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2018-04497	Why can plasma transfusions be used instead of whole blood transfusions?	You can get plasma instead of blood, it has the clotting factors in it BUT it has no capacity to carry oxygen to cells and by administering it you are lowering the overall number of blood cells per liter and lowering the oxygen carrying capacity so you only use plasma in certain specific situations such as clotting disorders	[ "Collecting the platelets from a single donor also simplifies human leukocyte antigen (HLA) matching, which improves the chance of a successful transfusion. Since it is time-consuming to find even a single compatible donor for HLA-matched transfusions, being able to collect a full dose from a single donor is much more practical than finding multiple compatible donors.\n", "Many forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.\n\nAfter severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl etc.) at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin, or fresh frozen plasma. In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than a blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Bloodletting.\n", "BULLET::::- Leukocyte reduction is the removal of white blood cells by filtration. Leukoreduced blood products are less likely to cause HLA alloimmunization (development of antibodies against specific blood types), febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction, cytomegalovirus infection, and platelet-transfusion refractoriness.\n", "Platelets, either apheresis-derived or random-donor, can be processed through a \"volume reduction\" process. In this process, the platelets are spun in a centrifuge and the excess plasma is removed, leaving 10 to 100 mL of platelet concentrate. Such volume-reduced platelets are normally transfused only to neonatal and pediatric patients, when a large volume of plasma could overload the child's small circulatory system. The lower volume of plasma also reduces the chances of an adverse transfusion reaction to plasma proteins. Volume reduced platelets have a shelf life of only four hours.\n\nSection::::Therapy with platelets.:Wound therapy.\n", "Historically, blood was transfused as whole blood without further processing. Most blood banks now split the whole blood into two or more components, typically red blood cells and a plasma component such as fresh frozen plasma. Platelets for transfusion can also be prepared from a unit of whole blood. Some blood banks have replaced this with platelets collected by plateletpheresis because whole blood platelets, sometimes called \"random donor\" platelets, must be pooled from multiple donors to get enough for an adult therapeutic dose.\n", "Not all platelet transfusions use platelets collected by automated apheresis. The platelets can also be separated from donations of whole blood collected in a traditional blood donation, but there are several advantages to separating the platelets at the time of collection. The first advantage is that the whole-blood platelets, sometimes called \"random\" platelets, from a single donation are not numerous enough for a dose to give to an adult patient. They must be pooled from several donors to create a single transfusion, and this complicates processing and increases the risk of diseases that can be spread in transfused blood, such as human immunodeficiency virus.\n", "Transfusion of fresh frozen plasma aims to replace of clotting factors. Single unit transfusion also applies to transfusion of fresh frozen plasma in that there should be a clinical indication for the number transfused. Coagulation studies and point of care whole blood functional assays such as TEG or ROTEM can be used to assess whether further units are required.\n\nPlatelets\n", "Other complications include:\n\nBULLET::::- Bleeding or hematoma from needle placement\n\nBULLET::::- Hypotension\n\nBULLET::::- Potential exposure to blood products, with risk of transfusion reactions or transfusion transmitted diseases\n\nBULLET::::- Suppression of the patient's immune system\n\nSection::::As a manufacturing process.\n\nDonating plasma is similar in many ways to whole blood donation, though the end product is used for different purposes. Most plasmapheresis is for fractionation into other products; other blood donations are transfused with relatively minor modifications. Plasma that is collected solely for further manufacturing is called Source Plasma.\n", "Evidence indicates that other plasma components (e.g., single-donor plasma) that do not meet the criteria of FFP may have adequate levels of coagulation factors and are suitable for patients in whom FFP is indicated. Single-donor plasma is efficacious in the treatment of mild deficiencies of stable clotting factors. It also is of value in treatment of multiple deficiencies as in reversal of warfarin effects or in liver disease.\n", "During the 1940s, Brinkhous and McFarlane discovered that transfusions using whole blood or plasma provided a means of FVIII replacement. Applications using this early discover were limited due to naturally low concentrations of this anti-haemophilic factor in blood and plasma and volume constraints in the circulatory system.\n", "Historically, red blood cell transfusion was considered when the hemoglobin level fell below 100 g/L or hematocrit fell below 30%. Because each unit of blood given carries risks, a trigger level lower than that, at 70 to 80 g/L, is now usually used, as it has been shown to have better patient outcomes. The administration of a single unit of blood is the standard for hospitalized people who are not bleeding, with this treatment followed with re-assessment and consideration of symptoms and hemoglobin concentration. Patients with poor oxygen saturation may need more blood. The advisory caution to use blood transfusion only with more severe anemia is in part due to evidence that outcomes are worsened if larger amounts are given. One may consider transfusion for people with symptoms of cardiovascular disease such as chest pain or shortness of breath. In cases where patients have low levels of hemoglobin due to iron deficiency, but are cardiovascularly stable, parenteral iron is a preferred option based on both efficacy and safety. Other blood products are given where appropriate, e.g., to treat clotting deficiencies.\n", "BULLET::::1. Within 1 hour of blood collection, centrifuge capped citrate (blue top) tube for 15 minutes\n\nBULLET::::2. Using a plastic transfer pipet, remove the top 3/4 of plasma and place it in a plastic centrifuge tube with cap.\n\nBULLET::::3. Centrifuge the plasma (in the plastic centrifuge tube) for another 15 minutes.\n\nBULLET::::4. Using a plastic transfer pipet, remove the top 3/4 into a plastic tube. Do not disturb the plasma in the bottom of the spun tube, where any residual platelets will be.\n\nBULLET::::5. Aliquots with visible red cells or hemolysis (pink plasma) are not acceptable.\n", "The future of laboratory diagnostics are headed toward lab-on-a-chip technology, which will bring the laboratory to the point-of-care. This involves integration of all of the steps in the analytical process, from the initial removal of plasma from whole blood to the final analytical result, on a small microfluidic device. This is advantageous because it reduces turn around time, allows for the control of variables by automation, and removes the labor-intensive and sample wasting steps in current diagnostic processes.\n\nSection::::Plasma for analytical uses.:Expansion of the human plasma proteome.\n", "A \"massive transfusion protocol\" is used when significant blood loss is present such as in major trauma, when more than ten units of blood are needed. Packed red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, and platelets are generally administered. Typically higher ratios of fresh frozen plasma and platelets are given relative to packed red blood cells.\n\nSection::::Special populations.:Unknown blood type.\n", "This transfer of a plasma byproduct into the blood stream of a hemophiliac often led to the transmission of diseases such as HIV and hepatitis before purification methods were improved. In the early 1990s, pharmaceutical companies began to produce recombinant synthesized factor products, which now prevent nearly all forms of disease transmission during replacement therapy.\n", "BULLET::::- Pathogen Reduction treatment that involves, for example, the addition of riboflavin with subsequent exposure to UV light has been shown to be effective in inactivating pathogens (viruses, bacteria, parasites and white blood cells) in blood products. By inactivating white blood cells in donated blood products, riboflavin and UV light treatment can also replace gamma-irradiation as a method to prevent graft-versus-host disease (TA-GvHD).\n\nSection::::Procedure.:Compatibility testing.\n", "Nevertheless, the decision was made to develop a dried plasma package for the armed forces as it would reduce breakage and make the transportation, packaging, and storage much simpler. The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 cc bottles. One bottle contained enough distilled water to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours. \n", "BULLET::::- Transfusion-associated volume overload is a common complication simply because blood products have a certain amount of volume. This is especially the case in recipients with underlying cardiac or kidney disease. Red cell transfusions can lead to volume overload when they must be repeated because of insufficient efficacy (see above). Plasma transfusion is especially prone to causing volume overload because of its hypertonicity.\n", "Plateletpheresis products are also easier to test for bacterial contamination, a leading cause of transfusion-associated deaths. Pooling of whole blood platelets is often done in an \"open\" system where the platelet containers are connected in a way that could expose the platelets to air, and pooled platelets must be transfused promptly so that any contamination does not have time to grow.\n", "The risks of FFP include disease transmission, anaphylactoid reactions, and excessive intravascular volume (transfusion associated circulatory overload (TACO)), as well as transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI). Risks of transfusion transmitted infections are similar to that of whole blood and red blood cells.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n\nFFP is made by centrifugation of whole blood or apheresis device followed by freezing and preservation.\n\nSection::::Frequency of use.\n", "For example, with marginally acceptable whole blood (white blood cells: 10,000/mm³; platelets: 150,000/mm³), a dose (3×10) of platelets comes with about 2×10 white blood cells. This can seriously damage the patient's health. A dose of single-donor platelets prepared using latest filters can contain as little as 5×10 white blood cells.\n\nSection::::Platelet collection.:Apheresis.\n\nThere are two types of manual platelet apheresis. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is widely used in North America and Buffy coat (BC) is more widely used in Europe.\n", "For example, the UK Patient Blood Management (PBM) recommendation 'Transfuse one dose of blood component at a time e.g. one unit of red cells or platelets in non-bleeding patients and reassess the patient clinically and with a further blood count to determine if further transfusion is needed.' A pilot study run by a TP introduced the single unit transfusion policy for non-bleeding medical patients in an acute medical unit and led to a 40-45% reduction in red cell use over a 6 month period. Implementing this change in practice involved a period of training for both clinical and laboratory staff and changes to policy. The TP is uniquely placed to drive and monitor initiatives such as this, where they engage with both clinical colleagues who make the decision to transfuse, and work with the scientific staff in the laboratory promoting the single unit transfusion policy.\n", "Physicians have adopted a so-called \"restrictive protocol\" – whereby transfusion is held to a minimum – in part because of the noted uncertainties surrounding storage lesion, in addition to the very high direct and indirect costs of transfusions. Of course, restrictive protocol is not an option with some especially vulnerable patients who may require the best possible efforts to rapidly restore tissue oxygenation.\n\nAlthough transfusions of platelets are far less numerous (relative to RBC), platelet storage lesion and resulting efficacy loss is also a concern.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Other.\n", "Pooled whole-blood platelets, sometimes called “random” platelets, are separated by one of two methods. In the US, a unit of whole blood is placed into a large centrifuge in what is referred to as a “soft spin.” At these settings, the platelets remain suspended in the plasma. The platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is removed from the red cells, then centrifuged at a faster setting to harvest the platelets from the plasma. In other regions of the world, the unit of whole blood is centrifuged using settings that cause the platelets to become suspended in the “buffy coat” layer, which includes the platelets and the white blood cells. The “buffy coat” is isolated in a sterile bag, suspended in a small amount of red blood cells and plasma, then centrifuged again to separate the platelets and plasma from the red and white blood cells. Regardless of the initial method of preparation, multiple donations may be combined into one container using a sterile connection device to manufacture a single product with the desired therapeutic dose.\n", "When the ultimate goal of plasma processing is a purified plasma component for injection or transfusion, the plasma component must be highly pure. The first practical large-scale method of blood plasma fractionation was developed by Edwin J. Cohn during World War II. It is known as the Cohn process (or Cohn method). This process is also known as cold ethanol fractionation as it involves gradually increasing the concentration of ethanol in the solution at 5C and 3C. The Cohn Process exploits differences in properties of the various plasma proteins, specifically, the high solubility and low pI of albumin. As the ethanol concentration is increased in stages from 0% to 40% the [pH] is lowered from neutral (pH ~ 7) to about 4.8, which is near the pI of albumin. At each stage certain proteins are precipitated out of the solution and removed. The final precipitate is purified albumin. Several variations to this process exist, including an adapted method by Nitschmann and Kistler that uses fewer steps and replaces centrifugation and bulk freezing with filtration and diafiltration.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13877	Difference between mbr and gpt when initializing a new hard drive	Two different schemes. Ignoring technical details, some key details. MBR partition tables can not address beyond 2TB (unless some workarounds like 4K sector sizes are used). Amy space beyond that will be unusable. MBR also has a limitation on the number of partitions that can be created (4, at most one can be an extended partition that can hold additional partitions) Windows typically will refuse to install/boot on a MBR disc if using a UEFI firmware, and the other way around is generally impossible (BIOS can not natively read GPT drives)	[ "BIOS-style booting from MBR-partitioned disks is commonly called \"BIOS-MBR\", regardless of it being performed on UEFI or legacy BIOS-based systems. Furthermore, booting legacy BIOS-based systems from GPT disks is also possible, and such a boot scheme is commonly called \"BIOS-GPT\".\n", "BULLET::::- Memory usage—charged as CPU-VM integral ... e.g. 40 pages of virtual memory used for 10 seconds is charged as 400 page-seconds\n\nBULLET::::- Printer usage—charged as pages of paper and lines of output (for line printers) or pages and sheets (for page printers)\n\nBULLET::::- Disk space used—charged in page-months (one page=4096 bytes)\n\nBULLET::::- Terminal or network connect time-charged in minutes\n\nBULLET::::- Cards read and punched-charged by the card\n\nBULLET::::- Paper tape punched-charged by the foot\n\nBULLET::::- Tapes mounted and tape drive usage time-charged by number of tapes mounted and minutes of usage\n", "On IBM PC compatible machines, the BIOS is ignorant of the distinction between VBRs and MBRs, and of partitioning. The firmware simply loads and runs the first sector of the storage device. If the device is a floppy or USB flash drive, that will be a VBR. If the device is a hard disk, that will be an MBR. It is the code in the MBR which generally understands disk partitioning, and in turn, is responsible for loading and running the VBR of whichever primary partition is set to boot (the \"active\" partition). The VBR then loads a second-stage bootloader from another location on the disk.\n", "For reverse compatibility, Linux can use GPT disks in BIOS-based systems for both data storage and booting, as both GRUB 2 and Linux are GPT-aware. Such a setup is usually referred to as \"BIOS-GPT\". As GPT incorporates the protective MBR, a BIOS-based computer can boot from a GPT disk using a GPT-aware boot loader stored in the protective MBR's bootstrap code area. In the case of GRUB, such a configuration requires a BIOS boot partition for GRUB to embed its second-stage code due to absence of the post-MBR gap in GPT partitioned disks (which is taken over by the GPT's \"Primary Header\" and \"Primary Partition Table\"). Commonly 1 MiB in size, this partition's Globally Unique Identifier (GUID) in GPT scheme is and is used by GRUB only in BIOS-GPT setups. From GRUB's perspective, no such partition type exists in case of MBR partitioning. This partition is not required if the system is UEFI-based because no embedding of the second-stage code is needed in that case.\n", "On machines that do not use x86 processors, or on x86 machines with non-BIOS firmware such as Open Firmware or Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) firmware, this design is unsuitable, and the MBR is not used as part of the system bootstrap. EFI firmware is instead capable of directly understanding the GPT partitioning scheme and the FAT filesystem format, and loads and runs programs held as files in the EFI System partition. The MBR will be involved only insofar as it might contain a partition table for compatibility purposes if the GPT partition table scheme has been used.\n", "The organization of the partition table in the MBR limits the maximum addressable storage space of a disk to 2 TiB (2 × 512 bytes). Approaches to slightly raise this limit assuming 33-bit arithmetics or 4096-byte sectors are not officially supported, as they fatally break compatibility with existing boot loaders and most MBR-compliant operating systems and system tools, and can cause serious data corruption when used outside of narrowly controlled system environments. Therefore, the MBR-based partitioning scheme is in the process of being superseded by the GUID Partition Table (GPT) scheme in new computers. A GPT can coexist with an MBR in order to provide some limited form of backward compatibility for older systems.\n", "BULLET::::- In parallel ATA hard drive arrangements, the terms master and slave are used but neither drive has control over the other. The terms however indicate which device has priority in using the shared communication interface.\n\nBULLET::::- Rmpi package in R is a standard master/slaves programming model.\n\nBULLET::::- On the Macintosh platform, rebooting into Target Disk Mode allows one computer to operate as a dumb disk enclosure presenting its storage devices to another via SCSI, FireWire, or Thunderbolt, essentially a slave mode bridge.\n", "For limited backward compatibility, the space of the legacy MBR is still reserved in the GPT specification, but it is now used in a way that prevents MBR-based disk utilities from misrecognizing and possibly overwriting GPT disks. This is referred to as a \"protective MBR\".\n", "MBRs are not present on non-partitioned media such as floppies, superfloppies or other storage devices configured to behave as such.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "X25-M G2 Trim command support was released for Windows 7. Trim support gives the SSD the ability to take the memory that is marked to be deleted to erased immediately. This gives the drive more space to reuse, and reduces performance loss over time. The firmware also increased overall sequential write times of the 160 GB X25-M G2, though not of the 80 GB version. This increased the maximum write speed of 70 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s.\n", "In 1996, support for logical block addressing (LBA) was introduced in Windows 95B and DOS 7.10 in order to support disks larger than 8 GB. \"Disk timestamps\" were also introduced. This also reflected the idea that the MBR is meant to be operating system and file system independent. However, this design rule was partially compromised in more recent Microsoft implementations of the MBR, which enforce CHS access for FAT16B and FAT32 partition types 06/0B, whereas LBA is used for 0E/0C.\n", "MTP's advantages are marked with “(+)” while disadvantages are marked with “(-)”.\n\nSection::::Comparison with USB Mass Storage.:File oriented instead of block oriented protocol.\n\nBy not exposing the filesystem and metadata index, the integrity of these is in full control of the device.\n\nBULLET::::- (+) No risk of filesystem corruption if unplugging the device while writing. File transfers are atomic, and no explicit filesystem unmounting (“safe removal”) is required of the user.\n\nBULLET::::- The device can access its own filesystem while connected:\n\nBULLET::::- (+) Re-indexing after unplugging can be avoided. Also helped by the inclusion of metadata with the transfer.\n", "Section::::Compatibility.:Disk device compatibility.\n\nIn addition to the standard PC disk partition scheme that uses a master boot record (MBR), UEFI also works with a new partitioning scheme called GUID Partition Table (GPT), which is free from many of the limitations of MBR. In particular, the MBR limits on the number and size of disk partitions (up to four primary partitions per disk, and up to 2 TiB per disk) are relaxed. More specifically, GPT allows for a maximum disk and partition size of 8 ZiB .\n\nSection::::Compatibility.:Disk device compatibility.:Linux.\n", "BULLET::::- DS:SI = points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry used (see above)\n\nBULLET::::- ES:BX = start of boot sector or NEWLDR sector image (typically codice_8)\n\nBULLET::::- CX = reserved\n\nIn conjunction with GPT, an \"Enhanced Disk Drive Specification\" (EDD) 4 Hybrid MBR proposal recommends another extension to the interface:\n\nBULLET::::- EAX = codice_103 (\"codice_104\")\n\nBULLET::::- DL = boot drive unit (see above)\n", "The MBR consists of 512 or more bytes located in the first sector of the drive.\n\nIt may contain one or more of:\n\nBULLET::::- A partition table describing the partitions of a storage device. In this context the boot sector may also be called a \"partition sector\".\n\nBULLET::::- Bootstrap code: Instructions to identify the configured bootable partition, then load and execute its volume boot record (VBR) as a chain loader.\n\nBULLET::::- Optional 32-bit \"disk timestamp\".\n\nBULLET::::- Optional 32-bit \"disk signature\".\n\nSection::::Disk partitioning.\n", "Section::::Programming considerations.\n\nThe MBR originated in the PC XT. IBM PC-compatible computers are little-endian, which means the processor stores numeric values spanning two or more bytes in memory least significant byte first. The format of the MBR on media reflects this convention. Thus, the MBR signature will appear in a disk editor as the sequence codice_6.\n", "Three options are available for the logical device interfaces and command sets used for interfacing with M.2 storage devices, which may be used depending on the type of M.2 storage device and available operating system support:\n\nBULLET::::- Legacy SATA\n\nBULLET::::- PCI Express using AHCI\n\nBULLET::::- PCI Express using NVMe\n\nSection::::Form factors and keying.\n", "Where a data storage device has been partitioned with the GPT scheme, the master boot record will still contain a partition table, but its only purpose is to indicate the existence of the GPT and to prevent utility programs that understand only the MBR partition table scheme from creating any partitions in what they would otherwise see as free space on the disk, thereby accidentally erasing the GPT.\n\nSection::::System bootstrapping.\n", "Section::::Comparison with USB Mass Storage.:Drivers know a fixed set of supported devices.\n\n(-) Despite identifiability by the PTP/MTP USB device class, libmtp documentation indicates that the vendor and product ID combination plays a functional role in identifying an MTP device, also by Windows drivers. Libmtp includes vast listings of vendor and product ID numbers of devices that it supports, along with workarounds for bugs. This non-generic methodology hinders MTP drivers' forward compatibility with new devices.\n\nSection::::Comparison with USB Mass Storage.:The spec knows a fixed set of defined file formats.\n", "BULLET::::1. Hard disk drive (HDD) FDE (usually referred to as SED)\n\nBULLET::::2. Enclosed hard disk drive FDE\n\nBULLET::::3. Bridge and Chipset (BC) FDE\n\nSection::::Hard disk drive FDE.\n", "BULLET::::- The contents of DH and ES:DI should be preserved by the MBR for full Plug-and-Play support (see above), however, many MBRs, including those of MS-DOS 2.0 - 8.0 / PC DOS 2.0 - 6.3 and Windows NT/2000/XP, do not. (This is unsurprising, since those versions of DOS predate the Plug-and-Play BIOS standard, and previous standards and conventions indicated no requirements to preserve any register other than DL.) Some MBRs set DH to 0.\n\nThe MBR code passes additional information to the VBR in many implementations:\n", "Like modern MBRs, GPTs use logical block addressing (LBA) in place of the historical cylinder-head-sector (CHS) addressing. The protective MBR is stored at LBA 0, the GPT header is in LBA 1, and the GPT header has a pointer to the partition table (\"Partition Entry Array\"), typically at LBA 2. The UEFI specification stipulates that a minimum of 16,384 bytes, regardless of sector size, are allocated for the Partition Entry Array. Each entry has a size of 128 bytes. Thus, on a disk with 512-byte sectors, sector number 34 is the first usable sector on the disk.\n", "There is some MBR replacement code that emulates EFI firmware's bootstrap, which makes non-EFI machines capable of booting from disks using the GPT partitioning scheme. It detects a GPT, places the processor in the correct operating mode, and loads the EFI compatible code from disk to complete this task.\n\nSection::::Disk identity.\n\nIn addition to the bootstrap code and a partition table, master boot records may contain a disk signature. This is a 32-bit value that is intended to identify uniquely the disk medium (as opposed to the disk unit—the two not necessarily being the same for removable hard disks).\n", "The I/O modules used on the VRTX are a different size to the I/O modules of the M1000e, so I/O modules are not compatible between the systems.brbr\n\nManagement: A CMC is responsible for the management of the entire system. The CMC is similar to the CMC used in the M1000e chassis. Connection to the CMCs is done via separate RJ45 ethernet connectors.brbr\n", "Under DR-DOS 7.07 an extended interface may be optionally used by the MBR and in conjunction with LOADER:\n\nBULLET::::- AX = magic signature indicating the presence of this extension (0EDCh)\n\nBULLET::::- DL = boot drive unit (see above)\n\nBULLET::::- DS:SI = points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry used (see above)\n\nBULLET::::- ES:BX = start of boot sector or special \"codice_2\" sector image (typically 7C00h)\n\nBULLET::::- CX = reserved\n\nIn conjunction with GUID partition tables (GPT), an Enhanced Disk Drive Specification (EDD) 4 Hybrid MBR proposal recommends another extension to the MBR to VBR interface:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02959	Why do electric utility companies (in the US) subsidize the cost of LED light bulbs?	(I work for a private regulated monopoly utility company) So being a monopoly power provider has many obvious benefits. You don't have competition, and basically as long as there are people, you'll have customers. The reason the government sets up these situations is that they believe that it is cheaper to grant monopolies to companies in areas and regulate them heavily, than it is to have competition, considering the infrastructure (power lines) that would be required. This isn't done everywhere, so there can be arguments against it, but it's not a completely unreasonable idea. But there has to be downsides. In many cases the utility companies are actually restricted in how much profit they can make, and they also are limited in how much they can raise prices, in some cases requiring state governmental permissions. Also, they have an obligation to provide enough power for anyone. If apples makes 2 million iPhone X, but 3 million people want them, oh well. Or they can just raise the prices until they line up. Not with power in these cases. Theymust provide power to all our customers, at all our levels. If it gets hot they must provide more power for more air conditioning. If more people move in they must generate enough power for everyone. But opening a new power plant is not normally profitable. So these companies instead spend a little bit of money giving out cheaper light bulbs, which lowers the demand they have. In addition it creates good press, which is helpful if they later have to go to state governments and ask for rates to be increased for whatever reason. So even if you don't think highly of these companies there are good buisness reasons to do this, and also good PR reasons, and customers do benefit from them.	[ "Light emitting diodes (LED) have virtually replaced both incandescent lamps and the occasional fluorescent lamp in traffic signal and crossing sign usage. They are rapidly developing in light output, color rendering, efficiency, and reliability. The cost of LED lighting is still high compared to an incandescent or arc-discharge lamp used for the same purpose, but the cost is decreasing rapidly. Even with the high per-unit cost, the increase in efficiency and increased lifespan make them very attractive for street lighting use. The reduced cost of electricity and maintenance in some cases can offset the increased cost of the lamp.\n", "BULLET::::- The initial cost of LED street lighting is high and as a consequence it takes several years for the savings on energy to pay for that. The high cost derives in part from the material used since LEDs are often made on sapphire or other expensive substrates.\n", "In 2008, the US Department of Energy created the L Prize to find an incandescent light bulb replacement that met efficiency metrics and had a CRI above 90. On August 3, 2011 Philips was declared as the first winner of the L Prize.\n\nSection::::Calculation.\n", "BULLET::::- White LEDs and a source of renewable energy (such as solar cells) are used by the Light Up the World Foundation to provide lighting to poor people in remote areas, and provide significant benefits compared to the kerosene lamps which they replace. Certain other companies as Powerplus also have LED-flashlights with imbedded solar cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Organic LEDs made by roll-to-roll production are another source of cheap light that will be commercially available at low cost by 2015.\n", "Following the company's early growth, the company began to offer more LED lighting solutions. These at the time were seen as a greener lighting than traditional Christmas lights, which weren't as energy efficient. This was following a partnership between Christmas Lights, Etc. and Energy Star, which is a joint program of the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Department of Energy. This move led the company to feature on a number of News Channels, including FOX News discussing the move from traditional Christmas lights to LED.\n", "Considered as electric energy converters, all these existing lamps are inefficient, emitting more of their input energy as waste heat than as visible light. Global electric lighting in 1997 consumed 2016 terawatthours of energy. Lighting consumes roughly 12% of electrical energy produced by industrialized countries. The increasing scarcity of energy resources, and the environmental costs of producing energy, particularly the discovery of global warming due to carbon dioxide emitted by the burning of fossil fuels, which are the largest source of energy for electric power generation, created an increased incentive to develop more energy-efficient electric lights.\n", "Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture. As of 2011, some LED bulbs provide up to 150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb. Displacing less effective sources such as incandescent lamps and fluorescent lighting reduces electrical energy consumption and its associated emissions.\n", "White LED lamps have achieved market dominance in applications where high efficiency is important at low power levels. Some of these applications include flashlights, solar-powered garden or walkway lights, and bicycle lights. Colored LED lamps are now commercially used for traffic signal lamps, where the ability to emit bright light of the required color is essential, and in strings of holiday lights. LED automotive lamps are widely used for their long life and small size. Multiple LEDs are used in applications where more light output than available from a single LED is required.\n\nSection::::Application.:Specialty.:Outdoor LED lighting.\n", "In 2008 Sentry Equipment Corporation in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, US, was able to light its new factory interior and exterior almost solely with LEDs. Initial cost was three times that of a traditional mix of incandescent and fluorescent lamps, but the extra cost was recovered within two years via electricity savings, and the lamps should not need replacing for 20 years. In 2009 the Manapakkam, Chennai office of the Indian IT company, iGate, spent () to light of office space with LEDs. The firm expected the new lighting to pay for itself within 5 years.\n", "Section::::UJALA LED Tube Lights.\n\nTube lights are a vital light source in residential and commercial usage. Thus after LED bulbs, UJALA expanded to include affordable LED tube lights. The government of India launched distribution of 20W LED tubes lights which are 50% more energy efficient than conventional 40W tube lights. LED tube lights now sell to consumers for Rs. 230 each while their market price of Rs 400-600.\n\nEESL distributed 16.5 lakh LED tube lights under this scheme, saving 7.2 crore kWh and Rs 24 crore per year to consumers.\n\nSection::::Street Lights.\n", "BULLET::::- Regardless of technology, projects installed prior to 15 July 2009 will be eligible to receive generation payments currently being auctioned of 9p/kWh and export payments of 5p/kWh, provided they were previously receiving support under the RO scheme.\n", "In 1987 the purchase of the Jarnkonst group of Nordic light fitting companies and closure of the Buckie lamp factory signalled a new drive by parent Thorn EMI to trade an export and ‘colonies’ mentality for a multi-cultural, international outlook, one that took account of the forthcoming Single European Act. Gaining critical mass in lighting fixtures – defined as 10% market share in any one county – was identified as a priority.\n", "EISA 2007 set new performance requirements for certain common light bulbs, requiring that these bulbs become approximately 25-30% more efficient than the light bulbs of 2008 by 2012-2014. Overall, the intent of this was to bring into the market more efficient light bulbs. Some new incandescent products could be introduced by the effective dates of the law, including a bulb by General Electric that will decrease the amount of energy required. Non-incandescent bulbs, such as compact fluorescent (CFL) and light emitting diodes (LED) already meet the Tier I standards introduced. Some companies worked to stop the sales of incandescent bulbs in anticipation of the standards changes. For example, the home decor and furniture company IKEA phased out the stock and sale of incandescent bulbs at their stores in the US and Canada, starting in August 2011.\n", "LEDs are increasingly finding widespread usage in general street, sidewalk, or parking lot illumination as technology improvements bring their brightness and cost into competition with HPS, MH, or CFL lighting. For example, the city of Ann Arbor, Michigan, implemented LEDs in street lighting applications in March 2006 and have since expanded their use. In addition Chapel Hill, North Carolina, entered a 12-month test program and partnership with Duke Energy on March 25, 2009, to evaluate the effectiveness of replacing existing HPS lighting with the more efficient LED street lighting within its vibrant downtown. In late 2008, Anchorage Alaska installed over 4,000 LED streetlights as part of a plan to convert the community's 16,000 roadway lights to efficient white light. In mid-2009, the City of Los Angeles announced a 5-year project with the Clinton Climate Initiative to replace all 140,000 of the city's existing streetlights with LED fixtures. In mid-2010, Seattle City Light began installing LED streetlights in a residential neighborhood as part of a plan to install 40,000 LED streetlights over the next 5 years. Also, Atlantic City Electric in Southern NJ is also testing out LED streetlights made by 2 different manufacturers in 4 communities to evaluate if LED lights are worth using over HPS. As of late 2015, Atlantic City Electric has decided to go ahead and replace all utility owned or leased MV and HPS cobra head and floodlights with LED lighting, if the municipality is interested (which many are). The town of Stratford, NJ was the first town in their service territory to receive the new LED lights, with many more to follow. The parking lot at Camden County College in Blackwood, NJ is now using LED postlights that replaced the previous HPS flood and shoebox lights. The Cities of Philadelphia and New York have also begun testing LED streetlights and Philadelphia is now in the process of changing existing HPS lampost lights from HPS to LED and all new installs are LED. Philadelphia is also conducting a study to see if it will be feasible to replace all city owned street lights with LED by 2018 (about 60,000 lights) and many areas of the city already have them; other major cities, such as Baltimore and Charlotte, have already begun to replace their HPS lights with new LEDs in different sizes. The town of Abington, PA has installed LED streetlights on their main and secondary streets to replace MV fixtures. In spring of 2011, the municipally-owned energy provider for San Antonio, Texas, CPS Energy, entered into contract with GreenStar LED (of Boerne, Texas) for an order of over 25,000 LED street light fixtures. LED street light have been introduced also in smaller cities and communities, for example, in Brisbane, CA.\n", "By 2010 mass installations of LED lighting for commercial and public uses were becoming common. LED lamps were used for a number of demonstration projects for outdoor lighting and LED street lights. The United States Department of Energy made several reports available on the results of many pilot projects for municipal outdoor lighting, and many additional streetlight and municipal outdoor lighting projects soon followed.\n\nSection::::Technology overview.\n\nLED lamps are often made with arrays of surface mount LED modules (SMD modules) that replace incandescent or compact fluorescent lamps, mostly replacing incandescent lamps rated from 5 to 200 watts.\n", "Several companies offer LED lamps for general lighting purposes. The technology is improving rapidly and new energy-efficient consumer LED lamps are available.\n\n, in the United States, LED lamps are close to being adopted as the mainstream light source because of the falling prices and because incandescent lamps are being phased out. In the U.S. the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 effectively bans the manufacturing and importing of most current incandescent lamps. LED lamps have decreased substantially in price, and many varieties are sold with subsidized prices from local utilities.\n\nSection::::Application.:Household LED lamp.:LED tube lamps.\n", "By about 2010 LED technology came to dominate the outdoor lighting industry; earlier LEDs were not bright enough for outdoor lighting. A study completed in 2014 concluded that color temperature and accuracy of LED lights was easily recognized by consumers, with preference towards LEDs at natural color temperatures. LEDs are now able to match the brightness and warmer color temperature that consumers desire from their outdoor lighting system.\n", "Philips Lighting ceased research on compact fluorescents in 2008 and began devoting the bulk of its research and development budget to solid-state lighting. On 24 September 2009, Philips Lighting North America became the first to submit lamps in the category to replace the standard 60 W A-19 \"Edison screw fixture\" light bulb, with a design based on their earlier \"AmbientLED\" consumer product. On 3 August 2011, DOE awarded the prize in the 60 W replacement category to a Philips LED lamp after 18 months of extensive testing.\n", "Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. A prominent example of this is the energy savings that can be made by replacing an incandescent light bulb with a more modern alternative. When purchasing light bulbs, many consumers opt for cheap incandescent bulbs, failing to take into account their higher energy costs and lower lifespans when compared to modern compact fluorescent and LED bulbs. Although these energy-efficient alternatives have a higher upfront cost, their long lifespan and low energy use can save consumers a considerable amount of money. The price of LED bulbs has also been steadily decreasing in the past five years due to improvements in semiconductor technology. Many LED bulbs on the market qualify for utility rebates that further reduce the price of purchase to the consumer. Estimates by the U.S. Department of Energy state that widespread adoption of LED lighting over the next 20 years could result in about $265 billion worth of savings in United States energy costs.\n", "In 2013, Advanced Lighting Technologies, an Ohio company that develops and manufactures lighting products, announced the release of an incandescent bulb that it claimed significantly exceeds the efficiency requirements of the law \n\nBy 2020, a second tier of restrictions is set to take effect, requiring all general-purpose bulbs to produce at least 45 lumens per watt (similar to CFLs in 2007 but far less efficient than that the LED bulbs that have since become available and affordable). Exemptions from the Act included reflector floodlights, 3-way bulbs, candelabra, colored bulbs, and other specialty bulbs.\n", "BULLET::::- Light pollution: Because white LEDs emit more short wavelength light than sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the increased blue and green sensitivity of scotopic vision means that white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially more sky glow.\n\nBULLET::::- Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric current increases. Heating also increases with higher currents, which compromises LED lifetime. These effects put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power applications.\n", "LEDs are increasingly used for street lighting in place of mercury and sodium lamps due to their lower running and lamp replacement costs. However, there have been concerns that the use of LED street lighting with predominantly blue light can cause eye damage, and that some LEDs switch on and off at twice mains frequency, causing malaise in some people, and possibly being misleading with rotating machinery due to stroboscopic effects. These concerns can be addressed by use of appropriate lighting, rather than simple concern with cost.\n\nSection::::Comparison of common SMD (surface mounted) LED modules.\n", "The lower heat radiation compared with incandescent lamps makes LEDs ideal for stage lights , where banks of RGB LEDs can easily change color and decrease heating from traditional stage lighting. In medical lighting, infrared heat radiation can be harmful. In energy conservation, the lower heat output of LEDs also reduces demand on air conditioning systems.\n", "Due to the relatively high cost per watt, LED lighting is most useful at very low powers, typically for lamp assemblies of under 10 W. LEDs are currently most useful and cost-effective in low power applications, such as nightlights and flashlights. Colored LEDs can also be used for accent lighting, such as for glass objects, and even in fake ice cubes for drinks at parties. They are also being increasingly used as holiday lighting.\n", "The long life of LEDs, expected to be about 50 times that of the most common incandescent lamps and significantly longer than fluorescent types, is advantageous for users but will affect manufacturers as it reduces the market for replacements in the distant future.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02999	why do some recipes call for melted butter?	Basically, when recipies call for softened butter, they use the creaming method; the sugar and butter are mixed together in such a way that the sugar cuts little air bubbles into the butter. These little bubbles can add some extra puff to the cookies. If you melt the butter first, not only do you not have those air bubbles, but there's water in butter, so you'll end up getting some gluten development when you mix in the flour and make a chewy cookie ... but more importatly, without the fat being (near) solid, the cookie will slump a lot more, and spread out before it cooks (assuming you haven't otherwise adjusted the recipe to compensate). [source]( URL_1 ) [more here]( URL_0 )	[ "Once butter is softened, spices, herbs, or other flavoring agents can be mixed into it, producing what is called a \"compound butter\" or \"composite butter\" (sometimes also called \"composed butter\"). Compound butters can be used as spreads, or cooled, sliced, and placed onto hot food to melt into a sauce. Sweetened compound butters can be served with desserts; such hard sauces are often flavored with spirits.\n", "Unsalted butter is melted over low heat and allowed to separate into butterfat and milk solids. The latter naturally sink to the bottom of the pan and, if left over gentle heat, will begin to brown. As they reach a toasty hazelnut colour, the pan is removed from the heat.\n\n\"Beurre noisette\" may be used in its liquid state or cooled to a solid form. It has a nutty flavour and is particularly included in the batters for \"madeleines\" and \"financiers\".\n", "Normal butter softens to a spreadable consistency around 15 °C (60 °F), well above refrigerator temperatures. The \"butter compartment\" found in many refrigerators may be one of the warmer sections inside, but it still leaves butter quite hard. Until recently, many refrigerators sold in New Zealand featured a \"butter conditioner\", a compartment kept warmer than the rest of the refrigerator—but still cooler than room temperature—with a small heater. Keeping butter tightly wrapped delays rancidity, which is hastened by exposure to light or air, and also helps prevent it from picking up other odors. Wrapped butter has a shelf life of several months at refrigerator temperatures. Butter can also be frozen to further extend its storage life. \n", "The Swedish word \"smörgåsbord\" consists of the words \"smörgås\" (sandwich, usually open-faced) and \"bord\" (table). \"Smörgås\" in turn consists of the words \"smör\" (butter, cognate with English \"smear\") and \"gås\". \"Gås\" literally means goose, but later referred to the small pieces of butter that formed and floated to the surface of cream while it was churned. These pieces reminded the old Swedish peasants of fat geese swimming to the surface. The small butter pieces were just the right size to be placed and flattened out on bread, so \"smörgås\" came to mean buttered bread. In Sweden, the term \"att breda smörgåsar\" (to spread butter on open-faced sandwiches) has been used since at least the 16th century.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Where Do We Go From Here?\" by Dorothy L Sayers on 24 February 1948\n", "In Poland, the butter lamb (\"Baranek wielkanocny\") is a traditional addition to the Easter Meal for many Polish Catholics. Butter is shaped into a lamb either by hand or in a lamb-shaped mould. Butter is also used to make edible decorations to garnish other dishes.\n", "In Scandinavia, a different kind of cookie butter has been used to make confectionery cakes for many years. It usually has a very thick consistency and is flavoured with cocoa and liquor.\n\nIn Sweden, cookie butter is the main ingredient in \"Dammsugare\" (Punsch-rolls). The buttery paste is flavoured with cocoa and punsch, wrapped in a thin sheet of marzipan and dipped in dark chocolate. The marzipan is usually coloured brightly green.\n", "The invention of baking powder and other chemical leavening agents during the 19th century substantially increased the flexibility of this traditional pound cake by introducing the possibility of creating lighter, fluffier cakes using these traditional combinations of ingredients, and it is this transformation that brought about the modern butter cake.\n\nSection::::Ingredients and technique.\n", "In the U.K. brandy butter and rum butter are particularly associated with the Christmas and New Year season and Christmas pudding and warm mince pies, serving as a seasonal alternative to cream, ice cream or custard. At Cambridge, it is also known as Senior Wrangler sauce.\n\nRum butter specifically is typically found in Cumbria and is not common in other regions of the U.K.; while Brandy butter is found nationwide and is a more commonplace Christmas accompaniment. \n", "Several \"spreadable\" butters have been developed. These remain softer at colder temperatures and are therefore easier to use directly out of refrigeration. Some methods modify the makeup of the butter's fat through chemical manipulation of the finished product, some manipulate the cattle's feed, and some incorporate vegetable oil into the butter. \"Whipped\" butter, another product designed to be more spreadable, is aerated by incorporating nitrogen gas—normal air is not used to avoid oxidation and rancidity.\n", "Beurre monté\n\nBeurre monté refers to melted butter that remains emulsified, even at temperatures higher than that at which butter usually breaks down. \"Beurre monté\" may refer either to the melted butter sauce itself, or to the method of making it.\n", "Dutch processed cocoa has a neutral pH, and is not acidic like natural cocoa, so in recipes that use baking soda as the leavening agent—which relies on the acidity of the cocoa to activate it—buttermilk, yoghurt or sour milk should be substituted for the milk in the recipe, or a dash of cream of tartar can be used to provide some acidity in the batter. There is no need to add acidity when Dutch process cocoa is used in recipes that use baking powder instead of soda (UK: \"bicarb\") for leavening.\n\nThe Dutch process:\n\nBULLET::::- Lowers acidity\n\nBULLET::::- Increases solubility\n", "Melted butter plays an important role in the preparation of sauces, most obviously in French cuisine. \"Beurre noisette\" (hazelnut butter) and \"Beurre noir\" (black butter) are sauces of melted butter cooked until the milk solids and sugars have turned golden or dark brown; they are often finished with an addition of vinegar or lemon juice. Hollandaise and béarnaise sauces are emulsions of egg yolk and melted butter; they are in essence mayonnaises made with butter instead of oil. Hollandaise and béarnaise sauces are stabilized with the powerful emulsifiers in the egg yolks, but butter itself contains enough emulsifiers—mostly remnants of the fat globule membranes—to form a stable emulsion on its own. \"Beurre blanc\" (white butter) is made by whisking butter into reduced vinegar or wine, forming an emulsion with the texture of thick cream. \"Beurre monté\" (prepared butter) is melted but still emulsified butter; it lends its name to the practice of \"mounting\" a sauce with butter: whisking cold butter into any water-based sauce at the end of cooking, giving the sauce a thicker body and a glossy shine—as well as a buttery taste.\n", "Print butter\n\nPrint butter is an obsolete term for butter which was sold in wrappers printed with \"some emblematic device\" as a branding device (as modern butter almost always is). Originally the wrappers were normally cloth and sometimes washed and returned for re-use by the retailer. By the late 19th century greaseproof paper took over from cloth. The term is found in American sources from at least 1791 to 1949. References to print butter remain in the US state of Connecticut legal code, requiring print butter to have the net weight printed in Gothic letters at least one-half inch high.\n", "Butter is essentially the fat of milk. It is usually made from sweet or cream. In the USA, Ireland, the UK and the Nordic countries, salt is usually added to it. Unsalted (sweet) butters are most commonly used in the rest of Europe. However, it can also be made from acidulated or bacteriologically soured cream. Well into the 19th century butter was still made from cream that had been allowed to stand and sour naturally. The cream was then skimmed from the top of the milk and poured into a wooden tub.\n", "Butter cakes are traditionally made using a creaming method, in which the butter and sugar are first beaten until fluffy to incorporate air into the butter. Eggs are then added gradually, creating an emulsion, followed by alternating portions of wet and dry ingredients. Butter cakes are typically rich and moist when stored at room temperature, but they tend to stiffen, dry out, and lose flavor when refrigerated, making them unsuitable for filling or frosting in advance with ingredients that must be refrigerated, such as cream cheese frosting and pastry cream.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Butterscotch\n\nButterscotch is a type of confectionery whose primary ingredients are brown sugar and butter, but other ingredients are part of some recipes, such as corn syrup, cream, vanilla, and salt. The earliest known recipes, in mid-19th century Yorkshire, used treacle (molasses) in place of or in addition to sugar.\n", "Butterscotch is similar to toffee, but for butterscotch, the sugar is boiled to the soft crack stage, not hard crack as with toffee. Often credited with their invention, Parkinson's of Doncaster made butterscotch boiled sweets and sold them in tins, which became one of the town's best known exports. They became famous in 1851 when Queen Victoria was presented with a tin when she visited the town. Butterscotch sauce, made of butterscotch and cream, is used as a topping for ice cream (particularly sundaes).\n", "BULLET::::- Butter beans — butter beans are used to make the soup bean dish called butter beans. These dried limas are cooked with smoked pork and/or ham until the sauce starts to thicken, hence the name \"butter\" beans. Like white beans, butter beans represented prosperity and were often prized dishes when served. Butter beans only refers to dried limas. Fresh or canned limas are called \"lima beans\".\n", "In many African and Asian countries, butter is traditionally made from fermented milk rather than cream. It can take several hours of churning to produce workable butter grains from fermented milk.\n", "In antiquity, butter was used for fuel in lamps as a substitute for oil. The \"Butter Tower\" of Rouen Cathedral was erected in the early 16th century when Archbishop Georges d'Amboise authorized the burning of butter instead of oil, which was scarce at the time, during Lent.\n", "In northeastern Brazil, an unrefrigerated butter similar to ghee, called \"manteiga-de-garrafa\" (butter-in-a-bottle) or \"manteiga-da-terra\" (butter of the land), is common.\n\nIn Switzerland as well as bordering areas, butter was rendered in the old days to preserve the product for several months without refrigeration. \"Boiled butter\", as it is commonly called, is used extensively to finish a typical dish of \"rösti\", the Swiss version of hash browns. It gives the dish a distinct flavor in baking of various pastor use in baked goods as a substitute for fresh butter to enhance flavor.\n\nSection::::Preparation methods.\n", "Lard or suet work well because they have a coarse, crystalline structure that is very effective. Using unclarified butter does not work well because of its water content; clarified butter, which is virtually water-free, is better, but shortcrust pastry using only butter may develop an inferior texture. If the fat is melted with hot water or if liquid oil is used, the thin oily layer between the grains offers less of an obstacle to gluten formation and the resulting pastry is tougher.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In Europe, during the Renaissance and Baroque periods molding food was commonly done for wealthy banquets. It was during this period that the earliest known reference to a butter sculpture is found. In 1536 Bartolomeo Scappi, cook to Pope Pius V, organized a feast composed of nine scenes elaborately carved out of food, each carried in episodically as centerpieces for a banquet. Scappi mentioned several butter sculptures for the feast, including an elephant with a palanquin, a figure of Hercules struggling with a lion, and a Moor on a camel. Another early reference is found in the biography of Antonio Canova (1757–1822), who said he first came to his patron’s attention when as a humble kitchen boy he sculpted an impressive butter lion for a banquet - the story is now thought apocryphal, though it reaffirms the existence of butter sculptures during that period. Butter sculpting continued into the 18th century when English dairy maids molded butter pats into decorative shapes.\n", "Panera Bread Company (original name: St. Louis Bread Company) makes a Danish with a gooey butter filling for the St. Louis market. More recently, Walgreens sells wrapped, individual slices of a version of St. Louis gooey butter cake as a snack alongside muffins, brownies, and cookies.\n\nGooey butter cake is now widely available outside of the St. Louis area, as Walmart has been marketing a version called Paula Deen Baked Goods Original Gooey Butter Cake. While Walmart still sells a gooey butter cake, they dropped the Paula Deen version. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11754	Why is it that things like mouthwash and pill bottles need childproof caps, but things like laundry detergent and alcohol do not?	A child eating a single handful of some medicines will die. This is certainly not true of alcohol, and usually not true of laundry detergent. The safety mechanism is stronger because the danger is stronger.	