes or hide them nearby. Today, latent fingerprints (first discovered on the surfaces of fabrics by investigators in the 1930s), as well as DNA and incriminating bacteria can also be recovered from the inside of these discarded gloves.\n", "In 1910 Edmond Locard established the first forensic lab in France. Criminals may wear gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints. However, the gloves themselves can leave prints that are as unique as human fingerprints. After collecting glove prints, law enforcement can match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence or to prints collected at other crime scenes. In many jurisdictions the act of wearing gloves itself while committing a crime can be prosecuted as an inchoate offense.\n\nSection::::Use of fingerprints in schools.\n", "While the police often describes all partial fingerprints found at a crime scene as latent prints, forensic scientists call partial fingerprints that are readily visible \"patent prints\". Chocolate, toner, paint or ink on fingers will result in patent fingerprints. Latent fingerprints impressions that are found on soft material, such as soap, cement or plaster, are called \"plastic prints\" by forensic scientists.\n\nSection::::Capture and detection.\n\nSection::::Capture and detection.:Live scan devices.\n", "In forensic science a partial fingerprint lifted from a surface, is called a \"latent fringerprint\". Moisture and grease on fingers result in latent fingerprints on surfaces such as glass. But because they are not clearly visible their detection may require chemical development through powder dusting, the spraying of ninhydrin, iodine fuming, or soaking in silver nitrate. Depending on the surface or the material on which a latent fingerprint has been found, different methods of chemical development must be used. Forensic scientists use different techniques for porous surfaces, such as paper, and nonporous surfaces, such as glass, metal or plastic. Nonporous surfaces require the dusting process, where fine powder and a brush are used, followed by the application of transparent tape to lift the latent fingerprint off the surface.\n", "Many criminals often wear gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints, which makes the crime investigation more difficult. Although the gloves act as a protective covering for the wearer's prints, the gloves themselves can leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints, thus betraying the wearer. After collecting glove prints, law enforcement can then match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence as well as glove prints retrieved from other crime scenes.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Lizi Botham (Bizi Lizi) hosted a segment where she uses her fingerprints to create pictures. These would appear three times throughout the episode. The other segment she hosted was where she visits a group of children at a school and make something. She wears a yellow shirt.\n", "Fingerprint identification, known as dactyloscopy, or hand print identification, is the process of comparing two instances of friction ridge skin impressions (see Minutiae), from human fingers or toes, or even the palm of the hand or sole of the foot, to determine whether these impressions could have come from the same individual. The flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever exactly alike in every detail; even two impressions recorded immediately after each other from the same hand may be slightly different. Fingerprint identification, also referred to as individualization, involves an expert, or an expert computer system operating under threshold scoring rules, determining whether two friction ridge impressions are likely to have originated from the same finger or palm (or toe or sole).\n", "Fingerprints collected at a crime scene, or on items of evidence from a crime, have been used in forensic science to identify suspects, victims and other persons who touched a surface. Fingerprint identification emerged as an important system within police agencies in the late 19th century, when it replaced anthropometric measurements as a more reliable method for identifying persons having a prior record, often under a false name, in a criminal record repository. Fingerprinting has served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years or so to provide identification of criminals. Fingerprints are the fundamental tool in every police agency for the identification of people with a criminal history.\n", "Since the late nineteenth century, fingerprint identification methods have been used by police agencies around the world to identify suspected criminals as well as the victims of crime. The basis of the traditional fingerprinting technique is simple. The skin on the palmar surface of the hands and feet forms ridges, so-called papillary ridges, in patterns that are unique to each individual and which do not change over time. Even identical twins (who share their DNA) do not have identical fingerprints. The best way to render latent fingerprints visible, so that they can be photographed, can be complex and may depend, for example, on the type of surfaces on which they have been left. It is generally necessary to use a ‘developer’, usually a powder or chemical reagent, to produce a high degree of visual contrast between the ridge patterns and the surface on which a fingerprint has been deposited.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2011, the Maricopa County, Arizona Sheriff's Office began investigating a string of robberies, dating to at least 1993, of high-end homes in the vicinity of Paradise Valley, Arizona. Investigators noted that the assailant (or assailants) wore fabric/cloth gardening gloves with rubber grips that had left unique prints on many surfaces in the burglarized locations. Upon arresting a 58-year-old suspect near a home that was under surveillance by the sheriff's office, authorities found amongst burglary tools in his possession, gardening gloves that matched the unique prints found at the burglarized locations.\n", "The French scientist Paul-Jean Coulier developed a method to transfer latent fingerprints on surfaces to paper using iodine fuming. It allowed the London Scotland Yard to start fingerprinting individuals and identify criminals using fingerprints in 1901. Soon after, American police departments adopted the same method and fingerprint identification became a standard practice in the United States. The Scheffer case of 1902 is the first case of the identification, arrest, and conviction of a murderer based upon fingerprint evidence. Alphonse Bertillon identified the thief and murderer Scheffer, who had previously been arrested and his fingerprints filed some months before, from the fingerprints found on a fractured glass showcase, after a theft in a dentist's apartment where the dentist's employee was found dead. It was able to be proved in court that the fingerprints had been made after the showcase was broken. \n", "The validity of forensic fingerprint evidence has been challenged by academics, judges and the media. In the United States fingerprint examiners have not developed uniform standards for the identification of an individual based on matching fingerprints. In some countries where fingerprints are also used in criminal investigations, fingerprint examiners are required to match a number of \"identification points\" before a match is accepted. In England 16 identification points are required and in France 12, to match two fingerprints and identify an individual. Point-counting methods have been challenged by some fingerprint examiners because they focus solely on the location of particular characteristics in fingerprints that are to be matched. Fingerprint examiners may also uphold the \"one dissimilarity doctrine\", which holds that if there is one dissimilarity between two fingerprints, the fingerprints are not from the same finger. Furthermore academics have argued that the error rate in matching fingerprints has not been adequately studied. And it has been argued that fingerprint evidence has no secure statistical foundation. Research has been conducted into whether experts can objectively focus on feature information in fingerprints without being misled by extraneous information, such as context. \n", "June 30, 2008: Ronald Taverner is still on the houseboat with his father and cousin and his girlfriend Sarah Fieldman. We learn that he is suffering from amnesia. His father, Tab, brings him below deck to show him something. Down there is his twin brother-Roland Taverner, he is tied up to a chair. Tab tells him that Ronald kidnapped his own brother to hide him up at the lake for several days. His father tells him that he doesn’t remember it because he hit his head, which caused memory loss and he instructs him to keep taking the injections. His brother Roland was drafted in the Iraqi War and was sent home to work for the U.P.U. (Urban Pacification Unit) Level 2 and uncovered a conspiracy and if the government found him, they would get the information out of him.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2009, a teenager was arrested in Royal Oak, Michigan for obstructing police near the location of a recently reported burglary. While in custody investigators compared the gloves that the suspect had in his possession to glove prints that were found at several break-in locations. Investigators were able to link marks left on a window to his gloves.\n", "Mark Twain's memoir \"Life on the Mississippi\" (1883), notable mainly for its account of the author's time on the river, also recounts parts of his later life, and includes tall tales and stories allegedly told to him. Among them is an involved, melodramatic account of a murder in which the killer is identified by a thumbprint. Twain's novel \"Pudd'nhead Wilson\", published in 1893, includes a courtroom drama that turns on fingerprint identification.\n\nSection::::In fiction.:Crime fiction.\n", "Fingerprints can be erased permanently and this can potentially be used by criminals to reduce their chance of conviction. Erasure can be achieved in a variety of ways including simply burning the fingertips, using acids and advanced techniques such as plastic surgery. John Dillinger burned his fingers with acid, but prints taken during a previous arrest and upon death still exhibited almost complete relation to one another.\n\nSection::::Fingerprint verification.\n", "In the 1930s criminal investigators in the United States first discovered the existence of latent fingerprints on the surfaces of fabrics, most notably on the insides of gloves discarded by perpetrators.\n", "Fingerprints (also includes palm prints and bare footprints) are the best evidence to place an individual at the scene of a crime. Collecting fingerprints at a crime scene requires very few materials, making it ideal from a cost standpoint. All non-movable items at a crime scene should be processed at the scene using gray powder, black powder, or black magnetic powder. Polaroid 665 black and white film loaded in a Polaroid CU-5 camera with detachable flash should be used to make one-to-one photographs of prints which do not readily lift. All small transportable items should be packaged in paper bags or envelopes and sent to the crime lab for processing. Because of the \"package it up and send it to the lab\" mentality, some investigators skim over collecting prints at a crime scene. Collecting prints at the crime scene should be every investigator's top priority. Fingerprints from the suspect as well as elimination fingerprints from the victim will also be needed for comparison (the same holds true for palm and bare footprints). Bite marks are found many times in sexual assaults and can be matched back to the individual who did the biting. They should be photographed using an ABFO No. 2 Scale with normal lighting conditions, side lighting, UV light, and alternate light sources. Color slide and print film as well as black and white film should be used. The more photographs under a variety of conditions, the better. Older bitemarks which are no longer visible on the skin may sometimes be visualized and photographed using UV light and alternate light sources. If the bitemark has left an impression then maybe a cast can be made of it. Casts and photographs of the suspect's teeth and maybe the victim's teeth will be needed for comparison. For more information consult a forensic odontologist. Much like a bullet that has individualizing striations on it, natural fingernails have individualizing striations on them. A broken fingernail found at a crime scene can be matched to the individual it came from many months after the crime has been committed. Broken fingernails should be placed in a paper packet which is then placed in a paper envelope. It can then be transported to the crime lab for analysis. Known samples from the suspect and maybe from the victim will be needed for comparison. Handwriting samples can also be matched back to the individual that produced them. Known exemplars of the suspected person's handwriting must be submitted for comparison to the unknown samples. Questioned documents can also be processed for fingerprints. All items should be collected in paper containers. For more information consult a questioned documents examiner. Fracture matches can positively link broken pieces at the scene with pieces found in the possession of a suspect. For example, headlight fragments found at the scene of a hit and run could be positively matched to a broken headlight (just like putting together a jigsaw puzzle) on a suspect's vehicle. Larger fragments should be placed in paper bags or envelopes. Smaller fragments should be placed in a paper packet and then placed in an envelope. If a root sheath is attached, then DNA analysis using PCR technology can say that this hair came from a certain percentage of the population to which the suspect belongs. If there is no root sheath, then a microscopic analysis can say that the hair has the same characteristics as the suspect's hair and is similar to his or her hair. At this point, no one can say that a hair came from a particular individual. Hair found at the scene should be placed in a paper packet and then placed in an envelope. If a microscopic examination is required, then 15–20 representative hairs from the suspect must be submitted to the lab for comparison. If DNA analysis if going to be used, then a whole blood sample from the suspect must be submitted to the lab in a \"Vacutainer.\" Contact a DNA lab for more information. Fibers can be said that they are the same type and color as those found in a suspect's clothes, residence, vehicle, etc. Fibers should be collected in a paper packet and placed in an envelope. Representative fibers should be collected from a suspect and submitted to the lab for comparison. Paint can be said that it is the same type and color as paint found in the possession of a suspect. Paint fragments should be collected in a paper packet and placed in an envelope. Representative paint chips or samples should be collected from the suspect and submitted to the lab for comparison. Glass can be said that it has the same characteristics as glass found in the possession of a suspect. Smaller glass fragments should be placed in a paper packet and then in an envelope. Larger pieces should be wrapped securely in paper or cardboard and then placed in a padded cardboard box to prevent further breakage. Representative samples from the suspect should be submitted to the lab for comparison.\n", "Section::::Prints from different glove types.\n\nBULLET::::- Thin, latex, rubber, plastic, vinyl or nitrile gloves: These gloves are worn by criminals because of their tight, thin fit that allows the hands to remain dexterous. Because of the thinness of these gloves, fingerprints may pass through the material, thus transferring the wearer's prints onto whatever surface is touched or handled.\n", "By the time this comparison had been made, officers had taken 46,253 sets of fingerprints, and had less than 200 sets of prints left to check before the completion of their task.\n\nSection::::Arrest.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01734	Does the body produce less testosterone with one testicle instead of two?	Nope, the procedure you're referring to (called an orchidectomy), usually comes without consequences when only one testicle is removed. Usually the other can make enough testosterone for the whole body. Remove both and it'll be a drastic difference.	[ "Possible monorchism of Adolf Hitler\n\nThe possibility that Adolf Hitler had only one testicle has been a fringe subject among historians and academics researching the German leader. The rumour may be an urban myth, possibly originating from the contemporary British military song \"Hitler Has Only Got One Ball\". Nevertheless, research, eyewitness testimony and historical study have not been able to prove or disprove the suggestion.\n", "Spermatogenesis and male fertility are dependent on , , and high levels of testosterone within the testicles. does not seem to be involved in spermatogenesis outside of its role in inducing production of testosterone by the Leydig cells in the seminiferous tubules (which make up approximately 80% of the bulk of the testes), whereas this is not the case for , which is importantly involved. In accordance with the fact that the testes are the source of 95% of circulating testosterone in the body, local levels of testosterone inside of the testes are extremely high, ranging from 20- to 200-fold higher than circulating concentrations. Moreover, high levels of testosterone within the testes are required for spermatogenesis, although only a small fraction (5–10%) of normal levels appears to actually be necessary for spermatogenesis.\n", "Male monotremes are testicond (have intraabdominal testes) with the testes undergoing seasonal recrudescence during winter. The fully developed seminiferous tubules exhibit distinctly small stages of spermatogenesis in that more than one stage is often observed in a cross section of the tubule, a characteristic of spermatogenesis that has also been observed in a reptile, common in birds and man.\n", "The challenge hypothesis makes different predictions regarding testosterone secretion for species in which males exhibit paternal care versus those in which males do not. When aggressive interactions among males arise in species that exhibit paternal care, testosterone levels are expected to be elevated. Males are predicted to exhibit an increase in testosterone to Level C (physiological maximum), but only during periods of territory establishment, male-male challenges, or when females are fertile so that paternal care is not compromised. When aggression is minimal, specifically during parenting, testosterone levels should decrease to Level B (breeding baseline). Level B represents the minimal levels of testosterone required for the expression of reproductive behaviors, and is not expected to drastically interfere with parenting behavior.\n", "One of the strongest arguments for early orchiopexy is reducing the risk of testicular cancer. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The peak incidence occurs in the third and fourth decades of life. The risk is higher for intra-abdominal testes and somewhat lower for inguinal testes, but even the normally descended testis of a man whose other testis was undescended has about a 20% higher cancer risk than those of other men.\n", "Combined oral contraception decreases total testosterone levels by approximately 0.5 nmol/l, free testosterone by approximately 60%, and increases the amount of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) by approximately 100 nmol/l. Contraceptives containing second generation progestins and/or estrogen doses of around 20 –25 mg EE were found to have less impact on SHBG concentrations. Combined oral contraception may also reduce bone density.\n\nSection::::Drug interactions.\n", "In species where males exhibit minimal to no paternal care, testosterone levels are hypothesized to be at Level C throughout the breeding season because of intense and continued interactions between males and the availability of receptive females. In polygynous species, where a single male tends to breed with more than one female, males generally do not exhibit a heightened endocrine response to challenges, because their testosterone levels are already close to physiological maximum throughout the breeding season. Experimental support for the relationship between heightened testosterone and polygyny was found, such that if testosterone was implanted into normally monogamous male birds (i.e., testosterone levels were manipulated to reach Level C) then these males became polygynous.\n", "Where Australian troops had served in North Africa, Rommel took the place of Göring in the second line. One variant reflects the respect in which Rommel was held by British soldiers during the war, describing him as having \"four or five\" balls.\n\nA common additional or third verses also contains lyrics that contain events that happen after the testicle has been cut off.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Discrediting tactics\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Colonel Bogey March MIDI file\n\nBULLET::::- Did Hitler have only one testicle? from \"The Straight Dope\"\n\nBULLET::::- A British Soldier Remembers, songs and lyrics of World War II\n", "Section::::Cornerstones.:Male-male aggression.\n\nIt has long been known that testosterone increases aggressive behavior. While castration tends to decrease the frequency of aggression in birds and replacement therapy with testosterone increases aggression, aggression and testosterone are not always directly related. The challenge hypothesis proposes that testosterone is most immediately related to aggression when associated with reproduction, such as mate-guarding. An increase in male-male aggression in the reproductive context as related to testosterone is strongest in situations of social instability, or challenges from another male for a territory or access to mates.\n", "However, polyorchidism can occur in conjunction with cryptorchidism, where the supernumerary testicle is undescended or found elsewhere in the body. These cases are associated with a significant increase in the incidence of testicular cancer: 0.004% for the general population vs 5.7% for a supernumerary testicle not found in the scrotum.\n", "In all cases, the loss in testes volume corresponds with a loss of spermatogenesis.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nTesticles of a male calf or other livestock are cooked and eaten in a dish sometimes called Rocky Mountain oysters.\n\nAs early as 330 BC, Aristotle prescribed the ligation (tying off) of the left testicle in men wishing to have boys. In the Middle Ages, men who wanted a boy sometimes had their left testicle removed. This was because people believed that the right testicle made \"boy\" sperm and the left made \"girl\" sperm.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Section::::Theories of parasite-mediated mate choice.:Immunocompetence handicap hypothesis.\n\nThis hypothesis takes Zahavi's principle further in suggesting that testosterone is responsible for the production of male secondary sexual traits while also suppressing the immune system. It therefore proposes that these traits are honest signals of mate quality because only males with 'good genes' should be able to fully express them without being vulnerable to parasite attack. Males will, therefore, demonstrate their high genetic quality by developing more attractive honest signals in substitute for their immune system's strength. These honest signals require testosterone, which simultaneously suppresses the immune system.\n", "One theory about the etymology of the word \"testis\" is based on Roman law. The original Latin word \"testis\", \"witness\", was used in the firmly established legal principle \"\"Testis unus, testis nullus\"\" (one witness [equals] no witness), meaning that testimony by any one person in court was to be disregarded unless corroborated by the testimony of at least another. This led to the common practice of producing two witnesses, bribed to testify the same way in cases of lawsuits with ulterior motives. Since such \"witnesses\" always came in pairs, the meaning was accordingly extended, often in the diminutive (\"testiculus, testiculi\").\n", "Falling in love decreases men's testosterone levels while increasing women's testosterone levels. There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes. However, it is suggested that after the \"honeymoon phase\" ends—about four years into a relationship—this change in testosterone levels is no longer apparent. Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship or married, and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce; however, causality cannot be determined in this correlation. Marriage or commitment could cause a decrease in testosterone levels. Single men who have not had relationship experience have lower testosterone levels than single men with experience. It is suggested that these single men with prior experience are in a more competitive state than their non-experienced counterparts. Married men who engage in bond-maintenance activities such as spending the day with their spouse and/or child have no different testosterone levels compared to times when they do not engage in such activities. Collectively, these results suggest that the presence of competitive activities rather than bond-maintenance activities are more relevant to changes in testosterone levels.\n", "Because polyorchidism is very uncommon, there is no standard treatment for the condition. Prior to advances in ultrasound technology, it was common practice to remove the supernumerary testicle. Several cases have been described where routine follow-up examinations conducted over a period of years showed that the supernumerary testicle was stable.\n\nA meta-analysis in 2009 suggested removing non-scrotal supernumerary testicles because of the increased risk of cancer, and regular follow-up in the remaining cases to ensure that the supernumerary testicle remains stable.\n", "Section::::Influence on sex.:Ongoing research.\n", "A sufficient amount of any androgen can cause external masculinization. The most potent is dihydrotestosterone (DHT), generated from testosterone in skin and genital tissue by the action of 5α-reductase. A male fetus may be incompletely masculinized if this enzyme is deficient. In some diseases and circumstances, other androgens may be present in high enough concentrations to cause partial or (rarely) complete masculinization of the external genitalia of a genetically female fetus. The testes begin to secrete three hormones that influence the male internal and external genitalia. They secrete anti-müllerian hormone, testosterone, and Dihydrotestosterone. Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) causes the paramesonephric ducts to regress. Testosterone, which is secreted and converts the mesonephric ducts into male accessory structures, such as epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicle. Testosterone will also control the descending of the testes from the abdomen into the scrotom. Dihydrotestosterone, also known as (DHT) will differentiate the remaining male characteristics of the external genitalia.\n", "The test is for screening, not for diagnosis, and does not have nearly the same predictive power of amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. The screening test carries a much lower risk to the fetus, however, and in conjunction with the age-related risk of the patient it is useful to help determine the need for more invasive tests.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nIf only two of the hormones above are tested for, then the test is called a double test. A quad test tests an additional hormone, inhibin. Furthermore, the triple test may be combined with an ultrasound measurement of nuchal translucency. \n", "Section::::Mating behavior.:Fitness benefits of polyandrous behavior.\n\nOne reason for why polyandry remains, despite its negative effect on female's health, is because it is very beneficial to males. Males may chance upon only one or two mates in their entire lifetime. Polyandry in \"Stegodyphys lineatus\" avoids inbreeding and reduces the genetic incompatibilities with matings of related individual. The increased genetic diversity that results from polyandrous behaviour carry genetic benefits that outweigh the costs.\n\nSection::::Mating behavior.:Fitness benefits of polyandrous behavior.:Infanticide from male perspective.\n", "Section::::Benefits of multiple mating in males.\n", "Some versions of the legend suggest that subsequent popes were subjected to an examination whereby, having sat on a so-called \"sedia stercoraria\" or \"dung chair\" containing a hole, a cardinal had to reach up and establish that the new pope had testicles, before announcing \"\"Duos habet et bene pendentes\"\" (\"He has two, and they dangle nicely\"), or \"\"habet\"\" (\"he has them\") for short.\n", "It has been suggested that the pre-Glasnost Soviet descriptions of what remained of Hitler's corpse reported his monorchism (having only one functional testicle) at the suggestion of Guy Burgess and/or Kim Philby, as part of their making a joke, based on this song, that they could expect the British population and secret services, if not those of the US or USSR, would get. A book published in 2015 asserts, on evidence from an enforced medical examination Hitler underwent in 1923, that he in fact had unilateral cryptorchism, that is he suffered from an undescended right testicle. The book also suggests he had hypospadias or micropenis brought about by low testosterone levels during gestation.\n", "Studies involving humans often compare opposite-sex to same-sex dizygotic twins. Females of opposite-sex twin pairs are thought to have partially masculinized traits as a result of gestating along with a male. These studies test for a range of masculinized cognitive, morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits. Studies testing for differences in behavior (i.e. temperament) tend to yield inconsistent results, while those testing perception and cognition are typically more consistent. Though supporting evidence exists, whether or not prenatal testosterone transfer occurs in humans remains debatable.\n", "Subsequent development of one set and degeneration of the other depends on the presence or absence of two testicular hormones: testosterone and anti-müllerian hormone (AMH). Disruption of typical development may result in the development of both, or neither, duct system, which may produce morphologically intersex individuals.\n", "Section::::Random inactivation of one ♀ X.\n\nOne logical way to equalize gene expression amongst males and females that follow a XX/XY sex differentiation scheme would be to decrease or altogether eliminate the expression of one of the X chromosomes in an XX, or female, homogametic individual, such that both males and females then express only one X chromosome. This is the case in many mammalian organisms, including humans and mice.\n" ]	[ "The body could possibly produce less testosterone with one testicle than two." ]	[ "The body does not create less testosterone with one testicle than it does with two. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The body could possibly produce less testosterone with one testicle than two.", "The body could possibly produce less testosterone with one testicle than two." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The body does not create less testosterone with one testicle than it does with two. ", "The body does not create less testosterone with one testicle than it does with two. " ]
2018-05350	Why is it so hard to make emulators? And why do they work with some games and not others?	So there's two major factors You have to re-create EVERY function the original hardware had. In the same way, pretty much 01010101110011 perfect. That's a lot of work. And the other one is major lack of documentation. Programmers usually don't start from scratch, there's tons of library files you can use to automatically take care of common functions & most big companies will fall all over themselves to help you (if you're a paying customer). But when you have to re-create a computer chip in software, the creators of that computer chip probably aren't jonesing to spill each and every secret.	[ "BULLET::::- Emulators require better hardware than the original system has.\n\nSection::::In new media art.\n", "In contrast, some other platforms have had very little use of direct hardware addressing, such as an emulator for the PlayStation Vita. In these cases, a simple compatibility layer may suffice. This translates system calls for the foreign system into system calls for the host system e.g., the Linux compatibility layer used on *BSD to run closed source Linux native software on FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. For example, while the Nintendo 64 graphic processor was fully programmable, most games used one of a few pre-made programs, which were mostly self-contained and communicated with the game via FIFO; therefore, many emulators do not emulate the graphic processor at all, but simply interpret the commands received from the CPU as the original program would. Developers of software for embedded systems or video game consoles often design their software on especially accurate emulators called simulators before trying it on the real hardware. This is so that software can be produced and tested before the final hardware exists in large quantities, so that it can be tested without taking the time to copy the program to be debugged at a low level and without introducing the side effects of a debugger. In many cases, the simulator is actually produced by the company providing the hardware, which theoretically increases its accuracy. Math co-processor emulators allow programs compiled with math instructions to run on machines that don't have the co-processor installed, but the extra work done by the CPU may slow the system down. If a math coprocessor isn't installed or present on the CPU, when the CPU executes any co-processor instruction it will make a determined interrupt (coprocessor not available), calling the math emulator routines. When the instruction is successfully emulated, the program continues executing.\n", "Section::::In preservation.\n", "Section::::Video game consoles.\n", "BULLET::::- Emulators are often used as a copyright infringement tool, since they allow users to play video games without having to buy the console, and rarely make any attempt to prevent the use of illegal copies. This leads to a number of legal uncertainties regarding emulation, and leads to software being programmed to refuse to work if it can tell the host is an emulator; some video games in particular will continue to run, but not allow the player to progress beyond some late stage in the game, often appearing to be faulty or just extremely difficult. These protections make it more difficult to design emulators, since they must be accurate enough to avoid triggering the protections, whose effects may not be obvious.\n", "Most emulation software mimics a particular hardware architecture, often to an extremely high degree of accuracy. This is particularly the case with classic home computers such as the Commodore 64, whose software often depends on highly sophisticated low-level programming tricks invented by game programmers and the demoscene.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "Section::::Emulation.\n\nAn emulator is a program that replicates the behavior of a video game console, allowing games to run on a different platform from the original hardware. Emulators exist for PCs, smartphones and consoles other than the original. Emulators are generally used to play old games, hack existing games, translate unreleased games in a specific region, or add enhanced features to games like improved graphics, speed up or down, bypass regional lockouts, or online multiplayer support.\n", "For a long time the TIA-MC-1 hardware remained unemulated due to a lack of technical information and ROM dumps. Soon after the Russian emulation community obtained technical documentation and ROM dumps of one of the games, \"Konek-Gorbunok\", the first emulator named \"TIA-MC Emulator\" was released on July 27, 2006. A TIA-MC-1 driver was included in MAME on August 21, 2006 (since version 0.108). By now, only four games (\"Konek-Gorbunok\", \"S.O.S.\", \"Billiard\" and \"Snezhnaya koroleva\") are dumped and supported by emulators. An ongoing search for other games is in progress.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Photon (arcade cabinet)\n", "BULLET::::- Intellectual property - Many technology vendors implemented non-standard features during program development in order to establish their niche in the market, while simultaneously applying ongoing upgrades to remain competitive. While this may have advanced the technology industry and increased vendor's market share, it has left users lost in a preservation nightmare with little supporting documentation due to the proprietary nature of the hardware and software.\n\nBULLET::::- Copyright laws are not yet in effect to address saving the documentation and specifications of proprietary software and hardware in an emulator module.\n", "Emulation refers to the ability of a computer program in an electronic device to emulate (or imitate) another program or device. Many printers, for example, are designed to emulate Hewlett-Packard LaserJet printers because so much software is written for HP printers. If a non-HP printer emulates an HP printer, any software written for a real HP printer will also run in the non-HP printer emulation and produce equivalent printing. Since at least the 1990s, many video game enthusiasts have used emulators to play classic (and/or forgotten) arcade games from the 1980s using the games' original 1980s machine code and data, which is interpreted by a current-era system.\n", "Section::::PC gaming technology.:Emulation.\n", "Developers have created \"clones\" of their own games. Escape (now Westone) produced a clone of \"Wonder Boy\" for the NES by the name of \"Adventure Island\" to circumnavigate a number of legal issues surrounding the \"Wonder Boy\" name and character.\n\nSection::::Types of conversions.:Remakes.\n\nDevelopers have remade older video games with modern technology. This was a particular phenomenon during the late 1990s with numerous 3D updates of games such as \"Frogger\", \"Missile Command\", \"Asteroids\" and \"Space Invaders\".\n\nSection::::Types of conversions.:Retro/Emulation.\n", "List of video game console emulators\n\nThe following is a list of notable emulation software for arcade games, home video game consoles and handheld game consoles.\n\nSection::::Amiga.\n\nBULLET::::- UAE\n\nSection::::Arcade.\n\nBULLET::::- MAME (Multiple Arcade Machine Emulator)\n\nBULLET::::- Visual Pinball\n\nBULLET::::- Xcade\n\nSection::::Atari.\n\nBULLET::::- Atari 2600\n\nBULLET::::- Stella\n\nSection::::Microsoft.\n\nBULLET::::- Xbox 360\n\nBULLET::::- Xenia\n\nSection::::Nintendo.\n\nSection::::Nintendo.:Home consoles.\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo Entertainment System\n\nBULLET::::- FCEUX\n\nBULLET::::- NESticle\n\nBULLET::::- Nestopia\n\nBULLET::::- Super NES\n\nBULLET::::- Snes9x\n\nBULLET::::- ZSNES\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo 64\n\nBULLET::::- 1964\n\nBULLET::::- Mupen64Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Project64\n\nBULLET::::- Project Unreality\n\nBULLET::::- UltraHLE\n\nBULLET::::- GameCube/Wii\n\nBULLET::::- Dolphin\n\nBULLET::::- Wii U\n\nBULLET::::- Cemu\n\nSection::::Nintendo.:Handhelds.\n\nBULLET::::- Game Boy\n", "Video game console emulators are programs that allow a personal computer or video game console to emulate another video game console. They are most often used to play older 1980s-era video games on 2010s-era personal computers and more contemporary video game consoles. They are also used to translate games into other languages, to modify existing games, and in the development process of \"home brew\" DIY demos and in the creation of new games for older systems. The Internet has helped in the spread of console emulators, as most - if not all - would be unavailable for sale in retail outlets. Examples of console emulators that have been released in the last few decades are: RPCS3, Dolphin, Cemu, PCSX2, PPSSPP, ZSNES, Xenia, Citra, ePSXe, Project64, Visual Boy Advance, Nestopia, XQEMU, and Yuzu.\n", "The Xbox system is also very adept at running emulators which have been ported from PC. The Xbox is able to emulate systems up to the previous generation, including the Nintendo 64 and the PlayStation. For this reason, many different emulators have been created for or ported to the Xbox.\n\nSection::::Sixth-generation consoles.:Gameboy Advance.\n", "BULLET::::- A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of it to be controlled and modified, and allowing debugging on a normal PC. The downsides are expense and slow operation, in some cases up to 100 times slower than the final system.\n", "This rise in popularity opened the door to foreign video games, and exposed North American gamers to Nintendo's censorship policies. This rapid growth in the development of emulators in turn fed the growth of the ROM hacking and fan-translation. The release of projects such as RPGe's English language translation of \"Final Fantasy V\" drew even more users into the emulation scene.\n\nSection::::Legal issues.\n\nSection::::Legal issues.:United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Because of their high cost, emulators are beyond the reach of many developers, leading to the rise of advanced FPGA prototyping platforms and debug tools..\n\nSection::::Emulation and 2-state logic.\n\nAnother difference between simulation and acceleration and emulation is a consequence of accelerators using hardware for implementation – they have only two logic states – acting the way the silicon will when fabricated. This implies:\n\nBULLET::::- They are not useful for analyzing X-state initialization.\n\nBULLET::::- They cannot analyze strength resolution, or at least this must be done statically at compile time.\n", "BULLET::::- Emulators do not model precise circuit timing, and hence they will probably not find any race conditions or setup and hold time violations.\n\nThese tasks are properly carried out during logic simulation or with a static timing analysis tool.\n\nSection::::Emulation versus prototyping.\n", "By the end of November 2010, the developers had fixed most of the sound issues such as crackling, added compatibility with more games, and increased the overall emulation speed and accuracy.\n", "Section::::Project development.\n\nThere are five main forks of the original program:\n\nBULLET::::- WinUAE, designed to run on Windows\n\nBULLET::::- PUAE, designed to run on Unix platforms (continuation of the abandoned E-UAE and also a port of WinUAE)\n\nBULLET::::- FS-UAE, designed to run on Windows, macOS and Linux (a port of WinUAE with a focus on emulating games, featuring a new on-screen GUI and cross-platform online play)\n\nBULLET::::- UAE4all, a stripped version, designed to run a low end Amiga emulation on mobile devices.\n", "Many emulators, for example SNES9X, make it far easier to load console-based cheats, without requiring potentially expensive proprietary hardware devices such as those used by GameShark and Action Replay. Freeware tools allow codes given by such programs to be converted into code that can be read directly by the emulator's built-in cheating system, and even allow cheats to be toggled from the menu. The debugging tools featured in many emulators also aid gamers in creating their own such cheats. \n", "By the mid-1990s, personal computers had progressed to the point where it was technically feasible to replicate the behavior of some of the earliest consoles entirely through software, and the first unauthorized, non-commercial console emulators began to appear. These early programs were often incomplete, only partially emulating a given system, resulting in defects. Few manufacturers published technical specifications for their hardware, which left programmers to deduce the exact workings of a console through reverse engineering. Nintendo's consoles tended to be the most commonly studied, for example the most advanced early emulators reproduced the workings of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and the Game Boy. Programs like Marat Fayzullin's iNES, VirtualGameBoy, Pasofami (NES), Super Pasofami (SNES), and VSMC (SNES) were the most popular console emulators of this era. A curiosity was also Yuji Naka's unreleased NES emulator for the Genesis, possibly marking the first instance of a software emulator running on a console.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Unlike the original TOS, the latest EmuTOS can work (sometimes with limited support) on all Atari hardware, even on some Amiga computers, and has support for features not available before: ColdFire CPU, IDE, FAT partitions and emulators' \"Native Features\" support.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13694	Does Cooking Expiring Food Allow it to Last Longer?	Cooking kills bacteria, but not the bacteria poop. It's the poop that gets you. If the poop is already at an iffy level, cooking it will slow the accumulation, but it doesn't lower it. New bacteria will start adding to it after the cooking.	[ "Smoking can be done in four ways: cold smoking, warm smoking, hot smoking, and through the employment of \"liquid smoke\". However, these methods of imparting smoke only affect the food surface, and are unable to preserve food, thus, smoking is paired with other microbial hurdles, such as chilling and packaging, to extend food shelf-life.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Dry food that has been completely cooked is no longer subject to the prohibition of \"bishul\"; this is based on the principle of \"ain bishul achar bishul\" (אין בישול אחר בישול, \"Cooking does not take effect after cooking\"). Thus, a completely cooked, dry food item, such as a piece of chicken or potato kugel, may be reheated once it has been fully cooked.\n", "The sterilizing effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. Some food spoilage bacteria such as \"Clostridium botulinum\" or \"Bacillus cereus\" can form spores that survive boiling, which then germinate and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.\n", "Carryover cooking\n\nCarryover cooking (sometimes referred to as resting) is when food retains heat and continues to cook even after being removed from the source of heat. Carryover cooking is often used as a finishing step in preparation of foods that are roasted or grilled, and must be accounted for in recipes as it can increase the internal temperature of foods by temperatures between 5 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit (3–14°C). The larger and denser the object being heated, the greater the amount of temperature increase due to carryover cooking.\n", "Recovery time (culinary)\n\nRecovery time is the length of time it takes a cooking medium, such as fat or water, to return to the desired cooking temperature after the food is submerged in it. The term also pertains to the recovery time for ovens to return to their preset cooking temperature after being opened.\n\nSection::::By cooking medium.\n\nSection::::By cooking medium.:Boiling and blanching.\n", "The ultimate use of leftovers depends on where the meal was eaten, preferences of the diner, and the prevailing social culture. People often save home cooking leftovers to eat later. This is facilitated by the private environment and convenience of airtight containers and refrigeration. People may eat some leftover food cold from the refrigerator, or reheated it in a microwave or conventional oven, or mix it with additional ingredients and recooked to make a new dish.\n", "Smoking helps seal the outer layer of the food being cured, making it more difficult for bacteria to enter. It can be done in combination with other curing methods such as salting. Common smoking styles include hot smoking, smoke roasting (pit barbecuing) and cold smoking. Smoke roasting and hot smoking cook the meat while cold smoking does not. If the meat is cold smoked, it should be dried quickly to limit bacterial growth during the critical period where the meat is not yet dry. This can be achieved, as with jerky, by slicing the meat thinly.\n", "Boiling water has a recovery time which occurs when food is added to it, particularly large amounts of food. Methods to reduce recovery time are to use a larger quantity of water, cooking a lesser amount of food at a time, and using a stronger heat source. Industrial and restaurant blanching equipment is susceptible to a recovery time, in which the blanching liquor requires time to reheat to its preset cooking temperature.\n\nSection::::By cooking medium.:Deep fryer.\n", "Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes. Milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Heating.\n\nHeating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews. Milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Sugaring.\n", "Resting, when used as a synonym for carryover cooking, also refers to the process of allowing the liquids in meats to redistribute through the food over a 5- to 20-minute period. This allows for a more flavorful and juicy finished product.\n\nSection::::Physics.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nBlanching is a process used in the home kitchen as well as used as a pre-treatment in the food industry. In both cases, its main purpose is to inactivate enzymes that cause browning as well as textural changes and off-flavors. Enzymes that cause deterioration in fruits and vegetables include lipoxygenase, polyphenoloxidase, polygalacturonase, and chlorophyllase. Catalase and peroxidase are commonly used to determine blanching success, since they are the most thermal-resistant enzymes of concern. These enzymes are responsible for the loss of flavor, color, texture and nutritional qualities during product storage.\n", "On the other hand, there are several disadvantages. There is a loss of soluble vitamins from foods to the water (if the water is discarded). Boiling can also be a slow method of cooking food.\n\nBoiling can be done in several ways: The food can be placed into already rapidly boiling water and left to cook, the heat can be turned down and the food can be simmered or the food can also be placed into the pot, and cold water may be added to the pot. This may then be boiled until the food is satisfactory.\n", "Ovens have a recovery time after being opened. Opening an oven door can reduce the temperature within an oven by up to 50° F (30° C). Methods to reduce oven recovery time include the placement of a baking stone or pizza stone, tiles made of ceramic, or a brick insert device in an oven, all of which serve to reduce recovery time through their heat retention properties.\n", "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.:Hurdle technology.\n\nHurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled by combining more than one approach. These approaches can be thought of as \"hurdles\" the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain active in the food. The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or rendered harmless in the final product.\n", "The earliest form of curing was dehydration or drying, used as early as 12,000 BC. Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the phenols syringol, guaiacol and catechol. Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria. More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic pink colour.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Cooling.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life, often without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "It is important to consider recommended times and temperatures for a food product when blanching. Times and temperatures are based on the type of food, size, shape, and other factors. Over-blanching can lead to an excessive loss of nutrients and aromatic compounds, as well as softening of the food. Blanching at temperatures or times lower than those recommended may not effectively inactivate all enzymes. In addition, this may also cause the release of more enzymes from the plant tissue, causing greater overall enzymatic activity and faster spoiling of the product.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "A traditional British way of preserving meat (particularly shrimp) is by setting it in a pot and sealing it with a layer of fat. Also common is potted chicken liver; jellying is one of the steps in producing traditional pâtés.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Jugging.\n", "The length of storage depends on the method used but is usually five days. For longer storage the food may be subjected to pasteurization after cooking.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "for quick cooling and must be refrigerated within two hours. When food is reheated, it must reach an internal temperature of or until hot or steaming to kill bacteria.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Mycotoxins and alimentary mycotoxicoses.\n", "Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage and render pathogens inactive in food. It is a benign ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention.\n", "Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)\n", "Hot smoking exposes the foods to smoke and heat in a controlled environment such as a smoker oven or smokehouse. Hot smoking requires the use of a smoker which generates heat either from a charcoal base, heated element within the smoker or from a stove-top or oven, food is hot smoked by cooking and flavoured with wood smoke simultaneously. Like cold smoking, the item may be hung first to develop a pellicle, it is then smoked from 1 hour to as long as 24 hours. Although foods that have been hot smoked are often reheated or further cooked, they are typically safe to eat without further cooking. Hams and ham hocks are fully cooked once they are properly smoked, and they can be eaten as is without any further preparation. Hot smoking usually occurs within the range of . When food is smoked within this temperature range, foods are fully cooked, moist, and flavorful. If the smoker is allowed to get hotter than , the foods will shrink excessively, buckle, or even split. Smoking at high temperatures also reduces yield, as both moisture and fat are cooked away.\n", "Climate also affects the supply of fuel for cooking; a common Chinese food preparation method was cutting food into small pieces to cook foods quickly and conserve scarce firewood and charcoal. Foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties even when these preserving techniques are no longer strictly necessary to the maintenance of an adequate food supply.\n\nSection::::Global and regional dishes.\n" ]	[ "Cooking expired food allows it to last longer." ]	[ "Cooking expired food will kill the bacteria of food, but not the feces of the bacteria, therefore it won't last longer." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cooking expired food allows it to last longer.", "Cooking expired food allows it to last longer." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cooking expired food will kill the bacteria of food, but not the feces of the bacteria, therefore it won't last longer.", "Cooking expired food will kill the bacteria of food, but not the feces of the bacteria, therefore it won't last longer." ]
2018-00438	Why are states like Indiana considered to be in the midwest, while clearly being on the eastern side of the United States?	When the United States was founded, all of the states were along the Atlantic coast. All the unsettled territories were in the west--and the admission of new states was provided for by laws like the "Northwest Ordinance," which covered areas like Ohio. As the United States acquired more land in the Lousiana Purchase, and then in the Mexican-American War, "west" came to be further and further away. So the states that were formerly the western frontier were now the Midwest, in contrast to those far west of the Mississippi.	[ "The Northwest Ordinance region, comprising the heart of the Midwest, was the first large region of the United States that prohibited slavery (the Northeastern United States emancipated slaves in the 1830s). The regional southern boundary was the Ohio River, the border of freedom and slavery in American history and literature (see \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" by Harriet Beecher Stowe and \"Beloved\" by Toni Morrison).\n", "The Midwest Region is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as these 12 states:\n\nBULLET::::- Illinois: Old Northwest, Mississippi River (Missouri River joins near the state border), Ohio River, and Great Lakes state\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana: Old Northwest, Ohio River, and Great Lakes state\n\nBULLET::::- Iowa: Louisiana Purchase, Mississippi River, and Missouri River state\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas: Louisiana Purchase, Great Plains, and Missouri River state\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan: Old Northwest and Great Lakes state\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota: Old Northwest, Louisiana Purchase, Mississippi River, part of Red River Colony before 1818, Great Lakes state\n", "BULLET::::- Temperance, in \"Gangsters 2\" (2001). The state map had an eastern coastline and included several large islands, and was made up of a combination of urban and upstate areas. The architecture and in particular civic institutions like the police seemed largely based on Illinois—the most important fact about it, however, was simply that it was a dry state during Prohibition.\n\nBULLET::::- North Yankton, in the video game \"Grand Theft Auto V\" (2013), is the birthplace of Michael De Santa (born Michael Townley) and where the prologue took place. Likely based on North Dakota.\n", "Seven states in the central and inland northeastern US, traditionally considered to be part of the Midwest, can also be classified as being part of the Eastern United States: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin. A 2006 Census Bureau estimate put the population at 66,217,736. The United States Census Bureau divides this region into the East North Central States (essentially the Great Lakes States) and the West North Central States.\n", "Traditional definitions of the Midwest include the Northwest Ordinance \"Old Northwest\" states and many states that were part of the Louisiana Purchase. The states of the Old Northwest are also known as \"Great Lakes states\" and are east-north central in the United States. The Ohio River runs along the southeastern section while the Mississippi River runs north to south near the center. Many of the Louisiana Purchase states in the west-north central United States, are also known as \"Great Plains states\", where the Missouri River is a major waterway joining with the Mississippi. The Midwest lies north of the 36°30′ parallel that the 1820 Missouri Compromise established as the dividing line between future slave and non-slave states.\n", "The East North Central division is a large part of the Great Lakes region, although the latter also includes Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania, and the Canadian province of Ontario. It has a low rate of population growth and the estimated population as of 2015 is 46,787,011. The region is part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis with an estimated 54 million people.\n", "With a gross domestic product of $28.64 billion in 2015, Northwest Indiana accounts for approximately nine percent of Indiana's gross state product. This figure ranks second among metropolitan areas in the state (after Indianapolis) and 89th in the United States, comparable to the GDP of the El Paso, Texas metropolitan area. \n", "Chicago is the largest city in the region, followed by Indianapolis and Columbus. Chicago has the largest metropolitan statistical area, followed by Detroit, and Minneapolis – Saint Paul. Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan is the oldest city in the region, having been founded by French missionaries and explorers in 1668.\n", "BULLET::::- Missouri: Louisiana Purchase, Mississippi River (Ohio River joins near the state border), Missouri River, and border state\n\nBULLET::::- Nebraska: Louisiana Purchase, Great Plains, and Missouri River state\n\nBULLET::::- North Dakota: Louisiana Purchase, part of Red River Colony before 1818, Great Plains, and Missouri River state\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio: Old Northwest (Historic Connecticut Western Reserve), Ohio River, and Great Lakes state. The southeastern part of the state is part of northern Appalachia\n\nBULLET::::- South Dakota: Louisiana Purchase, Great Plains, and Missouri River state\n\nBULLET::::- Wisconsin: Old Northwest, Mississippi River, and Great Lakes state\n", "The National Weather Service defines its Upper Midwest as the states of Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.\n\nThe United States Geological Survey uses two different Upper Midwest regions:\n\nBULLET::::- The USGS Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center considers it to be the six states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, which comprise the watersheds of the Upper Mississippi River and upper Great Lakes.\n\nBULLET::::- The USGS Mineral Resources Program considers the area to contain Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.\n", "After the sociological study \"Middletown\" (1929), which was based on Muncie, Indiana, commentators used Midwestern cities (and the Midwest generally) as \"typical\" of the nation. Earlier, the rhetorical question, \"Will it play in Peoria?\", had become a stock phrase using Peoria, Illinois to signal whether something would appeal to mainstream America. The region has a higher employment-to-population ratio (the percentage of employed people at least 16 years-old) than the Northeast, the West, the South, or the Sun Belt states .\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "Section::::Transportation.\n\nIn the early 19th century, most transportation of goods in Indiana was done by river. Most of the state's estuaries drained into the Wabash River or the Ohio River, ultimately meeting up with the Mississippi River, where goods were transported to and sold in St. Louis or New Orleans.\n", "BULLET::::- Near Bethel in Wayne County is the highest point in the state at above sea level.\n\nBULLET::::- The Ohio River at southwest of Mt. Vernon is the lowest point, at above sea level.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nIndiana is bordered on the north by Lake Michigan and the state of Michigan; on the east by Ohio; on the south by Kentucky, with which it shares the Ohio River as a border; and on the west by Illinois. Indiana is one of the Great Lakes states.\n", "Following the settlement of the western prairie, some considered the row of states from North Dakota to Kansas to be part of the Midwest.\n\nThe states of the \"old Northwest\" are now called the \"East North Central States\" by the United States Census Bureau and the \"Great Lakes region\" is also a popular term. The states just west of the Mississippi River and the Great Plains states are called the \"West North Central States\" by the Census Bureau. Some entities in the Midwest are still referred to as \"Northwest\" for historical reasons (for example, Northwestern University in Illinois).\n\nSection::::Economy.\n", "The Calumet region observes Central Time, including Jasper, Lake, La Porte, Newton, Porter, and Starke counties. The rest of Northern Indiana observes Eastern Time.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n\nNorthern Indiana bases much of its economy around manufacturing, distribution and transportation, and medical devices. Outside the metropolitan areas, the region's agricultural sector is abundant, given its location within the Corn Belt. Despite the region's storied history in industry, Northern Indiana is also at the heart of the Rust Belt, an area of the U.S. that has suffered deindustrialization and some economic stagnation since the late-20th century.\n", "Section::::Dialect.\n\nThe Inland North dialect of American English is mostly found in the Calumet region of Northern Indiana. The Northern cities vowel shift is recognizable in Northwest Indiana and the Michiana area. However, the rest of Northern Indiana tends to exhibit North Midland dialect, with little recognizable influences. Because of the city's transitional location between the Inland North, North Midland, and Central Midland dialects, Fort Wayne has been difficult for linguists to define, with some labeling speech here \"virtually accent neutral,\" attributed to historical settlement patterns.\n\nSection::::Time zones.\n", "Kentucky is rarely considered part of the Midwest, although it can be grouped with it in some contexts. It is categorized as Southern by the Census Bureau and is usually classified as such, especially from a cultural standpoint.\n\nIn addition to intra-American regional overlaps, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan has historically had strong cultural ties to Canada, partly as a result of early settlement by French Canadians. Moreover, the Yooper accent shares some traits with Canadian English, further demonstrating transnational cultural connections. Similar but less pronounced mutual Canadian-American cultural influence occurs throughout the Great Lakes region.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Linguistic characteristics.\n", "Section::::Government.:Other high officials.\n", "During the late eighteenth century, the area today known as the state of Indiana was a part of the Northwest Territory, which originally consisted of the later states of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota. At that time, there were few European settlements on the northern bank of the Ohio River. Kentucky, on the southern banks of the Ohio, originally included as a part of Virginia, and in 1792 granted statehood, was more densely settled by Europeans. It is likely that prior to the early nineteenth-century European settlement of the Hanover area, its predominant inhabitants were Shawnee.\n", "Section::::Government.:Congressional delegation.\n", "Section::::Colonial period.:France.\n", "Section::::History.:Western expansion and conflict.\n", "Two other regions, Appalachia and the Ozark Mountains, overlap geographically with the Midwest—Appalachia in Southern Ohio and the Ozarks in Southern Missouri. The Ohio River has long been a boundary between North and South and between the Midwest and the Upper South. All of the lower Midwestern states, especially Missouri, have a major Southern component, and Missouri was a slave state before the Civil War.\n\nWestern Pennsylvania, which contains the cities of Erie and Pittsburgh, plus the Western New York cities of Buffalo and possibly Rochester, share history with the Midwest, but overlap with Appalachia and the Northeast as well.\n", "Section::::Political issues.:Relocating the seat of government.\n", "Central United States\n\nThe Central United States is sometimes conceived as between the Eastern and Western United States as part of a three-region model, roughly coincident with the U.S. Census' definition of the Midwestern United States plus the western and central portions of the U.S. Census' definition of the Southern United States. The Central States are typically considered to consist of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Sometimes Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, West Virginia, Mississippi, and Alabama are also considered to be central states.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04302	Why does the moon sometimes look much larger/smaller? And does this difference in appearance have a bearing on the tides?	The moon’s proximity to the horizon makes it appear larger, but it’s the same size. There are times when it’s marginally nearer to the Earth but it doesn’t make a huge visible difference.	[ "The changing distance separating the Moon and Earth also affects tide heights. When the Moon is closest, at perigee, the range increases, and when it is at apogee, the range shrinks. Every lunations (the full cycles from full moon to new to full), perigee coincides with either a new or full moon causing perigean spring tides with the largest \"tidal range\". Even at its most powerful this force is still weak, causing tidal differences of inches at most.