[ "Child-resistant packaging is now common for medications. There are a variety of methods to secure medications, including caps that must be pinched or pushed down while turning. It may be required by regulation for prescription drugs, for over the counter medications, for pesticides, or for household chemicals where there is a significant risk of death from ingestion. Patients can request medications come in non-protected bottles at their pharmacy, but this is not recommended for patients with young children in the home. Because some children will defeat child-resistant caps, medicine should always be stored up out of reach in latched cabinets or closets.\n", "BULLET::::- Yam, K. L., \"Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology\", John Wiley & Sons, 2009,\n\nBULLET::::- Lockhart, H., and Paine, F.A., \"Packaging of Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare Products\", 2006, Blackie,\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Institute of Packaging Professionals\n\nBULLET::::- Packaging Association of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Jay M. Arena Papers at Duke University Medical Center Archives (During the 1950s Arena persuaded drug companies to develop childproof safety caps for medicine bottles)\n\nNews stories and press releases:\n\nBULLET::::- Mother pushes for childproof packaging at ToledoBlade.com, 2005-08-02\n\nBULLET::::- Childproof Packaging - new designs could save lives at EPSRC, 2005-05-24\n", "Child-resistant packaging\n\nChild-resistant packaging or CR packaging is special packaging used to reduce the risk of children ingesting hazardous materials. This is often accomplished by the use of a special safety cap. It is required by regulation for prescription drugs, over-the-counter medications, Nicotine Containing Electronic Cigarette devices or Refill containers that can contain Nicotine EUTPD 36.7 pesticides, and household chemicals. In some jurisdictions, \"unit packaging\" such as blister packs is also regulated for child safety.\n", "Child-resistant packaging can be a problem for some aged individuals or people with disabilities. Regulations require designs to be tested to verify that most adults can access the package. Some jurisdictions allow pharmacists to provide medications in non CR packages when there are no children in the same house.\n\nSection::::Requirements.\n\nThe regulations are based on protocols of performance tests of packages with actual children, to determine if the packages can be opened. More recently, additional package testing is used to determine if aged individuals or people with disabilities have the ability to open the same packages.\n", "The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has stated in a press release that \"There is no such thing as child-proof packaging. So you shouldn't think of packaging as your primary line of defense. Rather, you should think of packaging, even child-resistant packaging, as your last line of defense.\"\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nThe child-resistant locking closure for containers was invented in 1967 by Dr. Henri Breault.\n", "In the United States, child safety locking mechanisms have been required by law since 1970 on all containers for potentially dangerous medicines and household cleaning products. These laws are enforced by the Consumer Products Safety Commission. These locking mechanisms may take several forms, but the most common is a design that requires a tab to be pressed firmly as the lid is twisted. Great strength and dexterity are not required to open the bottle, but the process is deliberately made to be unintuitive, and the children who might recklessly eat pills are unable to decipher the opening instructions. Parents and guardians are firmly admonished to keep all such containers out of the reach of children anyway, as no locking device is foolproof. It has become common practice in households to keep medicines and pills in high cabinets (sometimes locked) for safety. Cleaning agents, however, are still generally kept under sinks, where they are accessible.\n", "A history of accidents involving children opening household packaging and ingesting the contents led the United States Congress to pass the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970, authored by U.S. Senator Frank E. Moss of Utah. This gave the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission the authority to regulate this area. Additions throughout the decades have increased the initial coverage to include other hazardous items, including chemicals regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency. Accidental child poisonings continue. Coordination exists for improving international standards on requirements and protocols.\n\nSection::::Difficulty opening.\n", "As can be seen from the above provisions, which all follow the principles of the Children and Young Peoples Act 1933, child protection is concerned with the child's exposure to, and consumption of, potentially hazardous products of all description.\n", "BULLET::::- The nationwide introduction of the \"child-proof cap\" for medicines was announced at a news conference in Chicago, three days before the start of National Poison Prevention Week. The new type of container had been developed in Canada and had been tested in Tacoma, Washington during 1967, where local pediatricians had determined that their patients couldn't open the bottle unless they knew to push down on the cap before it could be turned. The \"Journal of the American Pediatrics Society\" reported in its most recent journal that the number of children treated for serious poisoning at one Tacoma hospital over a six-month period had decreased from 50 to only three.\n", "The growing need of dispensaries to comply with various legislative laws has given birth to thousands of new products ranging from vials with child locks on them to, to pop top bottles that are childproof and even childproof joint tubes.\n\nFor example, according to Title 16 C.F.R. 1700 of the Poison Prevention Packaging Act in Washington, any marijuana products, whether they are edibles, concentrates, or waxes that can be consumed either by inhaling or swallowing must be sold in child resistant packaging.\n\nSection::::Recreational dispensaries.\n", "The customer's choice of unit primarily depends on either actual or perceived sensitivity of their product to contamination, and the overall ability to clean their specific product type from the bottle. Those with a lower contamination risk are prime candidates for the washed units. With the exception of products produced in \"clean rooms\" (GMP - good manufacturing practices), the decision of a washed over a new is usually a matter of availability or appearance.\n", "For the product to be safely consumed by a child means that the responsible person must fully understand the product's safe use for its intended purpose. Miss-selling in the law of contract, suggesting the product does something it doesn't or selling products to those that do not fully understand what they are getting is potentially hazardous to the child as the ultimate consumer. Health and medical treatment may involve some form of physical contact in which case lack of proper consent is a potential battery, or even assault, of the person. The procurer must be placed in a position to assess any potential risk to the child in the reliable use of the product. (see 1.19 Reference Guide to Consent for Examination and Treatment (DOH 2009)).\n", "\"Package Not Child-Resistant\" for small packages). As a result, with the exception of prescription drugs, manufacturers of certain household products that are regulated under the PPPA have the option of marketing one size in a conventional package as long as that same product is supplied in a popular-sized package, which is child-resistant.\n\nSome of the main products that are exempted from the PPPA include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Powdered unflavored aspirin\n\nBULLET::::- Effervescent aspirin\n\nBULLET::::- Sublingual nitroglycerin\n\nBULLET::::- Oral contraceptives\n\nBULLET::::- Hormone replacement therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Powdered iron preparations\n\nBULLET::::- Effervescent acetaminophen\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrocarbon-containing products where the liquid cannot flow freely\n", "There is both a business and social imperative to give all the opportunity for safely and satisfactorily consuming the offerings of producers. Some, may not have the capacity to be capable of giving proper consent or agreement for the products that best serve their needs to use those products safely. In the case of parents, their children's needs to keep their children safe. This is called Legal Disability.\n", "Section::::Safety considerations.\n", "BULLET::::- Using clean bottles and nipples: Sterilizing bottles and nipples before first use is safer. After that, it is safe to wash them by hand or in a dishwasher.\n\nBULLET::::- Not making more formula than is needed. Formula can become contaminated during preparation, and bacteria can multiply quickly if formula is improperly stored. The safest practice is to make formula in smaller quantities on an as-needed basis to greatly reduce the possibility of contamination and always follow the label instructions for mixing formula.\n\nSection::::Infant Formula.:Heating breast milk or infant formula.\n", "Section::::Child protection.:Child welfare.:Welfare, risk assessment and the calculus of negligence.\n\nJust as in all of life, the likely benefits of a procured product come with possible non-beneficial qualities. Procurement is a careful activity attempting to achieve the best value for money. The benefits of the product must be satisfactorily delivered as specified for performance in the law of contract. Just as in food intolerances and consent to examination and treatment, the procurer must be made aware of any potential hazards in their circumstances of a product that performs reliably.\n", "Often the CR requirements are met by package closures which require two dissimilar motions for opening. Hundreds of package designs are available for packagers to consider.\n\nSection::::Standards.\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 8317 Child-resistant packaging - Requirements and testing procedures for reclosable packages.\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 13127 Packaging—Child resistant packaging—Mechanical test methods for reclosable child resistant packaging systems\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM D3475, Standard Classification for Child-Resistant Packages\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM F3159, Consumer Safety Specification for Liquid Laundry Packets\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Child safety lock\n\nBULLET::::- Childproof\n\nBULLET::::- Package pilferage\n\nBULLET::::- Over-the-counter drug\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmaceutical\n\nBULLET::::- Screw cap\n\nBULLET::::- Tamper resistance\n\nSection::::General references.\n", "Section::::Legal status.:European Union.:France.\n\nIn France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers. In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs. After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the Council of State on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.\n\nSection::::Legal status.:European Union.:Germany, Austria, Switzerland.\n", "Section::::Fire safety.\n", "Accessories for bottles include cleaning brushes, or bottle brush, and drying racks. Brushes may be specially designed for a specific manufacturer's bottles and teats.\n\nBottle warmers warm previously made and refrigerated formula. Coolers designed to fit a specific manufacturer's bottles are available to keep refrigerated formula cold. Special formula powder containers are available to store pre-measured amounts of formula so that caregivers can pre-fill bottles with sterile water and mix in the powder easily. The containers are typically designed to stack together so that multiple pre-measured amounts of formula powder may be transported as a unit.\n", "Section::::Water access.\n", "The world's first modern bottle cap, the crown cork, was invented by William Painter in 1890 in Baltimore.\n\nThe screw cap using rust resistant aluminum was first used in prescription drug bottling in the 1920s. Molded urea based bottle caps were first introduced in the early 1900s.\n\nA history of accidents involving children opening household packaging and ingesting the contents led the US Congress to pass the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970.\n\nSection::::The manufacture of closures.\n", "JPMA has developed a comprehensive Certification Program to help guide parents and caregivers toward purchasing juvenile products that are built with safety in mind. The JPMA Certification Seal on a product tells consumers this product has been verified as conforming to the requirements established by ASTM, through independent laboratory testing and follow-up on-site inspection of the manufacturer's production line.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Putting a condom on a sex toy provides better sexual hygiene and can help to prevent transmission of infections if the sex toy is shared, provided the condom is replaced when used by a different partner. Some sex toys are made of porous materials, and pores retain viruses and bacteria, which makes it necessary to clean sex toys thoroughly, preferably with use of cleaners specifically for sex toys. Glass is non-porous and medical grade glass sex toys more easily sterilized between uses.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08034	Does nutritional research vary so much because our species is evolving to counteract our diets or do we just know so little about nutrition?	We know very little about nutrition. It is a remarkably complicated subject with some really advanced chemistry. Almost all of our advice is empirical, people tried it and it worked, they figured out how much of x people needed on average because people were getting sick without it. Evolution takes place over hundreds of thousands of years, and we as humans only started having easy access to food in the last century or two.	[ "Nutritional biodiversity\n\nNutritional biodiversity is a diet that focuses on the diversity of an organism's nutritional consumption or intake. Some believe this diversity directly relates to the overall health and vitality of the organism — human or animal.\n\nNutritional Diversity or Nutritional Biodiversity, is a diet studied in Panama by an athlete and permaculturist named Brandon Eisler. He has been studying and testing diverse nutritional intake in the range of 50 to 200 different species, not mono-culture derived, and the effects of this on both athletic performance and healing the sick.\n", "Obesity is one of the most widely studied topics in nutritional genomics. Due to genetic variations among individuals, each person could respond to diet differently. By exploring the interaction between dietary pattern and genetic factors, the field aims to suggest dietary changes that could prevent or reduce obesity.\n", "Speakman's group was the first to link genetic variation to differences in food consumption in humans by examining polymorphic variation in the fat mass and obesity associated FTO gene.\n", "Food diversity, diet diversity nutritional diversity, are also terms used in the new diet culture spawned by Brandon Eisler, in the study known as Nutritional Diversity. \n\nSection::::Consumption of food biodiversity.\n\nSection::::Consumption of food biodiversity.:Trends in food biodiversity consumption.\n", "When studying small herbivores with a cryptic life style, such as voles and lemmings, DNA barcoding of ingested plants can be a crucial tool giving an accurate picture of food utilization. Additionally, the fine resolution in plant identification obtained with DNA barcoding allows researchers to understand change in diet composition over time and variability among individuals, as observed in the alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). Between October and November, by analyzing the faeces composition via DNA barcoding, the alpine chamois showed a shift in diet preferences. Also, different diet categories were observed amongst individuals within each month.\n", "Different fruits and vegetables provide different vitamins and minerals and in differing quantities, and it is this diversity that is essential to ensure that all nutritional needs are met. Every other species of mammal, in the wild, takes in a much larger spectrum of nutrition that humans. The diet realizes also that domestication of food species and humans, is the root of many health problems.\n", "Section::::Advantages.:Examples.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Examples.:Mammals.\n\nMammals diet is widely studied using DNA barcoding and metabarcoding. Some differences in the methodology can be observed depending on the feeding strategy of the target mammal species, i.e. whether it is herbivore, carnivore, or omnivore.\n", "Section::::Nutrition access disparities.\n", "The predominant means of investigating nutriepigenetics involves varying the nutritional conditions to which a subject is exposed to and monitoring the effects thereafter. Restricting caloric and protein intake are the two most common methods. A pregnant rodent may have their caloric intake reduced up to 30-50% of normal intake. Protein restricted rodents are given 8-9% casein, as opposed to control rats that are fed 20% casein. Micronutrients, such as zinc and iron, may also be restricted to investigate the effects on offspring. Additionally, rats fed diets lacking or including methyl donors are often used to study the effects of diet on epigenomics, as variations within the methylation of DNA are common means of silencing or expressing genes. Supplementing maternal mice with folic acid, vitamin B12, choline and betaine leads to increased levels of DNA methylation at CpG sites and causes a coat color change. This is an example of epigenetically modifiable loci called a “metastable epiallele”, of which only a few have been identified. The above is an example of the “agouti” gene locus, whereby the insertion of a transposable element upstream to the Agouti gene is hypermethylated from the supplementation and causes a change in the mice's coat color. Diets containing higher carbohydrate and fat content attempt to mimic typical Western-style diets may also be used in nutriepigenetic studies. Another method used is “catch-up”, where offspring of rats born to mothers subjected to various diets are subsequently cross-fostered to mothers fed normal diets.\n", "Thus, foodomics plays an important role in explaining the relationship between deadly disease, like colon cancer, and natural compounds existing in rosemary. Data obtained is useful in reaching another approach for tackling proliferation against cancer cells.\n\nSection::::Advantages of foodomics.:Processed meat.\n", "Section::::Nutrition policy.:Implementation and delivery platforms.:Nutrition Education.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Diet.\n\nHumans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material. Varying with available food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups have adopted a range of diets, from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.\n", "There is also direct archaeological evidence, different types of tools would be used to process and consume different types of food and often be associated with faunal remains and evidence of fire. Human coprolites can also reflect direct evidence of diet.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Animals.:Diet.\n\nPhenotypic plasticity of the digestive system allows some animals to respond to changes in dietary nutrient composition, diet quality, and energy requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- More \"engaged\" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up steam at all levels of the learning cycle.\n\nSection::::Malnutrition.:Mental disorders.\n", "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.:In comparison to other methods known.\n\nThere are many other major methods of determining how readily used a protein is, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Net protein Utilization (NPU)\n\nBULLET::::- Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)\n\nBULLET::::- Nitrogen Balance (NB)\n\nBULLET::::- Protein digestibility (PD)\n\nBULLET::::- Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS)\n\nThese all hold specific advantages and disadvantages over BV, although in the past BV has been held in high regard.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n", "With varied sources and types of fat, researches have shown the complexity of defining a model of a high fat diet that can both resemble human meals and accurately quantify the nutrient contents. In fact, recent studies prefer to use purified ingredients to exams the effect of each dietary on rodents’ metabolism and their phenotype.\n", "Evolutionary anthropologists who study the evolution of human origins and diet use a variety of methods to determine what human ancestors ate. As a starting point comparative analysis of the diets of humans closest living relatives, great apes such as chimpanzees, bonobos and other great apes, though these comparison are limited. Through environmental reconstruction of the areas ancient humans lived, inferences of available resources can be made. A common method of analysis is through the study of dentition and toothwear, as different foods will leave different markers that can be studied.\n", "Given the diversity in human food and each human individually distinguished metabolic capacity, the results of testing the diet induce obesity in rodents are limited in term of translatability. Furthermore, dietary components would provide a spectrum of results since both type of diets one with mixture of ingredients-\"cafeteria diet\" and one with predefined ingredients would alter different impact on the metabolism of the body.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Experimental.\n\nIntra and Inter Laboratories results can differ due to variation in the experimental factors such as the protocol used, housing, temperature, light/dark cycle and the duration of study.\n", "HNR participated in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey and the MRC's National Survey of Health and Development, which showed insights such as approximately five per cent of the UK's population are vegetarian.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Obesity in the United Kingdom\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- HNR\n\nBULLET::::- \n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- HNR\n\nBULLET::::- University of Cambridge Research Horizons\n\nSection::::External links.:News items.\n\nBULLET::::- Convenience meals in February 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Children's obesity in March 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Watercress and cancer prevention in February 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Heart disease in May 2004\n\nBULLET::::- Fast food in October 2003\n\nBULLET::::- Whole grain foods in July 2001\n", "BULLET::::- The United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies (FNDDS), which in turn is based on the USDA National Nutrient Database. To incorporate the effect of dietary supplements, the USDA Dietary Supplement Integrated Database (DSID) can be used.\n\nBULLET::::- The University of Minnesota Nutrition Coordinating Center (NCC)'s Food and Nutrient Database.\n\nFor non-quantitative FFQs, nutrient intake cannot be calculated as accurately, but the FFQ can still be used to get a rough idea of nutrient consumption.\n\nSection::::Analysis of data.:Calculation of food groups consumed.\n", "In a written debate with Campbell in 2008, nutritionist Loren Cordain argued that \"the fundamental logic underlying Campbell's hypothesis (that low [animal] protein diets improve human health) is untenable and inconsistent with the evolution of our own species.\" Campbell argued that \"dietdisease associations observed in contemporary times are far more meaningful than what might have occurred during evolutionary times—at least since the last 2.5 million years or so.\".\n", "Also the study conducted by Baten and Blum have illustrated changes in the effects from a particular diet of the population between 1870 and 1989. Important finding of the study was that the effect of the protein on heights of the individuals became less significant during the second half of the period under observation (i.e. 1950-1989). Moreover, the main sources of the protein were also modified. This was caused by the development of the technologies and global trade, which have likewise reduced the food shortage.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "As an example, consider groups of similar animals (mice, for example) under two different diet systems. The research question would be: what is the best diet? In this case, H would be that there is no difference between the two diets in mice metabolism (H: μ = μ) and the alternative hypothesis would be that the diets have different effects over animals metabolism (H: μ ≠ μ).\n", "Industrialism combines agriculture with mechanized industrial production of goods through the use of fossil fuels. Additionally, industrial societies use mechanized equipment in order to prepare land for planting, harvest crops, and distribute food to locations distant from where the original crops were planted. Industrialism shows similar trends to agriculture in terms of population density, and environmental impact, except to a much greater degree. Dietary diversity can be highly variable under an industrial mode of production and can depend on access to foods produced for local subsistence on the one hand, or to income level and purchasing power visa vie foods available in food markets (Leatherman and Goodman 2005). Dietary diversity and nutritional health often correlate with the degree of social stratification within an industrial society and sometimes between societies. With the exception of Soviet model states, industrial societies are heavily based on the concept of private property rights and the accumulation of profit through “free enterprise”.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01514	Why are some apples crunchy and some sandy?	Apples are like sand castles. Sand castles stay up because they are built with wet sand. The water helps the sand particles stick together. If it dries out, the sand castle becomes crumbly and can easily fall apart. Once you pick an apple from the tree, the apple will start drying out. As the flesh of the apple loses water, the cells won't be able to stick to each other, becoming sandy or mealy when you bite into it. How crisp or crunchy the apple depends on the type of apple. Certain apples get mealy faster than others.	[ "Different types of apples can be used for the production of apple butter. Apples are chosen based on their physical and chemical properties – such as hardness, sweetness, acidity/tartness, etc. Soft apples are often chosen for the production of apple butter because they can be broken down more easily and faster when cooked. These types of apples include: McIntosh (soft, creamy), Cortland (soft, sweet-and-tart, all-purpose), Granny Smith (tartness sweetens upon cooking, ideal complement to savory and salty foods).\n\nSection::::Production.:Manufacture.\n", "Apple cobbler (also known as apple slump, apple grunt, and apple pandowdy) is an old recipe in which the baked apples are topped with a crust formed of batter, pie crust or baking powder biscuit dough. The topping may be dropped onto the top of the apples in clumps, which have a 'cobbled' appearance, thus the name. Apple pan dowdy most commonly features a pie crust, which is broken (\"dowdied\") before serving: it is a pie, not a cobbler. A 'grunt' is a cobbler cooked on top of the stove and a 'slump' is fruit and biscuit dumplings which is turned upside down after being baked so that the fruit is slumped into the fruit with a fork. \n", "BULLET::::- Apple : 'Bitter pit' – fruit skins develop pits, brown spots appear on skin and/or in flesh and taste of those areas is bitter. This usually occurs when fruit is in storage, and Bramley apples are particularly susceptible. Related to boron deficiency, \"water cored\" apples seldom display bitter pit effects.\n\nBULLET::::- Cabbage, lettuce and brussels sprouts :There is some evidence that plants like lettuce are more likely to experience tipburn (burned edges of leaves) if they're experiencing a deficiency of calcium.\n", "Section::::Food borne disease.\n", "BULLET::::- Bunyard, E. A. (1920) \"A Handbook of Fruits\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sanders, Rosanne (1988) \"The English Apple\"\n\nBULLET::::- Visser, J. (1983) \"Effect of the ground-water regime and nitrogen fertilizer on the yield and quality of apples: results of a ground-water level experimental field with the apple varieties Golden Delicious and Cox's Orange Pippin on a young calcerous marine clayey soil\". Lelystad: Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat\n", "The first step in the production process is the preparation of the fruit mash. The stony seed is removed from the fruits that have such (e.g., cherry, apricot, plum) in order to prevent the cyanide contained in these seeds from ending up in the distillate. Some fruits (e.g., apple, pear, quince) are ground in order to make the mash soft.\n", "The UK's national fruit collection database contains a wealth of information on the characteristics and origin of many apples, including alternative names for what is essentially the same \"genetic\" apple cultivar. Most of these cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), though some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.\n", "Farms with apple orchards open them to the public so consumers can pick their own apples.\n\nCrops ripen at different times of the year according to the cultivar. Cultivar that yield their crop in the summer include 'Gala', 'Golden Supreme', 'McIntosh', 'Transparent', 'Primate', 'Sweet Bough', and 'Duchess'; fall producers include 'Fuji', 'Jonagold', 'Golden Delicious', 'Red Delicious', 'Chenango', 'Gravenstein', 'Wealthy', 'McIntosh', 'Snow', and 'Blenheim'; winter producers include 'Winesap', 'Granny Smith', 'King', 'Wagener', 'Swayzie', 'Greening', and 'Tolman Sweet'.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Storage.\n", "Lowering the pH level of apple butter may also help decrease the rate of spoilage. Acidity in foods creates a less favorable environment for the survival of microorganisms, thus inhibiting the growth of bacteria and molds. Foods that have a pH of less than 4.6 are considered high-acid foods, and apples in general have a pH of 3.7. Some recipes may include the addition of vinegar as a way to further bring down the pH and preserve the quality of the end product.\n", "Toffee apples are made by coating an apple with a layer of sugar that has been heated to hard crack stage (depending upon the type of sugar). The most common sugar coating is made from sugar (white or brown), corn syrup, water, cinnamon and red food coloring. Humid weather can prevent the sugar from hardening.\n\nSection::::Regional traditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Australia - the Granny Smith variety of apple is considered ideal for creating the children's treat.\n", "Apple butter\n\nApple butter is a highly concentrated form of apple sauce produced by long, slow cooking of apples with cider or water to a point where the sugar in the apples caramelizes, turning the apple butter a deep brown. The concentration of sugar gives apple butter a much longer shelf life as a preserve than apple sauce.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Cooking apple\n\nA cooking apple, or culinary apple is an apple that is used primarily for cooking, as opposed to a dessert apple, which is eaten raw. Cooking apples are generally larger, and can be tarter than dessert varieties. Some varieties have a firm flesh that does not break down much when cooked. Culinary varieties with a high acid content produce froth when cooked, which is desirable for some recipes. Britain grows a large range of apples specifically for cooking. Worldwide, dual-purpose varieties (for both cooking and eating raw) are more widely grown.\n", "Section::::Nutrition.\n", "Since the 1930s, the Excelsior Experiment Station at the University of Minnesota has introduced a steady progression of important apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by local orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important contributions have included 'Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'.\n\nApples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they can often, with the needed factors, provide crops twice per year because of constant temperate conditions year-round.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Pollination.\n", "Section::::Railway.\n", "Barker's full classification system also included a three-level classification of tannin: \"full\" for an apple with pronounced tannins (e.g. a \"full bittersweet\" such as Chisel Jersey or a \"full bittersharp\" such as Cap of Liberty), \"mild\" for light tannins, and \"medium\". Tannins are further sometimes categorised as \"hard\" or \"soft\", for bitter and astringent tannins respectively.\n", "Sometimes, commercial brands of apple butter can be found with other ingredients and food additives. High fructose corn syrup is a preservative that has a high level of acidity and is often used by manufacturers in the preservation of food products, including apple butter. Sodium benzoate, an additive allowed under the Canadian food regulation, is capable of inhibiting the growth of fungi and has been used as a preservative in apple butter.\n", "Apples have traditionally been the most important cash crop in Washington. By the 1920s, the state had become the leading producer of the fruit in the United States. In 2003, Washington produced more apples than the rest of the United States combined. In the early 20th century Armenian immigrants Armen Tertsagian and Mark Balaban, proprietors of an apple orchard in Cashmere, Washington, began producing Aplets as a way of disposing of their surplus crop; the idea for the candy came from their faint recollections of eating Turkish delight as children. Aplets were followed, several years later, with Cotlets. The candies were originally sold at a roadside fruit stand but gained greater attention in 1962 as a result of the Seattle World's Fair.\n", "Caramel apple\n\nCaramel apples or taffy apples are created by dipping or rolling apples-on-a-stick in hot caramel, sometimes then rolling them in nuts or other small savories or confections, and allowing them to cool. Generally, they are called caramel apples when only caramel is applied and taffy apples for when there are further ingredients such as peanuts applied.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Section::::Benefits to human health.:Plums.\n\nOf all of the different species of stone fruits, plums are the most rich in antioxidants and phenolic compounds. The total antioxidant capacity (TAC) varies within each fruit, but in plums, TAC is much higher in the skin than in the flesh of the fruit.\n\nSection::::Benefits to human health.:Apricots.\n", "Section::::Packaging and storage.\n\nApple butter is typically packaged in the same way whether it is prepared in a factory setting or made at home. It can be packaged mechanically in jars or cans through the use of machinery.\n", "Apple trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests. Many commercial orchards pursue a program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. These prohibit the use of synthetic pesticides, though some older pesticides are allowed. Organic methods include, for instance, introducing its natural predator to reduce the population of a particular pest.\n\nA wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant. Three of the more common diseases or pests are mildew, aphids, and apple scab.\n", "The unincorporated community of Pie Town, New Mexico is named after apple pie.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple strudel (German \"Apfelstrudel\"), a large Austrian pastry made with apples, sugar and spices; similar to pie in that the filling is encased by the pastry, but it is rectangular rather than round and cut like coffee cake or stollen rather than like pie\n\nBULLET::::- Apple turnover, similar to strudel but much smaller and triangular in shape, with a higher proportion of pastry to filling\n\nBULLET::::- Apple cake\n\nBULLET::::- Apple cobbler\n\nBULLET::::- Applesauce cake\n\nBULLET::::- List of apple dishes\n", "One form of apple allergy, often found in northern Europe, is called birch-apple syndrome and is found in people who are also allergic to birch pollen. Allergic reactions are triggered by a protein in apples that is similar to birch pollen, and people affected by this protein can also develop allergies to other fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Reactions, which entail oral allergy syndrome (OAS), generally involve itching and inflammation of the mouth and throat, but in rare cases can also include life-threatening anaphylaxis. This reaction only occurs when raw fruit is consumed—the allergen is neutralized in the cooking process. The variety of apple, maturity and storage conditions can change the amount of allergen present in individual fruits. Long storage times can increase the amount of proteins that cause birch-apple syndrome.\n", "BULLET::::- using the natural effects of respiration (by grain, molds or insects) to reduce oxygen and increase carbon dioxide (Hermetic storage).\n\nSection::::Fruit and vegetables.\n\nThe method is most commonly used on apples and pears, where the combination of altered atmospheric conditions and reduced temperature allow prolonged storage with only a slow loss of quality.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00180	when a camera zooms into something like the moon, why does nearly all of the atmosphere distortion disappear?	It doesnt disappear. The camera's automatic aperture causes the effect you see. The camera's aperture automatically closes to maintain the image's overall brightness. Because the moon is brighter than the sky, as the moon occupies more of the camera's field of view, the aperture closes, and the surrounding sky appears to become darker.	[ "Speckle imaging recreates the original image through image processing techniques. The key to the technique, found by the American astronomer David L. Fried in 1966, was to take very fast images in which case the atmosphere is effectively \"frozen\" in place. For infrared images, exposure times are on the order of 100 ms, but for the visible region they drop to as little as 10 ms. In images at this time scale, or smaller, the movement of the atmosphere is too sluggish to have an effect; the speckles recorded in the image are a snapshot of the atmospheric seeing at that instant.\n", "NASA's \"Stardust\" spaceprobe suffered reduced image quality due to an unknown contaminant that had condensed on the CCD sensor of the navigation camera. A similar problem affected the \"Cassini\" spaceprobe's Narrow Angle Camera, but was corrected by repeatedly heating the system to 4 °C. A comprehensive characterisation of outgassing effects using mass spectrometers could be obtained for ESA's \"Rosetta\" spacecraft.\n\nNatural outgassing is commonplace in comets.\n\nSection::::From rock.\n", "In early applications of lucky imaging, it was generally assumed that the atmosphere \"smeared-out\" or \"blurred\" the astronomical images. In that work, the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the blurring was estimated, and used to select exposures. \n\nLater studies \n\ntook advantage of the fact that the atmosphere does not \"blur\" astronomical images, but generally produces multiple sharp copies of the image (the point spread function has \"speckles\"). New methods were used which took advantage of this to produce much higher quality images than had been obtained assuming the image to be \"smeared\".\n", "BULLET::::- A Bulgarian Air Force MiG-21 two-seater was used by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences to study the solar corona. The MiG-21, flying at 1600–1700 km/h (M=1,4-1,5) at an altitude of 13,000 m, was able to stay in the Moon's umbra for 6 min. The photographer, an air force pilot, used two film cameras, both fitted with 200 mm lenses and infrared filters, and one Digital8 video camera.\n", "Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR) are particularly vulnerable to this issue, since the interior of the camera is exposed during lens changes unlike other forms of digital cameras, and the image sensor is fixed, unlike a film camera. Even the tiniest (micrometre-size) dust particles or other contaminants that settle on the face of the image sensor (individual pixels of which have dimensions on the order of ~5 micrometres) may cast shadows and thus become visible in the final image as more or less diffuse grey blobs, depending on aperture.\n", "When the actual reduction is 1.00 / 1.30, or about 0.770, the perceived reduction is about 0.877, or 1.00 / 1.14. This gives a maximum perceived increase of 14% between apogee and perigee moons of the same phase.\n", "The Moon's appearance, like the Sun's, can be affected by Earth's atmosphere. Common optical effects are the 22° halo ring, formed when the Moon's light is refracted through the ice crystals of high cirrostratus clouds, and smaller coronal rings when the Moon is seen through thin clouds.\n\nThe illuminated area of the visible sphere (degree of illumination) is given by formula_3, where formula_4 is the elongation (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer (on Earth) and the Sun).\n\nSection::::Earth-Moon system.:Tidal effects.\n", "Like Callisto, Dione's craters lack the high-relief features seen on the Moon and Mercury; this is probably due to slumping of the weak icy crust over geologic time.\n\nSection::::Atmosphere.\n\nOn April 7, 2010, instruments on board the unmanned \"Cassini\" probe, which flew by Dione, detected a thin layer of molecular oxygen ions () around Dione, so thin that scientists prefer to call it an exosphere rather than a tenuous atmosphere. The density of molecular oxygen ions determined from the \"Cassini\" plasma spectrometer data ranges from 0.01 to 0.09 per cm.\n", "About 25% of the image processing work is performed using Adobe After Effects. Most of the remaining work is done with Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Bridge, GIMP, and custom-written software.\n", "Lucky imaging\n\nLucky imaging (also called lucky exposures) is one form of speckle imaging used for astrophotography. Speckle imaging techniques use a high-speed camera with exposure times short enough (100 ms or less) so that the changes in the Earth's atmosphere during the exposure are minimal.\n\nWith lucky imaging, those optimum exposures least affected by the atmosphere (typically around 10%) are chosen and combined into a single image by shifting and adding the short exposures, yielding much higher angular resolution than would be possible with a single, longer exposure, which includes all the frames.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n", "There has been historical controversy over whether features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago.\n", "On July 16–17, 2015, DSCOVR took a series of images showing the Moon engaged in a transit of Earth. The images were taken between 19:50 and 00:45 UTC. The animation was composed of monochrome images taken in different color filters at 30-second intervals for each frame, resulting in a slight color fringing for the Moon in each finished frame. Due to its position at Sun–Earth , DSCOVR will always see the Moon illuminated and will always see its far side when it passes in front of Earth.\n", ". Unfortunately, filtering methods risk altering or suppressing useful image data. Methods developed for multiple-sensor imaging systems in planetary satellites use statistical-based methods to match signal distribution across multiple sensors. More recently, a new class of approaches leverage compressed sensing, to regularize an optimization problem, and recover stripe free images . In many cases, these destriped images have little to no artifacts, even at low signal to noise rations.\n", "Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended. Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used. Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter.\n", "BULLET::::- Moon – traces are outgassed from the surface\n", "The former method assumes a linear response from the camera, which may be provided by DNG or other raw formats. Some variants can take developed images, but the process of reconstructing the intensities is complicated and noisy, compromising the effective dynamic range.\n", "With a few exceptions, astronomical photography employs long exposures since both film and digital imaging devices can accumulate and light photons over long periods of time. The amount of light hitting the film or detector is also increased by increasing the diameter of the primary optics (the objective) being used. Urban areas produce light pollution so equipment and observatories doing astronomical imaging are often located in remote locations to allow long exposures without the film or detectors being swamped with stray light.\n", "Perspective is a property that depends only on viewpoint (camera position). But if moving a lens to a smaller-format camera causes a photographer to move further from the subject, then the perspective will be affected.\n", "BULLET::::- It can be evaluated for an unlimited period of time, unlike the results of a numerical integration which has specific moments of begin and end; however the accuracy deteriorates into the remote past or future, depending on the quality of the polynomials that model the so-called secular (long-term) changes in the orbital parameters. For the Moon, the main secular factor is tidal acceleration: The magnitude of that effect has become better known after the initial version of the ELP was published, due to a longer base line of LLR observations.\n\nSection::::Availability and use.\n", "Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex procedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from the Moon. This is caused by two main sources: \"airglow\" and \"scattered light\".\n", "Of course there is a downside: taking images at this short an exposure is difficult, and if the object is too dim, not enough light will be captured to make analysis possible. Early uses of the technique in the early 1970s were made on a limited scale using photographic techniques, but since photographic film captures only about 7% of the incoming light, only the brightest of objects could be viewed in this way. The introduction of the CCD into astronomy, which captures more than 70% of the light, lowered the bar on practical applications by an order of magnitude, and today the technique is widely used on bright astronomical objects (e.g. stars and star systems).\n", "Section::::Disappearance.:Mrs. Crater.\n", "Myers and Neihouse coordinated with their astronaut camera crew to take full advantage of the digital cameras' augmented capacity for filming in dim light. According to Myers, \"We would not have the nighttime scenes without the digital dynamic range ... What the digital capture did was totally open up that night world to us, with stars, cities at night, lightning and other phenomena that you see at night, like aurora.\"\n", "On April 6, 2008 (Japan Standard Time), the first 1080p high-definition Earthrise video was captured, both a full Earthrise and Earthset video, by the JAXA lunar orbiter mission, SELENE (better known in Japan by its nickname \"Kaguya\"). After successfully orbiting the Moon for 1 year and 8 months, it was crashed intentionally onto the lunar surface at 18:25 UTC on June 10, 2009.\n\nSection::::2013 simulation video.\n", "In September 2015, NASA released the image on the left from the space probe Dawn of the crater Occator on Saturn's moon Ceres. Because of the position of the Sun at the time the image was taken, the walls of the crater may appear to be convex instead of concave. On the right is the same image rotated 180 degrees to change the position of the shadows and eliminate the illusion. In December 1968, the Apollo 8 mission took the photograph on the right of the Moon's crater Goclenius. On the left is the same image rotated in an attempt to create the illusion.\n" ]	[ "Atmosphere distortion goes away.", "Atmosphere distortion disappears when a camera zooms into something like the moon. " ]	[ "It doesn't go away the camera just corrects for it.", "Atmosphere distortion doesn't disappear when a camera zooms into something like the moon. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Atmosphere distortion goes away.", "Atmosphere distortion disappears when a camera zooms into something like the moon. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It doesn't go away the camera just corrects for it.", "Atmosphere distortion doesn't disappear when a camera zooms into something like the moon. " ]
2018-13731	What age do we become aware the rest of the world is always happening/lose the "ability" to only think of what we can see?	What you're describing is self awareness. Sounds like the opposite but it really isn't - you have to be aware of yourself to distinguish between yourself and others. Children are born with some self-awareness. It develops further as they age. There's many levels to it, and isn't fully developed until around 4-5 years of age. Here's a good read on the topic: URL_0	[ "One of the original nativist versus empiricist debates was over depth perception. There is some evidence that children less than 72 hours old can perceive such complex things as biological motion. However, it is unclear how visual experience in the first few days contributes to this perception. There are far more elaborate aspects of visual perception that develop during infancy and beyond.\n\nSection::::Other theoretical perspectives on cognitive development.:Speculated core systems of cognition.:Essentialism.\n", "BULLET::::5. 12–18 months: Tertiary Circular Reaction – The child gains means-end knowledge and is able to solve new problems. The child is now able to retrieve an object when it is hidden several times within his or her view, but cannot locate it when it is outside their perceptual field.\n", "For reasons not totally understood, until a child is several years old, visual acuities from behavioral preferential looking techniques typically lag behind those determined using the VEP, a direct physiological measure of early visual processing in the brain. Possibly it takes longer for more complex behavioral and attentional responses, involving brain areas not directly involved in processing vision, to mature. Thus the visual brain may detect the presence of a finer pattern (reflected in the evoked brain wave), but the \"behavioral brain\" of a small child may not find it salient enough to pay special attention to.\n", "Her father Daniel enriches her environment, crafting a wooden scale-model of their actual neighborhood and supervising her so that she is eventually able to navigate independently. He uses her birthday as an opportunity to develop her sense of touch, providing increasingly intricate puzzle boxes for her to solve every year. He also provides new novels in Braille to read. She becomes entranced by the imagined worlds like those that she explores in her edition of Jules Verne's \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\". \n", "Rather than exist as an unwitting victim of circumstance, all too often unaware of the impact of having been born in a certain place at a certain time, to parents firmly nestled within particular values and socioeconomic brackets, millions of people are creating new virtual identities and meaningful relationships with others who would have remained strangers, each isolated within their respective realities.\n\nSection::::Global implications.\n", "Section::::Stages.\n\nIn Piaget's formulation, there are six stages of object permanence. These are:\n\nBULLET::::1. 0–1 months: Reflex Schema Stage – Babies learn how the body can move and work. Vision is blurred and attention spans remain short through infancy. They aren't particularly aware of objects to know they have disappeared from sight. However, babies as young as seven minutes old prefer to look at faces. The three primary achievements of this stage are: sucking, visual tracking, and hand closure.\n", "As a child he was a voracious reader. He read all 26 volumes of The Book of Knowledge, an encyclopedia for kids. Later in college, he would read every book in the fiction section of a small library, starting with A right through to Z. But he was so nearsighted that, even though he moved to the front of the classroom he couldn’t see the blackboard at school. When his family was finally able to afford to buy him his first pair of glasses, he said he could see individual leaves on trees for the first time in his life.\n", "As early as 3 to 4 months of age, infants show the beginning requisites of joint attention, by looking in the general direction as adults; however, they are not consistently able to find the shared point of reference. At 10 months, this accuracy improves, and infants are also more discerning in their response to joint attention. For example, at this age, a 10-month-old will not look in the same direction as an adult if that adult's eyes are closed, a mistake that younger children make. Initiation of joint attention begins at approximately 1 year old. This might look like a child pointing to an airplane, then looking at their mom, and back at the airplane, as if to say \"do you see that?\" or \"look at that!\"\n", "Disjunctive cognition can also involve time perception. It is quite common to dream that as an adult, one goes back to a time and place of one's childhood. In this case, the perceived age of the dreamer is disjunctive with the setting of the dream. It is much less common to perceive the opposite: dreaming of oneself as a child, where the time and place are that of one's adulthood. However, it is common to dream of other people whom one knew at an earlier age appearing in the present. This is especially frequent in the dreams of people who have lost close relatives. For example, Aharon Appelfeld reported: \"I dreamed about my parents. They had not aged since we were together sixty-three years ago in Prague, and their faces expressed amazement that I had grown older. We were briefly united in mutual astonishment, and I knew that I had something important to tell them. But, as in every profound dream, I could not get the words out.\"\n", "According to Walk there is a clear development of perceptual behaviour, as with increasing age it is shown that children are able to discriminate between depths more accurately, and gauge more subtle differences between depths.\n\nSection::::The development of mental processes.:Perception.:Physical laws.\n", "Deferred imitation is an important developmental milestone in a two-year-old, in which children not only construct symbolic representations, but can also remember information. Unlike toddlers, children of elementary school age are less likely to rely on imagination to represent an experience. Instead, they can verbally describe the model's behavior. Since this form of learning does not need reinforcement, it is more likely to occur regularly.\n\nAs age increases, age-related observational learning motor skills may decrease in athletes and golfers. Younger and skilled golfers have higher observational learning compared to older golfers and less skilled golfers.\n\nSection::::Effect on behavior.:Observational causal learning.\n", "This is the first stage in Piaget's theory, where infants have the following basic senses: vision, hearing, and motor skills. In this stage, knowledge of the world is limited but is constantly developing due to the child's experiences and interactions. According to Piaget, when an infant reaches about 7–9 months of age they begin to develop what he called object permanence, this means the child now has the ability to understand that objects keep existing even when they cannot be seen. An example of this would be hiding the child's favorite toy under a blanket, although the child cannot physically see it they still know to look under the blanket.\n", "In 2011, Elizabeth Graham and Deborah Burke conducted a study that assessed whether or not older adults are more susceptible to inattentional blindness than younger adults by having 51 younger-aged participants (17 to 22 years) and 61 older-aged participants (61 to 81 years) watch the classic gorilla video. Overall, they found that younger-aged participants were more likely to notice the unexpected gorilla than older-aged participants.\n", "According to Piaget, children within this age group are often \"egocentric,\" believing that what they feel and experience is the same as everyone else's feelings and experiences. Also at this age, there is often a lack of ability to understand that there may be other explanations for events outside of the realm of things they have already comprehended. What happens outside their understanding needs to be explained using what they already know, because of an inability to fully comprehend abstract concepts.\n", "Sixteen infants born at term and sixteen born preterm were encouraged to crawl to their caregivers on a modified visual cliff. Successful trials, crossing time, duration of visual attention, duration of tactile exploration, motor strategies, and avoidance behaviors were analyzed. A significant surface effect was found, with longer crossing times and longer durations of visual attention and tactile exploration in the condition with the visual appearance of a deep cliff. Although the two groups of infants did not differ on any of the timed measurements, infants born at term demonstrated a larger number of motor strategies and avoidance behaviors by simple tally. This study indicates that infants born at term and those born preterm can perceive a visual cliff and change their responses accordingly.\n", "Researchers infer that the longer the infant takes to habituate to a new stimulus, the more it violates his or her expectations of physical phenomena. When an adult observes an optical illusion that seems physically impossible, he or she will attend to it until it makes sense. Until recently, psychologists believed that our understanding of physical laws emerges strictly from experience. But research shows that infants, who do not yet have such expansive knowledge of the world, have the same extended reaction to events that defy what is physically possible. Such studies conclude that all people are born with an innate ability to understand the physical world.\n", "Further behavioural studies have shown that this auditory dominance persists up to 4 years of age. Nava and Pavani (2013) investigated the development of multisensory interactions in three school aged groups of children (6-7, 9-10, and 10-11 respectively) using the Colavita paradigm, with the aim of directly assessing whether auditory dominance persists beyond 4 years of age and to examine when adult like visual dominance begins to emerge. They found that auditory dominance persists until 6 years of age, and that the transition toward visual dominance starts at school age. In particular, Experiment 1 showed that children aged 6 to 7 years do not exhibit a Colavita effect, implying auditory dominance. 9- to 10-year-old children and 11- to 12-year-old children exhibited adult like visual dominance of the Colavita effect, suggesting that sensory dominance undergoes a developmental change in late childhood. Nava and Pavani (2013) suggest that visual dominance begins to emerge at the ages of 9 to 10 and is consolidated by 11 to 12 years of age.\n", "Section::::Contradicting evidence.\n\nIn more recent years, the original Piagetian object permanence account has been challenged by a series of infant studies suggesting that much younger infants do have a clear sense that objects exist even when out of sight. Bower showed object permanence in 3-month-olds. This goes against Piaget's coordination of secondary circular reactions stage because infants aren't supposed to understand that a completely hidden object still exists until they are eight to twelve months old. The two studies below demonstrate this idea.\n", "Previous studies have assessed the age at which humans are capable of visual perspective-taking. Various studies within the literature have drawn different conclusions.\n", "Since the age range assumed to constitute as childhood is quite vague within the cumulative research of children’s geographies it is evident the multitude of environments they experience will be quite broad. The array of spaces and places experienced by children includes, but are not restricted to, homes, schools, playgrounds, neighbourhoods, streets, cities, countries, landscapes of consumption, and cyberspace. As environment has been noted by a multitude of social geographers to entail a socio-spatial aspect, it is important to note that over time the recognition of the multiplicity of the term “environment” has both diverged and converged as social geography has evolved (Valentine, 2001; Bowlby, 2001).\n", "Section::::In adolescence.\n\nSection::::In adolescence.:Brain maturation into young adulthood.\n", "Very young children appear to have some skill in navigation. This basic ability to infer the direction and distance of unseen locations develops in ways that are not entirely clear. However, there is some evidence that it involves the development of complex language skills between 3 and 5 years. Also, there is evidence that this skill depends importantly on visual experience, because congenitally blind individuals have been found to have impaired abilities to infer new paths between familiar locations.\n\nSection::::Other theoretical perspectives on cognitive development.:Speculated core systems of cognition.:Visual perception.\n", "In contrast, evidence from tasks looking for indirect effects of thinking about other people’s mental states suggests that adults may sometimes use their theory of mind automatically. Agnes Kovacs and colleagues measured the time it took adults to detect the presence of a ball as it was revealed from behind an occluder. They found that adults’ speed of response was influenced by whether or not an avatar in the scene thought there was a ball behind the occluder, even though adults were not asked to pay attention to what the avatar thought. Dana Samson and colleagues measured the time it took adults to judge the number of dots on the wall of a room. They found that adults responded more slowly when an avatar standing in the room happened to see fewer dots than they did, even when they had never been asked to pay attention to what the avatar could see. It has been questioned whether these “altercentric biases” truly reflect automatic processing of what another person is thinking or seeing, or whether they instead reflect attention and memory effects cued by the avatar, but not involving any representation of what they think or see.\n", "BULLET::::- Infants do not grasp the concept of object permanence when they do not realize that an object exists even when it is not visible at the moment.\n\nBULLET::::- When an object or toy is hidden from an infant they almost immediately lose interest and fail to search for the toy. This is common in infants that are eight months or younger.\n\nBULLET::::- Children who are around eight months can form a mental representation of an object in their head proving that they obtain object permanence (sensory motor stage)\n\nSection::::Piaget's theory of cognitive development.:Sensorimotor play.\n", "BULLET::::7. \"Not knowing is an act of choice.\" During a discussion on the Holocaust, an Austrian woman claimed \"We did not know\"; another participant countered by saying that not all knowing comes from reading newspapers. Looking, listening and drawing deductions are another way of knowing, so choosing not to look or listen or draw a deduction can be conscious \"not knowing\". So: what things in our society are we choosing to look away from, choosing not to know? What will our grandchildren accuse us of?\"\n\nSection::::Production.:Guest selection.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17985	How come when we touch something hot, it takes a few seconds to realize its full hotness?	Heat is energy transfer from one object to another. Since it's not instant it takes some time for the energy to transfer. So you can grab something hot and your skin takes a moment to get enough energy or heat for your nerves to start going "TOO HOT"	[ "Many illusions in vision are caused by adaptation, the prolonged exposure to a previous stimulus. In such cases, the perception of a subsequent stimulus is altered. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as a contingent after-effect. Similarly, adaptation can cause such illusions in the sense of touch.\n\nBULLET::::- If one hand is immersed in cold water and the other in hot for a minute or so, and then both hands are placed in lukewarm water, the lukewarm water will feel hot to the hand previously immersed in cold water, and cold to the hand previously immersed in hot water.\n", "The two basic types of sensation are touch-position and pain-temperature. Touch-position input comes to attention immediately, but pain-temperature input reaches the level of consciousness after a delay; when a person steps on a pin, the awareness of stepping on something is immediate but the pain associated with it is delayed.\n", "Descartes advanced a theory on automatic bodily reactions to external events which influenced 19th-century reflex theory. He argued that external motions such as touch and sound reach the endings of the nerves and affect the animal spirits. Heat from fire affects a spot on the skin and sets in motion a chain of reactions, with the animal spirits reaching the brain through the central nervous system, and in turn animal spirits are sent back to the muscles to move the hand away from the fire. Through this chain of reactions the automatic reactions of the body do not require a thought process.\n", "The cutaneous somatosensory system detects changes in temperature. The perception begins when thermal stimuli from a homeostatic set-point excite temperature specific sensory nerves in the skin. Then with the help of sensing range, specific thermosensory fibers respond to warmth and to cold. Then specific cutaneous cold and warm receptors conduct units that exhibit a discharge at constant skin temperature.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Nerve fibers for temperature.\n", "Within each Somatosensory pathway there are three types of neurons: the pseudounipolar neuron, secondary afferentme neurons, and tertiary afferent neurons. There are also slowly adapting receptors that signify the receptors that sense the indents made on the skin. Rapidly adapting receptors are also present in this system. An example of a slowly adapting receptor in use is when a person breaks his/her arm, the arm is immobilized until it is healed. He/she does not want to forget that it is broken and do something that could potentially worsen the damage in the arm. An example of a rapid adapting receptor in use is putting on clothes. Initially you will feel the clothes being worn, but after a while you forget you are wearing clothes. It is not at the forefront of the brain to focus on the feeling of the clothes on your body; however, if you were to concentrate on that feeling, you could instantly feel the contact between your skin and the clothing being worn.\n", "When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n", "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "The somatosensory system includes multiple types of sensations from the body. This includes light, touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and joint /muscle sense. Each of these are categorized in three different areas: discriminative touch, pain and temperature, and proprioception. Discriminative touch includes touch, pressure, being able to recognize vibrations, etc. Pain and temperature includes the perception of pain/ amounts of pain and the severity of temperatures. The pain and temperature category of sensations also includes itching and tickling. Proprioception includes receptors for everything that occurs below the surface of the skin. This includes sensations on various muscles, joints, and tendons. Each of these three categories have their own types of pathways and receptors. These pathways target the cerebellum in the brain. This section of the brain tracks what the muscles are doing at all times so any potential damage to this area can greatly affect one's senses.\n", "The term ″sensible heat″ or ″latent heat″ refer to types of heat transferred between a body and its surroundings; they depend on the properties of the body. ″Sensible heat″ is ″sensed″ or felt in a process as a change in the body's temperature. ″Latent heat″ is heat transferred in a process without change of the body's temperature, for example, in a phase change (solid/liquid/gas). \n", "The circumstances of a \"now print!\" reaction are described by Brown and Kulik: \"First comes the recognition of high novelty or unexpectedness; then comes a test for biological meaning for the individual; if this second test is met, there follows the permanent registration not only of the significant novelty, but of all recent brain events.\"(1967b, p. 576).\n", "BULLET::::- When touching paradoxical objects, one can feel a hole when actually touching a bump. These \"illusory\" objects can be used to create tactile \"virtual objects\".\n\nBULLET::::- The thermal grill illusion occurs when one touches the hand down on an interlaced grid of warm and cool bars and experiences the illusion of burning heat.\n\nBULLET::::- When the thumb and forefinger are slid repeatedly along the edge of a wedge, a rectangular block then handled in the same manner will feel deformed.\n", "For example, when touched by a soft feather, mechanoreceptors – which are sensory receptors in the skin – register that the skin has been touched. That sensory information is then turned into neural information through a process called transduction. Next, the neural information travels down neural pathways to the appropriate part of the brain, wherein the sensations are perceived as the touch of a feather.\n", "The term \"sensory preconditioning\" was coined by W. J. Brogden in 1939 at Johns Hopkins University. During the first stage of a sensory preconditioning procedure, two neutral stimuli (NS1 and NS2) are paired together either simultaneously or serially. During stage two, the traditional CS1--CR response is established. Subsequently, the CS2 (that has never been directly paired with the US) will begin to elicit the conditioned response. This suggests that the first stage S-S pairings have affected responding because the NS2 does not elicit salivation until after the (NS1) US--UR pairings have resulted in a CS1--CR relationship.\n", "During the first nerve impulse, concentration was either significantly below or nearing that of the second impulse. When concentration was approaching that of the second impulse, facilitation was increased. In this first experiment, stimuli were presented in intervals of 100 ms between the first and second stimuli. An absolute refractory period was reached when intervals were about 10 ms apart.\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "BULLET::::9. Sometime during the period 1698-1704, John Locke wrote his book \"Elements of Natural Philosophy\", which was first published in 1720: John Locke with Pierre Des Maizeaux, ed., \"A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr. John Locke, Never Before Printed, Or Not Extant in His Works\" (London, England: R. Francklin, 1720). From p. 224: \"\"Heat\", is a very brisk agitation of the insensible parts of the object, which produces in us that sensation, from whence we denominate the object \"hot\": so what in our sensation is heat, in the object is nothing but motion. This appears by the way, whereby heat is produc'd: for we see that the rubbing of a brass-nail upon a board, will make it very hot; and the axle-trees of carts and coaches are often hot, and sometimes to a degree, that it sets them on fire, by rubbing of the nave of the wheel upon it.\"\n", "Section::::Sensory modes.:Touch.\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example in humans would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "Thermal grill illusion\n\nThe thermal grill illusion is a sensory illusion originally demonstrated in 1896 by the Swedish physician Torsten Thunberg. The illusion is created by an interlaced grill of warm (e.g., 40°C/104°F) and cool (20°C/68°F) bars. When someone presses a hand against the grill, he or she experiences the illusion of burning heat. But if the person presses against only a cool bar, only coolness is experienced; if the person presses against only a warm bar, only warmth is experienced.\n", "Local equilibrium is the precursor of global equilibrium and the hot spot effect can be used to determine how fast, if at all, the transition from local to global equilibrium takes place. That this transition does not always happen follows from the fact that the duration of a strong interaction reaction is quite short (of the order of 10–10 seconds) and the propagation of \"heat\", i.e. of the excitation, through the finite sized body of the system takes a finite time, which is determined by the thermal conductivity of the matter the system is made of.\n", "Heat spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder body. For example, heat is conducted from the hotplate of an electric stove to the bottom of a saucepan in contact with it. In the absence of an external driving energy source to the contrary, within a body or between bodies, temperature differences decay over time, and thermal equilibrium is approached, temperature becoming more uniform.\n", "Somatosensory sensations occur when receptors detect changes on one's skin or within one's body.\n\nSection::::Types of sensations.:Somatosensory.:Cutaneous sensations.\n\nSensations on the skin are detected by cutaneous receptors. These receptors may feel sensations such as pain, tickle, cold, hot, soft, and rough. Mechanoreceptors detect light pressure (e.g., caress), vibration, and texture, nociceptors detect strong pressure (e.g., pain), and thermoreceptors detect temperature.\n", "Crude touch (or non-discriminative touch) is a sensory modality that allows the subject to sense that something has touched them, without being able to localize where they were touched (contrasting \"fine touch\"). Its fibres are carried in the spinothalamic tract, unlike the fine touch, which is carried in the dorsal column.\n\nAs fine touch normally works in parallel to crude touch, a person will be able to localize touch until fibres carrying fine touch (Posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway) have been disrupted. Then the subject will feel the touch, but be unable to identify where they were touched.\n", "Attention to an object or surface has been directly linked by Wannig, Rodrίguez and Freiwald (2007) to increased neural activation of representations in the early sensory areas. They found support for the enhancement of targets when motion sensitive neurons in the middle temporal (MT) areas of monkey brains were activated during a cued transparent random-dot surface task. As there was more activation in the MT region when there was a motion related to the attended surface or object as opposed to the unattended surface or object, even though the two surfaces were overlapping.\n\nSection::::Evidence of sensory enhancement.:Event-related potential (ERPs).\n", "Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex.\n\nSection::::Function.:Summary.\n\nThe complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward processing of touch-position information) reflects a phylogenetically older, more primitive sensory system. The detailed information received from peripheral touch-position receptors is superimposed on a background of awareness, memory and emotions partially set by peripheral pain-temperature receptors.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00220	How come when you look at lights (I.e. phone, pc, tv) before you go to sleep it takes longer for you to fall asleep?	The blue light messes with your melatonin levels and makes your body think it’s daytime and shouldn’t be sleeping- that’s why night-mode on most devices is a red-orange tint, rather than blue	[ "Section::::In circadian rhythms.:Light.\n\nStarting about two hours before an individual's regular bedtime, exposure of the eyes to light will delay the circadian phase, causing later wake-up time and later sleep onset. The delaying effect gets stronger as evening progresses; it is also dependent on the wavelength and illuminance (\"brightness\") of the light. The effect is small in dim indoor lighting.\n", "Exposure to monochromatic light at the wavelengths of 460 nm and 550 nm on two control groups yielded results showing decreased sleepiness at 460 nm tested over two groups and a control group. Additionally, in the same study but testing thermoregulation and heart rate researchers found significantly increased heart rate in 460 nm light over the course of a 1.5 hour exposure period.\n", "In a study done on the effect of lighting intensity on delta waves, a measure of sleepiness, high levels of lighting (1700 lux) showed lower levels of delta waves measured through an EEG than low levels of lighting (450 lux). This shows that lighting intensity is directly correlated with alertness in an office environment.\n", "BULLET::::- There is progressive wear of layers of phosphor in white LEDs. The change in color slowly moves devices from one photobiological risk group to a higher one.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages of LED street lights.:Health concerns.\n\nBULLET::::- Exposure to the light of white LED bulbs suppresses melatonin by up to five times more than exposure to the light of pressure sodium bulbs. The fact that white light, emitting at wavelengths of 400-500 nanometers suppresses the production of melatonin produced by the pineal gland is known. The effect is disruption of a human being’s biological clock resulting in poor sleeping and rest periods.\n", "The internal circadian clock is profoundly influenced by changes in light, since these are its main clues about what time it is. Exposure to even small amounts of light during the night can suppress melatonin secretion, and increase body temperature and wakefulness. Short pulses of light, at the right moment in the circadian cycle, can significantly 'reset' the internal clock. Blue light, in particular, exerts the strongest effect, leading to concerns that electronic media use before bed may interfere with sleep.\n", "Exposure to light during traditional sleeping hours have are\n\ndocumented to cause disruptions in the circadian rhythm that regulate human\n\nsleep cycles. Biologists have noted a decrease in the amount of melatonin, a natural hormone that regulates the Circadian rhythm, in humans that are exposed to light pollution of the night sky. In order to prevent major impact, biologists suggest to increase the amount of natural light exposure during the day and decrease the amount of electrical light consumed at night.\n\nGrowth patterns of plants and trees:\n\nThe growing pattern of trees have been disrupted and less adjusted to seasonal\n", "At the turn of the century it was discovered that human eyes contain a non-imaging photosensor that is the primary regulator of the human circadian rhythm. This photosensor is particularly affected by blue light, and when it observes light the pineal gland stops the secretion of melatonin. The presence of light at night in human dwellings (or for shift workers) makes going to sleep more difficult and reduces the overall level of melatonin in the bloodstream, and exposure to a low-level incandescent bulb for 39 minutes is sufficient to suppress melatonin levels to 50%. Because melatonin is a powerful anti-oxidant, it is hypothesized that this reduction can result in an increased risk of breast and prostate cancer.\n", "Some types of lamp are also sensitive to switching cycles. Rooms with frequent switching, such as bathrooms, can expect much shorter lamp life than what is printed on the box. Compact fluorescent lamps are particularly sensitive to switching cycles.\n\nSection::::Public lighting.\n\nThe total amount of artificial light (especially from street light) is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space. This light is the source of light pollution that burdens astronomers and others.\n\nSection::::Uses other than illumination.\n", "Mood lighting\n\nMood lighting is igniting or illumination, designed to create a temporary state of mind or feeling.\n\nSection::::Effects of lighting on humans.\n\nField studies have shown in office settings that blue-enriched lighting over the course of several weeks can lead to improved alertness, performance, and sleep quality in comparison to lighting with a lower color temperature.\n\nSection::::Effects of indoor lighting.\n", "Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, in particular in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Blue LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than the orange-yellow high-pressure sodium (HPS) light; a metal halide lamp, which is white light, suppresses melatonin at a rate more than three times greater than HPS. Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.\n\nSection::::Human health.:Effect of drugs.\n", "About five hours after usual bedtime, coinciding with the body temperature trough (the lowest point of the core body temperature during sleep) the PRC peaks and the effect changes abruptly from phase delay to phase advance. Immediately after this peak, light exposure has its greatest phase-advancing effect, causing earlier wake-up and sleep onset. Again, illuminance greatly affects results; indoor light may be less than 500 lux while light therapy uses up to 10,000 lux. The effect diminishes until about two hours after spontaneous wake-up time, when it reaches approximately zero.\n", "During the period between two hours after usual wake-up time and two hours before usual bedtime, light exposure has little or no effect on circadian phase (slight effects generally cancelling each other out).\n\nAnother image of the PRC for light is here (Figure 1). Within that image, the explanatory text is \n\nBULLET::::- \"Delay region: evening light shifts sleepiness later\" and\n\nBULLET::::- \"Advance region: morning light shifts sleepiness earlier\".\n", "In the management of circadian rhythm disorders such as delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD), the timing of light exposure is critical. Light exposure administered to the eyes before or after the nadir of the core body temperature rhythm can affect the phase response curve. Use upon awakening may also be effective for non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder. Some users have reported success with lights that turn on shortly \"before\" awakening (dawn simulation). Evening use is recommended for people with advanced sleep phase disorder. Some, but not all, totally blind people whose retinae are intact, may benefit from light therapy.\n", "Humans are sensitive to light with a short wavelength. Specifically, melanopsin is sensitive to blue light with a wavelength of approximately 480 nanometers. The effect this wavelength of light has on melanopsin leads to physiological responses such as the suppression of melatonin production, increased alertness and alterations to the circadian rhythm.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Secondary.\n", "Over illumination has been linked to various negative health effects. While some effects might happen because the color spectrum of fluorescent lighting is significantly different from sunlight, other symptoms might be caused by light that is simply too intense. In particular, over illumination has been linked to headaches, fatigue, medically defined stress, anxiety, and decreases in sexual function.\n\nSome studies attribute migraine headaches to overly intense light, while others linked it with certain spectral distributions. In one survey bright light was the number two trigger (affecting 47% of respondents) for causing a migraine episode. \n", "In the effort to reduce light pollution, researchers have developed a \"Unified System of Photometry,\" which is a way to measure how much or what kind of street lighting is needed. The Unified System of Photometry allows light fixtures to be designed to reduce energy use while maintaining or improving perceptions of visibility, safety, and security. There was a need to create a new system of light measurement at night because the biological way in which the eye's rods and cones process light is different in nighttime conditions versus daytime conditions. Using this new system of photometry, results from recent studies have indicated that replacing traditional, yellowish, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lights with \"cool\" white light sources, such as induction, fluorescent, ceramic metal halide, or LEDs can actually reduce the amount of electric power used for lighting while maintaining or improving visibility in nighttime conditions.\n", "Section::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:Variable-intensity signal lamps.\n\nInternational UN Regulations explicitly permit vehicle signal lamps with intensity automatically increased during bright daylight hours when sunlight reduces the effectiveness of the stop lamps, and automatically decreased during hours of darkness when glare could be a concern. Both US and UN regulations contain provisions for determining the minimum and maximum acceptable intensity for lamps that contain more than a single light source.\n\nSection::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:Experimental systems.\n\nSection::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:Experimental systems.:Multicolour auxiliary signals.\n", "One treatment strategy is light therapy (phototherapy), with either a bright white lamp providing 10,000 lux at a specified distance from the eyes or a wearable LED device providing 350–550 lux at a shorter distance. Sunlight can also be used. The light is typically timed for 30–90 minutes at the patient's usual time of spontaneous awakening, or shortly before (but not long before), which is in accordance with the phase response curve (PRC) for light. Only experimentation, preferably with specialist help, will show how great an advance is possible and comfortable. For maintenance, some patients must continue the treatment indefinitely; some may reduce the daily treatment to 15 minutes; others may use the lamp, for example, just a few days a week or just every third week. Whether the treatment is successful is highly individual. Light therapy generally requires adding some extra time to the patient's morning routine. Patients with a family history of macular degeneration are advised to consult with an eye doctor. The use of exogenous melatonin administration (see below) in conjunction with light therapy is common.\n", "A more recent discussion (2009), written by Professor Steven Lockley, Harvard Medical School, can be found in the CfDS handbook \"Blinded by the Light?\". Chapter 4, \"Human health implications of light pollution\" states that \"... light intrusion, even if dim, is likely to have measurable effects on sleep disruption and melatonin suppression. Even if these effects are relatively small from night to night, continuous chronic circadian, sleep and hormonal disruption may have longer-term health risks\". The New York Academy of Sciences hosted a meeting in 2009 on Circadian Disruption and Cancer. Red light suppresses melatonin the least.\n", "Providing white light and blue light has even greater impact for those with Alzheimer's Disease (AD). So far, two lighting methods have been shown to improve nighttime sleep in AD patients: (1) exposure to bright white light (at least 2500 lx and as high as 8000 lx at the cornea) for at least one hour in the morning, for two weeks and (2) exposure to 30 lx of blue light from LEDs, peaking at 470 nm at the eye for two hours. The light, or the better sleep, also helped to reduce agitated behavior such as pacing, aggressiveness, and speaking loudly. Evening exposure to bright white light (1500 to 2000 lx at the cornea) for two hours decreased nocturnal activity and severity of evening agitation.\n", "Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety. Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety. For those who need to be awake at night, light at night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.\n", "High CCT lighting generally requires higher light levels. At dimmer illumination levels, the human eye perceives lower color temperatures as more pleasant, as related through the Kruithof curve. So, a dim 2700 K incandescent lamp appears comfortable and a bright 5000 K lamp also appears natural, but a dim 5000 K fluorescent lamp appears too pale. Daylight-type fluorescents look natural only if they are very bright.\n\nSection::::Phosphors and the spectrum of emitted light.:Color rendering index.\n", "Exposure to light during the hours of melatonin production reduces melatonin production. Melatonin has been shown to mitigate the growth of tumors in rats. By suppressing the production of melatonin over the course of the night rats showed increased rates of tumors over the course of a four week period.\n\nArtificial light at night causing circadian disruption additionally impacts sex steroid production. Increased levels of progestagens and androgens was found in night shift workers as compared to \"working hour\" workers.\n", "Fatigue is another common complaint from individuals exposed to over illumination, especially with fluorescent media. \n\nLikewise, over illumination can also cause stress and anxiety. In fact, natural light was preferred over purely artificial light by office workers from both eastern and western cultures. In addition, over illumination can cause medical stress and even aggravate other psychological disorders like agoraphobia. The replacement of natural light with artificial light also decreases task performance under certain conditions.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Circulatory and circadian rhythm effects.\n", "Another study has indicated that sleeping with the light on may protect the eyes of diabetics from retinopathy, a condition that can lead to blindness. However, the initial study is still inconclusive.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-24280	Why was the OJ Simpson police chase so popular?	You’d have to go back to that time to get the context. It was relatively groundbreaking in that it was caught live, involved a high profile celebrity and was just so bizarre that it captured everyone’s attention. OJ until that time was incredibly well liked, it was hard to process that he’d be capable of such an act. There was also palpable pathos in that schadenfreude sense that he was possibly going to kill himself and we probably don’t want to admit we’d be entertained by seeing that unfold live, the ratings bely a different story.	[ "On June 12, 1994, Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman were found stabbed to death outside Nicole's condo in the Brentwood area of Los Angeles. Simpson was a person of interest in their murders. Simpson did not turn himself in, and on June 17 he became the object of a low-speed pursuit by police while riding as a passenger in the white 1993 Ford Bronco SUV owned and driven by his longtime friend Al Cowlings. TV stations interrupted coverage of the 1994 NBA Finals to broadcast the incident live. With an estimated audience of 95 million people, the event was described as \"the most famous ride on American shores since Paul Revere's\". \n", "The series began with the series of specials \"World's Scariest Police Chases\", which was broadcast on February 2, 1997. It was narrated by actor Peter Coyote, and featured commentary by Captain C. W. Jensen of the Portland Police Bureau. Five episodes of World's Scariest Police Chases aired, with the second on April 27, 1997, third on November 4, 1997, fourth on February 17, 1998, and the fifth on April 28, 1998.\n", "The 1994–95 O.J. Simpson murder case, during which live network television followed suspect Simpson for 90 minutes being chased by police, has been described as a seminal moment in reality television. Networks interrupted their regular television programming for months for coverage of the trail and related events. Because of Simpson's status as a top athlete and celebrity, the brutal nature of the murders, and issues of race and class in Los Angeles celebrity culture, the sensational case dominated ratings and the public conversation. \n", "Normally busy Los Angeles streets emptied, and drink orders stopped at bars as people watched on television. ABC, NBC, CBS and CNN, and local news outlets interrupted regularly scheduled programming to cover the incident, which was watched by an estimated 95 million viewers nationwide; only 90 million had watched that year's Super Bowl. While NBC continued coverage of Game 5 of the NBA Finals between the New York Knicks and the Houston Rockets at Madison Square Garden, the game appeared in a small box in the corner while Tom Brokaw covered the chase.The chase was covered live by ABC anchors Peter Jennings and Barbara Walters on behalf of the network's five news magazines, which achieved some of their highest-ever ratings that week. The chase was broadcast internationally, with Gascon's relatives in France and China seeing him on television. Benefiting from the event occurring in the evening, Domino's Pizza stated that its pizza delivery sales during the chase were as large as on Super Bowl Sunday.\n", "Thousands of spectators and onlookers packed overpasses along the route of the chase, waiting for the white Bronco. In a festival-like atmosphere, many had signs like \"Go O.J.\" urging Simpson to flee. They and the millions watching the chase on television felt part of a \"common emotional experience\", one author wrote, as they \"wonder[ed] if O. J. Simpson would commit suicide, escape, be arrested, or engage in some kind of violent confrontation. Whatever might ensue, the shared adventure gave millions of viewers a vested interest, a sense of participation, a feeling of being on the inside of a national drama in the making.\" \"Sports Illustrated\" later commented the chase and subsequent hoopla was \"\"The Sugarland Express\" meets \"The Fugitive\"\".\n", "The show became popular with viewers. It had the highest ratings of any Fox network television special to that date. It was also featured on \"Entertainment Tonight\" and was re-aired later that month. It was the first sweeps-month special ever to run twice during a sweeps period by Fox.\n\nSection::::Format.\n", "While dangerous high-speed chases along the San Diego Freeway are not uncommon, perhaps the most famous chase in its history was also one of the slowest. On the afternoon of June 17, 1994, former athlete and actor O.J. Simpson, who was accused of murdering his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and waiter Ronald Goldman, took to the freeway in a white Ford Bronco (driven by former teammate Al Cowlings) with police in pursuit. A widely televised low-speed chase ensued and ended hours later when Simpson returned to his Brentwood, Los Angeles, home and surrendered to law enforcement.\n", "Retrospectively, \"The Chase\" was considered ahead of its time because it was released before O. J. Simpson's infamous White Bronco chase in June 1994. The film was highlighted for \"taking a look at the growing infatuation that the media had with tabloid journalism, and specifically the need for TV news crews to capture and speculate upon every minor freeway chase that happened in California.\" In 2015, Rollins stated that \"The Chase\" had attracted a cult following, saying that he always receives mails about it when the film airs on TV.\n", "Reality television has combined with the car chase genre in a number of television shows and specials featuring real footage, mostly taken from police cruisers and law enforcement or media helicopters of suspects fleeing police.\n", "A further two special episodes called \"World's Scariest Police Shootouts\" aired around this time as well. The two episodes focused on police shootouts rather than chases themselves, although some of the clips featured a car chase along with a shootout. The first episode of \"World's Scariest Police Shootouts\" aired on February 15, 1997 and the second episode, \"World's Scariest Police Shootouts 2\", aired on April 23, 1998. Both episodes were narrated and hosted by John Bunnell. The episodes featured more well known content, such as: the North Hollywood shootout, the Murder of Darrell Lunsford, the 1991 Sacramento hostage crisis, white supremacist Chevie Kehoe and his shootout with police, and the 1996 Honolulu hostage crisis.\n", "Originally, a typical episode included sections entitled: \"PIT maneuver,\" \"Car Thieves,\" \"Rainy Chase,\" \"Big Rig Road Block,\" \"Jumping Off Bridge,\" and \"Drunk Drivers.\" This was soon dropped, and replaced with a string of clips, each commentated on by Bunnell. After a few videos, a small clip of Bunnell would be shown, often describing the police mentality behind the videos about to appear.\n\nOccasionally, episodes were dedicated to police officers killed in the line of duty.\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 — Oklahoma City bombing kills 168 and wounds 800. The bombing is the worst domestic terrorist incident in U.S. history, and the investigation results in the arrests of Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 — Retired professional football player O. J. Simpson is acquitted of two charges of first-degree murder in the 1994 slayings of his ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and Ronald Goldman. The nine month trial receives worldwide publicity.\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 — A heat wave kills 750 in Chicago, bringing to attention the plight of the urban poor and the elderly in extreme weather conditions.\n", "A video game based on the series was released for the PlayStation in 2001, entitled \"World's Scariest Police Chases\", also featuring Bunnell. The game received mixed reviews, ranging from a 3.5/10 from GameSpot.com, to a 9/10 from Official PlayStation Magazine (UK).\n\nThere was also various home video vhs releases of \"World's Scariest Police Chases\" in the late 1990s.\n\nSection::::In pop culture.\n", "\"PlayStation Official Magazine UK\" gave the game an 8/10, and stated \"It's achieved a vicious racing experience that thrills so much more than it frustrates, and it's pushed vehicular multiplayer forward significantly, setting the bar so high it's hard to imagine who can better it.\" \"Official Xbox Magazine\" gave it an 8.5/10, stating \"\"Most Wanted\" delivers raucous entertainment in spades, whether you're battling Fairhaven City's finest in the campaign or dueling network competition in serious races and silly trick competitions. After years of revisiting \"Burnout Paradise\"s recurring playground, we finally have a fresh racing addiction to keep us hooked until Criterion's next seemingly inevitable open-road opus.\"\n", "As time went on, so did the expectations of the movie car chase. Since \"Bullitt\", car chases featured in movies have become more advanced and arguably more entertaining. Car crashes have also formed an increasingly important role, with the destruction of any vehicle often coming as a delight to the viewer. An early example of a staged but startling accident in a movie chase can be found in the 1974 movie \"McQ\", which featured an incredible rollover, the first cannon rollover in fact, across a beach. The spectacle came at a cost, however, for stunt driver Hal Needham, who sustained multiple injuries after setting the explosives too high.\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "BULLET::::- The Blizzard of '96 (1996). \"...this storm ...so hyped by the media in the same way that the O. J. Simpson murder case became hyped as the \"Trial of the century\".\n\nBULLET::::- The Elián González custody conflict (2000).\n\nBULLET::::- The Summer of the Shark in 2001.\n\nBULLET::::- The trial of Martha Stewart (2004). \"The stone-faced Stewart never broke stride as she cut a path through the media circus.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The 2005 trial of Michael Jackson on child molestation charges and his 2009 death.\n\nBULLET::::- The disappearance of Stacy Peterson (2007).\n", "Section::::History.:Event growth and North Macedonia crash (2005-2009).\n\nJenson Button waved the flag in 2005, starting the London to Monte Carlo Gumball 3000 rally. Entrants drove through Brussels, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Dubrovnik, Sicily, Rome and Florence, before crossing the finishing line in Monte Carlo. Models Caprice Bourret and Jodie Kidd along with singer Jay Kay from Jamiroquai, The Darkness and rally driver Ken Block were included in the list of celebrities that drove in the 2005 Gumball 3000 rally.\n", "The increase in traffic has led to problems on local roads – drivers not using passing places to allow others to overtake, groups driving in convoys, damaged roads, speeding and excessively slow driving blocking others. Some drivers have boasted of completing the route in under 24 hours and some locals have renamed it the Indy 500, after the US car race, because of some drivers' behaviour. Journey times for locals are up to three times longer during the peak driving season. During 2016 – the first full year of its operation – the number of deaths and serious accidents on the main roads forming the route increased by 45% compared with 2014.\n", "\"Nash Bridges\" debuted on March 29, 1996 on the CBS television network. The show starred Don Johnson as the eponymous Nash Bridges, an inspector (and later captain) with the San Francisco Police Department's elite \"Special Investigations Unit\". As the show begins, he's in his 40s, twice-divorced, and dealing with a feisty teenage daughter, Cassidy (Jodi Lyn O'Keefe). Nash convinces recently retired Inspector Joe Dominguez (Cheech Marin) to return to the force to partner with him. Nash and Joe cruise the streets of San Francisco in Nash's \"curious yellow\" 1971 Plymouth Barracuda convertible, a gift from Nash's brother Bobby just before Bobby left for the Vietnam War. \n", "In the \"Family Guy\" episode \"Quagmire's Baby\", there is a sequence of Fred Flintstone fleeing from the police in the family car, in an episode of \"World's Wildest Police Videos\". Flintstone crashes, and attempts to flee on foot, but is delayed by the Hanna-Barbera skiddadle running effect. A similar sequence was used in the episode \"Something, Something, Something, Dark Side\", when TIE fighters and a Star Destroyer were chasing the Millennium Falcon. These sequences were narrated by Sheriff John Bunnell himself.\n\nIt was also parodied on \"MADtv\" as \"World's Queeniest Police Chases\".\n\nSection::::Worldwide syndication.\n\nSection::::Worldwide syndication.:Americas.\n", "Section::::Popular culture.\n", "BULLET::::- Patty Laurel (2003-2004)\n\nBULLET::::- Johan Ekedum (2003)\n\nSection::::Philippines.:2005.\n\nBULLET::::- Colby Miller (2005-2007)\n\nBULLET::::- Nicole Fonacier (2005-2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Claire Olivar (2005-2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Don Puno (2005)\n\nSection::::Philippines.:2007.\n\nBULLET::::- Kat Alano (2007-2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Andi Manzano (2007-2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Sib Sibulo (2007-2009)\n\nSection::::Vietnam.\n", "Section::::Music career.:Later music career.\n\nIn 1993, he released the single \"Pingu Dance\" based on the children's show \"Pingu\". In 1994, he was scheduled to perform a concert on pay-per-view from Atlantic City. The concert was expected to help reignite his singing career in the United States. However, on the night of the concert, O. J. Simpson was involved in a police chase in southern California. Viewership of the concert was significantly lower than expected due to the live coverage of the chase, and the event was ultimately a $1.5 million loss.\n", "Following the death of Sol Gladden, the pursuit of Procopio intensified. The \"San Jose Mercury\" reported on the chase as follows:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20383	How can the EU hold American companies like Youtube liable with it's new copyright laws?	When they do business within the eu they are bound by eu law and vice versa. There are also reciprocal agreements wrt copyright laws, such that we agree not to infringe things that have been copyrighted in each other’s territories within our own territory. Edit: When it comes to websites and such, eu laws have no bearing over what is displayed by a non-eu website outside of the eu but they certainly do when a non-eu companies’ website operates within the EU.	[ "It has been rumoured that during the European Council's private vote to approve its negotiating position in March 2018 the ambassadors of Germany, Finland, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Belgium and Hungary either abstained from voting or voted against the proposal. However, MEPs of each of those countries' governing parties went on to largely or wholly support the directive in parliament.\n", "If references are made, the Court of Justice will give a preliminary ruling, in order for the member state court to conclude the case and award a remedy. The right to an effective remedy is a general principle of EU law, enshrined in the Charter of Fundamental Rights article 47. Most of the time Regulations and Directives will set out the relevant remedies to be awarded, or they will be construed from the legislation according to the practices of the member state. It could also be that the government is responsible for failure to properly implement a Directive or Regulation, and must therefore pay damages. In \"Francovich v Italy\", the Italian government had failed to set up an insurance fund for employees to claim unpaid wages if their employers had gone insolvent, as the Insolvency Protection Directive required. Francovich, the former employee of a bankrupt Venetian firm, was therefore allowed to claim 6 million Lira from the Italian government in damages for his loss. The Court of Justice held that if a Directive would confer identifiable rights on individuals, and there is a causal link between a member state's violation of EU and a claimant's loss, damages must be paid. The fact that the incompatible law is an Act of Parliament is no defence. So, in \"Factortame\" it was irrelevant that Parliament had legislated to require a quota of British ownership of fishing vessels in primary legislation. Similarly, in was \"Brasserie du Pêcheur v Germany\" the German government was liable to a French beer company for damages from prohibiting its imports, which did not comply with the fabled beer purity law. It was not decisive that the German Parliament had not acted willfully or negligently. It was merely necessary that there was (1) a rule intended to confer rights, (2) that a breach was sufficiently serious, and (3) there was a causal link between the breach and damage. The Court of Justice advised a breach is to be regarded as 'sufficiently serious' by weighing a range of factors, such as whether it was voluntary, or persistent. In \"Köbler v Republik Österreich\" the Court of Justice added that member state liability could also flow from judges failing to adequately implement the law. On the other hand, it is also clear that EU institutions, such as the Commission, may be liable according to the same principles for failure to follow the law. The only institution whose decisions appear incapable of generating a damages claim is the Court of Justice itself.\n", "Lobbying in favour of the proposed directive was directed toward the EU itself and was much less visible to the public. The large media groups and publishers have had much greater contact between their lobbyists and MEPs than the technology industry. Stunts pulled by those lobbying in favour include sending MEPs pamphlets with condoms attached with the phrase “We love tech giants, we love protection too”.\n", "In 2018, support in the European Parliament was led by the European People's Party group and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats, the parliament's two largest groups. Major national parties in support include Germany's ruling Christian Democratic Union and their coalition partners the Social Democratic Party, the United Kingdom's ruling Conservative Party and opposition Labour Party, and Poland's main opposition party, Civic Platform.\n", "The implementation of directives on copyright has been rather more controversial than for many other subjects, as can be seen by the six judgments for non-transposition of the Copyright Directive. Traditionally, copyright laws vary considerably between member states, particularly between common law jurisdictions (Cyprus, Ireland, Malta and the United Kingdom) and civil law countries. Changes in copyright law have also become linked to protests against the World Trade Organization and globalisation in general.\n\nSection::::Sources of law.\n", "Article 5(2) allows Member States to establish copyright exceptions to the Article 2 reproduction right in cases of:\n\nBULLET::::- photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation,\n\nBULLET::::- reproductions on any medium made by a natural person for private use which is non-commercial provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation,\n\nBULLET::::- reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial\n\nBULLET::::- archival reproductions of broadcasts,\n", "The Regulation sets out a finite number of exceptions from this general principle. Most of these exceptions are optional and enable plaintiffs to sue in a place other than the defendant's jurisdiction without requiring them to. However others are exclusive and preclude plaintiffs from suing in a place other than that of the member state conferred with the jurisdiction.\n", "Article 6 of the Copyright Directive requires that Member States must provide \"adequate legal protection\" against the intentional circumvention of \"effective technological measures\" designed to prevent or restrict acts of copying not authorised by the rightholders of any copyright, related right or the sui generis right in databases (preamble paragraph 47). Member States must also provide \"adequate legal protection\" against the manufacture, import, distribution, sale, rental, advertisement, or possession \"for commercial purposes of devices, products or components or the provision of services which\":\n\nBULLET::::- are promoted, advertised or marketed for the purpose of circumvention of, or\n", "The article directs member states to consider the size of the provider, the amount of content uploaded, and the effectiveness of the measures imposed \"in light of technological developments\". It also mandates an appeals process, and requires content hosts to share \"information on the use of content\" with the content's owner, the lack of which has been a point of contention in the past.\n", "Under the law of United Kingdom, a copyright is an intangible property right subsisting in certain qualifying subject-matter. Copyright law is governed by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (the 1988 Act), as amended from time to time. As a result of increasing legal integration and harmonisation throughout the European Union a complete picture of the law can only be acquired through recourse to EU jurisprudence, although this is likely to change if the UK leaves the European Union. Controversial new copyright rules which would require commercial online content sharing services such as YouTube to agree licences with and pay a fair fee to the rights holders of material on their sites for online material will be discussed by the European Parliament in September 2018 after MEPs voted in July 2018 to alter the legislative process. On 12 September 2018 new copyright rules were agreed by the European Parliament to help secure the rights of writers and musicians.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Implementation by member states.\n\nMember States had until 22 December 2002 to implement the Copyright Directive into their national laws. However, only Greece and Denmark met the deadline, while Italy, Austria, Germany and the UK implemented the directive in 2003. The remaining eight Member States (Belgium, Spain, France, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Finland and Sweden) were referred to the European Court of Justice for non-implementation. In 2004 Finland, the UK (with regards to Gibraltar), Belgium and Sweden were held responsible for non-implementation.\n\nNational implementation measures include:\n\nBULLET::::- Czech Republic: the amendment No. 216/2006 Coll. of the Czech Copyright Act\n", "Fifth, national courts have a duty to interpret domestic law \"as far as possible in the light of the wording and purpose of the directive\". Textbooks (though not the Court itself) often called this \"indirect effect\". In \"Marleasing SA v La Comercial SA\" the Court of Justice held that a Spanish Court had to interpret its general Civil Code provisions, on contracts lacking cause or defrauding creditors, to conform with the First Company Law Directive article 11, that required incorporations would only be nullified for a fixed list of reasons. The Court of Justice quickly acknowledged that the duty of interpretation cannot contradict plain words in a national statute. But, if a member state has failed to implement a Directive, a citizen may not be able to bring claims against other non-state parties. It must instead sue the member state itself for failure to implement the law. In sum, the Court of Justice's position on direct effect means that governments and taxpayers must bear the cost of private parties, mostly corporations, for refusing to follow the law.\n", "Under Article 3(1), Members States can be censured in the European Court of Justice if their civil procedures on the infringement of intellectual property rights are \"unnecessarily complicated or costly, or entail unreasonable time-limits or unwarranted delays\". Otherwise the Directive harmonises the rules on standing, evidence, interlocutory measures, seizure and injunctions, damages and costs and judicial publication.\n\nSection::::Subject-matter and scope.\n", "In 2018, while campaigning against the proposed Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market, Google encouraged members of the Initiative's working group to lobby their regional MEPs. The private request was revealed by the Financial Times, itself a recipient of grants from the Initiative, and was also published in full by German group Netzpolitik. It begins:One of the actions from our DNI WG meeting in Lisbon was about more information about the proposed Copyright Directive. Apologies for the delay on my side and the timing is urgent as there is a vote in the Juri committee [linked] of the European Parliament on June 20th on the Copyright directive.\n", "The first directive was subject to unprecedented lobbying and was considered a success for Europe's copyright laws. The 2001 directive gave EU Member States significant freedom in certain aspects of transposition. Member States had until 22 December 2002 to implement the directive into their national laws, although only Greece and Denmark met the deadline. The updated directive, which had been contested by lobbying groups on both sides of the issues, gives EU members until 2021 to revise their own country's laws to meet the new Directive's requirements.\n\nSection::::Provisions.\n\nSection::::Provisions.:Rights.\n", "Several European websites, including the European versions of Wikipedia, Twitch.tv, and Reddit, disabled some or many of the features on their websites on 21 March 2019 as a means to protest and raise awareness of the pending vote and encourage users to contact their appropriate national body to affect the vote. This was similar to action taken on 18 January 2012 by numerous websites to protest similar laws proposed in the United States.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Lobbying.\n", "The first draft of the proposed Directive from the EC was issued on 14 September 2016, Following revisions, the Council of the European Union's Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) approved of the EC's legislative directives on 25 May 2018 and prepared to bring the matter to vote in the EP, to reach a final text, without the support of Germany, Finland, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Belgium, or Hungary. The European Parliament Committee on Legal Affairs finalised their amendments to the directive on 20 June 2018 and put them toward the parliament for negotiation.\n", "Section::::History.:Legislative process.\n\nThe directive fell within the ordinary legislative procedure, and thus was to be approved by both the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. While the European Parliament had to pass the Directive with a simple majority, in the Council a qualified majority was needed: at least 55% of the countries, representing over 65% of the population.\n", "Section::::Judgment.\n\nSection::::Judgment.:Advocate General Opinion.\n\nIn the Opinion of Advocate General Maduro, EU law did not need to unconditionally bow to international law, if the consequence could be a violation of basic constitutional principles.\n\nSection::::Judgment.:General Court.\n\nThe General Court held that the Regulation was valid. Although agreements with a non-member state ordinarily prevails, it cannot prevail over provisions forming a core part of the constitutional foundations of the EU system. \n", "BULLET::::- In Case E-8/97 \"TV 1000\", the Court interpreted the transmitting state principle underlying the so-called “TV Without Frontiers” Directive 89/552/EEC and referred to the freedom of expression granted by Article 10 ECHR as well as, with regard to the limitations of that freedom, to the landmark ruling of the European Court of Human Rights in the \"Handyside\" case.\n", "BULLET::::- Voting results in the European Parliament without corrections on 26 March 2019 by political groups\n\n(In favour/against copyright directive)\n\nThe Directive was approved by the Council of the European Union on 15 April 2019. 