\n\nSection::::Tidal constituents.:Other constituents.\n", "To put this in perspective, the full Moon as viewed from Earth is about °, or 30′ (or 1800″). The Moon's motion across the sky can be measured in angular size: approximately 15° every hour, or 15″ per second. A one-mile-long line painted on the face of the Moon would appear from Earth to be about 1″ in length.\n", "Between \"different\" full moons, the Moon's angular diameter can vary from 29.43 arcminutes at apogee to 33.5 arcminutes at perigee—an increase of around 14% in apparent diameter or 30% in apparent area. This is because of the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit.\n\nSection::::Possible explanations.\n", "In any case, while the overall shape of the planet is a conical stepped pyramid, it is clearly much broader (several thousand kilometers) than it is tall (around 100 km).\n\nSection::::Setting.:Structure and scale.:Moon.\n\nThe single moon orbiting Alofmethbin is quoted as being approximately the same size as the planet Mars. The moon as seen from Alofmethbin is described as appearing two-and-a-half times bigger than Earth's moon. If this refers to the moon's angular width, we can infer that the moon orbits Alofmethbin at a distance of approximately 300,000 km.\n\nSection::::Story and characters.\n\nSection::::Story and characters.:Major characters.\n\nSection::::Story and characters.:Major characters.:Robert Wolff/Lord Jadawin.\n", "The smaller moons can cast shadows elsewhere. The angular diameters of the four smaller moons (as seen from Pluto) are uncertain. Nix's is 3–9 minutes of arc and Hydra's is 2–7 minutes. These are much larger than the Sun's angular diameter, so total solar eclipses are caused by these moons.\n", "When the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in line (Sun–Earth–Moon, or Sun–Moon–Earth) the two main influences combine to produce spring tides; when the two forces are opposing each other as when the angle Moon–Earth–Sun is close to ninety degrees, neap tides result. As the Moon moves around its orbit it changes from north of the Equator to south of the Equator. The alternation in high tide heights becomes smaller, until they are the same (at the lunar equinox, the Moon is above the Equator), then redevelop but with the other polarity, waxing to a maximum difference and then waning again.\n", "Looking at the diagram, note that when the Moon's line of nodes (N1 & N2) rotates a little more than shown, and aligns with Earth's equator, (from front to back, N1, Earth, and N2, seem to be the same dot), the Moon's orbit will reach its steepest angle with the Earth's equator, and in 9.3 years (from front to back, N2, Earth, N1 seem to be the same dot) it will be the shallowest: the 5.14° declination (tilt) of the Moon's orbit either adds to (major standstill) or subtracts from (minor standstill) the inclination of earth's rotation axis (23.439°).\n", "In most locations the \"principal lunar semi-diurnal\", known as \"M\", is the largest tidal constituent, with an amplitude of roughly half of the full tidal range. Having cotidal points means they reach high tide at the same time and low tide at the same time. In the accompanying figure, the low tide lags or leads by 1 hr 2 min from its neighboring lines. Where the lines meet are amphidromes, and the tide rotates around them; for example, along the Chilean coast, and from southern Mexico to Peru, the tide propagates southward, while from Baja California to Alaska the tide propagates northward.\n", "The proximity of the Moon in relation to Earth and Earth in relation to the Sun also has an effect on tidal ranges. The Moon moves around Earth in an elliptic orbit that takes about 29 days to complete. The gravitational force is greatest when the Moon is at perigee — closest to Earth — and least when it is at apogee — farthest from Earth — about two weeks after perigee. The Moon has a larger effect on the tides than the Sun, but the Sun's position also has an influence on the tides. Earth moves around the Sun in an elliptic orbit that takes a little over 365 days to complete. Its gravitational force is greatest when the Earth is at perihelion — closest to the Sun in early January — and least when the Earth is at aphelion — farthest from the Sun in early July.\n", "Because the Moon is moving in its orbit around the Earth and in the same sense as the Earth's rotation, a point on the Earth must rotate slightly further to catch up so that the time between semidiurnal tides is not twelve but 12.4206 hours—a bit over twenty-five minutes extra. The two peaks are not equal. The two high tides a day alternate in maximum heights: lower high (just under three feet), higher high (just over three feet), and again lower high. Likewise for the low tides.\n", "The Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical, which causes the Moon to be closer to Earth and farther away at different times. The Moon and the Sun are aligned every two weeks, which results in spring tides, which are 20% higher than normal. During the period of the new moon, the Moon and Sun are on the same side of Earth, so the high tides or bulges produced independently by each reinforce each other (and has nothing to do with the spring season). Tides of maximum height and depression produced during this period are known as spring tide. Spring tides that coincide with the moon's closest approach to Earth (\"perigee\") have been called perigean spring tides and generally increase the normal tidal range by a couple of inches.\n", "Scientists have confirmed that the combined effect of the Sun and Moon on the Earth's oceans, the tide, is when the Moon is either new or full. and that during lunar perigee, the tidal force is somewhat stronger, resulting in perigean spring tides. However, even at its most powerful, this force is still relatively weak, causing tidal differences of inches at most.\n\nSection::::Total Lunar Eclipses.\n", "As seen from Mars, Deimos would have an angular diameter of no more than 2.5 minutes (sixty minutes make one degree), one twelfth of the width of the Moon as seen from Earth, and would therefore appear almost star-like to the naked eye. At its brightest (\"full moon\") it would be about as bright as Venus is from Earth; at the first- or third-quarter phase it would be about as bright as Vega. With a small telescope, a Martian observer could see Deimos's phases, which take 1.2648 days (Deimos's synodic period) to run their course.\n", "Section::::Possible explanations.:Relative size hypothesis.\n\nHistorically, the best-known alternative to the \"apparent distance\" theory has been a \"relative size\" theory. This states that the perceived size of an object depends not only on its retinal size, but also on the size of objects in its immediate visual environment. In the case of the Moon illusion, objects in the vicinity of the horizon Moon (that is, objects on or near the horizon) exhibit a fine detail that makes the Moon appear larger, while the zenith Moon is surrounded by large expanses of empty sky that make it appear smaller.\n", "The main patterns in the tides are\n\nBULLET::::- the twice-daily variation\n\nBULLET::::- the difference between the first and second tide of a day\n\nBULLET::::- the spring–neap cycle\n\nBULLET::::- the annual variation\n\nThe \"Highest Astronomical Tide\" is the perigean spring tide when both the Sun and Moon are closest to the Earth.\n", "The main visible effect (in longitude) of the variation of the Moon is that during the course of every month, at the octants of the Moon's phase that follow the syzygies (i.e. halfway between the new or the full moon and the next-following quarter), the Moon is about two thirds of a degree farther ahead than would be expected on the basis of its mean motion (as modified by the equation of the centre and by the evection). But at the octants that precede the syzygies, it is about two thirds of a degree behind. At the syzygies and quarters themselves, the main effect is on the Moon's velocity rather than its position.\n", "Section::::Contexts.:In animals.\n\nCalifornia grunion fish have an unusual mating and spawning ritual during the spring and summer months. The egg laying takes place on four consecutive nights, beginning on the nights of the full and new Moons, when tides are highest. However, this is a well understood reproductive strategy that is more related to tides than it is to lunar phase. It happens to correlate with the lunar phase because tides are highest when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned, i.e., at new Moon or full Moon.\n", "Occasionally, a supermoon coincides with a total lunar eclipse. The most recent occurrence of this was in January 2019, and the next will be in May 2021.\n\nSection::::Appearance.\n\nA full moon at perigee appears roughly 14% larger in diameter than at apogee. Many observers insist that the moon looks bigger to them. This is likely due to observations shortly after sunset when the moon is near the horizon and the moon illusion is at its most apparent.\n", "As noted above, the Moon's orbit is also elliptical. The Moon's distance from the Earth can vary by about 6% from its average value. Therefore, the Moon's apparent size varies with its distance from the Earth, and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of the Earth from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect. On average, the Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the Sun as seen from the Earth, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to the Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs.\n", "The Moon's appearance, like the Sun's, can be affected by Earth's atmosphere. Common optical effects are the 22° halo ring, formed when the Moon's light is refracted through the ice crystals of high cirrostratus clouds, and smaller coronal rings when the Moon is seen through thin clouds.\n\nThe illuminated area of the visible sphere (degree of illumination) is given by formula_3, where formula_4 is the elongation (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer (on Earth) and the Sun).\n\nSection::::Earth-Moon system.:Tidal effects.\n", "A second influence on the tides occurs because of gravitation from the sun. Gravitation from the sun has less influence than the moon, because it is so much further from earth. However, the sun influences the tidal range. When the sun, earth and moon are aligned in a straight line (at new and full moon), their tidal effects combine, producing the particularly high and low tides called s. When the sun is at right angles to the moon, the effects are partially cancelled, producing the small tides called neap tides.\n", "Section::::Earth-Moon system.:Relative size.\n\nThe Moon is exceptionally large relative to Earth: Its diameter is more than a quarter and its mass is 1/81 of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, though Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto, at 1/9 Pluto's mass. The Earth and the Moon's barycentre, their common centre of mass, is located (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath Earth's surface.\n", "When there are two high tides each day with different heights (and two low tides also of different heights), the pattern is called a \"mixed semi-diurnal tide\".\n\nSection::::Tidal constituents.:Range variation: springs and neaps.\n", "The size of a viewed object can be measured objectively either as an \"angular size\" (the visual angle that it subtends at the eye, corresponding to the proportion of the visual field that it occupies), or as \"physical size\" (its real size measured in, say, meters). Perceived size is only loosely related to these concepts, however. For example, if two identical, familiar objects are placed at distances of five and ten meters, respectively, then the more distant object subtends approximately half the visual angle of the nearer object, but we normally perceive that as the same size (a phenomenon referred to as \"size constancy\"), not as half the size. Conversely, if the more distant object did subtend the same angle as the nearer object then we would normally perceive it to be twice as big.\n", "Tides are commonly \"semi-diurnal\" (two high waters and two low waters each day), or \"diurnal\" (one tidal cycle per day). The two high waters on a given day are typically not the same height (the daily inequality); these are the \"higher high water\" and the \"lower high water\" in tide tables. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the \"higher low water\" and the \"lower low water\". The daily inequality is not consistent and is generally small when the Moon is over the Equator.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Definitions.\n\nFrom the highest level to the lowest:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11027	How is a big open-world video game (like GTA 5) made?	Everyone is giving you detailed descriptions, but the truth is, the workflow differs greatly between studios and development teams. Some tend to rely on touched-up or even ingame procedural generation while others prefer to have it mostly handmade by designers, some place important locations on the map and fill in the blank while others start from one end and moving from there, etc. There is no single approach here to describe.	[ "In addition to community feedback, Slightly Mad Studios have acquired the professional services of racing driver and \"Top Gear\"'s former The Stig, Ben Collins, Clio Cup and European Touring Car Cup racing driver Nicolas Hamilton, and former Formula Renault 3.5 and current WEC driver Oliver Webb. Cars in the console versions of the game are made from 60,000 polygons.\n", "Section::::Development.:Research and open-world design.\n", "Preliminary work on \"Grand Theft Auto V\" began after \"Grand Theft Auto IV\"s release in April 2008; full development lasted approximately three years. Rockstar North's core 360-person team co-opted studios around the world owned by parent company Rockstar Games to facilitate development between a full team of over 1,000. These included Rockstar's Leeds, London, Lincoln, New England, San Diego and Toronto studios. Technical director Adam Fowler said that while development was shared between studios in different countries, the process involved close collaboration between the core team and others. This was necessary to avoid difficulties if studios did not communicate with each other as many game mechanics work in tandem. Game development ceased by 25 August 2013, when it was submitted for manufacturing. Media analyst Arvind Bhatia estimated the game's development budget exceeded , and \"The Scotsman\" reporter Marty McLaughlin estimated that the combined development and marketing efforts exceeded (), making it the most expensive video game ever made at its time.\n", "Section::::Production.:Technical development.\n\nWhile most games published by Rockstar since \"Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis\" (2006) use the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine, \"L.A. Noire\" uses a custom engine, which includes a combination of motion capture and animation software. The game also utilises Havok for the animation and physics.\n", "Section::::Development.:Music production.\n", "Mainstream commercial PC and console games are generally developed in phases: first, in pre-production, pitches, prototypes, and game design documents are written; if the idea is approved and the developer receives funding, then full-scale development begins. The development of a complete game usually involves a team of 20–100 individuals with various responsibilities, including designers, artists, programmers, and testers.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Development.:Sound design and music production.\n", "By July 2013, job postings again started teasing a next-generation game in development at Rockstar Toronto. The studio assisted Rockstar North on developing \"Grand Theft Auto V\", which first released in September 2013, as well as handling its Microsoft Windows port, which released in April 2015. For the Microsoft Windows versions of \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" and \"Grand Theft Auto V\", respectively, Rockstar Toronto developed a built-in video editor for footage captured in-game. Journalists remarked \"Grand Theft Auto V\" Microsoft Windows version as its \"ultimate version\".\n", "Section::::Development.:Open world design.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Development.\n", "The game's development began soon after \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" release and was shared between many of Rockstar's studios worldwide. The development team drew influence from many of their previous projects such as \"Red Dead Redemption\" and \"Max Payne 3\" and designed the game around three lead protagonists to innovate on the core structure of its predecessors. Much of the development work constituted the open world's creation, and several team members conducted field research around California to capture footage for the design team. The game's soundtrack features an original score composed by a team of producers who collaborated over several years.\n", "Rockstar Leeds has most recently collaborated with all other Rockstar Games subsidiaries to develop \"Max Payne 3\" (2012) as part of the Rockstar Studios collective, and assisted Rockstar North with the development on their \"Grand Theft Auto V\" (2013).\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:As Möbius Entertainment (1997–2004).\n", "There are three components to the game: engine design, car design, and a tycoon simulator. The engine design component was released first in order to drive demand for pre-orders and fund the development of the rest of the game. As of April 2014, it had sold 10,000 pre-orders. In April 2015, pre-orders reached 25,000.\n\nSection::::Unreal Engine 4.\n", "The game is set in an open-world environment modeled after Barcelona, full of destructible objects, alleyways, shortcuts through office blocks and a total of 31 story missions and 105 side missions. While most missions are driving-oriented, there are also foot missions that are played from a third-person perspective and which incorporate a cover system.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena\"\n", "The programming of the game is handled by one or more game programmers. They develop prototypes to test ideas, many of which may never make it into the final game. The programmers incorporate new features demanded by the game design and fix any bugs introduced during the development process. Even if an off-the-shelf game engine is used, a great deal of programming is required to customize almost every game.\n\nSection::::Development process.:Production.:Level creation.\n", "Work on \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" began in November 2004, shortly after the release of \"\" (2004). Around 150 game developers worked on \"Grand Theft Auto IV\", led by core members of the team that previously worked on \"Grand Theft Auto III\" (2001). For the game, Rockstar used their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine (RAGE), which was previously used in \"Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis\" (2006), in combination with the Euphoria game animation engine. Instead of pre-written animations, Euphoria uses procedural animation to control the way the player moves, enabling character movements to be more realistic. The Euphoria engine also enables NPCs to react in a realistic way to the player's actions. In one preview, a player knocked an NPC out of a window and the character grabbed onto a ledge to stop himself from falling. The game also uses middleware from Image Metrics to facilitate intricate facial expressions and ease the process of incorporating lip-synching. Foliage in the game is produced through SpeedTree.\n", "The second entry in the franchise, \"Grand Theft Auto 2\", set the game in the future in a locale named \"Anywhere City\".\n", "A successful development model is iterative prototyping, where design is refined based on current progress. There are various technology available for video game development\n\nSection::::Development process.:Production.\n\nProduction is the main stage of development, when assets and source code for the game are produced.\n", "Mainstream production is usually defined as the period of time when the project is fully staffed. Programmers write new source code, artists develop game assets, such as, sprites or 3D models. Sound engineers develop sound effects and composers develop music for the game. Level designers create levels, and writers write dialogue for cutscenes and NPCs. Game designers continue to develop the game's design throughout production.\n\nSection::::Development process.:Production.:Design.\n", "There are 74 drivable cars, over 30 unique locations with at least 110 different courses, of which 23 are real, with the remainder being fictional. For licensing reasons, some tracks are codenamed using their geographic location. In addition to real world racing circuits and fictional kart circuits, there are two fictional point-to-point roads inspired by Côte d'Azur and California Pacific Coast,\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Physics simulation.\n", "Vehicles can be repaired or even constructed from scratch using the construction menu. Players are reported to have created vehicles of quite different sizes and capabilities - from small quad bikes with limited storage to huge \"deathmobiles\" with multiple engines, turrets, machine guns, and chemical labs.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Farming.\n", "In May 2014, Crytek announced the development of their own multiplayer online battle arena game using the CryEngine, titled \"Arena of Fate\" and under development at the Sofia studio. The game was shown at E3 2014. In November 2016, the founder and director of the studio Vesselin Handjiev left and a month later announced the formation of a new game company, Black Sea Games.\n\nSection::::History.:2016–2018: Purchase by Creative Assembly.\n", "The game adopts an improved version of the Madness engine, which was the basis for the \"\" titles. More processing power available in modern computers allows for the introduction of a dynamic tire model named \"SETA\", rather than the steady-state model based on lookup tables, as seen in previous generation simulations. To accommodate differing skill levels, Slightly Mad Studios offers gamers (with or without a digital wheel) various driver aids and input filtering methods.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Also made by Skyline Software Infiltration is a classic FPS where the player has to infiltrate the Umbra Corporation to find and steal a mainframe disk and also try to find out what happened to another agent who was sent in before, the game is set over 29 levels but there is only a two level demo available for download, the pages relating to the game have not been updated recently but the author doesn't confirm the game has been shelved, there are plenty of screenshots to suggest there is a lot more of this game than the 2 demo levels.\n", "Rockstar North began to develop \"Grand Theft Auto V\" in 2008, following \"Grand Theft Auto IV\"'s release. Development was conducted by a team of more than 1,000 people, including Rockstar North's core team and staff from parent company Rockstar Games' studios around the world. The proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine (RAGE) was overhauled for the game to improve its draw distance rendering capabilities. The Euphoria and Bullet software handle additional animation and rendering tasks. Having become familiar with the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 hardware over time, Rockstar found they were able to push the consoles' graphical capabilities further than in previous games. Analyst estimations place the game's combined development and marketing budget at more than (), which would make it the most expensive game ever made at that time.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02181	how do Lactaid (supplementary lactose enzyme) pills work?	It's in the name; they contain the lactose enzyme. The reason people are lactose intolerant is because they don't produce the enzyme lactase (or at least don't produce enough of it) which is what breaks down lactose. The pills contain lactase so people who are intolerant can eat dairy products without discomfort, as the lactase in the pill does the job.	[ "Section::::Clinical significance.:Oral Care.\n", "Section::::Proposed mechanism.\n", "Results: Seven of the ten children took the supplement over the six-week trial and tolerated it well. Two children discontinued after two weeks due to possible side effects: one due to gastrointestinal disturbance and one due to being less responsive to parents. Another child discontinued due to difficulty of administering the product.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Medical use.\n\nLactase supplements are sometimes used to treat lactose intolerance.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Industrial use.\n\nLactase produced commercially can be extracted both from yeasts such as \"Kluyveromyces fragilis\" and \"Kluyveromyces lactis\" and from molds, such as \"Aspergillus niger\" and \"Aspergillus oryzae\". Its primary commercial use, in supplements such as Lacteeze and Lactaid, is to break down lactose in milk to make it suitable for people with lactose intolerance, However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not formally evaluated the effectiveness of these products.\n", "In 2007, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also approved it for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Other.\n\nZoledronate may be used for treatment of osteogenesis imperfecta. \n\nA single 5 mg dose of zoledronic acid is used for the treatment of Paget's disease.\n\nSection::::Contraindications.\n\nBULLET::::- Poor renal function (e.g. CrCl30 mL/min)\n\nBULLET::::- Hypocalcaemia\n\nBULLET::::- Pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- Paralysis\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n", "Lactotripeptides\n\nLactotripeptides are two naturally occurring milk peptides: Isoleucine-Proline-Proline (IPP) and Valine-Proline-Proline (VPP). These lactotripeptides are derived from casein, which is a milk protein also found in dairy products. Although most normal dairy products contain lactotripeptides, they are inactive within the original milk proteins. Dairy peptides can be effectively released through enzymatic predigestion – a process by which milk protein is enzymatically broken down into smaller pieces. Some clinical studies have suggested that these lactotripeptides help promote healthy blood pressure levels as part of a healthy diet and lifestyle. However, other clinical trials have seen no effects from these compounds.\n", "Section::::Regulation.:Lactose analogs.\n\nA number of lactose derivatives or analogs have been described that are useful for work with the lac operon. These compounds are mainly substituted galactosides, where the glucose moiety of lactose is replaced by another chemical group.\n", "Lactase enzymes similar to those produced in the small intestines of humans are produced industrially by fungi of the genus \"Aspergillus\". The enzyme, β-galactosidase, is available in tablet form in a variety of doses, in many countries without a prescription. It functions well only in high-acid environments, such as that found in the human gut due to the addition of gastric juices from the stomach. Unfortunately, too much acid can denature it, so it should not be taken on an empty stomach. Also, the enzyme is ineffective if it does not reach the small intestine by the time the problematic food does. Lactose-sensitive individuals can experiment with both timing and dosage to fit their particular needs.\n", "BULLET::::- Lactalis consumption AFH with President – Society Bridel Locatelli\n\nBULLET::::- Lactalis industry with BBA – Calciane Prolacta\n\nBULLET::::- Tendriade Veal with Tendriade – Eurovo Voréal\n\nBULLET::::- Lactalis International with President – Sorrento Valbreso Galbani Sorrento Locatelli Invernizzi\n\nBULLET::::- LNUF with The Milkmaid – Yoco Flanby Sveltesse Vienna Greek Yogurt Kremly BA Fold\n", "Section::::Clinical trials.\n\nSeveral human trials aimed to evaluate the effect of lactotripeptides on blood pressure. Some trials show a blood pressure-lowering effect of lactotripeptides in people with mild to moderate hypertension, however others see no effect from these peptides. A recent systematic review of the literature found no confirmed ACE-inhibitor effects in humans, as well as no conclusive evidence for lactotripeptides as a successful intervention; the meta-analysis cited heterogeneity in methodology and lack of inclusion of recent larger studies by prior meta-analyses to account for the variance between studies.\n", "BULLET::::- : all-trans-retinyl-palmitate hydrolase\n\nBULLET::::- : L-rhamnono-1,4-lactonase\n\nBULLET::::- : 5-(3,4-diacetoxybut-1-ynyl)-2,2'-bithiophene deacetylase\n\nBULLET::::- : fatty-acyl-ethyl-ester synthase\n\nBULLET::::- : xylono-1,4-lactonase\n\nBULLET::::- : now EC 3.5.1.89\n\nBULLET::::- : cetraxate benzylesterase\n\nBULLET::::- : acetylalkylglycerol acetylhydrolase\n\nBULLET::::- : acetylxylan esterase\n\nBULLET::::- : feruloyl esterase\n\nBULLET::::- : cutinase\n\nBULLET::::- : poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) depolymerase\n\nBULLET::::- : poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate) depolymerase\n\nBULLET::::- : acyloxyacyl hydrolase\n\nBULLET::::- : polyneuridine-aldehyde esterase\n\nBULLET::::- : hormone-sensitive lipase\n\nBULLET::::- : acetylajmaline esterase\n\nBULLET::::- : quorum-quenching N-acyl-homoserine lactonase\n\nBULLET::::- : pheophorbidase\n\nBULLET::::- : monoterpene epsilon-lactone hydrolase\n\nBULLET::::- : cocaine esterase\n\nBULLET::::- : pimelyl-(acyl-carrier protein) methyl ester esterase\n\nBULLET::::- : rhamnogalacturonan acetylesterase\n\nBULLET::::- : fumonisin B1 esterase\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.\n\nThe original lab-scale preparation of lactylates involved esterification of lactic acid or poly(lactic acid) with an acid chloride derivative of the desired fatty acid. Current manufacturing practices were patented in January 1956 and combine fatty acids (e.g. naturally derived stearic acid) and lactic acid at elevated temperatures. For CSL and SSL, the stearic acid component is typically produced from vegetable oils such as soybean oil or palm oil.\n", "However the lactose metabolism enzymes are made in small quantities in the presence of both glucose and lactose (sometimes called leaky expression) due to the fact that the LacI repressor rapidly associates/dissociates from the DNA rather than tightly binding to it, which can allow time for RNAP to bind and transcribe mRNAs of \"lacZYA\". Leaky expression is necessary in order to allow for metabolism of some lactose after the glucose source is expended, but before \"lac\" expression is fully activated.\n\nIn summary:\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Endoscopic injection.\n\nEndoscopic injection involves applying a gel around the ureteral opening to create a valve function and stop urine from flowing back up the ureter. The gel consists of two types of sugar-based molecules called dextranomer and hyaluronic acid. Trade names for this combination include Deflux and Zuidex. Both constituents are well-known from previous uses in medicine. They are also biocompatible, which means that they do not cause significant reactions within the body. In fact, hyaluronic acid is produced and found naturally within the body.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medical treatment.\n", "This is an ultralong-acting insulin analogue developed by Novo Nordisk, which markets it under the brand name Tresiba. It is administered once daily and has a duration of action that lasts up to 40 hours (compared to 18 to 26 hours provided by other marketed long-acting insulins such as insulin glargine and insulin detemir).\n\nSection::::Long acting.:Glargine insulin.\n", "There are, however, certain clinical limitations of the camptothecin derivatives. These include: 1) spontaneous inactivation to a lactone form in blood, 2) rapid reversal of the trapped cleavable complex after drug removal, requiring prolonged infusions, 3) resistance of cancer cells overexpressing membrane transporters, and 4) dose-limiting side effects of diarrhea and neutropenia.\n", "Zinc oxide-eugenol may present as a powder (zinc oxide) that requires mixing with a liquid (eugenol). The zinc oxide powder may contain up to 8% of other zinc salts (acetate, propionate, or succinate) as accelerators. The liquid containing eugenol has up to 2% of acetic acid added as an accelerator. A well-known product utilised in this powder-liquid form is Kalzinol™.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Provisional/Temporary cements.:Zinc oxide non-eugenol.\n", "BULLET::::- : chondro-4-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : chondro-6-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : disulfoglucosamine-6-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : N-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : iduronate-2-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : N-sulfoglucosamine-3-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : monomethyl-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : D-lactate-2-sulfatase\n\nBULLET::::- : glucuronate-2-sulfatase\n\nSection::::EC 3.1: Acting on Ester Bonds.:EC 3.1.7: Diphosphoric Monoester Hydrolases.\n\nBULLET::::- : prenyl-diphosphatase\n\nBULLET::::- : guanosine-3',5'-bis(diphosphate) 3'-diphosphatase\n\nBULLET::::- : monoterpenyl-diphosphatase\n\nBULLET::::- : sclareol cyclase\n\nBULLET::::- : geranylgeranyl diphosphate diphosphatase\n\nBULLET::::- : farnesyl diphosphatase\n\nBULLET::::- : drimenol cyclase\n\nBULLET::::- : tuberculosinol synthase\n\nBULLET::::- : isotuberculosinol synthase\n\nBULLET::::- : (13E)-labda-7,13-dien-15-ol synthase\n\nBULLET::::- : geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase\n\nSection::::EC 3.1: Acting on Ester Bonds.:EC 3.1.8: Phosphoric Triester Hydrolases.\n\nBULLET::::- : aryldialkylphosphatase\n\nBULLET::::- : diisopropyl-fluorophosphatase\n", "Section::::Use as birth control.\n\nFor women who follow the suggestions and meet the criteria (listed below), LAM is 98% effective during the first six months postpartum.\n\nBULLET::::- Breastfeeding must be the infant's only (or almost only) source of nutrition. Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing, and feeding solids all reduce the effectiveness of LAM.\n\nBULLET::::- The infant must breastfeed at least every four hours during the day and at least every six hours at night.\n\nBULLET::::- The infant must be less than six months old.\n", "Lactulose was first made in 1929, and has been used medically since the 1950s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. It is available as a generic and brand-name product. In various countries it could be purchased for about 0.16 per 15 ml of syrup (10 g of lactulose) in 2015. In the United States, the cost of this amount is about US$0.63. Lactulose is made from the milk sugar lactose, which is composed of two simple sugars, galactose and glucose.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Constipation.\n", "BULLET::::- Flushing\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperemia\n\nBULLET::::- Hypotension\n\nBULLET::::- Injection-site haematoma\n\nBULLET::::- Injection-site ecchymosis (Caverject only)\n\nBULLET::::- Pain:\n\nBULLET::::- Back\n\nBULLET::::- Pelvic\n\nBULLET::::- Penile\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular (Muse only)\n\nBULLET::::- Urethral\n\nBULLET::::- Prolonged erection\n\nBULLET::::- Penile fibrosis\n\nBULLET::::- Second-degree heart block\n\nBULLET::::- Seizures\n\nBULLET::::- Sepsis\n\nBULLET::::- Shock\n\nBULLET::::- Spasm of right ventricle infundibulum\n\nBULLET::::- Supraventricular tachycardia\n\nBULLET::::- Tachycardia\n\nBULLET::::- Ventricular fibrillation\n\nBULLET::::- Urethral burning\n\nBULLET::::- Uterine rupture\n\nSection::::Biosynthesis.\n\nProstaglandin E1 is biosynthesized on an as-needed basis from dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) in healthy humans without coronary artery disease and/or a genetic disorder.\n\nSection::::Other versions.\n", "Zoledronic acid was patented in 1986 and approved for medical use in the United States in 2001. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is between 5.73 USD and 26.80 USD per vial. In the United Kingdom, as of 2015, a dose costs the NHS about 220 pounds.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Bone complications of cancer.\n", "BULLET::::- LDH-1 (4H)—in the heart and in RBC (red blood cells), as well as the brain\n\nBULLET::::- LDH-2 (3H1M)—in the reticuloendothelial system\n\nBULLET::::- LDH-3 (2H2M)—in the lungs\n\nBULLET::::- LDH-4 (1H3M)—in the kidneys, placenta, and pancreas\n\nBULLET::::- LDH-5 (4M)—in the liver and striated muscle\n", "Includes the insulin analogues \"aspart\", \"lispro\", and \"glulisine\". These begin to work within 5 to 15 minutes and are active for 3 to 4 hours. Most insulins form hexamers, which delay entry into the blood in active form; these analog insulins do not but have normal insulin activity. Newer varieties are now pending regulatory approval in the U.S. which are designed to work rapidly, but retain the same genetic structure as regular human insulin.\n\nSection::::Types.:Short-acting.\n\nIncludes \"regular insulin\", which begins working within 30 minutes and is active about 5 to 8 hours.\n\nSection::::Types.:Intermediate-acting.\n", "BULLET::::- Candoxatrilat - active metabolite of candoxatril\n\nBULLET::::- Dexecadotril (retorphan) - (\"R\")-enantiomer of racecadotril; prodrug to (\"R\")-thiorphan\n\nBULLET::::- Ecadotril (sinorphan) - (\"S\")-enantiomer of racecadotril; prodrug to (\"S\")-thiorphan\n\nBULLET::::- Racecadotril (acetorphan) - racemic form of dexecadotril and ecadotril; prodrug to thiorphan\n\nBULLET::::- Sacubitril - prodrug to sacubitrilat\n\nBULLET::::- Sacubitrilat - active metabolite of sacubitril\n\nBULLET::::- Thiorphan - active metabolite of racecadotril\n\nBULLET::::- UK-414,495\n\nBULLET::::- Non-selective neprilysin inhibitors\n\nBULLET::::- Aladotril - also inhibits angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) (an exopeptidase)\n\nBULLET::::- Alatriopril - also inhibits ACE\n\nBULLET::::- Daglutril - also inhibits endothelin converting enzyme (ECE) (an exopeptidase)\n\nBULLET::::- Fasidotril - also inhibits ACE\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22475	How do flash drives keep data stored when they have no power	The flash storage device use what is known as a floating gate transistor. That is a transistor where one of the wires are not connected to anything. Therefore you can charge this wire and then later check the charge of the wire by checking the state of the transistor. However if you do not have any power to the transistor the charge in the floating gate will just be left there as it is not connected to anything. There is nothing to discharge it. So this charge can be maintained for a very long time before it becomes impossible to detect any longer.	[ "Some SSDs, called NVDIMM or \"Hyper DIMM\" devices, use both DRAM and flash memory. When the power goes down, the SSD copies all the data from its DRAM to flash; when the power comes back up, the SSD copies all the data from its flash to its DRAM. In a somewhat similar way, some SSDs use form factors and buses actually designed for DIMM modules, while using only flash memory and making it appear as if it were DRAM. Such SSDs are usually known as ULLtraDIMM devices.\n", "BULLET::::- As of 2007, charge pumps are integrated into nearly all EEPROM and flash-memory integrated circuits. These devices require a high-voltage pulse to \"clean out\" any existing data in a particular memory cell before it can be written with a new value. Early EEPROM and flash-memory devices required two power supplies: +5 V (for reading) and +12 V (for erasing). , commercially available flash memory and EEPROM memory requires only one external power supply – generally 1.8 V or 3.3 V. A higher voltage, used to erase cells, is generated internally by an on-chip charge pump.\n", "The NVFS, as claimed by palmOne, is a file system designed to keep all information safe should the battery run out of power. Previous non-flash memory designs would lose all stored data in the event of a power loss. \"NVFS\" is a derivative of Flash Memory, which continually stores all data even when no power is applied. palmOne invented NVFS in response to complaints that a handheld's data was destroyed when the battery power ran out. In the past, it was necessary to keep the handheld continuously charged to avoid losing data, since all information was stored in volatile memory.\n", "Many of the smallest players are powered by a permanently fitted rechargeable battery, charged from the USB interface. Fancier devices that function as a digital audio player have a USB host port (type A female typically).\n\nSection::::Uses.:Media storage and marketing.\n", "After being written to, the insulator traps electrons on the FG, locking it into the 0 state. However, in order to change that bit, the insulator has to be \"overcharged\" to erase any charge already stored in it. This requires higher voltage, about 10 volts, much more than a battery can provide. Flash systems include a \"charge pump\" that slowly builds up power and releases it at higher voltage. This process is not only slow, but degrades the insulators. For this reason flash has a limited number of writes before the device will no longer operate effectively.\n", "Non-volatile memory retains the stored information even if not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Volatile memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies are volatile ones, although that is not a universal rule. Since the primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.\n", "In NOR gate flash, each cell resembles a standard MOSFET, except the transistor has two gates instead of one. On top is the control gate (CG), as in other MOS transistors, but below this, there is a floating gate (FG) insulated all around by an oxide layer. The FG is interposed between the CG and the MOSFET channel, and because the FG is electrically isolated by its insulating layer, any electrons placed on it are trapped there and, under normal conditions, will not discharge for many years. When current flow through the MOSFET channel binary code is generated, reproducing the stored data.\n", "Section::::Electrically addressed.:Flash memory.\n", "Flash drives are used to carry applications that run on the host computer without requiring installation. While any standalone application can in principle be used this way, many programs store data, configuration information, etc. on the hard drive and registry of the host computer.\n", "The memory in flash drives is commonly engineered with multi-level cell (MLC) based memory that is good for around 3,000-5,000 program-erase cycles, but some flash drives have single-level cell (SLC) based memory that is good for around 100,000 writes. There is virtually no limit to the number of reads from such flash memory, so a well-worn USB drive may be write-protected to help ensure the life of individual cells. \n", "BULLET::::- \"IEEE Reynold B. Johnson Data Storage Device Technology Award\" (with SanDisk co-founders Ei Harari and Jack Yuan) for \"leadership in the development and commercialization of Flash electrically erasable programmable read-only memory-based data storage products\", 2006.\n\nSection::::Activities.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Flash memory\" (or simply \"flash\") is a modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984. Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern NAND flash makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with a capacity as high as 32 GB ; this feature, along with its endurance and physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace magnetic in some applications (such as USB flash drives). Flash memory is sometimes called \"flash ROM\" or \"flash EEPROM\" when used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and frequently.\n", "Section::::Principles of operation.:NOR flash.:Programming.\n\nA single-level NOR flash cell in its default state is logically equivalent to a binary \"1\" value, because current will flow through the channel under application of an appropriate voltage to the control gate, so that the bitline voltage is pulled down. A NOR flash cell can be programmed, or set to a binary \"0\" value, by the following procedure:\n\nBULLET::::- an elevated on-voltage (typically 5 V) is applied to the CG\n\nBULLET::::- the channel is now turned on, so electrons can flow from the source to the drain (assuming an NMOS transistor)\n", "NAND gate flash utilizes tunnel injection for writing and tunnel release for erasing. NAND flash memory forms the core of the removable USB storage devices known as USB flash drives, as well as most memory card formats available today.\n\nSection::::Memory types.:Magnetic.\n", "A flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board carrying the circuit elements and a USB connector, insulated electrically and protected inside a plastic, metal, or rubberized case, which can be carried in a pocket or on a key chain, for example. The USB connector may be protected by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the drive, although it is not likely to be damaged if unprotected. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing connection with a port on a personal computer, but drives for other interfaces also exist. USB flash drives draw power from the computer via the USB connection. Some devices combine the functionality of a portable media player with USB flash storage; they require a battery only when used to play music on the go.\n", "The most recent development is NAND flash, also invented at Toshiba. Its designers explicitly broke from past practice, stating plainly that \"the aim of NAND Flash is to replace hard disks,\" rather than the traditional use of ROM as a form of non-volatile primary storage. , NAND has partially achieved this goal by offering throughput comparable to hard disks, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization (in the form of USB flash drives and tiny microSD memory cards, for example), and much lower power consumption.\n\nSection::::History.:Use for storing programs.\n", "Section::::Endurance and data retention.\n\nBecause they are written by forcing electrons through a layer of electrical insulation onto a floating transistor gate, rewriteable ROMs can withstand only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the insulation is permanently damaged. In the earliest EPROMs, this might occur after as few as 1,000 write cycles, while in modern Flash EEPROM the endurance may exceed 1,000,000. The limited endurance, as well as the higher cost per bit, means that Flash-based storage is unlikely to completely supplant magnetic disk drives in the near future.\n", "Specially manufactured flash drives are available that have a tough rubber or metal casing designed to be waterproof and virtually \"unbreakable\". These flash drives retain their memory after being submerged in water, and even through a machine wash. Leaving such a flash drive out to dry completely before allowing current to run through it has been known to result in a working drive with no future problems. Channel Five's \"Gadget Show\" cooked one of these flash drives with propane, froze it with dry ice, submerged it in various acidic liquids, ran over it with a jeep and fired it against a wall with a mortar. A company specializing in recovering lost data from computer drives managed to recover all the data on the drive. All data on the other removable storage devices tested, using optical or magnetic technologies, were destroyed.\n", "In practice, flash file systems are used only for Memory Technology Devices (MTDs), which are embedded flash memories that do not have a controller. Removable flash memory cards and USB flash drives have built-in controllers to manage MTD with dedicated algorithms, like wear leveling, bad block recovery, power loss recovery, garbage collection and error correction, so use of a flash file system has limited benefit.\n\nFlash-based memory devices are becoming more prevalent as the number of mobile devices is increasing, the cost per memory size decreases, and the capacity of flash memory chips increases.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "First of all, these drives do not involve magnetic principles. These drives use semiconductors to store data unlike the disk platter used in the Hard Disk Drives. SSDs use the principle of flash drive. It consists of no actual mechanical parts i.e. no movements of parts is involved.\n\nSection::::Mode of operation.\n", "Section::::Reading, writing, and erasing.\n\nWhen the system or device needs to read data from or write data to the flash memory, it will communicate with the flash memory controller. Simpler devices like SD cards and USB flash drives typically have a small number of flash memory die connected simultaneously. Operations are limited to the speed of the individual flash memory die. In contrast, a high-performance solid-state drive will have as many as 100 or more dies organized in a matrix with parallel communication paths to enable speeds many times greater than that of a single flash die.\n", "DRAM-based SSDs usually incorporate either an internal battery or an external AC/DC adapter and backup storage systems to ensure data persistence while no power is being supplied to the drive from external sources. If power is lost, the battery provides power while all information is copied from random access memory (RAM) to back-up storage. When the power is restored, the information is copied back to the RAM from the back-up storage, and the SSD resumes normal operation (similar to the hibernate function used in modern operating systems).\n", "Section::::Implementations.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Volume managers.\n\nSome Unix systems have snapshot-capable logical volume managers. These implement copy-on-write on entire block devices by copying changed blocksjust before they are to be overwritten within \"parent\" volumesto other storage, thus preserving a self-consistent past image of the block device. Filesystems on such snapshot images can later be mounted as if they were on a read-only media.\n", "Data erasure may not work completely on flash based media, such as Solid State Drives and USB Flash Drives, as these devices can store remnant data which is inaccessible to the erasure technique, and data can be retrieved from the individual flash memory chips inside the device.\n", "Flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class so that most modern operating systems can read and write to them without installing device drivers. The flash drives present a simple block-structured logical unit to the host operating system, hiding the individual complex implementation details of the various underlying flash memory devices. The operating system can use any file system or block addressing scheme. Some computers can boot up from flash drives.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22787	Why do movie trailers reveal so much of the plot and twists?	So first things first, trailers are meant, most of the time, to get you to see the film in theatres. The majority of viewers don't like to be surprised when they watch a movie in theatres. When they go in, they want to know what they are going to watch. Why? Lots of reasons, but mostly I think because going to the movies is an ordeal and most people generally want to know they are going to have a good time before they commit. This is partly why genre movies like superhero films are so successful: when I buy my ticket I know exactly what I'm in store for, and then I take pleasure in the subtle variations of essentially the same film over and over. Movies with built in hype due to brand recognition or whatever, like the marvel films for instance, don't need to give much away in their trailers because they can guarentee sales just bases on their name alone, because the viewer already knows what to expect. This is not true of movies with no built in brand recognition, so to get people to go see the film they give a lot of the plot away so that the viewer knows what to expect. Market research backs these ideas up: people, in general, like to not be surprised at the movies. This doesn't explain every instance of trailers giving away all the details but a lot of the time this is why	[ "Section::::Composition.\n\nTrailers tell the story of a film in a highly condensed fashion to have maximum appeal. In the decades since film marketing has become a large industry, trailers have become highly polished pieces of advertising, able to present even poor movies in an attractive light. Some of the elements common to many trailers are listed below. Trailers are typically made up of scenes from the film they are promoting, but sometimes contain deleted scenes from the film.\n\nThe key ambition in trailer-making is to impart an intriguing story that gets film audiences emotionally involved.\n", "Some internet forums and reference sites, such as TV Tropes and the IMDb FAQ section, have optional spoiler tags covering major plot details. The information underneath may be revealed by highlighting the text or, in the case of IMDb, rolling over the spoiler tag.\n", "High-concept television series and movies often rely on pre-sold properties such as movie stars to build audience anticipation, and they might use cross-promotional advertising campaigns with links to a soundtrack, music videos, and licensed merchandise such as DVD box sets. They commonly apply market and test screening feedback to alter the narrative (or even, as in the case of \"Snakes on a Plane\", the dialogue to ensure maximum popularity. Some commercial blockbuster movies are built as star vehicles for successful music and sports personalities to enter the movie business. In such commercial vehicles, where the onscreen activity is less important than the saleability of the product brand, a high-concept narrative is often used as a \"safe\" option to avoid the risk of alienating audiences with convoluted or overly taxing plot exposition.\n", "The presence of a false ending can be anticipated through a number of ways: the medium itself might betray that it isn't the true ending (i.e. it's only halfway into a book or a song, a film's listed running time hasn't fully elapsed, only half the world has been explored in a video game, etc.), making only stories with indeterminate running length or a multi-story structure able to pull this off effectively; another indicator is the feeling that too much of the story is incomplete when the false ending comes, making it feel like there has to be more.\n\nSection::::Film.\n", "Suspense in thrillers is often intertwined with hope and anxiety, which are treated as two emotions aroused in anticipation of the conclusion - the hope that things will turn out all right for the appropriate characters in the story, and the fear that they may not. The second type of suspense is the \"...anticipation wherein we either know or else are fairly certain about what is going to happen but are still aroused in anticipation of its actual occurrence.\"\n", "Most trailers have a three-act structure similar to a feature-length film. They start with a beginning (act 1) that lays out the premise of the story. The middle (act 2) drives the story further and usually ends with a dramatic climax. Act 3 usually features a strong piece of \"signature music\" (either a recognizable song or a powerful, sweeping orchestral piece). This last act often consists of a visual montage of powerful and emotional moments of the film and may also contain a cast run if there are noteworthy stars that could help sell the movie.\n", "The reveal may result in a plot twist, and could be the key plot turn or unexpected coda in the story – in the mystery genre, for example. It may have scenes in the future that reveal consequences of actions to provide a lead for what will occur in the plot or side plot, this may be the overarching plot line in mystery or soap opera. It may also be used as a device (particularly in the climax) in stage magic by an illusionist or escape artist.\n\nSection::::Stage magic.\n\nIn a magician's act, \"the reveal\" may refer to\n", "Suspense is a crucial characteristic of the thriller genre. It gives the viewer a feeling of pleasurable fascination and excitement mixed with apprehension, anticipation and tension. These develop from unpredictable, mysterious and rousing events during the narrative, which makes the viewer or reader think about the outcome of certain actions. Suspense builds in order to make those final moments, no matter how short, the most memorable. The suspense in a story keeps the person hooked to reading or watching more until the climax is reached.\n", "\"Cinema de Merde.com\" gave a mixed review, stating: \"You don’t get a lot of killing and the terror and suspense sequences really aren’t that great, but it makes up for that in the sheer flamboyance of some of its touches, such as the amazing exploding sleeping bag. It’s a bit of a bummer that after all the build-up, the thing turns out to be a boring old mutant bear, like ANY other mutant bear, but this is only because expectations have been raised\".\n", "Revealing a plot twist to readers or viewers in advance is commonly regarded as a \"spoiler\", since the effectiveness of a plot twist usually relies on the audience not expecting it. Even revealing the fact that a work contains plot twists – especially at the ending – can also be controversial, as it changes the audience's expectations. However, at least one study suggests that this does not affect the enjoyment of a work.\n\nSection::::Early examples.\n", "Classical narration progresses always through psychological motivation, i.e., by the will of a human character and its struggle with obstacles towards a defined goal. This narrative element is commonly composed of a primary narrative (e.g. a romance) intertwined with a secondary narrative or narratives. This narrative is structured with an unmistakable beginning, middle and end, and generally there is a distinct resolution. Utilizing actors, events, causal effects, main points, and secondary points are basic characteristics of this type of narrative. The characters in Classical Hollywood Cinema have clearly definable traits, are active, and very goal oriented. They are causal agents motivated by psychological rather than social concerns. The narrative is a chain of cause and effect with the characters being the causal agents — in classical style, events do not occur randomly.\n", "There are some applications that prevent users from reading spoilers, such as TVShow Time's Google Chrome extension, which, once set up, blocks posts on social media about episodes that the user has not seen.\n\nThe market campaigns for Marvel Studios' \"\" and its sequel \"\" extensively promoted the maintenance of secrecy regarding the films' plots, with the latter's social media campaign including a hashtag (#DontSpoilTheEndgame), a signed letter from the Russo brothers and a video featuring the film's ensemble cast demanding that earlier viewers of the film refrain from spoiling the plot.\n\nSection::::In print or other media.\n", "BULLET::::2. GOD GRANTE THAT SHE LYE STILLE – Suite (13:53) Silly Dog / The Search / Apparition / Locked Doors / Historical Records / I’ve Won\n\nBULLET::::3. THE BRIDE WHO DIED TWICE – Prologue / Roll Call (3:14)\n\nBULLET::::4. THE BRIDE WHO DIED TWICE – Suite (6:46) Consuelo / Respect / Bad News / Wedding Guests / Shot\n\nBULLET::::5. LATE DATE – Prologue / Roll Call (2:09)\n\nBULLET::::6. LATE DATE – Suite (8:58) Aftermath / “It Was You” / The Plant / Confession\n\nBULLET::::7. THE WEIRD TAILOR – Prologue / Roll Call (2:05)\n", "DVD and Blu-ray releases of movies will usually contain both their teaser and theatrical trailers as special features. One of the most notable exceptions to this rule is \"Spider-Man\", whose teaser trailer featured an unrelated plot of bank robbers escaping in a helicopter, getting caught from behind and propelled backward into what at first appears to be a net, then is shown to be a gigantic spider web spun between the two towers at the World Trade Center. This teaser was pulled from theaters following the September 11 attacks, but it can be viewed on YouTube.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "\"A trailer is two or three minutes long - about the length of a song - and I think of trailers as songs,\" said Kuehn, who was noted for his clever writing, use of music and sharp editing. \"One of the hardest things to do when looking at a movie is to determine the overall tone, tempo, mood, pacing and rhythm of the trailer. They may not be the same as the tone and rhythms of the picture itself.\"\n", "The sequence was traditionally placed at the start of each film until the 2006 instalment \"Casino Royale\", where it appears after the cold open and is incorporated into the plot; in the 2008 film, \"Quantum of Solace\", the sequence was placed at the end of the film and incorporates the film's title in its design.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nWell known examples of feature films produced following a successful concept trailer pitch were The Lord of the Rings film series, Looper The Hunger Games, Machete, Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow, the Super Troopers films, Iron Sky, Pickings, Miles Ahead, Hardcore Henry, Lazer Team and others. Pitch trailers became popular among indie filmmakers who use websites like indiegogo and kickstarter to fund their movies.\n\nPitch Trailer, the competition created by Trailers FilmFest, the festival of the trailers and film promotion\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Trailers FilmFest www.trailersfilmfest.com\n\nBULLET::::- Golden Trailer Awards\n\nBULLET::::- Movie trailer\n\nBULLET::::- Pitch\n", "In an article about \"journalists who got caught embellishing, exaggerating, and outright lying in print\", Shafer wrote: \"When Forman [...] turned in a first, flat draft about his Florida Keys adventure, I encouraged him through several rewrites to add more writerly detail to increase the piece's verisimilitude. Forman complied, inventing numerous twists to the tale [...] The lesson I learned isn't to refrain from asking writers for detail but to be skeptical about details that sound too good or that you had to push too hard to get the writer to uncover or that are suspicious simply because any writer worth his salt would have put them in his first draft. All that said, it's almost impossible for an editor to beat a good liar every time out.\"\n", "One of the most famous \"special shoot\" trailers is that used for the 1960s thriller \"Psycho\", which featured director Alfred Hitchcock giving viewers a guided tour of the Bates Motel, eventually arriving at the infamous shower. At this point, the soft-spoken Hitchcock suddenly throws the shower curtain back to reveal Vera Miles with a blood-curdling scream. As the trailer, in fact, was made after completion of the film when Janet Leigh was no longer available for filming, Hitchcock had Miles don a blonde wig for the fleeting sequence. Since the title, \"Psycho\", instantly covers most of the screen, the switch went unnoticed by audiences for years until freeze-frame analysis clearly revealed that it was Vera Miles and not Janet Leigh in the shower during the trailer.\n", "Spec writing is also unique in that the writer must pitch the idea to producers. In order to sell the script, it must have a killer title, good writing, and a great logline. A logline is one sentence that lays out what the movie is about. A well written logline will convey the tone of the film, introduce the main character, and touch on the primary conflict. Usually the logline and title work in tandem to draw people in, and it is highly suggested to incorporate irony into them when possible. These things, along with nice, clean writing will hugely impact whether or not a producer picks up the spec script.\n", "Opening a novel with startling, dramatic action or an ominous description can function as a narrative hook. Ovid's \"Fasti\" employs narrative hooks in the openings of each book, including a description of a bloody ghost and an ominous exchange between the characters Callisto and Diana. \n", "A set piece may or may not be integral to the plot. A James Bond film usually begins with a set piece that has little relation to the main plot of the film. On the other hand, a dramatic film may have set pieces at major plot points, providing dramatic payoff, resolution, or transition. \n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "With the rise of pre-planned film franchises, post-credit scenes have been adopted in order to prepare the audience for upcoming sequels, sometimes going so far as to include a cliffhanger ending where the main film is largely stand-alone. The cinematic release of \"The Matrix Reloaded\" demonstrated the sequel set-up use of stingers by featuring the trailer for \"The Matrix Revolutions\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lion King\" director Rob Minkoff called Honest Trailers amazing, adding that he preferred them to the regular movie trailers.\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" director Jordan Vogt-Roberts appeared in the Honest Trailer for his movie and helped write it, listing what he believed were legitimate faults in his own film, in contrast to the video CinemaSins made on the film.\n", "Mayank Shekhar of theW14.com says, \"Most movies have a definite beginning (starting point), middle (turning point) and end (high point), or what playwrights call the three-act structure in a script. There doesn’t seem to be one here, at least on the face of it. The genre it comes closest to then is an epic, spelt with a capital E, along the lines of say Francis Ford Coppola's Godfather trilogy, or this film's immediate inspiration Martin Scorsese's Gangs of New York (2002). And, of course, it is like all mythologies are supposed to be. You enjoy them for the parts rather than caring merely for the hero's final goal. If it wasn’t a film, this would’ve been a stylised graphic novel. But you would’ve missed a memorable background score and striking sound design. \"\n" ]	[ "Movie trailers reveal a lot of the plot and twists." ]	[ "Not all trailers give away the plot and twists, it depends on brand recognition." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Movie trailers reveal a lot of the plot and twists.", "Movie trailers reveal a lot of the plot and twists." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Not all trailers give away the plot and twists, it depends on brand recognition.", "Not all trailers give away the plot and twists, it depends on brand recognition." ]
2018-02582	What causes the burning sensation on your tongue when you drink a very cold carbonated drink?	Reading your question, I suspected the carbonation might be the cause. Carbonation dissolves into the liquid as carbonic acid, which would certainly create a burning sensation. But, there are some problems with that explanation. First, the amount of CO2 present is going to be constant regardless of temperature. It's a sealed can after all. Second, there is less CO2 dissolved as carbonic acid in a cold drink. Last, I don't think that has a significant effect on the pH. By chance I had 2 bottles in my fridge -- one that had gone flat and one that was unopened. Both were around 2.9°C. I popped my pH meter into a sample from each, and got 2.52 for the fresh one and 2.61 for the flat one. So at first glance it seems like the carbonation really isn't a factor. My guess would be that your taste buds are reacting to the combination of cold, and the other acids present (citric acid, phosphoric acid, etc) to give you something you perceive as a burning sensation. The word perceive is important -- organoleptic evaluation (how people actually perceive tastes, textures, and flavors) can vary wildly from person to person. I would love to hear if someone else can chime in with more specific research. [Edit: some others have (correctly) pointed out that the dissolution of CO2 is more complicated, and may be the opposite of what I stated. I definitely defer to those with more specific knowledge. The basic (ha, ha) point stands though -- the pH of flat soda wasn't much different from fresh soda]	[ "BULLET::::- For a CO pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks (formula_4 ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the p\"K\" value (3.60), giving [HCO] [HCO] at high pressures.\n\nBULLET::::- A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.\n\nBULLET::::- Remark\n", "Section::::Differences between FCBs and other drinks.\n", "BULLET::::- The solubility is given for \"pure water\", i.e., water which contain only CO. This water is going to be acidic. For example, at 25 °C the pH of 3.9 is expected (see carbonic acid). At less acidic pH values, the solubility will increase because of the pH-dependent speciation of CO.\n\nSection::::Vapor pressure of solid and liquid.\n", "The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. In the carbonization process water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Initiation.:Carbon films.\n", "The solubility of water in the liquid carbon dioxide is measures in a range of temperature from -29°C to 22.6 °C. In these temperature, there is a range of the liquid carbon dioxide at the pressure from 15 to 50 atmosphere. \n\nSection::::Properties.:The Viscosity of Liquid Carbon Dioxide.\n\nSection::::Properties.:The Viscosity of Liquid Carbon Dioxide.:Introduction.\n", "BULLET::::- Type 2 - Symptoms upon waking and through the day\n\nBULLET::::- Type 3 - No regular pattern of symptoms\n\nSometimes those terms specific to the tongue (e.g. \"glossodynia\") are reserved for when the burning sensation is located only on the tongue.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Initiation.:Stagnation.\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "Section::::Properties.\n\nSection::::Properties.:General Properties.\n\nIt is a type of liquid which is highly compressed and cooled from gas carbon dioxide. Under normal conditions, it does not form. It only exists when the pressure above 5.1 atm, under 31.1 °C (temperature of critical point) and above -56.6 °C (temperature of triple point).The chemical symbol of it is same as carbon dioxide (CO₂). It is transparent and odorless and the density of it is 1101 kg/m³ when the liquid at saturation -37 °C. \n", "The equilibrium of CO also moves to the right towards gaseous CO when the water temperature rises. When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed, CO leaves the water as gas, causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right, increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate. As the concentration of carbonate increases, calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt: Ca + CO ⇋ CaCO.\n\nAs new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated, the process continues: CO gas is again removed, carbonate concentration increases, and more calcium carbonate precipitates.\n\nSection::::Related materials.\n\nSection::::Related materials.:Soap scum.\n", "The crystal phase that crystallizes first on cooling a substance to its liquidus temperature is termed primary crystalline phase or primary phase. The composition range within which the primary phase remains constant is known as primary crystalline phase field.\n\nThe liquidus temperature is important in the glass industry because crystallization can cause severe problems during the glass melting and forming processes, and it also may lead to product failure.\n", "The berries this plant fruits are known for their ambiguous flavor, which however dissipates when the berries are boiled. The berries can be eaten raw, and exhibit peculiar gustatory characteristics: they are first sweet and then sour, then fade to a bitter, but salty aftertaste. In the confectionery industry, these berries are used in making jellies and jams, preparations of marmalade, soft drinks, and pastries.\n", "Carbonatites are \"rare\", \"peculiar\" igneous rocks formed by unusual processes and from unusual source rocks. Three models of their formation exist:\n\nBULLET::::1. direct generation by very low-degree partial melts in the mantle and melt differentiation,\n\nBULLET::::2. liquid immiscibility between a carbonate melt and a silicate melt,\n\nBULLET::::3. peculiar, extreme crystal fractionation.\n", "Irish moss is commonly used as a clarifying agent or finings in the process of brewing (beer), particularly in homebrewing. A small amount is added to the kettle or \"copper\", where it is boiled with the wort, attracting proteins and other solids, which are then removed from the mixture after cooling along with the copper finings.\n\nSection::::Life history.\n", "Section::::Warm Soda (2012–2017).\n", "\"Natrocarbonatite\" is made up largely of two minerals, nyerereite (named after Julius Nyerere, the first president of independent Tanzania) and gregoryite (named after John Walter Gregory, one of the first geologists to study the East African Rift and author of the book \"The Great Rift Valley\"). These minerals are both carbonates in which sodium and potassium are present in significant quantities. Both are anhydrous, and when they come into contact with the moisture in the atmosphere, they begin to react extremely quickly. The black or dark brown lava and ash erupted begins to turn white within a few hours.\n\nSection::::Geochemistry.\n", "Frozen carbonated drink\n\nA frozen carbonated drink or frozen carbonated beverage (FCB) is a mixture of flavored sugar syrup, carbon dioxide, and water that is frozen by a custom machine creating a drink comprising a fine slush of suspended ice crystals, with liquid. The final ice crystal concentration changes from 10% to 50%. It dispenses on a type of soft drink and a trade mark of each company producing FCB. Some common FCBs are the Slurpee, the ICEE, and the Froster and also known as Fizzy Slush Machines.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Initiation.\n", "BULLET::::- in the alkalization of cocoa powder to produce Dutch process chocolate by balancing the pH (i.e., reduce the acidity) of natural cocoa beans; it also enhances aroma. The process of adding potassium carbonate to cocoa powder is usually called \"Dutching\" (and the products referred to as Dutch-processed cocoa powder), as the process was first developed in 1828 by Coenrad Johannes van Houten, a Dutchman.\n\nBULLET::::- as a buffering agent in the production of mead or wine.\n\nBULLET::::- in antique documents, it is reported to have been used to soften hard water.\n", "Two pour points can be derived which can give an approximate temperature window depending on its thermal history. Within this temperature range, the sample may appear liquid or solid. This peculiarity happens because wax crystals form less readily when it has been heated within the past 24 hrs and contributes to the lower pour point.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- HMS \"Fleetwood\", name of two ships of the Royal Navy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fleetwood\" (steamboat), steamboat that once ran on Columbia River and Puget Sound\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fleetwood\" (novel), a novel by William Godwin\n\nBULLET::::- Fleetwood Metal Body, automobile coachbuilder\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Fleetwood Brougham\n\nBULLET::::- Cadillac Fleetwood\n\nBULLET::::- The Fleetwoods, singing trio from Olympia, Washington, USA\n\nBULLET::::- Fleetwood Mac, British and American rock band and the name of two albums\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fleetwood Mac\" (1968 album)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fleetwood Mac\" (1975 album)\n\nBULLET::::- Fleetwood—Port Kells, Canadian federal electoral district\n\nBULLET::::- Blackpool North and Fleetwood (UK Parliament constituency)\n\nBULLET::::- Fleetwood Enterprises, U.S. manufacturer\n", "A cooling sensation is achieved through the chemical phenomenon of the negative enthalpy of dissolution that occurs with bulk sweeteners, such as the sugar alcohols. The enthalpy of dissolution refers to the overall amount of heat that is absorbed or released in the dissolving process. Because the bulk sweeteners absorb heat as they dissolve and have a negative enthalpy, they yield a cooling sensation as they are dissolved in a consumer's saliva.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Brain function.\n", "A later recipe, published in 1941 in \"Old Mr Boston's De Luxe Official Bartender's Book\" includes the following instructions:\n\nBULLET::::- 2 oz California brandy\n\nBULLET::::- juice of ½ lemon\n\nBULLET::::- 1 tsp raspberry syrup or grenadine\n\nBULLET::::- ½ tsp powdered sugar\n\nBULLET::::- fill cracked ice\n\nShake well with cracked ice and strain into stein or 8 oz. metal cup. Add cube of ice and decorate with fruit.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05030	Why do people seemingly instinctively put their hands on the back/top of their head when they see something bad happen?	Protect the valuables. Any experience with danger triggers an emergency reaction by the brain and body. Seeing danger makes the brain assume you are in danger. If you are in danger, you should protect the most important part of your body, your head.	[ "Another reason we continue to use counterfactual theory is to avoid situations that may be unpleasant to us, which is part of our approach and avoidance behavior. Often, people make a conscious effort to avoid situations that may make them feel unpleasant. However, despite our best efforts, we sometimes find ourselves in these unpleasant situations anyway. In these situations, we continue to use counterfactual thinking to think of ways that that event could have been avoided and in turn to learn to avoid those situations again in the future. For example, if a person finds hospitals to be an uncomfortable place, but find themselves in one due to cutting their finger while doing dishes, they may think of ways they could have avoided going to the hospital by tending to the wound themselves or doing the dishes more carefully.\n", "In first aid medical training provided by the American Red Cross, the need to be aware of the situation within the area of influence as one approaches an individual requiring medical assistance is the first aspect for responders to consider Examining the area and being aware of potential hazards, including the hazards which may have caused the injuries being treated, is an effort to ensure that responders do not themselves get injured and require treatment as well.\n", "The vmPFC also is involved in courage. In experiments with participants allowing snakes to come near or away from them, acts of courage correlated with activation in the vmPFC, specifically the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex.\n\nActivation of the vmPFC is associated with successful suppression of emotional responses to a negative emotional signal.\n", "In ambiguous situations, the individual's appraisal of the situation and subsequent action or inaction largely depends on the reactions of other people. Other bystanders' interpretation of an emergency influences perception of the incident and helping behavior. In one study, diffusion of responsibility does not occur if another bystander is perceived as being unable to help.\n", "They were also in the Catskills following Hurricane Irene, cleaning up damaged buildings and clearing debris.\n\nSection::::Closed Programs.:2010.\n", "People who have experienced a disaster often believe the dramatic accounts of their own suffering. It allows them to pass off their actions as atypical and heroic. In the process of telling others about their involvement, the mythic component of their story is spread along with the reality.\n", "The right hemisphere is associated with negative emotion. It plays a role in the expression of fear and in the processing of fear-inducing stimuli. Fear conditioning, which occurs when a neutral stimulus acquires aversive properties, occurs within the right hemisphere. When an individual is presented with a conditioned, aversive stimulus, it is processed within the right amygdala, producing an unpleasant or fearful response. This emotional response conditions the individual to avoid fear-inducing stimuli and more importantly, to assess threats in the environment.\n", "In a study, Darley and Latané observed subjects' attempts to help when they heard another subject (a confederate) having a seizure. While some subjects thought that they were the only ones hearing the seizure, other subjects thought that another one or another four \"bystanders\" (who were also subjects) were hearing the same thing. They found that subjects were less likely to help the greater the number of bystanders, demonstrating the bystander effect.\n", "Sometimes, when a person has suffered extreme physical or psychological trauma (including massive stress), they will assume the fetal position or a similar position in which the back is curved forward, the legs are brought up as tightly against the abdomen as possible, the head is bowed as close to the abdomen as possible, and the arms are wrapped around the head to prevent further trauma. This position provides better protection to the brain and vital organs than simply lying spread out on the ground, so it is clear as to why it is an instinctual reaction to extreme stress or trauma when the brain is no longer able to cope with the surrounding environment, and in essence \"shuts down\" temporarily.\n", "It is during this stage that crisis handlers begin preparing for or averting the crisis that had been foreshadowed in the signal detection stage. Hilburg has demonstrated that using an impact/probability model allows organizations to fairly accurately predict crisis scenarios. He's recognized the greatest organizational challenge is 'speaking truth to power' to predict truly worst-case scenarios. Organizations such as the Red Cross's primary mission is to prepare for and prevent the escalation of crisis events. Walmart has been described as an emergency-relief standard bearer after having witnessed the incredibly speedy and well-coordinated effort to get supplies to the Gulf Coast of the United States in anticipation of Hurricane Katrina.\n", "Similar advice to \"duck and cover\" is given in many situations where structural destabilization or flying debris may be expected, such as during an earthquake or tornado. At a sufficient distance from a nuclear explosion, the blast wave produces similar results to these natural phenomena, so similar countermeasures are taken. In areas where earthquakes are common, a countermeasure known as \"Drop, Cover, and Hold On!\" is practiced. Likewise, in tornado-prone areas of the United States, especially those within Tornado Alley, tornado drills involve teaching children to move closer to the floor and to cover the backs of their heads to prevent injury from flying debris. Some US states also practice annual emergency tornado drills.\n", "When thinking of \"downward\" counterfactual thinking, or ways that the situation could have turned out worse, people tend to feel a sense of relief. For example, if after getting into a car accident somebody thinks \"At least I wasn't speeding, then my car would have been totaled.\" This allows for consideration of the positives of the situation, rather than the negatives. In the case of \"upward\" counterfactual thinking, people tend to feel more negative affect (e.g., regret, disappointment) about the situation. When thinking in this manner, people focus on ways that the situation could have turned out more positively: for example, \"If only I had studied more, then I wouldn't have failed my test\".\n", "Because of the diffusion of responsibility, people feel that their need to intervene in a situation decreases as the number of other (perceived) witnesses increases. In an experiment that John Darley and Bibb Latané conducted in 1968, it was found that a subject was much less likely to help someone having a seizure when the subject thought that at least one other subject was also hearing the individual have a seizure. The subject's likeliness to help decreased with the number of other subjects (up to four) he or she thought were also listening to the seizure. Group size is a key factor to the diffusion of responsibility, as in a different study, it was additionally found that the probability of an individual volunteering to be a primary helper or leader also decreases as the size of the group grows \n", "Group psychology can also influence behaviour positively; in the event that one bystander takes responsibility for the situation and takes specific action, other bystanders are more likely to follow course. This is a positive example of the usually-pejorative herd mentality. Thus, the presence of bystanders affects individual helping behaviour by processes of social influence and diffusion of responsibility.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Moral disengagement.\n", "The contagion heuristic includes \"magical thinking\", where even though irrational, well-educated adults will think that touching an object transfers their qualities ('essence') to it. Such as viewing a sweater worn by Adolf Hitler as bearing his negative essence and capable of transmitting it to another wearer. The perception of essence-transfer extends to rituals to purify items viewed as spiritually contaminated, such as having Mother Teresa wear Hitler's sweater to counteract his essence.\n", "The second experimental hypothesis was that when communication between the left and right senses of self is disturbed, as they report it is while wearing the God Helmet, the usually-subordinate 'self' in the right hemisphere intrudes into the awareness of the left-hemispheric dominant self, causing what Persinger refers to as \"interhemispheric intrusions\".\n", "Attribution Theory provided one of the first links between crisis situations and crisis responses. Attributions of responsibility that shape strategic crisis responses formed the foundation for SCCT. Coombs built upon Attribution Theory, using it as a base to predict the severity of potential reputational harm—or reputational threat—a crisis may bring to an organization and, using that prediction, guide communication response decisions to minimize damage.\n", "Only in a small minority of cases does this myth turn out to be true. And many times, the experienced shock is short-lived. What in fact happens in most cases is people react immediately to the disaster and its effects. The disaster can also be a jolt of energy which drives people to respond to the emergency. Those who went through the disaster are the first engaged in relief and rescue efforts before any outside agency. They come together along familiar lines such as family and friends and then move as needed to a larger scale involving groups with which they associate (e.g. churches). If the familiar cannot be contacted or they are unable to respond, only then do most people look toward the faceless law enforcement, welfare, and relief organizations for assistance. People will also seek help from outside the familiar when special equipment or medical skills are required.\n", "A defensive attribution may also be used to protect the person's self-esteem if, despite everything, the mishap does occur, because blame can be assigned to the \"other\" (person or situation). The use of defensive attributions is considered a cognitive bias because an individual will change their beliefs about a situation based upon their motivations or desires rather than the factual characteristics of the situation.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nWalster (1966) hypothesized that it can be frightening to believe that a misfortune could happen to anyone at random, and attributing responsibility to the person(s) involved helps to manage this emotional reaction.\n", "Raising one's hands is an encouraged option. There are many hadith that describe how Muhammad raised his hands during du'a. Some hadith describe him having raised his hands way up high in emergency situations. Many scholars agree that if it is not an extreme situation that Muhammad did not raise his hands above his head. The exact manner that many scholars in Islam describe how high the hands should be raised during a regular Du'a is up to the shoulders with palms placed together.\n", "Recent research by Scholl and Sassenberg (2014) looked to determine how perceived power in the situation can affect the counterfactual thought and process associated to understanding future directions and outlooks. The research examined how manipulating the perceived power of the individual in the given circumstance can lead to different thoughts and reflections, noting that \"demonstrated that being powerless (vs. powerful) diminished self-focused counterfactual thinking by lowering sensed personal control\". These results may show a relationship between how the self perceives events and determines the best course of action for future behavior.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Upward and downward.\n", "A recent holistic framework has shown how SA emerges from causal mental models, where beliefs about causal relationships in the world are represented in the structure of the model and beliefs about the state of the world are reflected in the state of the model. Causal models support\n", "Section::::Associated conditions.:Schizophrenia.\n\nPeople with schizophrenia may have persecutory delusions. These people use safety behaviors to prevent the potential threats that arise from their persecutory delusions. Common safety behaviors include avoiding locations where perceived persecutors can be found and physically escaping from the perceived persecutors. These behaviors may increase the amount of persecutory delusions the person experiences because the safety behaviors prevent the affected person from disconfirming the threatening beliefs.\n\nSection::::Associated conditions.:Social anxiety.\n", "Immediately after one sees the first flash of intense heat and light of the developing nuclear fireball, one should stop, get under some cover and drop/duck to the ground. There, one should assume a prone-like position, lying face-down, and to afford protection against the continuing heat of the explosion further cover exposed skin and the back of one's head with one's clothes; or, if no excess cover or cloth is available, one should cover the back of one's head and neck with one's hands.\n", "Section::::On-the-job examples.:Cybersecurity threat operations.\n\nIn cybersecurity, consider situational awareness, for threat operations, is being able to perceive threat activity and vulnerability in context so that the following can be actively defended: data, information, knowledge, and wisdom from compromise. Situational awareness is achieved by developing and using solutions that often consume data and information from many different sources. Technology and algorithms are then used to apply knowledge and wisdom in order to discern patterns of behavior that point to possible, probable, and real threats.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14023	What differentiates a blackbody and normal body?	"A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. A white body is one with a "rough surface [that] reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions." -taken from google	[ "Section::::Realizations.\n\nA realization of a black body is a real world, physical embodiment. Here are a few.\n\nSection::::Realizations.:Cavity with a hole.\n", "The idea of a black body originally was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 as follows:\n\nA more modern definition drops the reference to \"infinitely small thicknesses\":\n\nSection::::Idealizations.\n\nThis section describes some concepts developed in connection with black bodies.\n\nSection::::Idealizations.:Cavity with a hole.\n", "Section::::Layers.\n\nIt consists of three layers, superior, middle, and inferior.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"superior layer\" is named the ansa lenticularis, and its fibers, derived from the medullary lamina of the lentiform nucleus, pass medially to end in the thalamus and subthalamic region, while others are said to end in the tegmentum and red nucleus.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"middle layer\" consists of nerve cells and nerve fibers; fibers enter it from the parietal lobe through the external capsule, while others are said to connect it with the medial longitudinal fasciculus.\n", "An ethical commission set up by the California Science Center in Los Angeles in 2004 had the following members: \n\nReverend Richard Benson, Assistant Prof of Moral Theology and Academic Dean, \n\nSt. John's Seminar, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles;\n\nDavid C. Blake, PhD, JD, VP, Mission and Ethics, Saint John's Health Center;\n\nRabbi Morley Feinstein, Senior Rabbi, University Synagogue;\n\nReverend Leonard Jackson, Associate Minister, First African Methodist Episcopal Church (First AME). \n\nThey determined that \n", "Black body\n\nA black body or blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. (It does \"not\" only absorb radiation, but can also emit radiation. The name \"black body\" is given because it absorbs radiation in all frequencies, not because it only absorbs.) A white body is one with a \"rough surface that reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions.\"\n", "Monobody\n\nMonobodies are synthetic binding proteins that are constructed using a fibronectin type III domain (FN3) as a molecular scaffold. Monobodies are a simple and robust alternative to antibodies for creating target-binding proteins. The hybrid term \"monobody\" was coined in 1998 by the Koide group who published the first paper demonstrating the monobody concept using the tenth FN3 domain of human fibronectin.\n", "Section::::Beings that possess only etheric bodies.\n", "The Torso: Jimmy 'The Gambler' Gambino was a gambler in the early 1900s, and caught the attention of the mafia. After he lost a boxing bet, the mafia cut him into pieces and wrapped him in cellophane, dumping the remains in the ocean. His ghost is of a torso with a severed head nearby, and is more of a neutral spirit than actively hostile.\n", "As published in the article, “A Cortical Area Selective for Visual Processing of the Human Body,” researcher, Paul E. Downing, Yuhong Jiang, Miles Shuman and Nancy Kanwisher, first discovered the EBA in 2001. The experiment originally intended to find out what area of the brain dealt with the human form and recognition of body parts, as the face had been mapped to a specific area of the brain (Fusiform Face Area, FFA) by Nancy Kanwisher in 1997. What the experiment found was a specific area of the lateral occipitotemporal cortex that responds selectively to visual images of human bodies and body parts, with the exception of faces.\n", "Section::::History.:Gustav Kirchhoff.\n\nIn 1859, not knowing of Stewart's work, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff reported the coincidence of the wavelengths of spectrally resolved lines of absorption and of emission of visible light. Importantly for thermal physics, he also observed that bright lines or dark lines were apparent depending on the temperature difference between emitter and absorber.\n\nKirchhoff then went on to consider some bodies that emit and absorb heat radiation, in an opaque enclosure or cavity, in equilibrium at temperature .\n", "Real materials emit energy at a fraction—called the emissivity—of black-body energy levels. By definition, a black body in thermal equilibrium has an emissivity of . A source with lower emissivity independent of frequency often is referred to as a gray body.\n\nConstruction of black bodies with emissivity as close to one as possible remains a topic of current interest.\n\nIn astronomy, the radiation from stars and planets is sometimes characterized in terms of an effective temperature, the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total flux of electromagnetic energy.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "Kirchhoff in 1860 introduced the theoretical concept of a perfect black body with a completely absorbing surface layer of infinitely small thickness, but Planck noted some severe restrictions upon this idea. Planck noted three requirements upon a black body: the body must (i) allow radiation to enter but not reflect; (ii) possess a minimum thickness adequate to absorb the incident radiation and prevent its re-emission; (iii) satisfy severe limitations upon scattering to prevent radiation from entering and bouncing back out. As a consequence, Kirchhoff's perfect black bodies that absorb all the radiation that falls on them cannot be realized in an infinitely thin surface layer, and impose conditions upon scattering of the light within the black body that are difficult to satisfy.\n", "In late 2007, an FBI lab report surfaced which concluded that Stano could not have been the source of unidentified Caucasian pubic hairs that were recovered from Scharf's body. The report was never presented as evidence by the public defender representing Stano. The source of the pubic hairs was not identified, and they were destroyed shortly after Stano's execution in the Florida electric chair in 1998.\n", "BULLET::::- Yuri Watanabe appears in the \"Spider-Man\" episode \"Bring on the Bad Guys\" Pt. 4, voiced by Sumalee Montano. This version is the chief of police. She first appears in a televised discussion with J. Jonah Jameson about Spider-Man robbing the bank. When Spider-Man encounters Yuri in the alley, she is actually the Chameleon in disguise. Upon Spider-Man chasing Chameleon to the Daily Bugle where he is caught on camera by J. Jonah Jameson and Stan the Cameraman, Yuri arrives when Chameleon impersonates J. Jonah Jameson. When Chameleon is exposed and defeated, Yuri thanks Spider-Man who leaves before he is brought to the station to answer some questions. She later assists Spider-Man in taking on the Living Brain.\n", "BULLET::::- \"So my flesh is not only the principle of the constitution of my objective body, it hides in it its invisible substance. Such is the strange condition of this object that we call a body : it doesn’t consist at all in the visible appearance to which we have always reduced it ; precisely in its reality it is invisible. Nobody has ever seen a man, but nobody has ever seen his body either, if by « body » we understand his real body.\" (\"Incarnation. A Philosophy of the Flesh\")\n", "Section::::Physical model.\n", "It is asserted by Theosophists that all of the above-mentioned beings possess etheric bodies (but no physical bodies) that are composed of \"etheric matter\", a type of matter finer and more pure that is composed of smaller particles than ordinary physical plane matter. (See the book \"Occult Chemistry\" by C.W. Leadbeater)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Astral body\n\nBULLET::::- Esoteric cosmology\n\nBULLET::::- Esoteric healing\n\nBULLET::::- Etheric projection\n\nBULLET::::- Mental body\n\nBULLET::::- Odic fluid, Prana, Qi\n\nBULLET::::- Subtle body,\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Powell, Arthur E. \"The Etheric Double\"\n", "Human body polygon data used in the site are called \"BodyParts3D\". BodyParts3D polygon data are extracted from full-body MRI images. The MRI image set that BodyParts3D is based on is called \"TARO\". Taro is a common given name for males in Japanese, as John is in English. TARO is a 2mm * 2mm * 2mm voxel dataset of the human male created by the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology. TARO was published freely on November, 2004.\n\nThe construction process of BodyParts3D is as follows.\n\nBULLET::::- Phase 1: Additional anatomical segmentations were introduced in the original TARO data.\n", "BodyParts3D/Anatomography project uses the Foundational Model of Anatomy (FMA). The FMA is an open-source anatomical ontology developed and maintained by the Structural Informatics Group at the University of Washington. In BodyParts3D, each body-part is managed by an FMA identifier (FMAID) defined by the FMA. For example, the vertebral column is registered as \"FMA13478\", the temporal lobe is registered as \"FMA61825\", and so on.\n\nSection::::Version history.\n\nBULLET::::- Version 1.0 (Feb. 9, 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Version 2.0 (Apr. 28, 2010) Total number of body parts is 1,324.\n\nBULLET::::- Version 3.0 (Jun. 20, 2011) Total number of body parts is 1,523.\n", "BULLET::::- Phobia looks much like her sister, but has an extended proboscis and live heads as earrings. Her right shoulder is covered by a large scorpion, and her elbows and knees by spiders. Snakes wrap around her arms. Her left shoulder is a mass of worms, and her badge is a spider.\n\nThe undead incarnations of Nausea and Phobia normally only appear as spirits, although they do appear in their mortal form in the Judge Death prequel story, \"Young Death: Boyhood of a Superfiend\".\n", "John D. Lambris\n\nJohn D. Lambris (Ph.D) is the Dr. Ralph and Sallie Weaver Professor of Research Medicine in the Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. Using complement as a model system Dr. Lambris applies ideas and methods embodied in engineering, computer science, physics, chemistry, biomedicine, and other fields to study the structure and functions of the complement system.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Yuri Watanabe.\n\nYuri Watanabe is the fourth and most recent character to take on the mantle of Wraith. She first appears in \"The Amazing Spider-Man\" #600 as herself, a captain in the New York Police Department (NYPD). The character was created by Dan Slott and John Romita Jr.\n", "Section::::Realizations.:Black holes.\n", "Section::::Regulatory framework.:United Kingdom.\n\nSection::::Regulatory framework.:United Kingdom.:England and Wales.\n", "It has long been known that a lamp-black coating will make a body nearly black. An improvement on lamp-black is found in manufactured carbon nanotubes. Nano-porous materials can achieve refractive indices nearly that of vacuum, in one case obtaining average reflectance of 0.045%. In 2009, a team of Japanese scientists created a material called nanoblack which is close to an ideal black body, based on vertically aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes. This absorbs between 98% and 99% of the incoming light in the spectral range from the ultra-violet to the far-infrared regions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Blackbody is different from a normal body." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Blackbody is just an idealized physical body." ]
2018-04851	Why don’t people patent certain things?	You actually have it a bit backwards. In most cases, companies attempt to patent freaking everything they possibly can, even if its not theirs, not patent-able, questionable or what. You just apply and hope it gets approved. The whole patent process is insanity of a glut of patents being applied for.	[ "The right to exclude others from entering market with copies is, however, potentially extremely valuable as it can mean total exclusivity in that market for the duration of the patent (generally 20 years from filing). For example, worldwide sales of a patented pharmaceutical can be millions of dollars per day, whereas the generic equivalent would later sell for less than half the price.\n", "Patent value, like value of other property, may fluctuate over time, as markets change. What was once a pioneering invention may be soon outsold by an unpatented (and non-infringing) competitor catering to fringe adopters with products having features even more desirable than the invention. Contrarily, a strong patent grip could stagnate a narrow market as innovation is no longer justified, eventually resulting in reduced demand (for outmoded and over-priced products), and thus reduced patent value, as the market moves away.\n", "The inventors, their successors or their assignees become the proprietors of the patent when and if it is granted. If a patent is granted to more than one proprietor, the laws of the country in question and any agreement between the proprietors may affect the extent to which each proprietor can exploit the patent. For example, in some countries, each proprietor may freely license or assign their rights in the patent to another person while the law in other countries prohibits such actions without the permission of the other proprietor(s).\n", "Various laws have provisions to limit the practice, but as of 2018 the issue remains a concern among legislators. According to one study, 12 top-selling drugs attempted an average 38 years of patent protection, above the granted 20 years. Another study found that nearly 80% of the top 100 drugs extended the duration of patent protection with a new patent. \n\nIssues which prevent generics from reaching the market include:\n\nBULLET::::- lack of availability of samples to do testing; the CREATES Act is a bill proposed to address issues in getting samples, and appeared likely to pass in 2018\n", "While patent laws are written to apply to all inventions, whether mechanical, pharmaceutical, or electronic, the interpretations of patent law made by government patent granting agencies (the United States Patent and Trademark Office, for example) and courts, can be very subject-matter specific with significant impact on the incentives for drug development and the availability of lower-priced generic drugs. For example, a recent decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit in Pfizer v. Apotex, 480 F.3d 1348 (Fed.Cir.2007), held invalid a patent on the “pharmaceutical salt” formulation of a previously patented active ingredient. If that decision is not overturned by the United States Supreme Court, generic versions of the drug in controversy, Norvasc (amlodipine besylate) will be available much earlier. If the reasoning of the Federal Circuit in the case is applied more generally to other patents on pharmaceutical formulations, it would have a significant impact in speeding generic drug availability (and, conversely, some negative impact on the incentives and funding for the research and development of new drugs).\n", "Another dilemma regarding the patent system's effectiveness is that if the validity and scope were unclear at the issuance, it will always be corrected because other competitors will cause the case to the court and then we could either reevaluate the scope through discussion or invalidate the patent for public good. However, studies of the USPTO data showed that only very few patents are litigated to trial.\n", "The same applies to software patents. If a piece of software containing a patented algorithm is redistributed by the patent owner, for example by Microsoft via GitHub, the patent is exhausted.\n", "Controversy over biological patents occurs on many levels, driven by, for example, concern over the expense of patented medicines or diagnostics tests (against Myriad Genetics with respect to their breast cancer diagnostic test), concerns over genetically modified food which comes from patented genetically modified seeds as well as farmer's rights to harvest and plant seeds from the crops, for example legal actions by Monsanto using its patents.\n", "The economics of innovation literature suggests that patent thickets may have an ambiguous effect on patent transactions. On one hand, dispersion in the ownership of patents increases the number of patent owners with whom bargains have to be struck, and this may reduce the incentives to conduct patent transactions. But there is a second, countervailing effect: the presence of overlapping patent rights may reduce the value at stake in each individual patent licensing negotiation, and this may facilitate licensing deals.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Patent ambush\n\nBULLET::::- Patent map\n\nBULLET::::- Patent pool\n\nBULLET::::- Patent portfolio\n\nBULLET::::- Tragedy of the anticommons\n", "A particularly difficult question of value arises where inventors/owners use their patents to extract other advantages without actually marketing the invention (e.g., cross-licensing of related patents to avoid litigation, or suppressing a technology that could compete with the owner's other products). How can one determine the value of a patented product (and the underlying patent) that has not actually been produced, let alone sold in any quantity? Furthermore, many products incorporate numerous patented inventions (owned or licensed), and may carry exclusive trademarks, making it difficult to attribute a specific value to an individual patent. Would the same invention be as valuable if owned and marketed under a weak brand?\n", "Inventors who do not wish to teach the world about their invention still have some protection under trade secret law, which protects valuable secrets from being misappropriated through unfair means (such as theft or industrial espionage). But unless inventors apply for a valid, enabling patent, they cannot take advantage of patent law's monopoly rights, and thus cannot stop competitors from developing the same product or process through proper means (such as independent invention or reverse engineering). Enablement is the price an inventor pays for this stronger protection.\n\nSection::::Jurisdictions.:United States.:Written description and possession.\n", "The grant and enforcement of patents are governed by national laws, and also by international treaties, where those treaties have been given effect in national laws. Patents are granted by national or regional patent offices. A given patent is therefore only useful for protecting an invention in the country in which that patent is granted. In other words, patent law is territorial in nature. When a patent application is published, the invention disclosed in the application becomes prior art and enters the public domain (if not protected by other patents) in countries where a patent applicant does not seek protection, the application thus generally becoming prior art against anyone (including the applicant) who might seek patent protection for the invention in those countries.\n", "The occurrence of patent wars has been shaped by the digital age, as the rapid pace of innovation makes much of the patent system obsolete. In the 1980s, technology corporations in the United States and Japan engaged in a patent war, creating a scenario where companies were forced to \"fight patent with patent.\" This bilateral patent war, partly exaggerated by the media, subsided by the mid 1990s.\n", "Once the proposed standard has been adopted, companies wishing to implement the standard may be forced to pay substantial royalties to the patent holder, creating barriers to entry that distort competition within the market. Consequently, the practice has been considered to be in breach of antitrust or competition law in the United States and the European Union and has resulted in several lawsuits and other actions.\n", "Much of the advancement made in computer technology consists of improvements to software that, by their very nature, may not be defined by particular physical features but rather by logical structures and processes . . . [w]e do not see in \"Bilski\" or \"Alice\", or our cases, an exclusion to patenting this large field of technological progress.\n", "The rule changes were generally favored by software companies, electronics companies and US government agencies for the reasons given above. Those that favored the rule changes felt that said changes were consistent with the laws governing continuation practice.\n", "Consequently, in most patent laws nowadays, the term of patent is 20 years from the filing date of the application. This however does not forbid the states party to the WTO from providing, in their national law, other type of patent-like rights with shorter terms. Utility models are an example of such rights. Their term is usually 6 or 10 years.\n\nSection::::Jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::Jurisdiction.:Europe.\n", "Some companies file patent applications primarily to be able to cross license the resulting patents, as opposed to trying to stop a competitor from bringing a product to market. In the early 1990s, for example, Taiwanese original design manufacturers, such as Hon Hai, rapidly increased their patent filings after their US competitors brought patent infringement lawsuits against them. They used the patents to cross license.\n", "According to an article published in the journal, Genetic Medicine, in 2010, \"The patent story outside the United States is more complicated... For example, patents have been obtained but the patents are being ignored by provincial health systems in Canada. In Australia and the UK, Myriad’s licensee permitted use by health systems, but announced a change of plans in August 2008. ... Only a single mutation has been patented in Myriad’s lone European-wide patent, although some patents remain under review of an opposition proceeding. In effect, the United States is the only jurisdiction where Myriad’s strong patent position has conferred sole-provider status.\" Peter Meldrum, CEO of Myriad Genetics, has acknowledged that Myriad has \"other competitive advantages that may make such [patent] enforcement unnecessary\" in Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Funk Brothers Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant Co.\" - Supreme Court, 1948. A facially trivial implementation of a natural principle or phenomenon of nature is not eligible for a patent.\n\nSection::::1950–1969.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. v. Supermarket Equipment Corp.\" - Supreme Court, 1950. Only when the whole in some way exceeds the sum of its parts is a combination of old elements patentable.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Graver Tank & Manufacturing Co. v. Linde Air Products Co.\" - Supreme Court, 1950. Introduced the doctrine of equivalents.\n", "Gene patents may claim the isolated natural sequences of genes, the use of a natural sequence for purposes such as diagnostic testing, or a natural sequence that has been altered by adding a promoter or other changes to make it more useful. In the United States, patents on genes have only been granted on isolated gene sequences with known functions, and these patents cannot be applied to the naturally occurring genes in humans or any other naturally occurring organism.\n\nSection::::Gene patents.:Examples.\n", "A year after the \"A.B. Dick\" case, in \"Bauer & Cie. v. O'Donnell\", the Supreme Court began to shift its perspective by holding that, although patentees could control manufacturing, use, and sale of patented products with license agreements, they could not use license agreements to control the resale price of patented products the patentee sold. After the \"Motion Picture Patents\" case, the tide began to run more strongly against restrictive patent practices.\n\nSection::::Case law.\n\nSection::::Case law.:Origins and development.\n", "Sue Nym, a pseudonymous biotech blogger, deplores the state of patent-eligibility jurisprudence: \"Seemingly every new court decision addressing subject matter eligibility under 35 U.S.C. § 101 progressively weakens the patent system, especially in the life sciences. And each case seems to present a new low in terms of the depth and quality of analysis.\" She sees a common thread in these decisions, typified in \"Ariosa v. Sequenom\" – judicial hostility to patents:\n", "While there is some controversy concerning the patenting of isolated genes and the way those patents are used, and there is controversy concerning patents on the diagnostic uses of genes (the real source of dispute in the Myriad court case), it is difficult to find controversy surrounding patents on genes that are used to manufacture therapeutic proteins (for an example of patents on therapeutic proteins, the drug candidate that is the subject of the early part of the movie 'Extraordinary Measures' was covered in part by a classic gene patent, U.S. Patent No. 6,770,468.) There is also little controversy concerning the role of gene patents in the chemical industry—for instance in the manufacture of enzymes used in consumer products or industrial processes.\n", "A patent is an exclusionary right – preventing others from entering the market – and so its effect may be to increase the patent proprietor's income from that market. The major economic effect is the exclusivity period of the patent rights, when exploitation pays back for the enterprise that funded research and development. However, patenting alone does not guarantee for marketing success.\n" ]	[ "People are not patenting things.", "People don't attempt to patent things enough. " ]	[ "Companies are trying to patent anything and everything they can.", "People constantly attempt to patent things, however the process on patenting something is very difficult." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People are not patenting things.", "People don't attempt to patent things enough. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Companies are trying to patent anything and everything they can.", "People constantly attempt to patent things, however the process on patenting something is very difficult." ]
2018-02226	Why are there top loader and front loader specific laundry detergents?	The main difference between the top loader and front loader detergent is the suds or lather formula in the detergent. Since a front loading washing machine uses less water, it requires a high efficiency (HE) low suds formula detergent. from URL_0	[ "With the more completed legislative files and contexts coming towards the laundry industry. The environmentally unfriendly synthetic surfactants and phosphate salts are no longer allowed to use without any usage limit. Consequently, synthetic surfactants are then used with lower concentration in combination with enzymes. Currently, laundry industry manufacturers have recognized the importance of producing environmentally friendly detergents, and to fulfill the achievement, laundry enzymes have been added to reformulate the detergent and replace the previous chemical surfactants and phosphate. Laundry enzymes are biological active factors such as bacteria, yeast or even mushrooms that are biologically sourced, and hence there will be less chemical pollution from the enzymes and they decompose some toxicants\n", "Laundry detergents contain mostly anionic and non-ionic surfactants. Cationic surfactants are normally incompatible with anionic detergents and have poor cleaning efficiency; they are employed only for certain special effects, as fabric softeners, antistatic agents, and biocides. Zwitterionic surfactants are rarely employed in laundry detergents mainly for cost reasons. Most detergents use a combination of various surfactants to balance their performance.\n", "There are currently five types of laundry enzyme used in the detergent industry: protease, amylase, lipase, cellulase and mannanase enzymes. According to their distinguished uses, the five types are classified into two main groups. The first group involves proteases, amylase, lipase and cellulase enzyme. They mainly show their properties in protein, starch, and fat or grease, and color deposition stains removal. There are many commercial laundry enzyme formulation patents owned by some famous biochemical companies, and one of the most successful is a renewable and biodegradable type of protease enzyme and the model name of it is PREFERENZ P 300. The P 300 is featured in robustness and enables highly efficient cleaning performance as P300 offers a superior ability to remove tough stains for consumers with a more complicated laundering tasks in the real life. It is also worthy mentioning that most of the current laundry enzymes are free to update, which means it is possible to develop and engineer new versions of the ‘traditional’ detergent enzymes, such as proteases, amylases so that they are still functioning well and handling with current modern laundry although they are previous generations of laundry enzyme. Therefore, the PREFERENZ P 300 is designed to be sustainable and it maintains its outstanding performance and that is why the PREFERENZ P 300 is both renewable and biodegradable. Other laundry enzymes from the company involving the PREFERENZ S 210 and L 100 are formulated to focus on the effectiveness in the removal of starch-based food stains as well as animal fat stains. In additional to the first group, there is another group that only includes the mannanase enzyme, known as the most recent enzyme type used in the detergent industry. Mannanase enzyme removes food stains with guar gum, a popularly used food additive. Remarkably, these types are introduced into the market as ordered. . Therefore, it makes sense that the revolution of these enzyme components reflects consumers’ desire for new laundry enzyme formula has been generally aroused to handle more complicated laundry cases.\n", "Pursuant to findings published in 2006 by the Shenkar College of Engineering and Design indicating that liquid detergents are \"much more environment-friendly\" than powdered detergents, Israel's Ministry of the Environment began recommending that consumers prefer liquid detergent over powdered ones \"for laundry which is not heavily stained.\"\n", "Laundry pods are estimated to make up about 15% of the $7 billion-a-year U.S. laundry detergent market sales according to market researcher Nielsen NV. Laundry pods were advertised as a way to reduce wasted use of powdered and liquid detergent by having precise measurements for a load. For large loads, most brands recommend two pods, with Tide suggesting up to three. Detergent pods cost significantly more than liquid detergent for equivalent laundry loads.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The use of enzymes for laundry was introduced in 1913 by Otto Rohm. The first preparation was a pancreatic extract obtained from slaughtered animals, which was unstable against alkali and bleach. Only in the latter part of the century with the availability of thermally robust bacterial enzymes did this technology become mainstream.\n", "Laundry detergent\n\nLaundry detergent, or washing powder, is a type of detergent (cleaning agent) that is added for cleaning laundry. While detergent is still sold in powdered form, liquid detergents have been taking major market shares in many countries since their introduction in the 1950s.\n\nLaundry detergent pods have also been sold in the United States since 2012 when they were introduced by Procter & Gamble as Tide Pods. Earlier instances of laundry detergent pods include Salvo tablets sold in the 1960s and 1970s.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Merits.:Phosphate and synthetic surfactants' replacement.\n", "MonoSol is one of the companies that develops the water-soluble film used for laundry and dishwasher detergent packs, used by brands including Tide, with roughly $250 million in annual sales and controlling around 90-percent of the market. The film is designed to be soluble in cold water.\n", "Laundry enzyme is one type of biological enzymes that are frequently used in the laundry industry, and also it is still the largest industrial enzyme application and thus the laundry enzyme plays a significant role in helping both household laundry and the relative industrial business. Laundry enzymes are sub-class of enzymes, and thus they are also biological catalysts with poly-molecular structure. They usually exist as little blue particles or flecks in both liquid and powder detergents, and once contacting with water they dissolve rapidly, by acting as a catalyst, the laundry enzymes boost the rate of the reaction between stains and aqueous solution. Therefore, laundry enzymes are good at stain removal. The addition of laundry enzymes in detergent products improves laundry efficiency and also makes the process more environmentally friendly, and thus detergent manufacturers are willing to update the products with laundry enzyme formula added. With the consumers' high interest in new bio-technique gradually growing, laundry enzyme detergents are becoming more and more popular in the globe, which reveals the success of laundry enzyme's application in the industry. However, there are still several concerns from consumers brought by laundry enzymes such as the potential allergies and cloth damages, but the experimental result shows the concerns are unnecessary.\n", "BULLET::::- Cycle length: Top-loaders have tended to have shorter cycle times, in part because their design has traditionally emphasized simplicity and speed of operation more than resource conservation.\n", "From ancient times, chemical additives were used to facilitate the mechanical washing of clothing with water. The Italians used a mix of sulfur and water with charcoal to clean cloth. Egyptians added ashes and silicates to soften water. Soaps were the first detergents. The detergent effects of certain synthetic surfactants were noted in Germany in 1917, in response to shortages of soap during World War I. In the 1930s, commercially viable routes to fatty alcohols were developed, and these new materials were converted to their sulfate esters, key ingredients in the commercially important German brand FEWA, produced by BASF, and Dreft, the U.S. brand produced by Procter and Gamble. Such detergents were mainly used in industry until after World War II. By then, new developments and the later conversion of aviation fuel plants to produce tetrapropylene, used in household detergents, caused a fast growth of domestic use in the late 1940s.\n", "Front loaders need to use low-sudsing detergents because the tumbling action of the drum folds air into the clothes load that can cause over-sudsing and overflows. However, due to efficient use of water and detergent, the sudsing issue with front-loaders can be controlled by simply using less detergent, without lessening cleaning action.\n\nSection::::Wash cycles.:Rinsing.\n", "Laundry tabs were originally introduced in the 1960s in a compacted granular form (similar to an oral medical tablet), when Procter & Gamble launched Salvo tablets, later disappearing from the market in the 1970s. In the 1990s, Unilever and Henkel launched a similar laundry detergent pack product sold in Western Europe. These products sometimes didn't fully dissolve in United States washers.\n\nIn 2005, Cot'n Wash, Inc. introduced liquid unit dose laundry pods under the Dropps brand.\n\nIn 2012, Procter & Gamble relaunched a liquid tablet product as Tide Pods. \n", "As enzymes, they must ensure themselves to be able to function normally in adverse conditions. The leading reason why laundry enzymes are needed to formulate the detergents is the strengthened ability to remove stubborn stains without doing extra work. Properties of laundry enzymes are diverse according to sophisticated laundry cases. To take examples, some laundry enzymes must be tolerant enough to bear high temperature around 60 °C as required for dishware cleaning. Thus there are thermo-stable laundry enzymes still surviving in the extreme condition. Besides, there are also some kinds of laundry enzyme that are effective in tap water 0-15 ℃, and this shows their characteristic of high activity even in surroundings with much lower temperature. In addition, many the activity and stability of many types of laundry enzyme, like amylase, still keep at a high level in alkaline or acidic surroundings. The given extreme pH range for the laundry enzyme to still maintain active is 10-12 in alkali, and 3-4 in acid. In addition to temperature and extreme pH, properties such as the abilities to handle ionic strength, surfactants, and oxidizing agents are also considered as requested properties in the laundry enzyme industry. Therefore, the high performance of laundry enzymes guarantees most of the laundry cases in consumers' daily life.\n", "Until the 1950s, soap was the predominant surfactant in laundry detergents. By the end of the 1950s so-called \"synthetic detergents\" (syndets) like tetrapropylenebenzenesulfonate (TPS) had largely replaced soap in developed countries. Due to their poor biodegradability these branched alkylbenzenesulfonates were replaced with linear alkylbenzenesulfonates (LAS) in the mid-1960s. Since the 1980s, alkyl sulfates such as SDS have found increasing application at the expense of LAS.\n\nSince the 1970s, nonionic surfactants like alcohol ethoxylates have acquired a higher share in laundry detergents. In the 1990s, glucamides appeared as co-surfactants, and alkyl polyglycosides have been used in specialty detergents for fine fabrics.\n", "BULLET::::- Many dilute the detergent before it comes in contact with the clothes, some by means of mixing the soap and water with air to make foam, which is then introduced into the drum.\n\nBULLET::::- Some have pulsators that are mounted on a plate on the bottom of the drum instead of an agitator. The plate spins, and the pulsators generate waves that help shake the soil out of the clothes. Many also include mechanisms to prevent or remove undissolved detergent residue on the detergent dispenser.\n", "Concerns about the environmental impact of these compounds has increased since the 1990s. These surfactants have a mild to medium estrogenic function. Consequently, this class of detergents has been effectively restricted for commercial \"down-the-drain\" applications in Europe, and these compounds are no longer used by U.S. laundry manufacturers. On January 14, 2016, the European Commission amended existing restriction on nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPE) under the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) legislation, limiting NPE residues on textile articles to 0.01% by weight, effective February 3, 2021. Previously, the use of NPE was forbidden within the EU, but there was no limit on the level of NPE residue on imported articles.\n", "BULLET::::- Difficult items: Top-loaders may have trouble cleaning large items, such as sleeping bags or pillows, which tend to float on top of the wash water rather than circulate within it. In addition, vigorous top-loader agitator motions may damage delicate fabrics.\n\nBULLET::::- Noise: Front-loaders tend to operate more quietly than top-loaders because the door seal helps contain noise, and because there is less of a tendency to imbalance. Top-loaders usually need a mechanical transmission (due to agitators, see above), which can generate more noise than the rubber belt or direct drive found in most front loaders.\n", "In many current biofuel generation endeavours, the processes of differentiating and separating desired components from undesired ones leads to losses in both net energy yield and capital loss. Due to this, LS9 has developed a process where in their reaction chambers, shown above, utilize the natural properties of their desired components. Using both solvent composition and the realization that most desired components in biofuel generation possess a certain degree of hydrophobicity, LS9 has engineered their microbes to carry out their reactions in the aqueous-like phase, which is of lower hydrophobic character, and their desired components are secreted and float to the top forming a hydrophobic phase. This phase is easily accessible to collection apparatuses and requires little energy to collect.\n", "BULLET::::- Initial cost: In countries where top-loaders are popular, front-loaders tend to be more expensive to buy than top-loaders, though their lower operating costs can ultimately lead to lower total cost of ownership, especially if energy, detergent, or water are expensive. On the other hand, in countries with a large front-loader user base, top-loaders are usually seen as alternatives and more expensive than basic off-brand front loaders, although without many differences in total cost of ownership apart from design-originated ones. In addition, manufacturers have tended to include more advanced features such as internal water heating, automatic dirt sensors, and high-speed emptying on front-loaders, although some of these features could be implemented on top-loaders.\n", "Section::::Types.:Comparison.\n\nTrue front-loaders, and top-loading machines with horizontal-axis drum as described above, can be compared with top-loaders on a number of aspects:\n", "Ariel first appeared on the UK market in 1967 and was the first detergent with stain-removing enzymes. It was a high-sudsing powder designed for twin-tub and top-loading washing machines. For front loading automatics, Procter & Gamble initially introduced \"Low Suds Bold Automatic\" powder. Though with the increasing popularity of automatic front-loading washing machines, a suitable low-suds variant \"Ariel Automatic\" was eventually launched in the early 1980s. The mid-eighties saw the range expanding to encompass liquid detergent and compact powder.\n", "Since the agitator and the drum are separate and distinct in a top-loading washing machine, the mechanism of a top-loader is inherently more complicated than a front-loading machine. Manufacturers have devised several ways to control the motion of the agitator during wash and rinse separately from the high speed rotation of the drum required for the spin cycle.\n", "Compared to top-loading washers, clothing can be packed more tightly in a front loader, up to the full drum volume if using a cottons wash cycle. This is because wet cloth usually fits into a smaller space than dry cloth, and front loaders are able to self-regulate the water needed to achieve correct washing and rinsing. Extreme overloading of front-loading washers pushes fabrics towards the small gap between the loading door and the front of the wash basket, potentially resulting in fabrics lost between the basket and outer tub, and in severe cases, tearing of clothing and jamming the motion of the basket.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17895	In most machines and appliances, why does an engineer choose, for example, a Philips head screw for one component but a flathead or hex for another? One would think that what matters are the specs of the screw itself rather than the head.	Philips are designed to "cam out" once a certain torque is reached. Flat heads are a bit more difficult to use drills or automatic equipment on, meaning they're likely installed by hand. Flat heads are quite difficult to really torque down, forcing operators to not crank it like arm wrestling a gorilla. Hex can take more torque and may be used for applications requiring more clamping.	[ "Given the unique nature of the delivered product, clients may accept certain quality risks as a consequence of meeting delivery dates. Testing and trial periods may also be limited by the nature of the product, the manufacturing required, and the metrics established for quality controls. As each product is essentially a one of a kind prototype, smaller companies on either the manufacturer or client side may not have the expertise or resources to implement use-cases, user testing, or future quality guidelines. In MTO, quality is often defined as a lack of defects, but must meet minimal levels defined in the specifications. In Engineer to Order there is no original design. Where possible, prior similar products may provide some guidelines as to testing and precision, but the idea of re-designing or modifying an existing design is necessarily a core requirement of the engineer to order concept. It does however reduce costs and time if one can use previous designs.\n", "On the one hand, this can lead to the so-called “tolerance stack-up”. When two or more parts are to be fit together, the size of their tolerances often determine how well they will match. Should one part fall at a lower limit of its specification and a matching part at its upper limit, a tight fit is unlikely. The link is likely to wear more quickly than one made from parts whose dimensions have been centered more exactly.\n", "BULLET::::- Manufacturer C uses part number \"TSR-1002\".\n\nThe business using such a screw may buy screws from any of those manufacturers, because each supplier manufactures the parts to the same specification. To identify such screws, the user doesn't want to use any of those manufacturer's part numbers, because\n\nBULLET::::- it would imply that one manufacturer is acceptable and the other ones aren't, and,\n\nBULLET::::- it wishes to use a consistent format for the part numbers of all of the parts it uses.\n\nTherefore, the user devises its own part numbering system.