19 member states (representing 71% of the EU population in the countries that cast a vote) voted in favour of the Directive with six opposing and three abstaining.\n\nThe Directive will enter into force on June 7, 2019. Member states will then have until June 7, 2021 to introduce laws within their own countries to support the Directive.\n\nSection::::Content.\n", "Article 5 lists the copyright exceptions which Member States may apply to copyright and related rights. The restrictive nature of the list was one source of controversy over the directive: in principle, Member States may \"only\" apply exceptions which are on the agreed list, although other exceptions which were already in national laws on 2001-06-22 may remain in force [Article 5(3)(o)]. The Copyright Directive makes only one exception obligatory: transient or incidental copying as part of a network transmission or legal use. Hence internet service providers are not liable for the data they transmit, even if it infringes copyright. The other limitations are optional, with Member States choosing which they give effect to in national laws.\n", "The publishers argue that licensed content providers such as Spotify and Netflix are also negatively affected by the current copyright regime, which they say benefits user-driven platforms such as YouTube (owned by the parent company of Google) and Facebook. They claim reports of spambots flooding MEPs with so many anti-copyright emails that they can no longer carry out their work.\n\nWhile some publishers support the proposal, European Innovative Media Publishers, a publishing industry lobbying organisation, was founded in 2015 specifically to oppose Article 11.\n\nSection::::Positions.:Newspapers.\n", "BULLET::::- Finland: 2005 amendment to the Finnish Copyright Act and Penal Code\n\nBULLET::::- France: , better known as \"DADVSI\"\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom: Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003\n\nSection::::2019 revision and expansion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00592	How can foods/drugs list "generic" ingredients like "alcohol" when in science "alcohol" could describe any one of thousands of compounds.	In food and beverages, only one kind of alcohol is normally used, so it is understood to mean this kind.	[ "To avoid inquiry and punitive action by the United States Federal Trade Commission, cosmeceuticals which do not intend to be regulated as drugs by the FDA are carefully labeled to avoid making statements which would indicate that the product has drug properties. Any such claims made regarding the product must be substantiated by scientific evidence as being truthful.\n", "Essentially, the labelling must clearly and accurately describe the product, which must comply with the standard. The marketer must avoid listing ingredients or naming the product in a way that implies it contains certain ingredients that are not present. Any use or branding of the term \"organic,\" for example, must comply with the organic standard and not be confusing to the consumer.\n", "In law, \"chemical substances\" may include both pure substances and mixtures with a defined composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines \"monoconstituent substances\", \"multiconstituent substances\" and \"substances of unknown or variable composition\". The latter two consist of multiple chemical substances; however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is an extremely complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the exact chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures.\n", "The FCC has two primary sections: monographs and appendices. Monographs are listed alphabetically and typically cover a single ingredient. Monographs, where applicable, provide information about each ingredient, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical structure\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical formula\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular weight\n\nBULLET::::- INS Number\n\nBULLET::::- CAS Registry Number\n\nBULLET::::- Function\n\nBULLET::::- Definition\n\nBULLET::::- Packaging\n\nBULLET::::- Storage\n\nBULLET::::- Labeling requirements\n\nBULLET::::- IR spectra\n", "Section::::Law.:Common names.\n\nIn the UK to avoid being controlled by the Medicines Act, designer drugs such as mephedrone have been described as \"plant food,\" despite the compounds having no history of being used for these purposes.\n\nIn the USA, similar descriptions (\"bath salts\" is the most common) have been used to describe mephedrone as well as methylone and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Combined with labeling that they are \"not for human consumption,\" these descriptions are an attempt to skirt the Federal Analog Act which forbids drugs that are “substantially similar” to already classified drugs from being sold for human use.\n", "Some developers opt to have their products evaluated by an independent academic body such as the CALICO.\n", "USP's standards for food ingredients can be found in its \"Food Chemicals Codex\" (\"FCC\"). The \"FCC\" is a compendium of standards used internationally for the quality and purity of food ingredients like preservatives, flavorings, colorings and nutrients. While the \"FCC\" is recognized in law in countries like Australia, Canada and New Zealand, it currently does not have statutory recognition in the United States, although \"FCC\" standards are incorporated by reference in over 200 FDA food regulations. USP obtained the \"FCC\" from the Institute of Medicine in 2006. The IOM had published the first five editions of the \"FCC\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Product identifier\" (ingredient disclosure): Name or number used for a hazardous product on a label or in the SDS. The GHS label for a substance should include the chemical identity of the substance. For mixtures, the label should include the chemical identities of all ingredients that contribute to acute toxicity, skin corrosion or serious eye damage, germ cell mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, skin or respiratory sensitization, or Systemic Target Organ Systemic (STOT), when these hazards appear on the label.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Supplier identification\": The name, address and telephone number should be provided on the label.\n", "During the first half of the 20th century, generic names for drugs were often coined by contracting the chemical names into fewer syllables. Such contraction was partially, informally, locally standardized, but it was not universally consistent. In the second half of the 20th century, the nomenclatural systems moved away from such contraction toward the present system of stems and affixes that show chemical relationships.\n", "American law requires that certain drugs and biological products must be labelled very specifically. Title 21, Part 201.57 (9)(i) of the Code of Federal Regulations lists specific requirements regarding the labeling of drugs with respect to their effects on pregnant populations, including a definition of a \"pregnancy category\". These rules are enforced by the Food and Drug Administration.\n\nTo supplement this information, FDA publishes additional rules regarding pregnancy and lactation labeling.\n", "To evaluate means to identify it and to determine its quality and purity, the identity of a drug can be established by actual collection of the drug from a plant or animal that has been positively identified. The evaluation of drug involves a number of methods that may be classified as follows:\n\nBULLET::::1. Organoleptic and morphological evaluation: Evaluation by means of organs of senses knowing the color, odor, taste, size, shape and special features like texture.\n", "A further misconception is that controlled substances laws simply list a few hundred substances (e.g. MDMA, Fentanyl, Amphetamine, etc.) and compliance can be achieved via checking a CAS number, chemical name or similar identifier. However, the reality is that most countries enact “generic statement\" or “chemical space” laws, which aim to control all chemicals similar to the “named” substance. These either provide detailed descriptions similar to Markushes, or simply state analogues are also controlled. In addition, control of most named substances is extended to control of all of their ethers, esters, salts and stereoisomers.\n", "BULLET::::- Name – It must inform the customer the nature of the product. It may also be necessary to attach a description to the product name. However, there are certain generic names which must be only used for their conventional uses. Muesli, Coffee, and prawns are among those exceptions.\n", "A further misconception is that the Misuse of Drugs Act simply lists a few hundred substances (e.g. MDMA, Fentanyl, Amphetamine, etc.) and compliance can be achieved via checking a CAS number, chemical name or similar identifier. However, the reality is that in most cases all ethers, esters, salts and stereo isomers are also controlled and it is impossible to simply list all of these. The act contains several \"generic statements\" or \"chemical space\" laws, which aim to control all chemicals similar to the \"named\" substance, these provide detailed descriptions similar to Markushes, a good example of a few of these are found in the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (amendment) order 2013. \n", "BULLET::::1. Where toxicological or ecotoxicological test data are available for the mixture itself, the classification of the mixture will be based on that data;\n\nBULLET::::2. Where test data are not available for the mixture itself, then the appropriate bridging principles should be applied, which uses test data for components and/or similar mixtures;\n\nBULLET::::3. If (1) test data are not available for the mixture itself, and (2) the bridging principles cannot be applied, then use the calculation or cutoff values described in the specific endpoint to classify the mixture.\n\nSection::::Testing requirements.\n", "List of MeSH codes (J02)\n\nThe following is a list of the \"J\" codes for MeSH. It is a product of the United States National Library of Medicine.\n\nSource for content is here. (File \"2006 MeSH Trees\".)\n\nSection::::--- food and beverages.\n\nSection::::--- food and beverages.:--- beverages.\n\nBULLET::::- --- alcoholic beverages\n\nBULLET::::- --- absinthe\n\nBULLET::::- --- beer\n\nBULLET::::- --- wine\n\nBULLET::::- --- carbonated beverages\n\nBULLET::::- --- coffee\n\nBULLET::::- --- milk\n\nBULLET::::- --- cultured milk products\n\nBULLET::::- --- infant formula\n\nBULLET::::- --- milk, human\n\nBULLET::::- --- milk substitutes\n\nBULLET::::- --- infant formula\n\nBULLET::::- --- soy milk\n\nBULLET::::- --- mineral waters\n", "BULLET::::2. The facility does not compound using \"bulk drug substances\" (unless certain exceptions apply) and its drugs are manufactured by an FDA-registered establishment.\n\nBULLET::::3. Other ingredients used in compounding the drug must comply with the standards of the applicable United States Pharmacopeia or National Formulary monograph, if a monograph exists.\n\nBULLET::::4. The drug does not appear on a list published by FDA of unsafe or ineffective drugs.\n\nBULLET::::5. The drug is not \"essentially a copy\" of one or more marketed drugs (as defined uniquely in section 503B, notably more broadly and with narrower exclusions than for \"traditional\" compounding).\n", "BULLET::::- Turkey: Published Turkish CLP regulation and SDS regulation in 2013 and 2014 respectively. The deadline for substance classification was June 1, 2015, for mixtures, it was June 1, 2016.\n", "U.S. Code of Federal Regulations requires that certain drugs and biological products must be labelled very specifically with respect to their effects on pregnant populations, including a definition of a \"pregnancy category\". These rules are enforced by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA does not regulate labelling for all hazardous and non-hazardous substances and some potentially hazardous substances are not assigned a pregnancy category.\n", "Some difficulty has arisen since the passing of the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act concerning the use of the Pharmacopoeia as a legal standard for the drugs and preparations contained in it. The Pharmacopoeia is defined in the preface as only \"intended to afford to the members of the medical profession and those engaged in the preparation of medicines throughout the British Empire one uniform standard and guide whereby the nature and composition of, substances to be used in medicine may be ascertained and determined\". It cannot be an encyclopaedia of substances used in medicine, and can be used only as a standard for the substances and preparations contained in it, and for no others. It has been held in the Divisional Courts (Dickins v. Randerson) that the Pharmacopoeia is a standard for official preparations asked for under their pharmacopoeial name. But there are many substances in the Pharmacopoeia which are not only employed in medicine, but have other uses, such as sulphur, gum benzoin, tragacanth, gum arabic, ammonium carbonate, beeswax, oil of turpentine, linseed oil, and for these a commercial standard of purity as distinct from a medicinal one is needed, since the preparations used in medicine should be of the highest possible degree of purity obtainable, and this standard would be too high and too expensive for ordinary purposes. The use of trade synonyms in the Pharmacopoeia, such as saltpetre for purified potassium nitrate, and milk of sulphur for precipitated sulphur, is partly answerable for this difficulty, and has proved to be a mistake, since it affords ground for legal prosecution if a chemist sells a drug of ordinary commercial purity for trade purposes, instead of the purified preparation which is official in the Pharmacopoeia for medicinal use. This would not be the case if the trade synonym were omitted. For many drugs and chemicals not in the Pharmacopoeia there is no standard of purity that can be used under the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act, and for these, as well as for the commercial quality of those drugs and essential oils which are also in the Pharmacopoeia, a legal standard of commercial purity is much needed. This subject formed the basis of discussion at several meetings of the Pharmaceutical Society, and the results have been embodied in a work called \"Suggested Standards for Foods and Drugs\" by C. G. Moor, which indicates the average degree of purity of many drugs and chemicals used in the arts, as well as the highest degree of purity obtainable in commerce of those used in medicine.\n", "BULLET::::- It can be extended by private and proprietary concepts and terms. For example, company specific codes and proprietary knowledge can be added as required. Guidelines for the \"proper definition of a concept\" are provided in the documentation.\n\nBULLET::::- It is computer interpretable and system independent.\n\nThe \"Gellish English Dictionary-Taxonomy\" is available as a collection of standardized Gellish Data Tables. Each of those tables has the same standard column definitions. Thus the whole dictionary-taxonomy can be treated as if it were one table.\n", "For example, in the Library of Congress Subject Headings (a subject heading system that uses a controlled vocabulary), authorized terms—subject headings in this case—have to be chosen to handle choices between variant spellings of the same word (American versus British), choice among scientific and popular terms (\"cockroach\" versus \"Periplaneta americana\"), and choices between synonyms (\"automobile\" versus \"car\"), among other difficult issues.\n", "Both the plaintiffs' counsel and the defendant's counsel made use of the dictionaries. The plaintiffs' counsel read in evidence from the same dictionaries the definitions of the word tomato, while the defendant's counsel then read in evidence from Webster's Dictionary the definitions of the words pea, eggplant, cucumber, squash, and pepper. Countering this, the plaintiff then read in evidence from Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries the definitions of potato, turnip, parsnip, cauliflower, cabbage, carrot and bean.\n\nSection::::The Court's decision.\n", "For example, the 2015 American Society of Hematology (ASH) publication policies say, \"Non-proprietary (generic/scientific) names should be used and should be lowercase.\" ... \"[T]he first letter of the name of a proprietary drug should be capitalized.\" ... \"If necessary, you may include a proprietary name in parentheses directly following the generic name after its first mention.\"\n", "Because these jams \"purported to be, and were represented to be\" something whose definition and identity had been prescribed, the court concluded manufacturer \"could not escape the impact\" of the FDCA merely by labeling them \"imitation\" and \"truthfully setting forth on the label\" the jams' contents and their proportions.\n" ]	[ "Alcohol in an ingredient list could be any of thousands of compounds." ]	[ "Only one kind of alcohol is used in food." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Alcohol in an ingredient list could be any of thousands of compounds." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only one kind of alcohol is used in food." ]
2018-02501	why can’t we eat dry yeast with a bit of water and as an effective and cheap weight-loss medicine, as it should technically rise and keep you full?	The rising effect of yeast happens because the yeast converts sugars in the food to carbon dioxide (CO2; along with other waste products including alcohol). Without sugar, there is no gas being produced, so you'd have to eat some food along with the yeast. However, the yeast will likely be killed very quickly after it comes into contact with your stomach acid. If you want to have a belly full of CO2, I imagine you'd be better off drinking lots of carbonated beverages. I doubt that this would really make you feel full though. Bloated, probably, but not really satiated. If you are interested in eating active yeast, be very careful. Some strains may be relatively safe to eat, although they can cause stomach pains nonetheless and some people are allergic to it. Other strains might make you ill. Personally, I wouldn't recommend it.	[ "Section::::Uses.:Nutritional supplements.\n\nYeast is used in nutritional supplements, especially those marketed to vegans. It is often referred to as \"nutritional yeast\" when sold as a dietary supplement. Nutritional yeast is a deactivated yeast, usually \"S. cerevisiae\". It is naturally low in fat and sodium as well as an excellent source of protein and vitamins, especially most B-complex vitamins (contrary to some claims, it contains little or no vitamin B ), as well as other minerals and cofactors required for growth. Some brands of nutritional yeast, though not all, are fortified with vitamin B, which is produced separately by bacteria.\n", "Today, there are several retailers of baker's yeast; one of the earlier developments in North America is Fleischmann's Yeast, in 1868. During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast which did not require refrigeration, had a longer shelf life than fresh yeast, and rose twice as fast. Baker's yeast is also sold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square \"cake\". This form perishes quickly, so must be used soon after production. A weak solution of water and sugar can be used to determine whether yeast is expired. In the solution, active yeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some recipes refer to this as proofing the yeast, as it \"proves\" (tests) the viability of the yeast before the other ingredients are added. When a sourdough starter is used, flour and water are added instead of sugar; this is referred to as proofing the sponge.\n", "However, the greatest risk of over supplementing a must is that excess nitrogen and other nutrients will be left behind after fermentation is complete. This can create microbial instability as spoilage organisms can use these excess nutrients.\n\nSection::::Nitrogen supplementation.:Wine laws and regulations.\n", "Candida blankii has been detected in Iberian ham and meat.\n\nSection::::Symbiosis.\n\nAn Indian study of seven bee species and 9 plant species found 45 yeast species from 16 genera colonise the nectaries of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the genus \"Candida\"; the most common species in honey bee stomachs was \"Dekkera intermedia\", while the most common species colonising flower nectaries was \"Candida blankii\". Although the mechanics are not fully understood, it was found that \"A. indica\" flowers more if \"C. blankii\" are present.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bioaerosol\n\nBULLET::::- Ethanol fermentation\n", "BULLET::::- Instant yeast appears similar to active dry yeast, but has smaller granules with substantially higher percentages of live cells per comparable unit volumes. It is more perishable than active dry yeast but also does not require rehydration, and can usually be added directly to all but the driest doughs. In general, instant yeast has a small amount of ascorbic acid added as a preservative. Some producers provide specific variants for doughs with high sugar contents, and such yeasts are more generally known as osmotolerant yeasts.\n", "Researchers from the University of British Columbia, Canada, have found a new strain of yeast that has reduced amines. The amines in red wine and Chardonnay produce off-flavors and cause headaches and hypertension in some people. About 30% of people are sensitive to biogenic amines, such as histamines.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Baking.\n", "The use of steamed or boiled potatoes, water from potato boiling, or sugar in a bread dough provides food for the growth of yeasts; however, too much sugar will dehydrate them. Yeast growth is inhibited by both salt and sugar, but more so by salt than sugar. Some sources say fats, such as butter and eggs, slow down yeast growth; others say the effect of fat on dough remains unclear, presenting evidence that small amounts of fat are beneficial for baked bread volume.\n", "Some species of yeast are opportunistic pathogens that can cause infection in people with compromised immune systems. \"Cryptococcus neoformans\" and \"Cryptococcus gattii\" are significant pathogens of immunocompromised people. They are the species primarily responsible for cryptococcosis, a fungal disease that occurs in about one million HIV/AIDS patients, causing over 600,000 deaths annually. The cells of these yeast are surrounded by a rigid polysaccharide capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by white blood cells in the human body.\n", "Nutritional yeast has a strong flavor that is described as nutty, cheesy, or creamy, which makes it popular as an ingredient in cheese substitutes. It is often used by vegans in place of cheese, for example in mashed and fried potatoes, in scrambled tofu, or as a topping for popcorn.\n", "A risk in sugaring is that sugar itself attracts moisture. Once a sufficient moisture level is reached, native yeast in the environment will come out of dormancy and begin to ferment the sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide. This leads to the process of fermentation. Although fermentation can be used as a food preservation method, it must be intentionally controlled, or the results will tend to be unpleasant.\n", "Yeast autolysates are used in AussieMite, Mightymite, Vegemite, Marmite, New Zealand Marmite, Promite, Cenovis, Vitam-R, and Maggi sauce. Bovril (Ireland and the United Kingdom) switched from beef extract to yeast extract for 2005 and most of 2006, but later switched back.\n", "Although some species of bacteria that can produce B could potentially grow along with \"S. cerevisiae\" in the wild, commercially produced nutritional yeast is grown in controlled conditions that would normally not allow those bacteria to grow. Therefore, nutritional yeast is not a reliable source of B unless it is fortified.\n\nSection::::Glutamic acid.\n", "BULLET::::- Active dry yeast is the form of yeast most commonly available to non-commercial bakers in the United States. It consists of coarse oblong granules of yeast, with live yeast cells encapsulated in a thick jacket of dry, dead cells with some growth medium. Under most conditions, active dry yeast must first be proofed or rehydrated. It can be stored at room temperature for a year, or frozen for more than a decade, which means that it has better keeping qualities than other forms, but it is generally considered more sensitive than other forms to thermal shock when actually used in recipes.\n", "The most common top-cropping brewer's yeast, \"S. cerevisiae\", is the same species as the common baking yeast. Brewer's yeast is also very rich in essential minerals and the B vitamins (except B). However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, to carbonate dough in the shortest amount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act more slowly but tend to produce fewer off-flavours and tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%).\n", "Nutritional yeast has a nutty, cheesy flavor and is often used as an ingredient in cheese substitutes. Another popular use is as a topping for popcorn. It can also be used in mashed and fried potatoes, as well as in scrambled eggs. It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to cornmeal. In Australia, it is sometimes sold as \"savoury yeast flakes\". Though \"nutritional yeast\" usually refers to commercial products, inadequately fed prisoners have used \"home-grown\" yeast to prevent vitamin deficiency.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Probiotics.\n", "Some probiotic supplements use the yeast \"S. boulardii\" to maintain and restore the natural flora in the gastrointestinal tract. \"S. boulardii\" has been shown to reduce the symptoms of acute diarrhea, reduce the chance of infection by \"Clostridium difficile\" (often identified simply as C. difficile or C. diff), reduce bowel movements in diarrhea-predominant IBS patients, and reduce the incidence of antibiotic-, traveler's-, and HIV/AIDS-associated diarrheas.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Aquarium hobby.\n", "Red rice yeast is a product of the mold \"Monascus purpureus\" grown on rice, and is common in Asian diets. The yeast contains several compounds collectively known as monacolins, which are known to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. A study has shown that red rice yeast used as a dietary supplement, combined with fish oil and healthy lifestyle changes, may help reduce \"bad\" cholesterol as effectively as certain commercial statin drugs.\n", "During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a active dry yeast for the United States armed forces, which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelf-life and better temperature tolerance than fresh yeast; it is still the standard yeast for US military recipes. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Lesaffre later created instant yeast in 1973, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications.\n\nSection::::Types of baker's yeast.\n", "Nutritional values for nutritional yeast vary from one manufacturer to another. On average, two tablespoons (about 30 ml) provides 60 calories with 5 g of carbohydrates (four grams of which is fiber). A serving also provides 9 g of protein and is a complete protein, providing all nine amino acids the human body cannot produce. While fortified and unfortified nutritional yeast both provide iron, the fortified yeast provides 20 percent of the recommended daily value, while unfortified yeast provides only 5 percent. Unfortified nutritional yeast provides from 35 to 100 percent of vitamins B1 and B2.\n", "Because of the incredible complexity of mammalian systems, yeast are often used as a model organism for working out new pathways. These single-celled organisms are often more genetically tractable than mammalian cells, and strain libraries are available to supply strains harboring almost any non-lethal open reading frame single deletion. The two most commonly used yeasts are \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" and \"Schizosaccharomyces pombe\", although research is also done in the pathogenic yeast \"Candida albicans\".\n", "Research has explored the possibility of replacing SSL with the use of enzymes. Enzyme technologies, by themselves, have not been able to completely replace SSL. A major limitation of enzymes is the production of gummy bread of unpredictable quality. Also, enzymes often do not augment dough strength, which is necessary to prevent loaf collapse during baking. Currently, enzymes are being used in conjunction with SSL to maximize the shelf life of bread. SSL is very good at increasing softness of bread during the first week after baking. Enzyme technology works best after the first 5 days of shelf life. Therefore, bread with optimal softness throughout the desired shelf life is obtained by using a combination of these technologies.\n", "During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast for the United States armed forces, which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelf-life and better temperature tolerance than fresh yeast; it is still the standard yeast for US military recipes. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Lesaffre would later create instant yeast in the 1970s, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Ecology.\n", "Marine yeasts, defined as the yeasts that are isolated from marine environments, are able to grow better on a medium prepared using seawater rather than freshwater. The first marine yeasts were isolated by Bernhard Fischer in 1894 from the Atlantic Ocean, and those were identified as \"Torula\" sp. and \"Mycoderma\" sp. Following this discovery, various other marine yeasts have been isolated from around the world from different sources, including seawater, seaweeds, marine fish and mammals. Among these isolates, some marine yeasts originated from terrestrial habitats (grouped as facultative marine yeast), which were brought to and survived in marine environments. The other marine yeasts were grouped as obligate or indigenous marine yeasts, which confine to marine habitats. However, no sufficient evidence has been found to explain the indispensability of seawater for obligate marine yeasts. It has been reported that marine yeasts are able to produce many bioactive substances, such as amino acids, glucans, glutathione, toxins, enzymes, phytase and vitamins with potential application in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and chemical industries as well as for marine culture and environmental protection. Marine yeast was successfully used to produce bioethanol using seawater-based media which will potentially reduce the water footprint of bioethanol.\n", "Some yeasts can find potential application in the field of bioremediation. One such yeast, \"Yarrowia lipolytica\", is known to degrade palm oil mill effluent, TNT (an explosive material), and other hydrocarbons, such as alkanes, fatty acids, fats and oils. It can also tolerate high concentrations of salt and heavy metals, and is being investigated for its potential as a heavy metal biosorbent. \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" has potential to bioremediate toxic pollutants like arsenic from industrial effluent. Bronze statues are known to be degraded by certain species of yeast. Different yeasts from Brazilian gold mines bioaccumulate free and complexed silver ions.\n", "Yeast extract is the common name for various forms of processed yeast products that are used as food additives or flavours. They are often used in the same way that monosodium glutamate (MSG) is used and, like MSG, often contain free glutamic acid. The general method for making yeast extract for food products such as Vegemite and Marmite on a commercial scale is to add salt to a suspension of yeast, making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells' shrivelling up. This triggers autolysis, wherein the yeast's digestive enzymes break their own proteins down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls that would give poor texture) are separated. Yeast autolysates are used in Vegemite and Promite (Australia); Marmite (the United Kingdom); the unrelated Marmite (New Zealand); Vitam-R (Germany); and Cenovis (Switzerland).\n" ]	[ "Consuming dry yeast and water would be an effective way to lose weight due to the yeast allowing one to feel satiated at all times." ]	[ "Yeast converts sugar in foods to CO2, therefore some food would need to be consumed in order to see the effect, to add, the yeast would likely die in ones stomach acid quickly, making it an ineffective tactic." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Consuming dry yeast and water would be an effective way to lose weight due to the yeast allowing one to feel satiated at all times.", "Consuming dry yeast and water would be an effective way to lose weight due to the yeast allowing one to feel satiated at all times." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Yeast converts sugar in foods to CO2, therefore some food would need to be consumed in order to see the effect, to add, the yeast would likely die in ones stomach acid quickly, making it an ineffective tactic.", "Yeast converts sugar in foods to CO2, therefore some food would need to be consumed in order to see the effect, to add, the yeast would likely die in ones stomach acid quickly, making it an ineffective tactic." ]
2018-11311	How did the spinning red, blue, and white barber pole get synonymous with barber shops?	Barbers way back in the day used to practice bloodletting (cutting to release blood) as a treatment for certain illnesses. The red represents the dripping blood. The pole used to represent that has stayed with the image of being a barber.	[ "During medieval times, barbers performed surgery on customers, as well as tooth extractions. The original pole had a brass wash basin at the top (representing the vessel in which leeches were kept) and bottom (representing the basin that received the blood). The pole itself represents the staff that the patient gripped during the procedure to encourage blood flow.\n", "Barber's pole\n\nA barber's pole is a type of sign used by barbers to signify the place or shop where they perform their craft. The trade sign is, by a tradition dating back to the Middle Ages, a staff or pole with a helix of colored stripes (often red and white in many countries, but usually red, white and blue in the United States). The pole may be stationary or may revolve, often with the aid of an electric motor.\n", "BULLET::::- The National Hockey League's Montreal Canadiens had a barber pole or \"barber shop\" design jersey for the year 1912–1913.\n", "As early as 1905, use of the poles was reported to be \"diminishing\" in the United States.\n\nIn Forest Grove, Oregon, the \"World's Tallest Barber Shop Pole\" measures .\n\nThe consistent use of this symbol for advertising was analogous to an apothecary's show globe, a tobacconist's cigar store Indian and a pawn broker's three gold balls.\n\nSection::::Use in barbering.\n", "A \"barber's pole\" with a helical stripe is a familiar sight, and is used as a secondary metaphor to describe objects in many other contexts. For example, if the shaft or tower of a lighthouse has been painted with a helical stripe as a daymark, the lighthouse could be described as having been painted in \"barber's pole\" colors. Likewise, borders may be marked and warnings highlighted.\n\nSection::::Origin in barbering and surgery.\n", "After the formation of the United Barber Surgeon's Company in England, a statute required the barber to use a red and white pole and the surgeon to use a red pole. In France, surgeons used a red pole with a basin attached to identify their offices. Blue often appears on poles in the United States, possibly as a homage to its national colors. Another, more fanciful interpretation of these barber pole colors is that red represents arterial blood, blue is symbolic of venous blood, and white depicts the bandage.\n", "Section::::History.:19th century.\n", "A few years before Nichols published [in 1816] his \"Literary Anecdotes\", two booksellers used to sport their rubric posts close to each other here in Little Britain, and these rubric posts were once as much the type of a bookseller's shop as the pole is of a barber's ... Sewell, Cornhill, and Kecket and De Hondt, Strand, were among the last to use these curious trade signs.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.:Border and lane markers.\n", "Prior to 1950, there were four manufacturers of barber poles in the United States. In 1950, William Marvy of St. Paul, Minnesota, started manufacturing barber poles. Marvy made his 50,000th barber pole in 1967, and, by 2010, over 82,000 had been produced. The William Marvy Company is now the sole manufacturer of barber poles in North America, and sells only 500 per year (compared to 5,100 in the 1960s). In recent years, the sale of spinning barber poles has dropped considerably, since few barber shops are opening, and many jurisdictions prohibit moving signs. Koken of St. Louis, Missouri, manufactured barber equipment such as chairs and assorted poles in the 19th century.\n", "BULLET::::- Signage\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- and audio.\n\nBULLET::::- at Google books and at Project Gutenberg.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"An Animated Ad Pillar In Red And Blue: The Barber's Pole\" (21 March 2008) at Pingmag.\n\nBULLET::::- Barber Poles at National Library Board, Singapore.\n\nBULLET::::- Sullivan, Pat. \"Adventures of Felix the Cat – Felix Pinches the Pole\" video newsreel film – Felix the Cat steals a barber's pole. British Pathé. Issue Date: 31 July 1924 Canister: EP 058 Film ID: 854.04 Sort number: EP 058 Tape: PM0854 Retrieved 21 November 2010.\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of Barber Poles.\n", "The phrase \"barberpole\" continues to be found in many subsystem descriptions in the \"Space Shuttle News Reference Manual\", as well as the NASA/KSC Acronym List.\n\nDuring World War I and World War II, the pattern has also been used as an insignia for aircraft identification. Spad XIIIs of the 94th Aero Squadron USAS in early 1919 used variations on barber pole patterns including: 'Barber Pole' of Lt Dudley 'Red' Outcault; S.16546 'Flag Bus' of Captain Reed Chambers; and 'Rising Sun' of Lt John Jeffers.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.:Referential naming.:Flyfishing.\n", "In South Korea, barber's poles are used both for actual barbershops and for brothels. Brothels disguised as barbershops, referred to as 이발소 (\"ibalso\") or 미용실 (\"miyongsil\"), are more likely to use two poles next to each other, often spinning in opposite directions, though the use of a single pole for the same reason is also quite common. Actual barbershops, or 미용실 (\"miyongsil\"), are more likely to be hair salons; to avoid confusion, they will usually use a pole that shows a picture of a woman with flowing hair on it with the words \"hair salon\" written on the pole.\n", "Few traces of barbers' links with the surgical side of the medical profession remain. One is the traditional red and white barber's pole, or a modified instrument from a blacksmith, which is said to represent the blood and bandages associated with their older role. Another link is the British use of the title \"Mr\" rather than \"Dr\" by surgeons (when they become qualified as surgeons by, e.g., the award of an MRCS or FRCS diploma). This dates back to the days when surgeons did not have a university education (let alone a doctorate); this link with the past is retained despite the fact that all surgeons now have to gain a basic medical degree and doctorate (as well as undergoing several more years training in surgery). They no longer perform haircuts, a task the barbers have retained.\n", "Section::::Use in prostitution.\n", "Section::::Barber's pole.\n\nThe barber pole, featuring red and white spiraling stripes, symbolized different aspects of the craft. It is a symbol from the time when barbers used to perform medical procedures. The white and red stripes represent bandages and blood while the blue stripes represent veins. In the U.S., the blue stripe is also sometimes used to match the flag.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n\nBULLET::::- Barber chair\n\nBULLET::::- Hair clipper\n\nBULLET::::- Barber cloth or wrap (Victoria, Australia)\n\nBULLET::::- Barber powder (talcum powder or baby powder)\n\nBULLET::::- Hairbrush\n\nBULLET::::- Comb\n\nBULLET::::- Barber neck paper/tape\n\nBULLET::::- Barber mirror or back mirror\n\nBULLET::::- Hair brilliantine\n", "BULLET::::- The style remained dormant until the National Hockey League's 75th anniversary, when Chicago wore replicas of their barber-pole sweaters as part of the league's celebrations. Since then, Montreal has also worn barber-pole replicas during their centenary season, and the design has become popular with amateur teams. See NHL uniform and Throwback uniform.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.:Music.\n", "In the insect world, there is the barber pole grasshopper, \"Dactylotum bicolor\". It is also known as the \"painted grasshopper\" and is said to be the \"most beautiful\" grasshopper.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.:Referential naming.:Ichthyology.\n\nBecause of its bright bands and colors, the redbanded rockfish \"Sebastes babcocki\" is referred to as \"barber pole\". Other pseudonyms include bandit, convict, canary, Hollywood, and Spanish flag.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.:Referential naming.:Candy.\n", "\"Barberpole\" is a phrase used to describe the striped output of indicators used during the Apollo and Shuttle programs. Typically the indicator would show all grey or a grey and white striped pattern, known as barberpole, to allow the astronauts a quick visual reference of the status of the spacecraft systems. Various indicators in the Apollo Command Modules indicated barberpole when the corresponding system was inactive. Astronaut Jim Lovell can also be found describing system indications as \"barber poled\" in the transcript of radio transmissions during the Apollo 13 accident.\n", "Most modern barbershops have special barber chairs, and special equipment for rinsing and washing hair. In some barbershops, people can read magazines or watch TV while the barber works.\n\nDespite the economic recession in 2008, the barbershop industry has seen continued positive growth. Recently there was a trial that had barbers check high blood pressure in barbershops and have a pharmacist meet and treat the patient in the barbershop, with positive results.\n\nIn 2018 Arthur Rubinoff opened a museum with barber's poles and antique barber equipment in Manhattan.\n", "In Australia, the official term for a barber is \"hairdresser\"; \"barber\" is only a popular title for men's hairdressers, although not as popular now as it was in the middle of the 20th century. Most would work in a \"hairdressing salon\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Visual illusion.\n\nA spinning barber pole creates a visual illusion, in which the stripes appear to be traveling up or down the length of the pole, rather than around it.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.:Visual similarity.\n\nBULLET::::- The Swan portion of M17, the Omega Nebula in the Sagittarius nebulosity is said to resemble a barber's pole.\n\nBULLET::::- Barber pole-like structures have been observed at the cellular level. The effects, origins and causes are controversial, and are subject to intense research.\n", "BULLET::::- Matthew Walker's knot is a decorative knot said to vaguely resemble a section of a barber's pole.\n", "BULLET::::- A barber pole motif has been used as a daymark and navigational aid for lighthouses. The White Shoal Light is the only \"barber pole\" lighthouse in the United States, and has been used in Michigan's \"Save our Lights\" license plate. However, black and white helical daymarks do appear on other lights, such as Cape Hatteras Light and St. Augustine Light.\n\nBULLET::::- Barber pole channel markers are sometimes used as they are in the Tamaki River.\n\nSection::::Other uses of the term.:Hockey.\n", "In 1893, A. B. Moler of Chicago, established a school for barbers. This was the first institution of its kind in the world, and its success was apparent from its very start. It stood for higher education in the ranks, and the parent school was rapidly followed by branches in nearly every principal city of the United States. In the beginning of barber schools, only the practical work of shaving, hair-cutting, facial treatments, etc., was taught as neither the public nor the profession were ready to accept scientific treatments of hair, skin and scalp. Not until about 1920 was much effort made to professionalize the work.\n", "Section::::Single-chair barbershops.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07623	Why are there so many pregnancies death in the past?	Lack of antibiotics and infection control. The uterus is like a big open wound during/after a birth. If infection is introduced via the vagina and there are no antibiotics to treat it, you're probably going to die.	[ "About 213 million pregnancies occurred in 2012, of which, 190 million (89%) were in the developing world and 23 million (11%) were in the developed world. The number of pregnancies in women ages 15 to 44 is 133 per 1,000 women. About 10% to 15% of recognized pregnancies end in miscarriage. In 2016, complications of pregnancy resulted in 230,600 maternal deaths, down from 377,000 deaths in 1990. Common causes include bleeding, infections, hypertensive diseases of pregnancy, obstructed labor, and complications associated with miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, or elective abortion. Globally, 44% of pregnancies are unplanned. Over half (56%) of unplanned pregnancies are aborted. Among unintended pregnancies in the United States, 60% of the women used birth control to some extent during the month pregnancy occurred.\n", "The risk of pregnancy complications increases as the mother's age increases. Risks associated with childbearing over the age of 50 include an increased incidence of gestational diabetes, hypertension, delivery by caesarean section, miscarriage, preeclampsia, and placenta previa. In comparison to mothers between 20 and 29 years of age, mothers over 50 are at almost three times the risk of low birth weight, premature birth, and extremely premature birth; their risk of extremely low birth weight, small size for gestational age, and fetal mortality was almost double.\n\nSection::::Cases of pregnancy over age 50.\n", "The earliest gestational age at which the infant has at least a 50% chance of survival is referred to as the limit of viability. As NICU care has improved over the last 40 years, the limit of viability has reduced to approximately 24 weeks. Most newborns who die, and 40% of older infants who die, were born between 20 and 25.9 weeks (gestational age), during the second trimester.\n", "Preterm birth is the most common cause of death among infants worldwide. About 15 million babies are preterm each year (5% to 18% of all deliveries). Approximately 0.5% of births are extremely early periviable births, and these account for most of the deaths. In many countries, rates of premature births have increased between the 1990s and 2010s. Complications from preterm births resulted in 0.81 million deaths in 2015 down from 1.57 million in 1990. The chance of survival at 22 weeks is about 6%, while at 23 weeks it is 26%, 24 weeks 55% and 25 weeks about 72%. The chances of survival without any long-term difficulties are lower.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Beginnings (1991–1996).\n", "In the 19th and 20th centuries, the desired number of pregnancies has declined as reductions in infant and childhood mortality have increased the probability that children will reach adulthood. Other factors, such as level of education and economic opportunities for women, have also led to reductions in the desired number of children. As the desired number of children decreases, couples spend more of their reproductive lives trying to avoid unintended pregnancies.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Contraceptive mandate\n\nBULLET::::- Demographic dividend\n\nBULLET::::- Prevalence of teenage pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- Feminization of poverty\n\nBULLET::::- Healthy People program\n\nBULLET::::- International Conference on Population and Development\n", "BULLET::::- Complications experienced during a previous pregnancy are more likely to recur.\n\nBULLET::::- Many previous pregnancies: individuals who have had five previous pregnancies face increased risks of very rapid labor and excessive bleeding after delivery.\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple previous fetuses: individuals who have had more than one fetus in a previous pregnancy face increased risk of mislocated placenta.\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple pregnancy: Having more than one fetus in a single pregnancy.\n\nSection::::General risk factors.:Environmental Risk Factors.\n\nSome common environmental risk factors include:\n\nBULLET::::- Exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- Exposure to recreational drugs in pregnancy\n", "Section::::History.:Five members, return to form (2003–present).\n", "All pregnancies can be risky, but there are greater risk for women who are older and are over the age of 40. The older the women the riskier the pregnancy. As women get older, they are more likely to suffer from conditions such as gestational diabetes and pre-eclampsia. If older women do conceive over the age of 40, their offspring may be of lower birth weight, and more likely to requires intensive care. Because of this, the increased risk is a sufficient cause for concern. The high incidence of caesarean in older mothers is commonly regarded as a risk.\n", "In the United States, between 1997 and 1999, 539 births were reported among mothers over age 50 (four per 100,000 births), with 194 being over 55.\n\nThe oldest mother to date to conceive, was 71 years, and the youngest mother, 5 years old. According to statistics from the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority, in the UK more than 20 babies are born to women over age 50 per year through in-vitro fertilization with the use of donor oocytes (eggs).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Not delaying parenthood.\" Fertility does not ultimately cease before menopause, but it starts declining after age 27 and drops at a somewhat greater rate after age 35. Women whose biological mothers had unusual or abnormal issues related to conceiving may be at particular risk for some conditions, such as premature menopause, that can be mitigated by not delaying parenthood.\n", "In the U.S. where many neonatal infections and other causes of neonatal death have been markedly reduced, prematurity is the leading cause of neonatal mortality at 25%. Prematurely born infants are also at greater risk for having subsequent serious chronic health problems as discussed below.\n", "A history of spontaneous (i.e., miscarriage) or surgical abortion has been associated with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth, with an increased risk with increased number of abortions, although it is unclear whether the increase is caused by the abortion or by confounding risk factors (e.g., socioeconomic status). Increased risk has not been shown in women who terminated their pregnancies medically. Pregnancies that are unwanted or unintended are also a risk factor for preterm birth.\n", "Some parents want to try to have a baby very soon after the miscarriage. The decision of trying to become pregnant again can be difficult. Reasons exist that may prompt parents to consider another pregnancy. For older mothers, there may be some sense of urgency. Other parents are optimistic that future pregnancies are likely to be successful. Many are hesitant and want to know about the risk of having another or more miscarriages. Some clinicians recommend that the women have one menstrual cycle before attempting another pregnancy. This is because the date of conception may be hard to determine. Also, the first menstrual cycle after a miscarriage can be much longer or shorter than expected. Parents may be advised to wait even longer if they have experienced late miscarriage or molar pregnancy, or are undergoing tests. Some parents wait for six months based upon recommendations from their health care provider.\n", "Pregnancies among older women have been a subject of controversy and debate. Some argue against motherhood late in life on the basis of the health risks involved, or out of concern that an older mother might not be able to give proper care for a child as she ages, while others contend that having a child is a fundamental right and that it is commitment to a child's wellbeing, not the parents' ages, that matters.\n", "A woman's fertility peaks lasts during the twenties and first half of thirties, after which it starts to decline, with advanced maternal age causing an increased risk of female infertility.\n\nAccording to Henri Leridon, PhD, an epidemiologist with the French Institute of Health and Medical Research, of women trying to get pregnant, without using fertility drugs or in vitro fertilization:\n\nBULLET::::- At age 30\n\nBULLET::::- 75% will have a conception ending in a live birth within one year\n\nBULLET::::- 91% will have a conception ending in a live birth within four years.\n\nBULLET::::- At age 35\n", "BULLET::::- 24 weeks (Singapore)\n\nBULLET::::- viability (Netherlands and to some extent the United States)\n\nBULLET::::- no limit (Canada, some states in the United States, China, and North Korea)\n", "In 2005, late-preterm births accounted for more than 70% of all preterm births (37 weeks’ gestation), or approximately 377,000 infants. In fact, much of the increase in the preterm birth rate in recent years can be attributed to increases in late-preterm births.\n\nSection::::Risk Factors.\n\nSeveral important factors that may predispose late-preterm infants to medical conditions associated with immaturity:\n\nBULLET::::- respiratory distress\n\nBULLET::::- apnea\n\nBULLET::::- temperature instability\n\nBULLET::::- hypoglycemia\n\nBULLET::::- hyperbilirubinemia\n\nBULLET::::- poor feeding\n\nAt 34–35 weeks, the brain weight is only about that of a full-term baby. This may lead to an increased risk of:\n\nBULLET::::- Mental retardation\n", "On October 15th, 2018, Tom Kmiec, Calgary Shepard M.P., rose in the House of Common’s in observation and support of Pregnancy and Infant Loss Remembrance Day, sharing his family’s lived experience, the result of the death of daughter, Lucy- Rose, citing:\n\n\"Mr. Speaker, today is national Pregnancy and Infant Loss Awareness Day, a day to remember mothers and fathers who lost their babies by miscarriage or stillbirth and infant loss.\n\nThe Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada estimates up to 20% of pregnancies end in a miscarriage.\n", "Pre-eclampsia affects approximately 2–8% of all pregnancies worldwide, The incidence of pre-eclampsia has risen in the U.S. since the 1990s, possibly as a result of increased prevalence of predisposing disorders, such as chronic hypertension, diabetes, and obesity.\n\nPre-eclampsia is one of the leading causes of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Nearly one-tenth of all maternal deaths in Africa and Asia and one-quarter in Latin America are associated with hypertensive diseases in pregnancy, a category that encompasses pre-eclampsia.\n", "The UK figure is about 8 per 1,000 and varies markedly by social class with the highest rates seen in Asian women. Globally, an estimated 2.6 million neonates died in 2013 before the first month of age down from 4.5 million in 1990.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nPreterm birth is the most common cause of perinatal mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths. Infant respiratory distress syndrome, in turn, is the leading cause of death in preterm infants, affecting about 1% of newborn infants. Birth defects cause about 21 percent of neonatal death.\n\nSection::::Fetal mortality.\n", "Before 34 weeks, the fetus is at a much higher risk of the complications of prematurity. Therefore, as long as the fetus is doing well, and there are no signs of infection or placental abruption, watchful waiting (expectant management) is recommended. The younger the fetus, the longer it takes for labor to start on its own, but most women will deliver within a week. Waiting usually requires a woman to stay in the hospital so that health care providers can watch her carefully for infection, placental abruption, umbilical cord compression, or any other fetal emergency that would require quick delivery by induction of labor.\n", "About 99% of maternal deaths occur in less developed countries; less than one half occur in sub-Saharan Africa and almost a third in South Asia.\n\nBoth early and late motherhood have increased risks. Young teenagers face a higher risk of complications and death as a result of pregnancy. Waiting until the mother is at least 18 years old before trying to have children improves maternal and child health.\n", "About 213 million pregnancies occurred in 2012 of which 190 million were in the developing world and 23 million were in the developed world. This is about 133 pregnancies per 1,000 women between the ages of 15 and 44. About 10% to 15% of recognized pregnancies end in miscarriage. Globally, 44% of pregnancies are unplanned. Over half (56%) of unplanned pregnancies are aborted. In countries where abortion is prohibited, or only carried out in circumstances where the mother's life is at risk, 48% of unplanned pregnancies are aborted illegally. Compared to the rate in countries where abortion is legal, at 69%.\n", "Where modern contraceptives are not available, abortion has sometimes been used as a major way of preventing birth. For instance in much of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics in the 1980s, desired family size was small, but modern contraceptive methods were not readily available, so many couples relied on abortion, which was legal, safe, and readily accessible, to regulate births. In many cases, as contraceptives became more available the rate of unintended pregnancy and abortion dropped rapidly during the 1990s.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03891	How can you determine the difference in properties (hardness/toughness/ductility etc) of different steel microstructures?	At the 10,000 foot level, basically the smaller the components of the microstructure, the harder, less tough, and less ductile the bulk sample will be. The Hall–Petch relation tells us that smaller grains are associated with increased strength. Toughness and ductility are basically similar parameters, especially when you are talking about a single family of alloys, like steels. And, generally speaking, stronger alloys will be less tough and ductile. The same mechanisms that allow them to resist yield mean that they will break more quickly once they start yielding. Again, this is extremely high level and is not universally true. For various steel microstructures, there is the additional wrinkle that certain microstructures are generally isotropic while some are lamellar. Could you go into more detail about exactly what you aren't getting?	[ "The latest extension to capability involves making full SN Fatigue Curve “pages” (comprising SN curves and details of individual test points) accessible to searchers. The initial content comprises over 130 SN Curve pages, covering a range of Fe-Cu-C grades and based on published information that has been analysed and collated by the group led by Professor Paul Beiss at the Technical University of Aachen. The collated SN curves cover a range of material processing conditions and density levels and a range of fatigue testing conditions (fatigue loading mode, mean stress level and notch factor).\n", "Hardness Testing using two strategies, the Rockwell C Hardness and the Knoop Microhardness which reveals that it was not heat treated correctly.\n\nTensile Test tells the engineer the yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation was sufficient to pass the requirements. Multiple pieces were taken and performed by Anamet Inc.\n\nCharpy V-Notch Impact Test shows the toughness of the steel by taking different samples of the rod and done by Anamet Inc.\n\nChemical Analysis was the Final Test also done by Anamet Inc. which met the requirements for that steel.\n", "The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys are extremely relevant to their structural applications. Those propertirs can be evaluated in various ways, including the Brinell test, the Rockwell test and the Vickers hardness test.\n\nThe properties of pure iron are often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. However, the mechanical properties of iron are significantly affected by the sample's purity: pure, single crystals of iron are actually softer than aluminium, and the purest industrially produced iron (99.99%) has a hardness of 20–30 Brinell.\n", "The most accurate method of measuring the DBTT of a material is by fracture testing. Typically four point bend testing at a range of temperatures is performed on pre-cracked bars of polished material.\n", "The traditional methods are based on well-defined physical indentation hardness tests. Very hard indenters of defined geometries and sizes are continuously pressed into the material under a particular force. Deformation parameters, such as the indentation depth in the Rockwell method, are recorded to give measures of hardness.\n", "Section::::Example of using an Ashby chart.:Selecting the best material overall.\n\nAt this point two performance indices that have been derived: for tension formula_37 and for bending formula_38. The first step is to create a log-log plot and add all known materials in the appropriate locations. However, the performance index equations must be modified before being plotted on the log-log graph.\n", "Different techniques are used to quantify material characteristics at smaller scales. Measuring mechanical properties for materials, for instance, of thin films, can not be done using conventional uniaxial tensile testing. As a result, techniques testing material \"hardness\" by indenting a material with a very small impression have been developed to determine to estimate these properties.\n", "BULLET::::- ASTM A956 “Standard Test Method for Leeb Hardness Testing of Steel Products”\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM E140 - 12be1 \"Standard Hardness Conversion Tables for Metals Relationship Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Superficial Hardness, Knoop Hardness, Scleroscope Hardness, and Leeb Hardness\"\n\nBULLET::::- Official international standards projects:\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/DIS 16859-1 \"Metallic materials - Leeb hardness test - Part 1: Test method\"\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/DIS 16859-2 \"Metallic materials - Leeb hardness test - Part 2: Verification and calibration of the testing devices\"\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/DIS 16859-3 \"Metallic materials - Leeb hardness test - Part 3: Calibration of reference test blocks\"\n", "When investigating the influence of non-metallic inclusions on the quality of steel, of great importance are the properties of these inclusions: size, shape, chemical and physical characteristics. All these properties depend on the chemical composition of steel, method of smelting and for certain steel grade. These properties can change within wide limits even within the same mode of production.\n\nDifferent methods for analysis of non-metallic inclusions have been developed and are now in use. These make it possible to determine content, structure and amount of non-metallic inclusions in steel and alloys with high accuracy.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminium alloy inclusions\n", "Hardness is difficult to quantify. It is a measure of resistance to deformation, specifically permanent deformation. There is precedent for hardness as a surface quality, a measure of the abrasiveness or surface-scratching resistance of a material. If the material being tested, however, is uniform in composition and structure, then the surface of the material is only a few atomic layers thick, and measurements are of the bulk material. Thus, simple surface measurements yield information about the bulk properties. Ways to measure hardness include:\n\nBULLET::::- Mohs Scale\n\nBULLET::::- Dorry abrasion test\n\nBULLET::::- Deval abrasion test\n\nBULLET::::- Indentation hardness\n", "In order to obtain a full forming limit curve, test pieces with different geometries are drawn by a punch (e. g. with a diameter of 100 mm) until fracture occurs. Friction is almost zero by using a complex tribo-system with foils and grease between sheet and tool. By use of an optical strain measurement system spatial strain paths are\n", "The hardenability of ferrous alloys, i.e. steels, is a function of the carbon content and other alloying elements and the grain size of the austenite. The relative importance of the various alloying elements is calculated by finding the equivalent carbon content of the material.\n", "There exists a large number of tests, many of which are standardized, to determine the various mechanical properties of materials. In general, such tests set out to obtain geometry-independent properties; i.e. those intrinsic to the bulk material. In practice this is not always feasible, since even in tensile tests, certain properties can be influenced by specimen size and/or geometry. Here is a listing of some of the most common tests:\n\nBULLET::::- Hardness Testing\n\nBULLET::::- Vickers hardness test (HV), which has one of the widest scales\n\nBULLET::::- Brinell hardness test (HB)\n\nBULLET::::- Knoop hardness test (HK), for measurement over small areas\n", "The hardenability of a ferrous alloy is measured by a Jominy test: a round metal bar of standard size (indicated in the top image) is transformed to 100% austenite through heat treatment, and is then quenched on one end with room-temperature water. The cooling rate will be highest at the end being quenched, and will decrease as distance from the end increases. Subsequent to cooling a flat surface is ground on the test piece and the hardenability is then found by measuring the hardness along the bar. The farther away from the quenched end that the hardness extends, the higher the hardenability. This information is plotted on a hardenability graph.\n", "BULLET::::- ASTM D7490 Standard Test Method for Measurement of the Surface Tension of Solid Coatings, Substrates and Pigments using Contact Angle Measurements\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM D7547 Aviation fuel U91\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM D7913 / D7913M Standard Test Method for Bond Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composite Bars to Concrete by Pullout Testing\n\nSection::::E.\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM E8 Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials.\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM E18 Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM E21 Test Methods for Elevated Temperature Tension Tests of Metallic Materials\n\nBULLET::::- ASTM E31 Healthcare Informatics\n", "Section::::Methods of assay.:X-ray fluorescence.\n\nThe modern X-ray fluorescence is also a non-destructive technique that is suitable for normal assaying requirements. It typically has an accuracy of 2–5 parts per thousand and is well-suited to the relatively flat and large surfaces. It is a quick technique taking about three minutes, and the results can be automatically printed out by the computer. It also measures the content of the other alloying metals present. It is not indicated, however, for articles with chemical surface treatment or electroplated metals.\n\nSection::::Methods of assay.:Fire assay.\n", "The Martens hardness, formula_40, is a simple software for any programmer having minimal background to develop. The software starts by searching for the maximum displacement, formula_41, point and maximum load, formula_2.\n\nThe displacement is used to calculate the contact surface area, formula_44, based on the indenter geometry. For a perfect Berkovich indenter the relationship is formula_45.\n\nThe indentation hardness, formula_46 is defined slightly different.\n\nHere, the hardness is related to the projected contact area formula_48.\n", "There are mainly two types of MTC in steel industry, as for steel plates or steel pipes, there must be specific inspection scope or lists:\n\nBULLET::::1. MTC EN 10204 3.1 :MTC 3.1 is issued by the manufacturer in which they declare that the products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and in which they supply test results. This is the most common MTC in steel industry, when there is no extra requirement of customer for TPI inspection and witness of production and inspection of tests.\n", "BULLET::::- B645-07 Standard Practice for Linear-Elastic Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness Testing of Aluminum Alloys\n\nBULLET::::- B646-06a Standard Practice for Fracture Toughness Testing of Aluminum Alloys\n\nBULLET::::- B647-84(2006) Standard Test Method for Indentation Hardness of Aluminum Alloys by Means of a Webster Hardness Gage\n\nBULLET::::- B648-78(2006) Standard Test Method for Indentation Hardness of Aluminum Alloys by Means of a Barcol Impressor\n\nBULLET::::- B649-06 Standard Specification for Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo-Cu-N Low-Carbon Alloys (UNS N08925, UNS N08031, UNS N08354, and UNS N08926), and Cr-Ni-Fe-N Low-Carbon Alloy (UNS R20033) Bar and Wire, and Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo-N Alloy (UNS N08936) Wire\n", "BULLET::::- B790/B790M-00(2006) Standard Practice for Structural Design of Corrugated Aluminum Pipe, Pipe-Arches, and Arches for Culverts, Storm Sewers, and Other Buried Conduits\n\nBULLET::::- B792-08 Standard Specification for Zinc Alloys in Ingot Form for Slush Casting\n\nBULLET::::- B793-08 Standard Specification for Zinc Casting Alloy Ingot for Sheet Metal Forming Dies and Plastic Injection Molds\n\nBULLET::::- B794-97(2009) Standard Test Method for Durability Wear Testing of Separable Electrical Connector Systems Using Electrical Resistance Measurements\n\nBULLET::::- B795-07 Standard Test Method for Determining the Percentage of Alloyed or Unalloyed Iron Contamination Present in Powder Forged (PF) Steel Materials\n", "Mostly on non-qualified materials, such as austenitic steel of the Fe‐Mn‐Al alloy, which has some of the specific material parameters closely related to micro structural mechanisms. These parameters are used as indicators of material super plastic potentiality. The material was submitted to hot tensile testing, within a temperature range from 600 °C to 1000 °C and strain‐rates varying from 10−6 to 1 s−1. The strain rate sensitivity parameter (m) and observed maximum elongation until rupture (εr) could be determined and also obtained from the hot tensile test.\n\nSection::::Iron and steel.:Fe with Mn and Al alloys.\n", "BULLET::::- Rockwell hardness test (HR), principally used in the USA. HRA, HRB and HRC scales are most widely used.\n\nBULLET::::- Shore hardness test, for polymers, widely used in rubbler industrials.\n\nBULLET::::- Barcol hardness test, for composite materials.\n\nThere is, in general, no simple relationship between the results of different hardness tests. Though there are practical conversion tables for hard steels, for example, some materials show qualitatively different behaviors under the various measurement methods. The Vickers and Brinell hardness scales correlate well over a wide range, however, with Brinell only producing overestimated values at high loads.\n\nSection::::Microindentation tests.\n", "In all these, a process is defined for loading the indenter, measuring the resulting indentation, and calculating a hardness number. Each of these three sequences of measurement operations produces numbers that are consistent with our subjective idea of hardness. The harder the material to our informal perception, the greater the number it will achieve on our respective hardness scales. Furthermore, experimental results obtained using these measurement methods has shown that the hardness number can be used to predict the stress required to permanently deform steel, a characteristic that fits in well with our idea of resistance to permanent deformation. However, there is not always a simple relationship between the various hardness scales. Vickers and Rockwell hardness numbers exhibit qualitatively different behaviour when used to describe some materials and phenomena.\n", "Besides material characterization, the material scientist or engineer also deals with extracting materials and converting them into useful forms. Thus ingot casting, foundry methods, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a materials engineer. Often the presence, absence, or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will greatly affect the final properties of the materials produced. For example, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extracting and purifying methods used to extract iron in a blast furnace can affect the quality of steel that is produced.\n", "Section::::Effect of alloying elements.\n\nThe amount of carbon determines the strain level at which the retained austenite begins to transform to martensite. At lower carbon levels, the retained austenite begins to transform almost immediately upon deformation, increasing the work hardening rate and formability during the stamping process. At higher carbon contents, the retained austenite is more stable and begins to transform only at strain levels beyond those produced during forming.\n\nSection::::Effect of temperature.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22783	How can DNA lead a researcher to the country and region my ancestors come from?	It’s based on genetic markers so as an oversimplification, imagine that all humans originated in one specific location. Over time they start migrating to different parts of the world. Each part of the world has different climates, plants, animals, etc. after several generations, these different environments create slight mutations. As some groups continue to migrate, this process repeats but those who stay behind don’t get the same mutations that the ones who left get. Millions of years later, we discovered where each of these mutations started so we can see that if you have certain mutations and not others, these are the areas that those mutations are most prevalent. Then subtract the ones that are common to all humans and you have your group of probable ancestry.	[ "Starting on 9 January 2012, Finland's national public-broadcasting company, YLE, aired 15 episodes of the Finnish version, called \"Kuka oikein olet?\", in which local public figures searched for their origins.\n\nA furthering of the concept was developed for American public broadcast TV, called \"Finding Your Roots\", with Henry Louis Gates. This series adds DNA profiling to the format; including Y-chromosome DNA, mitochondrial DNA and autosomal DNA analyses to infer both ancient and recent genetic relationships. The series started airing on 25 March 2012.\n", "Section::::Audience.:Tests for ethnicity and membership of other groups.\n\nAs discussed above, autosomal tests usually report the ethnic proportions of the individual. These attempt to measure an individual's mixed geographic heritage by identifying particular markers, called ancestry informative markers or AIM, that are associated with populations of specific geographical areas. Geneticist Adam Rutherford has written that these tests \"don’t necessarily show your geographical origins in the past. They show with whom you have common ancestry today.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In 2018 the Buckskin girl (a body found in 1981 in Ohio) was identified as Marcia King from Arkansas using DNA genealogical techniques\n\nBULLET::::- In 2018 Joseph James DeAngelo was arrested as the main suspect for the Golden State Killer using DNA and genealogy techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2018 William Earl Talbott II was arrested as a suspect for the 1987 murder of Jay Cook and Tanya Van Cuylenborg with the assistance of DNA genealogical techniques. The same genetic genealogist that helped in this case also helped police with 18 other arrests in 2018.\n", "Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continued in the International HapMap Project, whose goal was to identify patterns of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or “haps”). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals: Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese people in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe.\n", "Studies of genetic disorders are often performed by means of family-based studies. In some instances population based approaches are employed, particularly in the case of so-called founder populations such as those in Finland, French-Canada, Utah, Sardinia, etc. Diagnosis and treatment of genetic disorders are usually performed by a geneticist-physician trained in clinical/medical genetics. The results of the Human Genome Project are likely to provide increased availability of genetic testing for gene-related disorders, and eventually improved treatment. Parents can be screened for hereditary conditions and counselled on the consequences, the probability it will be inherited, and how to avoid or ameliorate it in their offspring.\n", "Many commercial companies use data from the International HapMap Project (HapMap)'s initial phrase, where population samples were collected from four ethnic groups in the world: Han Chinese, Japanese, Yoruba Nigerian, and Utah residents of Northern European ancestry. If a person has ancestry from a region where the computer program does not have samples, it will compensate with the closest sample that may have nothing to do with the customer's actual ancestry: \"Consider a genetic ancestry testing performed on an individual we will call Joe, whose eight great-grandparents were from southern Europe. The HapMap populations are used as references for testing Joe's genetic ancestry. The HapMap's European samples consist of \"northern\" Europeans. In regions of Joe's genome that vary between northern and southern Europe (such regions might include the lactase gene), the genetic ancestry test is using the HapMap reference population is likely to incorrectly assign the ancestry of that portion of the genome to a non-European population because that genomic region will appear to be more similar to the HapMap's Yoruba or Han Chinese samples than to Northern European samples. Likewise, a person having Western European and Western African ancestries may have ancestors from Western Europe and West Africa, or instead be assigned to East Africa where various ancestries can be found. \"Telling customers that they are a composite of several anthropological groupings reinforces three central myths about race: that there are pure races, that each race contains people who are fundamentally the same and fundamentally different from people in other races, and that races can be biologically demarcated.\" Many companies base their findings on inadequate and unscientific sampling methods. Researchers have never sampled the world's populations in a systematic and random fashion.\n", "New sub-clades of haplogroups may be discovered when an individual tests, especially if they are non-European. Most significant of these new discoveries was in 2013 when the haplogroup A00 was discovered, which required theories about Y-chromosomal Adam to be significantly revised. The haplogroup was discovered when an African-American man tested STRs at FamilyTreeDNA and his results were found to be unusual. SNP testing confirmed that he does not descend patrilineally from the \"old\" Y-chromosomal Adam and so a much older man became Y-Chromosomal Adam.\n\nSection::::Types of tests.:Using DNA test results.\n\nSection::::Types of tests.:Using DNA test results.:Ethnicity estimates.\n", "For several years, researchers and laboratories from around the world sampled indigenous populations from around the globe in an effort to map historical human migration patterns. The National Geographic Society's Genographic Project aims to map historical human migration patterns by collecting and analyzing DNA samples from over 100,000 people across five continents. The DNA Clans Genetic Ancestry Analysis measures a person's precise genetic connections to indigenous ethnic groups from around the world.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Law enforcement.\n", "Ancestral reconstruction is not limited to biological traits. Spatial location is also a trait, and ancestral reconstruction methods can infer the locations of ancestors of the individuals under consideration. Such techniques were used by Lemey and colleagues to geographically trace the ancestors of 192 Avian influenza A-H5N1 strains sampled from twenty localities in Europe and Asia, and for 101 rabies virus sequences sampled across twelve African countries.\n", "Genealogical DNA test results (autosomal tests, YDNA tests and MtDNA tests) can be imported from various test sites. The haplogroup of the test person is indicated and propagated in the family tree to all profiles that are expected to share it. Lists of tested people matching the DNA are presented.\n\nSection::::Features.:Supported languages.\n", "The project looks at around 600,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (genetic markers), including genes on Y-DNA and mtDNA, in collaboration with Professor Peter Donnelly at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics. Volunteers are sampled from throughout the United Kingdom, with the requirement that they have four grandparents who were born in the same rural area. Blood samples (20ml each) are collected from each volunteer and the peripheral blood lymphocytes separated off and frozen down. DNA is prepared from the blood residue and is the DNA source for the analysis. Once this source of DNA has run out for an individual sample, a cell line can be created from the lymphocytes, which ensures a permanent source of DNA for further work. A number of normal phenotypes have been collected for each volunteer, including 3D face photographs (around 2000 individuals). Analysis of this data set was undertaken in collaboration with Professor Josef Kittler of the University of Surrey and published in 2017, and 2018.\n", "Section::::Products.:Keystone.\n\nParabon NanoLabs was awarded a two-year contract by the United States Department of Defense to develop a software platform dubbed 'Keystone' for the forensic analysis of DNA evidence.\n\nSection::::Products.:Genetic genealogy.\n\nSection::::Products.:Genetic genealogy.:Parabon's Genetic Genealogy Unit.\n\nIn May 2018 Parabon NanoLabs appointed genealogist CeCe Moore as head of their genetic genealogy unit with three genealogists working for her.\n\nIn cooperation with American law enforcement, Parabon uploaded DNA evidence from crime scenes to GEDmatch in an attempt to identify perpetrators.\n", "Law enforcement may use genetic genealogy to identify criminal suspects and deceased individuals. Some genetic genealogy sites allow their databases to be used by law enforcement and some DNA technology companies do DNA testing and genetic genealogy research at the request of law enforcement. This investigative, or forensic, genetic genealogy technique became popular after the arrest of the alleged Golden State Killer in 2018.\n", "Section::::Audience.\n\nThe interest in genealogical DNA tests has been linked to both an increase in curiosity about traditional genealogy and to more general personal origins. Those who test for traditional genealogy often utilize a combination of autosomal, mitochondrial, and Y-Chromosome tests. Those with an interest in personal ethnic origins are more likely to use an autosomal test. However, answering specific questions about the ethnic origins of a particular lineage may be best suited to an mtDNA test or a Y-DNA test.\n\nSection::::Audience.:Maternal origin tests.\n", "Because a person's DNA contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from early ancestors, analysis of DNA is sometimes used for genealogical research. Three DNA types are of particular interest: mitochondrial DNA that we all possess and that is passed down with only minor mutations through the matrilineal (direct female) line; the Y-chromosome, present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the patrilineal (direct male) line; and the Autosomal DNA, which is found in the 22 non-gender specific chromosomes (autosomes) inherited from both parents, which can uncover relatives from any branch of the family.\n", "By June 2019 285,406 9-STR locus haplotypes, among them 225,098 17-STR locus haplotypes, 62,737 23-STR locus haplotypes, 56,114 27-STR locus haplotypes and 24,328 Y SNP profiles sampled in 135 countries have been directly submitted by forensic institutions and universities from 72 countries. In geographic terms, 47% of the YHRD samples stem from Asia, 23% from Europe, 14% from North America, 11% from Latin America, 3% from Africa, 1% from Oceania/Australia and 0.3% from the Arctic (release 61 of June 24, 2019). The 1,308 individual sampling projects are described in more than 570 peer-reviewed publications \n\nSection::::Submission.\n", "Because whole genome sequencing of individuals is still cost prohibitive, the international HapMap Project was constructed with a goal to map the human genome to haplotype groupings (haplotype blocks) that can describe common patterns of human genetic variation. By mapping the entire genome to haplotypes, tag SNPs can be identified to represent the haplotype blocks examined by genetic studies. An important factor to consider when planning a genetic study is the frequency and risk incurred by specific alleles. These factors can vary in different populations so the HapMap project used a variety of sequencing techniques to discover and catalog SNPs from different sets of populations. Initially the project sequenced individuals from Yoruba population of African origin (YRI), residents of Utah with western European ancestry (CEU), unrelated individuals from Tokyo, Japan (JPT) and unrelated Han Chinese individuals from Beijing, China (CHB). Recently their datasets have been expanded to include other populations (11 groups) \n", "From this, he constructed phylogenetic trees that showed genetic distances diagrammatically. His team also performed principal component analyses, which is good at analysing multivariate data with minimal loss of information. The information that is lost can be partly restored by generating a second principal component, and so on. In turn, the information from each individual principal component (PC) can be presented graphically in \"synthetic maps\". These maps show peaks and troughs, which represent populations whose gene frequencies take extreme values compared to others in the studied area.\n", "Section::::Genetic mapping vs physical mapping.:Gene mapping.\n\nResearchers begin a genetic map by collecting samples of blood or tissue from family members that carry a prominent disease or trait and family members that don't. Scientists then isolate DNA from the samples and closely examine it, looking for unique patterns in the DNA of the family members who do carry the disease that the DNA of those who don't carry the disease don't have. These unique molecular patterns in the DNA are referred to as polymorphisms, or markers.\n", "One famous study examined the lineage of descendants of Thomas Jefferson’s paternal line and male lineage descendants of the freed slave, Sally Hemmings.\n\nBryan Sykes, a molecular biologist at Oxford University tested the new methodology in general surname research. His study of the Sykes surname obtained results by looking at four STR markers on the male chromosome. It pointed the way to genetics becoming a valuable assistant in the service of genealogy and history.\n\nSection::::History.:Direct to consumer DNA testing.\n", "Population substructure also can be used to advantage in genetic association studies. For example, populations that represent recent mixtures of geographically separated ancestral groups can exhibit longer-range linkage disequilibrium between susceptibility alleles and genetic markers than is the case for other populations. Genetic studies can use this admixture linkage disequilibrium to search for disease alleles with fewer markers than would be needed otherwise. Association studies also can take advantage of the contrasting experiences of racial or ethnic groups, including migrant groups, to search for interactions between particular alleles and environmental factors that might influence health.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Biogeographic ancestry determination methods have been highly developed within the genetics community, as it is a key GWAS quality control step. These approaches typically use genome-wide human genetic clustering and/or principal component analysis to compare new subjects to curated individuals with known ancestry, such as the International HapMap Project or the 1000 Genomes Project. Another approach is to assay ancestry informative markers (AIMs), SNPs that vary in frequency between the major human populations.\n", "Jared Diamond, in the \"New York Times\", notes that geneticists can now go far beyond studying the personal ancestries of participants in National Geographic's Genographic Project, which looked at small sections of their parents' DNA, namely their mother's mitochondrial DNA and their father's Y chromosome. By looking at DNA from ancient bones, Reich can recover whole genomes. Diamond warns readers not to expect an oversimplified story:\n", "Carole Meredith at the University of California, Davis, pioneered the use of genetic fingerprinting for vine identification. Famous successes with the technique include proving the identity of Zinfandel, Primitivo, and Crljenak Kaštelanski, and identifying the parents of Sangiovese as Ciliegiolo and Calabrese Montenuovo. Such exercises are giving valuable insight into historical patterns of trade and migration.\n", "In 2016, the project began utilizing cutting-edge Helix DNA sequencing for Geno 2.0 Next Generation, the current phase of the Genographic Project. As compared to earlier phases which used nine regional affiliations, Geno 2.0 Next Generation analyzes modern-day indigenous populations around the world using either 18 or 22 regional affiliations. Utilizing a DNA-collection kit, Helix acquires a saliva sample from a participant, which is then analyzed for genomic identifiers that offer unprecedented insight into the person’s genetic origins. The data is then uploaded to the Genographic Project DNA database.\n\nSection::::Volunteer participation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03338	Why does water dry out our hands?	Your skin has a layer of oils which it uses for waterproofing, making it more difficult for water to escape your tissues. However, it's not invincible, so enough washing (particularly with soap, or hot water) can strip this layer. This allows water to escape from your tissues to the air more readily, drying it out, until your body has a chance to replenish the coating.	[ "Section::::Effects unaccounted for.\n\nSection::::Effects unaccounted for.:The hydrophobic effect.\n", "In the third century there are traces of a custom of washing the hands as a preparation for prayer on the part of all Christians; and from the fourth century onwards it appears to have been usual for the ministers at the Communion Service ceremonially to wash their hands before the more solemn part of the service as a symbol of inward purity.\n", "BULLET::::- Water-induced wrinkles are not caused by the skin absorbing water and swelling. They are caused by the autonomic nervous system, which triggers localized vasoconstriction in response to wet skin, yielding a wrinkled appearance. A 2014 study showed no improvement in handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips.\n", "For a bed bath, a bath blanket is put over the patient and only the area washed is exposed at a time for privacy and warmth. To make a mitt out of a washcloth, the fingers and palm of the dominant hand are placed over the washcloth and the washcloth is folded over the fingers and palm. The remaining part of the washcloth not covering the fingers and palms will be folded over and tucked in and the thumb will be out of the mitt.\n", "According to Christian tradition, the Pharisees carried the practice of ablution to great excess. The Gospel of Mark refers to their ceremonial ablutions: \"For the Pharisees…wash their hands 'oft'\" or, more accurately, \"with the fist\" (R.V., \"diligently\"); or, as Theophylact of Bulgaria explains it, \"up to the elbow,\" referring to the actual word used in the Greek New Testament, πυγμή \"pygmē\", which refers to the arm from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. In the Book of Acts, Paul and other men performed ablution before entering the Temple in Jerusalem: \"Then Paul took the men, and the next day purifying himself with them entered into the temple, to signify the accomplishment of the days of purification, until that an offering should be offered for every one of them.\" \n", "Section::::Usage in media.\n", "Then one should rinse thoroughly, from the wrist to the fingertips to ensure that any microorganisms fall off the skin rather than onto skin.\n\nOne should use a paper towel to turn off the water. Dry hands and arms with a clean towel, disposable or not, and use a paper towel to open the door.\n\nMoisturizing lotion is often recommended to keep the hands from drying out; Dry skin can lead to skin damage which can increase the risk for the transmission of infection.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Low-cost options when water is scarce.\n", "This insight resulted in bedside tests for nerve damage and vasoconstriction. Wrinkling is often scored with immersion of the hands for 30 minutes in water or EMLA cream with measurements steps of 5 minutes, and counting the number of visible wrinkles in time. Not all healthy persons have finger wrinkling after immersion, so it would be safe to say that sympathetic function is preserved if finger wrinkling after immersion in water is observed, but if the\n\nfingers emerge smooth it cannot be assumed that there is a lesion to the autonomic supply or to the peripheral nerves of the hand.\n", "BULLET::::- Water hands are seeable by the long, sometimes oval-shaped palm, with long, flexible, conical fingers. The length of the palm from wrist to the bottom of the fingers is usually less than the width across the widest part of the palm, and usually equal to the length of the fingers.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire hands are characterized by a square or rectangular palm, flushed or pink skin, and shorter fingers. The length of the palm from wrist to the bottom of the fingers is usually greater than the length of the fingers.\n", "Fistgloves are latex gloves that do not have individual sheaths for individual fingers, but rather a larger volume that is meant to take the hand in the shape of a fist. (Another variation of these is known as antipaddles, a rectangle with a flat side to place the palm against and a rounded side to create the \"fist\" effect.) Fistgloves are meant to enhance a feeling for water while swimming, especially while using the Total Immersion style of swimming. It works by sensory deprivation for the open palm while swimming (especially for front crawl) so that when the fistgloves are removed, the new rush of sensory perception picked up by the hand as water rushes past it during the ideal stroke.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"flannel\", \"wash cloth\", \"washcloth\", \"wash rag\", \"face-washer \"(Australian)\", \"or \"face cloth\" is a small square about the width of a hand towel used by wetting it, applying soap to it, and then using it to apply the soap to skin. This increases abrasion and can remove dead skin cells from the skin more effectively than using only the hands to apply soap and rub the skin. In some parts of the world, washing mitts are used for this purpose.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "A blessing is prescribed over hand washing before eating bread and when one wakes up from his sleep in the morning. Although Maimonides prescribes saying the blessing \"before\" one actually pours water over his hands, the custom has developed to recite the blessing only after he has poured water over his hands and has rubbed them together, while they are raised in the air to the height of his chin, prior to his drying them with a towel. The blessing is cited in the following manner: \"Blessed are you, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who has sanctified us through your commandments and has commanded us concerning the washing of hands\" (). Immediately following the recital of the blessing, it is incumbent to dry those hands with a towel &c.\n", "The wrinkles that occur in skin after prolonged exposure to water are sometimes referred to as \"pruney fingers\" or water aging. This is a temporary skin condition where the skin on the palms of the hand or feet becomes wrinkly. This wrinkling response may have imparted an evolutionary benefit by providing improved traction in wet conditions, and a better grasp of wet objects. However, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips. Furthermore, the same study found no connection between fingertip wrinkling and touch sensation.\n", "One survey of bar soaps in dentist clinics found they all had their own flora and on average from two to five different genera of microorganisms with those used most more likely to have more species varieties. Another survey of bar soaps in public toilets found even more flora. Another study found that very dry soaps are not infected while all are that rest in pools of water. However, research upon soap that was specially infected found that soap flora do not transmit to the hands.\n\nSection::::Hygiene.:Damaged skin.\n", "First one should rinse hands with warm water, keeping hands below wrists and forearms, to prevent contaminated water from moving from the hands to the wrists and arms. The warm water helps to open pores, which helps with the removal of microorganisms, without removing skin oils. One should use five milliliters of liquid soap, to completely cover the hands, and rub wet, soapy hands together, outside the running water, for at least 20 seconds. The most commonly missed areas are the thumb, the wrist, the areas between the fingers, and under fingernails. Artificial nails and chipped nail polish harbor microorganisms.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nThe term 'compensatory' is largely misleading, as it indicates that there is a compensatory mechanism that takes effect after sympathectomy, in which the body 'redirects' the sweating from the palms or face to other areas of the body. Sweating after sympathetic surgery is a reflex cycle between the sympathetic system and the anterior portion of the hypothalamus. Reflex sweating will not happen if hand sweating can be stopped without interrupting sympathetic tone to the human brain.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Denudation.\n", "To 'scrub' one's hands for a surgical operation, it is necessary to have a tap that can be turned on and off without touching it with the hands, some chlorhexidine or iodine wash, sterile towels for drying the hands after washing, and a sterile brush for scrubbing and another sterile instrument for cleaning under the fingernails. All jewelry should be removed. This procedure requires washing the hands and forearms up to the elbow, usually 2–6 minutes. Long scrub-times (10 minutes) are not necessary. When rinsing, water on the forearms must be prevented from running back to the hands. After hand-washing is completed, the hands are dried with a sterile cloth and a surgical gown is donned.\n", "Contraction of the ampullae causes the podia to stretch as water is brought into them. This whole process allows for movement, and is quite powerful but extremely slow.\n", "Other methods have developed concerning over which hand one is to begin when pouring water over them. The general custom in the morning (based on a kabbalistic teaching) is to take-up the vessel in one's right hand, pass the vessel into his left hand, and only then begin to pour out water from that vessel over his right hand. Then he reverses the order by taking-up the vessel in his right hand and pouring out water from that vessel over his left hand. This process is repeated altogether three times for each hand, with intermittent changing of hands after each pouring. When this is accomplished, he then takes the vessel and pours out water over both hands, simultaneously, after which he rubs his hands together and then lifts them to make the blessing over his hands, before he wipes them dry.\n", "Drowning experts have recognized that the end result pathophysiology of hypoxemia, acidemia, and eventual death is the same whether water entered the lung or not. As this distinction does not change management or prognosis, but causes significant confusion due to alternate definitions and misunderstandings, it is generally established that pathophysiological discussions of \"dry\" versus \"wet\" drowning are not relevant to drowning care.\n", "BULLET::::- Drying with the jet-air dryer resulted in an increase on average of the total number of bacteria on the finger pads by 42% and on the palms by 15%.\n\nBULLET::::- After washing and drying hands with a paper towel, the total number of bacteria was reduced on average on the finger pads by up to 76% and on the palms by up to 77%.\n", "Brandeis cites an old maxim of unclean hands, inherited from courts of equity, whereby a court will not redress a wrong when he who has requested its aid has unclean hands. This principle, he believes, is very much relevant here. The Court should deny its aid in order to maintain respect for law to promote confidence in the administration of justice and preserve the judicial process from contamination.\n", "According to the editors of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, the phrase \"netilat yadaim\" referring to washing of the hands, literally \"lifting of the hands\", is derived either from Psalm 134:2, or from the Greek word \"natla\" (αντλίον in Hebrew נַטְלָה), in reference to the jar of water used. The Jewish Encyclopedia states that many historic Jewish writers, and particularly the Pharisees, took it to mean that water had to be poured out onto uplifted hands, and that they could not be considered clean until water had reached the wrist. This is commented on by the Synoptic Gospels, which state that these groups didn't eat until they had washed their hands to the wrist, but the Gospels castigates them for this, arguing that it was only followed as an ostentatious tradition, ignoring religious obligations, and that washing the hands was worthless without inward religious obligations also being adhered to, and insignificant if the inward obligations, such as giving all of one's possessions to the poor, were followed.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04447	Why do things like the waistband of sweatpants, the edges of fitted sheets, and the upper part of socks have such a hard time getting dry in the dryer?	Essentially, the elastic in those parts bunches the material together. To dry, material needs to have air circulation for the water to evaporate off of (the heat helps). Where these areas are more bunched together they both hold more liquid to begin with and have less surface area for the liquid to evaporate off of. Or at least, that's what I believe to be the case from memory.	[ "The sheet is usually held against the dryers by long felt loops on the top and bottom of each dryer section. The felts greatly improve heat transfer. Dryer felts are made of coarse thread and have a very open weave that is almost see through, It is common to have the first bottom dryer section unfelted to dump broke on the basement floor during sheet breaks or when threading the sheet.\n", "Section::::Factors that determine the drying duration.\n\nVarious factors determine the duration of drying and can help to decide rather to use a drier or a clothes line\n\nBULLET::::- The environmental temperature - increase of temperature decreases the drying duration\n\nBULLET::::- The environmental humidity - decrease of humidity will decrease the drying duration\n\nBULLET::::- Wind velocity - Sometimes people put a fan near the clothes when drying them indoors\n\nBULLET::::- Direct sun - usually only the external line will be exposed to direct sun, so usually people put the thickest clothes on the most external line.\n\nBULLET::::- Cloth thickness\n", "I slid into third base headfirst, got up, dusted myself off. And I went, “F***, why didn’t some surfer ever come up with an idea where the pants don’t fall off like this?” Inside of the waistband on these baseball pants was a woven nylon belting. That belting did not move. And I went “Wow, what if I used that belting and Velcro on the side over here?” And I stood there on third base for about that long. And I went, “That’s a good idea.”\n", "Below 5 °C, drying times significantly increase.\n\nAs with condensation dryers, the heat exchanger will not dry the internal air to as low a level of humidity as the typical ambient air. With respect to ambient air, the higher humidity of the air used to dry the clothes has the effect of increasing drying times; however, because heat pump dryers conserve much of the heat of the air they use, the already-hot air can be cycled more quickly, possibly leading to shorter drying times than tumble dryers, depending on the model.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Mechanical steam compression dryers.\n", "BULLET::::- Plates feeding\n\nSection::::Typical applications.\n\nBelt dryers are predominantly used in the following industries:\n\nBULLET::::- Biomass\n\nBULLET::::- Pelleting\n\nBULLET::::- Anaerobic digestate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmaceutical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Food and feeding-stuff industry\n\nBULLET::::- Non-metallic minerals industry\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics industry\n\nBULLET::::- Wood industry\n\nBULLET::::- Ceramics industry\n\nSection::::Typical applications.:Product examples.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Feel wet\" is a feature used in some training pants that lets the wearer know when they are wet by feeling. Nowadays few training pants use this feature.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn 1978, Kimberly-Clark introduced Kleenex Super Dry diapers with \"wetness indicators\" in the form of a design that fades and lightens as the inside of the diaper becomes wetter. (The Kleenex Super Dry line was later superseded by Kimberley-Clark's higher-end \"Huggies\" line.)\n", "Over time dry denim will fade, considered fashionable in some circumstances. During the process of wear, fading will usually occur on those parts of the article that receive the most stress. On a pair of jeans, this includes the upper thighs, the ankles, and the areas behind the knees.\n", "Antecedent moisture\n\nIn hydrology and sewage collection and disposal, antecedent moisture is the relative wetness or dryness of a watershed or sanitary sewershed. Antecedent moisture conditions change continuously and can have a very significant effect on the flow responses in these systems during wet weather. The effect is evident in most hydrologic systems including stormwater runoff and sanitary sewers with inflow and infiltration. Many modeling and analysis challenges that are created by antecedent moisture conditions are evident within combined sewers and separate sanitary sewer systems. \n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "When the fabric is heated, the molecules are more easily reoriented. In the case of cotton fibres, which are derivatives of cellulose, the hydroxyl groups that crosslink the cellulose polymer chains are reformed at high temperatures, and become somewhat \"locked in place\" upon cooling the item. In permanent press pressed clothes, chemical agents such as dimethylol ethylene urea are added as crosslinking agents.\n\nSection::::Avoid.\n\nAvoid ironing can be obtained not using spin cycle in the washing machine.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic robot\n\nBULLET::::- Hair iron\n\nBULLET::::- Laundry symbol\n\nBULLET::::- Mangle (machine)\n\nBULLET::::- Ironing mannequin\n\nBULLET::::- Self-service laundry\n\nBULLET::::- Washing machine\n", "Section::::Effect on environment.\n", "Because of their low surface area, static cling causes fibers that have detached from an article of clothing to continue to stick to one another and to that article or other surfaces with which they come in contact. Other small fibers or particles also accumulate with these clothing fibers, including human and animal hair and skin cells, plant fibers, and pollen, dust, and microorganisms.\n", "Wet blocking is done by saturating a garment in warm water and allowing it to dry. Some items (especially lace) are stretched while wet with the use of pins and/or blocking wires, while others may be gently shaped without stretching.\n\nSection::::Blocking methods.:Steam blocking.\n\nSteam blocking is done by hovering a hot, steaming iron over the fabric. Hovering the iron about 1 or 2 inches above the fabric flattens the stitch, makes it thinner, and allows it to hold its shape better. This is the only method that works for blocking synthetics, like acrylic.\n\nSection::::Blocking methods.:Spritz blocking.\n", "Because the heat exchange process simply cools the internal air using ambient air (or cold water in some cases), it will not dry the air in the internal loop to as low a level of humidity as typical fresh, ambient air. As a consequence of the increased humidity of the air used to dry the load, this type of dryer requires somewhat more time than a tumble dryer. Condenser dryers are a particularly attractive option where long, intricate ducting would be required to vent the dryer.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Heat pump dryers.\n", "Several factors can contribute to or accelerate rapid lint build-up. These include long or restrictive ducts, bird or rodent nests in the termination, crushed or kinked flex transition hose, terminations with screen-like features, and condensation within the duct due to un-insulated ducts traveling through cold spaces, such as a crawl space or attic.\n", "These types of dryers are also referred to as absorption systems or getters. Because these dryers get and hold the water, they are minimally effective as a first stage dryer. If a desiccant is used in this role, the media quickly becomes saturated and the effectiveness of the dryer is negated. Desiccant dryers are best applied in a second stage or polishing role. They are usually used down-stream from a refrigerated dryer or some other primary dryer. When applied as a second stage dryer, they can easily and reliably produce dew points in the sub zero range.\n", "Crease formation in woven or knitted fabric composed of cellulose during washing or folding is the main drawback of cotton fabrics. The molecular chains of the cotton fibers are attached with each other by weak hydrogen bonds. During washing or folding, the hydrogen bonds break easily and after drying new hydrogen bonds form with the chains in their new position and the creases are stabilized. If crosslinking between the polymer chains can be introduced by crosslinking chemicals, then it reinforces the cotton fibers and prevents the permanent displacement of the polymer chains when the fibers are stressed. It is therefore much more difficult for creases to form or for the fabric to shrink on washing.\n", "Garments are also checked for foreign objects. Items such as plastic pens may dissolve in the solvent bath, damaging the textiles. Some textile dyes are \"loose\" and will shed dye during solvent immersion. Fragile items, such as feather bedspreads or tasseled rugs or hangings, may be enclosed in a loose mesh bag. The density of perchloroethylene is around 1.7 g/cm at room temperature (70% heavier than water), and the sheer weight of absorbed solvent may cause the textile to fail under normal force during the extraction cycle unless the mesh bag provides mechanical support.\n", "Some manufacturers, Namely LG Electronics, have introduced hybrid dryers, that offer the user the option of using either a heat pump or a traditional electric heating element for drying the user's clothes.\n\nSection::::Static electricity.\n\nClothes dryers can cause static cling, through the triboelectric effect. This can be a minor nuisance and is often a symptom of over-drying textiles to an extremely low humidity level. Fabric conditioners and dryer sheets are marketed to correct this condition.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind. In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.\n\nBULLET::::- The Matki/Matka, a traditional Indian porous clay container used for storing and cooling water and other liquids.\n\nBULLET::::- The botijo, a traditional Spanish porous clay container designed to cool the contained water by evaporation.\n", "On metal toothed zippers, the cut edges of the rubberized fabric of the zipper tapes are susceptible to fraying along the exposed weave. if not trimmed, the frayed edges can accelerate damage to the weave and eventually delaminate the edge. The moulded plastic zippers do not have an exposed cut edge, so do not have this weakness.\n\nSection::::Hazards of use.\n\nSection::::Hazards of use.:Hyperthermia on deck before a dive.\n", "In older washing machines, the permanent press setting sprays moisture during the spin cycle to maintain the moisture content of the permanent press fabrics above a certain specified limit to reduce wrinkling. Most older clothes dryers feature an automatic permanent press setting, which puts clothes through a cool-down cycle at the end of the normal heated drying cycle. Modern dryers tend to include this as a standard feature.\n", "In some cases, dryers may use spin alone. Larger gyms and swimming pools may have small spin dryers for the convenience of exiting patrons. Extracting much of the water from a swimsuit reduces the risk of damp gym bags and later, laundry hampers.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Condenser dryers.\n", "In the wet felting process, hot water is applied to layers of animal hairs, while repeated agitation and compression causes the fibers to hook together or weave together into a single piece of fabric. Wrapping the properly arranged fiber in a sturdy, textured material, such as a bamboo mat or burlap, will speed up the felting process. The felted material may be finished by fulling.\n", "Section::::Data-based approaches.\n", "Many Windstopper garments are marketed as \"softshells\" suited to high-output aerobic activities such as running, cycling or cross-country skiing. Because they are not waterproof, they are more breathable than traditional Gore-Tex \"hardshell\" clothing. However, because they are based on a solid laminate layer, they remain inherently less breathable than other wind-resistant \"softshell\" fabrics made by Polartec or Schoeller, which rely on built-in properties of the fabric and weave rather than laminates.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-24222	my parents live near a lake. It's frozen, cause winter in Canada, and it makes this weird low pitched hollow noise. What is it called and what causes it?	If you are talking about a sort of deep irregular cracking noise, I don’t think it has a proper name. What it is though is the ice freezing and expanding, the increased volume of ice increases internal pressure and it ends up cracking itself!	[ "The sound appears to be seasonal, generally reaching peaks in spring and autumn, but it is unclear whether this is due to changes in the source or seasonal changes in the propagation environment. The source can be roughly located at , near the location of inferred volcanic seismicity, but the origin of the sound is unresolved. The overall source level has been declining since 1991, but the sounds can still be detected on NOAA's equatorial autonomous hydrophone arrays.\n\nSection::::NOAA (unidentified).:Whistle.\n", "Slow Down is a sound recorded on May 19, 1997, in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The source of the sound was most likely a large iceberg as it became grounded.\n\nSection::::NOAA (formerly unidentified).:Slow Down.:Analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- In North Carolina, one speculation is that they are the sound of pieces of the continental shelf falling off into the Atlantic abyss. However, the Atlantic abyss is too far away from the east coast, and the Atlantic ridge is the result of very slow moving tectonics and could not produce such sounds, given how often they occur.\n\nBULLET::::- Underwater caves collapsing, and the air rapidly rising to the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Possible resonance from solar and/or earth magnetic activity inducing sounds.\n\nBULLET::::- Volcanic eruptions\n\nBULLET::::- Avalanches, either natural or human-made for avalanche control.\n", "\"The ball (of the top) was made of a store-bought coconut, from those tiny grey coconuts that come in cans; the spike was large and thin. Four round holes, like eyes, emanated from the sphere.\"\n\nThese holes produce the typical buzzing sound when spun, which give the object its name. There is also a more powerful type of zumbayllu made from a deformed object but without being round (winku) and with the quality of sorcery (layka). \n", "Upsweep is an unidentified sound detected on the American NOAA's equatorial autonomous hydrophone arrays. This sound was present when the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory began recording its sound surveillance system SOSUS in August, 1991. It consists of a long train of narrow-band upsweeping sounds of several seconds in duration each. The source level is high enough to be recorded throughout the Pacific.