\n", "Prototypes are very often constructed by hand, or with more limited tooling. This is done to save costs where the design may not even be subsequently approved for manufacture. Once the go-ahead for a production run is given, the much more costly production tooling can be ordered. At this stage, the design itself may need to be reworked or altered to streamline production. The goal is to reduce costs as much as possible at the assembly stage, since costs will be multiplied by the number of units produced. For example, a prototype might be assembled using nuts and bolts, but in production such fasteners might be replaced by captive nuts or threaded holes built into the parts, making assembly much faster, easier and therefore cheaper.\n", "Section::::For CNC machining.:Tolerances.\n\nA significant contributing factor to the cost of a machined component is the geometric tolerance to which the features must be made. The tighter the tolerance required, the more expensive the component will be to machine. When designing, specify the loosest tolerance that will serve the function of the component. Tolerances must be specified on a feature by feature basis. There are creative ways to engineer components with lower tolerances that still perform as well as ones with higher tolerances.\n\nSection::::For CNC machining.:Design and shape.\n", "The difference between the ETO approach to production and make to order products is that engineering original products to order includes the entire design process. In MTO companies typically have a fixed design and specifications to start with. The existing design is followed, even if the customer requests some customization of dimensions or materials. In engineering to meet unique customer orders, designs spring from collaboration with the customer, beginning with a need and a concept. Engineers do not know the final specifications, materials, or in software development, even the network or application platform until other primary concepts are ironed out. This is a much more creative process and requires a much closer relationship with clients, ultimately leading to a product that is unique.\n", "An example of a product that might benefit from this approach could be a car transmission where there is no expectation that the field service person will repair the old transmission; instead, he will simply swap in a new one. Therefore, total interchangeability was not absolutely required for the assemblies inside the transmissions. It would have been specified anyway, simply on general principle, except for a certain shaft that required precision so high as to cause great annoyance and high scrap rates in the grinding area, but for which only decent accuracy was required, as long as the fit with its hole was good in every case. Money could be saved by saving many shafts from the scrap bin.\n", "An example of such a design modification suffix is adding \"V\" or \"Z\" to the end of the part number to designate the variant of the part that is purchased \"less paint\", \"less plating\", \"with the holes not yet drilled\", \"intentionally oversize by .01mm\", or any of countless other modifications. The intent is usually that the feature in question (such as holes not yet drilled, or paint not yet sprayed) will be added at a higher assembly level; or that maintenance workers in the field will choose from a kit of undersize and oversize parts (such as bushings) in order to achieve a certain fit (sliding fit, light press fit, etc.).\n", "A key component of most military standards is traceability. Put simply, hardware manufacturers must be able to trace their materials to their source, and provide traceability for their parts going into the supply chain, usually via bar codes or similar methods. This traceability is intended to help ensure that the right parts are used and that quality standards are met in each step of the manufacturing process; additionally, substandard parts can traced back to their source.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Safety wire\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan International Fastener Show\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \n\nBULLET::::- A Guide to Identifying Various Bolts and Fasteners\n", "BULLET::::- B18.6.2 Slotted Head Cap Screws, Square Head Set Screws, And Slotted Headless Set Screws (Inch Series)\n\nBULLET::::- B18.6.3 Machine Screws, Tapping Screws, and Metallic Drive Screws (Inch Series)\n\nBULLET::::- B18.18 Quality Assurance For Fasteners\n\nBULLET::::- B18.24 Part Identifying Number (PIN) Code System Standard for B18 Fastener Products\n\nSection::::Standards & traceability.:For military hardware.\n", "In some cases, stock parts are not sufficient for the task of producing a finished product with sufficiently tight clearances. In this case, it may be necessary to use specially fabricated parts, built either with minimal clearances (but to a very tight tolerance), or parts that are oversized and intended for hand fitting.\n\nSection::::Clearances and Tolerances.:Barrel.\n", "Some devices contain non-standard screws or bolts in an attempt to deter access. Examples are telephone switching cabinets (which have triangular bolt heads that a hex socket fits) and computer hard drives, which usually have a star-shaped head for the screws, known as Torx heads. Drivers for these heads are commonly available from electronics retailers.\n\nSection::::Electrical.\n", "As an example, if one wanted to make a batch of special knurled-head screws, the turret could be set up with tools and used in this sequence:\n\nBULLET::::1. Stop to set length of bar stock to be machined;\n\nBULLET::::2. Box tool to turn diameter of stock down to threading size;\n\nBULLET::::3. Geometric die head to cut external threads on turned-down part,\n\nBULLET::::4. Knurling tool to knurl the screw's head.\n", "Section::::Product design and development.\n\nDuring the design and development of new products, designers and engineers rely on both a bottom-up and top-down approach. The bottom-up approach is being utilized when off-the-shelf or existing components are selected and integrated into the product. An example would include selecting a particular fastener, such as a bolt, and designing the receiving components such that the fastener will fit properly. In a top-down approach, a custom fastener would be designed such that it would fit properly in the receiving components.\n", "The same type of screw or bolt can be made in many different grades of material. For critical high-tensile-strength applications, low-grade bolts may fail, resulting in damage or injury. On SAE-standard bolts, a distinctive pattern of marking is impressed on the heads to allow inspection and validation of the strength of the bolt. However, low-cost counterfeit fasteners may be found with actual strength far less than indicated by the markings. Such inferior fasteners are a danger to life and property when used in aircraft, automobiles, heavy trucks, and similar critical applications.\n\nSection::::Mechanical classifications.:Inch.\n", "For perspective, for a product with more restrictive requirements (such as weight, geometry, safety, environment, etc.), such as a space-suit, a more top-down approach is taken and almost everything is custom designed. However, when it's more important to minimize cost and increase component availability, such as with manufacturing equipment, a more bottom-up approach would be taken, and as many off-the-shelf components (bolts, gears, bearings, etc.) would be selected as possible. In the latter case, the receiving housings would be designed around the selected components.\n\nSection::::Computer science.\n\nSection::::Computer science.:Software development.\n", "Engineer to order environments must employ a flexible and adaptive, demand-driven approach to the manufacturing process. It is usually the right solution when details on a customer order are not provided and engineering development must be added to product lead time.\n", "ASME standard B18.2.1-1996 specifies Hex Cap Screws whose size range is in diameter. These fasteners are very similar to hex bolts. They differ mostly in that they are manufactured to tighter tolerances than the corresponding bolts. \"Machinery's Handbook\" refers parenthetically to these fasteners as \"Finished Hex Bolts\". Reasonably, these fasteners might be referred to as bolts, but based on the US government document \"Distinguishing Bolts from Screws\", the US government might classify them as screws because of the tighter tolerance. In 1991 responding to an influx of counterfeit fasteners Congress passed PL 101-592 \"Fastener Quality Act\" This resulted in the rewriting of specifications by the ASME B18 committee. B18.2.1 was re-written and as a result they eliminated the \"Finished Hex Bolts\" and renamed them the \"Hex Cap Screw\"—a term that had existed in common usage long before, but was now also being codified as an official name for the ASME B18 standard.\n", "Most machine slides for many decades, and many even today, have been simple (but accurate) cast-iron linear bearing surfaces, such as a dovetail- or box-slide, with an Acme leadscrew drive. With just a simple nut, some backlash is inevitable. On manual (non-CNC) machine tools, a machinist's means for compensating for backlash is to approach all precise positions using the same direction of travel, that is, if they have been dialing left, and next want to move to a rightward point, they will move rightward \"past\" it, then dial leftward back to it; the setups, tool approaches, and toolpaths must in that case be designed within this constraint. \n", "BULLET::::- Fitting expenses. Generally, PEX fittings, particularly the do-it-yourself compression ones, are more expensive than copper ones, although there is no soldering required. Due to the flexibility of PEX, it generally requires fewer fittings, which tends to offset the higher cost per fitting.\n", "This problem can be addressed by taking a different approach to measuring quality. Instead of measuring a simple conformance to specifications, the degree to which parts or products diverge from the ideal target is measured. Using this approach, process 1 (see picture) is better even though some items fall beyond specification limits. The traditional approach would have favored process 2 because it produces more items within the specification limit. It was demonstrated that the problem of “tolerance stack-up” is worse when the dimensions of parts are more distant from the target than when they cluster around it, even if some parts fall outside the tolerance. This approach requires a fresh look at the common process quality factor of 'defect rate', to take into account the fact that two parts may each pass the 'tolerance test' separately but be unusable when the attempt is made to join them together.\n", "There are many standards governing the material and mechanical properties of imperial sized externally threaded fasteners. Some of the most common consensus standards for grades produced from carbon steels are ASTM A193, ASTM A307, ASTM A354, ASTM F3125, and SAE J429. Some of the most common consensus standards for grades produced from corrosion resistant steels are ASTM F593 & ASTM A193.\n\nSection::::Mechanical classifications.:Metric.\n\nThe international standards for metric externally threaded fasteners are ISO 898-1 for property classes produced from carbon steels and ISO 3506-1 for property classes produced from corrosion resistant steels. \n", "There are many benefits as well as risks to contract manufacturing. Companies are finding many reasons why they should outsource their production to other companies. However, production outside of the company has many risks attached. Companies must first identify their core competencies before deciding about contract manufacturers. A company's competencies are what make them competitive in the marketplace. If a company allows another company to take control of them, it loses that advantage.\n", "A pentagon screw drive uses five-sided fastener heads, and the fastener is known as a penta screw or penta bolt. It is designed to be intrinsically incompatible with many tools. Since five is an odd number, it cannot be turned by open-end or adjustable wrenches, which have parallel faces (and thus require a fastener with an even number of sides). Moreover, it cannot be turned by typical consumer- and professional-grade socket drivers, which possess either six or twelve points (neither of which are multiples of five). Penta nut security fasteners also are available, which can only be driven by specialized five-sided socket drivers.\n", "In applications where vertical clearance is at a premium (such as ISA cards in computers), it is often feasible to bend the leads at a right angle and mount the component flat to the printed wiring board using a screw and nut. This often provides enough surface area to heatsink the component when power dissipation is moderately high.\n" ]	[ "The specs of the screw itself matter more than the head." ]	[ "Different types of screw heads require different amount of torque, thus are useful for different applications." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The specs of the screw itself matter more than the head.", "The specs of the screw itself matter more than the head." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Different types of screw heads require different amount of torque, thus are useful for different applications.", "Different types of screw heads require different amount of torque, thus are useful for different applications." ]
2018-02339	How are chip-readers more secure than magnetic strips?	It's not necessarily the reader, but the card itself. In an eli5 sense, a magnetic stripe says "I am X" when swiped. It is extremely easy to create a copy of the card that also says "I am X". A chip card, when read, initiates a conversation like "If you say you are card X, please complete this math problem using your secret ID number and give me the result". Because the whole card's information is not transmitted during a transaction, it is much harder to create a copy. If a second authentication factor (such as a PIN) is not used, chip cards are still weak to physical theft and malicious usage of a card, neither do they protect against fradulent online usage.	[ "There exists a software implementation written in Python supporting Mode 1, Mode 2 and Mode 2 with TDS to be used for educational purposes only.\n\nNote that using this software for real financial operations can lead to some risks. Indeed, the advantage of using a standalone reader is to isolate the banking card from malware potentially located on the PC. Using it in a non-secured reader is taking the risk that a keylogger intercepts the PIN, and point of sale malware gains access to the card details, or even intercepts a transaction to modify it or operates its own transaction.\n", "Cambridge University researchers Saar Drimer, Steven Murdoch, Ross Anderson conducted research into the implementation of CAP, outlining a number of vulnerabilities in the protocol and the UK variant of both readers and cards. Numerous weaknesses were found. Radboud University researchers found a vulnerability in the Dutch ABN AMRO e.dentifier2, allowing an attacker to command a USB connected reader to sign malicious transactions without user approval.\n\nSection::::Users.\n\nSection::::Users.:Sweden.\n", "The probe card must make good electrical contact to these pads or bumps during the testing of the device. When the testing of the device is complete, the prober will index the wafer to the next device to be tested.\n\nProbe cards are broadly classified into needle type, vertical type, and MEMS(Micro Electro-Mechanical System) type depending on shape and forms of contact elements. MEMS type is the most advanced technology currently available. The most advanced type of probe card currently can test an entire 12\" wafer with one touchdown.\n", "Smart cards, often colloquially referred to as “chip cards” were designed to provide a more secure financial transaction than a traditional credit card. They contain simple embedded integrated circuits designed to performed cryptographic functions. They connect directly to a card reader which provides the power necessary to perform an encrypted financial transaction. Many side-channel attacks have been shown to be effective against smart cards because they obtain their power supply and clock directly from the card reader. By tampering with a card reader, it is simple to collect traces and perform side-channel attacks. Other works, however, have also shown that smart cards are vulnerable to electromagnetic attacks as well.\n", "Kuroda). These methods use tiny RF antennae (similar to RFID tags, but on a much smaller scale) to replace both the mechanical probes and the metal probe pads. If the antennae on the probe card and IC are properly aligned, then a transmitter on the probe card can send data wirelessly to the receiver on the IC via RF communication.\n\nThis method has several advantages:\n\nBULLET::::- no damage is done to circuits, pads, nor probe cards\n\nBULLET::::- no debris is created\n\nBULLET::::- probe pads are no longer required, on the periphery of the IC\n", "On some chips it is also a good idea to separate write protect lines so that the onboard chips do not get wiped during reprogramming.\n\nA related technique is rewriting the chip on webcams often included with many laptops as the bus speed is substantially higher and can even be modified so that 25x series chips can be read back for later cloning of the uEFI in the event of a chip failure.\n\nSection::::On older equipment.\n", "Section::::Chips.\n\nTamper-resistant microprocessors are used to store and process private or sensitive information, such as private keys or electronic money credit. To prevent an attacker from retrieving or modifying the information, the chips are designed so that the information is not accessible through external means and can be accessed only by the embedded software, which should contain the appropriate security measures.\n\nExamples of tamper-resistant chips include all secure cryptoprocessors, such as the IBM 4758 and chips used in smartcards, as well as the Clipper chip.\n", "The cross-linking of POI-DNA complexes is reversed (usually by heating) and the DNA strands are purified. For the rest of the workflow, the POI is no longer necessary.\n\nAfter an amplification and denaturation step, the single-stranded DNA fragments are labeled with a fluorescent tag such as Cy5 or Alexa 647.\n\nFinally, the fragments are poured over the surface of the DNA microarray, which is spotted with short, single-stranded sequences that cover the genomic portion of interest. Whenever a labeled fragment \"finds\" a complementary fragment on the array, they will hybridize and form again a double-stranded DNA fragment.\n", "Section::::Communication techniques.:Surface acoustic wave.\n", "The chips also provides a good platform for performing PCR directly on the chip (in individual gel pads) as it is easy to isolate each gel pad from its neighbour unlike typical microarray chips which face serious problems in doing the same task\n", "A major drawback for such systems is the relative ease with which the 16-digit ID number contained in a chip implant can be obtained and cloned using a hand-held device, a problem that has been demonstrated publicly by security researcher Jonathan Westhues and documented in the May 2006 issue of \"Wired\" magazine, among other places.\n\nBULLET::::- The Baja Beach Club, a nightclub in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, once used VeriChip implants for identifying VIP guests.\n\nBULLET::::- The Epicenter in Stockholm, Sweden is using RFID implants for employees to operate security doors, copiers, and pay for lunch.\n\nSection::::Commercial implants.:Possible future applications.\n", "Section::::Advantages.\n\nChIP-exo has been shown to give up to single base pair resolution in identifying protein binding locations. This is in contrast to ChIP-seq which can locate a protein's binding site only to with ±300 base pairs.\n\nContamination of non-protein-bound DNA fragments can result in a high rate of false positives and negatives in ChIP experiments. The addition of exonucleases to the process not only improves resolution of binding-site calling, but removes contaminating DNA from the solution before sequencing.\n", "BULLET::::- Mode2: This mode may be useful for authenticating a user in which no transaction is taking place, such as logging into an Internet banking system. No transaction value, currency, or other data are included, making these responses very easy to precompute or reuse.\n", "In August 2016, NCR (payment technology company) computer security researchers showed how credit card thieves can rewrite the code of a magnetic strip to make it appear like a chipless card, which allows for counterfeiting.\n\nSection::::Vulnerabilities.:2010: Hidden hardware disables PIN checking on stolen card.\n", "\"Probe type\": DNA arrays can comprise either mechanically spotted cDNAs or PCR-products, mechanically spotted oligonucleotides, or oligonucleotides that are synthesized \"in situ\". The early versions of microarrays were designed to detect RNAs from expressed genomic regions (open reading frames aka ORFs). Although such arrays are perfectly suited to study gene expression profiles, they have limited importance in ChIP experiments since most \"interesting\" proteins with respect to this technique bind in intergenic regions. Nowadays, even custom-made arrays can be designed and fine-tuned to match the requirements of an experiment. Also, any sequence of nucleotides can be synthesized to cover genic as well as intergenic regions.\n", "In the next step, only these complexes are filtered out of the set of DNA fragments, using an antibody specific to the POI. The antibodies may be attached to a solid surface, may have a magnetic bead, or some other physical property that allows separation of cross-linked complexes and unbound fragments. This procedure is essentially an immunoprecipitation (IP) of the protein. This can be done either by using a tagged protein with an antibody against the tag (ex. FLAG, HA, c-myc) or with an antibody to the native protein.\n", "Tamper-resistant chips may be designed to zeroise their sensitive data (especially cryptographic keys) if they detect penetration of their security encapsulation or out-of-specification environmental parameters. A chip may even be rated for \"cold zeroisation\", the ability to zeroise itself even after its power supply has been crippled. In addition, the custom-made encapsulation methods used for chips used in some cryptographic products may be designed in such a manner that they are internally pre-stressed, so the chip will fracture if interfered with.\n", "However, card readers issued by most, possibly all, UK banks conform to a CAP subset defined by APACS, meaning that, in most cases, cards issued by a UK bank can be used in a card reader issued by a different bank.\n\nSection::::Vulnerabilities.\n", "Data in a passport chip is scannable by electronic readers, a capability which is intended to speed up immigration processing. This data, along with the signature, is verified to either be valid or invalid. Like toll-road chips, data in passport chips can be read when passport chips are adjacent to readers. The passport cover contains a radio-frequency shield in the form of a wire mesh within the cover, so the cover must be opened for the data to be read. This cover acts as a Faraday cage.\n", "Consider how DFT recognizes unintended logic. When driven by DFT inputs, a genuine chip generates a familiar signature, but a defective or altered chip displays an unexpected signature. The signature may consist of any number of data outputs from the chip: an entire scan chain or intermediate data result. In a trojan-detection context, DFT logic may be regarded as an encryption algorithm: using the DFT input as key to sign a message derived from the behavior of the design under test. In an intrusion-avoidance context, BIST or DFT functions are typically disabled (by hardware-reconfiguration) outside of a manufacturing environment because their access to the chip's internal state can expose its function to covert surveillance or subversive attack.\n", "In addition to the track-two data on the magnetic stripe, EMV cards generally have identical data encoded on the chip, which is read as part of the normal EMV transaction process. If an EMV reader is compromised to the extent that the conversation between the card and the terminal is intercepted, then the attacker may be able to recover both the track-two data and the PIN, allowing construction of a magnetic stripe card, which, while not usable in a Chip and PIN terminal, can be used, for example, in terminal devices that permit fallback to magstripe processing for foreign customers without chip cards, and defective cards. This attack is possible only where (a) the offline PIN is presented in plaintext by the PIN entry device to the card, where (b) magstripe fallback is permitted by the card issuer and (c) where geographic and behavioural checking may not be carried out by the card issuer.\n", "Section::::Operating principle.\n\nThe CAP specification supports several authentication methods. The user first inserts their smartcard into the CAP reader and enables it by entering the PIN. A button is then pressed to select the transaction type. Most readers have two or three transaction types available to the user under a variety of names. Some known implementations are:\n\nBULLET::::- Code/identify: Without requiring any further input, the CAP reader interacts with the smartcard to produce a decimal one-time password, which can be used, for example, to log into a banking website.\n", "\"Probe size\": Early version of cDNA arrays had a probe length of about 200bp. Latest array versions use oligos as short as 70- (Microarrays, Inc.) to 25-mers (Affymetrix). (Feb 2007)\n", "Section::::Sensitivity.\n\nSensitivity of this technology depends on the depth of the sequencing run (i.e. the number of mapped sequence tags), the size of the genome and the distribution of the target factor.\n\nThe sequencing depth is directly correlated with cost. If abundant binders in large genomes have to be mapped with high sensitivity, costs are high as an enormously high number of sequence tags will be required. This is in contrast to ChIP-chip in which the costs are not correlated with sensitivity.\n", "As a consequence of the low impedance required by matching, PCB signal traces carry much more current than their on-chip counterparts. This larger current induces crosstalk primarily in a magnetic or inductive mode as opposed to a capacitive mode. To combat this crosstalk, digital PCB designers must remain acutely aware of not only the intended signal path for every signal, but also the path of returning signal current for every signal. The signal itself and its returning signal current path are equally capable of generating inductive crosstalk. Differential trace pairs help to reduce these effects.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01573	Why does sand stick to everything even though it doesn't feel sticky?	Sand sticks to things in many ways just like flour does. Flour particles aren't sticky at all (while dry), but small enough to be caught in tangles of fabric fibers, attracted by even the slightest charges, or "grabbed" by microscopic droplets of water or oil (and the human body is literally covered with oil-drop and water-drop emitting organelles: sweat glands and sebaceous glands). Flour is many times smaller, so more sticks of course, but at the size level of a grain of sand a human body is covered in a rough shag of fibers, and sticky oil and water films. None of these hold on very tightly, but tight enough to resist gravity and most movement, so the sand doesn't just fall off when you stand up. Brushing the area is more forceful, and tends to knock off every grain of sand hit - but again, sand is so small it can "hide" in the fabric or get missed by a rough hand brushing.	[ "Sand grains will always stick together unless the sand is reasonably fine. While dry sand is loose, wet sand is adherent if the proper amounts of sand and water are used in the mixture. The reason for this is that water forms little \"bridges\" between the grains of sand when it is damp due to the forces of surface tension.\n", "Many materials which we encounter during the day are dispersed media. For example, milk consists of oil drops dispersed in water, fog contains tiny water drops dispersed in air, shaving cream contains bubbles dispersed in a liquid, sand consists of solid grains in air and a kitchen sponge of bubbles dispersed in a solid.\n", "The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO), usually in the form of quartz, which, because of its chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant to weathering.\n", "Section::::Permanent adhesion.\n\nMany permanent bioadhesives (e.g., the oothecal foam of the mantis) are generated by a \"mix to activate\" process that involves hardening via covalent cross-linking. On non-polar surfaces the adhesive mechanisms may include van der Waals forces, whereas on polar surfaces mechanisms such as hydrogen bonding and binding to (or forming bridges via) metal cations may allow higher sticking forces to be achieved.\n\nBULLET::::- Microorganisms use acidic polysaccharides (molecular mass around 100 000 Da)\n\nBULLET::::- Marine bacteria use carbohydrate exopolymers to achieve bond strengths to glass of up to 500 000 N/m\n", "It is important to note that these forces also act over very small distances – 99% of the work necessary to break van der Waals bonds is done once surfaces are pulled more than a nanometer apart. As a result of this limited motion in both the van der Waals and ionic/covalent bonding situations, practical effectiveness of adhesion due to either or both of these interactions leaves much to be desired. Once a crack is initiated, it propagates easily along the interface because of the brittle nature of the interfacial bonds.\n", "The term \"frayed\" is used because the incorrectly matched nucleotides tend to avoid bonding, thus appearing similar to the strands in a fraying piece of rope.\n\nAlthough non-complementary sequences are also possible in the middle of double stranded DNA, mismatched regions away from the ends are not referred to as \"frayed\".\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n\nRonald W. Davis first discovered sticky ends as the product of the action of EcoRI, the restriction endonuclease.\n\nSection::::Strength.\n", "Mixtures of substances that are not soluble are usually readily separated by physical sieving or settlement. However mixtures can have different properties from the individual components. One familiar example is the mixture of fine sand with water used to make sandcastles. Neither the sand on its own nor the water on its own will make a sand-castle but by using physical properties of surface tension, the mixture behaves in a different way.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Solutions.\n", "Two materials may form a compound at the joint. The strongest joints are where atoms of the two materials share or swap electrons (known respectively as covalent bonding or ionic bonding, respectively). A weaker bond is formed if a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to an atom of nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine in another molecule, a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding.\n", "A recent study has however shown that gecko adhesion is in fact mainly determined by electrostatic interaction (caused by contact electrification), not van der Waals or capillary forces.\n\nThere were efforts in 2008 to create a dry glue that exploits the effect, and success was achieved in 2011 to create an adhesive tape on similar grounds. In 2011, a paper was published relating the effect to both velcro-like hairs and the presence of lipids in gecko footprints.\n", "The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO), usually in the form of quartz. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example, aragonite, which has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish. For example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean.\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "Section::::Properties.\n", "There is a great diversity of aliphatic compounds in insect adhesive secretions. Aliphatic compounds are a major constituent secretions for some locomotion organs in insects and they are also involved in the formation of defence secretions. Adhesives of this type contain only limited amounts or no polar components such as fatty acids, esters, alcohols. Often these compounds are temperature sensitive.\n", "Section::::Importance to humans.\n", "Another circumstance under which diffusive bonding occurs is “scission”. Chain scission is the cutting up of polymer chains, resulting in a higher concentration of distal tails. The heightened concentration of these chain ends gives rise to a heightened concentration of polymer tails extending across the interface. Scission is easily achieved by ultraviolet irradiation in the presence of oxygen gas, which suggests that adhesive devices employing diffusive bonding actually benefit from prolonged exposure to heat/light and air. The longer such a device is exposed to these conditions, the more tails are scissed and branch out across the interface.\n", "Some atmospheric effects on the functionality of adhesive devices can be characterized by following the theory of surface energy and interfacial tension. It is known that γ = (1/2)W = (1/2)W. If γ is high, then each species finds it favorable to cohere while in contact with a foreign species, rather than dissociate and mix with the other. If this is true, then it follows that when the interfacial tension is high, the force of adhesion is weak, since each species does not find it favorable to bond to the other. The interfacial tension of a liquid and a solid is directly related to the liquids wettability (relative to the solid), and thus one can extrapolate that cohesion increases in non-wetting liquids and decreases in wetting liquids. One example that verifies this is polydimethyl siloxane rubber, which has a work of self-adhesion of 43.6 mJ/m in air, 74 mJ/m in water (a nonwetting liquid) and 6 mJ/m in methanol (a wetting liquid).\n", "The interplay of molecular scale mechanisms and hierarchical surface structures is known to result in high levels of static friction and bonding between pairs of surfaces . Technologically advanced adhesive devices sometimes make use of microstructures on surfaces, such as tightly packed periodic posts. These are biomimetic technologies inspired by the adhesive abilities of the feet of various arthropods and vertebrates (most notably, geckos). By intermixing periodic breaks into smooth, adhesive surfaces, the interface acquires valuable crack-arresting properties. Because crack initiation requires much greater stress than does crack propagation, surfaces like these are much harder to separate, as a new crack has to be restarted every time the next individual microstructure is reached.\n", "This can readily be seen with a mixture of cornstarch and water (sometimes called oobleck), which acts in counterintuitive ways when struck or thrown against a surface. Sand that is completely soaked with water also behaves as a dilatant material. This is the reason why when walking on wet sand, a dry area appears directly underfoot.\n\nRheopecty is a similar property in which viscosity increases with cumulative stress or agitation over time. The opposite of a dilatant material is a pseudoplastic.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n", "Another factor determining the strength of an adhesive contact is its shape. Adhesive contacts of complex shape begin to detach at the \"edges\" of the contact area. The process of destruction of adhesive contacts can be seen in the film.\n\nSection::::Other effects.\n\nIn concert with the primary surface forces described above, there are several circumstantial effects in play. While the forces themselves each contribute to the magnitude of the adhesion between the surfaces, the following play a crucial role in the overall strength and reliability of an adhesive device.\n\nSection::::Other effects.:Stringing.\n", "Section::::Hairy adhesive pads for locomotion.\n", "Following are examples of the application of the concept in the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).\n", "However, the substrate can still be affected by humidity and UV exposure if the substrate is applied in an environment that it was not designed for. For instance, one could get substrate failure by using a tape that was made to be used in a desert in a place such as Florida. The difference in temperature might not be very large, but there is a huge difference in humidity. Any environmental effect on the substrate is dependent on the identity and purpose of the substrate.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Mechanical wear.\n", "In situations where two surfaces with areas below the micrometer scale come into close proximity (as in an accelerometer), they may adhere together. At this scale, electrostatic and/or Van der Waals and hydrogen bonding forces become significant. The phenomenon of two such surfaces being adhered together in this manner is also called stiction. Stiction may be related to hydrogen bonding or residual contamination.\n\nSection::::Automobiles.\n", "Aggregated fumed silica can be applied to large surfaces to render them hydrophobic. Micro and nanoscale structures, resembling ball and block like forms, are attributed to the hydrophobic characteristics. Due to the change in the original surface’s texture, the roughness of the surface causes its hydrophobicity to increase. This is because when water comes into contact with the rough surface, it only touches the tips of the rough texture and doesn't permeate any deeper through the rest of the air occupied structure. The water can’t spread through the surface, thus yielding hydrophobic properties.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Additional applications.\n\nBULLET::::- Consumer goods\n", "People who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles. Organisms that thrive in sandy environments are psammophiles.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Abrasion: Before sandpaper, wet sand was used as an abrasive element between rotating devices with elastic surface and hard materials such as very hard stone (making of stone vases), or metal (removal of old stain before re-staining cupper cooking pots).\n\nBULLET::::- Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as watermelons, peaches, and peanuts, and their excellent drainage characteristics make them suitable for intensive dairy farming.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00335	if the atom bomb works by splitting atoms (correct me if I’m wrong), how is splitting an atom possible? And why does it cause an explosion that big even though it’s just splitting atoms?	The atom core is protons and neutrons. The atom gets shot with more neutrons. It gets so heavy that it collapses and the strong force in the atoms core gets released. That means energy in form of heat is radiating. Also more netrons get shot at other atoms and a big variety of electromagnetic waves.	[ "Section::::Continuous flow fast atom bombardment.\n", "Some atoms, notably uranium-238, do not usually undergo fission when struck by slow neutrons, but do split when struck with neutrons of high enough energy. The fast neutrons produced in a hydrogen bomb by fusion of deuterium and tritium have even higher energy than the fast neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This makes it possible to increase the yield of any given fusion weapon by the simple expedient of adding layers of cheap natural (or even depleted) uranium. Fast fission of uranium-238 provides a large part of the explosive yield, and fallout, in many designs of hydrogen bomb.\n", "Section::::Types.:Thermobaric.\n\nA thermobaric bomb is a type of explosive that utilizes oxygen from the surrounding air to generate an intense, high-temperature explosion, and in practice the blast wave typically produced by such a weapon is of a significantly longer duration than that produced by a conventional condensed explosive. The fuel-air bomb is one of the best-known types of thermobaric weapons.\n\nSection::::Types.:Nuclear fission.\n", "The most powerful non-nuclear weapons ever designed are the United States' MOAB (standing for \"Massive Ordnance Air Blast\", also nicknamed \"Mother Of All Bombs\", tested in 2003 and used on April 13, 2017, in Achin District, Afghanistan) and the Russian Father of All Bombs (tested in 2007). The MOAB contains of the H6 explosive, which is 1.35 times as powerful as TNT, giving the bomb an approximate yield of 11 t TNT. It would require about 250 MOAB blasts to equal the Halifax explosion (2.9 kt).\n\nSection::::Conventional explosions for nuclear testing.\n", "Nuclear fission type atomic bombs utilize the energy present in very heavy atomic nuclei, such as U-235 or Pu-239. In order to release this energy rapidly, a certain amount of the fissile material must be very rapidly consolidated while being exposed to a neutron source. If consolidation occurs slowly, repulsive forces drive the material apart before a significant explosion can occur. Under the right circumstances, rapid consolidation can provoke a chain reaction that can proliferate and intensify by many orders of magnitude within microseconds. The energy released by a nuclear fission bomb may be tens of thousands of times greater than a chemical bomb of the same mass.\n", "It was previously the most powerful non-atomic aerial bomb ever used in combat. Currently, the most powerful non-atomic bomb, is the US GBU-43/B MOAB (21,600 lb) device used in a 2017 attack against ISIL forces in Afghanistan.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "Even the first fission bombs were thousands of times more explosive than a comparable mass of chemical explosive. For example, Little Boy weighed a total of about four tons (of which 60 kg was nuclear fuel) and was long; it also yielded an explosion equivalent to about 15 kilotons of TNT, destroying a large part of the city of Hiroshima. Modern nuclear weapons (which include a thermonuclear \"fusion\" as well as one or more fission stages) are hundreds of times more energetic for their weight than the first pure fission atomic bombs (see nuclear weapon yield), so that a modern single missile warhead bomb weighing less than 1/8 as much as Little Boy (see for example W88) has a yield of 475,000 tons of TNT, and could bring destruction to about 10 times the city area.\n", "Nuclear fission in fissile fuels are the result of the nuclear excitation energy produced when a fissile nucleus captures a neutron. This energy, resulting from the neutron capture, is a result of the attractive nuclear force acting between the neutron and nucleus. It is enough to deform the nucleus into a double-lobed \"drop\", to the point that nuclear fragments exceed the distances at which the nuclear force can hold two groups of charged nucleons together and, when this happens, the two fragments complete their separation and then are driven further apart by their mutually repulsive charges, in a process which becomes irreversible with greater and greater distance. A similar process occurs in fissionable isotopes (such as uranium-238), but in order to fission, these isotopes require additional energy provided by fast neutrons (such as those produced by nuclear fusion in thermonuclear weapons).\n", "Atomic bombs are based on the theory of nuclear fission, that when a large atom splits, it releases a massive amount of energy. Thermonuclear weapons, (colloquially known as \"hydrogen bombs\") use the energy from an initial fission explosion to create an even more powerful fusion explosion.\n", "Meanwhile, inside the exploding bomb, the free neutrons released by fission carry away about 3% of the initial fission energy. Neutron kinetic energy adds to the blast energy of a bomb, but not as effectively as the energy from charged fragments, since neutrons are not slowed as quickly. The main contribution of fission neutrons to the bomb's power is the initiation of other fissions. Over half of the neutrons escape the bomb core, but the rest strike U-235 nuclei causing them to fission in an exponentially growing chain reaction (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.). Starting from one atom, the number of fissions can theoretically double a hundred times in a microsecond, which could consume all uranium or plutonium up to hundreds of tons by the hundredth link in the chain. In practice, bombs do not contain hundreds of tons of uranium or plutonium. Instead, typically (in a modern weapon) the core of a weapon contains only about 5 kilograms of plutonium, of which only 2 to 2.5 kilograms, representing 40 to 50 kilotons of energy, undergoes fission before the core blows itself apart.\n", "In order of increasing yield (most yield figures are approximate):\n\nAs a comparison, the blast yield of the GBU-43 Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb is 0.011 kt, and that of the Oklahoma City bombing, using a truck-based fertilizer bomb, was 0.002 kt. Most artificial non-nuclear explosions are considerably smaller than even what are considered to be very small nuclear weapons.\n\nSection::::Examples of nuclear weapon yields.:Yield limits.\n", "But, even on this basis, comparing the actual energy yields of a large nuclear device and an explosion of TNT can be slightly inaccurate. Small TNT explosions, especially in the open, don't tend to burn the carbon-particle and hydrocarbon products of the explosion. Gas-expansion and pressure-change effects tend to \"freeze\" the burn rapidly. A large open explosion of TNT may maintain fireball temperatures high enough so that some of those products do burn up with atmospheric oxygen.\n", "The shape of the bomb's reaction mass is critical to efficiency. The original project designed bombs with a reaction mass made of tungsten. The bomb's geometry and materials focused the X-rays and plasma from the core of nuclear explosive to hit the reaction mass. In effect each bomb would be a nuclear shaped charge.\n", "The total energy output, 17.6 MeV, is one tenth of that with fission, but the ingredients are only one-fiftieth as massive, so the energy output per unit mass is approximately five times as great. In this fusion reaction, 14 of the 17.6 MeV (80% of the energy released in the reaction) shows up as the kinetic energy of the neutron, which, having no electric charge and being almost as massive as the hydrogen nuclei that created it, can escape the scene without leaving its energy behind to help sustain the reaction – or to generate x-rays for blast and fire.\n", "In early news accounts, pure fission weapons were called atomic bombs or A-bombs and weapons involving fusion were called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs. Practitioners however favor the terms nuclear and thermonuclear, respectively.\n\nSection::::Nuclear reactions.\n\nNuclear fission separates or splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms. Nuclear fusion combines together lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. Both reactions generate roughly a million times more energy than comparable chemical reactions, making nuclear bombs a million times more powerful than non-nuclear bombs, which a French patent claimed in May 1939.\n", "The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in February 1932, and in April 1932, his Cavendish colleagues John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton split lithium atoms with accelerated protons. In December 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann at Hahn's laboratory in Berlin-Dahlem bombarded uranium with slow neutrons, and discovered that barium had been produced, and therefore that the uranium nucleus had been split. Hahn wrote to his colleague Lise Meitner, who, with her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, developed a theoretical explanation of the process. By analogy with the division of biological cells, they named the process \"fission\".\n", "In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is forced into supercriticality—allowing an exponential growth of nuclear chain reactions—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the \"gun\" method) or by compression of a sub-critical sphere or cylinder of fissile material using chemically-fueled explosive lenses. The latter approach, the \"implosion\" method, is more sophisticated than the former.\n", "In a fission bomb, the fissile fuel is \"assembled\" quickly by a uniform spherical implosion created with conventional explosives, producing a supercritical mass. In this state, many of the neutrons released by the fissioning of a nucleus will induce fission of other nuclei in the fuel mass, also releasing additional neutrons, leading to a chain reaction. This reaction consumes at most 20% of the fuel before the bomb blows itself apart, or possibly much less if conditions are not ideal: the Little Boy (gun type mechanism) and Fat Man (implosion type mechanism) bombs had efficiencies of 1.38% and 13%, respectively.\n", "Section::::Development.\n", "Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the Teller-Ulam design, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (tritium, deuterium, or lithium deuteride) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, gamma rays and X-rays emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed neutrons, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as depleted uranium. Each of these components is known as a \"stage\", with the fission bomb as the \"primary\" and the fusion capsule as the \"secondary\". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium.\n", "ICF uses small pellets of fusion fuel, typically lithium deuteride (LiH) with a small deuterium/tritium trigger at the center. The pellets are thrown into a reaction chamber where they are hit on all sides by lasers or another form of beamed energy. The heat generated by the beams explosively compresses the pellet, to the point where fusion takes place. The result is a hot plasma, and a very small \"explosion\" compared to the minimum size bomb that would be required to instead create the necessary amount of fission.\n", "Section::::How it worked.\n", "The idea of the hydrogen bomb first came to public attention in 1949, when prominent scientists openly recommended against building nuclear bombs more powerful than the standard pure-fission model, on both moral and practical grounds. Their assumption was that critical mass considerations would limit the potential size of fission explosions, but that a fusion explosion could be as large as its supply of fuel, which has no critical mass limit. In 1949, the Soviets exploded their first fission bomb, and in 1950 U.S. President Harry S. Truman ended the H-bomb debate by ordering the Los Alamos designers to build one.\n", "A thermonuclear weapon is a type of nuclear bomb that releases energy through the combination of fission and fusion of the light atomic nuclei of deuterium and tritium. With this type of bomb, a thermonuclear detonation is triggered by the detonation of a fission type nuclear bomb contained within a material containing high concentrations of deuterium and tritium. Weapon yield is typically increased with a tamper that increases the duration and intensity of the reaction through inertial confinement and neutron reflection. Nuclear fusion bombs can have arbitrarily high yields making them hundreds or thousands of times more powerful than nuclear fission.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01161	Why do bears go away after using bear spray?	It contains 1-2% capsaicin, the ingredient that makes hot peppers hot, in amounts far higher than pepper spray used on humans. (0.2-1 percent) So it's incredibly painful, immediately shocking, but causes no long lasting harm. The bear is going to perceive you and the area as dangerous and painful and it's going to flee.	[ "BULLET::::- All bear-inflicted injuries (n = 3) associated with defensive spraying involved brown bears and were relatively minor (i.e., no hospitalization required).\n\nBULLET::::- In 7% (5 of 71) of bear spray incidents, wind was reported to have interfered with spray accuracy, although it reached the bear in all cases.\n\nBULLET::::- In 14% (10 of 71) of bear spray incidents, users reported the spray having had negative side effects upon themselves, ranging from minor irritation (11%, 8 of 71) to near incapacitation (3%, 2 of 71).\n", "The efficacy of bear spray depends on the situation and circumstances of the attack. In the 2008 study, Tom Smith of Brigham Young University reported, “No bear spray has ever been reported to kill a bear. It is our belief that widespread use of bear spray will promote human safety and bear conservation.” On the other hand, latent spray (on object) has also led to the attraction of bears, which usually end up with the bear destroying the spray-covered object. \n", "Bear spray is a very effective deterrent when used properly. In a 2008 review of bear attacks in Alaska from 1985–2006, Smith et al. found that bear spray stopped a bear's \"undesirable behavior\" in 92% of cases. Further, 98% of persons using bear spray in close-range encounters escaped uninjured.\n", "BULLET::::- Studies\n\nStudies suggest that bear spray is effective at reducing the risk of injury or death in these situations. While bear spray can be effective, authorities stress that proper bear-awareness and avoidance techniques are the best ways to minimize injuries due to human–bear conflict.\n\nA 2008 \"Efficacy of Bear Deterrent Spray in Alaska\" study stated:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red pepper spray stopped bears’ undesirable behavior 92% of the time when used on brown bears, 90% for black bears, and 100% for polar bears.\n\nBULLET::::- Of all persons carrying sprays, 98% were uninjured by bears in close-range encounters.\n", "A United States Geological Survey article, \"Bear Spray Safety Program,\" says that bear spray is effective in fending off aggressive bears while also preventing injury to both the human and the bear. It also states, \"No deterrent is 100-percent effective.\" In \"Living with Grizzlies,\" the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service states, “The Service supports the pepper spray policy of the Interagency Grizzly bear Committee, which states that bear spray is not a substitute for following proper bear avoidance safety techniques, and that bear spray should be used as a deterrent only in an aggressive or attacking confrontation with a bear.”\n", "While bear spray is illegal in some U.S. National Parks, visitors to the backcountry areas of Glacier and Yellowstone National Parks are encouraged to carry it.\n\nBear sprays are considered a pesticide in the US and must be registered with the Environmental Protection Agency. The capsaicin in products sold in the U.S. are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency, under the FIFRA act by Congress. \n", "Recovery from bear attacks depends on the extent of damage, but often involves long-term medical treatment. As shown in the medical procedure led by Professor Shuzhong Guo, extreme cases of bear attacks have resulted in plastic surgeries and even facial transplants that, while successful, may take several years to complete and are sometimes fatal.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of fatal bear attacks in North America\n\nBULLET::::- Sloth bear of Mysore\n\nBULLET::::- Sankebetsu brown bear incident\n\nBULLET::::- Bear danger\n\nBULLET::::- Timothy Treadwell\n\nBULLET::::- Binky (polar bear)\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "Bear spray\n\nBear spray is a specific aerosol bear deterrent, whose active ingredients are capsaicin and related capsaicinoids, that is used to deter aggressive or charging bears. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Use.\n\nBear spray contains 1–2% capsaicin and related capsaicinoids, the key active ingredients. \n\nBear spray is intended to be used to deter an aggressive or charging bear. A user points the canister at an aggressive bear and sprays the contents for 2–3 seconds. Effective distance will vary depending on the manufacturer of the spray, but sprays are reported to be effective when sprayed at a charging or aggressive bear from a distance of .\n\nSection::::Use.:Effectiveness.\n", "BULLET::::- Bear spray represents an effective alternative to lethal force and should be considered as an option for personal safety for those recreating and working in bear country.\"\n\nSection::::Use.:Legality.\n\nBear spray is legal across the United States. It can be purchased even in Hawaii, New York, or Massachusetts, where standard pepper sprays are illegal unless bought locally by certified firearms dealers or pharmacists. In Canada, while legal for use against bears, bear spray is a prohibited weapon if intended to be used against humans.\n", "Many chemicals, such as PCBs and DDT, have been internationally banned due to the recognition of their harm on the environment. Their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades after being banned as these chemicals spread through the food chain. Since then, the trend seems to have discontinued, with tissue concentrations of PCBs declining between studies performed from 1989 to 1993 and studies performed from 1996 to 2002. During the same time periods, DDT was notably lower in the Western Hudson Bay population only.\n\nSection::::Conservation status, threats, and controversies.:Oil and gas development.\n", "BULLET::::- The pheromone is species specific, so it would only repel the ruffe, none of the other fish.\n\nBULLET::::- The pheromone is resilient to freezing, so could be used even during Minnesota's long winter season; the ruffe could still be controlled. By using this method, scientists could block ruffe from natural mating spots and produce a population decline; their goal is to kill the species in the Great Lakes.\n\nSection::::Other invasive situations.\n", "When a bear becomes conditioned by human food or habituated to humans, and threatens or attacks humans, it becomes a threat. Authorities such as police, park rangers, etc. are concerned with their liability should an injury to a person occur. Due to this concern, they often trap and euthanize or kill animals that have injured or threatened people.\n", "In Svalbard, which has an abundance of polar bears, any company outside of settlements is required to carry a rifle for self-defense.\n\nPersonal defense against bears can be difficult even with firearms, as bear fur and skin provide good resistance against small-caliber bullets.\n\nSection::::Bear spray.\n\nBear spray, a form of pepper spray, is sometimes an effective defense against attacking bears.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bear attacks\n\nBULLET::::- List of fatal bear attacks in North America\n\nBULLET::::- Bear cache\n\nSpecific incidents:\n\nBULLET::::- Sloth bear of Mysore\n\nBULLET::::- Sankebetsu brown bear incident\n\nBULLET::::- Timothy Treadwell\n\nBULLET::::- Binky (polar bear)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The development of capsaicin bear spray took place in the mid 1980s under principal investigator Carrie Hunt, a University of Montana graduate student working under the supervision of Dr. Charles Jonkel and Dr. Bart O’Gara. Hunt had identified commercial pepper sprays as an effective, but unreliable deterrent for bears in previous research; however, these products were only effective inconsistently and required short distances. Hunt's thesis was published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1984. Bill Pounds, who eventually founded Counter Assault bear spray, assisted Hunt and offered to help prototype a reliable aerosol bear spray canister for Hunt's research. They developed a bear spray formula with a spray range of over 30 feet and a spray time of over 7 seconds. Pounds played an important part in developing the ingredients, the dispersal system, and the recommended specifications of bear spray. The company he founded, Counter Assault, became the first Environmental Protection Agency registered aerosol bear spray.\n", "Suggestions that Milorganite deters deer are unsubstantiated, and the reputed costs of having it certified as a repellent are greater than its potential return. The Environmental Protection Agency denied the application to permit its use as a deer repellant because of a lack of supporting studies showing its environmental impact.\n", "Section::::Causes of bear attacks.:Protecting young.\n", "Aversive conditioning deters bears by modifying their behaviour. Deterrents such as noise makers and rubber bullets are used each time the bear performs an undesirable action. Advice is also given to people to avoid an eventual habituation of bears to human presence. If this conditioning is continual the bear will be less likely to continue the undesirable behaviour (crossing into campsites and roads etc.).\n", "Bears are opportunistic omnivores with an excellent sense of smell, and are attracted to human and pet foods as well as refuse. Improper storage of these items can allow bears to eat human food and become dependent on it, increasing the probability of encounters with humans. Most brown and black bear encounters in human-populated areas involve so-called \"trouble bears\", usually young males who have just left their mothers and do not yet have a territory of their own. If they wander close to human settlements, the smells of cooking and garbage can cause them to ignore their usual instinct to avoid humans. Many parks and persons in areas with bears utilize bear-resistant garbage cans and dumpsters for this reason, and many areas have laws prohibiting the feeding of bears, even if unintentional.\n", "Pesticide use and manufacturing have been one of the most prevalently studied contributions to population decline of \"M. grisescens\". One such study focused on gray bat populations of the Tennessee River area of northern Alabama where scientists and conservators noted a higher than normal gray bat mortality. In this area, since 1947, large amounts of DDTR (DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), DDD, and DDE) flowed through waterways from the DDT manufacturing site located on the Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama down to the habitat area of \"M. grisescens\", where heavy contamination of the local biota has occurred. Lethal chemical concentrations of DDT in the brains of adult bats are about 1.5 times higher than in juveniles. Because \"M. grisescens\" feed on many types of insects with aquatic larval stages, it is believed that this food source may be the root of the chemical concentrations. Many of the bats tested in different studies were juveniles not able to fly, and thus were likely to have only consumed milk. After concentration through lactation, a few parts per million in prey of the adult gray bat would cause mortality in these juveniles. Under conditions of rapid fat utilization, such as migratory stress or initiation of flight by juveniles, residue mobilization of harmful chemicals may occur, causing mortality. Other pesticides linked with gray bat population decline include dieldrin and dieldrin’s parent compound aldrin, which have also increased mortality in other bat species. Even though the manufacture of DDT ceased in 1970 and the manufacture of dieldrin and aldrin in October 1974, heavy contamination of the biota persisted. Recently, however, guano samples from various habitats indicate a decline in certain detrimental chemicals. For example, guano from Cave Springs cave shows a decline of 41% in DDE (a compound related to DDT) between 1976 and 1985 and guano from Key Cave shows a decline of 67% for the same time period. However, it is unknown how long these chemicals will remain in concentrations that will cause harm to wildlife.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2004, a black bear received substantial media attention for having consumed 36 cans of Rainier beer in Baker Lake, Washington. After gaining access to a cooler of beer that belonged to campers, the bear avoided cans of Busch beer and used its claws and teeth to open and then consume the cans of Rainier. A wildlife agent said at the time that \"this is a new one on me ... I've known them to get into cans, but nothing like this. And it definitely had a preference.\"\n", "Aside from the large lacerations, fractures, and other wounds that can result from bear attacks, infections are also physically detrimental. A bear's mouth is full of potentially harmful bacteria, especially if the bear has been feeding on a gut pile or feces. Bear bites can result in infections common to most animal bites, including abscesses, sepsis, and even rabies. Though there is little data, what is available from bear bite statistics indicate that bears do not tend to carry many of the most well-known dangerous anaerobic bacteria strains in their normal oral flora; however, given the circumstances around most bear attacks, wound contamination from the environment is highly likely and means there is risk for tetanus and other external microbial agents.\n", "While transporting toxic chemicals, a pair of truckers (John Mayer and Bill Burr) strike a deer and lose one of their canisters. It rolls into a river, floats downstream, and splashes several beavers at their dam. \n", "Trophy hunting of Andean bear was apparently popular during the 19th century in some rural areas of Latin-America. In the costumbrist novel \"María\" by Colombian writer Jorge Isaacs, it was portrayed as an activity for privileged young men in Colombia. Tales regarding pet bears are also known from documents about the Ecuadorian aristocracy of that time. These threats might have diminished in recent years, but there are still isolated reports of captive bears confiscated in rural areas, which usually are unable to adapt again to their natural habitat and must be kept in zoological facilities.\n", "My Ten Years in a Quandary, and How They Grew, A 1936 bestselling book by Robert Benchley, contains the humorous essay \"Bad News\" about a report of fur-bearing trout used as a goiter cure \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01631	what happens when someone loses their voice? Are there different causes (screaming, sickness, etc)?	To speak, you need your vocal chords to vibrate. If they become inflamed, they swell and become unable to vibrate properly to produce speech. As you stated, there are different ways that they may become inflamed such as overuse by screaming too much or from illness.	[ "People with vocal cord dysfunction often complain of \"difficulty in breathing in” or “fighting for breath”, which can lead to subjective respiratory distress, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. They may report tightness in the throat or chest, choking, stridor on inhalation and wheezing, which can resemble the symptoms of asthma. These episodes of dyspnea can be recurrent and symptoms can range from mild to severe and prolonged in some cases. Agitation and a sense of panic are not uncommon and can result in hospitalization.\n", "I never lost my voice, but I lost strength in my diaphragm. ... Because of those organic complaints, I lost my courage and boldness. My vocal cords were and still are in excellent condition, but my 'sound boxes' have not been working well even though I have been to all the doctors. The result was that I overstrained my voice, and that caused it to wobble. (\"Gente\", October 1, 1977)\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Reinke’s edema.\n\nA voice pathology called Reinke’s edema, swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid, occurs in the superficial lamina propria or Reinke’s space. This causes the vocal fold mucosa to appear floppy with excessive movement of the cover that has been described as looking like a loose sock. The greater mass of the vocal folds due to increased fluid lowers the fundamental frequency (\"f\") during phonation.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Wound healing.\n", "Paradoxical vocal fold movement (PVFM) is also treated medically and behaviorally. Behavioral interventions will focus on voice exercises, relaxation strategies, and techniques that can be used to support breath. More generally, however, PVFM interventions focus on helping an individual to understand what triggers the episode, and how to deal with it when it does occur.\n\nWhile there is no cure for spasmodic dysphonia, medical and psychological interventions can alleviate some of the symptoms. Medical interventions involve repeated injections of Botox into one or both of the vocal cords. This weakens the laryngeal muscles, and results in a smoother voice.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nThe treatment of vocal fold paralysis varies depending on its cause and main symptoms. For example, if laryngeal nerve paralysis is caused by a tumor, suitable therapy should be initiated. In the absence of any additional pathology, the first step of clinical management should be observation to determine whether spontaneous nerve recovery will occur. Voice therapy with a speech-language pathologist is suitable at this time, to help manage compensatory vocal behaviours which may manifest in response to the paralysis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Voice therapy.\n", "Recovery from congenital VFP varies and is reliant on the severity of the condition. Some cases of VFP recover spontaneously, often within the first year. If the paresis is persistent, surgical options such as vocal fold injections or tracheotomy can be taken into consideration.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Infection.\n\nMany viral infections have been reported as a cause for VF paresis, including herpes simplex virus, Epstein-Barr virus, Varicella-Zoster, cytomegalovirus, HIV, West Nile virus, and upper respiratory infection. Bacterial infections have also been reported to cause VF paresis, such as syphilis and Lyme disease.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Tumors.\n", "There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production. Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.\n\nSection::::Vocal cord nodules and polyps.\n", "There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. \n\nBULLET::::- Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nThe following increase an individual's chances for acquiring VCD:\n\nBULLET::::- Upper airway inflammation (allergic or non-allergic rhinitis, chronic sinusitis, recurrent upper respiratory infections)\n\nBULLET::::- Gastroesophageal reflux disease\n\nBULLET::::- Past traumatic event that involved breathing (e.g. near-drowning, suffocation)\n\nBULLET::::- Severe emotional trauma or distress\n\nBULLET::::- Female gender\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a wind instrument\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a competitive or elite sport\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Many of the symptoms are not limited to the disorder, as they may resemble a number of conditions that affect the upper and lower airway. Such conditions include asthma, angioedema, vocal cord tumors, and vocal cord paralysis.\n", "Treatment is often supportive in nature, and depends on the severity and type of laryngitis (acute or chronic). General measures to relieve symptoms of laryngitis include behaviour modification, hydration and humidification.\n\nVocal hygiene (care of the voice) is very important to relieve symptoms of laryngitis. Vocal hygiene involves measures such as: resting the voice, drinking sufficient water, reducing caffeine and alcohol intake, stopping smoking and limiting throat clearing.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.\n\nIn general, acute laryngitis treatment involves vocal hygiene, painkillers (analgesics), humidification, and antibiotics.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Viral.\n", "Laryngitis can be infectious as well as noninfectious in origin. The resulting inflammation of the vocal folds results in a distortion of the sound produced there. It normally develops in response to either an infection, trauma to the vocal folds, or allergies. Chronic laryngitis may also be caused by more severe problems, such as nerve damage, sores, polyps, or hard and thick lumps (nodules) on the vocal cords.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acute.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acute.:Viral.\n", "A unilateral injury of the nerve typically results in hoarseness caused by a reduced mobility of one of the vocal folds. It may also cause minor shortages of breath as well as aspiration problems especially concerning liquids. A bilateral injury causes the vocal folds to impair the air flow resulting in breathing problems, stridor and snoring sounds, and fast physical exhaustion. This strongly depends on the median or paramedian position of the paralyzed vocal folds. Hoarseness rarely occurs in bilaterally paralyzed vocal folds.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Section::::Rehabilitation.\n\nSection::::Rehabilitation.:Voice restoration.\n\nTotal laryngectomy results in the removal of the larynx, an organ essential for natural sound production. The loss of voice and of normal and efficient verbal communication is a negative consequence associated with this type of surgery and can have significant impacts on the quality of life of these individuals. Voice rehabilitation is an important component of the recovery process following the surgery. Technological and scientific advances over the years have led to the development of different techniques and devices specialized in voice restoration.\n", "Signs and symptoms of vocal fold cysts may remain stable or increase over time. In rare cases it is also possible for symptoms to improve if the cyst ruptures spontaneously. Symptoms affecting quality of voice tend to worsen after speaking for long periods of time, or when speaking with increased volume. Many individuals who use their voice professionally find even a slight presence of symptoms to be problematic. However, some voice professionals are not impacted by the presence of vocal cysts.\n\nSection::::Vocal Dynamics.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nAlthough there is no universal classification of voice problems, voice disorders can be separated into certain categories: organic (structural or neurogenic), functional, neurological (psychogenic) or iatrogenic, for example. Depending on the diagnosis and severity of the voice problem, and depending on the category that the voice disorder falls into, there are various treatment methods that can be suggested to the patient. The professional has to keep in mind there is not one universal treatment, but rather the clinical approach must find what the optimal effective course of action for that particular patient is.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Potential comorbidities.\n", "In severe cases of bacterial laryngitis, such as supraglottitis or epiglottitis, there is a higher risk of the airway becoming blocked. An urgent referral should be made to manage the airway. Treatment may involve humidification, corticosteroids, intravenous antibiotics, and nebulised adrenaline.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Fungal.\n\nFungal laryngitis can be treated with oral antifungal tablets and antifungal solutions. These are typically used for up to three weeks and treatment may need to be repeated if the fungal infection returns.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Trauma.\n\nLaryngitis caused by excessive use or misuse of the voice can be managed though vocal hygiene measures.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chronic laryngitis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chronic laryngitis.:Reflux.\n", "Patients with either vocal fold paresis or paralysis may exhibit a breathy voice quality. This voice quality results from the increased activity of the vocal folds to compensate for the immobility of the PCA muscle(s). Patients may need to use more effort than normal when speaking and may find that their voice quiets or grows tired after speaking for a long time. This is known as vocal fatigue. Patients may also complain about having a limited pitch range and trouble varying their pitch at quick rate. It is often difficult for the speaker to project their voice and speak loud enough to be heard in noisy environments, over background noise, or when speaking to someone from a distance. It is possible for symptoms to surface only in situations where the environmental acoustics are poor, such as outdoors. Patients may report feeling pain in the throat or experiencing bouts of choking. A patient presenting with diplophonia is of major concern as this typically means that the mass and tension of their vocal folds are asymmetrical which may also indicate vocal fold paresis.\n", "BULLET::::- Often due to excessive use of the vocal folds such as excessive yelling, screaming, or singing. Though this often results in damage to the outer layers of the vocal folds, the subsequent healing may lead to changes in the physiology of the folds. Another potential cause of inflammation may be overuse of the vocal cords. Laryngeal trauma, including iatrogenic (caused by endotracheal intubation), can also result in inflammation of the vocal cords.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Chronic.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Chronic.:Allergies.\n", "Nodules may prevent complete closure of the glottis, also known as glottal closure, and their presence may lead to an hourglass-shaped glottal closure. Voice problems may result from the presence of vocal fold nodules. They are diagnosed based on the presence of perceptual features not explicable by other causes. Such symptoms include: vocal fatigue, breathiness, loss of high pitch notes, lack of vocal control, or increased phonatory effort (i.e. increased effort to produce speech).\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Regulating voice use.\n", "The symptoms of vocal fold cysts vary but most commonly include a hoarse voice and problems with the pitch of the voice. Vocal fold cysts are diagnosed based on gathering a case history, perceptual examination, and laryngeal imaging. Practicing good vocal hygiene is recommended to prevent vocal fold cysts. Initial treatment of the cysts involves voice therapy to reduce harmful vocal behaviours. If symptoms remain after voice therapy, patients may require surgery to remove the cyst. Surgery is typically followed by vocal rest and further voice therapy to improve voice function. Cysts may also be treated using vocal fold steroid injection.\n", "There are three main type of treatments: medical treatments, voice therapy and surgical treatments. When necessary, certain voice disorders use a combination of treatment approaches. A medical treatment involves the use of botulinum toxin (botox) or anti-reflux medicines, for example. Botox is a key treatment for voice disorders such as Spasmodic Dysphonia. Voice therapy is mainly used with patients who have an underlying cause of voice misuse or abuse. Laryngologists also recommend this type of treatment to patients who have an organic voice disorder - such as vocal fold nodules, cysts or polyps as well as to treat functional dysphonia. Certain surgical treatments can be implemented as well - phono microsurgery (removal of vocal fold lesions performed with a microscope), laryngeal framework surgery (the manipulation of the voice box), as well as injection augmentation (injection of substance to vocal folds to improve closure). Surgical treatments may be recommended for patients having an organic dysphonia.\n", "Different subtypes of vocal cord dysfunction are characterized by additional symptoms. For instance, momentary aphonia can be caused by laryngospasm, an involuntary spasm of the vocal cords and a strained or hoarse voice may be perceived when the vocal cord dysfunction occurs during speech.\n\nMany of the symptoms are not specific to vocal cord dysfunction and can resemble a number of conditions that affect the upper and lower airway.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Presentation.\n", "If maladaptive compensatory strategies are used more and more to try to offset the voice difficulties, the vocal mechanisms will fatigue and the above symptoms will worsen.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThere are a wide variety of possible causes of vocal fold (VF) paresis, including congenital (i.e. present at birth) causes, infectious causes, tumors, traumatic causes, endocrinologic diseases (i.e. thyroid disease), and systemic neurologic diseases.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Congenital.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03394	How come damp is bad for your lungs but steam rooms are supposedly good for them?	It all comes to way too many things to consider. One is that while steam rooms are nice and clean, a regular humid room will grow mold, and that's not good. Another one is that there's too many old wives tales to clearly define which is good and which is not	[ "Nor was Wilson shy of saying what needed to be said in the promotion of sanitary reform. In Metcalfe's (1877) work on sanitary reform and all the above-mentioned overlaps, he describes the Chinese vapour baths. After describing the bathing establishments as a whole, he describes the bathing room itself, \"which is about thirty feet by twenty, and is filled with hot steam or vapour\":\n", "There has been sufficient evidence that damp indoor environments are correlated with upper respiratory tract symptoms such as coughing, and wheezing in people with asthma.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Flood specific mold health effects.\n", "Some steam tunnels have dirt floors, poor lighting and temperatures upwards of . Others have concrete floors, bright light, and more moderate temperatures. Most steam tunnels have large intake fans to bring in fresh air and push the hot air out the back, and these fans may start without warning. Most active steam tunnels do not contain airborne asbestos, but proper breathing protection may be required for other respiratory hazards. Experienced explorers are very cautious inside active utility tunnels, since pipes can spew boiling hot water or steam from leaky valves or pressure relief blowoffs. Frequently there are puddles of muddy water on the floor, making slips and falls a special concern near hot pipes.\n", "The higher the flow, the more important proper humidification and conditioning of the flow becomes. Without humidity, the oxygenation and ventilation effects of high-flow therapy would be quickly overcome by the negative impact that dry air has on lung tissue.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Over the years, steam has been utilized for a variety of different health purposes. The way people generate their steam has changed and steam showers can deliver a more intense burst of steam than a steam room or range top. Some physiotherapy experts have begun to incorporate steam into their rehabilitation practices. Although a cure has never originated for the common cold, steam is often cited as a reliable way to temporarily alleviate the symptoms.\n\nSome medical professionals recommend steam baths as a way to diminish the pain and stiffness associated with ankylosing spondylitis and rheumatoid arthritis.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Historical parts of a spa – Roman, medieval, Georgian and Victorian have been restored in Bath, England and is available as a public bath or Thermae.\n\nSection::::Modern steam baths.\n\nToday, natural steam baths still exist, and often still use similar systems that the Romans used, which contain pipes and pumps that bring water up and into the large pool areas, wherever the natural springs exist. Heaters are also now used to maintain warm temperatures in the baths.\n", "Respirable suspended particulate matter, of less than 10 micrometers (µm) in size, can be present in the drift from cooling towers. Larger particles above 10 µm in size are generally filtered out in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus but particulate matter smaller than 10 µm, referred to as PM, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. Similarly, particles smaller than 2.5 µm, (PM), tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (less than 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Though the total particulate emissions from wet cooling towers with fresh water make-up is much less, they contain more PM and PM than the total emissions from wet cooling towers with sea water make-up. This is due to lesser salt content in fresh water drift (below 2,000 ppm) compared to the salt content of sea water drift (60,000 ppm).\n", "Biological contaminants include mold, fungus, bacteria, viruses, animal dander, dust mites, pollen, human skin cells, cockroach parts, or anything alive or living at one time. They are the biggest enemy of indoor air quality specialists because they are contaminants that cause health problems. Levels of biological contamination depend on humidity and temperature that supports the livelihood of micro-organisms. The presence of pets, plants, rodents, and insects will raise the level of biological contamination.\n\nSection::::Nephelometer uses.:Sheath air.\n", "Two of the main processes of industrial water treatment are \"boiler water treatment\" and \"cooling water treatment\". A large amount of proper water treatment can lead to the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work and boiler housing. Steam boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated. Scale deposits can lead to weak and dangerous machinery, while additional fuel is required to heat the same level of water because of the rise in thermal resistance. Poor quality dirty water can become a breeding ground for bacteria such as \"Legionella\" causing a risk to public health.\n", "\"Nautilia profundicola\" is a member of the Epsilonproteobacteria, which are dominant in the vent ecosystem and are likely to be key players in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. \"Nautilia profundicola\" has been found to have a symbiotic relationship with \"Alvinella pompejana\", in which the worm secretes edible mucus, possibly in exchange for the bacterium's heat-resistant enzymes. This has the potential to explain how \"Alvinella pompejana\" can survive with one part of its body in water in the vent and the rest of its body in water outside the vent.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- LPSN\n", "Evelyn was appointed to the newly formed Royal Society, and both Society and pamphlet are celebrated in the 1663\n\n\"\". Stanza 23 (given here in modern English) describes how Evelyn\n\n[...] shows that 'tis the sea-coal smokebr \n\nThat always London does environ, br\n\nWhich does our lungs and spirits choke, br\n\nOur hanging spoil, and rust our iron. br\n\nLet none at \"Fumifuge\" be scoffing br\n\nWho heard at Church our Sunday's coughing. \n", "During the Society of Environmental Journalists' 2008 annual meeting, the group was given a tour of Edwards's lab. He told them that the number one cause of waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States is pathogens growing in home water heaters. Energy-conscious households may set their water heater's thermostat to , but that temperature encourages the growth of microbes such as mycobacteria. A setting of would kill such organisms. Edwards says that infections from inhaling steam from contaminated water in the shower, or contact with contaminated water in a hot tub, kill an estimated 3,000 to 12,000 Americans each year.\n", "In many post-occupancy comfort studies overheating is a frequently reported problem not only during the summer months but also during the transitions periods, also in temperate climates.\n\nSection::::Potentials and limitations.\n", "The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through cooling (OTC) water from a river, lake or ocean. In the United States, about two-thirds of power plants use OTC systems, which often have significant adverse environmental impacts. The impacts include thermal pollution and killing large numbers of fish and other aquatic species at cooling water intakes.\n", "Large downdraft fans, usually powered by gasoline engines, are placed on top of open manholes at either end of the section to be tested. If possible all lines in the manholes except for the line between the manholes are partially blocked. Smoke is created using either a smoke bomb or liquid smoke. Smoke bombs are lit and placed on a grate or in a holder on top of each fan, while liquid smoke is injected into the fan via a heating chamber. The fans create a pressure differential that forces the smoke into the sewer at a pressure just above atmospheric. With properly installed plumbing, the traps will prevent the smoke from entering the house and redirect it out the plumbing vents. Defective plumbing systems or dry traps will allow smoke to enter the inside of the house.\n", "Drowning experts have recognized that the end result pathophysiology of hypoxemia, acidemia, and eventual death is the same whether water entered the lung or not. As this distinction does not change management or prognosis, but causes significant confusion due to alternate definitions and misunderstandings, it is generally established that pathophysiological discussions of \"dry\" versus \"wet\" drowning are not relevant to drowning care.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages.:Use of water for steam generation.\n", "The sharper problems are present with cast iron yankee, being this material much more brittle than steel, making the yankee very sensitive to temperature differences. For example, a yankee which is receiving steam while it is not rotating may be damaged by the temperature difference of the bulk to the bottom of the cylinder where the condensate is present. Particular attention shall be taken in case of fire, as direct jets of cold water on the surface of the hot yankee may damage it. Some cases of exploded yankees due to these and other reasons are unfortunately present in the history of tissue production.\n", "Chronic lung diseases, such as pneumoconiosis (black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced life expectancy. In some mining countries black lung is still common, with 4,000 new cases of black lung every year in the US (4 percent of workers annually) and 10,000 new cases every year in China (0.2 percent of workers). The use of water sprays in mining equipment reduces the risk to miners' lungs.\n\nBuild-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps, possibly from the German word \"Dampf\" which means steam or vapor:\n", "Plants also appear to reduce airborne microbes and molds, and to increase humidity. However, the increased humidity can itself lead to increased levels of mold and even VOCs.\n", "Some facilities use once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce temperature as effectively as the above systems. For example, the Potrero Generating Station in San Francisco (closed in 2011), used OTC and discharged water to San Francisco Bay approximately 10 °C (20 °F) above the ambient bay temperature.\n\nSection::::Sources and control of thermal pollution.:Urban runoff.\n", "The effects of temperature and humidity on life stages have been most thoroughly studied. Temperatures around and humidity levels around 29-33% are optimal for development, though studies in Kansas have shown normal larval development at temperatures as high as . Average temperatures higher than have been shown to be lethal for larva. Lower temperatures at , however, resulted in only part of the life cycle being completed. At temperatures below , even short exposures kill larva and adults.\n", "Drug resistance is a growing concern for many horse owners. Resistance has been noted with ivermectin to ascarids, and with fenbendazole, oxibendazole, and pyrantel to small strongyles. Development of new drugs takes many years, leading to the concern that worms could out-evolve the drugs currently available to treat them. As a result, most veterinarians now recommend deworming for small strongyles based on fecal egg counts to minimize the development of resistant parasite populations. Fecal egg count reduction tests can also be performed to identify which dewormers are effective on a particular farm.\n", "The high-mass air well design attempts to cool a large mass of masonry with cool nighttime air entering the structure due to breezes or natural convection. In the day, the warmth of the sun results in increased atmospheric humidity. When moist daytime air enters the air well, it condenses on the presumably cool masonry. None of the high-mass collectors performed well, Knapen's aerial well being a particularly conspicuous example.\n", "Due to lack of studies, it is not known whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illness. As of 2017 heated and humidified air, such as via RhinoTherm, is of unclear benefit. One study has found chest vapor rub to provide some relief of nocturnal cough, congestion, and sleep difficulty.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23249	How is Tesla worth more than General Motors even though they only sell around 250k cars and GM sells 4.7 million cars each year?	Investors are investing in the company they believe has their best interest for profits in the future.	[ "These successful companies were built on sheer innovation and we can see how valuable they have become in the short time they have been around or have been focusing on innovation. When Tesla's value is compared to that of General Motors, we see that the market capitalization of General Motors is $53.98 billion today in which the company has been around since 1908 whereas Tesla was founded in 2003 and has achieved 50% of General Motors value within 12 years.\n\nSection::::Unique selling proposition.\n", "In late March 2017, Tesla Inc. announced that Tencent Holdings Ltd., at the time China's \"most valuable company,\" had purchased a 5% stake in Tesla for $1.8 billion.\n\nIn 2017, Tesla briefly surpassed Ford Motor Company and General Motors in market capitalization for a couple of months, making it the most valuable American automaker. \n\nIn June 2017, Tesla appeared for the first time in the Fortune 500 list. \n", "Tesla has financed operations (production, development, administration, etc.) partly by sales income, stock offering and bond sales. In May 2013 Tesla raised $1.02 billion ($660m from bonds) partially to repay the DOE loans after their first profitable quarter, in February 2014 $2 billion from bonds (building GigaFactory), in August 2015 $738 million in stock (for the Model X), and in May 2016 $1.46 billion in stock ($1.26 billion for the Model 3). Tesla has raised over $4.5 billion since the IPO in 2010. As of January 29, 2016, Musk owns about 28.9 million Tesla shares, which equates to about 22% of the company. Tesla entered the Interbrand Top100 Best Global Brands in 2016 in position 100 with a brand value of $4 billion. On October 26, 2016, Tesla posted a profitable quarter, their first in 8 quarters, defying industry expectations.\n", "Individuals may now purchase fractional shares of high-end sports cars, including some of the world's most exclusive exotic car brands such as Bugatti, Maybach, Porsche, Lamborghini, Maserati, Ferrari, Aston Martin, and Koenigsegg. Such expensive automobiles, when owned by individuals, typically spend the majority of their time in storage, with high annual ownership costs. Fractional shares distributes these annual costs across several owners, who pay for and benefit from the asset.\n\nSection::::Other areas.\n\nFractional ownership is also beginning to appear for luxury items such as small yachts and megayachts, jet aircraft (especially business jets) and high-end motor homes.\n", "On April 11, 2017, \"USA Today\" wrote that AutoNation's CEO Mike Jackson questioned the market value of Tesla, the maker of electric cars, by saying that Tesla is \"either one of the great Ponzi schemes of all time or it’s gonna work out.\" The previous day, Tesla passed General Motors as the most valuable American automotive manufacturer, measured by its market capitalization. Jackson also said, \"Clearly General Motors is undervalued and Tesla is overvalued. Anybody can see that.\"\n", "BULLET::::- WMAQ 5 - Chicago\n\nBULLET::::- WCAU 10 - Philadelphia\n\nBULLET::::- KNTV 11 - San Jose/San Francisco\n\nBULLET::::- KXAS 5 - Dallas/Fort Worth²\n\nBULLET::::- WRC 4 - Washington\n\nBULLET::::- WTVJ 6 - Miami\n\nBULLET::::- KNSD 39 (cable 7) - San Diego²\n\nBULLET::::- WVIT 30 - Hartford\n\nBULLET::::- NBC Nonstop\n\nBULLET::::- LXTV\n\nBULLET::::- EMKA, Ltd.\n\nBULLET::::- NBC Universal Digital Media\n\nBULLET::::- NBC Universal Cable\n\nBULLET::::- A&E Networks (co-owned with The Hearst Corporation and Disney/ABC):\n\nBULLET::::- A&E\n\nBULLET::::- The Biography Channel\n\nBULLET::::- Crime & Investigation Network\n\nBULLET::::- History\n\nBULLET::::- History en Español\n\nBULLET::::- History Channel International\n\nBULLET::::- Lifetime\n\nBULLET::::- Military History\n", "On 6 March 2012 an Indian news paper reported that at least two companies have placed bids for complete SAAB Automobile buy out. These are India's Mahindra and Mahindra and China's Youngman. It is reported that these bids are in the range $300 million to $400 million.\n\nOn 13 June 2012 it was announced that the National Electric Vehicle Sweden had bought Saab Automobile's bankruptcy estate.\n\nSection::::History.:Spyker joint ventures.\n", "In 2013–14, the company posted a very modest profit after tax of Rs. 290million which was made possible after the selling of real estate and other surplus land and related assets. The company did not declare any dividends for the financial year 2013–14, which is also a first in its 60-year history.\n", "BULLET::::- Apple was a $2 billion company in 1997, then it jumped to a $700 billion valuation in 2015 as a result of the innovation that came from the Macbook, iPod, iPad, and iPhone.\n\nBULLET::::- Tesla built an electric car with exceptional aesthetics and efficiency, which has helped build the electric sports car company earn a market capitalization of $33 billion, with revenues up 54% since 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – Introduction of Adrenaline Collection of cars, a line of high-performance sport cars, to Australia\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 – The Green Collection of rental cars is introduced in Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 – Addition of luxury cars Corvette Stingray and Jaguar XJL to fleet\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 – Hertz Global Holdings reported a total consolidated revenue of US$3 billion for the year's third quarter\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 – Total net income of US$237 million for the third quarter alone\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 – Hertz added approximately 335,000 2015 model-year vehicles to its fleet through September 30, 2015\n", "In addition to its corporate headquarters, the company operates multiple large factories for making vehicles and their components. The company operates showrooms and galleries around the world.\n\nSection::::Facilities.:United States.\n\nTesla was founded in San Carlos, California. Tesla's first retail stores were in Los Angeles, in Menlo Park, California and in Manhattan's Chelsea art district, followed by others in major US cities. In 2010, Tesla moved its corporate headquarters and opened a powertrain development facility in Palo Alto.\n\nSection::::Facilities.:United States.:Factories.\n", "In September 2015, GE Capital agreed to sell its transportation-finance unit to Canada's Bank of Montreal. The unit sold had US$8.7 billion (CA$11.5 billion) of assets, 600 employees and 15 offices in the U.S. and Canada. Exact terms of the sale were not disclosed, but the final price would be based on the value of the assets at closing, plus a premium according to the parties. In October 2015, activist investor Nelson Peltz's fund Trian bought a $2.5 billion stake in the company.\n", "GT Interactive offered 10 million shares to the public at $14 each. During GTI's IPO, Joseph Cayre sold more than 1.4 million shares, 9.2% of his shares, for a $20 million return.\n\nGTI reported a strong revenue growth of 134% in the year to $234.4 million but, in the first sign of trouble ahead, profits increased a meager 23% to $22.6 million.\n\nSection::::History.:1996 – Humongous Entertainment acquisition.\n\nIn January GT Interactive obtained the publishing rights for the highly anticipated \"Quake\" from id Software.\n", "BULLET::::- Bravo\n\nBULLET::::- Chiller (horror-themed cable channel, launched March 1, 2007) \n\nBULLET::::- CNBC\n\nBULLET::::- CNBC World\n\nBULLET::::- MSNBC (co-owned with Microsoft)\n\nBULLET::::- mun2\n\nBULLET::::- Syfy\n\nBULLET::::- ShopNBC\n\nBULLET::::- Sleuth\n\nBULLET::::- USA Network\n\nBULLET::::- Universal HD\n\nBULLET::::- NBC Sports Group\n\nBULLET::::- NBCUniversal Global Networks\n\nBULLET::::- NBCUniversal Global Networks\n\nBULLET::::- LAPTV (Latin America) - co-owned with Paramount Pictures (Viacom), MGM and 20th Century Fox (News Corporation);\n\nBULLET::::- Telecine (Brazil) - co-owned with Globosat Canais, Paramount Pictures, DreamWorks, MGM and 20th Century Fox;\n\nBULLET::::- Universal Channel Latin America (except Brazil)\n\nBULLET::::- Universal Channel Brazil (co-owned with Globosat Canais);\n", "Section::::Board of directors.\n\n, the Tesla board of directors consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- Robyn Denholm, Chairman of Tesla, Inc. CFO and Head of Strategy of Telstra\n\nBULLET::::- Elon Musk, CEO and Product Architect of Tesla; founder, CEO and CTO of SpaceX; Chairman of SolarCity\n\nBULLET::::- Brad W. Buss, Former CFO of SolarCity; former CFO of Cypress Semiconductor Corp\n\nBULLET::::- Ira Ehrenpreis, General Partner at Technology Partners\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Ellison, Co-founder, Chairman and CTO of Oracle Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- Antonio J. Gracias, CEO and Chairman of the Investment Committee at Valor Equity Partners\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Jurvetson, Managing Director, Draper Fisher Jurvetson\n", "Based on global sales, General Motors is routinely among the world's largest automakers. Headquartered at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, GM employs approximately 180,000 people around the world. In 2009, General Motors sold 6.5 million cars and trucks globally; in 2010, it sold 8.39 million.\n", "The value of a firm's assets is typically derived from a company's ability to generate cash via its ownership and control of inputs and/or distribution of the final product. Banks and financial institutions, for example, tend to have a large number of assets due to loans and investments, however, a large portion of these do not actually belong to the firm since these assets are customers' deposits.\n\nFortune 500 ranks companies by revenue. This method is heavily biased towards distributors such as Walmart, which may have a high volume of sales but may be operating on very thin profit margins.\n", "As of 2018, Advance Auto Parts shares are mainly held by institutional investors (The Vanguard Group, BlackRock, State Street Corporation, and others).\n\nSection::::Recognition.\n", "On March 23, 2006, a private equity consortium including Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, Goldman Sachs, and Five Mile Capital purchased 78% of GMAC's (now Ally Financial) commercial mortgage arm, then called Capmark, for $8.8 billion.\n", "BULLET::::- Sci Fi Channel (Latin America)\n\nBULLET::::- NBCUniversal Global Networks España.\n\nBULLET::::- Telemundo\n\nBULLET::::- KVEA/KWHY - Los Angeles\n\nBULLET::::- WNJU - New York\n\nBULLET::::- WSCV - Miami\n\nBULLET::::- KTMD - Houston\n\nBULLET::::- WSNS - Chicago\n\nBULLET::::- KXTX - Dallas/Fort Worth\n\nBULLET::::- KVDA - San Antonio\n\nBULLET::::- KSTS - San Jose/San Francisco\n\nBULLET::::- KTAZ - Phoenix\n\nBULLET::::- KBLR - Las Vegas\n\nBULLET::::- KNSO - Fresno\n\nBULLET::::- KDEN-TV - Longmont, Colorado\n\nBULLET::::- WNEU - Boston/Merrimack\n\nBULLET::::- KHRR - Tucson\n\nBULLET::::- WKAQ - Puerto Rico (independent Spanish station)\n\nBULLET::::- Universal Studios (co-owned with Comcast)\n\nBULLET::::- Universal Pictures\n\nBULLET::::- Focus Features\n", "Fiat S.p.A. acquired 50% of Ferrari in 1969 and expanded its stake to 90% in 1988. In October 2014 Fiat Chrysler Automobiles N.V. (FCA) announced its intentions to separate Ferrari S.p.A. from FCA; as of the announcement FCA owned 90% of Ferrari.\n", "In June 2012, CEO and President of GE Jeff Immelt said that the company would invest ₹3 billion to accelerate its businesses in Karnataka. In October 2012, GE acquired $7 billion worth of bank deposits from Metlife Inc.\n\nOn March 19, 2013, Comcast bought GE's shares in NBCU for $16.7 billion, ending the company's longtime stake in television and film media.\n\nIn April 2013, GE acquired oilfield pump maker Lufkin Industries for $2.98 billion.\n", "Net worth in this formulation does \"not\" express the market value of a firm: a firm may be worth more (or less) if sold with a going concern.\n\nSection::::By entity.:Individuals.\n", "Mahindra & Mahindra has a controlling stake in Mahindra REVA Electric Vehicles. In 2011, it also gained a controlling stake in South Korea's SsangYong Motor Company.\n", "If the calculation is to exclude financial assets the enterprise value is used instead of market capitalization.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16525	Why does being too hot make one feel nauseous?	When it’s hot your body will try to cool itself by sweating more. By sweating more, you lose fluids and sodium. If you don’t compensate enough, your blood pressure will go down. Because of that, less blood (with nutrients and oxygen) will reach your organs and brain. This results in feeling dizzy, nauseous etc etc	[ "BULLET::::- Pathological conditions of the vestibular system: a disturbance of the vestibular system such as in motion sickness or Meniere's disease can induce the emetic reflex. Such disturbances of the vestibular system could also be cancer related such as in cerebral or vestibular secondaries (metastasis), or cancer treatment related such as the use of opioids.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Misconception: \"\"Nauseous\" cannot mean suffering from nausea.\" Some writers on language, such as Theodore Bernstein and Bill Bryson, have advanced the idea that \"nauseous\" means only causing nausea (i.e., nauseating), not suffering from it (nauseated), and that it is therefore incorrect to say \"I am nauseous\" unless one means to say \"I inspire nausea in others\". This prescription is contradicted by vast evidence from English usage, and Merriam-Webster finds no source for the rule before a published letter by a physician, Deborah Leary, in 1949.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Disputes in English grammar\n\nBULLET::::- Linguistic prescription\n", "BULLET::::- Central nervous system (CNS): Stimuli can affect areas of the CNS including the cerebral cortex and the limbic system. These areas are activated by elevated intracranial pressure, irritation of the meninges (i.e. blood or infection), and extreme emotional triggers such as anxiety.\n", "Nausea is a non-specific symptom, which means that it has many possible causes. Some common causes of nausea are gastroenteritis and other gastrointestinal disorders, food poisoning, motion sickness, dizziness, migraine, fainting and low blood sugar. Nausea is a side effect of many medications including chemotherapy, or morning sickness in early pregnancy. Nausea may also be caused by anxiety, disgust and depression.\n", "BULLET::::- Stimulation of the central nervous system: certain stimuli of the central nervous system may induce the emetic reflex. These include fear, anticipation, brain trauma and increased intra-cranial pressure. Of particular relevance to cancer patients in this regard are the stimuli of fear and anticipation. Evidence suggests that cancer patients may develop the side effects of nausea and vomiting in anticipation of chemotherapy. In some patients, re-exposure to cues such as smell, sounds or sight associated with the clinic or previous treatment may evoke anticipatory nausea and vomiting.\n", "BULLET::::- Cold weather/Snow: Exposure to cold or cool air can quickly trigger a reaction; for example going down the \"cold\" aisle in a supermarket.\n\nBULLET::::- Sweat: A reaction may even occur on a warm day when there is sweat on the skin, since the reaction is triggered by skin temperature, not core temperature. If there is a breeze it will rapidly cool the skin and create hives.\n", "A temporary worsening of symptoms can also happen in patients with Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS) and Dysautonomia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnosis is largely made from the patient history, followed by blood tests and other medical tests to determine the underlying cause. In women, hot flashes must be excluded.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nExcess thyroid hormone, which is called \"thyrotoxicosis\", is the most common cause.\n\nOther causes include:\n\nBULLET::::- Amphetamines along with other types of stimulant medications, such as appetite suppressants\n\nBULLET::::- Anticholinergics and other drugs that can impair sweating\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine\n\nBULLET::::- Menopause\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple sclerosis\n\nBULLET::::- Fibromyalgia\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetes\n\nBULLET::::- Hypothalamic tumors\n", "Nausea and vomiting may be initiated by various stimuli, through different neuronal pathways. A stimulus may act on more than one pathway. Stimuli and pathways include:\n", "BULLET::::- Pathological conditions of the gastrointestinal tract: diseases and pathological conditions of the GIT may also lead to nausea and vomiting through direct or indirect stimulation of the above named pathways. Such conditions may include malignant bowel obstruction, hypertrophic pyloric stenosis and gastritis. Pathological conditions in other organs which are linked to the above named emetic pathways may also lead to nausea and vomiting, such as the myocardial infarct (through stimulation of cardiac vagal afferents) and renal failure.\n", "Medications taken to prevent and treat nausea are called antiemetics. The most commonly prescribed antiemetics in the US are promethazine, metoclopramide and the newer, extremely effective ondansetron. The word nausea is from Latin \"nausea\", from Greek – \"nausia\", \"ναυτία\" – \"nautia\", motion sickness, \"feeling sick or queasy\".\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Uhthoff's phenomenon\n\nUhthoff's phenomenon (also known as Uhthoff's syndrome, Uhthoff's sign, and Uhthoff's symptom) is the worsening of neurologic symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS) and other neurological, demyelinating conditions when the body gets overheated from hot weather, exercise, fever, or saunas and hot tubs. It is possibly due to the effect of increased temperature on nerve conduction. With an increased body temperature, nerve impulses are either blocked or slowed down in a damaged nerve but once the body temperature is normalized, signs and symptoms may disappear or improve.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "A specific type of motion sickness with similar symptoms but a possibly different etiology is space adaptation syndrome (sometimes referred to as space motion sickness).\n\n\"Nausea\" in Greek means seasickness (\"naus\" means ship).\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThere are various theories that attempt to explain the cause of the condition. \n\nSection::::Cause.:Sensory conflict theory.\n", "The hyperemetic phase is characterized by the full syndromal symptoms of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, including persistent nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and retching. Retching can occur up to 5 times per hour. It is very difficult to take food or medicine by mouth during this stage, and patients may develop a fear of eating. Weight loss and dehydration due to decreased oral intake and vomiting are possible. Compensatory exposure to hot water, even for hours at a time, may be attempted for symptomatic relief, resulting in compulsive bathing/showering. People have described the hot water relief as \"temperature-dependent,\" meaning that hotter temperatures provide greater relief. It is during this phase that people with cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome are likely to present to the emergency department of the hospital for treatment.\n", "Food poisoning usually causes an abrupt onset of nausea and vomiting one to six hours after ingestion of contaminated food and lasts for one to two days. It is due to toxins produced by bacteria in food.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medications.\n\nMany medications can potentially cause nausea. Some of the most frequently associated include cytotoxic chemotherapy regimens for cancer and other diseases, and general anaesthetic agents. An old cure for migraine, ergotamine, is well known to cause devastating nausea in some patients; a person using it for the first time will be prescribed an antiemetic for relief if needed.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Pregnancy.\n", "Nausea may be defined as an unpleasant sensation of the need to vomit. It may be accompanied by symptoms such salivation, feeling faint, and a fast heart rate. Vomiting is the forceful ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. Although nausea and vomiting are closely related, some patients experience one symptom without the other and it may be easier to eliminate vomiting than nausea. The vomiting reflex (also called emesis) is thought to have evolved in many animal species as a protective mechanism against ingested toxins. In humans, the vomiting response may be preceded by an unpleasant sensation termed nausea, but nausea may also occur without vomiting. The central nervous system is the primary site where a number of emetic stimuli (input) are received, processed and efferent signals (output) are generated as a response and sent to various effector organs or tissues, leading to processes that eventually end in vomiting. The detection of emetic stimuli, the central processing by the brain and the resulting response by organs and tissues that lead to nausea and vomiting are referred to as the emetic pathway or emetic arch.\n", "Nausea and vomiting may have a number of causes in people with cancer. While more than one cause may exist in the same person stimulating symptoms via more than one pathway, the actual cause of nausea and vomiting may be unknown in some people. The underlying causes of nausea and vomiting may in some cases not be directly related to the cancer. The causes may be categorized as disease-related and treatment-related.\n", "Heat syncope\n\nHeat syncope is fainting or dizziness as a result of overheating (\"syncope\" is the medical term for fainting). It is a type of heat illness. The basic symptom of heat syncope is fainting, with or without mental confusion. Heat syncope is caused by peripheral vessel dilation, resulting in diminished blood flow to the brain and dehydration.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nFaintness, dizziness, headache, increased pulse, restlessness, nausea, vomiting, and brief loss of consciousness.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Nausea\n\nNausea is an unpleasant, diffuse sensation of unease and discomfort, often perceived as an urge to vomit. While not painful, it can be a debilitating symptom if prolonged, and has been described as placing discomfort on the chest, upper abdomen, or back of the throat.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n\nResearch on nausea and vomiting has relied on using animal models to mimic the anatomy and neuropharmacologic features of the human body. The physiologic mechanism of nausea is a complex process that has yet to be fully elucidated. There are four general pathways that are activated by specific triggers in the human body that go on to create the sensation of nausea and vomiting. \n", "David Drake mentions that, in \"Nausea,\" Sartre gives several kinds of examples of people whose behavior shows \"bad faith\", who are inauthentic: members of the bourgeoisie who believe their social standing or social skills give them a \"right\" to exist, or others who embrace the banality of life and attempt to flee from freedom by repeating empty gestures, others who live by perpetuating past versions of themselves as they were or who live for the expectations of others, or those who claim to have found meaning in politics, morality, or ideology.\n", "In the 1932 novel \"Brave New World\" by Aldous Huxley, conditioning plays a key role in the maintenance of social peace, especially in maintaining the caste system upon which society is based. Another example is in Anthony Burgess' 1962 dystopian novel \"A Clockwork Orange\" in which the novel's anti-hero and protagonist, Alex, undergoes a procedure called the Ludovico technique, where he is fed a solution to cause severe nausea and then forced to watch violent acts. This renders him unable to perform any violent acts without inducing similar nausea. Unintentionally, he also forms an aversion to classical music.\n", "While most causes of nausea are not serious, some serious conditions are associated with nausea. These include: pancreatitis, small bowel obstruction, appendicitis, cholecystitis, hepatitis, Addisonian crisis, diabetic ketoacidosis, increased intracranial pressure, Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension, brain tumors, meningitis, heart attack, carbon monoxide poisoning and many others.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Comprehensive list.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Comprehensive list.:Inside the abdomen.\n\nObstructing disorders\n\nBULLET::::- Pyloric obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Small bowel obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Colonic obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Superior mesenteric artery syndrome\n\nEnteric infections\n\nBULLET::::- Viral infection\n\nBULLET::::- Bacterial infection\n\nInflammatory diseases\n\nBULLET::::- Celiac disease\n\nBULLET::::- Cholecystitis\n\nBULLET::::- Pancreatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Appendicitis\n\nBULLET::::- Hepatitis\n\nSensorimotor dysfunction\n\nBULLET::::- Gastroparesis\n\nBULLET::::- Intestinal pseudo-obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Gastroesophageal reflux disease\n", "The prodromal phase is characterized by subsyndromal symptoms of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, including mild discomfort and nausea upon waking. Prior to the use of compensatory exposure to hot water to treat symptoms, people sometimes increase their intake of cannabinoids in an effort to treat the persistent nausea they experience. This phase can last for months or even years.\n", "BULLET::::- Alternative medicine: Acupuncture and ginger have been shown to have some anti emetic effects on chemotherapy-induced emesis and anticipatory nausea, but have not been evaluated in the nausea of far advanced disease.\n\nSection::::Management.:Palliative surgery.\n", "Disdaining 19th-century notions that character development in novels should obey and reveal psychological law, \"La Nausée\" treats such notions as bourgeois \"bad faith\", ignoring the contingency and inexplicability of life.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00543	How does a constant force spring work?	A constant force spring is basically a sheet of steel rolled up similar to a roll of tape. When the spring is completely rolled up, it’s in its “relaxed” state. When the spring is unrolled, the force delivered from the spring is held constant due to the equal distribution of the circularly rolled steel (no angles or sides means there’s no resistance). Honestly, the best comparison I can make is one of those rubber snap bracelets. When they’re rolled up, if you try to unroll it the force is the same (constant) until it’s completely straight. Not the best example but the only one I can think of at the time. Edit: by no resistance I mean that there’s nothing that keeps the spring from not maintaining a constant force	[ "Constant-force spring\n\nAn ideal constant-force spring is a spring for which the force it exerts over its range of motion is a constant, that is, it does not obey Hooke's law. In reality, \"constant-force springs\" do not provide a truly constant force and are constructed from materials which do obey Hooke's law.\n\nGenerally constant-force springs are constructed as a rolled ribbon of spring steel such that the spring is in a rolled up form when relaxed.\n", "Section::::Known spring lengths.\n\nIf the nominal lengths, \"L\", of the springs are known to be 1 and 2 units respectively, then the system can be solved as followed:\n\nConsider the simple case of three nodes connected by two springs. Then the stretching of the two springs is given as a function of the positions of the nodes by\n\nLet \"A\" be that \"connectivity matrix\", relating each degree of freedom to the direction each spring pulls on it.\n\nSo the forces on the springs is\n", "Section::::Period of oscillation.\n", "BULLET::::- Torsion spring – unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force, the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied.\n\nBULLET::::- Constant spring – supported load remains the same throughout deflection cycle\n\nBULLET::::- Variable spring – resistance of the coil to load varies during compression\n", "For a simple example, a block of mass formula_3 slides over a rough horizontal surface under the restraint of a spring with a spring constant formula_4. The spring is attached to the block and mounted to an immobile object on the other end allowing the block to be moved by the force of the spring\n", "Spring balances come in different sizes. Generally, small scales that measure newtons will have a less firm spring (one with a smaller spring constant) than larger ones that measure tens, hundreds or thousands of newtons or even more depending on the scale of newtons used. The largest spring scale ranged in measurement from 5000–8000 newtons.\n", "Commercially released in 1999, the movement is found in watches distributed by the Seiko Watch Corporation, including its Credor, Grand Seiko, and Prospex brands. \n\nSection::::Mechanics.\n", "As long as not stretched or compressed beyond their elastic limit, most springs obey Hooke's law, which states that the force with which the spring pushes back is linearly proportional to the distance from its equilibrium length:\n\nwhere\n\nCoil springs and other common springs typically obey Hooke's law. There are useful springs that don't: springs based on beam bending can for example produce forces that vary nonlinearly with displacement.\n", "If made with constant pitch (wire thickness), conical springs have a variable rate. However, a conical spring can be made to have a constant rate by creating the spring with a variable pitch. A larger pitch in the larger-diameter coils and a smaller pitch in the smaller-diameter coils forces the spring to collapse or extend all the coils at the same rate when deformed.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Simple harmonic motion.\n\nSince force is equal to mass, \"m\", times acceleration, \"a\", the force equation for a spring obeying Hooke's law looks like:\n", "BULLET::::- Ideal Spring – a notional spring used in physics—it has no weight, mass, or damping losses. The force exerted by the spring is proportional to the distance the spring is stretched or compressed from its relaxed position.\n\nBULLET::::- Mainspring – a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power store of clockwork mechanisms: watches, clocks, music boxes, windup toys, and mechanically powered flashlights\n", "Section::::Classifications.:Configurations.:Rotating vs stationary springs.\n", "The mass of the spring is small in comparison to the mass of the attached mass and is ignored. Since acceleration is simply the second derivative of x with respect to time,\n\nThis is a second order linear differential equation for the displacement formula_4 as a function of time. Rearranging:\n\nthe solution of which is the sum of a sine and cosine:\n", "The image at right shows an isometric view of one style of mechanical snubber. When a disturbance occurs that exceeds the acceleration threshold of the snubber, the ball screw and drum produce angular momentum to the inertia mass. The inertial resistance of the mass engages the resilient capstan to tighten around a hardened mandrel, which is part of the structural tube. This, in turn, causes restraining force against the rotation of the ball screw. During standard operation, the associated acceleration is far below the threshold limit of the snubber and will not activate the capstan spring.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nProcess Impulse Events\n", "Spring guns are typically cocked by one of the following mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Break-barrel — like a break action firearm, the barrel is hinged at the junction with the receiver and can be flexed downwards to expose the breech and also serve as a cocking lever itself\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed-barrel — the barrel is fixed to the receiver, and the cocking is done with an additional cocking lever\n\nBULLET::::- Underlever — the cocking lever is located underneath the barrel and is flexed downwards during cocking\n", "where formula_3is the change in displacement applied by the micrometer and formula_4 is the change displacement measured by interferometry.\n\nThe spring constants can range anywhere from formula_5 to formula_6. When measuring higher forces, a spring with a higher spring constant would be used.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atomic force microscope\n\nBULLET::::- Colloidal probe technique\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Surface Science & Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Australian National University, Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering\n", "The effective mass of the spring in a spring-mass system when using an ideal spring of uniform linear density is 1/3 of the mass of the spring and is independent of the direction of the spring-mass system (i.e., horizontal, vertical, and oblique systems all have the same effective mass). This is because external acceleration does not affect the period of motion around the equilibrium point.\n", "Spring Drive\n\nThe Spring Drive is a watch movement conceived in 1977 by Yoshikazu Akahane at Suwa Seikosha (now a part of Seiko Epson after a 1985 merger). Specified to one second accuracy per day, the movement uses a conventional power train as in traditional mechanical watches, but rather than an escapement or balance wheel, instead features Seiko's \"Tri-synchro Regulator\" system in which power delivery to the watch hands is regulated based on a reference quartz signal.\n", "Where: d = Wire Dia in mm, Dm= Mean Diameter of Spring Coil, Wc= Total no of working coils, K = Spring rate or Spring Constant in Kg/mm, G = Modulus of Rigidity normally 80,000 N/mm2 8154.9 kg/ mm2.\n\n1.Variable Spring Hanger or Variable Effort Support:\n", "There is also a \"Hog's Hair\" or \"Pig's Bristle\" regulator, in which stiff fibres are positioned at the extremities of the Balance's arc, and bring it to a gentle halt before throwing it back. The Watch is accelerated by shortening the arc. This is not a Balance Spring Regulator, being used in the earliest Watches before the Balance Spring was invented.\n", "So the effective mass of a spring is:\n\nThis result also shows that formula_37, with formula_38 occurring in the case of an unphysical spring whose mass is located purely at the end farthest from the support.\n\nSection::::Real spring.\n", "Another example of mechanical equilibrium is a person pressing a spring to a defined point. He or she can push it to an arbitrary point and hold it there, at which point the compressive load and the spring reaction are equal. In this state the system is in mechanical equilibrium. When the compressive force is removed the spring returns to its original state.\n", "In 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke postulated Hooke's law, which states that the force a spring exerts is proportional to its extension.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSprings can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:\n\nBULLET::::- Tension/extension spring – the spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.\n\nBULLET::::- Compression spring – is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.\n", "Section::::Mechanical seal fundamentals.:Components.:Springs.\n\nIn order to keep the primary sealing surfaces in intimate contact, an actuating force is required. This actuating force is provided by a spring. In conjunction with the spring, axial forces may also be provided by the pressure of the sealed fluid acting on the seal ring. Many different types of springs are used in mechanical seals: single spring, multiple springs, wave springs, and metal bellows.\n\nSection::::Mechanical seal fundamentals.:Components.:Hardware.\n", "An example of a constant force generator is the constant-force spring. An example of a practical constant velocity generator is a lightly loaded powerful machine, such as a motor, driving a belt. This is analogous to a real voltage source, such as a battery, which remains near constant-voltage with load provided that the load resistance is much higher than the battery internal resistance.\n\nSection::::Elements.:Transducers.\n", "Section::::Non-fundamental forces.:Elastic force.\n\nAn elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length. An ideal spring is taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable. Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position. This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676, for whom Hooke's law is named. If formula_63 is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring equals:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03733	Why can't files (documents, pictures, presentations etc.) open in some program be moved to a new folder while they're open?	It's to maintain version control. Let's say there are 3 people in my department at work who are required to keep a specific file updated. I start making changes at 12:05, but I haven't saved the file. The person next to me makes changes at 12:06 and then saves the file. I then save the file I have open. Well, all the changes the person next to me made are now gone because I've saved the file with the version I was working on. The easiest way to do this is to lock files. Granted, this isn't a great system because this situation would be better handled with a database, and not something like an excel file. A database records transactions (changes) as they happen in order. That said file locking is important for all operating systems so that important OS files that are in use aren't changed while in use, or the machine would crash.	[ "Files are accessed by applications in Windows by using \"file handles\". These file handles can be explored with the Process Explorer utility. This utility can also be used to force-close handles without needing to terminate the application holding them. This can cause an undefined behavior, since the program will receive an unexpected error when using the force-closed handle and may even operate on an unexpected file since the handle number may be recycled.\n", "This folder is supposed to be a personal area where users store their personal non-shared documents. Users are supposed to be sole authority of what is stored in this folder. Creating, renaming, moving, or deleting the contents of this folder is not supposed to impact the proper execution of installed software. However, many software developers have ignored this convention and as a result, this folder has become a dumping ground for the application data such as files containing settings and saved games. For example:\n\nBULLET::::- Remote Desktop Connection creates a hidden codice_5 file.\n\nBULLET::::- Windows PowerShell creates a codice_6 subfolder.\n", "If Windows is installed on an NTFS volume, by default, the 'Program Files' folder can only be modified by members of the 'Administrators' user groups. This can be an issue for programs created for Windows 9x. Those operating systems had no file system security, and programs could therefore also store their data in 'Program Files'. Programs that store their data in 'Program Files' will usually not run correctly on Windows NT systems with normal user privileges unless security is lowered for the affected subdirectories. Windows Vista addressed this issue by introducing File and Registry Virtualization.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- WinFS\n", "Section::::Potential issue with missing MNO file.\n\nWhen a file from one development machine is moved or copied to another, the data bindings panel may not show recordsets. Even though the server behaviors tab displays that a recordset has been defined, it may not be available under the data bindings tab in the design environment. This happens when the associated MNO file is missing in the new development machine. The solution to this issue is to copy the missing MNO file to the \"_notes\" folder in the relevant directory in new machine.\n", "Some Unix-like operating systems prevent attempts to open the executable file of a running program for writing; this is a third form of locking, separate from those provided by codice_1 and codice_3.\n\nSection::::In Unix-like systems.:Problems.\n\nMore than one process can hold an exclusive codice_3 on a given file if the exclusive lock was duplicated across a later codice_4. This simplifies coding for network servers and helps prevent race conditions, but can be confusing to the unaware.\n", "Traditionally, when a folder is opened, the icon representing the folder changes—perhaps from an image showing a closed drawer to an opened one, perhaps the folder's icon turns into a silhouette filled with a pattern—and a new window is opened. Attempting to open that \"already opened\" folder will simply reveal the existing window. A new window will not be created because that would violate requirement number one listed above, attempting to reveal an already opened folder's contents using another window will either close the existing folder before opening it or refuse to reveal said contents. The change in the folder icon's state is meant to be a visual reminder of this behavior. It says, \"This folder is already open.\" Similarly, while a document or application is open, its icons also represents this status and re-opening it will just reveal and bring it back to the front.\n", "Most popular programming systems separate static program code (in the form of class definitions, functions or procedures) from dynamic, or run time, program state (such as objects or other forms of program data). They load program code when a program starts, and any prior program state must be recreated explicitly from configuration files or other data sources. Any settings the program (and programmer) does not explicitly save must be set up again for each restart. A traditional program also loses much useful document information each time a program saves a file, quits, and reloads. This loses details such as undo history or cursor position. Image based systems don't force losing all that just because a computer is turned off, or an OS updates.\n", "Improper error-handling in an application program can lead to a scenario where a file is locked (either using \"share\" access or with byte-range file locking) and cannot be accessed by other applications. If so, the user may be able to restore file access by manually terminating the malfunctioning program. This is typically done through the Task Manager utility.\n", "In case a file is in use by another application, Windows Explorer informs users to close the application and retry the file operation. Also, a new interface IFileIsInUse is introduced into the API which developers can use to let other applications switch to the main window of the application that has the file open or simply close the file from the \"File in Use\" dialog. If the running application exposes these operations by means of the IFileInUse interface, Windows Explorer, upon encountering a locked file, allows the user to close the file or switch to the application from the dialog box itself.