\n", "In the years immediately following the First World War, Henry Cowell composed a number of piano pieces featuring tone clusters and direct manipulation of the piano's strings. One of these, titled \"The Banshee\" (1925), features sliding and shrieking sounds suggesting the terrifying cry of the banshee from Irish folklore.\n", "Its name literally translates as \"\"resonant\"\". According to the local legend the noise heard from the mountain from time to time is caused by treasure hunters who entered the mountainside hundreds of years ago and could never come out again.\n\nSection::::Radar plan.\n", "Section::::Bedouin Soundclash.\n", "Many villagers have emigrated to other parts of the world, and therefore the village has become very quiet in winter and only sees an expansion in summer time, when first, second and third generation families return for a visit.\n\nThe community is also the second home to U.S. soccer prodigy Christoforos Moulinos.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Background and conception.\n", "On November 2, 2016, \"CBC News\" reported that residents were describing a hum or buzz, coming from deep within the Fury and Hecla Strait—near Steensby Inlet where Baffinland has one of its ports.\n", "Forest Grove Sound\n\nThe Forest Grove Sound was an unexplained noise, described by \"The Oregonian\" as a \"mechanical scream\", heard in Forest Grove, Oregon in February 2016.\n", "The common name of the species, trumpeter whiting, refers to the grunting sound the fish makes when first taken from the water, with a number of other species of unrelated fish also known to do this. The names 'winter' and 'diver' whiting are in reference to the high catches made in winter by amateur fishermen and the depth at which larger individuals of the species inhabit respectively.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "An older equivalent of the Howie scream was one originating from Lucille La Verne's voice of the Evil Queen in \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" when she fell to her death after a failed attempt to crush the dwarfs with a huge boulder. This scream was also used for Chief in \"The Fox and the Hound\" when he was struck by the train (though it's drowned out by the train), and for Maleficent in her dragon form in Disney's \"Sleeping Beauty\" after Prince Phillip struck his magic sword into her heart.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Post-production\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Machimoodus State Park \"Sunrise State Park\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cave Hill Resort\n\nSection::::Noises.\n\nMoodus is infamous in Connecticut for the strange noises coming from the woods which have been termed \"Moodus noises\", and are attributed to shallow micro-earthquakes. The noises can be heard most strongly from Cave Hill, located next to Mt. Tom and owned by the Cave Hill Resort.\n", "The name was given because the sound slowly decreases in frequency over about 7 minutes. It was recorded using an autonomous hydrophone array. The sound has been picked up several times each year since 1997. One of the hypotheses on the origin of the sound is moving ice in Antarctica. Sound spectrograms of vibrations caused by friction closely resemble the spectrogram of the Slow Down. This suggests the source of the sound could have been caused by the friction of a large ice sheet moving over land.\n\nSection::::NOAA (formerly unidentified).:Train.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n", "BULLET::::- A high-pitched, nasal \"che\" note is often given in response to the presence of predators in the nest area, other birds passing near the cave swallow's nest, or while the swallow is in flight. It is the note given most frequently when the bird is away from its nest site.\n\nBULLET::::- The first type of chattering is the most common, it is described as a \"short, clear weet or cheweet given at medium pitch with an ascending or descending inflection.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Back Sound in North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Block Island Sound between Block Island and mainland Rhode Island\n\nBULLET::::- Bogue Sound in North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Breton Sound in Louisiana\n\nBULLET::::- Broad Sound near Boston\n\nBULLET::::- Calibogue Sound in South Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Chandeleur Sound in Louisiana\n\nBULLET::::- Core Sound in North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Croatan Sound in North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Cross Sound in Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- Currituck Sound in North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Frederick Sound in Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- Fishers Island Sound between Fishers Island, New York and Connecticut\n\nBULLET::::- Hobe Sound in Florida\n\nBULLET::::- Kotzebue Sound in Alaska\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe lake's name is derived from Chief John Compound, a Mattatuck/Tunxis Native American. On December 3, 1684, his tribe signed a deed that left Compound's Lake to a group of white settlers, including John Norton, who had migrated to central Connecticut from Massachusetts. The property was left to the settlers in exchange for a small amount of money and miscellaneous items, including a large brass tea kettle. A local myth suggests that Chief Compound drowned while trying to cross the lake in the brass tea kettle.\n\nSection::::History.:Early days.\n", "Section::::Sites in Pennsylvania.:Weathering textures.\n", "Section::::Language and legend.\n", "Azukiarai\n\n, or , is a ghostly phenomenon in Japanese folklore, in which a mysterious noise that sounds like azuki beans being washed or ground is heard. It usually occurs near a river or other body of water. Sometimes the creature or spirit responsible amuses itself by singing \"\"azuki togou ka, hito totte kuou ka? shoki shoki.\"\" (\"Will I grind my azuki beans, or will I get a person to eat? \"shoki shoki\".\"), and anyone who approaches will inevitably fall into the water. \n", "\"Sounding\" derives from the Old English \"sund\", meaning \"swimming, water, sea\"; it is not related to the word \"sound\" in the sense of noise or tones, but to \"sound\", a geographical term.\n", "The cry is mentioned by the translator and put in the mouth of the narrator of Jules Verne's \"Journey to the Center of the Earth\", when their expedition discovers an underground ocean.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01851	What makes different cords/blocks charge the same phone better or worse?	For outlet adapters, some adapters are designed to provide a larger current, but this typically increases cost/size. A few standards like USB Power Delivery and Qualcomm QuickCharge, increase the voltage with a compatible device, allowing more power (= current*voltage) to be transmitted. Apple also uses a unique method of communication with devices, while many other devices simply short the two data pins to indicate the source is a charger Many low-cost cables have a higher resistance (often by using thinner wires to save costs), which limits the current provided before the voltage drops to an unacceptable point, and some omit the data pins/wires to save costs.	[ "Most mobile phone chargers are not really chargers, only power adapters that provide a power source for the charging circuitry which is almost always contained within the mobile phone. Older ones are notoriously diverse, having a wide variety of DC connector-styles and voltages, most of which are not compatible with other manufacturers' phones or even different models of phones from a single manufacturer.\n", "Due to their high volumes mobile phone chargers have always been particularly cost sensitive. The first chargers were linear power supplies, but they quickly moved to the cost effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology, when new levels of efficiency were required. Recently, the demand for even lower no-load power requirements in the application has meant that flyback topology is being used more widely; primary side sensing flyback controllers are also helping to cut the bill of materials (BOM) by removing secondary-side sensing components such as optocouplers.\n", "This style of tamper resistance is most commonly found in burglar alarms. Most trip devices (e.g. pressure pads, passive infrared sensors (motion detectors), door switches) use two signal wires that, depending on configuration, are normally open or normally closed. The sensors sometimes need power, so to simplify cable runs, multi-core cable is used. While 4 cores is normally enough for devices that require power (leaving two spare for those that don't), cable with additional cores can be used. These additional cores can be wired into a special so-called \"tamper circuit\" in the alarm system.\n", "BULLET::::- T = Tinsel Cord (only if first letter of code for a portable cord)\n\nBULLET::::- T = Thermoplastic (if not first letter of code)\n\nBULLET::::- H = Heat Resistant\n\nBULLET::::- HH = High Heat Resistant\n\nBULLET::::- N = Nylon Outer Jacket Material\n\nBULLET::::- E = Elastomer (flexible thermoplastic that looks and feels like rubber)\n\nBULLET::::- O = Oil-Resistant Outer Jacket\n\nBULLET::::- OO = Oil-Resistant Outer Jacket and Oil-Resistant Interior Insulation\n\nBULLET::::- P = Parallel Cord (conductors are not twisted around each other)\n", "Comparison of Fritz!Box devices\n\nThe charts below compare hardware and firmware features in the FRITZ!Box device range.\n\nSection::::Current models.\n\nThe following models are supported by manufacturer through firmware updates:\n\nSection::::End-of-life models.\n\nThe following models no longer receive firmware updates:\n\nSection::::Other device lines.\n\nBULLET::::- FRITZ!DECT – home automation devices that use DECT technology\n\nBULLET::::- FRITZ!DECT Repeater – DECT range extender\n\nBULLET::::- FRITZ!Fon: MT-D, MT-F, C4, C5, M2 – DECT cordless phone handsets\n\nBULLET::::- FRITZ!Media: 8020, 8040, 8260 – set-top boxes\n\nBULLET::::- FRITZ!Powerline – powerline adapters\n\nBULLET::::- FRITZ!WLAN Stick – wireless dongles\n\nBULLET::::- FRITZ!WLAN Repeater – wireless repeaters\n", "For the DC vehicle connector ,the implementation varies slightly between Combo 1 and Combo 2. In case of Combo 1 the connector is extended by two DC contacts, while the Type 1 portion of the connector remains the same with the AC contacts (L1 & N) being unused. For Combo 2 the AC contacts (L1, L2, L3 & N) are completely removed from the connector. Consequently the Type 2 portion of the connector has only three contacts remaining, of which two are communication contacts and one is protective earth. In both cases, communication and protective earth functions are covered by the original Type 1 or 2 portion of the connector. The Type 1 and Type 2 connectors are described in IEC 62196-2, while the Combo 1 and Combo 2 connectors are described in IEC 62196-3 as Configurations EE and FF.\n", "BULLET::::- Cordless tool manufacturers making batteries that fit only their own brand of tools, and often are not backwards compatible. Often multiple brands are owned by the same company, and share tool designs and features, accessories and batteries are deliberately changed to make them incompatible. An example would be Stanley Black & Decker who also owns or manufactures Black & Decker, DeWalt, Porter Cable, Mastercraft, and Craftsman. All use almost identical batteries, yet all have some feature designed to stop use in other tools.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "Prior to Power Delivery, mobile phone vendors used custom protocols to exceed the 7.5 W cap on USB-BCS. For example, Qualcomm's Quick Charge 2.0 is able to deliver 18 W at a higher voltage, and VOOC delivers 20 W at the normal 5 V. Some of these technologies, such as Quick Charge 4, eventually become compatible with USB PD again.\n\nSection::::Power.:Sleep-and-charge ports.\n", "BULLET::::- Loudspeaker outputs, especially on low-end equipment. On professional loudspeakers, Speakon connectors carry higher current, mate with greater contact area, lock in place and do not short out the amplifier upon insertion or disconnection. However, some professional loudspeakers carry both Speakon and TRS connectors for compatibility. Heavy-duty in loudspeaker jacks are rated at 15 A maximum which limits them to applications involving less than 1,800 watts. in loudspeaker jacks commonly are not rigged to lock the plug in place and will short out the amplifier's output circuitry if connected or disconnected when the amplifier is live.\n\nBULLET::::- Line outputs.\n", "Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n", "Tamper resistance\n\nTamper resistance is resistance to tampering (intentional malfunction or sabotage) by either the normal users of a product, package, or system or others with physical access to it. There are many reasons for employing tamper resistance.\n\nTamper resistance ranges from simple features like screws with special drives, more complex devices that render themselves inoperable or encrypt all data transmissions between individual chips, or use of materials needing special tools and knowledge. Tamper-resistant devices or features are common on packages to deter package or product tampering.\n", "Various initiatives, such as the EU Common External Power Supply have been announced to standardize the interface to the charger, and to promote energy efficiency of mains-operated chargers. A star rating system is promoted by some manufacturers, where the most efficient chargers consume less than 0.03 watts and obtain a five-star rating.\n\nGet to know about the best and fastest phone chargers. \n\nSection::::Power supply.:Battery.\n", "Different telephone connections are generally compatible with the use of an adapter: the physical connector and its wiring is the primary incompatibility.\n\nSee: .\n\nSection::::List of plugs.\n\nSection::::List of plugs.:Modular connectors.\n\nBULLET::::- 4P4C and 4P2C for handset cables (often erroneously referred to as RJ9, RJ10, and RJ22)\n\nBULLET::::- 6P2C for RJ11 single telephone line\n\nBULLET::::- 6P4C for RJ14 two telephone lines\n\nBULLET::::- 6P6C for RJ25 three telephone lines\n\nBULLET::::- 8P8C for RJ61X four telephone lines, RJ48S and RJ48C for four-wire data lines, RJ31X single telephone line with equipment disconnect, RJ38X (similar to RJ31X but with continuity circuit)\n", "Manufacturers usually advertise that their higher frequency systems improve audio quality and range. In the ideal case, higher frequencies actually have worse signal propagation as shown by the basic Friis transmission equation, and path loss tends to increase at higher frequencies as well. Practical influences on quality and range are signal strength, antenna quality, the method of modulation used, and interference, which varies locally.\n", "Some non-compliant cables with a USB-C connector on one end and a legacy USB-A plug or Micro-B receptacle on the other end incorrectly terminate the Configuration Channel (CC) with a 10kΩ pullup to V instead of the specification mandated 56 kΩ pullup, causing a device connected to the cable to incorrectly determine the amount of power it is permitted to draw from the cable. Cables with this issue may not work properly with certain products, including Apple and Google products, and may even damage power sources such as chargers, hubs, or PC USB ports.\n\nSection::::Hardware support.:Compatibility issues.\n", "Section::::List of plugs.:Legacy.\n\nBULLET::::- 600 series connector, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Protea, South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- SS 455 15 50, Sweden and Iceland\n\nBULLET::::- Telebrás plug, Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- Tripolar plug, Italy\n\nBULLET::::- BTicino 2021 (with or without line interruption), Italy (rare)\n\nSection::::List by country or territory.\n", "Letter codes have been defined by Underwriters Labs (UL) to describe various attributes and ratings of portable cords. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) also has defined similar letter codes, and ongoing standards harmonization should eventually resolve minor differences.\n\nBULLET::::- S = Severe Service Cord – 600 volts (also 277/480 or 480) – May be utilized in place of SJ or SV in extra-severe service\n\nBULLET::::- SJ = Junior Severe Service – 300 volts (also 120 or 120/208 or 120/240 or 240 or 277, but not 277/480)\n\nBULLET::::- SVT = Vacuum cleaner cord, or light duty cord\n", "The phone once again has the same OnePlus quick charging capabilities named Dash Charge with the ability to gain 60% of the charge in 30 minutes. According to the company, this is accomplished by doing all the power transforming required for direct input to the battery in the power brick supplied, not within the phone itself, reducing heat on the device. Additionally, the power brick can contain larger, dedicated electronics, whereas any power processing on a phone has to use smaller and cooler equipment, reducing the speed of charging.\n", "WE/SS and Tyco/AMP 8P8C plugs have different spacings for the cable strain relief. Using a WE/SS 8P8C crimp die set on a Tyco/AMP 8P8C plug crushes the top of the connector and damaged the crimp die set, and vice versa.\n\nBoth types of 8P8C plugs are available in shielded and unshielded varieties for different attenuation tolerances as needed. Shielded plugs are more expensive and require shielded cable, but have a lower attenuation, and may reduce signal noise.\n", "where for twin-lead line the primary line constants are\n\nwhere the surface resistance of the wires is\n\nand where \"d\" is the wire diameter and \"D\" is the separation of the wires measured between their centrelines.\n\nNeglecting the wire resistance \"R\" and the leakage conductance \"G\", this gives\n\nwhere \"Z\" is the impedance of free space (approximately 377 Ω), \"ε\" is the effective dielectric constant (which for air is 1.00054). If the separation \"D\" is much greater than the wire diameter \"d\" then this is approximately\n\nThe separation needed to achieve a given characteristic impedance is therefore\n", "Cells of different chemical composition made in the same size are mechanically interchangeable. However, the composition can affect service life and voltage stability. Using the wrong cell may lead to short life or improper operation (for example, light metering on a camera requires a stable voltage, and silver cells are usually specified). Sometimes different cells of the same type and size and specified capacity in milliampere-hour (mAh) are optimised for different loads by using different electrolytes, so that one may have longer service life than the other if supplying a relatively high current.\n", "A portable cord is usually made of thermoset polymer, thermoplastic elastomer, or thermoplastic. Thermoset cords have heavy-duty-grade rubber jackets, are extremely sturdy and oil-resistant, and may remain flexible over a temperature range of . Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) cords have medium-duty thermoplastic elastomer jackets and perform well in cold conditions down to . Thermoplastic cords typically have an extruded plastic PVC jacket, and are intended for light-duty use, typically in a temperature range of .\n\nSection::::Letter codes.\n", "Unlike the connector and inlet, which depend on the geographical location, the charging communication is the same around the globe. Generally two types of communication can be differentiated.\n", "However, with German domestic telephone equipment, and that in some neighboring countries, 6P4C plugs and sockets are typically only used to connect the telephone cord to the phone base unit, whereas the mechanically different TAE connector is used at the other end to connect to a service provider interface. Older base units may accommodate the additional connectors of TAE (E, W, a2, b2) and may feature non-RJ standard sockets that can be connected \"straight\" to TAE plugs. Further, flat DIN 47100 cables typically place the wires in ascending order. When used directly with 6P4C plugs, the color coding may be undetermined.\n", "Maxim Integrated touts a combined voltage and charge approach that is claimed superior to either method alone; it is implemented in their ModelGauge m3 series of chips, such as MAX17050, which is used in the Nexus 6 and Nexus 9 Android devices, for example.\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Kalman filtering.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10623	Why do bruises hurt when pressed?	Basically, bruises are internal cuts. If you touch a wound, or cut, it triggers your nerves to register this as pain. Pain is your bodies way of warning you to protect you.	[ "BULLET::::- supraorbital pressure - this is the manual stimulation of the supraorbital nerve by pressing a thumb into the indentation above the eye, near the nose.\n\nBULLET::::- sternal rub - this involves creating a turning pressure (akin to a grinding motion with a pestle and mortar) on the patient's sternum\n", "BULLET::::2. Friction is damaging to the superficial blood vessels directly under the skin. It occurs when two surfaces rub against each other. The skin over the elbows can be injured due to friction. The back can also be injured when patients are pulled or slid over bed sheets while being moved up in bed or transferred onto a stretcher.\n", "Very gently massaging the area and applying heat may encourage blood flow and relieve pain according to the gate control theory of pain, although causing additional pain may indicate the massage is exacerbating the injury. As for most injuries, these techniques should not be applied until at least three days following the initial damage to ensure all internal bleeding has stopped, because although increasing blood flow will allow more healing factors into the area and encourage drainage, if the injury is still bleeding this will allow more blood to seep out of the wound and cause the bruise to become worse.\n", "BULLET::::- Body fat percentage can be determined the skinfold test, in which a pinch of skin is precisely measured by calipers at several standardized points on the body to determine the subcutaneous fat layer thickness. These measurements are converted to an estimated body fat percentage by an equation.\n\nBULLET::::- Pinching is used as part of the diagnosis of schleroderma. In schleroderma patients, the skin between the fingers becomes too difficult to pinch.\n\nBULLET::::- In veterinary medicine, small amounts of animal skin is pinched in order to perform grafting.\n\nSection::::Pinch of powder.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nBruises often induce pain immediately after the trauma that results in their formation, but small bruises are not normally dangerous alone. Sometimes bruises can be serious, leading to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, such as when associated with serious injuries, including fractures and more severe internal bleeding. The likelihood and severity of bruising depends on many factors, including type and healthiness of affected tissues. Minor bruises may be easily recognized in people with light skin color by characteristic blue or purple appearance (idiomatically described as \"black and blue\") in the days following the injury.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::- The skin is often pinched prior to giving an injection in order to get the needle in the desired location.\n\nBULLET::::- In neurology, pinching can be used to determine pain sensitivity for a certain area of skin.\n\nBULLET::::- Can be used to determine resiliency in the skin of an aged person. When the skin is pinched, the amount of time the pinch remains visible following the pinch is an indicator.\n", "Bruise shapes may correspond directly to the instrument of injury or be modified by additional factors. Bruises often become more prominent as time lapses, resulting in additional size and swelling, and may grow to a large size over the course of the hours after the injury that caused the bruise was inflicted. As stated above, bruising present in a different location than the site of impact is called \"ecchymosis\" and generally occurs when the tissue at the site of injury is loose, allowing blood to travel under the skin to another location due to gravity or other forces, such as in a black eye.\n", "Low levels of damaging forces produce small bruises and generally cause the individual to feel minor pain straight away. Repeated impacts worsen bruises, increasing the harm level. Normally, light bruises heal nearly completely within two weeks, although duration is affected by variation in severity and individual healing processes; generally, more severe or deeper bruises take somewhat longer.\n", "Bruising can also occur during or after venipuncture.\n\nDuring an autopsy, bruises accompanying abrasions indicate the abrasions occurred while the individual was alive, as opposed to damage incurred post mortem.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Size and shape.\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nIn this technique, the practitioner identifies a point of musculoskeletal pain, called a tender point. Tender points are small, discrete, edematous areas on the body that elicit pain when palpated. Monitoring the tender point, the practitioner positions the patient such that the tenderness at the counterstrain point is minimized when pressed. The practitioner holds the patient in a maximally relaxed position for 90 seconds and then slowly returns the passive patient to a neutral body position. Success of treatment is evaluated by reassessing both the tender point and any accompanying change in range of motion.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Beastie Boys song \"Intergalactic\", the lyrics state, \"If you try to knock me you'll get mocked/I'll stir fry you in my wok/Your knees'll start shakin' and your fingers pop/Like a pinch on the neck of Mr. Spock\".\n\nSection::::Death grip.\n", "A contusion is the discoloration of the skin, which results from underlying muscle fibers and connective tissue being crushed.This can happen in a variety of ways such as a direct blow to the skin, or a fall taken against a hard surface. The discoloration in the skin is present when blood begins to pool around the injury.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Tendinitis.\n", "A bruise, also known as a contusion, is a type of hematoma of tissue, the most common cause being capillaries damaged by trauma, causing localized bleeding that extravasate into the surrounding interstitial tissues. Most bruises are not very deep under the skin so that the bleeding causes a visible discoloration. The bruise then remains visible until the blood is either absorbed by tissues or cleared by immune system action. Bruises, which do not blanch under pressure, can involve capillaries at the level of skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, or bone. Bruises are not to be confused with other similar-looking lesions primarily distinguished by their diameter or causation. These lesions include petechia (< 3 mm result from numerous and diverse etiologies such as adverse reactions from medications such as warfarin, straining, asphyxiation, platelet disorders and diseases such as cytomegalovirus), purpura (3 mm to 1 cm, classified as palpable purpura or non-palpable purpura and indicates various pathologic conditions such as thrombocytopenia), and ecchymosis (1 cm caused by blood dissecting through tissue planes and settled in an area remote from the site of trauma or pathology such as periorbital ecchymosis, e.g.,\"raccoon eyes\", arising from a basilar skull fracture or from a neuroblastoma).\n", "BULLET::::- Psoas sign – pain with extension of the hip and tensing of the psoas muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Obturator sign – pain when tensing the obturator muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Rovsing's sign – pain in the right lower abdominal quadrant on palpation of the left side of the abdomen\n\nBULLET::::- McBurney's sign - deep tenderness at McBurney's point\n\nBULLET::::- Carnett's sign – pain when tensing the abdominal wall muscles\n\nBULLET::::- Patafio's sign – pain when the patient is asked to cough whilst tensing the psoas muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Cough test – pain when the patient is asked to cough\n", "Damage that causes bruising can also cause bones to be broken, tendons or muscles to be strained, ligaments to be sprained, or other tissue to be damaged. The symptoms and signs of these injuries may initially appear to be those of simple bruising. Abdominal bruising or severe injuries that cause difficulty in moving a limb or the feeling of liquid under the skin may indicate life-threatening injury and require the attention of a physician.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "The case of \"DPP v Santana-Bermudez\" examined a similar principle, in which the defendant was convicted of assault occasioning actual bodily harm under the Offences against the Person Act 1861 as a result of omitting to inform a police officer when questioned, that he had on his pocket a sharp object (needle).\n", "It has been claimed that supraorbital pressure and trapezius squeeze are more effective than the sternal rub or peripheral stimulation, but sternal rub remains the most common.\n\nSupraorbital and mandibular pressure may not be suitable for patients with head injuries, or those with periorbital swelling.\n\nSection::::Peripheral stimuli.\n\nPeripheral stimuli are generally applied to the limbs, and a common technique is squeezing the lunula area of the finger or toe nail, often with an adjunct such as a pen. Like the sternal rub, though, this can cause bruising, and is recommended against, in favour of squeezing the side of the finger.\n", "BULLET::::- Location: More extensive vascularity causes more bleeding. Areas such as the arms, knees, shins and the facial area are especially common bruise sites.\n\nBULLET::::- Forces: Greater striking forces cause greater bruising.\n\nBULLET::::- Genes: Despite having completely normal coagulation factors, natural redheads have been shown to bruise more, although this may just be due to greater visibility on commonly associated lighter complexion.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Severity.\n\nBruises can be scored on a scale from 0–5 to categorize the severity and danger of the injury.\n", "As a type of hematoma, a bruise is always caused by internal bleeding into the interstitial tissues which does not break through the skin, usually initiated by blunt trauma, which causes damage through physical compression and deceleration forces. Trauma sufficient to cause bruising can occur from a wide variety of situations including accidents, falls, and surgeries. Disease states such as insufficient or malfunctioning platelets, other coagulation deficiencies, or vascular disorders, such as venous blockage associated with severe allergies can lead to the formation of purpura which is not to be confused with trauma-related bruising/contusion. If the trauma is sufficient to break the skin and allow blood to escape the interstitial tissues, the injury is not a bruise but bleeding, a different variety of hemorrhage. Such injuries may be accompanied by bruising elsewhere.\n", "The process and contact can be compared to cold welding or friction welding, because cold welding is not truly cold and the fusing points exhibit an increase in temperature and energy density derived from applied pressure and plastic deformation in the contact zone.\n\nSection::::Incidence and location.\n", "BULLET::::1. External (interface) pressure applied over an area of the body, especially over the bony prominences can result in obstruction of the blood capillaries, which deprives tissues of oxygen and nutrients, causing ischemia (deficiency of blood in a particular area), hypoxia (inadequate amount of oxygen available to the cells), edema, inflammation, and, finally, necrosis and ulcer formation. Ulcers due to external pressure occur over the sacrum and coccyx, followed by the trochanter and the calcaneus (heel).\n", "BULLET::::- The extremities of the patient should be observed for the presence of edema (swelling, usually due to fluid collection). Pitting edema, where pressing the skin may leave indentation, suggests that intravascular fluid has leaked into the interstitial tissues. Nonpitting edema is more likely to be caused by a blockage in the lymphatic or circulatory systems.\n", "Increased distress to tissue causes capillaries to break under the skin, allowing blood to escape and build up. As time progresses, blood seeps into the surrounding tissues, causing the bruise to darken and spread. Nerve endings within the affected tissue detect the increased pressure, which, depending on severity and location, may be perceived as pain or pressure or be asymptomatic. The damaged capillary endothelium releases endothelin, a hormone that causes narrowing of the blood vessel to minimize bleeding. As the endothelium is destroyed, the underlying von Willebrand factor is exposed and initiates coagulation, which creates a temporary clot to plug the wound and eventually leads to restoration of normal tissue.\n", "Building on John Paul Nafe's 1934 suggestion that different cutaneous qualities are the product of different temporal and spatial patterns of stimulation, and ignoring a large body of strong evidence for receptor fiber specificity, DC Sinclair and G Weddell's 1955 \"peripheral pattern theory\" proposed that all skin fiber endings (with the exception of those innervating hair cells) are identical, and that pain is produced by intense stimulation of these fibers. In 1953, Willem Noordenbos had observed that a signal carried from the area of injury along large diameter \"touch, pressure or vibration\" fibers may inhibit the signal carried by the thinner \"pain\" fibers — the ratio of large fiber signal to thin fiber signal determining pain intensity; hence, we rub a smack. This was taken as a demonstration that pattern of stimulation (of large and thin fibers in this instance) modulates pain intensity.\n", "Love & Other Bruises\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03476	Why is it sometimes after napping we feel more exhausted than when we first went to sleep and other times we feel energized?	You reach different levels of sleep. You sleep in cycles. A quick nap will keep you from going too deep into the cycle. When youre in the deepest part of your cycle called REM it is harder to wake up. Now im not sure what exactly makes you reach these different levels...	[ "Power naps restore alertness, performance, and learning ability. A nap may also reverse the hormonal impact of a night of poor sleep or reverse the damage of sleep deprivation. A University of Düsseldorf study found superior memory recall once a person had reached 6 minutes of sleep, suggesting that the onset of sleep may initiate active memory processes of consolidation which—once triggered—remains effective even if sleep is terminated.\n", "According to clinical studies among men and women, power nappers of any frequency or duration had a significantly lower coronary mortality ratio (MR) than those not napping. Specifically, those occasionally napping had a 12% lower coronary mortality, whereas those systematically napping had a 37% lower coronary mortality.\n", "Various durations are recommended for power naps, which are very short compared to regular sleep. The short duration of a power nap is designed to prevent nappers from entering SWS. Depending on duration and intensity, awakenings out of SWS results in sleep inertia, a phenomenon associated with grogginess, disorientation, and even more fatigue than prior to napping. Since sleep is the most effective and beneficial recovery method from fatigue, experts recommend considering duration vs. risk of entering SWS.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "A NASA study led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\n\nPower Napping Enablers and sleep timers allow properly timed power napping.\n", "Sara Mednick conducted a study experimenting on the effects of napping, caffeine, and a placebo. Her results showed that a 60–90-minute nap is more effective than caffeine in memory and cognition.\n\nSection::::Stimulant nap.\n", "Experimental confirmation of the benefits of this brief nap comes from a Flinders University study in Australia in which 5, 10, 20, or 30-minute periods of sleep were given. The greatest immediate improvement in measures of alertness and cognitive performance came after the 10 minutes of sleep. The 20 and 30-minute periods of sleep showed evidence of sleep inertia immediately after the naps and improvements in alertness more than 30 minutes later but not to a greater level than after the 10 minutes of sleep.\n", "When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia as opposed to a forced awakening but these results may warrant more research into the nature of arousal after sleep periods.\n", "For several years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, both the power nap and much longer sleep durations as long as 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks.\n", "Set point of ventilation is different in wakefulness and sleep. pCO2 is higher and ventilation is lower in sleep. Sleep onset in normal subjects is not immediate, but oscillates between arousal, stage I and II sleep before steady NREM sleep is obtained. So falling asleep results in decreased ventilation and a higher pCO2, above the wakefulness set point. On wakefulness, this constitutes an error signal which provokes hyperventilation until the wakefulness set point is reached. When the subject falls asleep, ventilation decreases and pCO2 rises, resulting in hypoventilation or even apnea. These oscillations continue until steady state sleep is obtained. The medulla oblongata controls our respiration.\n", "A Flinders University study of individuals restricted to only five hours of sleep per night found a 10-minute nap was overall the most recuperative nap duration of various nap lengths they examined (lengths of 0 min, 5 min, 10 min, 20 min, and 30 minutes): the 5-minute nap produced few benefits in comparison with the no-nap control; the 10-minute nap produced immediate improvements in all outcome measures (including sleep latency, subjective sleepiness, fatigue, vigor, and cognitive performance), with some of these benefits maintained for as long as 155 minutes; the 20-minute nap was associated with improvements emerging 35 minutes after napping and lasting up to 125 minutes after napping; and the 30-minute nap produced a period of impaired alertness and performance immediately after napping, indicative of sleep inertia, followed by improvements lasting up to 155 minutes after the nap.\n", "According to EEG measurements collected by Dr. Stampi during a 50-day trial of polyphasic ultrashort sleep with a test subject and published in his book \"Why We Nap\", the proportion of sleep stages remains roughly the same during both polyphasic and monophasic sleep schedules. The major differences are that the ratio of lighter sleep stages to deeper sleep stages is slightly reduced and that sleep stages are often taken out of order or not at all, that is, some naps may be composed primarily of slow wave sleep while rapid eye movement sleep dominates other naps.\n", "Section::::Nap rooms and tech aided naps.\n\nSome companies have nap rooms to allow employees to take a power nap. This may be in a form of a nap room with a recliner, or chairs specially designed for power napping installed in a designated area. Companies with nap rooms claim that employees are happier and become more productive at work.\n", "NASA, in cooperation with the National Space Biomedical Research Institute, has funded research on napping. Despite NASA recommendations that astronauts sleep eight hours a day when in space, they usually have trouble sleeping eight hours at a stretch, so the agency needs to know about the optimal length, timing and effect of naps. Professor David Dinges of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine led research in a laboratory setting on sleep schedules which combined various amounts of \"anchor sleep\", ranging from about four to eight hours in length, with no nap or daily naps of up to 2.5 hours. Longer naps were found to be better, with some cognitive functions benefiting more from napping than others. Vigilance and basic alertness benefited the least while working memory benefited greatly. Naps in the individual subjects' biological daytime worked well, but naps in their nighttime were followed by much greater sleep inertia lasting up to an hour.\n", "A power nap, also known as a Stage 2 nap, is a short slumber of 20 minutes or less which terminates before the occurrence of deep slow-wave sleep (SWS), intended to quickly revitalize the napper. The expression \"power nap\" was coined by Cornell University social psychologist James Maas.\n", "For years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, including the 30-minute nap as well as sleep durations of 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks. A NASA study led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions and that long naps are more effective than short ones. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\n", "According to the book, in a sleep deprived condition, measurements of a polyphasic sleeper's memory retention and analytical ability show increases as compared with monophasic and biphasic sleep (but still a decrease of 12% as compared with free running sleep). According to Stampi, the improvement is due to an extraordinary evolutionary predisposition to adopt such a sleep schedule; he hypothesizes this is possibly because polyphasic sleep was the preferred schedule of ancestors of the human race for thousands of years prior to the adoption of the monophasic schedule.\n", "The National Institute of Mental Health funded a team of doctors, led by Alan Hobson, MD, Robert Stickgold, PhD, and colleagues at Harvard University for a study which showed that a midday snooze reverses information overload. Reporting in \"Nature Neuroscience\", Sara Mednick, PhD, Stickgold and colleagues also demonstrated that \"burnout\" irritation, frustration and poorer performance on a mental task can set in as a day of training wears on. This study also proved that, in some cases, napping could even boost performance to an individual's top levels. The NIMH team wrote: \"The bottom line is: we should stop feeling guilty about taking that 'power nap' at work.\"\n", "These findings also show that the greatest decline in blood pressure occurs between lights-off and onset of daytime sleep itself. During this sleep period, which lasted 9.7 minutes on average, blood pressure decreased, while blood vessel dilation increased by more than 9 percent.\n\n\"There is little change in blood pressure once a subject is actually asleep,\" Zaregarizi noted, and he found minor changes in blood vessel dilation during sleep (Zaregarizi, M. 2007 & 2012).\n\nSection::::Negative effects.\n\nFor those suffering from insomnia or depression, naps may aggravate already disrupted sleep-wake patterns.\n\nSection::::Power nap.\n", "The 20-minute nap increases alertness and motor skills. Various durations may be recommended for power naps, which are very short compared to regular sleep. The short duration prevents nappers from sleeping so long that they enter the slow wave portion of the normal sleep cycle without being able to complete the cycle. Entering deep, slow-wave sleep and failing to complete the normal sleep cycle, can result in a phenomenon known as sleep inertia, where one feels groggy, disoriented, and even sleepier than before beginning the nap. In order to attain optimal post-nap performance, a Stage 2 nap must be limited to the beginning of a sleep cycle, specifically sleep stages N1 and N2, typically 18–25 minutes. \n", "Section::::Systematic napping as a lifestyle.\n\nA contemporary idea called polyphasic sleeping entails avoiding long periods of sleep, instead taking regularly spaced short naps. Sara Mednick, whose sleep research investigates the effects of napping, included a chapter, \"Extreme Napping\", in her book \"Take a Nap!\". In response to questions from readers about the \"uberman\" schedule of \"polyphasic sleeping\", she commented as follows:\n", "Napping is physiologically and psychologically beneficial. Napping for 20 minutes can help refresh the mind, improve overall alertness, boost mood and increase productivity. Napping may benefit the heart. In a six-year study of Greek adults, researchers found that men who took naps at least three times a week had a 37 percent lower risk of heart-related death. \n", "Zaregarizi and his team have concluded that the acute time of falling asleep was where beneficial cardiovascular changes take place. This study has indicated that a large decline in blood pressure occurs during the daytime sleep-onset period only when sleep is expected; however, when subjects rest in a supine position, the same reduction in blood pressure is not observed. This blood pressure reduction may be associated with the lower coronary mortality rates seen in the Mediterranean and Latin American populations where siestas are common. Zaregarizi assessed cardiovascular function (blood pressure, heart rate, and measurements of blood vessel dilation) while nine healthy volunteers, 34 years of age on average, spent an hour standing quietly; reclining at rest but not sleeping; or reclining to nap. All participants were restricted to 4 hours of sleep on the night prior to each of the sleep laboratory tests. During three daytime naps, he noted significant reductions in blood pressure and heart rate. By contrast, the team did not observe changes in cardiovascular function while the participants were standing or reclining at rest.\n", "High arousal states are associated with conscious states that have specific content, seeing, hearing, remembering, planning or fantasizing about something. Different levels or states of consciousness are associated with different kinds of conscious experiences. The \"awake\" state is quite different from the \"dreaming\" state (for instance, the latter has little or no self-reflection) and from the state of deep sleep. In all three cases the basic physiology of the brain is affected, as it also is in \"altered states of consciousness\", for instance after taking drugs or during meditation when conscious perception and insight may be enhanced compared to the normal waking state.\n", "The National Institute of Mental Health funded a team of doctors, led by Alan Hobson, Robert Stickgold, and colleagues at Harvard University for a study which showed that a midday nap reverses information overload. Reporting in \"Nature Neuroscience\", Sara Mednick, Stickgold and colleagues also demonstrated that, in some cases, a 1-hour nap could even boost performance to an individual's top levels. The NIMH team wrote: \"The bottom line is: we should stop feeling guilty about taking that 'power nap' at work.\"\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Cardiovascular benefits of napping, siesta or daytime sleep.\n", "A brief period of sleep of around 15 to 20 minutes, preceded by consuming a caffeinated drink or another stimulant, may combat daytime drowsiness more effectively than napping or drinking coffee alone. A stimulant nap (or coffee nap, caffeine nap, occasionally napuccino) was discovered by British researchers, Horne and Reyner, to be more effective than regular naps in improving post-nap alertness and cognitive functioning. In a driving simulator and a series of studies, Horne and Reyner investigated the effects of cold air, radio, a break with no nap, a nap, caffeine pill vs. placebo and a short nap preceded by caffeine on mildly sleep-deprived subjects. A nap with caffeine was by far the most effective in reducing driving accidents and subjective sleepiness as it helps the body get rid of the sleep-inducing chemical compound adenosine. Caffeine in coffee takes up to half an hour to have an alerting effect, hence \"a short (15min) nap will not be compromised if it is taken immediately after the coffee.\" One account suggested that it was like a \"double shot of energy\" from the stimulating boost from caffeine plus better alertness from napping. This procedure has been studied on sleep-deprived humans given the task of driving a motor vehicle afterwards, although it has not been studied on elderly populations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22063	Why is it easier to learn and remember 'unimportant' information without any effort, like names and locations of an entire map in a PC game, but difficult to learn and remember important information like schoolwork even while putting in effort to learn?	Much of it may be repitition. Think of how often you look at the map in a game you play regularly and how many other connections you make to the places while playing. You are immersed in it much more than you realize because it is fun. When trying to study material you really have no interest in, there isnt much else helping you connect everything and you only spend a few hours on any given specific topic usually. It just feels like a lot more because it is work and not fun. You may spend time during the day thinking about the game because it is something you like. Planning your next play session, thinking about tactics, etc. But we usually switch off the boring stuff as soon as we are done studying.	[ "This vulnerability as it relates to low working memory capacity individuals and seductive details within textual information can also be seen as a difference between children and adult learners. Because adults, on average, having a higher working memory capacity than children, adults are less affected by seductive details than children.\n\nSection::::The psychology.:Transfer of learning.\n", "There are different theories proposed to explain the increased performance of isolated items. The total-time hypothesis suggests that isolated items are rehearsed for a longer time in working memory compared to non-isolated items. Another approach offers that subjects could consider the isolated items to be in their own special category in a free-recall task, making them easier to recollect. A separate explanation is based upon the analysis of the deep processing of similarities and differences among the items. \n", "Low working memory is becoming more of an issue today with children in the public school system. The education system plays a substantial part in developing the children's mind for working memory. However, families who are in the low socio-economic status can't always afford private school to provide the children with the highest quality of teachers and learning. A disadvantage to having children in public school system is that educators don't have time, the right tools or proper techniques to train the children to develop better working memory. Public schools are at a disadvantage when it comes to receiving the best education for working memory. Children who live in a low SES homes have difficulty learning how to develop and train the working memory. Working memory has slowly decreased over the growing years. Therefore, students become less motivated and have learning difficulties later on. Low working memory results in frustration, anger, being disruptive and failure to complete tasks. Some effects to students having a low working memory is they can be very easily distracted, low attention span, as well as forgetfulness. Children that grow up in a higher SES, can afford to have a better education.\n", "Section::::Working Memory Measures.\n\nSection::::Working Memory Measures.:Psychometrics.\n\nScores on working memory measures have determined a strong association between working memory and language learning disabilities. These measures are very useful in measuring a child's working memory and or learning disabilities. Research shows studies of working memory can predict a child's scholastic abilities for up to three years later. Considering low SES is largely related to learning and language disabilities it is important to validate whether measures for such topics are free of socioeconomic influences.\n", "Task-invoked pupillary response is a reliable and sensitive measurement of cognitive load that is directly related to working memory. Information may only be stored in long term memory after first being attended to, and processed by, working memory. Working memory, however, is extremely limited in both capacity and duration. These limitations will, under some conditions, impede learning. Heavy cognitive load can have negative effects on task completion, and it is important to note that the experience of cognitive load is not the same in everyone. The elderly, students, and children experience different, and more often higher, amounts of cognitive load. \n", "BULLET::::- Committed Learning Principle: Learners will participate in extended engagements as an extension of their real-world identities in relation to their virtual identities. The learner feels a commitment to continue their effort and practice.\n\nBULLET::::- Identity Principle: The learner is able to choose multiple identities in such a way that they can reflect upon \"new\" and \"old\" identities. Gee specifically identifies that learners have a real-world identity, a virtual identity, and a projective identity.\n\nBULLET::::- Self-Knowledge Principle: The learner learns about themselves and their potential range of skills, in a self-reflective process.\n", "The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is that the quality of instructional design will be raised if greater consideration is given to the role and limitations, of working memory. \n\nWith increased distractions, particularly from cell phone use, students are more prone to experiencing high cognitive load which can reduce academic success.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.\n", "Whether a skill is learned explicitly (with attention) or implicitly, each plays a role in the offline consolidation effect. Research suggests that explicit awareness and understanding of the skill being learned during the acquisition process greatly improves the consolidation of procedural memories during sleep. This finding is not surprising, as it is widely accepted that intention and awareness at time of learning enhances the acquisition of most forms of memory.\n\nSection::::Language.\n", "In an experimental study done by Eder, Fiedler and Hamm-Eder (2011), the effects of working-memory capacity on illusory correlations were investigated. They first looked at the individual differences in working memory, and then looked to see if that had any effect on the formation of illusory correlations. They found that individuals with higher working memory capacity viewed minority group members more positively than individuals with lower working memory capacity. In a second experiment, the authors looked into the effects of memory load in working memory on illusory correlations. They found that increased memory load in working memory led to an increase in the prevalence of illusory correlations. The experiment was designed to specifically test working memory and not substantial stimulus memory. This means that the development of illusory correlations was caused by deficiencies in central cognitive resources caused by the load in working memory, not selective recall.\n", "However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even when learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. Seventy-two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards – a computerized version of the card game \"Concentration\" or \"Memory\". The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again present, or in a different room without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Psychosocial Moratorium\" Principle: The real-world consequences do not exist, allowing learners to take greater risks. For example, in gaming worlds learners are able to \"try-out\" different identities relating to gender, ethnicity, and even species. Similarly, gaming environments allows learners to make multiple attempts towards a given reward (i.e. new level, boss) without any real-world consequences. This creates a safe space for the learner to fully engage with the environment.\n", "Section::::Three basic components of the capacity model.:Processing educational content.:Viewer characteristics.\n\nBULLET::::- Prior knowledge of content - similar to the processing of narrative content, previous exposure to educational information can reduce the amount of working memory required to process the information in children. This has been shown to be true in adults.\n", "Research on humans suggests that lack of stimulation delays and impairs cognitive development. Research also finds that attaining and engaging in higher levels of education, environments in which people participate in more challenging cognitively stimulating activities, results in greater cognitive reserve.\n\nSection::::Early research.\n", "Sometimes it is useful to break a task down and analyze each individual aspect separately. This helps the tester locate specific areas for improvement. To do this, it is necessary to understand how the human brain processes information. A model of the human processor is shown below.\n\nMany studies have been done to estimate the cycle times, decay times, and capacities of each of these processors. Variables that affect these can include subject age, aptitudes, ability, and the surrounding environment. For a younger adult, reasonable estimates are:\n\nLong-term memory is believed to have an infinite capacity and decay time.\n", "Section::::Sub-population studies.:College students.\n\nWith the widespread acceptance of laptops in the classroom, an increasing cognitive load while in school is a major concern. With the use of Facebook and other social forms of communication, adding multiple tasks is hurting students performance in the classroom. When many cognitive resources are available, the probability of switching from one task to another is high and does not lead to optimal switching behavior. Both students who were heavy Facebook users and students who sat nearby those who were heavy Facebook users performed poorly and resulted in lower GPA.\n\nSection::::Sub-population studies.:Children.\n", "Section::::Structure of mnemonic skills.:Acceleration.\n\nThe final step in skilled memory theory is acceleration. With practice, time necessary for encoding and retrieval operations can be dramatically reduced. As a result, storage of information can then be performed within a few seconds. Indeed, one confounding factor in the study of memory is that the subjects often improve from day-to-day as they are tested over and over.\n\nSection::::Learned skill or innate ability.\n\nThe innateness of expert performance in the memory field has been studied thoroughly by many scientists; it is a matter which has still not been definitively resolved.