\n", "When a user wishes to sync a file with one in another folder, the filename must be exactly the same. If any item is renamed or moved, it splits from the original, is no longer synchronized and becomes an \"orphan\". If an item is deleted, the associated copy \"by default\" is deleted as well when using \"Update All\". If the briefcase medium becomes full during an Update, there will be no space for writing the updated briefcase database. This has the effect of making many of the folders and files orphans, with no easy way to restore their link with their counterparts on the source medium. Such limitations (and others) make briefcase files very brittle, easily corrupted. This limits robustness as a folder and file backup mechanism.\n", "The option \"Managing pairs of Web pages and folders\" is also removed, and the user has no way of telling Vista that a .html file and the folder with the same name that was created when saving a complete web page from IE should be treated separately, that is, they cannot delete the folder without deleting the html file as well.\n", "A portable application does not leave its files or settings on the host computer or modify the existing system and its configuration. The application does not write to the Windows registry or store its configuration files (such as an INI file) in the user's profile; instead, it stores its configuration files in the portable directory. Another requirement, since file paths will often differ on changing computers due to variation in Windows drive letter assignments, is the need for applications to store them in a \"relative\" format. While some applications have options to support this behavior, many programs are not designed to do this. A common technique for such programs is the use of a launcher program to copy necessary settings and files to the host computer when the application starts and move them back to the application's directory when it closes.\n", "If the file is expected to exist and it does, the file access, as restricted by permission flags within the file meta data or access control list, is validated against the requested type of operations. This usually requires an additional filesystem access although in some filesystems meta-flags may be part of the directory structure.\n", "IEHMOVE moves or copies collections of data. However, DFSMS (System Managed Storage) environments are now common, and IBM does not recommend using the IEHMOVE utility in those. A move differs from a copy in that following a move the original data set is deleted, or scratched. Some of the tasks that IEHMOVE can perform include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Moving or copying sequential and partitioned data sets\n\nBULLET::::- Moving or copying multi- volume data sets\n\nBULLET::::- Moving an entire volume of data sets\n", "Most operating systems support file associations in some form or the other. For example, opening a file from a file manager usually invokes the \"open\" verb in order to open the file with its associated application. The \"open\" verb invokes the associated application program, which reads the file or document and presents it to the user for viewing, and possibly for editing or other action. \n", "Merging two files can be a very delicate operation, and usually possible only if the data structure is simple, as in text files. The result of a merge of two image files might not result in an image file at all. The second developer checking in the code will need to take care with the merge, to make sure that the changes are compatible and that the merge operation does not introduce its own logic errors within the files. These problems limit the availability of automatic or semi-automatic merge operations mainly to simple text-based documents, unless a specific merge plugin is available for the file types.\n", "Usual requirements for requesting access to a file system object include:\n\nBULLET::::1. The object which is to be accessed (file, directory, media and location)\n\nBULLET::::2. The intended type of operations to be performed after the open (reads, updates, deletions)\n\nAdditional information may be necessary, for example\n\nBULLET::::- a password\n\nBULLET::::- a declaration that other processes may access the same object while the opening process is using the object (sharing). This may depend on the intent of the other process. In contrast, a declaration that no other process may access the object regardless of the other processes intent (exclusive use).\n", "BULLET::::- Microsoft Office creates a codice_7 subfolder.\n\nBULLET::::- Fiddler creates a codice_8 subfolder.\n\nBULLET::::- Calibre creates a codice_9 subfolder.\n\nBULLET::::- AutoCAD 2016 creates two subfolders: codice_10 and codice_11.\n\nUsers cannot delete, move or organize these files without causing unwanted behavior in their software. Their option is to either live with this chaos, or simply store their files elsewhere.\n\nSection::::Other \"My\" folders.\n", "In case a file is in use or \"locked\" by another application, Windows Explorer informs users to close the application and retry the file operation. Also, a new interface codice_1 is introduced into the API which developers can use to let other applications switch to the main window of the application that has the file open or simply close the file from the \"File In Use\" dialog. If the running application exposes these operations by means of the codice_1 interface, Windows Explorer, upon encountering a locked file, allows the user to close the file or switch to the application from the dialog box itself.\n", "On Windows systems, if a file is locked, it's possible to schedule its moving or deletion to be performed on the next reboot. This approach is typically used by installers to replace locked system files.\n\nSection::::Version control systems.\n", "Developers were encouraged to not just name an object, but to describe its function and explain its state. For instance, for the Copy menu command Apple suggested the detailed \"Copies the selected text onto the clipboard\", as well as a second version that added \"Not available now because there is no selection\". This feature explained to users why a particular menu item was disabled.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Some operating systems require that library routines specific to the record format be included in the program. This means that a program originally expected to read a variable length record file cannot read a fixed length file. These operating systems must provide file system utilities for converting files between one format and another. This means copying the file (which requires additional storage space, time and coordination) may be necessary.\n\nOther operating systems include various routines and associate the appropriate routine, based on the file organization, at execution time.\n", "There are a few settings for activating and switching between spaces. A checkbox at the bottom of the panel allows switching spaces automatically when switching between applications bound to spaces. This is achieved either by clicking on application icons in the dock, or by pressing ⌘ (Command) + Tab, and Spaces will jump directly to the space that the chosen application has been assigned to. A limitation of Spaces lies in the fact that some applications featuring tool palettes and/or multiple open document windows (such as Adobe Creative Suite or Microsoft Office applications) cannot be consistently bound to a specific (numbered) space. In such cases, the \"switching\" function responds to the most recently active document, regardless of which space it has been opened upon, so it is usually more efficient to avoid assigning such applications to a specific space and to run them unassigned, opening documents in the desired space.\n", "The Briefcase folder itself must have \"read-only\" or \"system\" file attributes (default is read-only) in order to display as a Briefcase. The Desktop.ini and Briefcase Database files are not required to have the hidden or system attributes in order for the parent folder to display as a Briefcase.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n", "While most examples focus on the \"read\" aspect of the principle (i.e., retrieving a value), Meyer shows that the \"write\" implications (i.e., modifying a value) of the principle are harder to deal with in his monthly column on the Eiffel programming language official website.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24367	why do periods hurt so much?	ok, the tl:dr fast version, the uterus lining and blood and such has to dissolve, but then it has to be escorted out. so the organ has to squeeze like a muscle, a lot. like a serious lot. so imagine working out and getting muscle cramps, or abdominal cramps from whatever. also occasionally the hormones and signals misfire and you do get some abdominal cramps too.	[ "Since every pregnancy is different, a doctor, midwife or other competent professional should always be consulted before any action is taken to reduce the pain. Some popular methods may be harmful to the mother and/or the baby, or may actually worsen the pain or lengthen the labour.\n\nUterine contractions during childbirth can be monitored by cardiotocography, in which a device is fixated to the skin of the mother or directly to the fetal scalp. The pressure required to flatten a section of the uterine wall correlates with the internal pressure, thereby providing an estimate of it. \n", "BULLET::::- Irregular menstrual pattern: irregular bleeding and spotting is common in the first three to six months of use. After that time periods become shorter and lighter, and 20% of women stop having periods after one year of use. The average user reports 16 days of bleeding or spotting in the first month of use, but this diminishes to about four days at 12 months.\n\nBULLET::::- Cramping and pain: many women feel discomfort or pain during and immediately after insertion. Some women may have cramping for the first 1–2 weeks after insertion.\n", "If implantation does not occur, the frequency remains low, but the amplitude increases dramatically to between 50 and 200 mmHg producing labor-like contractions at the time of menstruation. These contractions are sometimes termed \"menstrual cramps\", although that term is often used for menstrual pain in general. These contractions may be uncomfortable or even painful, but they are generally significantly less painful than contractions during labour. A hot water bottle or exercising has been found to help.\n", "The use of misoprostol is also allowed, but close monitoring of the mother is required.\n\nSection::::Management.:Inducing labor.:Feelings.\n\nBULLET::::- Stripping the membranes: Stripping the membranes only takes a few minutes and causes a few intense cramps. Many women report a feeling similar to urination, others report it to be quite painful.\n\nBULLET::::- Breaking the water: Having one's water broken feels like a slight tug and then a warm flow of liquid.\n\nBULLET::::- Pitocin: When the synthetic hormone, pitocin, is used, contractions occur more frequently than a natural occurring birth; they are also more intense.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Any pain associated with Rokitansky-Mayer-Küster-Hauser syndrome comes from menstruation related cramping and can be treated with several ways. Individuals with this syndrome may be born with a uterine remnant (tiny uterus), which can fill with become filled with blood in the pelvic cavity causing pain. A medical professional can assess the severity of having a uterine remnant within each patient to determine if removal of the uterus is necessary.\n\nSection::::Treatment and prognosis.:Prognosis.:Bardet-Biedl Syndrome.\n", "In young women painful periods often occur without an underlying problem. In older women it is more often due to an underlying issues such as uterine fibroids, adenomyosis, or endometriosis. It is more common among those with heavy periods, irregular periods, whose periods started before twelve years of age, or who have a low body weight. A pelvic exam in those who are sexually active and ultrasound may be useful to help in diagnosis. Conditions that should be ruled out include ectopic pregnancy, pelvic inflammatory disease, interstitial cystitis, and chronic pelvic pain.\n", "Perineal pain after episiotomy has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant. The pain from injection sites and episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered. Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Perineal massage\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Episiotomy, Merck Manual Professional Edition\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Cramps.\n\nMany women experience painful cramps, also known as dysmenorrhea, during menstruation. Pain results from ischemia and muscle contractions. Spiral arteries in the secretory endometrium constrict, resulting in ischemia to the secretory endometrium. This allows the uterine lining to slough off. The myometrium contracts spasmodically in order to push the menstrual fluid through the cervix and out of the vagina. The contractions are mediated by a release of prostaglandins.\n", "The pain experienced during dilation is similar to that of menstruation (although markedly more intense), as period pains are thought to be due to the passing of endometrium through the cervix. Most of the pain during labor is caused by the uterus contracting to dilate the cervix.\n\nSection::::Childbirth.:Induced dilation in childbirth.\n", "In those who have symptoms, uterine artery embolization and surgical options have similar outcomes with respect to satisfaction.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medication.\n\nA number of medications may be used to control symptoms. NSAIDs can be used to reduce painful menstrual periods. Oral contraceptive pills may be prescribed to reduce uterine bleeding and cramps. Anemia may be treated with iron supplementation.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Uterine contractions.\n", "When severe pelvic pain and bleeding suddenly occur or worsen during a cycle, the woman or girl should be evaluated for ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. This evaluation begins with a pregnancy test and should be done as soon as unusual pain begins, because ectopic pregnancies can be life‑threatening.\n\nIn some cases, stronger physical and emotional or psychological sensations may interfere with normal activities, and include menstrual pain (dysmenorrhea), migraine headaches, and depression. Dysmenorrhea, or severe uterine pain, is particularly common for young females (one study found that 67.2% of girls aged 13–19 have it).\n", "Secondary dysmenorrhea is the diagnosis given when menstruation pain is a secondary cause to another disorder. Conditions causing secondary dysmenorrhea include endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and uterine adenomyosis. Rarely, congenital malformations, intrauterine devices, certain cancers, and pelvic infections cause secondary dysmenorrhea. Symptoms include pain spreading to hips, lower back and thighs, nausea, and frequent diarrhea or constipation. If the pain occurs between menstrual periods, lasts longer than the first few days of the period, or is not adequately relieved by the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or hormonal contraceptives, women should be evaluated for secondary causes of dysmenorrhea.\n", "Painful cramping in the abdomen, back, or upper thighs is common during the first few days of menstruation. Severe uterine pain during menstruation is known as dysmenorrhea, and it is most common among adolescents and younger women (affecting about 67.2% of adolescent females). When menstruation begins, symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) such as breast tenderness and irritability generally decrease. Sanitary products include pads and tampons, and are essential items for use during menstruation.\n\nSection::::Cycles and phases.:Uterine cycle.:Proliferative phase.\n", "Abdominal pains during pregnancy may be due to various pathologies. RLP is one of the most common and benign of these pains. However, diagnosis of RLP is problematic. Some of the conditions that may present symptoms similar to those of RLP are appendicitis, ectopic pregnancy, kidney stones, urinary tract infection, uterine contractions, inguinal hernia, ovarian cysts, and endometriosis. If abdominal pain is continuous and accompanied by vaginal bleeding, excessive vaginal discharge, fever, chills, or vomiting, then it is most unlikely to be RLP and immediate consultation with a health care provider is warranted.\n", "Perineal pain after childbirth has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant. The pain from injection sites and possible episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered. Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth. Comfort is enhanced with changing linens, urination, the cleaning of the perineum and ice packs. Privacy also in implemented to promote comfort.\n", "Cases of myoma-like growth occurring on the uterine round ligament have been reported.\n\nBULLET::::- RLP and IVF\n\nGonadotropin stimulation during in vitro fertilization can induce cyst development in certain parts of the female reproductive system. A case report documented the development of a mesothelial cyst on the uterine round ligament of a woman after IVF stimulation.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nOnce RLP has been diagnosed, there are many ways to reduce the pain without jeopardizing the pregnancy.\n\nBULLET::::- Analgesics. Acetaminophen or paracetamol is safe to take during pregnancy, thus is the most commonly prescribed pain reliever for pregnant women with RLP.\n", "It is common to have bleeding in early pregnancy, this is associated with implantation bleeding and can be mistaken for a regular period. However implantation bleeding is usually much lighter and in many cases sanitary napkins aren't necessary. Although excessive bleeding in the first trimester can also be associated with miscarriage.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Back pain.\n", "Medications controlling pain will begin to wear off. This also true when an epidural or spinal block was given. Uterine contractions are sometimes painful and comfort can be promoted by suggesting that different positions can be tried. Walking around, with assistance, can decrease pain. Since uterine cramping may become more painful during breastfeeding, medications can be given a half an hour before nursing. Pain control and comfort can be managed by anticipating the return of sensation and bodily reactions to bruises, tears, incisions and puncture sites.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "During pregnancy and postpartum, the symphyseal gap can be felt moving or straining when walking, climbing stairs or turning over in bed; these activities can be difficult or even impossible. The pain may remain static, e.g., in one place such as the front of the pelvis, producing the feeling of having been kicked; in other cases it may start in one area and move to other areas. It is also possible that a woman may experience a combination of symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- Constipation\n\nBULLET::::- Pelvic girdle pain\n\nBULLET::::- Back pain\n\nBULLET::::- Braxton Hicks contractions. Occasional, irregular, and often painless contractions that occur several times per day.\n\nBULLET::::- Peripheral edema swelling of the lower limbs. Common complaint in advancing pregnancy. Can be caused by inferior vena cava syndrome resulting from compression of the inferior vena cava and pelvic veins by the uterus leading to increased hydrostatic pressure in lower extremities.\n\nBULLET::::- Low blood pressure often caused by compression of both the inferior vena cava and the abdominal aorta (aortocaval compression syndrome).\n", "Sometimes, the irritation can be of the chronic type and it can be so intense that it also causes painful intercourse. Aside from infections, chronic irritation of the vagina may be related to the use of contraceptives and condoms made from latex. The majority of contraceptives are made of synthetic chemicals which can induce allergies, rash and itching. Sometimes the lubricant used for intercourse may cause irritation.\n", "According to the CDC, Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) accounted for approximately 9% of all visits to gynecologists in 2007. In addition, CPP is the reason for 20—30% of all laparoscopies in adults. Pelvic girth pain is frequent during pregnancy.\n\nSection::::Social implications.\n", "In pregnancy uterine rupture may cause a viable abdominal pregnancy. This is what accounts for most abdominal pregnancy births.\n\nBULLET::::- Abdominal pain and tenderness. The pain may not be severe; it may occur suddenly at the peak of a contraction. The woman may describe a feeling that something \"gave way\" or \"ripped.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Chest pain, pain between the scapulae, or pain on inspiration—Pain occurs because of the irritation of blood below the woman's diaphragm\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Measures not involving medication.:Sensorial Saturation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02126	Why is it when you bury something there's less dirt then needed?	If you put the dirt that's removed in a tarp or a wheelbarrow or something, it'll be the opposite. You pull out compacted earth. You move it to the side. Some of it gets scattered, stepped on, or just gets below any grass or plants and isn't easily picked back up by shovel or hand. The type of soil matters too. Something like red clay earth isn't going to lose as much as potting soil, which loses less than sand. Mind you, unless the hole is pretty small, you shouldn't be losing enough to not be able to fill the hole back in, especially if you're putting something else in there. Usually, solid things like fence posts or the like take up enough space there's no way you'll run out. But sometimes things like plants with really loose roots will end up taking enough back in that loss through scattering can be visible as a declivity. Plus, the amount of moisture can play a role. Really moist but not wet soil can dry out enough over a few hours of working in a garden that there's less volume left when it's time to move it back. Combine that with loss of material and it can be significant.	[ "Section::::Production.:Casting.\n", "In the field\n", "Use of large and heavy machineries for agriculture often causes not only topsoil but subsoil compaction. Subsoil compaction is more difficult to be regenerated than topsoil compaction. It should be noted that not only may the weight of machineries i.e. axle load, but also velocity and number of passages affect the intensity of soil compaction. Inflation pressure of wheels and tyres also plays an important role for the degree of soil compaction.\n", "Waste compaction\n\nWaste compaction is the process of compacting waste, reducing it in size. Garbage compactors and waste collection vehicles compress waste so that more of it can be stored in the same space. Waste is compacted again, more thoroughly, at the landfill to conserve valuable airspace and to extend the landfill's life span. \n\nSection::::Consumer and post-collection compaction.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Bearing capacity.\n", "BULLET::::2. The priming effect is larger in soils that are rich in C and N as compared to those poor in these nutrients.\n\nBULLET::::3. Real priming effects have not been observed in sterile environments.\n\nBULLET::::4. The size of the priming effect increases as the amount of added treatment to the soil increases.\n\nRecent findings suggest that the same priming effect mechanisms acting in soil systems may also be present in aquatic environments, which suggests a need for broader considerations of this phenomenon in the future.\n\nSection::::Decomposition.\n", "Pre-landfill waste compaction is often beneficial, both for people disposing of waste and the company collecting it. This is because waste collection companies frequently charge by volume or require use of standard-volume containers, and compaction allows more waste to fit in the same space. Trash compactors are available for both residential and commercial use. Compacting garbage after it is collected allows more waste to fit inside the collection vehicle, meaning fewer trips to a dump or transfer station are required. The collection company also incurs lower landfill fees, if the landfill charges by volume.\n\nSection::::Landfill compaction.\n", "Curb mining\n\nCurb mining is the act of salvaging appliances, electronics, furniture and art discarded on the street (\"curbside\"). In cities around the world, people often dispose of furniture and other unwanted items by leaving them on the sidewalk for others to take.\n\nTerms similar to curb mining include \"dumpster diving\" and \"freeganism\". In June 2007, The New York Times wrote:\n\nSection::::Re-use and recycling.\n", "Soil compaction and its direct effects are closely interrelated with indirect off-site effects that have a global impact, visible only in the long-term perspective. Accumulating effects may result in complex environmental impacts contributing to ongoing global environmental issues such as erosion, flooding, climate change and loss of biodiversity in soil.\n\nFood security\n", "Section::::Minerals depletion.\n\nMinerals are needed to provide food, clothing, and housing. A United States Geological Survey (USGS) study found a significant long-term trend over the 20th century for non-renewable resources such as minerals to supply a greater proportion of the raw material inputs to the non-fuel, non-food sector of the economy; an example is the greater consumption of crushed stone, sand, and gravel used in construction.\n", "Illegally dumped hazardous waste may be a result of the costs of dropping materials at designated sites: some of these charge a fee for depositing hazardous material. Lack of access to nearby facilities that accept hazardous waste may deter use. Additionally, ignorance of the laws that regulate the proper disposal of hazardous waste may cause improper disposal.\n", "Beyond the key problem of correct resource management in the presence of returns and exceptions, and heap-based resource management (disposing objects in a different scope from where they are created), there are many further complexities associated with the dispose pattern. These problems are largely avoided by RAII. However, in common simple use these complexities do not arise: acquire a single resource, do something with it, automatically release it.\n", "Sometimes, a subsurface drainage system is installed in soils with a low infiltration capacity, where a surface drainage problem may improve the soil structure and the infiltration capacity so greatly that a surface drainage system is no longer required.\n\nOn the other hand, it can also happen that a surface drainage system diminishes the recharge of the groundwater to such an extent that the subsurface drainage problem is considerably reduced or even eliminated.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduced erosion, sedimentation: increased soil aggregate stability means greater resistance to erosion; mass movement is less likely when soils are able to retain structural strength under greater moisture levels.\n\nBULLET::::- Greater productivity: healthier and more productive soils can contribute to positive socio-economic circumstances.\n\nBULLET::::- Cleaner waterways, nutrients and turbidity: nutrients and sediment tend to be retained by the soil rather than leach or wash off, and are so kept from waterways.\n", "Dumpster diving\n\nDumpster diving (also totting, skipping, skip diving or skip salvage,) is the salvaging of waste in large commercial, residential, industrial and construction containers to find items that have been discarded by their owners, but that may prove useful to the picker. It is not confined to dumpsters and skips specifically, and may cover standard household waste containers, curb sides, landfills or small dumps.\n", "A landfill compaction vehicle has two main functions: to spread the waste evenly in layers over the landfill, and to compact waste to reduce its volume and help stabilize the landfill. Proper waste compacting includes the process of using a steel wheeled/drum landfill compactor to shred, tear and press together various items in the waste stream so they consume a minimal volume of landfill airspace. The higher the compaction rate, the more trash the landfill can receive and store. This will also reduce landslides, cave-ins and minimize the risk of explosions of landfill gas (see landfill gas migration).\n", "In many jurisdictions, ownership of domestic waste changes once it is placed into a container for collection. It is thus illegal (although rarely enforced) to skip dive. Curb mining gets round this because the items offered are not yet placed (in a legal sense) into the \"waste\" stream, thus their ownership has not yet been transferred. It is often legal to curb mine, but illegal to skip dive. \n", "Section::::In construction.\n\nSoil compaction is a vital part of the construction process. It is used for support of structural entities such as building foundations, roadways, walkways, and earth retaining structures to name a few. For a given soil type certain properties may deem it more or less desirable to perform adequately for a particular circumstance. In general, the preselected soil should have adequate strength, be relatively incompressible so that future settlement is not significant, be stable against volume change as water content or other factors vary, be durable and safe against deterioration, and possess proper permeability.\n", "One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.\n", "Priming (microbiology)\n\nPriming or a \"Priming Effect\" is said to occur when something that is added to soil or compost affects the rate of decomposition occurring on the soil organic matter (SOM), either positively or negatively. Organic matter is made up mostly of carbon and nitrogen, so adding a substrate containing certain ratios of these nutrients to soil may affect the microbes that are mineralizing SOM. Fertilizers, plant litter, detritus, and carbohydrate exudates from living roots, can potentially positively or negatively prime SOM decomposition.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Soil carbon\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrient cycle\n\nBULLET::::- Soil chemistry\n\nBULLET::::- Soil biology\n", "which have previously been landfilled are excavated and processed. The function of landfill mining is to reduce the amount of landfill mass encapsulated within the closed landfill and/or temporarily remove hazardous material to allow protective measures to be taken before the landfill mass is replaced. In the process, mining recovers valuable recyclable materials, a combustible fraction, soil, and landfill space. The aeration of the landfill soil is a secondary benefit regarding the landfill's future use. The combustible fraction is useful for the generation of power. The overall appearance of the landfill mining procedure is a sequence of processing machines laid out in a functional conveyor system. The operating principle is to excavate, sieve and sort the landfill material.\n", "The phenomenon of dilatancy can be observed in a simple shear test on a sample of dense sand. In the initial stage of deformation, the volumetric strain decreases as the shear strain increases. But as the stress approaches its peak value, the volumetric strain starts to increase. After some more shear, the soil sample has a larger volume than when the test was started.\n", "The process of removal of materials from geological or soil horizons is called eluviation or leaching. There is a difference in the usage of this term in geology and soil science. In soil science, eluviation is the transport of soil material from upper layers of soil to lower levels by downward precipitation of water across soil horizons, and accumulation of this material (illuvial deposit) in lower levels is called illuviation. In geology, the removed material is irrelevant, and the deposit (eluvial deposit) is the remaining material. Eluviation occurs when precipitation exceeds evaporation.\n", "Because of dilatancy, the angle of friction increases as the confinement increases until it reaches a peak value. After the peak strength of the soil is mobilized the angle of friction abruptly decreases. As a result, geotechnical engineering of slopes, footings, tunnels, and piles in such soils have to consider the potential decrease in strength after the soil strength reaches this peak value.\n", "In the laboratory\n" ]	[ "There is less dirt left to bury something than needed.", "When digging up dirt with the goal of burying something, there is never enough dirt to bury the object, animal, or person afterwards." ]	[ "Some dirt can be scattered or lost but there should be enough to re fill a hole that was made especially if something else is put in the hole.", "This can be avoided by using a wheelbarrow or another type of container, it is not always the case of not having enough dirt to bury a product after digging up enough space." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is less dirt left to bury something than needed.", "When digging up dirt with the goal of burying something, there is never enough dirt to bury the object, animal, or person afterwards." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some dirt can be scattered or lost but there should be enough to re fill a hole that was made especially if something else is put in the hole.", "This can be avoided by using a wheelbarrow or another type of container, it is not always the case of not having enough dirt to bury a product after digging up enough space." ]
2018-04448	How do flat land areas flood?	Thing is, Australian soil is really bad at absorbing water. Soil that absorbs water is absorbent because there is a thick network of grasses and such that actively soak up the water, and because said network creates a porous, organic soil that has to be completely saturated before water can fill it up and start pooling. Australian soil is generally dense and inorganic (mostly populated with shallow root plants that don't have wide root matting). When it rains the total amount of water being dumped is HUGE, so the lack of active/passive absorption really causes problems with flooding. That's also why deforested areas have problems with soil erosion and flooding.	[ "Mass wasting may occur at a very slow rate, particularly in areas that are very dry or those areas that receive sufficient rainfall such that vegetation has stabilized the surface. It may also occur at very high speed, such as in rockslides or landslides, with disastrous consequences, both immediate and delayed, e.g., resulting from the formation of landslide dams.\n\nFactors that change the potential of mass wasting include: change in slope angle, weakening of material by weathering, increased water content; changes in vegetation cover, and overloading.\n", "Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when water is supplied by rainfall or snowmelt more rapidly than it can either infiltrate or run off. The excess accumulates in place, sometimes to hazardous depths. Surface soil can become saturated, which effectively stops infiltration, where the water table is shallow, such as a floodplain, or from intense rain from one or a series of storms. Infiltration also is slow to negligible through frozen ground, rock, concrete, paving, or roofs. Areal flooding begins in flat areas like floodplains and in local depressions not connected to a stream channel, because the velocity of overland flow depends on the surface slope. Endorheic basins may experience areal flooding during periods when precipitation exceeds evaporation.\n", "Section::::Types.:Landslide.\n\nA landslide, also called a landslip, is a slow or rapid movement of a large mass of earth and rocks down a hill or a mountainside. Little or no flowage of the materials occurs on a given slope until heavy rain and resultant lubrication by the same rainwater facilitate the movement of the materials, causing a landslide to occur. \n\nIn particular, if the main feature of the movement is a slide along a planar or curved surface, the landslide is termed slump, earth slide, debris slide or rock slide, depending on the prevailing material.\n", "BULLET::::- agricultural or forestry activities (logging), and urbanization, which change the amount of water infiltrating the soil.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Debris flow.\n\nSlope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges and tributaries causing flooding along its path.\n\nDebris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely different processes.\n\nMuddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures and infrastructure and often claim human lives.\n", "In rural areas the erosion source is typically soil degradation due to intensive or inadequate agricultural practices, leading to soil erosion, especially in fine-grained soils such as loess. The result will be an increased amount of silt and clay in the water bodies that drain the area. In urban areas the erosion source is typically construction activities, since this involves clearing the original land-covering vegetation and temporarily creating something akin to an urban desert from which fines are easily washed out during rainstorms.\n", "In other regions of the world (e.g. western Europe), runoff and erosion result from relatively low intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto the previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water.\n\nIn Taiwan, where typhoon frequency increased significantly in the 21st century, a strong link has been drawn between the increase in storm frequency with an increase in sediment load in rivers and reservoirs, highlighting the impacts climate change can have on erosion.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting erosion rates.:Vegetative cover.\n", "In other regions of the world (e.g. western Europe), runoff and erosion result from relatively low intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting soil erosion.:Soil structure and composition.\n", "Section::::Physical processes.:Floods.\n\nAt extremely high flows, kolks, or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly rushing water. Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole-type geographical features called Rock-cut basins. Examples can be seen in the flood regions result from glacial Lake Missoula, which created the channeled scablands in the Columbia Basin region of eastern Washington.\n\nSection::::Physical processes.:Wind erosion.\n", "Modern industrial farming is another major cause of erosion. In some areas in the American corn belt, more than 50 percent of the original topsoil has been carried away within the last 100 years.\n\nSection::::Effects of surface runoff.:Environmental effects.\n", "Artificial levees can lead to an elevation of the natural river bed over time; whether this happens or not and how fast, depends on different factors, one of them being the amount and type of the bed load of a river. Alluvial rivers with intense accumulations of sediment tend to this behavior. Examples of rivers where artificial levees led to an elevation of the river bed, even up to a point where the river bed is higher than the adjacent ground surface behind the levees, are found for the Yellow River in China and the Mississippi in the USA.\n", "If aggradation continues to occur in the main channel, this will make levee overtopping more likely again, and the levees can continue to build up. In some cases this can result in the channel bed eventually rising above the surrounding floodplains, penned in only by the levees around it; an example is the Yellow River in China near the sea, where oceangoing ships appear to sail high above the plain on the elevated river.\n", "Earth's total planimetric (flat) land area is approximately which is about 29.2% of its total surface. However, when terrain and topsoil relief are factored in, the actual topographic surface area – that exposed to the Sun, air and rain – is approximately quadrupled. Water covers approximately 70.8% of planimetric Earth's surface, mainly in the form of oceans and ice formations; but this proportion is decreased by the land's increased terrain.\n\nSection::::Cover.\n\n\"Land cover\" is the physical material at the surface of the earth.\n", "BULLET::::- Wicker or brushwood mats made of vegetable material. Very long and flexible willow branches can be used, which are then covered with infill soil. Alternating stakes of different woody species are used and they are woven to form a barrier against the downward drag of the material eroded by free water on the surface.\n", "Section::::Causes of failure.:Erosion and damage.\n\nSurface erosion of the surface of a levee is usually caused by the action of wind and water (waves but also normal flow). Erosion can be worsened by pre-existing or new damage to a levee. Areas with no surface protection are more prone to erosion. A levee grazed by certain types of animals, like sheep, can show trails used by the animals where grass does not grow.\n", "BULLET::::- Rivers: typically at this level, the water surface is generally near or slightly above the top of its banks, but no man-made structures are flooded; typically any water overflowing is limited to small areas of parkland or marshland.\n\nBULLET::::- Coastlines: at action stage, usually elevated tides and minor inundation of low-lying beach areas occurs.\n\nSection::::Flood categories.:Minor Flood Stage.\n", "Deposition of levees is a natural consequence of the flooding of meandering rivers which carry high proportions of suspended sediment in the form of fine sands, silts, and muds. Because the carrying capacity of a river depends in part on its depth, the sediment in the water which is over the flooded banks of the channel is no longer capable of keeping the same amount of fine sediments in suspension as the main thalweg. The extra fine sediments thus settle out quickly on the parts of the floodplain nearest to the channel. Over a significant number of floods, this will eventually result in the building up of ridges in these positions, and reducing the likelihood of further floods and episodes of levee building.\n", "As hillslopes steepen, however, they become more prone to episodic landslides and other mass wasting events. Therefore, hillslope processes are better described by a nonlinear diffusion equation in which classic diffusion dominates for shallow slopes and erosion rates go to infinity as the hillslope reaches a critical angle of repose.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Debris flow.\n", "BULLET::::- The South African town of Laingsburg was basically destroyed on 25 January 1981, when 104 of its 900 inhabitants died during a flood that swept through the town and left only about 25 houses standing\n\nBULLET::::- In 1982, the river Jucar in Spain breaks the Tous Reservoir, flooding the surrounding land in a deluge of 16,000 m/s of water, and killing 30 people.\n", "In some cases, failures are triggered as a result of undercutting of the slope by a river, especially during a flood. This undercutting serves both to increase the gradient of the slope, reducing stability, and to remove toe weighting, which also decreases stability. For example, in Nepal this process is often seen after a glacial lake outburst flood, when toe erosion occurs along the channel. Immediately after the passage of flood waves extensive landsliding often occurs. This instability can continue to occur for a long time afterwards, especially during subsequent periods of heavy rain and flood events.\n\nSection::::Summary.:Seismicity.\n", "Section::::Classification.:Surface drainage systems.\n\nThe regular surface drainage systems, which start functioning as soon as there is an excess of rainfall or irrigation applied, operate entirely by gravity. They consist of reshaped or reformed land surfaces and can be divided into:\n\nBULLET::::- Bedded systems, used in flat lands for crops other than rice;\n\nBULLET::::- Graded systems, used in sloping land for crops other than rice.\n\nThe bedded and graded systems may have ridges and furrows.\n", "In addition to causing water erosion and pollution, surface runoff in urban areas is a primary cause of urban flooding which can result in property damage, damp and mold in basements, and street flooding.\n\nSection::::Generation.\n\n Surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall, snowfall or by the melting of snow, or glaciers.\n", "Considerable efforts have been made to understand the triggers for landsliding in natural systems, with quite variable results. For example, working in Puerto Rico, Larsen and Simon found that storms with a total precipitation of 100–200 mm, about 14 mm of rain per hour for several hours, or 2–3 mm of rain per hour for about 100 hours can trigger landslides in that environment. Rafi Ahmad, working in Jamaica, found that for rainfall of short duration (about 1 hour) intensities of greater than 36 mm/h were required to trigger landslides. On the other hand, for long rainfall durations, low average intensities of about 3 mm/h appeared to be sufficient to cause landsliding as the storm duration approached approximately 100 hours. \n", "Catastrophic riverine flooding is usually associated with major infrastructure failures such as the collapse of a dam, but they may also be caused by drainage channel modification from a landslide, earthquake or volcanic eruption. Examples include outburst floods and lahars. Tsunamis can cause catastrophic coastal flooding, most commonly resulting from undersea earthquakes.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Upslope factors.\n", "Moist air forced up the slopes of coastal hills and mountain chains can lead to much heavier rainfall than in the coastal plain. This heavy rainfall can lead to landslides, which still cause significant loss of life such as seen during Hurricane Mitch in Central America.\n\nSection::::Global distribution.\n", "BULLET::::- Coastlines: Water surges over not only the dune, but also man-made walls and roads. Large and destructive waves pound weak structures and severely damage well-built homes and businesses. Overwash occurs on high-level seawalls. If major flooding occurs at high tide, impacts may be felt well inland. If cities are at or below sea level, catastrophic flooding can inundate the entire city and cause millions or billions of dollars in damage (such as occurred in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina).\n\nSection::::Flood categories.:Record Flood Stage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03021	Why is the "fast talk" at the end of radio commercials allowed to be so fast?	It isn't allowed. "Fast talk disclaimers" are a violation of FTC advertising policies, known as the [four Ps]( URL_0 ): Prominence, Presentation, Placement, and Proximity. If you hear such an ad, you can report the company to the FTC.	[ "Some TV and radio commercials are concluded with \"fast talking\", which is barely audible or comprehensible to most. While it is this very message that states all necessary disclaimers and exceptions to the advertisement, it is often stated too fast for the viewer or listener to comprehend. This is often coupled with pleasant background music and positive images, which in turn takes the consumer's focus off of the disclaimer.\n\nSection::::Fighting fine print.\n", "Of particular importance to advertisers is Section 317 of the Act, the \"Announcement of Payment For Broadcast\" provision. It states, in general terms, that where money, services or other valuables are directly or indirectly paid to a radio station in exchange for mentions on the air, the station must disclose that fact. For example, if a cell phone provider gives a free cell phone to a station's DJ, who then talks about that cell-phone provider on the air, perhaps mentioning what great service he has, the announcer must disclose that it is an advertisement.\n", "Empirical support for the effectiveness of pulsing is relatively weak. However, research suggests that continuous schedules and flighted schedules generally result in strong levels of consumer recall.\n\nAdvantages: \n\nBULLET::::- Useful for use with seasonal products e.g. travel or products sold intermittently e.g.heating and cooling systems\n\nBULLET::::- Can be used by market challengers to give the impression of a higher share of voice\n\nBULLET::::- Combined the advantages of both continuity and flighting possible\n\nBULLET::::- Is a less expensive option than a continuous schedule\n\nSection::::Advertising media scheduling.:Media buying.\n\nAlso see Media buying\n", "Usually, listeners are able to discern radio advertisements from entertainment content. The Communications Act does include an \"obviousness\" exception: where it is obvious that something is a commercial, the announcement-for-payment provision does not apply. However, where anything of value has changed hands in exchange for mentions on the air, a station has a duty to disclose it.\n", "Whereas \"Central Hudson\" limits what commercial speech can be said, another facet is related compelled commercial speech in the form of government-mandated disclaimers or other information required to be included in some forms of commercial speech. This concept was established as constitutional in \"Zauderer v. Office of Disciplinary Counsel of Supreme Court of Ohio\", , which established the Zauderer standard to judge which such government-mandated speech does not violate First Amendment rights of the commercial speaker. \"Zauderer\" found that the government can mandate commercial speech to include \"purely factual and uncontroversial information\" when it is reasonably related to the government's interest and \"to dissipate the possibility of consumer confusion or deception\". The Zauderer standard has since been expanded within Circuit Court case law to extend beyond protecting consumer deception as to include factual information for consumer awareness, such as food packaging information, as long as the information serves a reasonable government interest.\n", "BULLET::::- The EOM (end of message) tone was heard in the movie trailer for \"Knowing\" and in the series \"Jericho\" in which its familiar emergency use and its increasing cadence create a sense of foreboding.\n\nBULLET::::- It was used in the movie trailer for \"Olympus Has Fallen\" and \"The Purge\". The uses have since been heavily discouraged on air by the Federal Communications Commission (outside public service announcements demonstrating SAME and EAS technology), and stations and networks using them (for instance, TBS and WNKY-TV in Bowling Green, Kentucky) in advertising or promotions have been fined for doing so.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- DJs have to read or play a pre-recorded weather forecast at 44 minutes past the hour\n\nBULLET::::- DJs have to play the station's legally required identification near the top of the hour\n\nBULLET::::- DJs are allowed to speak only over the song's instrumental portion at the beginning. (As depicted in the example below)\n\nAs an example, see the following graphic:br\n", "BULLET::::- 1934: The Communications Act was created. Establishing the Fairness Doctrine.\n\nBULLET::::- 1959: Amendment of the Communications Act.\n\nBULLET::::- 1987: Fairness Doctrine abolished.\n\nSection::::Legal cases.\n", "BULLET::::- From 1982 to the early 1990s, most voiceover promos heard during the end credits of NBC network shows would begin with the chimes. From 1982 to 1987, the chimes would blend into an instrumental version of the promotional slogan that NBC would be using at the time.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Don’t worry, there's a FedEx for that,” 2002–2003\n\nBULLET::::- \"Relax, it’s FedEx,\" 2004–2008\n\nBULLET::::- \"The World On Time\" 2001–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"We Understand,\" 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"We Live To Deliver\" 2009–present\n\nSection::::Advertising.:John Moschitta ad.\n\nIn 1981, their advertising firm Ally & Gargano hired performer John Moschitta, Jr., known for his fast speech delivery, to do an ad for Federal Express titled \"Fast Paced World\". This single commercial would be cited years later by \"New York\" as one of the most memorable ads ever.\n\nSection::::Advertising.:Motorsports.\n", "Time-compressed speech is frequently used in television and radio advertising. The advantage of time-compressed speech is that the same number of words can be compressed into a smaller amount of time, reducing advertising costs, and/or allowing more information to be included in a given radio or TV advertisement. It is usually most noticeable in the information-dense caveats and disclaimers presented (usually by legal requirement) at the end of commercials—the aural equivalent of the \"fine print\" in a printed contract. This practice, however, is not new: before electronic methods were developed, spokespeople who could talk extremely quickly and still be understood were widely used as voice talents for radio and TV advertisements, and especially for recording such disclaimers.\n", "Section::::Regulatory considerations.\n\nThe Communications Act of 1934 established the FCC, which, in turn, regulates the broadcasting media. In response to the payola scandal of the 1950s, the FCC established guidelines, known as \"sponsorship disclosure\" rules. These rules apply to both pay-for-play and advertisements alike, recognizing that consumers deserve to know \"by whom they are being persuaded\".\n", "Radio show host/comedian Adam Carolla took umbrage with the Ad Council on his former radio programs \"The Adam Carolla Show\" and \"Loveline\", stating that the announcements provide little value, and that the topics they choose to provide statements on are not real issues that affect Americans, such as airplane turbulence, or are issues that an ad on public radio could not possibly do anything about, such as housing discrimination. Furthermore, Carolla has stated that this valuable time taken up could be used to enlighten Americans on topics such as teen pregnancy and options, or illiteracy, topics that have a much more significant impact on society.\n", "Another issue Whitta and Kennedy made fun of regarding the advertisements was when they ran behind the set schedule. Kennedy said that on one occasion, to make a joke out of it, he and Whitta read two live advertisements simultaneously, while talking over several pre-recorded commercials.\n\nOn another occasion, Whitta and Kennedy played a joke on their listeners by bringing in a portable radio into the studio, tuning it to 3XY and playing it through the microphones, essentially broadcasting the rival station over the 3UZ airwaves, confusing listeners.\n", "As a method of in-band signaling, DTMF tones were also used by cable television broadcasters to indicate the start and stop times of local insertion points during station breaks for the benefit of cable companies. Until better, out-of-band signaling equipment was developed in the 1990s, fast, unacknowledged, and loud DTMF tone sequences could be heard during the commercial breaks of cable channels in the United States and elsewhere.\n", "In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994: Mancow Muller of KYLD-FM orchestrates a stunt blocking off the westbound lanes of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge during rush hour while his on-air sidekick got a haircut, in response to (false) allegations then-President Bill Clinton would have caused delays at Los Angeles International Airport by getting his hair cut aboard Air Force One. Muller and the radio station both got sued.\n", "Some companies started large mass media campaigns to advertise the fact that they had the latest tunes and largest collections of ring tones. One of the biggest advertiser is the German company Jamba! (known as Jamster! in some countries), known for the Sweety the Chick and Crazy Frog ringtone characters. After months of public complaints, the British Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) ruled on 21 September 2005 that many of the advertisements must be shown only after 9 p.m. The primary intention of this was to prevent the company from targeting young people in its campaigns.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Livin' the Low Life\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lucas Oil on the Edge\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Classic Car\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Ride Rules\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"NASCAR Performance\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"NCWTS Setup\" (originally \"NCTS Setup\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pass Time\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pimp My Ride\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pinks!\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"PINKS All Out\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"PINKS All Outtakes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pumped!\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ship Shape TV\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"SPEED Test Drive\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"SPEED Test Ride\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stacey David's Gearz\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stealth Rider\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"SuperCars Exposed\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Truck Universe\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Two Guys Garage\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ultimate Factories\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Unique Whips\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"WindTunnel with Dave Despain\"\n\nSection::::Final programming.:Specials.\n\nBULLET::::- 24 Hours of Le Mans\n", "Campaigns have lamented that the seconds used for the candidates to approve the communication results in less time for them to communicate their message, increasing their costs of campaigning. One media adviser mentioned that the requirement reduced the number of positive spots that the producer can have. Other candidates, however, regard it as an opportunity to affirm or encapsulate the theme of their message: \"I'm Tom Kean, Jr. Together, we can break the back of corruption. That's why I approved this message.\"\n", "BULLET::::- whether items in other parts of the advertisement distract attention from the disclosure,\n\nBULLET::::- whether the advertisement is so lengthy that the disclosure needs to be repeated,\n\nBULLET::::- whether disclosures in audio messages are presented in an adequate volume and cadence and visual disclosures appear for a sufficient duration, and\n\nBULLET::::- whether the language of the disclosure is understandable to the intended audience.\n\nHowever, the \"key is the overall net impression.\"\n\nSection::::Unfair or deceptive practices affecting consumers.:Deception practices.:Cyberspace.com case.\n", "BULLET::::4. Whether the regulation is no more extensive than necessary to serve that interest\n\nSection::::In the United States.:History.\n", "BULLET::::- Television commercials were introduced to New Zealand, which had one station (AKTV2) in Auckland, and TV was allowed for 28 hours per week, spread over five days.\n\nBULLET::::- In Australia, Roger Nott replaced James Archer as Administrator of the Northern Territory.\n\nBULLET::::- The codename \"Bumpy Road\" was assigned to the US Navy operation in the Bay of Pigs Invasion plan.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"This is a test of the Emergency Broadcast System. The broadcasters of your area in voluntary cooperation with the FCC and other authorities\" (or, in later years, \"federal, state and local authorities\") \"have developed this system to keep you informed in the event of an emergency.\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"This is a test of the Emergency Broadcast System. Broadcasters, in cooperation with the FCC and other authorities\" (or, in later years, \"federal, state and local authorities\") \"have developed this system to keep you informed in the event of an emergency.\"\"\n", "The broadcast profanity delay was invented by C. Frank Cordaro (July 13, 1919 – February 20, 1997), who was Chief Engineer of WKAP during the 1950s and early 1960s. Ogden Davies, then-General Manager of WKAP, assigned Cordaro the task of developing a device whereby profanity during a \"live\" conversation could be deleted by the radio talk show host before it was broadcast. This new device was to be used on the \"Open Mic\" radio talk show. The device Cordaro developed was the first tape delay system. WKAP was one of several stations owned by the Rahal brothers of West Virginia (later Rahal Communications). First tested and used at WKAP, this tape system for broadcast profanity delay was then installed at the other Rahal-owned radio stations. From the Rahal brothers' stations, the broadcast profanity delay went into common usage throughout the US.\n" ]	[ "Fast talk at the end of commercials is allowed to be that fast.", "Fast talk at the end of the radio commercials are allowed to be fast. " ]	[ "It is NOT allowed to be that fast and should be reported to the FTC when it happens. ", "Fast talk at the end of the radio commercials are not allowed and are a violation of FTC advertising policies." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fast talk at the end of commercials is allowed to be that fast.", "Fast talk at the end of the radio commercials are allowed to be fast. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is NOT allowed to be that fast and should be reported to the FTC when it happens. ", "Fast talk at the end of the radio commercials are not allowed and are a violation of FTC advertising policies." ]
2018-08399	Where does mature scar tissue go when it's massaged away?	You cannot massage away scar tissue, that is a myth. You can cause the muscles surrounding scar tissue to relax making the scar less noticeable, but you cannot massage the scar tissue away.	[ "Keratinocytes continue migrating across the wound bed until cells from either side meet in the middle, at which point contact inhibition causes them to stop migrating. When they have finished migrating, the keratinocytes secrete the proteins that form the new basement membrane. Cells reverse the morphological changes they underwent in order to begin migrating; they reestablish desmosomes and hemidesmosomes and become anchored once again to the basement membrane. Basal cells begin to divide and differentiate in the same manner as they do in normal skin to reestablish the strata found in reepithelialized skin.\n\nSection::::Proliferative phase.:Contraction.\n", "Another major component of the ECM is hyaluronic acid (HA), a glycosaminoglycan. It is known that fetal skin contains more HA than adult skin due to the expression of more HA receptors. The expression of HA is known to down-regulate the recruitment of inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α); since fetal wounds contain a reduced number of pro-inflammatory mediators than adult wounds it is thought that the higher levels of HA in the fetal skin aid in scar free healing.\n", "Prostaglandins, specifically PGE2 and PGI2, are important in inflammation and have been implicated in promoting apical resorption. This is because neutrophils, which are rich sources of PGE2, are present when the majority of rapid bone loss occurs during the initial stages of apical periodontitis. It has been illustrated clinically that parenteral administration of indomethacin, an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase, can act to suppress resorption of apical hard tissue.\n", "Growth and remodeling have a major role in the cause of some common soft tissue diseases, like arterial stenosis and aneurisms and any soft tissue fibrosis. Other instance of tissue remodeling is the thickening of the cardiac muscle in response to the growth of blood pressure detected by the arterial wall.\n\nSection::::Imaging techniques.\n", "The fibroblast involved in scarring and contraction is the myofibroblast, which is a specialized contractile fibroblast. These cells express α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA).\n\nThe myofibroblasts are absent in the first trimester in the embryonic stage where damage heals scar free; in small incisional or excision wounds less than 2 mm that also heal without scarring; and in adult unwounded tissues where the fibroblast in itself is arrested; however, the myofibroblast is found in massive numbers in adult wound healing which heals with a scar.\n", "BULLET::::- Skin removal/skinning: Cutting in single lines produces relatively thin scars, and skin removal is a way to get a larger area of scar tissue. The outlines of the area of skin to be removed will be cut, and then the skin to be removed will be peeled away. Scars from this method often have an inconsistent texture, although this relies heavily on the experience of the artist and aftercare of the wound.\n", "In the recall phase the adrenal glands increase production of cortisol which shuts down eicosanoid production and inflammation.\n\nSection::::Tissue damaged by inflammation.:Resolution phase.\n", "In 2013 it was proven in pig tissue that full thickness micro columns of tissue, less than 0.5mm in diameter could be removed and that the replacement tissue, was regenerative tissue, not scar. The tissue was removed in a fractional pattern, with over 40% of a square area removed; and all of the fractional full thickness holes in the square area healed without scarring. In 2016 this fractional pattern technique was also proven in human tissue.\n\nSection::::History of human tissue regeneration.:History of regeneration techniques.:Regeneration with materials.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Role of the extracellular matrix and its components.\n", "Section::::Physiological function.:Fetal wound healing.\n\nLack of fibrous scarring is the primary feature of fetal wound healing. Even for longer periods, HA content in fetal wounds is still higher than that in adult wounds, which suggests that HA may, at least in part, reduce collagen deposition and therefore lead to reduced scarring. This suggestion is in agreement with the research of West et al., who showed that in adult and late gestation fetal wound healing, removal of HA results in fibrotic scarring.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n", "In the Regeneration phase, blood vessels are repaired and new cells form in the damaged site similar to the cells that were damaged and removed. Some cells such as neurons and muscle cells (especially in the heart) are slow to recover.\n\nSection::::Tissue damaged by inflammation.:Repair phase.\n\nIn the Repair phase, new tissue is generated which requires a balance of anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Anti-inflammatory eicosanoids include lipoxins, epi-lipoxins, and resolvins, which cause release of growth hormones.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Migration of keratinocytes over the wound site is stimulated by lack of contact inhibition and by chemicals such as nitric oxide. Before they begin to migrate, cells must dissolve their desmosomes and hemidesmosomes, which normally anchor the cells by intermediate filaments in their cytoskeleton to other cells and to the ECM. Transmembrane receptor proteins called integrins, which are made of glycoproteins and normally anchor the cell to the basement membrane by its cytoskeleton, are released from the cell's intermediate filaments and relocate to actin filaments to serve as attachments to the ECM for pseudopodia during migration. Thus keratinocytes detach from the basement membrane and are able to enter the wound bed.\n", "Filler injections of collagen can be used to raise atrophic scars to the level of surrounding skin. Risks vary based upon the filler used, and can include further disfigurement and allergic reaction.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Laser treatment.\n\nNonablative lasers, such as the 585 nm pulsed dye laser, 1064 nm and 1320 nm , or the 1540 nm are used as laser therapy for hypertrophic scars and keloids. There is tentative evidence for burn scars that they improve the appearance.\n", "Reparation of tissue in the mammalian fetus is radically different than the healing mechanisms observed in a healthy adult. During early gestation fetal skin wounds have the remarkable ability to heal rapidly and without scar formation. Wound healing itself is a particularly complex process and the mechanisms by which scarring occurs involves inflammation, fibroplasia, the formation of granulation tissue and finally scar maturation. Since the observation of scar free healing was first reported in the early fetus more than three decades ago, research has focused intently on the underlying mechanisms which separate scarless fetal wound repair from normal adult wound healing.\n", "Scars can be formed by removing layers of skin through abrasion. This can be achieved using an inkless tattooing device, or any object that can remove skin through friction (such as sandpaper).\n\nChemical scarification uses corrosive chemicals to remove skin and induce scarring. The effects of this method are typically similar to other, simpler forms of scarification; as a result there has been little research undertaken on this method.\n\nSection::::Healing.\n\nThe common practice on healing a scarification wound is use of irritation.\n", "Scar free healing is the process by which significant injuries can heal without permanent damage to the tissue the injury has affected. In most healing, scars form due to the fibrosis and wound contraction, however in scar free healing tissue is completely regenerated. Scar improvement, and scar-free healing are an important and relevant area of medicine. During the 1990s, published research on the subject increased; it's a relatively recent term in the literature. Scar free healing is something which takes place in foetal life but the capacity is lost during progression to adulthood. In amphibians, tissue regeneration occurs, for example, as in skin regeneration in the adult axolotl.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Beach:\" Is the area where the fluid has been mostly removed from the cuttings and they begin to look like a pile of solids.\n", "BULLET::::- Packing: This method is uncommon in the West, but has traditionally been used in Africa. A cut is made diagonally and an inert material such as clay or ash is packed into the wound; massive hypertrophic scars are formed during healing as the wound pushes out the substance that had been inserted into the wound. Cigar ash is used in the United States for more raised and purple scars; people may also use ashes of deceased persons.\n", "Established soft tissue necrosis may require surgical removal of the dead tissue, fasciotomy, amputation or reconstructive surgery.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nPurpura fulminans lesions, once established, often progress within 24 to 48 hours to full-thickness skin necrosis or soft-tissue necrosis. Once purpura fulminans lesions progress to full-thickness skin necrosis, healing takes between 4–8 weeks and leaves large scars.\n", "When the epoxy has set, the slab is turned over, and preparation begins from the shale at the back. Layer by layer of oil-shale is removed with brush and scalpel. When the preparator hits the fossil, more lacquer and glue is applied to further stabilize the fragile fossil. When the work is done, all traces of oil-shale have been removed, only the fossil itself remain on the epoxy slab.\n", "In the European health spas, the clay is prepared for use in a multitude of ways – depending on the traditions of a particular spa; typically it is mixed with peat and matured in special pools for a few months or even up to two years.\n\n\"The majority of spas … use artificial ponds where the natural (\"virgin\") clay is mixed with mineral, thermo-mineral, or sea water that issues in the vicinity of the spas or inside the spa buildings.\"\n\nSection::::Preparation of clay.:Trace minerals.\n", "Many types of skin conditions have been treated by the application of medicinal clay. Montmorillonite has shown its effectiveness in this area. It has also been used as a base ingredient for tissue engineering. Clay is used in many dermatological over-the-counter remedies, such as in acne treatments (this information may not be mentioned on the label specifically).\n\nSection::::Uses.:Internal use.\n", "Granulation tissue functions as rudimentary tissue, and begins to appear in the wound already during the inflammatory phase, two to five days post wounding, and continues growing until the wound bed is covered. Granulation tissue consists of new blood vessels, fibroblasts, inflammatory cells, endothelial cells, myofibroblasts, and the components of a new, provisional extracellular matrix (ECM). The provisional ECM is different in composition from the ECM in normal tissue and its components originate from fibroblasts. Such components include fibronectin, collagen, glycosaminoglycans, elastin, glycoproteins and proteoglycans. Its main components are fibronectin and hyaluronan, which create a very hydrated matrix and facilitate cell migration. Later this provisional matrix is replaced with an ECM that more closely resembles that found in non-injured tissue.\n", "It is possible that after conventional endodontic therapy has been completed, little to no resolution of the periapical lesion occurs over a considerable amount of time; there is a great deal of current research that discusses the possible reasons for this outcome and suggests possible treatment options. For example, it has been demonstrated that there is an association between nonresolving apical periodontitis lesions and the presence of cholesterol clefts within the periapical lesion; in fact, an incidence of up to 44% has been reported! It was shown that macrophages joined to form multinucleated giant cells and then produced a well-circumscribed area of tissue reaction, not unlike the granulomatous tissue reactions of a typical foreign body reaction, and persisted for up to 8 months. Similarly, endodontic materials as well as food debris may also be the cause of persistent periapical lesions. It was once shown that contaminated gutta percha resulted in a persistent periapical lesion for more than a decade!\n", "Section::::Primary scar molecular inducers.:Upregulation of nestin intermediate filament protein.\n" ]	[ "You can massage scar tissue away." ]	[ "It is a myth that you can massage away scar tissue." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can massage scar tissue away." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is a myth that you can massage away scar tissue." ]
2018-00149	How do surfers speed up to escape a crested wave?	It's mostly unweighting off the bottom of the wave, the "flats", and hopping the board up onto the face of the wave, even ever so slightly like you see when she is near the white water. By unweighting and getting the board up, she can then redirect the board down and use both gravity and the push of the wave from behind to generate speed. There may be other subtle factors, like if she's riding a three fin board they create a bit of drag when going straight and release when turned using two of the three fins, but it's mostly the unweighting, hopping up, and coming down to make speed.	[ "On 12 March 2012, Jeff Rowley paddled into Mavericks Left, California, and became the first Australian to accomplish this task. Mavericks is traditionally known as a right-hander wave and Rowley pushed the boundaries of what was possible at the Mavericks Left hander, a task that wasn't without its challenges, requiring a vertical drop into the wave.\n", "On 18 January 2010, Danilo Couto and Marcio Freire became the first to surf Jaws Peahi paddling, surfing the wave to the left side. They did not have jetski support and used only their shorts and their surfboards. They were the only ones to surf Jaws paddling until 4 January 2012, when it was surfed to the right side for the first time.\n", "When practicing the sport of surfing, the surfer paddles out past the wave break to wait for a wave. When a surfable wave arrives, the surfer must paddle extremely fast to match the velocity of the wave so the wave can accelerate him or her.\n", "Wave riding, by contrast, is much closer to surfing in style and culture, and involves the rider performing a series of bottom turns, top turns, and cutbacks whilst riding an unbroken wave back to the shore. Top wave sailors are able to incorporate aerial moves into their wave riding and will use overhanging lips to launch themselves out in front of the wave as part of this.\n", "Section::::Career.:Tasmania event.\n\nIn July 2011, Visser, along with his brother Kevin and a group of local surfers James Hick, Marty Paradisis and Mike Brennan conquered waves as high as four meters during severe hailstorms. This particularly dangerous surfing trip prompted the surfers to paddle in, rather than tow.\n\nSection::::Works.\n\nSection::::Works.:Operation Night Rider.\n", "Jeff Clark grew up in Half Moon Bay, watching Mavericks from Half Moon Bay High School and Pillar Point. At that time the location was thought too dangerous to surf. He conceived the possibility of riding Hawaii-sized waves in Northern California. In 1975 at age 17 and with the waves topping out at , Clark paddled out alone to face the break. He caught multiple left-breaking waves, thereby becoming the first documented person to tackle Mavericks head-on.\n", "When the surfer is at wave speed, the surfer must quickly pop up, stay low, and stay toward the front of the wave to become stable and prevent falling as the wave steepens. The acceleration is less toward the front than toward the back. The physics behind the surfing of the wave involves the horizontal acceleration force (F·sinθ) and the vertical force (F·cosθ=mg). Therefore, the surfer should lean forward to gain more speed, and lean on back foot to brake. Also, to increase the length of the ride of the wave, the surfer should travel parallel to the wave crest.\n", "Jeff Rowley made Australian history by being the first Australian to paddle into a 50-foot plus (15 metre) wave at Jaws Peahi, Hawaii, achieving his 'Charge for Charity' mission set for 2011, to raise money for Breast Cancer Australia.\n\nOn 30–31 January 2012, Jeff Rowley and a number of international big wave surfers including Greg Long, Shaun Walsh and Albee Layer spent two days paddle-surfing Jaws, on the Hawaiian island of Maui, as part of their ongoing big-wave paddle-in program at the deep-water reef, further cementing the new frontier of paddle-in surfing at Jaws.\n", "These hazards have killed several big-wave surfers. Some of the most notable are Mark Foo, who died surfing Mavericks on December 23, 1994; Donnie Solomon, who died exactly a year later at Waimea Bay; Todd Chesser who died at Alligator Rock on the North Shore of Oahu on February 14, 1997; Malik Joyeux who died surfing Pipeline on Oahu on December 2, 2005; Peter Davi who died at Ghost Trees on December 4, 2007, Sion Milosky who died surfing Mavericks on March 16, 2011, and Kirk Passmore who died at Alligator Rock on November 12, 2014.\n\nSection::::Paddle-in surfing.\n", "On 4 January 2012, Greg Long, Ian Walsh, Kohl Christensen, Jeff Rowley, Dave Wassel, Shane Dorian, Mark Healey, Carlos Burle, Nate Fletcher, Garrett McNamara, Kai Barger, North Shore locals and other of the best big-wave surfers in the world invaded the Hawaiian Islands for a historic day of surfing. Surfers had to catch and survive the wave at Jaws Peahi, on the north shore of Maui, without the use of a jet ski.\n", "At most concerts and festivals the crowd surfer will be passed towards a barrier in front of the stage by the crowd, where they will be pulled off and put on their feet by the security stewards. Then, they will be sent back to the side or rear of the crowd at the end of the barrier or they may be ejected from the venue (depending on the policy enforced).\n", "In 1990, at Margaret River, Curren rode a wave all the way from the take-off zone to the Rivermouth - roughly a 1200-foot ride. He then had to walk back to Mainbreak from the Rivermouth to re-enter the surf. Those who saw it say it has never been repeated, in or out of competition.\n", "In the early 1990s Larry Moore, photo editor at \"Surfing\" magazine, and Mike Castillo, veteran surfer and pilot, made flights out across the bank on rumors of giant waves. During a monster swell in 1990 that has been dubbed \"The Eddie Aikau Swell,\" they were astonished when they found empty waves breaking atop the bank in the 80 to 90 foot range. By 1995 Moore had seen and photographed waves and that year he led an expedition with a small group of surfers out there (including \"Surfing\" magazine editors Sam George and Bill Sharp) and pro surfer George Hulse. The team found relatively small but very glassy waves in the fifteen foot range, and George Hulse was the first to catch one. \"It was the only time I wrote out a will before a surf trip,\" Sharp said of the mission.\n", "The rules of right of way vary slightly with the type of break. Point Breaks will always have a consistent direct of what is inside, that is, the person further up the line will have right of way. In a single peak situation where there is both a left and a right two people are able to be on the wave at the same time, provided that one goes left and one goes right and that neither crosses the path of the other to go one direction. If this does happen then, the surfer who stood up first will get the right of way. On a multi-peaked wave where the wave eventually comes together, both peaks can be surfed until the surfers come together. When they do the surfer who stood up first has right of way, and the other must maneuver to get off the wave without interrupting the other surfer.\n", "On January 5, 2008, Mike Parsons, Brad Gerlach, Grant \"Twiggy\" Baker and Greg Long returned to the location in the midst of one of the worst storms ever recorded off the coast of California. Mike Parsons was photographed on a wave bigger than his award-winning ride of 2001, judged by the Billabong XXL judges as 70+ feet on the face—later determined to be at least 77 feet—and Parsons second Guinness World Record. He was photographed 15 seconds into the ride, suggesting a wave of over 80 feet at the start. All witnesses agree that Greg Long rode a bigger wave, between 80 and 90 feet, that was not captured by photo or video. Very dangerous conditions made it difficult to photograph.\n", "The rules of right-a-way vary slightly with the type of break. Point Breaks will always have a consistent direct of what is inside, that is the person further up the line will have right-away. In a single peak situation where there is both a left and a right two people are able to be on the wave at the same time provided that one goes left and one goes right and that neither crosses the path of the other to go one direction. If this does happen then the surfer who stood up first will get the right-a-way. On a multi peaked wave where the wave eventually comes together both peaks can be surfed until the surfers come together, when they do the surfer who stood up first has right-a-way and the other must maneuver to get off the wave without interrupting the other surfer.\n", "In 1973 Scanlon and Hinde were shipwrecked on the North Malé atoll in the Maldives aboard the \"Whitewings\", a ketch in which they had been hired as crewmembers. The Whitewings had been en route across the Indian Ocean from Sri Lanka to Réunion Island when they ran aground. The pair spent several unplanned months in the Maldives repairing the boat. However, he quickly discovered how good the surfing potential was in the northern Maldives and decided to stay in the country.\n", "BULLET::::2. Plunging, or dumping: these break suddenly and can \"dump\" swimmers—pushing them to the bottom with great force. These are the preferred waves for experienced surfers. Strong offshore winds and long wave periods can cause dumpers. They are often found where there is a sudden rise in the sea floor, such as a reef or sandbar. Deceleration of the wave base is sufficient to cause upward acceleration and a significant forward velocity excess of the upper part of the crest. The peak rises and overtakes the forward face, forming a \"barrel\" or \"tube\" as it collapses.\n", "After retirement, Dorian started to concentrate on big wave surfing, mainly towing into big waves via jet ski, which was the norm then. However, over the years, he and his fellow big wave surfers have preferred paddling into big waves. Dorian took the top prize at the 2008 Global Big Wave awards in California.\n\nIn 2011 Dorian was awarded \"Ride of the Year\" by the World Surf League for paddling into a giant Peahi \"Jaws\" barrel on 3-15-2011 estimated to be 57 feet tall by the World Surf League, and biggest wave ever paddled into at that time.\n\nSection::::Surfing statistics.\n", "In a big wave wipeout, a breaking wave can push surfers down 20 to 50 feet (6.2 m to 15.5 m) below the surface. Once they stop spinning around, they have to quickly regain their equilibrium and figure out which way is up. Surfers may have less than 20 seconds to get to the surface before the next wave hits them. Additionally, the water pressure at a depth of 20 to 50 feet can be strong enough to rupture one's eardrums. Strong currents and water action at those depths can also slam a surfer into a reef or the ocean floor, which can result in severe injuries or even death.\n", "In the summer of 1961, surfer Harrison Ealy of Oceanside, California became one of the very first people to surf a wave at the Bishop Rock. In around 1973, surfer Ilima Kalama, father of big wave surfer Dave Kalama, nearly died when the abalone fishing boat he was aboard sank on the Bishop Rock in the middle of the night.\n", "Section::::Sights and attractions.:Surfing.\n\nIn one of the artificial streams flowing through the Englischer Garten, there is a standing wave produced by change from laminar to turbulent flow. Surfers line up along the bank taking turns entering the water with their boards. After a minute or so, successful surfers will voluntarily drop out returning to the end of the line allowing the next person in line an opportunity. The signage states that surfing should only be done by expert or skilled surfers. A short video of the swimming and surfing can be found here.\n\nSection::::Sights and attractions.:Monopteros.\n", "Standup surfing begins when the surfer paddles toward shore in an attempt to match the speed of the wave (The same applies whether the surfer is standup paddling, bodysurfing, boogie-boarding or using some other type of watercraft, such as a waveski or kayak.). Once the wave begins to carry the surfer forward, the surfer stands up and proceeds to ride the wave. The basic idea is to position the surfboard so it is just ahead of the breaking part (whitewash) of the wave. A common problem for beginners is being able to catch the wave at all.\n", "A non-competitive adventure activity involving riding the biggest waves possible (known as \"rhino hunting\") is also popular with some surfers. A practice popularized in the 1990s has seen big wave surfing revolutionized, as surfers use personal watercraft to tow them out to a position where they can catch previously unrideable waves (see tow-in surfing). These waves were previously unrideable due to the speed at which they travel. Some waves reach speeds of over 60 km/h; personal watercraft enable surfers to catch up to the speed of the wave, thereby making them rideable. Personal watercraft also allow surfers to survive wipeouts. In many instances surfers would not survive the battering of the \"sets\" (groups of waves together). This spectacular activity is extremely popular with television crews, but because such waves rarely occur in heavily populated regions, and usually only a very long way out to sea on outer reefs, few spectators see such events directly.\n", "BULLET::::- 360 degrees – this is a full rotation air or “full rotor” where the surfer lands where they started or more, as long as they do not land backwards. When this is achieved front side on a wave spinning the opposite of an air reverse is called an alley oop.\n\nBULLET::::- 540 degrees – the surfer does a full rotation plus another 180 degrees, and can be inverted or spinning straight, few surfers have been able to land this air.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09891	How does water put out fire?	Water has an extremely high heat capacity. This means that water can cool the fire until it is no longer possible for the area on fire to maintain the on fire state. There are videos of things like red hot lead balls being dropped in ice and they are rather quickly cooled as they sink into the ice demonstrating the massive thermal capacity of water.	[ "Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot carbon such as coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, decompose the water, producing water gas.\n", "In some cases, the use of water is undesirable. This is because some chemical products react with water to produce poisonous gases, or they may even burn when they come into contact with water (e.g., sodium). Another problem is that some products float on water, such as hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, and alcohol, etc.); a burning layer can then be spread by the fire. If\n", "To properly cool a fire, water is splashed on all embers, including places that are not glowing red. Splashing the water is both more effective and efficient in extinguishing the fire. The water boils violently and carries ash in the air with it, dirtying anything nearby but not posing a safety hazard. Water is continuously poured until the hissing stops, Then the ashes are stirred to ensure that water reaches the entire fire, and more water is added if necessary. When the fire is fully extinguished, the ashes are cool to the touch.\n", "BULLET::::- Dousing with copious amounts of water. According to Larry H. Flak, a petroleum engineer for Boots and Coots International Well Control, 90% of all the 1991 fires in Kuwait were put out with nothing but sea water, sprayed from powerful hoses at the base of the fire.\n", "a pressurized fuel tank is endangered by fire it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank if it is sprayed with cooling water; the resulting decompression might produce a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).\n\nElectrical fires cannot be extinguished with water since the water could act as a conductor.\n", "Without sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. With a decreased oxygen concentration, the combustion process slows. Oxygen can be denied to a fire using a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, a fire blanket or water.\n\nSection::::Role of water in fire-fighting.\n", "Using water is one common method to extinguish a fire. Water extinguishes a fire by cooling, which removes heat because of water’s ability to absorb massive amounts of heat as it converts to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel in order to sustain the fire. Water also extinguishes a fire by smothering it. When water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air above the fire, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can also be done with foam.\n", "One common way to extinguish a fire is to spray it with water. The water has two roles: It vaporizes when it comes in contact with fire, and this vapor displaces the oxygen (the volume of water vapor is 1,700 times greater than liquid water, at it expands over 4,000 times). This leaves the fire without enough of the combustive agent, and it dies out. The vaporization of water also absorbs heat; it thereby cools the smoke, air, walls, and objects that could act as further fuel, and thus prevents one of the means by which fires grow, which is by \"jumping\" to nearby heat/fuel sources to start new fires, which then combine. Water extinguishment is thus a combination of \"asphyxia\" (cutting off the oxygen supply) and cooling. The flame itself is suppressed by asphyxia, but the cooling is the most important element in mastering a fire in a closed area.\n", "Some Class B fires (hydrocarbons, petroleums, and fuels on fire) cannot be efficiently controlled with water. Fuels with a specific gravity less than water, such as gasoline or oil, float on water, resulting in the fire continuing in the fuel on top of the water. The application of a combination of fire suppressant foam mixed with water is a common and effective method of forming a blanket on top of the liquid fuel which eliminates the oxygen needed for combustion.The configuration of some fuels, such as coal and baled waste paper, result in a deep seated and burrowing fire, resulting in less effective fire control by the application of water on the outer surfaces of the fuel. \n", "Water can have two different roles. In the case of a solid combustible, the solid fuel produce pyrolyzing products under the influence of heat, commonly radiation. This process is halted by the application of water, since water is more easily evaporated than the fuel is pyrolyzed. Thereby energy is removed from the fuel surface and it is cooled and the pyrolysis is stopped, removing the fuel supply to the flames. In fire fighting, this is referred to as surface cooling.\n", "Section::::History of fire-fighting foams.\n\nWater has long been a universal agent for suppressing fires, but is not best in all cases. For example, water is typically ineffective on oil fires, and can be dangerous. Fire-fighting foams were a development for extinguishing oil fires.\n", "Combustion is the chemical reaction that feeds a fire more heat and allows it to continue. When the fire involves burning metals like lithium, magnesium, titanium, etc. (known as a class-D fire), it becomes even more important to consider the energy release. The metals react faster with water than with oxygen and thereby more energy is released. Putting water on such a fire results in the fire getting hotter or even exploding. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are ineffective against certain metals such as titanium. Therefore, inert agents (e.g. dry sand) must be used to break the chain reaction of metallic combustion.\n", "Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. It is dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents, because many organic materials float on water and the water tends to spread the burning liquid.\n", "Section::::Extinguishing agents.\n\nIn the early days, water was the exclusive fire suppression agent. Although still used today, water has limitations. Most notably, its liquid and conductive properties can cause as much property damage as fire itself.\n\nSection::::Health and environmental concerns.\n", "Section::::Water power.\n", "BULLET::::- Hydrocarbon fires – as it will only spread the fire because of the difference in density/hydrophobicity. For example, adding water to a fire with an oil source will cause the oil to spread, since oil and water do not mix.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal fires – as these fires produce huge amounts of energy (up to 7.550 calories/kg for aluminium) and water can also create violent chemical reactions with burning metal (possibly even serving as an additional oxidizing agent).\n\nSince these reactions are well understood, it has been possible to create specific water-additives which will allow:\n", "Section::::In archery.\n", "Cases also exist where the ignition factor is not the activation energy. For example, a smoke explosion is a very violent combustion of unburned gases contained in the smoke created by a sudden fresh air input (oxidizer input). The interval in which an air/gas mix can burn is limited by the explosive limits of the air. This interval can be very small (kerosene) or large (acetylene).\n\nWater cannot be used on certain type of fires:\n\nBULLET::::- Fires where live electricity is present – as water conducts electricity it presents an electrocution hazard.\n", "Firewater (fire fighting)\n\nFirewater refers to water that has been used in firefighting and requires disposal. In many cases it is a highly polluting material and requires special care in its disposal. \n", "BULLET::::- Gas cooling or 3D water-fog: Branch technique where water spray in correct quantities can result in contraction of the gases without the over production of steam. May assist as a control measure in small compartment. This is not an extinguishing technique because it is still essential to apply water to the surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- GPM: gallons per minute or how many gallons are being pumped out of a piece of equipment every minute.\n", "Water may be accessed from a pressurized fire hydrant, pumped from water sources such as lakes or rivers, delivered by tanker truck, or dropped from water bombers, which are aircraft adapted as tankers for fighting forest fires. An armored vehicle (firefighting tank) may be used where access to the area is difficult.\n\nSection::::Use of water.:Open air fire.\n", "The gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected or ignited with a flame above the water if this was the intention. The required potential for the electrolysis of pure water is 1.23 V at 25 °C. The operating potential is actually 1.48 V or higher in practical electrolysis.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Methods of deployment.:Hand-held projectors.\n", "French firefighters used an alternative method in the 1970s: spraying water on the hot walls to create a water vapor atmosphere and asphyxiate the fire. This method is no longer used because it turned out to be risky; the pressure created pushed the hot gases and vapor towards the firefighters, causing severe burns, and pushed the hot gases into other rooms where they could start other fires.\n\nSection::::Asphyxiating a fire.\n", "BULLET::::- application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end), or\n\nBULLET::::- application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21889	Why do injuries feel hot?	The immune response produces chemicals which promote blood flow to the injured area. It also causes the capillaries (smallest blood vessels) around the injury to become “leaky” so that plasma and immune system cells can more easily get to the injury. The end result is swelling and redness around the area. Because there is more blood flow to the injured spot, it feels warmer to the touch.	[ "BULLET::::- Arteriolar vasodilation occurs. The smooth muscle walls of the arterioles relax allowing increased blood flow through the artery. This redirects blood into the superficial capillaries in the skin increasing heat loss by convection and conduction.\n\nSection::::In hot and humid conditions.\n", "BULLET::::2. : contains a variety of nerve endings that jump to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury (see somatosensory system and haptic perception).\n\nBULLET::::3. Thermoregulation: eccrine (sweat) glands and dilated blood vessels (increased superficial perfusion) aid heat loss, while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat. Erector pili muscles in mammals adjust the angle of hair shafts to change the degree of insulation provided by hair or fur.\n\nBULLET::::4. Control of evaporation: the skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to reduce fluid loss.\n", "Section::::Injury.:Thermal trauma.\n", "Temperature and pain are thought to be represented as “feelings” of coolness/warmness and pleasantness/unpleasantness in the brain. These sensory and affective characteristics of thermoregulation may motivate certain behavioral responses depending on the state of the body (for example, moving away from a source of heat to a cooler space). Such perturbations in the internal homeostatic environment of an organism are thought to be key aspects of a motivational process giving rise to emotional states, and have been proposed to be represented principally by the insular cortex as feelings. These feelings then influence drives when the anterior cingulate cortex is activated.\n", "BULLET::::- Repeated application of hot water bottles, heating blankets or heat pads to treat chronic pain—e.g., chronic backache.\n\nBULLET::::- Repeated exposure to heated car seats, space heaters, or fireplaces. Repeated or prolonged exposure to a heater is a common cause of this condition in elderly individuals.\n\nBULLET::::- Occupational hazards of silversmiths and jewellers (face exposed to heat), bakers and chefs (arms)\n", "BULLET::::6. In his \"Novum Organum\" (1620), Francis Bacon concludes that heat is the motion of the particles composing matter. In Francis Bacon, \"Novum Organum\" (London, England: William Pickering, 1850), from page 164: \" … Heat appears to be Motion.\" From p. 165: \" … the very essence of Heat, or the \"Substantial self\" of Heat, is motion and nothing else, … \" From p. 168: \" … Heat is not a uniform Expansive Motion of the whole, but of the small particles of the body; … \"\n", "BULLET::::- Zone of stasis surrounds the coagulation area, where tissue is potentially salvageable. This is the main area of focus when treating burn injuries.\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of hyperemia is the area surrounding the zone of stasis. Perfusion is adequate due to patent blood vessels, and erythema occurs due to increased vascular permeability.\n\nSection::::Factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Heat cramps, muscle spams resulting from loss of water and electrolytes through sweating, especially after heavy exercise or labor in high heat; may presage heat tetany and heat exhaustion (thus also heat stroke)\n\nBULLET::::- Heat edema, swelling of the hands and/or feet due to over-expansion of the blood vessels in the extremities in response to heat\n\nBULLET::::- Heat exhaustion, caused by the loss of water and electrolytes through sweating; may presage heat stroke\n\nBULLET::::- Heat rash (miliaria), skin irritations caused by excessive sweating or blocked sweat glands\n", "Multiple neural pathways relay information integral to interoceptive processing from the body to the brain. these include the lamina I spinothalamic pathway, the visceroceptive pathway, and the somatosensory pathway.\n\nSection::::Neuroanatomical pathways.:Lamina I spinothalamic pathway.\n\nThe lamina I spinothalamic pathway is commonly known for carrying information to the brain about temperature and pain, but it has been suggested to more broadly relay all information about the homeostatic condition of the body.\n\nBULLET::::- Afferent signals enter the spinal cord at the superficial layer of the dorsal horn\n", "At the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation (one of the PRRs recognize a PAMP or DAMP) and release inflammatory mediators responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation. Vasodilation and its resulting increased blood flow causes the redness (\"rubor\") and increased heat (\"calor\"). Increased permeability of the blood vessels results in an exudation (leakage) of plasma proteins and fluid into the tissue (edema), which manifests itself as swelling (\"tumor\"). Some of the released mediators such as bradykinin increase the sensitivity to pain (hyperalgesia, \"dolor\"). The mediator molecules also alter the blood vessels to permit the migration of leukocytes, mainly neutrophils and macrophages, outside of the blood vessels (extravasation) into the tissue. The neutrophils migrate along a chemotactic gradient created by the local cells to reach the site of injury. The loss of function (\"functio laesa\") is probably the result of a neurological reflex in response to pain.\n", "One may observe that the heat flow is directly related to the thermal conductivities of the bodies in contact, formula_6 and formula_7, the contact area formula_4, and the thermal contact resistance, formula_9, which, as previously noted, is the inverse of the thermal conductance coefficient, formula_1.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n\nMost experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between\n\n0.000005 and 0.0005 m² K/W (the corresponding range of thermal contact\n", "BULLET::::- Resting a laptop computer on the thigh (laptop computer-induced erythema ab igne). In a 2012 review, Riahi and Cohen describe the characteristics of laptop computer-induced erythema ab igne. Temperatures between 43-47 °C can cause this skin condition; modern laptops can generate temperatures in this range. Indeed, laptops with powerful processors can reach temperatures of 50 °C and be associated with burns. Positioning of the laptop on the thighs can allow for direct exposure to the heating elements of the laptop, which include the central processing unit (CPU) and the graphics processing unit (GPU). At least 15 cases have been reported by 2012 with the condition usually affecting the left anterior thigh. In these reports, 9 of the 15 patients were women (60%) with an average age of 25 years at diagnosis.\n", "Heat also effects the viscosity of a fluid inside a capillary. An increase in heat decreases the viscosity of the lumenal fluid. A good example of this action can be observed in the human body during exercise. When a human is exercising, there is an increase in the metabolic rate inside the muscles, creating an increase in heat production. The increase in heat is detected by thermoreceptors, a type of sensory receptor located at various points in body. These receptors send a signal to the brain that tells the body to dilate the blood vessels, including capillaries. This creates a visible change in the number of vessels on the skin. This allows for heat transfer via convection to occur.\n", "BULLET::::- Foreign bodies. Sharp, small foreign bodies can penetrate the skin leaving little surface wound but causing internal injury and internal bleeding. For a glass foreign body, \"frequently, an innocent skin wound disguises the extensive nature of the injuries beneath\". First-degree nerve injury requires a few hours to a few weeks to recover. If a foreign body passes by a nerve and causes first-degree nerve injury during entry, then the sensation of the foreign body or pain due to internal wounding may be delayed by a few hours to a few weeks after entry. A sudden increase in pain during the first few weeks of wound healing could be a sign of a recovered nerve reporting internal injuries rather than a newly developed infection.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_14 = the individual convection heat transfer coefficient for each fluid (W/(m•K))\n\nBULLET::::- formula_15 = the wall thickness (m).\n\nAs the areas for each surface approach being equal the equation can be written as the transfer coefficient per unit area as shown below:\n\nor\n", "BULLET::::- The U.S. Supreme Court decided \"International Shoe Co. v. Washington\", a landmark ruling that held that a party, particularly a corporation, may be subject to the jurisdiction of a state court if it has \"minimum contacts\" with that state.\n\nSection::::December 4, 1945 (Tuesday).\n\nBULLET::::- The United States Senate approved the United Nations Participation Act by a vote of 65 to 7.\n", "There are three (or sometimes four) degrees of burns, in ascending order of severity and depth. For more info, see Burn#Signs and symptoms.\n\nAccording to Jackson's thermal wound theory, there are three zones of major burn injury.\n\nBULLET::::- Zone of coagulation is the area that sustained maximum damage from the heat source. Proteins become denaturated, and cell death is imminent due to destruction of blood vessels, resulting in ischemia to the area. Injury at this area is irreversible (coagulative necrosis & gangrene)\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Section::::In cold conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Heat is lost mainly through the hands and feet.\n\nBULLET::::- Sweat production is decreased.\n\nBULLET::::- The minute muscles under the surface of the skin called arrector pili muscles (attached to an individual hair follicle) contract (piloerection), lifting the hair follicle upright. This makes the hairs stand on end, which acts as an insulating layer, trapping heat. This is what also causes goose bumps since humans do not have very much hair and the contracted muscles can easily be seen.\n", "Until the mid-1930s, the study of the theory of heat transfer from a moving source was neglected, and temperature distribution due to moving heat sources could only be calculated approximately. In 1935, Daniel Rosenthal published the first literature applying the exact theory of heat flow from a moving source to arc welding. Rosenthal's theoretical model included several assumptions:\n\nBULLET::::- Material properties are constant,\n\nBULLET::::- The heat source is a point source,\n\nBULLET::::- The surface of the work piece does not lose heat to the atmosphere,\n\nBULLET::::- Heat created by the Joule effect is neglected\n", "Section::::Uses in neuroscience.:Traumatic brain injury.\n\nIn non-human primates, it was found that cooling the cortex after traumatic brain injury had occurred could reduce necrosis volume by 50% up to 10 days post-injury and edema volume by 50% up to 40 hours post-injury. Therefore, cooling helps preserve the tissue after injury.\n\nSection::::Uses in neuroscience.:Auditory cortex studies.\n", "BULLET::::9. Sometime during the period 1698-1704, John Locke wrote his book \"Elements of Natural Philosophy\", which was first published in 1720: John Locke with Pierre Des Maizeaux, ed., \"A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr. John Locke, Never Before Printed, Or Not Extant in His Works\" (London, England: R. Francklin, 1720). From p. 224: \"\"Heat\", is a very brisk agitation of the insensible parts of the object, which produces in us that sensation, from whence we denominate the object \"hot\": so what in our sensation is heat, in the object is nothing but motion. This appears by the way, whereby heat is produc'd: for we see that the rubbing of a brass-nail upon a board, will make it very hot; and the axle-trees of carts and coaches are often hot, and sometimes to a degree, that it sets them on fire, by rubbing of the nave of the wheel upon it.\"\n", "BULLET::::- High voltage burn. This burn is very severe as the victim makes direct contact with the high voltage supply and the damage runs its course throughout the body. Exterior injuries are misleading as most of the damage occurs underneath the skin. In this case, subdermal tissues are severely damaged.\n", "In order to ensure that one portion of the body is not significantly hotter than another portion, heat must be distributed evenly through the bodily tissues. Blood flowing through blood vessels acts as a convective fluid and helps to prevent any buildup of excess heat inside the tissues of the body. This flow of blood through the vessels can be modeled as pipe flow in an engineering system. The heat carried by the blood is determined by the temperature of the surrounding tissue, the diameter of the blood vessel, the thickness of the fluid, velocity of the flow, and the heat transfer coefficient of the blood. The velocity, blood vessel diameter, and the fluid thickness can all be related with the Reynolds Number, a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to characterize the flow of fluids.\n", "BULLET::::- Early on, the primary symptom is loss of feeling in the skin. In the affected areas, the skin is numb, and possibly swollen, with a reddened border.\n\nBULLET::::- In the weeks after injury, the skin's surface may slough off.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Second degree.\n\nBULLET::::- In second degree frostbite, the skin develops clear blisters early on, and the skin's surface hardens.\n\nBULLET::::- In the weeks after injury, this hardened, blistered skin dries, blackens, and peels.\n\nBULLET::::- At this stage, lasting cold sensitivity and numbness can develop.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Third degree.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04505	How do smart phones dissipate the heat created by the processor?	I think some of the answers are great, but missing a major point that I want to add: The chips in smartphones ([SoCs]( URL_0 )) are built from the ground up to turn the energy in the battery into useful work as efficiently as possible. In industry terms, smartphone SoCs have truly insane Performance Per Watt, which is a unit of how much screen brightness, CPU speed, etc can be achieved using only a joule of energy every second. So to answer the question, mainly because they barely produce any heat. Heat is what happens when energy from the battery is lost, and not turned into useful work. This is why the mobile device revolution only happened recently. Chips this efficient are a very new invention.	[ "Section::::Computer types.:Mobile devices.\n\nMobile devices usually have no discrete cooling systems, as mobile CPU and GPU chips are designed for maximum power efficiency due to the constraints of the device's battery. Some higher performance devices may include a heat spreader that aids in transferring heat to the external case of a phone or tablet.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- CPU power dissipation\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal design power\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal management of electronic devices and systems\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- CPU Cooler Rules of Thumb\n\nBULLET::::- Submersion Cooling Patent Application\n", "In particular, most SoCs are in a small physical area or volume and therefore the effects of waste heat are compounded because there is little room for it to diffuse out of the system. Because of high transistor counts on modern devices due to Moore's law, oftentimes a layout of sufficient throughput and high transistor density is physically realizable from fabrication processes but would result in unacceptably high amounts of heat in the circuit's volume. \n", "Desoldering the chips is done carefully and slowly, so that the heat does not destroy the chip or data. Before the chip is desoldered the PCB is baked in an oven to eliminate remaining water. This prevents the so-called popcorn effect, at which the remaining water would blow the chip package at desoldering.\n", "The Optimus 7 has a tendency to heat to a high temperature, while the handset is left to run an application for an extended period of time. This behavior has also been noted during charging. Due to the device's metal battery cover, the handset tends to retain any heat generated.\n\nIt has also been reported that after reaching high temperatures, the phone can reboot. Upon rebooting, the phone can hang on LG startup logo indefinitely, or until the user resets the device manually.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Quantum\n\nBULLET::::- Windows Phone\n\nSection::::Comparable Devices.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Quantum\n\nBULLET::::- HTC HD7\n", "Mobile computing based SoCs typically (but not always) bundle processors, memories, on-chip caches, wireless networking capabilities and often digital camera hardware and firmware. With increasing memory sizes, high end SoCs will often have no memory and flash storage and instead, the memory and flash memory will be placed right next to, or above (Package on package), the SoC. Some examples of mobile computing SoCs include:\n\nBULLET::::- Apple: Apple-designed processors\n\nBULLET::::- A12 Bionic and other A series, used in iPhones and iPads\n\nBULLET::::- S series and W series, in Apple Watches.\n", "The main SIM card slot is visible once the back cover is removed and can be accessed by removing the battery pack. \n\nThe second SIM Card slot is located right below the main SIM card slot. The battery possesses a capacity of Li-Ion 2000mAh.\n\nAdditional storage is available via a MicroSD card socket, which is certified to support up to 32 GB of additional storage.\n\nSection::::Feature.:Software.\n\nThe Ninetology Stealth II I9500 is running on the Android Ice Cream Sandwich Operating System and is preloaded with a variety of applications:\n\nBULLET::::- Web: Native Android Browser\n\nBULLET::::- Social: Facebook, YouTube\n", "The Xperia S also come with a special nano coating that is not just dirt repellent but also UV Active. It is also report that the Xperia S come with a fast charging ability. Charge times will be reduced by half and a 10-minute charge is good enough to keep the phone going for an hour.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "Samsung CMOS\n\nThis is a list of Samsung's CMOS camera sensors, available for purchase by other companies, for a wide variety of products including mobile phones, computers, digital cameras and more.\n\nThese sensors use one of the following technologies:\n\nBULLET::::- FSI: frontside-illuminated. The light that reaches the photosensitive area is reduced because it needs to pass through multiple metal and dielectric layers.\n\nBULLET::::- BSI: backside-illuminated. The light reaches the photosensitive area directly.\n", "Mobile processor\n\nA mobile processor is found in mobile computers and cellphones.\n\nA CPU chip is designed for portable computers. It is typically housed in a smaller chip package, but more importantly, in order to run cooler, it uses lower voltages than its desktop counterpart and has more sleep mode capability. A mobile processor can be throttled down to different power levels or sections of the chip can be turned off entirely when not in use. Further, the clock frequency may be stepped down under low processor loads. This stepping down conserves power and prolongs battery life.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Internal hardware.\n\nThe original Palm Pre's CPU is a 600 MHz Texas Instruments OMAP 3430 (ARM Cortex A8 + PowerVR SGX) underclocked to 500 MHz.\n\nIt uses a Marvell sd8686 chip as a Wireless LAN SDIO Adapter for the WiFi and STMicroelectronics VX6852 as a 3.15-megapixel resolution sensor (2048 x 1536) for camera.\n\nSection::::Internal hardware.:Screen and input.\n", "BULLET::::- Thermoelectric cooling vest works on Peltier effect and cools down the inner surface of the vest. It is powered by a portable battery.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nThe effects of cooling vests on athletes to improve their performance has been evaluated on several occasions; at the 2004 Summer Olympics several Americans and Australians were fitted with cooling vests supplied by Nike and Arctic Heat 2004,2008,2012,2016 Olympics, used prior to their events.\n", "Another local chip cooling technique is jet impingement cooling. In this technique, a coolant is flown through a small orifice to form a jet. The jet is directed toward the surface of the CPU chip, and can effectively remove large heat fluxes. Heat dissipation of over 1000 W/cm has been reported. The system can be operated at lower pressure in comparison to the micro-channel method. The heat transfer can be further increased using two-phase flow cooling and by integrating return flow channels (hybrid between micro-channel heat sinks and jet impingement cooling).\n\nSection::::Other techniques.:Phase-change cooling.\n", "Standards bodies have recognized the challenge of this and the implications on device cost. For example, 3GPP has relaxed the 50ppb parts per billion precision to 100ppb for indoor base stations in Release 6 and a further loosening to 250ppb for Home Node B in Release 8.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Security.\n\nAt the 2013 Black Hat hacker conference in Las Vegas, NV, a trio of security researchers detailed their ability to use a Verizon femtocell to secretly intercept the voice calls, data, and SMS text messages of any handset that connects to the device.\n", "BULLET::::- The clock signal must be distributed to every flip-flop in the circuit. As the clock is usually a high-frequency signal, this distribution consumes a relatively large amount of power and dissipates much heat. Even the flip-flops that are doing nothing consume a small amount of power, thereby generating waste heat in the chip. In portable devices which have limited battery power, the clock signal goes on even when the device is not being used, consuming power.\n\nSection::::Asynchronous sequential logic.\n", "The effect is used in satellites and spacecraft to reduce temperature differences caused by direct sunlight on one side of a craft by dissipating the heat over the cold shaded side, where it is dissipated as thermal radiation to space. Since 1961, some unmanned spacecraft (including the Curiosity Mars rover) utilize radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) that convert thermal energy into electrical energy using the Seebeck effect. The devices can last several decades, as they are fueled by the decay of high-energy radioactive materials.\n", "There are mainly three methods to melt the solder: hot air, infrared light, and steam-phasing. The infrared light technology works with a focused infrared light beam onto a specific integrated circuit and is used for small chips. The hot air and steam methods cannot focus as much as the infrared technique.\n\nSection::::Tools.:Physical tools.:Forensic desoldering.:Chip re-balling.\n\nAfter desoldering the chip a re-balling process cleans the chip and adds new tin balls to the chip. Re-balling can be done in two different ways.\n", "The Nokia 8 has a 5.3-inch display and averages 7.3 mm thick and 4.3 mm thick at the edges. It is available in four colors: Polished Blue, Polished Copper, Tempered Blue, and Steel. The device features a full-length graphite-shielded copper cooling pipe that is designed to pull the heat away from the Snapdragon 835 chip and dissipate it across the full length and breadth of the smartphone. The phone is not water-resistant, but is IP54 splash-resistant.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Hardware.\n", "The phone uses a removable \"BA600\" Sony battery which has 1290 mAh.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "These thermal effects force SoC and other chip designers to apply conservative design margins, creating less performant devices to mitigate the risk of catastrophic failure. Due to increased transistor densities as length scales get smaller, each process generation produces more heat output than the last. Compounding this problem, system-on-chip architectures are usually heterogeneous, creating spatially inhomogeneous heat fluxes, which cannot be effectively mitigated by uniform passive cooling.\n\nSection::::Optimization goals.:Targets.:Throughput.\n\nSoCs are optimized to maximize computational and communications throughput.\n\nSection::::Optimization goals.:Targets.:Latency.\n", "Section::::Radio-frequency heating.\n", "In NetBSD, many of these I²C sensors are also supported and are accessible through the envsys framework, although none are enabled by default outside of Open Firmware architectures like codice_1, and a manual configuration is required before first use on codice_2 or codice_3.\n\nSection::::Integrated circuit sensors.:List.\n\nNon-exhaustive list of products classified by manufacturer.\n\nSection::::Integrated circuit sensors.:List.:Legend.\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturer : IC Manufacturer\n\nBULLET::::- Part Number : IC Part Number\n\nBULLET::::- Output Type : We can find 3 different Output types : Analog, Digital and Switch\n\nBULLET::::- Designation : IC Designation\n", "A few manufacturers have shown Android TV boxes using the M802 (Shenzhen Tomato Technology, Tronsmart, Eny Technology and GeniaTech). It has been noted that some devices using the M802 may run hot and use a heatsink for cooling. This is common among other popular OTT set top boxes such as the Amazon FireTV which uses a metal shell to disperse heat, much like a heatsink would.\n\nSection::::Products.:Media player SoCs (S8 family).\n", "BULLET::::- Variable Emittance Coatings for Thermal Control: The Variable Emittance Coatings, provided by Sensortex, Inc. and the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), are used for thermal control and consist of an electrically tunable coating that can change properties, from absorbing heat when cool to reflecting or emitting heat when in the Sun. The Microelectromechanical System (MEMS) chip is part of this technology.\n", "Most modern microcontrollers have built-in SPI logic that can interface to an SD card operating in its SPI mode, providing non-volatile storage. Even if a microcontroller lacks the SPI feature, the feature can be emulated by bit banging. For example, a home-brew hack combines spare General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) pins of the processor of the Linksys WRT54G router with MMC support code from the Linux kernel. This technique can achieve throughput of up to .\n\nSection::::Markets.:Music distribution.\n\nPrerecorded MicroSDs have been used to commercialize music under the brands slotMusic and slotRadio by SanDisk and MQS by Astell&Kern.\n\nSection::::Technical details.\n", "The UniPro protocol can support a wide range of applications and associated traffic types. Example chip-to-chip interfaces encountered in mobile systems:\n\nBULLET::::- Mass storage file transfer : 6 Gbit/s\n\nBULLET::::- 24M pixel camera @30fps : 9Gbit/s\n\nBULLET::::- Chip-to-chip connectivity: 1Gbit to 24Gbit/s\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04507	How have trains managed to stay relevant through the progression of technology?	Because they work well. Thats the core of it, aociety works heaving on a “if it isn’t broken don’t fix it” mentality. That being said it is still basically the best option for large-scale freight over land, durable, quick, and cheap.	[ "Steam power continued to be the dominant power system in railways around the world for more than a century.\n\nSection::::Electric power introduced.\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 - Diesel-electric railroad locomotion entered the mainstream in the U.S. when the Burlington Railroad and Union Pacific start using diesel-electric \"streamliners\" to haul passengers.\n\nBULLET::::- 1940 - U.S. employment is 1,046,000.\n\nBULLET::::- 1942-45 - The U.S. gives over 117 steam locomotives worth over $2,624,182 ($1945) to the Soviet Union under U.S. Lend Lease.\n\nBULLET::::- 1946 - U.S. railroads begin rapidly replacing their rolling stock with diesel-electric units—not completing the process until the mid 1960s.\n\nBULLET::::- 1948, January 1 - British Railways formed by nationalising the assets of the 'Big Four' railway companies (GWR, LMS, LNER and SR).\n", "The system was largely built by 1910, but then trucks arrived to eat away the freight traffic and automobiles (and later airplanes) to devour the passenger traffic. The use of diesel electric locomotives (after 1940) made for much more efficient operations that needed fewer workers on the road and in repair shops.\n\nSection::::History by country.:North America.:United States.:Mileage.\n\nRoute mileage peaked at 254,000 in 1916 and fell to 140,000 in 2009.\n", "Freight service made up most of the railways' revenue. During the 1960s, passenger traffic overtook freight; most container traffic shifted to road transport, often leading to logistical challenges and delays.\n\nThe railways revived the link to the Port of Colombo in 2011, enabling bulk movement of cargo and generating less pollution. A train can generally carry 20 to 24 twenty-foot equivalent container units, greatly improving the efficiency of freight transport and making cargo easier to track.\n\nSection::::Operators.\n", "Modern rail transport systems first appeared in England in the 1820s. These systems, which made use of the steam locomotive, were the first practical form of mechanized land transport, and they remained the primary form of mechanized land transport for the next 100 years.\n\nThe history of rail transport also includes the history of rapid transit and arguably history of monorail.\n", "The system was largely built by 1910, but then trucks arrived to eat away the freight traffic, and automobiles (and later airplanes) to devour the passenger traffic. After 1940, the use of diesel electric locomotives made for much more efficient operations that needed fewer workers on the road and in repair shops.\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 - British Rail ran its last final steam-driven mainline train, named the Fifteen Guinea Special, after of a programmed withdrawal of steam during 1962-68. It marked the end of 143 years of its public railway use. Thailand's tram line was stop serviced.\n", "The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, but from the early 19th century almost all trains were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1910s onwards, steam locomotives began to be replaced with less labor-intensive (and cleaner) diesel and electric locomotives, although these new forms of propulsion were far more complex and expensive than steam power. At about the same time, self-propelled multiple unit vehicles (both diesel and electric) became much more widely used in passenger service. Dieselization of locomotives in day-to-day use was completed in most countries by the 1970s. Steam locomotives are still used in heritage railways which are operated in many countries for the leisure and enthusiast market.\n", "Section::::Infrastructure.\n\nHeritage railway lines have historic rail infrastructure which has been substituted (or made obsolete) in modern rail systems. Historical installations, such as hand-operated points, water cranes, and rails fastened with hand-hammered rail spikes, are characteristic features of heritage lines. Unlike tourist railways, which primarily carry tourists and have modern installations and vehicles, heritage-line infrastructure creates views and soundscapes of the past in operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "History of rail transport\n\nThe history of rail transport began in 6th century BC in Ancient Greece. It can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of track material and motive power used.\n\nSection::::Ancient systems.\n", "Finally, by improving personal mobility the railways were a significant force for social change. Rail transport had originally been conceived as a way of moving coal and industrial goods but the railway operators quickly realised the potential market for railway travel, leading to an extremely rapid expansion in passenger services. The number of railway passengers trebled in just eight years between 1842 and 1850: traffic volumes roughly doubled in the 1850s and then doubled again in the 1860s.\n\nAs the historian Derek Aldcroft has noted, ‘in terms of mobility and choice they added a new dimension to everyday life’.\n", "Following a decline after World War II due to competition from cars and airplanes, rail transport has had a revival in recent decades due to road congestion and rising fuel prices, as well as governments investing in rail as a means of reducing CO emissions in the context of concerns about global warming.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe history of rail transport began in the 6th century BC in Ancient Greece. It can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of track material and motive power used.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient systems.\n", "Steam power continued to be the dominant power system in railways around the world for more than a century.\n\nSection::::History.:Electric power introduced.\n", "The individual character of the locomotive power on the line began to be reduced, and more powerful locomotive types appeared. From 1958 diesel locomotives began to be used on the line.\n", "As with new application of any technology, some problems arose at the beginning mainly due to compatibility and interoperability aspects. However, there have been relevant improvements since then, and currently the reliability of the radio-based communication systems has grown significantly.\n", "Section::::Restoration.\n\nMany abandoned railway stations and line are now being brought back into operational service, notably in the UK where environmental policy is driving the reversal of some of the Beeching closures of the 1960s. In London the Docklands Light Railway made use of disused railway infrastructure for much of its construction; in Manchester it is proposed to expand the Metrolink light rail system by re-opening abandoned rail lines; and in Scotland, the Scottish Government has brought the Waverley Line partially back into passenger service.\n\nSection::::Cultural significance.\n", "In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, leading to electrification of tramways and rapid transit systems. Starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by the 2000s. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and later in some other countries. Many countries are in the process of replacing diesel locomotives with electric locomotives, mainly due to environmental concerns, a notable example being Switzerland, which has completely electrified its network. Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use.\n", "Railcars have also been employed on premier services. In New Zealand, although railcars were primarily used on regional services, the Blue Streak and Silver Fern railcars were used on the North Island Main Trunk between Wellington and Auckland and offered a higher standard of service than previous carriage trains.\n\nIn Australia, the \"Savannahlander\" operates a tourist service from the coastal town of Cairns to Forsayth, and Traveltrain operates the \"Gulflander\" between Normanton and Croydon in the Gulf Country of northern Queensland.\n\nSection::::Propulsion systems.\n\nSection::::Propulsion systems.:Steam.\n", "Section::::Steam power introduced.\n", "Section::::History by country.:Asia.\n\nSection::::History by country.:Asia.:India.\n", "BULLET::::- Charles Minot – General Superintendent of the Erie Railroad, first to use the telegraph to dispatch trains in 1851\n\nBULLET::::- Wilhelm von Pressel – designer of the Baghdad Railway\n\nBULLET::::- George Stephenson – the \"Father of British Steam Railways\", inventor of the Rocket steam locomotive (the first \"modern\" locomotive), and pioneer of the 4 ft 8 ½ inch rail gauge\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Trevithick – Credited with the 1804 invention of the steam locomotive\n\nBULLET::::- George Westinghouse – Inventor of the air brake\n\nBULLET::::- Girard Scott Ferguson Union Pacific Signal Design Manager, Inventor of the micron electronic timer\n\nSection::::Others.\n", "Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities; modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to , but this requires specially built track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.\n\nSection::::Systems.:Other modes.\n", "Railways quickly became essential to the swift movement of goods and labour that was needed for industrialization. In the beginning, canals were in competition with the railways, but the railways quickly gained ground as steam and rail technology improved and railways were built in places where canals were not practical.\n", "After the Second World War, many stations and signalboxes on the Southern Region's large and busy network required renewal or replacement, but funds were limited: several electrification schemes had to be paid for, new trains were required and other modernisation work was taking place. By the 1960s, the need for immediate action became so great that the Region's management had to abandon traditional individual rebuilding projects in favour of a mass-produced solution using factory-made parts.\n", "BULLET::::- 1913 - First diesel powered railcar enters service in Sweden. In Austria-Hungary, the first electrified metric railway was opened between Arad and the neighboring vineyards, facilitating transportation of goods and people and reducing travel time from half a day to just one hour (total distance around 60 km).\n\nBULLET::::- 1915 - First major stretch of electrified railway in Sweden; Kiruna-Riksgränsen (Malmbanan).\n\nBULLET::::- 1917 - GE produced an experimental Diesel-electric locomotive using Lemp's control design—the first in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- 1920 - U.S. employment is 2,076,000.\n\nBULLET::::- 1924 - First diesel-electric locomotive built in Soviet Union (USSR).\n" ]	[ "Due to technology advancing, trains should have become obsolete by now." ]	[ "Trains work well, therefore there has been no real need to replace them." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Due to technology advancing, trains should have become obsolete by now.", "Due to technology advancing, trains should have become obsolete by now." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Trains work well, therefore there has been no real need to replace them.", "Trains work well, therefore there has been no real need to replace them." ]