\n", "The \"part-set cuing effect\" was initially discovered by Slamecka (1968), who found that providing a portion of to-be-remembered items as test cues\n\noften impairs retrieval of the remaining un-cued items compared with performance in a no-cue (free-recall) control condition. Such an effect is intriguing because\n\nnormally cues are expected to aid recall (e.g., Tulving & Pearlstone,\n", "A heavy cognitive load typically creates error or some kind of interference in the task at hand. A heavy cognitive load can also increase stereotyping. Stereotyping is an extension of the Fundamental Attribution Error which also increases in frequency with heavier cognitive load. The notions of cognitive load and arousal contribute to the \"Overload Hypothesis\" explanation of social facilitation: in the presence of an audience, subjects tend to perform worse in subjectively complex tasks (whereas they tend to excel in subjectively easy tasks).\n\nSection::::Sub-population studies.\n\nSection::::Sub-population studies.:Elderly.\n", "Instructional techniques that assist learners to create long term memory schema are more effective for novices or low-knowledge individuals, who approach a learning situation or task without these knowledge structures to rely on. In contrast, for higher-knowledge learners or experts, i.e. learners with more prior knowledge of the task, the reverse is true, such that reduced guidance often results in better performance than well-guided instruction. Slava Kalyuga, one of the leading researchers in this area, writes, \"instructional guidance, which may be essential for novices, may have negative consequences for more experienced learners.\"\n", "The most important psychological factor is usually regarded as attention to form, which is related to planning time. The more time that learners have to plan, the more target-like their production may be. Thus, literate learners may produce much more target-like forms in a writing task for which they have 30 minutes to plan, than in conversation where they must produce language with almost no planning at all. The impact of alphabetic literacy level on an L2 learner's ability to pay attention to form is as yet unclear.\n", "This could be further explained by one recent study which indicates a general deficit in the memory for spatial locations in aged adults (mean age 69.7 with standard deviation of 7.4 years) compared to young adults (mean age 21.7 with standard deviation of 4.2 years). At first, the difference in target recognition was not significant.\n", "Section::::Factors that affect recall.\n\nSection::::Factors that affect recall.:Attention.\n\nThe effect of attention on memory recall has surprising results. It seems that the only time attention largely affects memory is during the encoding phase. During this phase, performing a parallel task can severely impair retrieval success. It is believed that this phase requires much attention to properly encode the information at hand, and thus a distractor task does not allow proper input and reduces the amount of information learned.\n", "BULLET::::- Placement bias: tendency to remember ourselves to be better than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves above average (also Illusory superiority or Better-than-average effect) and tendency to remember ourselves to be worse than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves below average (also Worse-than-average effect).\n\nBULLET::::- Positivity effect: that older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories.\n", "Section::::In individuals with ADHD.\n\nAn experiment was performed to assess fast mapping in adults with typical language abilities, disorders of spoken/written language (hDSWL), and adults with hDSWL and ADHD. \n\nThe conclusion draw from the experiment revealed that adults with ADHD were the least accurate at \"mapping semantic features and slower to respond to lexical labels.\" \n\nThe article reasoned that the tasks of fast mapping requires high attentional demand and so \"a lapse in attention could lead to diminished encoding of the new information.\"\n\nSection::::In individuals with language deficits.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00985	How do neurotransmitters express our emotions?	Neurotransmitters don’t express anything. They only inhibit or stimulate certain part of the brain that are responsible for a specific emotion. For example, the amygdala is a part of your brain that controls fear. When put in a scary situation, some of your neurotransmitters will stimulate the neurons in your amygdala, thus creating the feeling of fear.	[ "For example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.\n", "Section::::How emotions are formed.\n\nSection::::How emotions are formed.:Neurobiological explanation.\n\nBased on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).\n", "Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. This hypothesis that synaptic plasticity is an important part of the neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory is now widely accepted.\n", "In the book \"Human Emotions,\" author Carroll Ellis Izard says \"a complete definition of emotion must take into account all three of these aspects or components: (a) the experience or conscious feeling of emotion, (b) the processes that occur in the brain and nervous system, and (c) the observable expressive patterns of emotion, particularly those on the face\" (p. 4). This third component is where oculesics plays a role in nonverbal communication of emotion.\n", "Section::::Function.:Emotion.\n", "In 1985, research by neuropharmacologist Candace Pert, of the National Institutes of Health at Georgetown University, revealed that neuropeptide-specific receptors are present on the cell walls of both the brain and the immune system. The discovery that neuropeptides and neurotransmitters act directly upon the immune system shows their close association with emotions and suggests mechanisms through which emotions, from the limbic system, and immunology are deeply interdependent. Showing that the immune and endocrine systems are modulated not only by the brain but also by the central nervous system itself affected the understanding of emotions, as well as disease.\n", "Section::::Models of emotion.:Psychological construction model.\n", "Whether or not someone intends to send a particular meaning, or someone else perceives meaning correctly, the exchange of communication happens and can initiate emotion. It is important to understand these dynamics, because we often establish relationships (on small and grand scales) with oculesics.\n\nSection::::Nonverbal Communication.:Communicating Emotions.:Lists of Emotions.\n\nThere are many theories on how to annotate a specific list of emotions. Two prominent methodologies come from Dr. Paul Ekman and Dr. Robert Plutchik (both professors are referenced above as well).\n", "Section::::Models of emotion.:Social construction model.\n", "Section::::Emotions as discrete categories.:Semantically distinct emotions.\n\nEugene Bann proposed a theory that people transmit their understanding of emotions through the language they use that surrounds mentioned emotion keywords. He posits that the more distinct language is used to express a certain emotion, then the more distinct the perception (including proprioception) of that emotion is, and thus more basic. This allows us to select the dimensions best representing the entire spectrum of emotion. Coincidentally, it was found that Ekman's (1972) basic emotion set, arguably the most frequently used for classifying emotions, is the most semantically distinct.\n\nSection::::Dimensional models of emotion.\n", "In cognitive science and neuroscience, there have been two leading models describing how humans perceive and classify emotion: the continuous model and the categorical model. The continuous model defines each facial expression of emotion as a feature vector in a face space. This model explains, for example, how expressions of emotion can be seen at different intensities. In contrast, the categorical model consists of C classifiers, each tuned to a specific emotion category. This model explains, among other findings, why the images in a morphing sequence between a happy and a surprise face are perceived as either happy or surprise but not something in between.\n", "After performing a series of cross-cultural studies, Paul Ekman and Carroll Izard reported that there are various similarities in the way people across the world produce and recognize the facial expressions of at least six emotions.\n\nSection::::Evidence for the theory.\n", "A variety of methods can be used to examine the relationship between executive function and emotion, including behavioural studies, functional brain activity, and neuroanatomy. Some of the most prominent results are listed here.\n\nSection::::Mood affects style of information processing.\n", "Another neurological approach proposed by Bud Craig in 2003 distinguishes two classes of emotion: \"classical\" emotions such as love, anger and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli, and \"homeostatic emotions\" – attention-demanding feelings evoked by body states, such as pain, hunger and fatigue, that motivate behavior (withdrawal, eating or resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state.\n", "Decoding emotions in speech includes three (3) stages: determining acoustic features, creating meaningful connections with these features, and processing the acoustic patterns in relation to the connections established. In the processing stage, connections with basic emotional knowledge is stored separately in memory network specific to associations. These associations can be used to form a baseline for emotional expressions encountered in the future. Emotional meanings of speech are implicitly and automatically registered after the circumstances, importance and other surrounding details of an event have been analyzed.\n", "Recent findings in studies focusing on patients with post traumatic stress disorder demonstrate that amino acid transmitters, glutamate and GABA, are intimately implicated in the process of factual memory registration, and suggest that amine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine and serotonin, are involved in encoding emotional memory.\n\nSection::::Molecular perspective.\n", "Section::::Modes of perception.\n\nEmotions can be perceived through visual, auditory, olfactory, and physiological sensory processes. Nonverbal actions can provide social partners with information about subjective and emotional states. This nonverbal information is believed to hold special importance and sensory systems and certain brain regions are suspected to specialize in decoding emotional information for rapid and efficient processing.\n\nSection::::Modes of perception.:Visual.\n", "Section::::Chemical signaling.\n\nSection::::Chemical signaling.:Neurotransmitters.\n", "Section::::Function.:Chemical messengers.\n\nThe two main chemical messengers of the sympathoadrenal system are norepinephrine and epinephrine (also called noradrenaline and adrenaline respectively). These chemicals are created by the adrenal glands after receiving neuronal signals from the sympathetic nervous system. The different physiological effects of these chemicals depend on the particular tissue that it innervates. As part of the sympathoadrenal system, these chemicals act rapidly and dispel quickly as opposed to the longer lasting effect of hormones.\n\nSection::::Stress.\n", "Section::::Neural bases.:HPA axis.\n", "In Scherer's components processing model of emotion, five crucial elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the component processing model provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode.\n", "Section::::Actions.:Examples of important neurotransmitter actions.\n\nAs explained above, the only direct action of a neurotransmitter is to activate a receptor. Therefore, the effects of a neurotransmitter system depend on the connections of the neurons that use the transmitter, and the chemical properties of the receptors that the transmitter binds to.\n\nHere are a few examples of important neurotransmitter actions:\n", "Section::::Emotion functions.\n", "The emotion paradox is as follows. People have vivid and intense experiences of emotion in day-to-day life: they report seeing emotions like \"anger\", \"sadness\", and \"happiness\" in others, and they report experiencing \"anger\", \"sadness\" and so on themselves. Nevertheless, psychophysiological and neuroscientific evidence has failed to yield consistent support for the existence of such discrete categories of experience. Instead, the empirical evidence suggests that what exists in the brain and body is affect, and emotions are constructed by multiple brain networks working in tandem.\n", "Section::::Neural bases.:Amygdala.\n" ]	[ "Neurotransmitters express our emotions.", "Neurotransmitters express our emotions" ]	[ "Neurotransmitters don't express anything, they just simulate the part of the brain that is responsible for emotions. ", "Neurotransmitters just stimulate the part of the brain that is responsible for emotions. The neurotransmitters " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Neurotransmitters express our emotions.", "Neurotransmitters express our emotions" ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Neurotransmitters don't express anything, they just simulate the part of the brain that is responsible for emotions. ", "Neurotransmitters just stimulate the part of the brain that is responsible for emotions. The neurotransmitters " ]
2018-04049	How does the skull and jawbone adjust their tooth sockets' locations while having braces?	> The classic theory of tooth movement is called the [Pressure Tension Theory]( URL_0 ) > Every tooth is encompassed by a tooth socket. When a force is applied to a tooth via braces, one wall of the tooth socket is compressed or squeezed (pressure) and the other wall of the tooth socket is relieved or stretched (tension). > Blood flow decreases in the area of pressure and ‘bone-eating’ cells turn up to remove bone in front of the tooth. This is called frontal resorption. Blood flow increases in the area of tension and ‘bone-forming’ cells turn up and deposit bone behind the tooth. Hence the tooth essentially ‘treks’ through the bone creating a path in front of it and covering this path up behind it.	[ "Torquing forces can occur when the pontic lies outside the interabutment axis line as the pontic acts as a lever arm. This is particularly applicable to long span bridges replacing multiple anteriors.\n", "Extreme force upon the teeth can occur during some situations as a protective reflex. When a person senses the risk of an imminent car crash, for example, the teeth arches are normally firmly occluded. This over-clenching is still considered parafunctional, although is serves a functional purpose; the maxilo-mandibular complex is much less vulnerable to harm and dislocation because it is bonded by muscles and interposed teeth. When this kind of reflex acts, it is very important to have a good memory of one's \"best bite\" position in order to avoid fractures. It is one hypothesis for why military jet pilots crack more teeth than auxiliary crew.\n", "Section::::Process.\n\nThe application of braces moves the teeth as a result of force and pressure on the teeth. There are traditionally four basic elements that are used: brackets, bonding material, arch wire, and ligature elastic (also called an “O-ring”). The teeth move when the arch wire puts pressure on the brackets and teeth. Sometimes springs or rubber bands are used to put more force in a specific direction.\n", "The necessity of translation to produce further opening past that which can be accomplished with sole rotation of the condyle can be demonstrated by placing a resistant fist against the chin and trying to open the mouth more than 20 or so mm.\n\nThe resting position of the temporomandibular joint is not with the teeth biting together. Instead, the muscular balance and proprioceptive feedback allow a physiologic rest for the mandible, an interocclusal clearance or freeway space, which is 2 to 4 mm between the teeth.\n\nSection::::Function.:Jaw movement.\n", "Brace completed his Ph.D. in 1962. He taught briefly at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee and then at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He has spent much of his career as Professor of Anthropology at the University of Michigan and as Curator of Biological Anthropology at the university's Museum of Anthropology.\n\nSection::::Career.\n\nSection::::Career.:Neanderthal studies.\n", "Tongue muscles (genioglossus, geniohyoid and others) are attached to the lower jaw below the teeth. During a genioglossus advancement procedure, a small window or bone cut is made in the front part of the lower jaw (mandible) at the level of the geniotubercle which is where the genioglossus muscle is attached. This piece of bone along with the attachment for the tongue (genial tubercle) is pulled forward and is subsequently secured to the lower jaw, usually with a single screw or with a plate(s) and screws.\n", "Closed reduction with direct skeletal fixation follows the same premise as MMF except that wires are passed through the skin and around the bottom jaw in the mandibule and through the piriform rim or zygomatic buttresses of the maxilla then joined together to secure the jaws. The option is sometimes used when a patient is edentulous (has no teeth) and rigid internal fixation cannot be used.\n", "Teeth affected by macrodontia are either contoured, aligned or extracted. Contouring involves shaving the tooth down to change shape and size. However, the result is minimal change as this could be dangerous for the dentin and dental pulp. Aligning involves the use of braces to straighten, align, and make space for larger teeth to grow. When extracted, they are replaced with an implant or bridge. This is done in cases in which the patient suffers from pain that cannot be treated by other methods.\n", "Section::::Evidence-based dentistry.\n", "Multiple factors influence the selection of appropriate abutment teeth. These include the size of potential abutment tooth, with larger teeth having an increased surface area preferable for retention, using teeth with a stable periodontal status, favourable tooth angulation, favourable tooth position, and an adequate crown-root ratio.\n\nCareful abutment selection is critical for the success of bridgework. The prosthesis must be capable of tolerating occlusal forces, which would normally be received by the missing tooth as well as its normal occlusal loading. These forces are transmitted to the abutment(s) via the prosthesis.\n", "Dr. Lawrence Andrews invented the Straightwire Appliance in 1970s. This allowed values of tip and torque to be incorporated into the brackets. When developing the lingual brackets, Craven used reciprocal tip and torque values of that of Lawrence Andrew's straighwire appliance for each tooth in his lingual brackets. Eventually first order bend at the junction of the canine and premolar, and the premolar and molar were placed in the wires as these values were not incorporated in the brackets.\n\nSection::::Design.:Advantages.\n", "Viken Sassouni developed Sassouni analysis which indicates that patient's with long face syndrome have 4 of their bony planes (mandibular plane, occlusal plane, palatal plane, SN plane) steep to each other.\n\nSection::::Types.:Dental open bite.\n", "Sometimes children and teenage patients, and occasionally adults, are required to wear a headgear appliance as part of the primary treatment phase to keep certain teeth from moving (for more detail on headgear and facemask appliances see Orthodontic headgear). When braces put pressure on one's teeth, the periodontal membrane stretches on one side and is compressed on the other. This movement needs to be done slowly or otherwise the patient risks losing his teeth. This is why braces are worn as long as they are and adjustments are only made every so often.\n", "Section::::Types of jaw wiring.:Orthodontic jaw wiring.\n\nThe second type of jaw wiring is called orthodontic jaw wiring (OJW) or dental jaw wiring, and can be used as a treatment for obesity and compulsive overeating. In this procedure, a dentist or orthodontist attaches braces to certain teeth (typically the canines and premolars) and inserts wiring, but not elastics, between the upper and lower teeth in a figure-8 pattern. The wiring is removed periodically to allow the jaw joints to move freely, especially in the vertical direction. The procedure is not invasive and does not require anesthesia. \n", "SureSmile has a lingual or behind teeth braces option called SureSmile QT.With lingual braces, brackets are adhered to the underside of the teeth on the top arch, bottom arch or both arches. Most patients choose lingual braces for aesthetic reasons, as they cannot be seen. Orthodontists that offer lingual braces will often suggest putting lingual braces on the upper teeth and clear ceramic braces on the bottom though patients can choose to have lingual braces on both arches. A news segment on WGN-TV Medical Watch recently featured SureSmile QT and explains that the same SureSmile robotic technology is used for the behind teeth braces.\n", "Inherent in most of the theories outlined above, is the idea that a force is generated in the periodontal ligament beneath unerupted teeth, and that this force physically drives teeth out through the bone. This idea may have been superseded by a further recent theory. This new theory proposes firstly that areas of tension and compression are generated in the soft tissues surrounding unerupted teeth by the distribution of bite forces through the jaws. These patterns of tension and compression, are further proposed to result in patterns of bone resorption and deposition that lift the tooth into the mouth. This theory is based on Wolff's Law, which is the long established idea that bone changes shape in accordance with the forces applied. Significantly, a recent finite element analysis study, analysing the distribution of force through the jaw of an 8-year-old child, observed overall compression in the soft tissues above, and tension in the soft tissues below, unerupted teeth. Because bone resorbs when compressed, and forms under tension, this finite element analysis strongly supports the new theory. Further work is required, however, to confirm this new theory experimentally.\n", "Meckel's cartilage forms in the mesoderm of the mandibular process and eventually regresses to form the incus and malleus of the middle ear, the anterior ligament of the malleus and the sphenomandibular ligament. The mandible or lower jaw forms by perichondral ossification using Meckel's cartilage as a 'template', but the maxillary does \"not\" arise from direct ossification of Meckel's cartilage.\n\nSection::::First arch.:Derivatives.\n\nThe skeletal elements and muscles are derived from mesoderm of the pharyngeal arches.\n\nBULLET::::- Skeletal\n\nBULLET::::- malleus and incus of the middle ear\n\nBULLET::::- maxilla and mandible\n\nBULLET::::- spine of sphenoid bone\n\nBULLET::::- sphenomandibular ligament\n\nBULLET::::- palatine bone\n", "Patient with skeletal open bites that accompany dental open bites may have Adenoid faces or Long face syndrome. They are said to have what is known as \"Hyperdivergent Growth Pattern\" which includes characteristics such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased Lower Anterior Facial Height\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusal plane diverges after the 1st molar contact\n\nBULLET::::- May accompany dental open bite\n\nBULLET::::- Narrow nostrils with upturned nose\n\nBULLET::::- Dolicofacial or Leptoprosopic face pattern\n\nBULLET::::- Constricted maxillary arch\n\nBULLET::::- Bilateral Posterior Crossbite\n\nBULLET::::- High and narrow palatal vault\n\nBULLET::::- Presence of crowding in teeth\n\nBULLET::::- Mentalis muscle strain upon forcibly closing of lips\n", "Cortical bone is known to resorb slower than the medullary bone. Therefore, cortical anchorage is used in orthodontics to allow for slower movement of teeth, especially molars in the posterior dentition. A clinician may produce a movement which allows the buccal roots of the permanent molars to move buccally (outside), eventually contacting the cortical bone. It is claimed that by using cortical bone against posterior teeth, mesial movement of posterior teeth can be prevented which helps in anchoring the posterior teeth in the back of the jaw.\n", "BULLET::::6. Generation #6 - In 1988, his generation saw a Transpalatal bar hook being added to the molar brackets and the inclined plane on the anterior brackets became more of square shape.\n\nBULLET::::7. Generation #7 - This last generation the inclined plane was made to be heart shaped. Hooks were made longer to allow easier ligation of the elastic o rings. The premolar brackets were also widened mesio-distally.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "BULLET::::1. Facebow: first, the facebow (or J-Hooks) is fitted with a metal arch onto headgear tubes attached to the rear upper and lower molars. This facebow then extends out of the mouth and around the patients face. J-Hooks are different in that they hook into the patients mouth and attach directly to the brace (see photo for example of J-Hooks).\n", "When the mandible is moved into a lateral excursion, the working side condyle (the condyle on the side of the mandible that moves outwards) only performs rotation (in the horizontal plane), while the balancing side condyle performs translation. During actual functional chewing, when the teeth are not only moved side to side, but also up and down when biting of the teeth is incorporated as well, rotation (in a vertical plane) also plays a part in both condyles.\n", "Bracing is a common strategy recommended by an occupational therapist, in particular, for individuals engaging in sports and exercise. An OT is responsible for educating an individual on the advantages and disadvantages of different braces, proper ways to wear the brace, and the day-to-day care of the brace.\n", "An articulator which is adjustable in one or more, but not all of the following areas: condylar angle, Bennett side-shift, incisal and cuspid guidance, and shape of the glenoid fossae and eminintiae. By nature, this sort of articulator's use is only meaningful if the position of the maxillae are duplicated with respect to the hinge axis of the mandibular condyles.The majority of these articulators again have straight condylar paths, however the path angle may be changed, allowing the patient’s condylar angle to be programmed into the articulator . This is still not a true representation of the articular eminence as it is a flat condylar pathway. Some semi-adjustable articulators have average value Bennett shift/movement built into the condylar head element, replicating the average head shape of the condyle . This mimics the movement of the condyles better than some ball-shaped condylar heads found on other articulators Normally this is achieved by the use of a face-bow.\n", "Section::::Restoration types.:Bridge.\n\nA bridge is used to span, or bridge, an edentulous area (space where teeth are missing), usually by connecting to fixed restorations on adjacent teeth. The teeth used to support the bridge are called abutments. A bridge may also refer to a single-piece multiple unit fixed partial denture (numerous single-unit crowns either cast or fused together). The part of the bridge which replaces a missing tooth and attaches to the abutments is known as a \"pontic.\" For multiple missing teeth, some cases may have several pontics.\n\nSection::::Restoration types.:Inlay.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02680	How does the ADHD brain differ from a normal one? Why is medication almost always needed?	To be honest, the US Army helped me retrain my mind better than the meds. All about focus in the moment. Did great in college once I got out. The Schedule I meds are too much of a hassle.	[ "Treatment for adult ADHD may combine medication and behavioral, cognitive, or vocational interventions. Treatment often begins with medication selected to address the symptoms of ADHD, along with any comorbid conditions that may be present. Medication alone, while effective in correcting the physiological symptoms of ADHD, will not address the paucity of skills which many adults will have failed to acquire because of their ADHD (e.g., one might regain \"ability\" to focus with medication, but skills such as organizing, prioritizing and effectively communicating have taken others time to cultivate).\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.\n\nADHD persists into adulthood in about 30–50% of cases. Those affected are likely to develop coping mechanisms as they mature, thus compensating to some extent for their previous symptoms. Children with ADHD have a higher risk of unintentional injuries. Effects of medication on functional impairment and quality of life (e.g. reduced risk of accidents) have been found across multiple domains. But learning disorders and executive function deficits do not seem to respond to ADHD medications.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nADHD is a chronic condition, beginning in early childhood and persisting throughout a person's lifetime. It is estimated that 33–66% of children with ADHD will continue to have significant ADHD-related symptoms persisting into adulthood, resulting in a significant impact on education, employment, and interpersonal relationships.\n", "ADHD is divided into three subtypes: predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI or ADHD-I), predominantly hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-PH or ADHD-HI), and combined type (ADHD-C).\n\nA person with ADHD inattentive type has most or all of following symptoms, excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition:\n\nBULLET::::- Be easily distracted, miss details, forget things, and frequently switch from one activity to another\n\nBULLET::::- Have difficulty maintaining focus on one task\n\nBULLET::::- Become bored with a task after only a few minutes, unless doing something they find enjoyable\n\nBULLET::::- Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing or completing a task\n", "ADHD is diagnosed by an assessment of a child's behavioral and mental development, including ruling out the effects of drugs, medications and other medical or psychiatric problems as explanations for the symptoms. It often takes into account feedback from parents and teachers with most diagnoses begun after a teacher raises concerns. It may be viewed as the extreme end of one or more continuous human traits found in all people. Whether someone responds to medications does not confirm or rule out the diagnosis. As imaging studies of the brain do not give consistent results between individuals, they are only used for research purposes and not diagnosis.\n", "As of 2006 there was a shortage of data regarding ADHD drugs' potential adverse effects, with very few studies assessing the safety or efficacy of treatments beyond four months, and no randomized controlled trials assessing for periods of usage longer than two years.\n\nSection::::Psychosocial.\n\nThere are a variety of psychotherapeutic approaches employed by psychologists and psychiatrists; the one used depends on the patient and the patient's symptoms. The approaches include psychotherapy, cognitive-behavior therapy, support groups, parent training, meditation, and social skills training.\n\nSection::::Psychosocial.:Parent education and classroom management.\n", "It is estimated that between 2–5% of adults have ADHD. Around 25–50% of children with ADHD continue to experience ADHD symptoms into adulthood, while the rest experiences fewer or no symptoms. Currently, most adults remain untreated. Many adults with ADHD without diagnosis and treatment have a disorganized life and some use non-prescribed drugs or alcohol as a coping mechanism. Other problems may include relationship and job difficulties, and an increased risk of criminal activities. Associated mental health problems include: depression, anxiety disorder, and learning disabilities.\n", "Because ADHD comorbidities are diverse and the rate of comorbidity is high, special care must dedicated to certain comorbidities. The FDA is not set up to address this issue, and does not approve medications for comorbidities, nonetheless certain such topics have been extensively researched.\n\nSection::::Comorbid disorders.:Tic disorders.\n\nPatients with Tourette syndrome who are referred to specialty clinics have a high rate of comorbid ADHD. Patients who have ADHD along with tics or tic disorders may also have problems with disruptive behaviors, overall functioning, and cognitive function, accounted for by the comorbid ADHD.\n", "For most adults, the psychosocial therapy is not effective. For this reason, medications are the first line of therapies. The medications that are prescribed for adults come in both stimulant and non-stimulant form. Although drug therapies are effective for adults, the benefits should be discussed with the patient’s physician to ensure that these outweigh the risks. If medication is unwanted or not an option, increasing exercise and changing one’s diet may help alleviate some of the symptoms such as hyperactivity\n\nExercise may alleviate some of the symptoms of ADHD for approximately 45 minutes.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Although ADHD has most often been treated with medication, medications do not cure ADHD. They are used solely to treat the symptoms associated with this disorder and the symptoms will come back once the medication stops.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medication.\n\nStimulants are typically formulated in fast and slow-acting as well as short and long-acting formulations. The fast-acting amphetamine mixed salts (Adderall) and its derivatives, with short and long-acting formulations bind to the trace amine associated receptor and triggers the release of dopamine into the synaptic cleft. They may have a better cardiovascular disease profile than methylphenidate and potentially better tolerated.\n", "The symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder closely mirror the symptoms of Directed Attention Fatigue. Like Directed Attention Fatigue, ADHD involves the prefrontal cortex. Specifically, the right prefrontal cortex is less active among children with ADHD. Experimentation has shown that the severity of ADHD symptoms can be correlated to the degree of asymmetry between blood flow in the left and right prefrontal cortex. It is possible that DAF and ADHD involve disruption of the same underlying mechanism, and recent clinical evidence has found that the same treatments used for Directed Attention Fatigue may reduce the symptoms of ADHD in children. However, it is important to note that unlike ADHD, DAF is a temporary condition rather than a clinical disorder.\n", "Treatment of ADHD is usually based on a combination of medication, cognitive behavioral therapy, and coaching or skills training. Medium-to-high intensity physical exercise, improved sleep and improved and targeted nutrition are also known to have a positive effect. Within school and work, reasonable accommodations may be put in place to help the individual work more efficiently and productively.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n\nThe DSM-5, or Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2013 edition, defines three types of ADHD:\n\nBULLET::::1. a Predominantly Inattentive presentation\n\nBULLET::::2. a Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive presentation\n\nBULLET::::3. a Combined Type, that displays symptoms from both presentation\n", "Diagnosis follows one or several assessment which may include examination of personal history, observational evidence from family members or friends, academic reports, often going back to school years, as well as evaluation to diagnose additional possible conditions which often coexist with ADHD, called comorbidities or comorbid disorders.\n", "An ADHD diagnosis is contingent upon the symptoms of impairment presenting themselves in two or more settings (e.g., at school or work and at home). There must also be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning. Lastly, the symptoms must not occur exclusively during the course of a pervasive developmental disorder, schizophrenia, or other psychotic disorder, and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder (e.g., mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, personality disorder).\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The symptoms of ADHD arise from a deficiency in certain executive functions (e.g., attentional control, inhibitory control, and working memory). Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that are required to successfully select and monitor behaviors that facilitate the attainment of one's chosen goals. The executive function impairments that occur in ADHD individuals result in problems with staying organized, time keeping, excessive procrastination, maintaining concentration, paying attention, ignoring distractions, regulating emotions, and remembering details. People with ADHD appear to have unimpaired long-term memory, and deficits in long-term recall appear to be attributed to impairments in working memory. The criteria for an executive function deficit are met in 30–50% of children and adolescents with ADHD. One study found that 80% of individuals with ADHD were impaired in at least one executive function task, compared to 50% for individuals without ADHD. Due to the rates of brain maturation and the increasing demands for executive control as a person gets older, ADHD impairments may not fully manifest themselves until adolescence or even early adulthood.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nThe pathophysiology of ADHD is unclear and there are a number of competing theories.\n\nSection::::Causes.:ADHD as a biological illness.\n\nFrequently observed differences in the brain between ADHD and non-ADHD patients have been discovered, but it is uncertain if or how these differences give rise to the symptoms of ADHD. Results from various types of neuroimaging techniques suggest there are differences in the brain, such as thinner regions of the cortex, between individuals with and without ADHD.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nThe management of ADHD typically involves counseling or medications either alone or in combination. While treatment may improve long-term outcomes, it does not get rid of negative outcomes entirely. Medications used include stimulants, atomoxetine, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, and sometimes antidepressants. In those who have trouble focusing on long-term rewards, a large amount of positive reinforcement improves task performance. ADHD stimulants also improve persistence and task performance in children with ADHD.\n\nSection::::Management.:Behavioral therapies.\n", "Symptoms of ADHD (see table below) can vary widely between individuals and throughout the lifetime of an individual. As the neurobiology of ADHD is becoming increasingly understood, it is becoming evident that difficulties exhibited by individuals with ADHD are due to problems with the parts of the brain responsible for executive functions (see below: Pathophysiology). These result in problems with sustaining attention, planning, organization, prioritization, time blindness, impulse control and decision making.\n", "Every normal individual exhibits ADHD-like symptoms occasionally (when tired or stressed, for example) but for a positive diagnosis to be received, the symptoms should be present from childhood and persistently interfere with functioning in multiple spheres of an individual's life: work, school, and interpersonal relationships. The symptoms that individuals exhibit as children are still present in adulthood, but manifest differently as most adults develop compensatory mechanisms to adapt to their environment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nInattention, hyperactivity (restlessness in adults), disruptive behavior, and impulsivity are common in ADHD. Academic difficulties are frequent as are problems with relationships. The symptoms can be difficult to define, as it is hard to draw a line at where normal levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity end and significant levels requiring interventions begin.\n", "ADHD-PI is an attention-concentration deficit that has everything in common with other forms of ADHD except that it has fewer hyperactivity or impulsivity symptoms and has more directed attention fatigue symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:DSM-5 criteria.\n\nThe DSM-5 allows for diagnosis of the \"predominantly inattentive\" presentations of ADHD (ICD-10 code F90.0) if the individual presents six or more (five for adults) of the following symptoms of inattention for at least six months to a point that is disruptive and inappropriate for developmental level:\n", "Section::::History.\n\nEarly work on disorders of attention was conducted by Alexander Crichton in 1798 writing about \"mental restlessness\". The underlying condition came to be recognized from the early 1900s by Sir George Still. Efficacy of medications on symptoms was discovered during the 1930s and research continued throughout the twentieth century. ADHD in adults began to be studied from the early 1970s and research has increased as worldwide interest in the condition has grown.\n", "Section::::Management.:Medication.\n\nStimulant medications are the pharmaceutical treatment of choice. They have at least some effect on symptoms, in the short term, in about 80% of people Methylphenidate appears to improve symptoms as reported by teachers and parents. Stimulants may also reduce the risk of unintentional injuries in children with ADHD.\n", "Some parents and professionals have raised questions about the side effects of drugs and their long-term use.\n\nSection::::Medications.:Concerns regarding stimulants.:Increasing use.\n", "However ADHD is often misdiagnosed as depression, particularly when no hyperactivity is present.\n\nSection::::Types.:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).:Symptoms.\n\nSymptoms of ADHD include inattentiveness, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity. Many of the behaviors that are associated with ADHD include poor control over actions resulting in disruptive behavior and academic problems. Another area that is affected by these disorders is the social arena for the person with the disorder. Many children that have this disorder exhibit poor interpersonal relationships and struggle to fit in socially with their peers.\n\nSection::::Types.:Other disorders.\n\nBULLET::::- Learning disabilities\n\nBULLET::::- Communication disorders\n\nBULLET::::- Developmental coordination disorder\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02600	How many current US congressional representatives have felony charges and if any, How come felons can’t serve in the US military but can represent the people?	Because the constitution does not say felons cant become congressmen/congressmwomen, while the military has requirements (I presume they don't want felons they want there soldiers to have a high moral character and able to follow orders), although you can get waivers for certain felonies. In fact, you can techinically be a member of congress even if in jail. A felon, however, can be kicked outa congress if voted out by the others (explulsion).	[ "BULLET::::- Four members were sheriffs (Rep. Dave Reichert), one a deputy sheriff, four police officers (including a Capitol policeman), two state troopers (Rep. Kendrick Meek of the Florida Highway Patrol and Rep. Bart Stupak of the Michigan State Police), two probation officers, one FBI special agent, one Border Patrol chief, and one volunteer firefighter\n", "The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for \"Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors\" and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. The House may approve \"articles of impeachment\" by a simple majority vote; however, a two-thirds vote is required for conviction in the Senate. A convicted official is automatically removed from office and may be disqualified from holding future office under the United States. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.\n", "BULLET::::- David Bonner, former legal officer and administrative law attorney in the Department of the Army’s Office of The Inspector General, at the The Pentagon, former Illinois Assistant Attorney General in the Civil Trials and Prosecutions unit, and formerly worked on Barack Obama's Senate campaign.\n\nBULLET::::- Cecil Matthews Jr., finance supervisor for Winston & Strawn LLP, first-time candidate\n\nBULLET::::- Debbie Meyers-Martin, former village president and trustee of Olympia Fields, president of the South Suburban Mayors and Managers Association, and former member of several advisory boards, economic boards, and regulatory boards.\n", "Under the Constitution, members of both houses enjoy the privilege of being free from arrest in all cases, except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace. This immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. The term \"arrest\" has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on his or her own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, on the other hand, are less strict, and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they see fit.\n", "Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law, and is known as contempt of Congress. Each house of Congress has the power to cite individuals for contempt, but may not impose any punishment. Instead, after a house issues a contempt citation, the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court, an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.\n", "The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials (both executive and judicial) for \"Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.\" The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future.\n", "The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for \"Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors\". Impeachment is a \"formal accusation\" of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.\n", "\"During the four months that I served in a federal prison, it never occurred to me that one day I would also serve in the United States Congress and be a member of the committee having oversight jurisdiction over all federal judges and all federal prisons.\n", "To be eligible for election, a candidate must be aged at least 25 (House) or 30 (Senate), have been a citizen of the United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent.\n", "Disqualification: under the Fourteenth Amendment, a federal or state officer who takes the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engages in rebellion or aids the enemies of the United States, is disqualified from becoming a representative. This post–Civil War provision was intended to prevent those who sided with the Confederacy from serving. However, disqualified individuals may serve if they gain the consent of two-thirds of both houses of Congress.\n\nSection::::Membership, qualifications and apportionment.:Elections.\n", "Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial). Only two Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.\n", "BULLET::::- State Representative Jeff Wood, (R), has pleaded no contest to fifth-offense OWI charge which is a felony. He has been sentenced to spend nine months in jail, with three years' probation. (2011)\n\nSection::::2010–present.:West Virginia.\n\nBULLET::::- Justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia Allen Loughry (R) pleaded guilty to fraud. (2019)\n\nBULLET::::- Justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia Menis Ketchum (D) pleaded guilty to wire fraud. (2018)\n\nSection::::2000–2009.\n\nSection::::2000–2009.:Alabama.\n\nBULLET::::- State Representative Suzanne L. Schmitz (D) was found guilty on 7 out of 8 counts of federal fraud charges. (2009)\n", "The Georgia Constitution stipulates that members of the Senate must be citizens of the United States, at least 25 years old, a citizen of the state of Georgia for at least two years, and a legal resident of the district the senator was elected for at least one year. Members of the House of Representatives must be citizens of the United States, at least 21 years old, a Georgia citizen for at least two years, and a legal resident of the district the representative was elected for at least one year.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Disqualifications.\n", "BULLET::::- Steven Williams, lawyer and former United States Navy JAG Corps officer\n\nBULLET::::- Declined\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Maffei, former U.S. Representative\n\nSection::::District 25.\n", "In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another, Richard Nixon, resigned after the House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment but before a formal impeachment vote by the full House.) Only two presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction.\n", "Members of Congress come from a variety of occupational backgrounds. 215 members (159 in the House and 58 in the Senate) have worked in some aspect of law during their career, whether as an attorney, paralegal, policy analyst, or bureaucratic official, with 180 members of the House and 58 of the Senate holding Juris Doctor degrees. 189 members (162 in the House and 26 in the Senate) have worked in some segment of private sector business, with 18 members holding MBA degrees. 82 representatives and 14 senators have worked in education, whether as a teacher or school administrator. 109 Congress members have served as political aides at some level, including 10 working as congressional pages and 16 working as members of the White House staff. \n", "BULLET::::- Scott Alan Willingham, 49, an unemployed musician who had been part of a \"security detail\" during the occupation, was arrested on March 17 by a Grant County, Oregon, sheriff's deputy in Mount Vernon, Oregon, and charged with weapons offenses after threatening to shoot federal law enforcement officers unless he was arrested for his role in the occupation. On March 23, he was transferred into federal custody after being indicted on two federal charges of stealing government property in relation to his stealing of a camera and related equipment worth more than from a utility pole at a transformer station.\n", "The following table lists federal officials for whom impeachment proceedings were instituted and referred to a committee of the House of Representatives. Numbered lines of the table reflect officials impeached by a majority vote of the House. Unnumbered lines are those officials for whom an impeachment proceeding was formally instituted, but ended when (a) the Committee did not vote to recommend impeachment, (b) the Committee recommended impeachment but the vote in the full House failed, or (c) the official resigned or died before the full House vote.\n", "Section::::Qualifications.\n\nEach Senator and Representative must be a citizen of the United States, at least 21 years of age, and an elector of the district he or she represents. Under state law, moving out of the district shall be deemed a vacation of the office. No person who has been convicted of subversion or who has within the preceding 20 years been convicted of a felony involving a breach of public trust shall be eligible for either house of the legislature.\n\nSection::::Legislative session.\n", "BULLET::::- One member has been an astronaut, one a naval aviator, one a commander of a carrier battle group (Rep. Joe Sestak, a retired vice admiral and the highest-ranking former serviceman in Congress), two were instructors at West Point (Rep. Patrick Murphy) and (Rep. Thomas Rooney), and one a pilot of Marine One, the presidential helicopter\n", "Section::::Other MPs and Senators who have resigned or been judged ineligible.:Skye Kakoschke-Moore.\n", "House Rule X generally restricts members of Congress to service on no more than two standing committees and no more than four subcommittees within each of those committees, with some exceptions. For example, the Chairman and Ranking Member of the full committee are allowed to serve \"ex officio\" on their subcommittees without that service being subject to the limitation. Also, service on any temporary investigative subcommittees established by the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct does not count. Finally, representatives can request waivers from their respective party caucus or conference to serve on additional committees or subcommittees\n", "The criminal offense of \"contempt of Congress\" sets the penalty at not less than one month nor more than twelve months in jail and a fine of not more than $100,000.\n\nSection::::Procedures.:Civil procedures.\n", "In 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation.\n\nSection::::Governments.:Constitutions.:Judicial.\n", "The House also has the power to formally censure or reprimand its members; censure or reprimand of a member requires only a simple majority, and does not remove that member from office.\n\nSection::::Comparison to the Senate.\n" ]	[ "If felons can't work in the military, they shouldn't be able to represent people politically." ]	[ "The constitution states that people can't be congressmen or congresswoman." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If felons can't work in the military, they shouldn't be able to represent people politically.", "If felons can't work in the military, they shouldn't be able to represent people politically." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The constitution states that people can't be congressmen or congresswoman.", "The constitution states that people can't be congressmen or congresswoman." ]