2018-11202	How does the underground ecosystem of a cemetery compare to that of a normal, untouched field of grass?	Most modern graves place the coffin in a sealed vault, so there would be little impact to the environment, beyond having a bunch of concrete in the ground now. Even with vaults, bodies buried in a cemetery represent a tiny fraction of the ecosystem there and remain biologically active for a very short time. Having a regularly watered lawn likely has a much greater impact than the bodies do.	[ "The vegetation of Gore Hill Cemetery comprises original plantings of ornamental species, self-sown plants derived from these over the years, invasive weeds, and remnants of indigenous vegetation, also with self-sown offspring. As with many historic cemeteries, the original ornamental plantings at Gore Hill Cemetery were evergreen species of trees and shrubs, many with symbolic meanings associated with religious beliefs such as everlasting life, victory over death, undying love, eternal friendship, mourning and remembrance.\n\nSection::::Description.:Condition.\n", "The cemetery has been in use for many years but, given the number of people buried in such a small area, the bodies have begun to overflow and fall into the neighbouring houses as greater excavations take place and basement walls are weakened. The entire area is also permeated with a foul smell, turning fresh produce rotten in far shorter times than natural and tainting the breath of those who live there.\n", "On the other hand, newer cemeteries might be designed to be more efficiently maintained with lower labour through the increased use of equipment, e.g. lawn cemeteries where the maintenance can be performed with a ride-on mower or lawn tractor. European Commission regulations mandate placement of a portable toilet on every cemetery in the EU. However, efficient maintenance of newer graves is often frustrated by the actions of mourners who often place flowers and other objects on graves. These objects often require manual intervention; in some cases objects will be picked up and returned after maintenance, in other cases (e.g. dead flowers) they will be disposed of.\n", "In later years the original planting of the cemetery was supplemented by numerous other tree species planted by the LNC, as well as many plants planted by mourners at burial sites and around mausolea. Between the end of LNC independence in 1959 and the cemetery's purchase by Ramadan Guney in 1985 cemetery maintenance was drastically reduced, and the spread of various plant types caused many of the non-military sections of the cemetery to revert to wilderness in this period.\n\nSection::::History.:Twentieth century.\n", "Forensic archaeologists can help determine potential grave sites that might have been overlooked. Differences in the soil can help forensic archaeologists locate these sites. During the burial of a body, a small mound of soil will form from the filling of the grave. The loose soil and increasing nutrients from the decomposing body encourages different kinds of plant growth than surrounding areas. Typically, grave sites will have looser, darker, more organic soil than areas around it. The search for additional grave sites can be useful during the investigation of genocide and mass graves to search for additional burial locations.\n", "Often, green manure crops are grown for a specific period, and then plowed under before reaching full maturity in order to improve soil fertility and quality. Also the stalks left block the soil from being eroded.\n", "Gray forest soils are the most common. Although the humus horizon is thick (in all places reaches 10–5 cm), it contains only 1.2-2.8% humus, with an insufficient number of mobile forms of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus.\n\nSection::::Climate.\n", "In the Vortex Garden, garden soil and plant maintenance is based on principles of the permaculture approach. On the recommendations of Hermann Benjes, a relatively large number of dead wood stacks and woodpiles provide choice breeding grounds for microorganisms in this town garden.\n\nSection::::Garden Layout with egg-shaped Elements.\n", "A burial vault or liner is not the only solution to settling earth over the grave. Traditional burials with a casket leave a larger void and thus create more settlement when the casket decomposes or collapses. Natural or \"green\" burials do not use a casket, which means only minimal settling. In either case, the cemetery can remedy sunken graves by filling in the settled area.\n", "Traditionally, land preparation was done by hand. Nowadays, tractor plowing also is used. As maca grows on sites where no other crops can be cultivated, it is often found after long fallows of sheep grazing pastures. Maca croplands thus traditionally are only fertilized with sheep and alpaca manure; however, fertilizer application could prevent soils from depleting in nutrients.\n", "The Meadowvale Cemetery originally opened in 1981 in Brampton, Ontario, with the green burial section of the cemetery opening in 2012. The cemetery allows for both burial and cremation as long as embalming is done without formaldehyde or other harsh chemicals. They also ensure that remains are placed into a non-toxic, biodegradable container. Graves are not allowed to be marked with traditional headstones, but they offer a granite stone at the site's entrance for name engraving.\n\nSection::::Locations.:Canada.:Duffin Meadows Cemetery.\n", "Section::::Growth and development.:Fungi.\n\n\"Leymus arenarius\" benefits from the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The presence of the fungi increases the ability of \"L. arenarius\" to have an extensive root system and to bind soil particles. When adding fungi in its natural habitat, more seeds survived and grew than without the fungi present.\n\nSection::::Growth and development.:Adaptability.\n", "But of all the plants of these curious tree-gardens the most striking and characteristic is the so-called Long Moss (\"Tillandsia usneoides\"). It drapes all the branches from top to bottom, hanging in long silvery-gray skeins, reaching a length of not less than eight or ten feet, and when slowly waving in the wind they produce a solemn funereal effect singularly impressive.\n", "The material dug up when the grave is excavated. It is often piled up close to the grave for backfilling and then returned to the grave to cover it. As soil decompresses when excavated and space is occupied by the burial not all the volume of soil fits back in the hole, so often evidence is found of remaining soil. In cemeteries this may end up as a thick layer of soil overlying the original ground surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Burial or interment\n", "There are no traditional cemetery trees here. The largest tree is a conifer and this is outside the fencing and there are three more conifers inside the fence. There are two Jacarandas, three natives trees and three other small trees.\n", "Typically, lawn cemeteries comprise a number of graves in a lawn setting with trees and gardens on the perimeter. Adolph Strauch introduced this style in 1855 in Cincinnati.\n", "Seemingly treeless fields may contain seeds and living tree stumps and roots which have the ability to sprout new stems and regenerate trees. Even this 'bare' millet field in West Africa contains hundreds of living stumps per hectare which are buried beneath the surface like an underground forest.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Some groundcovers can perform additional roles in the garden such as nitrogen fixation in the case of clovers, dynamic accumulation of nutrients from the subsoil in the case of creeping comfrey (\"Symphytum ibericum\"), and even food production in the case of \"Rubus tricolor\".\n\nSection::::On-site production.\n", "Section::::Types.:Natural.\n\nA \"natural cemetery,\" \"eco-cemetery,\" \"green cemetery\" or \"conservation cemetery\", is a new style of cemetery as an area set aside for natural burials (with or without coffins). Natural burials are motivated by a desire to be environmentally conscious with the body rapidly decomposing and becoming part of the natural environment without incurring the environmental cost of traditional burials. Certifications may be granted for various levels of green burial. Green burial certifications are issued in a tiered system reflecting level of natural burial practice. Green burial certification standards designate a cemetery as Hybrid, Natural, or Conservation Burial Grounds. \n", "BULLET::::5. Soil surface/Groundcover: There is some overlap with the Herbaceous layer and the Groundcover layer; however plants in this layer grow much closer to the ground, grow densely to fill bare patches of soil, and often can tolerate some foot traffic. Cover crops retain soil and lessen erosion, along with green manures that add nutrients and organic matter to the soil, especially nitrogen.\n", "Grave plots can be for a single person or a family group. Some of the older graves have cast-iron picket fencing such as the Clark family's which also has a gate. The majority of graves have a concrete kerbing.\n\nWhile pine trees are along the road beside the Lawn Cemetery few exist in the older parts of the cemetery. Graves often seem crowded in this older section and the paths and graves do not have the rigid grid layout as in the post-1930s sections.\n", "McPherson Cemetery has regulations on the amount of items that can be placed around gravestones, and where these items can be placed. No more than three items are allowed to be donated to a gravestone, unless they are not placed on the grass. Cemetery staff encourage people to keep items away from the lawn as much as possible to prevent damage to lawnmowing equipment and to the donated items.\n\nSection::::Incidents.\n\nSection::::Incidents.:Vandalism.\n", "There are a number of different styles of cemetery in use. Many cemeteries have areas based on different styles, reflecting the diversity of cultural practices around death and how it changes over time.\n\nSection::::Types.:Urban.\n", "Duffin Meadows Cemetery is located in Pickering, Ontario, and is attached to the original traditional cemetery. The cemetery offers natural burials for individuals who have been embalmed to eco-friendly standards, then interred using biodegradable shrouds and caskets. Grave sites will be left to grow over naturally, meaning grass will not be mowed and the placement of artificial flowers and other markers will not be allowed.\n\nSection::::Locations.:Australia.\n", "The fields are \"sheathed-in at the sides with the grey metal of which the Redoubt was built\", the grey metal may also lie beneath the soil of each field, acting as a subfloor through which \"the monsters could not dig into that mighty garden from without\". Each field is upheld by pillars and lit by the Earth-Current. The Earth-Current also runs through the soil of the fields supplying the plants and trees with the nutrition necessary to support life far beneath the Pyramid.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "There may be a difference in the ecosystem of cemetery ground compared to the ground of an untouched field." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Due to burial practices the ecosystem of cemetery ground would not be impacted much." ]
2018-04841	How is it possible that satellites and space stations don't get hit by astroids or other flying objects all the time?	First off: collisions do occur and have become more and more of a problem as time has gone by. Why isn't it happening all the time? The amount of space they are flying through is HUGE. Imagine a huge freeway that goes in one giant 100 mile loop and then imagine putting 30,000 individual grains of sand on it, the vast majority of them going the same direction, and the vast majority of them [edit:] at roughly the same velocity. The chances of these grains of sand hitting each other are vanishingly small. Well in a very rough (guesswork) way I just described kind of what the orbital neighborhood is like around earth. It's a huge highway and there are about 30,000 grains on sand running on it. They will rarely every connect. [thank you to LoneStarG84 for pointing out the typo]	[ "Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds, causing mechanical or electrical damage. The average speed of space debris is 10 km/s while the average speed of meteoroids is much greater. For example, the meteoroids associated with the Perseid meteor shower travel at an average speed of 58 km/s. Mechanical damage from debris impacts have been studied through space missions including LDEF, which had over 20,000 documented impacts through its 5.7 year mission. Electrical anomalies associated with impact events include ESA's Olympus spacecraft, which lost attitude control during the 1993 Perseid meteor shower. A similar event occurred with the Landsat 5 spacecraft during the 2009 Perseid meteor shower.\n", "Sub-150m impacting asteroids would not cause global damage but are still locally catastrophic. They can, by contrast to larger ones, only be detected when they come very close to the Earth, which in most cases only happens during their final approach. Those impacts therefore will always need a constant watch and typically cannot be identified earlier than a few weeks in advance, far too late for interception. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would presently require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched. Meeting the asteroid and deflecting it by least the diameter of the Earth after its interception would then needs several additional years.\n", "Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. The European Space Agency telecom satellite Olympus-1 was struck by a meteoroid on 11 August 1993 and eventually moved to a graveyard orbit. On 29 March 2006, the Russian Express-AM11 communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable; its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a graveyard orbit.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nSection::::Sources.:Dead spacecraft.\n", "Smaller near-Earth objects are far more numerous (millions) and therefore impact Earth much more often, and the vast majority remain undiscovered. They seldom pass close enough to Earth on a previous approach that they become bright enough to observe, and so most can only be observed on final approach. They therefore cannot usually be cataloged well in advance and can only be warned about, a few weeks to days in advance. This is much too late to deflect them away from Earth, but is enough time to mitigate the consequences of the impact by evacuating and otherwise preparing the affected area.\n", ", the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 17,852 artificial objects in orbit above the Earth, including 1,419 operational satellites. However, these are just objects large enough to be tracked. , more than 128 million bits of debris smaller than , about 900,000 pieces of debris 1–10 cm, and around 34,000 of pieces larger than 10 cm were estimated to be in orbit around the Earth. Collisions with debris have become a hazard to spacecraft; they cause damage akin to sandblasting, especially to solar panels and optics like telescopes or star trackers that cannot be covered with a ballistic Whipple shield (unless it is transparent).\n", "Many communications satellites are in geostationary orbits (GEO), clustering over specific targets and sharing the same orbital path. Although velocities are low between GEO objects, when a satellite becomes derelict (such as Telstar 401) it assumes a geosynchronous orbit; its orbital inclination increases about .8° and its speed increases about per year. Impact velocity peaks at about . Orbital perturbations cause longitude drift of the inoperable spacecraft and precession of the orbital plane. Close approaches (within 50 meters) are estimated at one per year. The collision debris pose less short-term risk than from an LEO collision, but the satellite would likely become inoperable. Large objects, such as solar-power satellites, are especially vulnerable to collisions.\n", "Section::::Retired Satellites.:Space debris.\n\nSpace debris at geostationary orbits typically has a lower collision speed than at LEO since orbits are mostly synchronous, however the presence of satellites in eccentric orbits allows for collision at up to 4km/s. Although a collision is comparatively unlikely, GEO satellites have a limited ability to avoid any debris.\n\nDebris less than 10cm in diameter can't be seen from the Earth making it difficult to assess their prevalence.\n", "Current mechanisms for detecting asteroids on final approach rely on ground based telescopes with wide fields of view. Those currently can monitor the sky at most every second night, and therefore miss most of the smaller asteroids which are bright enough to detect for less than two days. Such very small asteroids much more commonly impact Earth than larger ones, but they make little damage. Missing them therefore has limited consequences. Much more importantly, ground-based telescopes are blind to most of the asteroids which impact the day side of the planet and would miss even large ones. These and other problems mean very few impacts are successfully predicted (see §Effectiveness of the current system and §Improving impact prediction).\n", "Larger asteroids can be detected even while far from the Earth, and their orbits can therefore be determined very precisely years in advance of any close approach. Thanks largely to Spaceguard cataloging initiated by a 2005 mandate of the United States Congress to NASA, the inventory of the Near Earth Objects with diameters above 1 kilometer is for instance now 97% complete, while the estimated completeness for 140 meter objects is around one third, and improving. Any impact by one of these known asteroids would be predicted decades to centuries in advance, long enough to consider deflecting them away from Earth. None of them will impact Earth for at least the next century. We are therefore largely safe from kilometer-size impacts for the mid-term future, but sub-km impacts remain a possibility at this point in time.\n", "The vulnerability of satellites to debris and the possibility of attacking LEO satellites to create debris clouds, has triggered speculation that it is possible for countries unable to make a precision attack. An attack on a satellite of 10 tonnes or more would heavily damage the LEO environment.\n\nSection::::Threats.\n\nSection::::Threats.:To spacecraft.\n\nSpace junk is a threat to active satellites and spaceships. The Earth's orbit may even become impassable as the risk of collision grows too high.\n\nSection::::Threats.:To spacecraft.:Unmanned spacecraft.\n", "In 2012 NASA estimated 20 to 30 percent of these objects have been found. During an asteroid's close approaches to planets or moons other than the Earth, it will be subject to gravitational perturbation, modifying its orbit, and potentially changing a previously non-threatening asteroid into a PHA or vice versa. This is a reflection of the dynamic character of the Solar System.\n", "BULLET::::- The objects making up the Rings of Saturn are believed to continually collide and aggregate with each other, leading to debris with limited size constrained to a thin plane. Although this is believed to be an ongoing process, this has not been directly observed.\n\nSection::::Artificial-satellite collisions.\n\nThree types of collisions have occurred involving artificial satellites orbiting the Earth:\n\nBULLET::::- Intentional collisions intended to destroy the satellites, either to test anti-satellite weapons or destroy satellites which may pose a hazard should they reenter the atmosphere intact:\n", "If a more severe impact is predicted, the response may require evacuation of the area, or with sufficient lead time available, an avoidance mission to repel the asteroid. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness of the current system.\n", "The existing asteroid surveys have a fairly clear-cut division between 'cataloging surveys' which use larger telescopes to mostly identify larger asteroids well before they come very close to Earth, and 'warning surveys' which use smaller telescopes to mostly look for smaller asteroids on their final approach. Cataloging systems focus on finding larger asteroids years in advance and they scan the sky slowly (of the order of once per month), but deeply. Warning systems focus on scanning the sky relatively quickly (of the order of once per night). They typically cannot detect objects that are as faint as cataloging systems but will not miss an asteroid that brightens for just a few days when it passes very close to Earth. Some systems compromise and scan the sky say once per week.\n", "Orbits are further changed by perturbations (which in LEO include unevenness of the Earth's gravitational field), and collisions can occur from any direction. For these reasons, the Kessler syndrome applies mostly to the LEO region; impacts occur at up to 16 km/s (twice the orbital speed) if head-on – the 2009 satellite collision occurred at 11.7 km/s, creating much spall in the critical size range. These can cross other orbits and lead to a cascade effect. A large-enough collision (e.g. between a space station and a defunct satellite) could make low Earth orbit impassable.\n", "Space Situational Awareness is the most important protective measure that can be applied to satellites, which are inherently vulnerable due to the physics of spaceflight. As of 2013, AFSPC was also considering the replacement of a few large multimission satellites with larger numbers of smaller single purpose platforms. This could be used to defend against ASATs by increasing the number of targets that would need to be attacked to neutralize space-based capabilities.\n\nSection::::Launch Service Agreements.\n", "Comets are thought to orbit the Sun at great distances, but then be perturbed by passing stars and the galactic tides. As they come into or leave the inner Solar System they may have their orbit changed by the planets, or alternatively be ejected from the Solar System. It is also possible they may collide with the Sun or a planet.\n\nSection::::Comets with greatest aphelion (2 body heliocentric).\n", "A few near misses have been predicted, years in advance, with a tiny chance of actually striking Earth. A handful of actual impactors have been detected hours in advance. All were small, struck wilderness or ocean, and hurt nobody. Current systems only detect an arriving object when several factors are just right, mainly the direction of approach relative to the Sun, weather, and phase of the Moon. The result is a low rate of success. Performance is improving as existing systems are upgraded and new ones come on line, but the blind spot issue which the current systems face around the Sun can only be overcome by a dedicated space based system.\n", "Anti-satellite attacks, especially ones involving kinetic kill vehicles, can contribute to the formation of space debris which can remain in orbit for many years and could interfere with future space activity or in a worst case trigger a Kessler Syndrome. In January 2007 China demonstrated a satellite knock out whose detonation alone caused more than 40,000 new chunks of debris with a diameter larger than one centimeter and a sudden increase in the total amount of debris in orbit. The PRC is reported to be developing \"soft-kill\" techniques such as jamming and vision kills that do not generate much debris.\n", ", there are 893 NEAs on the Sentry impact risk page at the NASA website. A significant number of these NEAs are equal to or smaller than 50 meters in diameter and none of the listed objects are placed even in the \"green zone\" (Torino Scale 1), meaning that none warrant the attention of general public.\n\nSection::::Number and classification.:Observational biases.\n", "As a by-product of its main design goal, ATLAS can identify any moderately bright variable or moving object in the night sky. It therefore also looks for variable stars, supernovae, non-impacting asteroids, comets, and dwarf planets.\n\nSection::::Design and operation.\n", "About seven percent of the space objects are operational satellites, the rest are debris. \n\nThe USSTRATCOM is primarily interested in the active satellites, but also tracks space debris. The SSN tracks space objects which are 10 centimeters in diameter (baseball size) or larger.\n", "In addition to these solar observing facilities, many non-solar astronomical satellites observe flares either intentionally (e.g., NuSTAR), or simply because the penetrating hard radiations coming from a flare can readily penetrate most forms of shielding.\n\nSection::::Observations.:Examples of large solar flares.\n", "List of space debris producing events\n\nMajor contributors to space debris include the explosion of upper stages and satellite collisions. \n\nThere were 190 known satellite breakups between 1961 and 2006. \n\nBy 2015, the total had grown to 250 on-orbit fragmentation events.\n\nThe greatest risk to space missions is from untracked debris between 1 and 10 cm in size. Large pieces can be tracked and avoided, and impact from smaller pieces are usually survivable.\n\nSection::::Recent events.\n", "New survey projects, such as the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) program operated by the University of Hawaii, aim to greatly increase the number of small (down to approximately 10 m) impactors that are discovered before atmospheric entry—typically with days to weeks of warning, enabling evacuations of the affected areas and damage mitigation planning. This is in contrast to other surveys which focus on finding much larger (greater than 100 m) objects years to decades before any potential impacts, at times when they could potentially still be deflected away from Earth.\n" ]	[ "Satellits don't get hit by asteroids or flying objects" ]	[ "They do actually get hit by objects." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Satellits don't get hit by asteroids or flying objects" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They do actually get hit by objects." ]
2018-01025	Why do some animals like to keep particularly clean, whilst others are happy being dirty?	Do you mean by 'dirty' that they cover themselves in mud? So many animals keep clean because their skin or fur, feathers or scales lose important properties when covered in dirt. Feathers for example lose it's perfect properties that allow birds to fly if they are soaking wet (thus diving birds usually cover their feathers in an oily substance to prevent this) or covered in a sticky substance. Fur also needs to be clean as well, since once you get dirty and smelly, potential predators can detect you more easily, and potential prey detects you as well. Smell actually is important for communication in many animals, so they don't want this to be disturbed by other smells. Mud on the other hand has interesting properties. It can keep you cool on hot days, acting like a sunscreen, and/or makes it harder for insects to bite trough. So many animals that cover themselves in mud do this for these reasons. Some do it to disguise themselves (or rather the smell) as well.	[ "Section::::Purpose of Comfort Behaviours.\n\nThere are many adaptive and functional purposes for comfort behaviours among a diverse group of animals. One function of comfort behaviours is hygiene, particularly in the form of ectoparasite removal. The animal removes the ectoparasites through the scratching or brushing of their own bodies, or the grooming of others. Through licking and brushing, animals such as the red squirrel clean wounds and remove dirt and debris from their bodies, also aiding in hygiene. Other physical purposes for comfort behaviours includes reduction in heart rates as seen in horses, and thermoregulation.\n", "Domestic dogs often roll in odoriferous substances, choosing items such as cow manure, a road kill, or rotten fish.\n\nSection::::Canines.:Wolves.\n\nCaptive wolves will scent roll in a wide range of substances including animal feces, carrion (elk, mouse, pig, badger), mint extract, perfume, animal repellant, fly repellent, etc.\n\nSection::::Bears.\n", "Wallowing in animals\n\nWallowing in animals is a comfort behaviour during which an animal rolls its body about in mud, water or snow. Some definitions include rolling about in dust, however, in ethology this is usually referred to as dust bathing. Wallowing is often combined with other behaviours to fulfil its purpose, for example, elephants will often blow dirt over themselves after wallowing to create a thicker \"coating\", or pigs will allow the mud to dry before rubbing themselves on a tree or rock to remove ectoparasites stuck in the mud.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n", "BULLET::::- Relief from biting insects - tamaraw (\"Bubalus mindorensis\"), American bison, tapirs (\"Tapirus bairdii\"), warthog, elephants\n\nBULLET::::- Play in young animals - American bison\n\nBULLET::::- Skin maintenance (preventing dehydration) - hippopotamus (\"Hippopotamus amphibius\")\n\nBULLET::::- Camouflage - warthog\n\nBULLET::::- Scent-marking - Some animals urinate in a wallow before entering and rolling in it, presumably as a form of scent-marking behaviour\n\nSection::::Domestic pigs.\n", "Social immune systems have been observed across a wide range of taxonomic groups. Allogrooming is found in many animals—for example primates frequently groom others, a behaviour which likely evolved for its hygienic function but has now been co-opted for its additional role in social bonding. Allogrooming in the common vampire bat (\"Desmodus rotundus\") is associated with the regurgitation of food and may allow other bats to identify which individuals are capable of supplying them with food; the allogrooming behaviours of horses and birds have also been studied. A range of sometimes elaborate cleaning symbioses also exist between many different species, especially in marine fish with their cleaning stations. Corsican blue tits (\"Parus caeruleus\") prophylactically line their nest with aromatic plants (such as \"Achillea ligustica, Helichrysum italicum\" and \"Lavandula stoechas\") to ward off mosquitoes and other blood-sucking ornithophillous (bird-targeting) insects.\n", "Aspen is the most widely used substrate for this species. Pine and cedar are considered toxic; however, other alternatives to aspen exist (such as sand or various kinds of dirt). As with any pet, it is highly advisable that any substrate or ornamental additions (wood, plants, etc.) placed into the animal's enclosure be checked for potential toxicity, bacteria, and infestations. It is highly recommended housing be cleaned monthly to ensure proper sanitation. Substrate should also be completely replaced during this time.\n", "Comfort behaviours are performed from an early age and change little during development. Several comfort behaviours are associated with the beginning of a rest period (e.g. grooming), whereas others are associated with the end of a rest period (e.g. stretching), possibly to prepare the body for escape or hunting. Others, (e.g. dust bathing) will be performed only when the appropriate internal and external stimuli are present (see also sham dustbathing). Animals generally perform comfort behaviours only when they are not engaged in essential activities (e.g. feeding, drinking, hunting, escape); these behaviours are therefore sometimes categorised as \"luxury activities\". However, animals can be highly motivated to perform some comfort behaviours (e.g. dust bathing in hens), and conditions that thwart these behaviours (e.g. battery cages) are considered to have a negative influence on animal welfare.\n", "By 1987 G. S. Losey wrote less optimistically \"Cleaners are nothing but very clever behavioral parasites ... that have taken advantage of the rewarding aspects of tactile stimulation, found in nearly all vertebrates.\" Poulin and Grutter remark that \"Over the last few decades, ... the opinion of scientists regarding cleaning symbioses has changed, from selfless cooperation, to a mutually beneficial interaction, and finally to a one-sided exploitation.\"\n\nSection::::Biological range.\n", "Section::::Types of Comfort Behaviours.:Dust Bathing.\n", "In 1889, William Bateson observed in detail the way that decorator crabs fix materials on their backs. He noted that \"[t]he whole proceeding is most human and purposeful\", and that if a \"Stenorhynchus\" crab is cleaned, it will \"\"immediately\" begin to clothe itself again with the same care and precision as before\".\n\nIn his \"The Colours of Animals\" (1890), Edward Bagnall Poulton classified protective animal coloration into types such as warning colours and protective mimicry. He included self decoration under the heading \"Adventitious Protection\", quoting Bateson's account of decorator crabs.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Modern assessment.:John Endler and Peter Forbes.\n", "Some animals actively camouflage themselves with local materials. The decorator crabs attach plants, animals, small stones, or shell fragments to their carapaces to provide camouflage that matches the local environment. Some species preferentially select stinging animals such as sea anemones or noxious plants, benefiting from aposematism as well as or instead of crypsis.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Olfactory.\n", "The commensal pathway was traveled by animals that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received little benefit or harm. Those animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the ‘tamer’ individuals: less aggressive, with shorter fight-or-flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans and led to a domestic relationship.\n", "Horses engage in mutual grooming via the formation of 'pair bonds' where parasites and other contaminants on the surface of the body are actively removed. This removal of foreign material is primarily performed in hard-to-reach areas such as the neck via nibbling.\n\nSection::::Mutual grooming.:Cattle.\n", "Shampoos that are especially designed to be used on pets, commonly dogs and cats, are normally intended to do more than just clean the pet's coat or skin. Most of these shampoos contain ingredients which act differently and are meant to treat a skin condition or an allergy or to fight against fleas.\n", "Paper Bedding includes either recycled paper or cardboard boxes. Paper bedding is ideal for animals with allergies since it contains no oils and little dust. Unlike corncob bedding, paper bedding has no adverse effects with consumption. Paper is very absorbent, but when saturated with water or urine, a strong odor results.\n", "Section::::Issues and concerns.\n\nSection::::Issues and concerns.:Habituation.\n\nAlthough environmental enrichment can provide sensory and social stimulations, it can also have limited efficacy if not changed frequently. Animals can become habituated to environmental enrichments, showing positive behaviors at onset of exposure and progressively declining with time. Environmental enrichments are effective primarily because it offers novelty stimuli, making the animal's daily routines less predictable, as would be in the wild. Therefore, maintaining novelty is important for the efficacy of the enrichment. Frequently changing the type of environmental enrichment will help prevent habituation.\n\nSection::::Issues and concerns.:Training.\n", "Section::::In nature.:Animals.:Gecko feet.\n", "In all populations of sea otters, soft-bodied organisms such as worms and sea stars are the least likely to be consumed with the aid of tools. On the other hand, shelled bivalves and snails with shells are the most likely to be cracked open with tools. Otters of the Northern Pacific consume mostly sea urchins and fish, thereby exhibiting less tool use behavior. Otters of the southern Pacific Ocean feed on tougher macro invertebrates such as bivalves.\n", "One aspect of raccoon behavior is so well known that it gives the animal part of its scientific name, \"Procyon lotor\"; \"lotor\" is neo-Latin for \"washer\". In the wild, raccoons often dabble for underwater food near the shore-line. They then often pick up the food item with their front paws to examine it and rub the item, sometimes to remove unwanted parts. This gives the appearance of the raccoon \"washing\" the food. The tactile sensitivity of raccoons' paws is increased if this rubbing action is performed underwater, since the water softens the hard layer covering the paws. However, the behavior observed in captive raccoons in which they carry their food to water to \"wash\" or douse it before eating has not been observed in the wild. Naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, believed that raccoons do not have adequate saliva production to moisten food thereby necessitating dousing, but this hypothesis is now considered to be incorrect. Captive raccoons douse their food more frequently when a watering hole with a layout similar to a stream is not farther away than . The widely accepted theory is that dousing in captive raccoons is a fixed action pattern from the dabbling behavior performed when foraging at shores for aquatic foods. This is supported by the observation that aquatic foods are doused more frequently. Cleaning dirty food does not seem to be a reason for \"washing\". Experts have cast doubt on the veracity of observations of wild raccoons dousing food.\n", "BULLET::::- While many cats prefer to lick themselves clean rather than be washed they can enjoy a bath if the water isn't too cold or too hot. Some cat species have water-resistant coats and thus don't mind swimming, like the Maine Coon and the Turkish Van. Bigger cats like tigers and jaguars also love swimming.\n\nBULLET::::- The cat who loves milk\n", "Section::::Species.:Gray wolf.\n\nGray wolves scent rub to a large variety of odours including urine, perfumes, repellant, ashes, human handled objects, food and resting sites. They scent rub intensively to manufactured smells such as motor oil and carnivore scents such as faeces of other animals including black bear and cougars. The reason behind scent rubbing in wolves in unknown, but it is suggested that they use it to remember odours experienced in their environment, whether new or familiar.\n\nSection::::Species.:Marmot.\n", "Stereotypical behaviour can sometimes be reduced or eliminated by environmental enrichment, including larger and more stimulating enclosures, training, and introductions of stimuli (such as objects, sounds, or scents) to the animal's environment. The enrichment must be varied to remain effective for any length of time. Housing social animals such as primates with other members of their species is also helpful. But once the behaviour is established, it is sometimes impossible to eliminate due to alterations in the brain.\n\nSection::::Animal welfare.\n", "Individual animals regularly clean themselves and put their fur, feathers or other skin coverings in good order. This activity is known as personal grooming, a form of hygiene. Extracting foreign objects such as insects, leaves, dirt, twigs and parasites, are all forms of grooming. Among animals, birds spend considerable time preening their feathers. This is done to remove ectoparasites, keep the feathers in good aerodynamic condition, and waterproof them. To do that, they use the preen oil secreted by the uropygial gland, the dust of down feathers, or other means such as dust-bathing or anting. During oil spills, animal conservationists that rescue penguins sometimes dress them in knitted sweaters to stop them from preening and thereby ingesting the mineral oil which is poisonous. Monkeys may also pick out nits from their fur or scratch their rears to keep themselves clean. Cats are well known for their extensive grooming. One reason advanced for such grooming is to remove all traces of blood and other matter so as to not alert prey with the scent. Cats groom so much that they often produce hairballs from the fur they ingest. Post-copulatory genital grooming is a common behavior in many mammal species.\n", "In 1889, William Bateson observed in detail the way that decorator crabs fix materials on their backs. He noted that \"[t]he whole proceeding is most human and purposeful\", and that if a \"Stenorhynchus\" crab is cleaned, it will \"\"immediately\" begin to clothe itself again with the same care and precision as before\".\n\nIn his book \"The Colours of Animals\" (1890), Edward Bagnall Poulton classified protective animal coloration into types such as warning colours and protective mimicry. He included self decoration under the heading \"Adventitious Protection\", quoting Bateson's account of decorator crabs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01269	Why did techonology seem to jump right from 1080p to 4k? Why didn't we have an extended period where 1440p was the standard?	it's really, REALLY hard to get the entire industry to pick a standard. Computers and video games can flex with, but movie formats, TV broadcasts and other things have a lot of "dumb" hardware in the delivery system that can't. Everyone's gotta buy new video cameras and recorders and whatnot that all support it, so when a movie studio invests in an upgrade to support a new standard they invest A TON, and they don't like regularly doing that. So if you're gonna pick a new standard, go BIG. Don't just jump to a high resolution, jump high as hell and change the rules on what color depth and encoding bitrates you can use. Then you can live with that standard for a while succesfully.	[ "In autumn 2006, Chi Mei Optoelectronics (CMO) announced a 47\" 1440p LCD panel to be released in Q2 2007; the panel was planned to finally debut at FPD International 2008 in a form on autostereoscopic 3D display.\n\nIn relation to smartphones, 1440p displays are sometimes marketed as \"Quad HD\", as it is four times the resolution of 720p high definition. The Vivo Xplay 3S, released December 2013, was the first smartphone to use a 1440p display; by 2015, 1440p had seen wider adoption by high-end flagship smartphones from major companies.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 720p\n\nBULLET::::- 1080p\n\nBULLET::::- WQHD\n\nBULLET::::- 4K\n", "Smartphones with 1080p FullHD display have been available on the market since 2012. As of late-2014, it is the standard for mid-range to high-end smartphones and many of the flagship devices of 2014 used even higher resolutions, either Quad HD (1440p) or Ultra HD (2160p) resolutions.\n\nSection::::Availability.:Internet content.\n", "As of 2016, the world uses 1080p as the mainstream HD standard. However, there is a rapid increase in media content being released in 4K and even 5K resolution. Online streaming services such as Netflix and Amazon Video launched videos in 4K resolution in 2014 and are actively expanding their collection of videos in 4K resolution. As 4K content becomes more common, the usefulness of 5K displays in editing and content creation may lead to a higher demand in the future.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:First camera with 5K video capture.\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 - Fujitsu gets credit for producing the first full-color plasma display panel in 1992. The very first prototype for a plasma display monitor was invented in July 1964 at the University of Illinois by professors Donald Bitzer and Gene Slottow, and then graduate student Robert Willson.\n\nBULLET::::- 1993\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 - MUSE Hi-Vision LaserDisc is launched on 20 May in Japan. The first consumer high definition video disc.\n", "The transition made South Korea the first country in the world to deploy a terrestrial UHD format, and enabled 4K broadcasts of the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang County.\n\nSection::::History.:U.S. deployment.\n", "BULLET::::- 38402400 (1.601 or 1610); this resolution was used in the IBM T220 and T221 monitors, released in 2001 and 2002 respectively. This resolution is also referred to as \"WQUXGA\", and is four times the resolution of WUXGA (19201200)\n", "Although 5K 60Hz over a single cable was only made possible in 2016 with the launch of the GeForce 1000 series and Radeon RX 400 series, monitors which predate DisplayPort1.3 such as the Dell UltraSharp UP2715K offer the ability to run at 5K 60Hz by using two DisplayPort1.2 connections concurrently in a specialized picture-by-picture mode. The Apple Retina 5K iMac released in 2014 used a custom internal interface with 8 lanes of DisplayPort1.2 (a standard DP connection is 4 lanes) to drive its display panel at 60Hz.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Another improvement would be SuperBeta (sometimes called High Band Beta) in 1985. SuperBeta allowed for a gain of 20% to 290 lines in horizontal resolution and some mechanical changes to reduce video noise, but by then Betamax's American and European share had already dropped to less than 10% of the market.\n\nSection::::Competing technologies.:Europe.\n", "On January 8, 2013, Broadcom announced the BCM7445, an Ultra HD decoding chip capable of decoding High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC) at up to 4096 × 2160p at 60 fps. The BCM7445 is a 28 nm ARM architecture chip capable of 21,000 Dhrystone MIPS with volume production estimated for the middle of 2014. On the same day THX announced the \"THX 4K Certification\" program for Ultra HD displays. The certification involves up to 600 tests and the goal of the program is so that \"content viewed on a THX Certified Ultra HD display meets the most exacting video standards achievable in a consumer television today\".\n", "In May 2005, the first high definition video conferencing systems, produced by LifeSize Communications, were displayed at the Interop trade show in Las Vegas, Nevada, able to provide video at 30 frames per second with a 1280 by 720 display resolution. Polycom introduced its first high definition video conferencing system to the market in 2006. As of the 2010s, high definition resolution for videoconferencing became a popular feature, with most major suppliers in the videoconferencing market offering it.\n", "YouTube and the television industry have adopted 38402160 as their 4K standard. , 4K content from major broadcasters remains limited. On April 11, 2013, Bulb TV created by Canadian serial entrepreneur Evan Kosiner became the first broadcaster to provide a 4K linear channel and VOD content to cable and satellite companies in North America. The channel is licensed by the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission to provide educational content. However, 4K content is becoming more widely available online including on YouTube, Netflix, and Amazon. By 2013, some UHDTV models were available to general consumers in the range of US$600. , prices on smaller computer and television panels had dropped below US$400.\n", "The first commercially available 4K camera for cinematographic purposes was the Dalsa Origin, released in 2003. 4K technology was developed by several research groups in universities around the world, such as University of California, San Diego, CALIT2, Keio University, Naval Postgraduate School and others that realized several demonstrations in venues such as IGrid in 2004 and CineGrid. YouTube began supporting 4K for video uploads in 2010 as a result of leading manufacturers producing 4K cameras. Users could view 4K video by selecting \"Original\" from the quality settings until December 2013, when the 2160p option appeared in the quality menu. In November 2013, YouTube began to use the VP9 video compression standard, saying that it was more suitable for 4K than High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC). Google, which owns YouTube, developed VP9.\n", "On September 5, 2014, Dell unveiled the first monitor with a 5K resolution, the UltraSharp UP2715K. This monitor featured a 27-inch 51202880 display, giving it a pixel density of around 218 ppi. The monitor only supported DisplayPort version 1.2, which is limited to 51202880 at 30 Hz. To work around this, the UP2715K implemented a system by which the bandwidth of two DisplayPort connections could be combined to achieve 60 Hz, using a picture-by-picture mode to virtually treat the display as two smaller 25602880 monitors side-by-side and driving each half with a separate DisplayPort connection.\n\nSection::::Display interface and graphics card support.\n", "The ongoing Technological evolution of broadcast video production equipment can be observed annually at the NAB Show in Las Vegas where equipment manufacturers gather to display their wares to people within the video production industry. The trend is toward lighter-weight equipment that can deliver more resolution at higher speeds. There has been an evolution from Film to Standard-definition television, High-definition television and now 4K.\n", "BULLET::::- In the mid-late portion of the decade, 4K resolution has been implemented through high-definition displays and gained traction into more U.S. homes in a much faster adoption rate than that of Full HD (1080p).\n\nBULLET::::- The number of IoT devices increased 31% year-over-year to 8.4 billion in the year 2017 and it is estimated that there will be 30 billion devices by 2020.\n\nBULLET::::- Smart glasses, such as Google Glass, were released during this decade.\n\nBULLET::::- Within the decade, Microsoft released three operating systems: Windows 8 (2012), Windows 8.1 (2013), and Windows 10 (2015).\n", "In 2014, Netflix began streaming \"House of Cards\", \"Breaking Bad\", and \"some nature documentaries\" at 4K to compatible televisions with an HEVC decoder. Most 4K televisions sold in 2013 did not natively support HEVC, with most major manufacturers announcing support in 2014. Amazon Studios began shooting their full-length original series and new pilots with 4K resolution in 2014. They are now currently available though Amazon Video.\n\nIn March 2016 the first players and discs for Ultra HD Blu-ray—a physical optical disc format supporting 4K resolution and HDR at 60 frames per second—were released.\n", "BULLET::::- Graphics processing units (GPUs) and video cards became powerful enough to render ultra-high-resolution (e.g. 2560 × 1600) scenes in real time with substantial detail and texture.\n\nBULLET::::- Flat panel displays began displacing cathode ray tubes. This was a dramatic change during the decade, as very few flat panels were sold through the mid-2000s (decade) and the majority of stores sell only flat panel TVs by the end of the decade.\n\nBULLET::::- Handheld projectors entered the market and were then integrated into cellphones.\n\nBULLET::::- The digital switchover started to be enforced for television.\n", "In October 2006, Chi Mei Optoelectronics (CMO) announced a 47-inch 1440p LCD panel to be released in Q2 2007; the panel was planned to finally debut at FPD International 2008 in a form of autostereoscopic 3D display. As of the end of 2013, monitors with this resolution are becoming more common.\n", "On November 28, 2013, Organizing Committee of the XXII Olympic Winter Games and XI Paralympic Winter Games 2014 in Sochi chief Dmitri Chernyshenko stated that the 2014 Olympic Winter Games would be shot in 8K Super Hi-Vision.\n\nOn December 25, 2013, YouTube added a \"2160p 4K\" option to its videoplayer. Previously, a visitor had to select the \"original\" setting in the video quality menu to watch a video in 4K resolution. With the new setting, YouTube users can much more easily identify and play 4K videos.\n", "In comparison to 4K UHD (38402160), the 16:9 5K resolution of 51202880 offers 1280 extra columns and 720 extra lines of display area, an increase of 33.% in each dimension. This additional display area can allow 4K content to be displayed at native resolution without filling the entire screen, which means that additional software such as video editing suite toolbars will be available without having to downscale the content previews.\n", "The CCITT moved quickly to improve on V.32bis, and by 1993 it was clear that the ratification process for their new 28,800 bit/s V.34 standard was going to be finalized in 1994. Companies lined up to start production of new V.34 designs, some going so far to introduce models based on interim standards, such as V.FC.\n", "On 2 September 2015, Sony unveiled the Xperia Z5 Premium; the first smartphone with a 4K display.\n\nOn 9 September 2015, Apple Inc. announced that their new smartphone the iPhone 6s could record video in 4K.\n\nOn 6 October 2015, Microsoft unveiled the latest version of their Microsoft Surface Book laptop with a display of \"over 6 million pixels\" and their new phones the Microsoft Lumia 950 and 950 XL, which, aside from 4K video recording that their predecessors included, feature a display of \"over 5 million pixels\".\n", "Samsung first demonstrated its 105-inch UN105S9W curved OLED TV at CES 2014. While Samsung lists the UN105S9W as a 4K UHD TV, it actually has native resolution of 51202160 (a 64:27 or ≈21:9 aspect ratio) which classifies it as a 5K display due to the horizontal pixel count of ≈5,000.\n\nSection::::History.:First monitor with 5K resolution.\n", "Televisions capable of displaying UHD resolutions are seen by consumer electronics companies as the next trigger for an upgrade cycle after a lack of consumer interest in 3D television.\n\nSection::::Resolutions.:40962160.\n", "Section::::Adoption.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21501	How and why do wisdom teeth just suddenly develop in late teens	Dental hygienist here. All teeth develop as the jaws get bigger. Children have 20 baby/deciduous teeth and small jaws. Wisdom teeth are developing in the jaws years before they erupt. Adults have 32 teeth when they about 18 years old, if their jaws are large enough to accommodate them. Otherwise, they will remain unerupted or trapped in the jaw (impacted).	[ "Generally wisdom teeth are stated as erupting most commonly between age 17 and 21. Eruption may start as early as age 13 in some groups. Sometimes they can erupt up to age 25. If they have not erupted by age 25, oral surgeons generally consider that the tooth will not erupt spontaneously by itself.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Crowding of the front teeth is not believed to be caused by the eruption of wisdom teeth although this is a reason many dental clinicians use to justify wisdom teeth extraction.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of impaction can be made clinically if enough of the wisdom tooth is visible to determine its angulation, depth, and if the patient is old enough that further eruption or uprighting is unlikely. Wisdom teeth continue to move to the age of 25 years old due to eruption, and then continue some later movement owing to periodontal disease.\n", "All teeth are classified as either developing, erupted (into the mouth), embedded (failure to erupt despite lack of blockage from another tooth) or impacted. Impacted teeth are ones that fails to erupt due to blockage from other teeth. Wisdom teeth, as the last teeth to erupt in the mouth are the most likely to become impacted. They develop between the ages of 14 and 25, with 50% of root formation completed by age 16, and 95% of all teeth erupted by the age of 25, however, some tooth movement can continue beyond the age of 25.\n", "The first of the permanent teeth to erupt are the permanent first molars, right behind the last 'milk' molars of the primary dentition. These first permanent molars are important for the correct development of a permanent dentition. Up to the age of thirteen years, twenty-eight of the thirty-two permanent teeth will appear.\n\nThe full permanent dentition is completed much later during the permanent dentition period. The four last permanent teeth, the third molars, usually appear between the ages of 17 and 38 years; they are considered wisdom teeth.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "It is important to note the difference of ages that play a role in eruption of the posterior molars. An adolescence has an inter-maxillary growth space which allows the posterior molar eruption without any relapse in the later age when relative intrusion is performed in their orthodontic treatment. However, if relative intrusion is performed in adults who have a deep bite tendency with short anterior lower facial height, there is a higher chance of relapse of this movement. This is due to two reasons: Adults do not have intermaxillary growth space that posterior teeth can erupt into and adults tend to have a strong facial jaw musculature which leads to \"pound\" the molars back into their original position. Therefore, in an orthodontic treatment it is important to diagnose a patient with a type of facial growth that is occurring before taking any treatment steps.\n", "Although formally known as third molars, the common name is wisdom teeth because they appear so late – much later than the other teeth, at an age where people are presumably \"wiser\" than as a child, when the other teeth erupt. The term probably came as a translation of the Latin \"dens sapientiae\". Their eruption has been known to cause dental issues for millennia; it was noted at least as far back as Aristotle:\n", "In humans, the molar teeth have either four or five cusps. Adult humans have 12 molars, in four groups of three at the back of the mouth. The third, rearmost molar in each group is called a wisdom tooth. It is the last tooth to appear, breaking through the front of the gum at about the age of 20, although this varies from individual to individual. Race can also affect the age at which this occurs, with statistical variations between groups. In some cases, it may not even erupt at all.\n", "Few studies have looked at the percentage of the time wisdom teeth are present or the rate of wisdom teeth eruption. The lack of up to five teeth (excluding third molars, i.e. wisdom teeth) is termed hypodontia. Missing third molars occur in 9-30% of studied populations. One large scale study on a group of young adults in New Zealand showed 95.6% had at least 1 wisdom tooth with an eruption rate of 15% in the maxilla and 20% in the mandible. Another study on 5000 army recruits found 10,767 impacted wisdom teeth. The frequency of impacted lower third molars was found to be 72% in a Swedish study, and the frequency of retained impacted wisdom teeth that are free of disease and symptoms is estimated to be between 11.6% to 29%, a percentage which drops with age.\n", "Since there are no premolars in the primary dentition, the primary molars are replaced by permanent premolars. If any primary teeth are shed or lost before permanent teeth are ready to replace them, some posterior teeth may drift forward and cause space to be lost in the mouth. This may cause crowding and/or misplacement once the permanent teeth erupt, which is usually referred to as malocclusion. Orthodontics may be required in such circumstances for an individual to achieve a functioning and aesthetic dentition.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:Permanent dentition stage.\n", "Wisdom teeth become impacted when there is not enough room in the jaws to allow for all of the teeth to erupt into the mouth. Because the wisdom teeth are the last to erupt, due to insufficient room in the jaws to accommodate more teeth, the wisdom teeth become stuck in the jaws, i.e., impacted. There is a genetic predisposition to tooth impaction. Genetics plays an important, albeit unpredictable role in dictating jaw and tooth size and tooth eruption potential of the teeth. Some also believe that there is an evolutionary decrease in jaw size due to softer modern diets that are more refined and less coarse than our ancestors'.\n", "Once communicating with the mouth, the onset of disease or symptoms cannot be predicted but the chance of it does increase with age. Less than 2% of wisdom teeth are free of either periodontal disease or caries by age 65. Further, several studies have found that between 30% – 60% of people with previously asymptomatic impacted wisdom teeth will have them extracted due to symptoms or disease, 4–12 years after initial examination.\n", "Mixed dentition starts when the first permanent molar appears in the mouth, usually at six years, and lasts until the last primary tooth is lost, usually at eleven or twelve years. Permanent teeth in the maxilla erupt in a different order from permanent teeth on the mandible. Maxillary teeth erupt in the following order: (1) first molar (2) central incisor, (3) lateral incisor, (4) first premolar, (5) second premolar, (6) canine, (7) second molar, and (8) third molar. Mandibular teeth erupt in the following order: (1) first molar (2) central incisor, (3) lateral incisor, (4) canine, (5) first premolar, (6) second premolar, (7) second molar, and (8) third molar. Since there are no premolars in the primary dentition, the primary molars are replaced by permanent premolars. If any primary teeth are lost before permanent teeth are ready to replace them, some posterior teeth may drift forward and cause space to be lost in the mouth. This may cause crowding and/or misplacement once the permanent teeth erupt, which is usually referred to as malocclusion. Orthodontics may be required in such circumstances for an individual to achieve a straight set of teeth.\n", "Mammelons are usually found as three small bumps on the incisal edges of anterior teeth. They are the remnants of three lobes of formation of these teeth, the fourth lobe represented by the cingulum. Since this surface of the tooth is the first to wear away from attrition, mammelons may not be visible on teeth of older people. Instead, the best chance to see this characteristic is soon after eruption of the tooth into the mouth. Note, the presence of mammelons in adults is an indication of malocclusion.\n\nSection::::Distinguishing characteristics of teeth.\n\nSection::::Distinguishing characteristics of teeth.:Incisor.\n", "Primary dentition starts on the arrival of the mandibular central incisors, usually at eight months, and lasts until the first permanent molars appear in the mouth, usually at six years. The primary teeth typically erupt in the following order: (1) central incisor, (2) lateral incisor, (3) first molar, (4) canine, and (5) second molar. As a general rule, four teeth erupt for every six months of life, mandibular teeth erupt before maxillary teeth, and teeth erupt sooner in females than males. During primary dentition, the tooth buds of permanent teeth develop below the primary teeth, close to the palate or tongue.\n", "Extraction of first permanent molars before 8 years old increases the chances of the unerupted second permanent premolar drifting distally. Extraction after the age of 10 years reduces the likelihood of the mesial movement of the second permanent molar in to the first permanent molar space and may result in tilting of the second permanent molar.\n", "All teeth appear slightly larger than normal, usually occurring in cases with small jaws. It is called pseudomacrodontia because the small jaws give the illusion that they are abnormally large. Genetics plays a major role in this type of macrodontia, as the offspring inherits small jaw size from one of the parents and large teeth from the other parent. \n\nSection::::Types.:Single tooth.\n\nA single tooth is larger than the rest. This is unusual and could be the result of fusion and germination that cause enlarged crowns.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Variation.\n\nAgenesis of wisdom teeth differs by population, ranging from practically zero in Aboriginal Tasmanians to nearly 100% in indigenous Mexicans (see research paper with world map showing prevalence). The difference is related to the PAX9, and MSX1 gene (and perhaps other genes).\n\nSection::::Structure.:Age of eruption.\n\nThere is significant variation between the reported age of eruption of wisdom teeth between different populations. For example, wisdom teeth tend to erupt earlier in black people compared to Asian and white people.\n", "Primary dentition stage starts on the arrival of the mandibular central incisors, typically from around six months, and lasts until the first permanent molars appear in the mouth, usually at six years. There are 20 primary teeth and they typically erupt in the following order: (1) central incisor, (2) lateral incisor, (3) first molar, (4) canine, and (5) second molar. As a general rule, four teeth erupt for every six months of life, mandibular teeth erupt before maxillary teeth, and teeth erupt sooner in females than males. During primary dentition, the tooth buds of permanent teeth develop inferior to the primary teeth, close to the palate or tongue.\n", "Mandibular permanent first molars usually have four pulp horns.\n\nThe first molar is usually the first permanent tooth to erupt and has adult undertones.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "\"Linking to the Past\" by Kenneth L. Feder states that \"Dental development...provides a valuable gauge of the level of physical maturity and age.\" The first set of teeth, or the lower central incisors, does not begin to appear until the infant is approximately six-and-a-half months old. The rest of the baby teeth, which are called deciduous teeth, will then appear “fairly consistently across the species”, until the child is about two-years-old, when the second upper molars appear; at this point in development, there are twenty teeth in all.\n", "The permanent dentition begins when the last primary tooth is lost, usually at 11 to 12 years, and lasts for the rest of a person's life or until all of the teeth are lost (edentulism). During this stage, third molars (also called \"wisdom teeth\") are frequently extracted because of decay, pain or impactions. The main reasons for tooth loss are decay and periodontal disease.\n\nImmediately after the eruption enamel is covered by a specific film: Nasmyth's membrane or 'enamel cuticle', structure of embryological origin is composed of keratin which gives rise to the enamel organ.\n\nSection::::Nutrition and tooth development.\n", "Natal and neonatal teeth are an anomaly that involves teeth erupting in a newborn infant’s mouth earlier than usual. The incidence ranges from 1:2,000 to 1:3,500 births. Natal teeth are more frequent, approximately three times more common than neonatal teeth. Some authors reported a higher prevalence in females than males. The most common location is the mandibular region of the central incisors. Natal teeth and neonatal teeth are associated with genetics, developmental abnormalities and certain recognized syndromes. Additional names for this condition include precocious dentition, baby teeth, and milk teeth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Polyphyodont\n\nBULLET::::- Tooth regeneration\n", "Section::::Type of cases.:Deep bite with horizontal facial growth pattern.\n\nIn these types of cases, a patient has reduced anterior lower facial height and they have a skeletal deep bite tendency. It is essential in these type of patients, to increase the vertical height of the face and one of the most common ways this can be performed is through relative intrusion. This movement involves extrusion of the posterior molars and is sometimes combined with intrusion of anterior incisors.\n", "All teeth, although the same size, grow in larger than normal. This is seen in cases of growth hormone excess called pituitary gigantism. It is the rarest of the types. . Patients may already have a disease called Rabson-mendenhall syndrome which predisposes to try generalised macrodontia. This causes insulin resistance and is an autosomal recessive disorder. \n\nSection::::Types.:Relative generalized.\n", "For partially impacted teeth in those over 20 year of age, the most common pathology seen, and the most common reason for wisdom teeth removal, is pericoronitis or infection of the gum tissue over the impacted tooth. The bacteria associated with infections include \"Peptostreptococcus\", \"Fusobacterium\", and \"Bacteroides\" bacteria. The next most common pathology seen is cavities or tooth decay. Fifteen percent of people with retained wisdom teeth exposed to the mouth have cavities on the wisdom tooth or adjacent second molar due to a wisdom tooth. The rate of cavities on the back of the second molar has been reported anywhere from 1% to 19% with the wide variation attributed to increased age.\n" ]	[ "Only wisdom teethe develop when a jaw gets bigger." ]	[ "All teeth develop as a jaw gets bigger." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only wisdom teethe develop when a jaw gets bigger.", "Only wisdom teethe develop when a jaw gets bigger. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "All teeth develop as a jaw gets bigger.", "All teeth develop as a jaw gets bigger. " ]

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.