2018-13255	Why do some museum ban flash photography when viewing certain exhibits?	Flashs produce very bright light. Light in general can harm some of the pigments used in art. This would fade the image and be very bad. Rather than expect people to know how bright their flash is, it's a lot simpler to just ban all flash photography. Given the number of violators, most people don't even know how to turn the flash off. Increasingly museums are going to "no photos" to deal with the ignorant masses of cell phone photographers.	[ "Flash distracts people, limiting the number of pictures that can be taken without irritating them. Photographing with flash may not be permitted in some museums even after purchasing a permit for taking pictures. Flash equipment may take some time to set up, and like any grip equipment, may need to be carefully secured, especially if hanging overhead, so it does not fall on anyone. A small breeze can easily topple a flash with an umbrella on a lightstand if it is not tied down or sandbagged. Larger equipment (e.g., monoblocks) will need a supply of AC power.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Once inside the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom, there are no lines to see the individual documents and visitors are allowed to walk from document to document as they wish. For over 30 years the National Archives have forbidden flash photography but the advent of cameras with automatic flashes have made the rules increasingly difficult to enforce. As a result, all filming, photographing, and videotaping by the public in the exhibition areas has been prohibited since February 25, 2010.\n", "Photography for personal use is permitted in public areas of the Underground, with the purchase of a Student/Non-professional permit, to show the photographs to the public (such as on the internet), requires additional payment, but the use of tripods and other supports is forbidden as it poses a danger in the often cramped spaces and crowds found underground. Flash photography is also forbidden as it may distract drivers and disrupt fire-detection equipment. For the same reason bright auto-focus assist lights should be switched off or covered when photographing in the Underground.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "In 2007, ESA's photography students participated in Gallery 44's exhibition Cameralinks 2007 - URBAN. Since 2013, ESA Photography students have participated in the Magenta Foundation's Flash Forward Incubator Program.\n\nSection::::Facilities.\n", "Dennis Barrie books a potentially controversial exhibit of Robert Mapplethorpe's nude photography for the Contemporary Arts Center and, with the support of his board of directors, opts to keep it on the schedule even after the prestigious Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., removes it from theirs.\n", "A typical problem with cameras using built-in flash units is the low intensity of the flash; the level of light produced will often not suffice for good pictures at distances of over or so. Dark, murky pictures with excessive image noise or \"grain\" will result. In order to get good flash pictures with simple cameras, it is important not to exceed the recommended distance for flash pictures. Larger flashes, especially studio units and monoblocks, have sufficient power for larger distances, even through an umbrella, and can even be used against sunlight at short distances. Cameras which automatically flash in low light conditions often do not take into account the distance to the subject, causing them to fire even when the subject is several tens of metres away and unaffected by the flash. In crowds at sports matches, concerts and so on, the stands or the auditorium can be a constant sea of flashes, resulting in distraction to the performers or players and providing absolutely no benefit to the 'photographers'.\n", "BULLET::::- Motion Sensor and Task Lighting- Museums can use motion sensor or task lighting in areas with less traffic or in office spaces. Lighting entire areas that are used rarely or less often than other high traffic spaces is a drain on energy and money for a museum. These lighting options allow for light and energy to only be used when a person is engaged in a specific task or in a certain area.\n\nSection::::Greening the field of preventive conservation.\n", "Section::::Responsibilities.:Preventive conservation.:Emergency preparedness and response.\n", "BULLET::::- 2002, Straus Center for Conservation and Technical Studies, Harvard University\n\nBULLET::::- 2003, Conservation Center, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University\n\nBULLET::::- 2004, Art Conservation Department, Queen's University at Kingston\n\nBULLET::::- 2005, Art Conservation Department, Buffalo State College\n\nBULLET::::- 2006, Art Conservation Department, Winterthur-University of Delaware\n\nBULLET::::- 2007, Straus Center for Conservation and Technical Studies, Harvard University\n\nBULLET::::- 2008, Conservation Center of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University\n\nBULLET::::- 2009, Art Conservation Department, Buffalo State College\n\nBULLET::::- 2010, Art Conservation Department, Queen's University at Kingston\n\nBULLET::::- 2011, Art Conservation Department, Winterthur-University of Delaware\n", "Within the print room setting rules and regulations will vary from institution to institution. Some print rooms may allow visitors to photograph works (without a flash), while others may permit sketching. The V&A's Prints and Drawings Study Room allows photography but Tate Britain's Prints and Drawings Rooms do not, though Tate visitors are allowed to sketch and paint in watercolour with appropriate precautions.\n", "In the past, slow-burning single-use flash bulbs allowed the use of focal-plane shutters at maximum speed because they produced continuous light for the time taken for the exposing slit to cross the film gate. If these are found they cannot be used on modern cameras because the bulb must be fired before the first shutter curtain begins to move (M-sync); the X-sync used for electronic flash normally fires only when the first shutter curtain reaches the end of its travel.\n", "Section::::Preservation issues.:Environmental concerns of the exhibition space.\n\nThe main concerns of exhibition environments include light, relative humidity, and temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- Light\n", "There is also a tradition of activist interventions being used as responses to the censorship of exhibited artworks. In 1989, after the Corcoran Gallery of Art cancelled \"The Perfect Moment\", an exhibition of Robert Mapplethorpe’s explicit photography, protesters projected Mapplethorpe’s photos on the exterior of the museum. Similar protests occurred when David Wojnarowicz’s film \"A Fire in My Belly\" was removed from the \"Hide/Seek: Difference and Desire in American Portraiture\" exhibit at the National Portrait Gallery in 2010.\n\nSection::::New methodologies.:Museum interventions.:Museum hack.\n", "BULLET::::- 1982, Art Conservation Department, Queen's University\n\nBULLET::::- 1983, Art Conservation Department, Buffalo State College\n\nBULLET::::- 1984, Center for Conservation and Technical Studies, Harvard University\n\nBULLET::::- 1985, Art Conservation Department, Winterthur-University of Delaware\n\nBULLET::::- 1986, Conservation Center, Institute of Fine Arts New York University with the Conservation Education Program, School of Library Service, Columbia University\n\nBULLET::::- 1987, Art Conservation Program, Queen's University at Kingston\n\nBULLET::::- 1988, Art Conservation Department, Buffalo State College\n\nBULLET::::- 1989, Center for Conservation and Technical Studies, Harvard University\n\nBULLET::::- 1990, Art Conservation Department, Winterthur-University of Delaware\n", "Many well-known art museums, such as the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York, often have temporary light art exhibits and installations in their galleries.\n\nSection::::Displays.:Light festivals.\n", "In October 2014, the Newhouse School declined to allow Pulitzer Prize winning photojournalist Michel du Cille to participate in a journalism workshop at the school because he'd returned three weeks earlier from covering the Ebola outbreak in Liberia. Du Cille said at the time, \"It's a disappointment to me. I’m pissed off and embarrassed and completely weirded out that a journalism institution that should be seeking out facts and details is basically pandering to hysteria.\" Newhouse Dean Lorraine Branham said she made the decision to avoid panic and because she \"was unwilling to take any risk where our students are concerned.\"\n", "Photographs should not be hung near light. Hanging photographs on a wall can cause damage from the exposure to direct sunlight, or to fluorescent lights. Displays of photographs should be changed periodically because most photographs will deteriorate in light over time.\n", "BULLET::::- Photography on private property that is generally open to the public (e.g., a shopping mall) is usually permitted unless explicitly prohibited by posted signs. Even if no such signs are posted, the property owner or agent can ask a person to stop photographing, and if the person refuses to do so, the owner or agent can ask the person to leave; in some jurisdictions, a person who refuses to leave can be arrested for criminal trespass, and many jurisdictions recognize the common-law right to use reasonable force to remove a trespasser; a person who forcibly resists a lawful removal may be liable for battery, assault, or both.\n", "In addition, there have been numerous examples in which police or security officers have erroneously told civilians that filming or taking pictures of a particular building is unlawful and a violation, due to either national security or homeland security reasons. Examples covered in the blog include a police officer advising that photographing the National Laboratory at the University of Texas Medical Branch was prohibited, and similar examples involving photographing an art exhibit in downtown Indianapolis, and a train station in New York City.\n\nSection::::First Amendment issues.:Police coverup.\n", "In the \"Flashpoint\" reality, Flash is not Central City's superhero. Instead the resident hero Citizen Cold has his own museum.\n\nSection::::In other media.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.:Live Action.\n", "The concept was discussed in detail by David Campany in 2003, in his essay Safety in Numbness: Some remarks on the problems of ‘Late Photography’ Campany uses several terms to explain the concept, \"cool\" \"slow\" \"late\" are all used. Campany opts for the latter suggesting it is a type of photography that is undertaken after the main event has happened.\n", "Section::::In other media.:Television.:Animation.\n", "Photography on private property that is generally open to the public (e.g., a shopping mall) is usually permitted unless explicitly prohibited by posted signs. Even if no such signs are posted, the property owner or agent can ask a person to stop photographing, and if the person refuses to do so, the owner or agent can ask the person to leave; in some jurisdictions, a person who refuses to leave can be arrested for criminal trespass, and many jurisdictions recognize the common-law right to use reasonable force to remove a trespasser; a person who forcibly resists a lawful removal may be liable for battery, assault, or both.\n", "Section::::Accomplishments as a photographer and educator.\n\nSection::::Accomplishments as a photographer and educator.:\"Images of Florence\".\n", "On February 3, 2015, a pinhole camera used in a Georgia State University solargraphy art project was blown up by the Atlanta bomb squad, due to reports of it being a bomb. The device, one of nineteen placed throughout the city, had been duct-taped to the 14th Ave. bridge above I-75/85; traffic was shut down for two hours, and the remaining cameras were later removed by authorities.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Long Exposure Photography Ideas\n\nBULLET::::- Article about series of solargraphs in the ESO Messenger\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Fosbury's Solargraphs\n\nBULLET::::- Tarja Trygg's Solargraphy page\n\nBULLET::::- Long Exposure Photography inspirations\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02241	Why are IPA beers sold predominantly in 4 packs as opposed to the customary 6?	Most 4 packs I come across in IPA is when they are higher in abv or special release beer from the brewer. Plenty of 6 pack ipa's out there. Even the higher abv Sierra Nevada Torpedo is a 6 pack.	[ "In 2005, the IPA Project was repeated with nine varietal IPAs with nine new hops plus a reformulated Odyssey. The IPA Project celebration poured 12 different IPAs: Rt. 113 IPA, the nine varietals, and both the 2004 and 2005 Odyssey. The day-long event also marked the release of Rt. 113 IPA in 22oz bottles.\n\nIPA Project 2006 repeated the best three single hop IPAs each from 2004 and 2005 and introduced four new ones, for a total of ten varietals. This year's day-long celebration in December was topped off with the first release of Odyssey Imperial IPA in 22oz bottles.\n", "BULLET::::- Hennepin Farmhouse Saison (a Saison or seasonal Belgian-style rustic golden ale)(The first Saison in America)\n\nBULLET::::- Rare Vos Amber Ale (a cafe-style amber ale)\n\nBULLET::::- Ommegang Witte Ale (a Belgian-style wheat ale)\n\nBULLET::::- Three Philosophers (a Belgian-style quadrupel with authentic Belgian kriek blended in)\n\nBULLET::::- BPA (Belgian Pale Ale), dry-hopped with Cascade hops\n\nOmmegang Abbey Ale and Three Philosophers can be aged for flavoring. Ommegang recommends ageing Hennepin up to 3 years, and Abbey and Three Philosophers up to 5 years.\n\nSection::::Ales.:Special Releases.\n\nOmmegang brews several one-off beers with a few repeat visits.\n\n2007:\n", "Double IPAs (also referred to as Imperial IPAs) are a stronger, very hoppy variant of IPAs that typically have alcohol content above 7.5% by volume. The style is claimed to have originated with Vinnie Cilurzo, currently the owner of Russian River Brewing Company in Santa Rosa, California, in 1994 at the now-defunct Blind Pig Brewery in Temecula, California. The style has been embraced by the craft brewers of San Diego County, California, to such an extent that double IPAs have been referred to as \"San Diego pale ale\" by Garrett Oliver, brewmaster at the Brooklyn Brewery.\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 World Beer Cup: Gold Medal, Belgian-style Blonde Ale or Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 European Beer Star: Bronze Medal, Spiced beer\n\nHennepin\n\nBULLET::::- Cave-aged Hennepin winning the 2004 Great American Beer Festival Gold Medal for French- and Belgian-style Saisons\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 World Beer Cup Silver Medal for French- Belgian-Style Saison\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 European Beer Star: Gold Medal, Spiced beer\n\nAbbey\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 World Beer Cup: Gold Medal, Belgian Dubbel Ale\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 European Beer Star: Silver Medal, Belgian-style Dubbel\n\nThree Philosophers\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 World Beer Cup Bronze Medal Belgian-Style Dark Strong Ale\n", "Almanac introduced its year-round family of beers, called the California Table Beer Series, in August 2012, beginning with Honey Saison and Extra Pale Ale. The releases sold in four-packs at a suggested retail price of $11. In January 2013, after resolving never to brew an India Pale Ale because of heavy competition, Almanac bowed to customer demand and produced a single origin IPA using hops from Hops-Meister Farm in Clearlake.\n", "In the North East of England, a request for a half and half would more commonly produce a combination of Scotch ale and India pale ale (IPA). This drink fell from favour when the Scottish & Newcastle brewery were obliged to sell many of their tied public houses and McEwan's Scotch and IPA disappeared from public bars across the North East.\n", "Seasonal Collection:\n\nBULLET::::- Good Juju\n\nBULLET::::- Oktoberfest\n\nBULLET::::- Fade to Black\n\nBULLET::::- Hard Wired Nitro Coffee Porter\n\nBULLET::::- Well Played Red IPA\n\nBULLET::::- Braveheart Nitro\n\nBig Mo Series (all 22 oz):\n\nBULLET::::- Oak Aged Wake Up Dead\n\nBULLET::::- Chainsaw Double ESB\n\nBULLET::::- Twin Sisters Double IPA\n\nBULLET::::- Smokejumper Imperial Smoked Porter\n\nBULLET::::- Warrior IPA\n\nBULLET::::- St. Vrain Tripel\n\nBULLET::::- Widdershins Oak Aged Barleywine\n\nBULLET::::- Wake Up Dead Imperial Stout\n\nAmbidextrous Ale Series (Draft Only):\n\nBULLET::::- Step One: Imperial Milk Stout\n\nBULLET::::- Step Two: Smoked Doppelbock\n\nBULLET::::- Step Three: Great Juju\n\nBULLET::::- Step Four: Maibock\n\nBULLET::::- Step Five: Sticke Alt\n", "Safety Round Series (Draft Only):\n\nBULLET::::- Round One: Belgian Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Round Two: Copper Ale\n\nCollaborations (all 22 oz):\n\nBULLET::::- TerraRye'ZD (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- Depth Charge (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Oxymoron (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Peaotch (2011)\n\nDiscontinued Beers:\n\nBULLET::::- Motherlode Golden Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Jackman's Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Haystack Wheat\n\nBULLET::::- Deep Cover Brown Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Snowbound Winter Ale\n\nBULLET::::- XXXmas Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Fade to Black Vol. 1 (Foreign Export Stout)\n\nBULLET::::- Fade to Black Vol. 2 (Smoked Baltic Porter)\n\nBULLET::::- Fade to Black Vol. 3 (Pepper Porter)\n\nBULLET::::- Fade to Black Vol. 4 (Rocky Mountain Black Ale)\n\nBULLET::::- TNT Weizen Doppelbock\n", "BULLET::::- Nevada Museum Of Art 80th Anniversary Egyptian Ale – brewed to commemorate the Egyptian Exhibit at the Nevada Museum of Art, this was a recreation of a New Kingdom-style beer made with emmer and no hops\n\nBULLET::::- Oktoberfest – usually brewed around October for the celebration of the same name, made with German barley and noble hops\n\nBULLET::::- Pogonip Pilsner – pilsner brewed with noble hops\n\nBULLET::::- Preservation Ale – organic ale brewed to benefit the Nevada Land Conservancy\n\nBULLET::::- Rare Bear Cream Style Ale – a cream ale dedicated to the aircraft of the same name\n", "BULLET::::- Lost Souls Chocolate Pumpkin Porter\n\nBULLET::::- Hopnotist One Hop IPA\n\nBULLET::::- ¡Órale! Tequila Gose\n\nBULLET::::- Corn Hops Imperial Corn IPA\n\nBULLET::::- N2 Milk Stout\n\nBULLET::::- N2 Extra Special Bitter\n\nBULLET::::- Hoparazzi West Coast Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Vow of Silence Belgian Strong\n\nBULLET::::- Hay Fever Saison\n\nBULLET::::- Black Hops Cascadian Dark Larger\n\nBULLET::::- Sun of Hop Belgian Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Crane Kick Sorachi Ace Pilsner\n\nBULLET::::- Pound Sterling Fresh Hopped Pilsner\n\nBULLET::::- Banana Hammock Hefeweizen\n\nBULLET::::- Black Christmas Dark Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Lil' Red Sour Cherry Berliner Weisse\n\nBULLET::::- Bubblie's Brew Jelly Doughnut Strong Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Rye the Longface Imperial Rye IPA\n", "The Usual Suspects\n\nBULLET::::- Prohibition Ale - Gold Medal Winner at the 2013 Great American Beer Festival in the amber/red category\n\nBULLET::::- Big Daddy IPA\n\nBULLET::::- Double Daddy Imperial IPA\n\nBULLET::::- Payback Porter\n\nBULLET::::- Metropolis Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Scarlett Red Rye Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Tallulah Extra Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Payback Coffee Porter\n\nBULLET::::- Blood Orange Double Daddy Imperial IPA\n\nSession Series\n\nBULLET::::- Baby Daddy Session IPA\n\nBULLET::::- Pop Gun Pilsner\n\nBULLET::::- Suds Session Ale\n\nThe Limited Series\n\nBULLET::::- Black Hand Chocolate Milk Stout\n\nBULLET::::- Vendetta India Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Untouchable Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Betrayal Imperial Red Ale\n\nInfamous Series\n", "The improvement of transparency has since been added to it by means of more and better workmanship, better malt, better hops and the use of isinglass; but this more perfection has\n\nbrought with it numberless charges, greater stocks, long credit, more casks, more cellarage, more servants etc. and if at this time Porter is not fine, it has brought also this casualty of\n\nbeing returned on the Brewers' hands as being unfit for use.\n", "BULLET::::- Harvest Ale – released in fall and brewed with locally sourced piñon pine nuts, juniper berry, and sage\n\nBULLET::::- Hopasaur – the same recipe as \"Icky\", but using fresh instead of dried hops\n\nBULLET::::- Hop Head Ale – a heavily hopped strong ale measured at 100 IBUs\n\nBULLET::::- Jackpot Porter – formerly a flagship, Porter in the English style\n\nBULLET::::- Katie's Cream Ale – a cream ale\n\nBULLET::::- Kristall Weizen – a filtered version of \"Wheeler Peak Wheat\"\n", "BULLET::::- Porter – brewed with 2 varieties of hops & 5 types of malts\n\nBULLET::::- Phin & Matts – brewed with 3 varieties of hops & 3 types of malts\n\nBULLET::::- 2x Stout – a milk stout\n\nBULLET::::- Pilsner – traditional Pilsner malt bill complimented by German Lager yeast and German noble hops\n\nSection::::Brews.:Year-round imperials.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry Gose – an imperial sour ale with NY tart cherries\n\nBULLET::::- Unearthly IPA – a \"vigorously\" hopped beer\n\nBULLET::::- Gemini – A hopped beer smoothed out with malts\n\nSection::::Brews.:Seasonal imperials.\n\nBULLET::::- Krampus – a Helles lager with extra malt. Seasonal November release\n", "BULLET::::- Connecticut- Sarene Craft Beer Distributors\n\nBULLET::::- Maryland- Backup Beverage\n\nBULLET::::- Florida- Cavalier Distributors\n\nBULLET::::- Illinois- Windy City Distribution\n\nBULLET::::- New Jersey- Sarene Craft Beer Distributors\n\nSection::::Festivals.\n\nOn 26 March 2007, Two Brothers Brewing celebrated its 10th anniversary at Charlie's Ale House in Wheaton, Illinois with the tapping of \"Project Opus 10\", a lambic-style sour ale.\n", "In the United States, sales of IPAs have increased, helping drive the craft beer renaissance.\n\nThe most awarded IPA till date is Goose Island IPA, with 6 medals.\n", "BULLET::::- Smuggler's Brewpub\n\nBULLET::::- Smylie Brothers Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Smuttynose Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Snake River Brewing\n\nBULLET::::- Snake River Brewing Lander\n\nBULLET::::- Snipes Mountain Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Snow Goose Restaurant\n\nBULLET::::- Sonoma Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Sophisticated Otter Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Southampton Publick House\n\nBULLET::::- Southend Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Oregon and Pacific\n\nBULLET::::- Spanish Peaks Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Spanish Springs Brewing\n\nBULLET::::- Spoetzl Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Sports City Cafe & Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Sprecher Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Springfield Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Squatters Pub Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- St. Ides Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Stanislaus Area Association\n\nBULLET::::- Stark Mill Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Starr Hill Brewery\n", "The American \"double\" or \"imperial\" IPA, a popular style credited to Russian River Brewing Company brewmaster Vinny Cilurzo, can be extremely hoppy and strong, ranging from 7–14% ABV with bitterness ratings routinely topping 90 IBUs. Similarly, American stout beer, inspired by Russian Imperial Stout, may be hoppy and high in ABV, such as Deschutes Abyss or Goose Island's Bourbon County Stout, which is fermented to 15% ABV and conditioned in bourbon barrels. An emerging style associated with the Pacific Northwest is Cascadian Dark Ale, alternatively known as Black IPA, a heavily hopped beer with dark, roasted malts. Other adapted styles with distinct American variations include Irish red ale, brown ale, Scotch ale, wheat beer, rye beer and barleywine. Some breweries, such as Off Color Brewing in Chicago, focus on resurrecting styles that have been essentially extinct since the advent of Reinheitsgebot in Germany.\n", "On 6 June 2009, Two Brothers Brewing celebrated the 2009 release of its Hop Juice Double IPA with a festival held at the brewery, called \"For the Love of Hops\". The festival featured special beers from craft breweries across the US, including Surly Brewing Company, Dogfish Head Brewery, Stone Brewing Company, Allagash Brewing Company, and Ska Brewing.\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 Archi Mango IPA collaboration – Various hops were used in the boil and whirlpool to give it flavours of grapefruit, orange and passion fruit. Fresh Mango was added on the 4-day of fermentation along with generous amounts of Centennial hops to give it herbal lemon citrus aromas. ABV – 5.55% Bitterness – 45 IBU.\n\nBULLET::::- Renku Lager – Dry hopped with Challenger (UK) and a dash of Japanese green tea which provides a clean fresh aroma of evergreen, wood and green tea tones.\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Silver medal for Red, White & No-Li at the Great International Beer & Cider Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 – Silver medal for Rise & Grind at the Brussels Beer Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 – Silver medal for Spin Cycle Red at the European Beer Star\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 – Large Brewery of the year at the Washington Brewers Festivals\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 – Bronze medal for Born & Raised IPA at the Australian International Beer Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 – Silver medal for Big Juicy IPA at the Australian International Beer Awards\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – \"St. Louis Post-Dispatch\" Top 21 Beers of the Year: Crystal Bitter ESB\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – Bronze medal for Born & Raised IPA at the Australian International Beer Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – Bronze medal for Silent Treatment Pale at the Australian International Beer Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – Silver medal for Crystal Bitter ESB at the Australian International Beer Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 – Silver medal for Créme Ale at the Great International Beer & Cider Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 – Gold medal for Wrecking Ball Imperial Stout at the Great International Beer & Cider Competition\n", "In 2017 Nelson Brewing company won 2 Silver Medals for \"Hooligan Organic Pilsner\" in the North American Light Beer category, \"Nelson Blackheart Oatmeal Stout\" in the British Stout category and a Bronze medal for \"Nelson Hopgood Organic Session IPA\" in the British Bitter category at the BC Beer Awards. \n\nSection::::Products.\n\nAll products brewed by Nelson Brewing Company are certified organic. \n\nBULLET::::- Hooligan Organic Pilsner\n\nBULLET::::- Harvest Moon Hemp Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Honey Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Happy Camper Summer Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Hopgood Session IPA\n\nBULLET::::- Paddywhack IPA\n\nBULLET::::- After Dark Brown Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Face Plant Winter Ale\n", "BULLET::::- Martha's Exchange\n\nBULLET::::- Mash House Restaurant & Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Maui Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Maui Brewing Company Brewpub\n\nBULLET::::- Max Lager's Wood-Fired Grill & Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- McCoy's Public House and Brewkitchen\n\nBULLET::::- Mcguire's Irish Pub\n\nBULLET::::- McKenzie Brew House\n\nBULLET::::- McKenzie River Partners\n\nBULLET::::- McNeil's Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Mendocino Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Michelob Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Mickey Finn's Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Mickey's Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Midnight Sun Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Mile High Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Mill Brewery, Eatery & Bakery\n\nBULLET::::- Miller Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Millstream Brewing Company\n\nBULLET::::- Minneapolis Town Hall Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota Brewing\n", "In connection with each Chanukah season, Shmaltz hosts an annual beer challenge \"Chanukah vs. Christmas: The Battle Royale of Beers\" in national markets including NYC, San Francisco, Seattle, Portland, Washington DC, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Baltimore and others. Shmaltz handpicks several \"Chosen Bars\" from the East Coast to the West Coast to \"feature a very special array of Shmaltz's current holiday releases, vintage seasonals and award-winning year round favorites\". Beginning in April 2015, Shmaltz Brewing began offering \"Slingshot\", an American Craft Lager in six-packs to their year round lineup. Slingshot, previously offered as David's Slingshot Hoppy Summer Lager was only available in the springtime variety pack, Hops in He'Brew beginning in 2013.\n" ]	[ "IPA beers are sold in 4 packs predominantly." ]	[ "IPA beers are sold in packs of all sizes." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "IPA beers are sold in 4 packs predominantly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "IPA beers are sold in packs of all sizes." ]
2018-19319	Why do leave change colour in autumn?	Pigments (colored chemicals) in the leaves protect the cells from getting damaged as badly by sunlight. They also help focus some light energy, and even protect against diseases and such. Many of these are red and yellow, purples and other colors. Think of the skin of fruits - very much the same chemicals. So when the leaves die, the green chlorophyll gets broken down, leaving only the red and yellow protective pigments. The brown is essentially the color of the dead cells with all these pigments removed or broken down. Some of the color can also come from certain toxins which the tree pumps into the leaves before they fall. So in summary, once all the green is gone, the other chemicals in the leaf can be seen.	[ "During the summer growing season, phosphate is at a high level. It has a vital role in the breakdown of the sugars manufactured by chlorophyll, but in the fall, phosphate, along with the other chemicals and nutrients, moves out of the leaf into the stem of the plant. When this happens, the sugar-breakdown process changes, leading to the production of anthocyanin pigments. The brighter the light during this period, the greater the production of anthocyanins and the more brilliant the resulting color display. When the days of autumn are bright and cool, and the nights are chilly but not freezing, the brightest colorations usually develop.\n", "Anthocyanins, responsible for red-purple coloration, are actively produced in autumn, but not involved in leaf-drop. A number of hypotheses on the role of pigment production in leaf-drop have been proposed, and generally fall into two categories: interaction with animals, and protection from nonbiological factors.\n\nSection::::Function of autumn colors.:Photoprotection.\n", "Autumn leaf color\n\nAutumn leaf color is a phenomenon that affects the normal green leaves of many deciduous trees and shrubs by which they take on, during a few weeks in the autumn season, various shades of red, yellow, purple, black, blue, orange, magenta, and brown. The phenomenon is commonly called autumn colours or autumn foliage in British English and fall colors, fall foliage, or simply foliage in American English.\n", "Chlorophylls degrade into colorless tetrapyrroles known as nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites.\n\nAs the chlorophylls degrade, the hidden pigments of yellow xanthophylls and orange beta-carotene are revealed. These pigments are present throughout the year, but the red pigments, the anthocyanins, are synthesized \"de novo\" once roughly half of chlorophyll has been degraded. The amino acids released from degradation of light harvesting complexes are stored all winter in the tree's roots, branches, stems, and trunk until the next spring, when they are recycled to releaf the tree.\n\nSection::::Pigments that contribute to other colors.\n\nSection::::Pigments that contribute to other colors.:Carotenoids.\n", "The brown color of leaves is not the result of a pigment, but rather cell walls, which may be evident when no coloring pigment is visible.\n\nSection::::Function of autumn colors.\n\nDeciduous plants were traditionally believed to shed their leaves in autumn primarily because the high costs involved in their maintenance would outweigh the benefits from photosynthesis during the winter period of low light availability and cold temperatures. In many cases, this turned out to be oversimplistic — other factors involved include insect predation, water loss, and damage from high winds or snowfall.\n", "In some areas of Canada and the United States, \"leaf peeping\" tourism is a major contribution to economic activity. This tourist activity occurs between the beginning of color changes and the onset of leaf fall, usually around September and October in the Northern Hemisphere and April to May in the Southern Hemisphere.\n\nSection::::Chlorophyll and the green/yellow/orange colors.\n", "Chlorophylls degrade into colorless tetrapyrroles known as \"nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites\" (NCCs).\n\nAs the predominant chlorophylls degrade, the hidden pigments of yellow xanthophylls and orange beta-carotene are revealed. These pigments are present throughout the year, but the red pigments, the anthocyanins, are synthesized \"de novo\" once roughly half of chlorophyll has been degraded. The amino acids released from degradation of light harvesting complexes are stored all winter in the tree's roots, branches, stems, and trunk until next spring when they are recycled to re‑leaf the tree.\n\nSection::::Pigments in animals.\n", "During the summer growing season, phosphate is at a high level. It has a vital role in the breakdown of the sugars manufactured by chlorophyll. But in the fall, phosphate, along with the other chemicals and nutrients, moves out of the leaf into the stem of the plant. When this happens, the sugar-breakdown process changes, leading to the production of anthocyanin pigments. The brighter the light during this period, the greater the production of anthocyanins and the more brilliant the resulting color display. When the days of autumn are bright and cool, and the nights are chilly but not freezing, the brightest colorations usually develop.\n", "Leaf drop or abscission involves complex physiological signals and changes within plants. The process of photosynthesis steadily degrades the supply of chlorophylls in foliage; plants normally replenish chlorophylls during the summer months. When autumn arrives and the days are shorter or when plants are drought-stressed, deciduous trees decrease chlorophyll pigment production, allowing other pigments present in the leaf to become apparent, resulting in non-green colored foliage. The brightest leaf colors are produced when days grow short and nights are cool, but remain above freezing. These other pigments include carotenoids that are yellow, brown, and orange. Anthocyanin pigments produce red and purple colors, though they are not always present in the leaves. Rather, they are produced in the foliage in late summer, when sugars are trapped in the leaves after the process of abscission begins. Parts of the world that have showy displays of bright autumn colors are limited to locations where days become short and nights are cool. In other parts of the world, the leaves of deciduous trees simply fall off without turning the bright colors produced from the accumulation of anthocyanin pigments.\n", "Anthocyanins temporarily color the edges of some of the very young leaves as they unfold from the buds in early spring. They also give the familiar color to such common fruits as cranberries, red apples, blueberries, cherries, strawberries, and plums.\n", "Carotenoids are present in leaves the whole year round, but their orange-yellow colors are usually masked by green chlorophyll. As autumn approaches, certain influences both inside and outside the plant cause the chlorophylls to be replaced at a slower rate than they are being used up. During this period, with the total supply of chlorophylls gradually dwindling, the \"masking\" effect slowly fades away. Then other pigments that have been present (along with the chlorophylls) in the cells all during the leaf's life begin to show through. These are carotenoids and they provide colorations of yellow, brown, orange, and the many hues in between.\n", "Although some autumn coloration occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, the most brightly colored autumn foliage is found more notably in the northern hemisphere, with region that include: most of southern mainland Canada; some areas of the northern United States; Northern, and Western Europe north of the Alps; the Caucasus region of Russia near the Black Sea; and Eastern Asia (including much of northern and eastern China, and as well as Korea and Japan).\n", "Anthocyanins are present in about 10% of tree species in temperate regions, although in certain areas — most famously New England — up to 70% of tree species may produce the pigment. In autumn forests, they appear vivid in the maples, oaks, sourwood, sweetgums, dogwoods, tupelos, cherry trees, and persimmons. These same pigments often combine with the carotenoids' colors to create the deeper orange, fiery reds, and bronzes typical of many hardwood species.\n\nSection::::Pigments that contribute to other colors.:Cell walls.\n", "Global warming and rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere may delay the usual autumn spectacle of changing colors and falling leaves in northern hardwood forests in the future, and increase forest productivity. Experiments with poplar trees showed that they stayed greener longer with higher CO levels, independent of temperature changes. However, the experiments over two years were too brief to indicate how mature forests may be affected over time. Also, other factors, such as increasing ozone levels close to the ground (tropospheric ozone pollution), can negate the beneficial effects of elevated carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Across most of northern New England by mid-September the days are still warm, but the nights have become cool. This is the time in which deciduous trees begin the process of colorful changes in their foliage. In New England, a large percentage of trees produce a pigment known as an Anthocyanin, which results in brilliant reds and purples commonly seen around this time; a change that is particularly pronounced in the region's sugar maple trees. This gradual process in which the trees change colors starts in far Northern New England in northern Maine and the higher elevations of Vermont and New Hampshire in mid September, reaching central New England areas of southern Vermont, southern New Hampshire, and Massachusetts by early October. By mid October the color peak reaches northern Rhode Island and northern Connecticut. \n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "In late summer, as daylight hours shorten and temperatures cool, the veins that carry fluids into and out of the leaf are gradually closed off as a layer of special cork cells forms at the base of each leaf. As this cork layer develops, water and mineral intake into the leaf is reduced, slowly at first, and then more rapidly. During this time, the chlorophyll begins to decrease. Often, the veins are still green after the tissues between them have almost completely changed color.\n", "The reds, the purples, and their blended combinations that decorate autumn foliage come from another group of pigments in the cells called anthocyanins. Unlike the carotenoids, these pigments are not present in the leaf throughout the growing season, but are actively produced towards the end of summer. They develop in late summer in the sap of the cells of the leaf, and this development is the result of complex interactions of many influences—both inside and outside the plant. Their formation depends on the breakdown of sugars in the presence of bright light as the level of phosphate in the leaf is reduced.\n", "Chlorophyll has a vital function: it captures solar rays and uses the resulting energy in the manufacture of the plant's food — simple sugars which are produced from water and carbon dioxide. These sugars are the basis of the plant's nourishment — the sole source of the carbohydrates needed for growth and development. In their food-manufacturing process, the chlorophylls break down, thus are being continually \"used up\". During the growing season, however, the plant replenishes the chlorophyll so that the supply remains high and the leaves stay green.\n", "According to the photoprotection theory, anthocyanins protects the leaf against the harmful effects of light at low temperatures. Indeed, the leaves are about to fall, so protection is not of extreme importance for the tree. Photo-oxidation and photoinhibition, however, especially at low temperatures, make the process of reabsorbing nutrients less efficient. By shielding the leaf with anthocyanins, according to the photoprotection theory, the tree manages to reabsorb nutrients (especially nitrogen) more efficiently.\n\nSection::::Function of autumn colors.:Coevolution.\n", "The mixed layer is also important as its depth determines the average level of light seen by marine organisms. In very deep mixed layers, the tiny marine plants known as phytoplankton are unable to get enough light to maintain their metabolism. The deepening of the mixed layer in the wintertime in the North Atlantic is therefore associated with a strong decrease in surface chlorophyll a. However, this deep mixing also replenishes near-surface nutrient stocks. Thus when the mixed layer becomes shallow in the spring, and light levels increase, there is often a concomitant increase of phytoplankton biomass, known as the \"spring bloom\".\n", "Section::::Context.\n", "The coevolution theory of autumn colors was proposed by W. D. Hamilton in 2001 as an example of evolutionary signalling theory. With biological signals such as red leaves, it is argued that because they are costly to produce, they are usually honest, so signal the true quality of the signaller with low-quality individuals being unable to fake them and cheat. Autumn colors would be a signal if they are costly to produce, or be impossible to fake (for example if autumn pigments were produced by the same biochemical pathway that produces the chemical defenses against the insects).\n", "BULLET::::- Betalains are red or yellow pigments. Like anthocyanins they are water-soluble, but unlike anthocyanins they are synthesized from tyrosine. This class of pigments is found only in the Caryophyllales (including cactus and amaranth), and never co-occur in plants with anthocyanins. Betalains are responsible for the deep red color of beets.\n\nA particularly noticeable manifestation of pigmentation in plants is seen with autumn leaf color, a phenomenon that affects the normally green leaves of many deciduous trees and shrubs whereby they take on, during a few weeks in the autumn season, various shades of red, yellow, purple, and brown.\n", "When the boughs are yellow and sere?\n\nWhere are the old ones that once we had,\n\nAnd where are the new ones near?\n\nWhat shall we do for our garlands glad\n\nAt the falling of the year?\n\nChild! can I tell where the garlands go?\n\nCan I say where the lost leaves veer\n\nOn the brown-burnt banks, when the wild winds blow,\n\nWhen they drift through the dead-wood drear?\n\nGirl! When the garlands of next year glow,\n\nYou may gather again, my dear—\n\nBut I go where the last year's lost leaves go\n\nAt the falling of the year./poem\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04260	why does notepad on windows save files with an asterisk?	The asterisk means: "Replace with your own text." Notepad is one of the simplest applications you can get, and is mainly included as the default application for things like viewing readme files, not much more than that. When you save a file in Windows, and you choose a format from the drop-down list, it gives you not just the name of the format, but the extension or extensions that format uses; for example: * Batch file (\.bat; \.cmd; \.nt) Java source file (\.java) All files (\.\) * ...etc. The asterisk is simply used as a placeholder for your own text. Notepad only has the one format in that menu. And, as simple-minded as it is, when you select it in the Save dialogue, it will simply copy the extension into the filename box, placeholder and all. However, it will also highlight that text. You can simply go ahead and type the file name. If you have \*.txt selected, it will automatically save it as a text file and add the file extension without you having to type it (although you can type it if you want).	[ "Section::::Features.\n\nNotepad is a common text-only (plain text) editor. The resulting files—typically saved with the codice_1 extension—have no format tags or styles, making the program suitable for editing system files to use in a DOS environment and, occasionally, source code for later compilation or execution, usually through a command prompt. It is also useful for its negligible use of system resources; making for quick load time and processing time, especially on under-powered hardware.\n\nNotepad supports both left-to-right and right-to-left based languages.\n", "Historically, Notepad did not treat newlines in Unix- or classic Mac OS-style text files correctly. However, on 8th May 2018, Microsoft announced that they had fixed this issue.\n\nNotepad offers only the most basic text manipulation functions, such as finding text. Only newer versions of Windows include an updated version of Notepad with a search and replace function. However, it has much less functionality in comparison to full-scale editors.\n", "Up to Windows Me, there were almost no keyboard shortcuts and no line-counting feature. Starting with Windows 2000, shortcuts for common tasks like new, open and save were added, as well as a status-bar with a line counter (available only when word-wrap is disabled).\n\nIn the Windows NT-based versions of Windows, Notepad can edit traditional 8-bit text files as well as Unicode text files (both UTF-8 and UTF-16, and in case of UTF-16, both little-endian and big-endian).\n", "Notepad+ is available from the company RogSoft. It was developed by Dutch programmer Rogier Meurs. It was first released in 1996. Originally, it had the advantage of being able to open files of any size, because until 2000 Notepad could not open files larger than 64 KB.\n\nNotepad+ has not been developed since version 1.11 in 1996, but it still has many users who prefer its simple interface over many of the other Notepad alternatives which have since appeared.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Notepad++\n\nBULLET::::- List of text editors\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of text editors\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- RogSoft Homepage (Internet Archive)\n", "Notepad does not require a lock on the file it opens, so it can open files already opened by other processes, users, or computers, whereas WordPad cannot. Also, since Notepad lacks advanced formatting functionality, many people find its simple, minimalistic user interface (whose look has never changed since Windows 3.1 and whose menus were last altered in Windows XP, when \"Format\" and \"View\" replaced \"Search\") faster and easier to use for basic text operations. The MS-DOS Editor, especially as updated in Windows 95, where it became an MDI application, also provides many features never offered by Notepad.\n", "Notepad accepts text from the Windows clipboard. When clipboard data with multiple formats is pasted into Notepad, the program only accepts text in the CF_TEXT format. This is useful for stripping embedded font type and style codes from formatted text, such as when copying text from a web page and pasting into an email message or other WYSIWYG text editor. Formatted text can be temporarily pasted into Notepad, and then immediately copied again in stripped format to paste into the other program.\n", "Notepad can print files, but doesn't print correctly if \"Word Wrap\" is turned on. Headers, footers, and margins can be set and adjusted when preparing to print a file under \"Page Setup\". The date, file name, and other information can be placed in the headers and footers with various codes consisting of an ampersand ('&') followed by a letter.\n\nSection::::Unicode detections.\n", "Notepad++ was first released on SourceForge on 25 November 2003, as a Windows-only application. It is based on the Scintilla editor component, and is written in C++ with only Win32 API calls using only the STL to increase performance and reduce program size.\n", "Up to Windows 95, Fixedsys was the only available display font for Notepad. Windows NT 4.0 and 98 introduced the ability to change this font. As of Windows 2000, the default font was changed to Lucida Console. The font setting, however, only affects how the text is shown to the user and how it is printed, not how the file is saved to disk. The default font was changed to Consolas on Windows 8.\n", "Notepad also has a simple built-in logging function. Each time a file that starts with .LOG is opened, the program inserts a text timestamp on the last line of the file.\n", "Some people misinterpreted this issue for an Easter egg. Many phrases that fit the pattern (including \"this app can break\" and \"bush hid the facts\") appeared on the web as hoaxes. Windows expert Raymond Chen correctly attributed it to the Unicode detection algorithm. This issue was resolved in Windows Vista and newer versions of Notepad.\n\nSection::::Competing software.\n", "Notepad++ was developed by Don Ho in September 2003. The developer used JEXT (a Java-based text editor) at his company but, dissatisfied with its poor performance, he began to develop a text editor written in C++ with Scintilla. He developed it in his spare time since the idea was rejected by his company. Notepad++ was built as a Microsoft Windows application; the author considered, but rejected, the idea of using wxWidgets to port it to the Mac OS X and Unix platforms.\n", "On a Touch-Tone telephone keypad, the asterisk (called \"star\", or less commonly, \"palm\" or \"sextile\") is one of the two special keys (the other is the number sign (\"pound sign\" or \"hash\", \"hex\" or, less commonly, \"octothorp\" or \"square\")), and is found to the left of the zero. They are used to navigate menus in Touch-Tone systems such as Voice mail, or in Vertical service codes.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Typography.\n", "Notepad2\n\nNotepad2 is a free and open-source text editor for Microsoft Windows, released under a BSD software license. It was written by Florian Balmer using the Scintilla editor component, and it was first publicly released in April 2004. Balmer based Notepad2 on the principles of Notepad: small, fast, and usable.\n", "HTML, the predominant markup language for web pages, has no mechanism for marking up notes. Despite a number of different proposals over the years, and repeated pleas from the user base, the working group has been unable to reach a consensus on it. Because of this, MediaWiki, for example, has had to introduce its own codice_1 tag for citing references in notes, an idea which has since also been implemented for generic use by the \"Nelson\" HTML preprocessor.\n", "In BBC BASIC, OS commands are preceded with an asterisk or passed via the OSCLI keyword, to instruct BASIC to forward that command directly to the OS. This led to the asterisk being the prompt symbol for any software providing an OS command line; MOS version 3 onwards officially uses the asterisk as the command prompt symbol. When referring to an OS command, they generally include the asterisk as part of the name, for example , , etc., although only the part after the asterisk is the command itself.\n", "The Windows NT version of Notepad, installed by default on Windows 2000 and Windows XP, has the ability to detect Unicode files even when they are missing a byte order mark. To do this, it utilizes a Windows API function called codice_2. However, this function is imperfect, incorrectly identifying some all-lowercase ASCII text as UTF-16. As a result, Notepad interprets a file containing a phrase like \"aaaa aaa aaa aaaaa\" (\"4-3-3-5\") as two-byte-encoded Unicode text file and attempts to display it as such. If a font with support for Chinese is installed, nine Chinese characters (桴獩愠灰挠湡戠敲歡) display. Otherwise, it displays squares instead of Chinese characters.\n", "BULLET::::- Avoiding asterisks as part of the notation of a hand-change - Where insufficient white space permits a fully notated hand change, a common practice is to use an asterisk (or other mark) near the correction, and elsewhere record the same mark and the notation. The risk is that additional changes are made by another person who uses the same mark, and now the notation can be interpreted to apply to all changes with the mark. Some will therefore advise against the use of the asterisk. Others will accept it, if the notation clearly includes the number of changes that it applies to, such as, \"* Three entries changed above due to entry errors. KAM 13-Jan-2011\". There are no known instances of an agency rejecting such a notation.\n", "The original XML Notepad was written in 1998 by Murray Low in C++, but was eventually removed from Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN) due to its lack of support for modern XML standards and no maintenance. However, because of high demand, a replacement was written in C# by Chris Lovett using the System.Xml library of the .NET Framework 2.0.\n\nXML Notepad 2007 was released eight months after the release of XML Notepad 2006. The new version featured several bug fixes, Windows Vista compatibility and updated Aero-style computer icons.\n", "Notepad++ is a source code editor. It features syntax highlighting, code folding and limited autocompletion for programming, scripting, and markup languages, but not intelligent code completion or syntax checking. As such it may properly highlight code written in a supported schema but whether the syntax is internally sound or compilable cannot be verified. As of version 7.6.3, Notepad++ can highlight the syntactic elements of:\n\nBULLET::::- ActionScript\n\nBULLET::::- Ada\n\nBULLET::::- ASN.1\n\nBULLET::::- ASP\n\nBULLET::::- Assembly\n\nBULLET::::- AutoIt\n\nBULLET::::- AviSynth scripts\n\nBULLET::::- BaanC\n\nBULLET::::- batch files\n\nBULLET::::- Blitz Basic\n\nBULLET::::- C\n\nBULLET::::- C#\n\nBULLET::::- C++\n\nBULLET::::- Caml\n\nBULLET::::- CMake\n\nBULLET::::- Cobol\n", "An NTFS symbolic link is not the same as a Windows shortcut file, which is a regular file. The latter may be created on any filesystem (such as the earlier FAT32), may contain metadata (such as an icon to display when the shortcut is viewed in Windows Explorer), and is not transparent to applications.\n\nSection::::Restrictions.\n", "Notepad+\n\nNotepad+ is a freeware text editor for Windows operating systems and is intended as a replacement for the Notepad editor installed by default on Windows. It has more formatting features but, like Notepad, works only with plain text. It can open text files of any size, and a single instance of the program can have multiple files open simultaneously. It supports dragging and dropping text within a file and between files, and supports multiple fonts and colours.\n", "BULLET::::- Regular expression-based find and replace\n\nBalmer has stated that some features will probably never be implemented in Notepad2, as they are beyond his design goal of a simple Notepad-like application. These include Notepad2's most requested feature, a multiple document interface. Other missing features such as code folding, file associations and bookmarks are available through modifications, linked from the homepage. Starting with version 4.2.25-rc6, an x64 build is also offered.\n\nSection::::Notable bugs.\n\nNotepad2 is affected by the Bush hid the facts bug.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Scintilla (software)\n\nBULLET::::- Notepad++\n\nBULLET::::- List of text editors\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of text editors\n", "Microsoft Notepad\n\nNotepad is a simple text editor for Microsoft Windows and a basic text-editing program which enables computer users to create documents. It was first released as a mouse-based MS-DOS program in 1983, and has been included in all versions of Microsoft Windows since Windows 1.0 in 1985.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The reported size of a symlink is the number of characters in the path it points to.\n\nSection::::POSIX and Unix-like operating systems.:Mac OS aliases.\n\nIn Mac OS, applications or users can also employ \"aliases\", which have the added feature of following the target, even if it is moved to another location on the same volume. This is not to be confused with the shell command alias.\n\nSection::::Microsoft Windows.\n\nSection::::Microsoft Windows.:NTFS symbolic link.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07636	Why does water have a relatively neutral taste?	We probably evolved to not taste it; therefore no one would dislike its taste and choose not to drink it.	[ "Pure water is usually described as tasteless and odorless, although humans have specific sensors that can feel the presence of water in their mouths, and frogs are known to be able to smell it. However, water from ordinary sources (including bottled mineral water) usually has many dissolved substances, that may give it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding water that is too salty or putrid.\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.:Color and appearance.\n", "In 1949, Harris and Kalmus developed a method for differentiation of bimodal threshold stimuli for tasting PTC. They proposed a series of 13 solutions of these substances with serial water by halves from the initial concentration of 0.13%, so that the solution in the final test contained only a few molecules of this substance. Pure water was used as the fourteenth test liquid to provide a control. Differentiation between the two phenotypes of \"tasters\" and \"non-tasters\" occurred with the fifth solution. Then assuming that the conditional dimorphism controlled by two allele of the corresponding gene locus, the allele which controls the absence of sensitivity to taste PTC is recessive homozygote.\n", "Unlike osmotic pressure, tonicity is influenced only by solutes that cannot cross the membrane, as only these exert an effective osmotic pressure. Solutes able to freely cross the membrane do not affect tonicity because they will always equilibrate with equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane without net solvent movement. It is also a factor affecting imbibition.\n\nThere are three classifications of tonicity that one solution can have relative to another: \"hypertonic\", \"hypotonic\", and \"isotonic\".\n\nSection::::Hypertonic Solution.\n", "The absolute threshold for taste is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from receptors in the mouth. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a single drop of quinine sulfate in 250 gallons of water.\n\nSection::::Types.:External.:Sound.\n", "Virtually all non-tasters (dd) cannot taste PTC, while homozygous tasters (\"TT\") occasionally report an inability or weak ability to taste the chemical. The heterozygous genotype (\"Tt\") has the \"leakiest\" phenotype as reduced or absent tasting ability is relatively common. This is formally called a \"heterozygous effect\".\n\nSection::::Genetics.:Harris – Kalmus' threshold solutions and differentiation.\n", "Tonicity\n\nTonicity is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient; the water potential of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane cell membrane. In other words, tonicity is the relative concentration of solutes dissolved in solution which determine the direction and extent of diffusion. It is commonly used when describing the response of cells immersed in an external solution.\n", "Various receptors have also been proposed for salty tastes, along with the possible taste detection of lipids, complex carbohydrates, and water. Evidence for these receptors is, however, shaky at best, and is often unconvincing in mammal studies. For example, the proposed ENaC receptor for sodium detection can only be shown to contribute to sodium taste in \"Drosophilia\".\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Carbonation.\n\nAn enzyme connected to the sour receptor transmits information about carbonated water.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Fat.\n", "The simplest receptor found in the mouth is the sodium chloride (salt) receptor. Saltiness is a taste produced primarily by the presence of sodium ions. Other ions of the alkali metals group also taste salty, but the further from sodium, the less salty the sensation is. A sodium channel in the taste cell wall allows sodium cations to enter the cell. This on its own depolarizes the cell, and opens voltage-dependent calcium channels, flooding the cell with positive calcium ions and leading to neurotransmitter release. This sodium channel is known as an epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and is composed of three subunits. An ENaC can be blocked by the drug amiloride in many mammals, especially rats. The sensitivity of the salt taste to amiloride in humans, however, is much less pronounced, leading to conjecture that there may be additional receptor proteins besides ENaC to be discovered.\n", "Palatability\n\nPalatability is the hedonic reward (i.e., pleasure) provided by foods or fluids that are agreeable to the \"palate\", which often varies relative to the homeostatic satisfaction of nutritional, water, or energy needs. The palatability of a food or fluid, unlike its flavor or taste, varies with the state of an individual: it is lower after consumption and higher when deprived. It has increasingly been appreciated that this can create a hunger that is independent of homeostatic needs.\n\nSection::::Brain mechanism.\n", "Saltiness is a taste produced best by the presence of cations (such as , or ) and is directly detected by cation influx into glial like cells via leak channels causing depolarisation of the cell.\n\nOther monovalent cations, e.g., ammonium, , and divalent cations of the alkali earth metal group of the periodic table, e.g., calcium, , ions, in general, elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they, too, can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue.\n\nBULLET::::- Sourness\n", "For seven decades, Blakeslee's genetic description of the PTC tasting was widely accepted: \"tasters\" having one or two copies of a taster allele, but \"non-tasters\" being recessive homo-zygotes. Then, in 2003, Dennis Drayna and his colleagues at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) cloned the gene, the bitter-tasting ability explains TAS2R38-the 38th member of the family of 2R bitter receptors.\n", "It has been suggested that taste and smell receptors are controlled by TAS2R38, with a small intron gene of about 1000 nucleotides. It is a member of the family of G protein-coupled or 7 trans membrane cross receptors. The binding of a ligand to the extracellular region of the receptor sets an action potential that sends an impulse to the sensory cortex of the brain, where it is interpreted as a bitter taste.\n", "Relative saltiness can be rated by comparison to a dilute salt solution.\n\nQuinine, a bitter medicinal found in tonic water, can be used to subjectively rate the bitterness of a substance. Units of dilute quinine hydrochloride (1 g in 2000 mL of water) can be used to measure the threshold bitterness concentration, the level at which the presence of a dilute bitter substance can be detected by a human taster, of other compounds. More formal chemical analysis, while possible, is difficult.\n\nSection::::Functional structure.\n", "Tilapia is one of several commercially important aquaculture species (including trout, barramundi and channel catfish) susceptible to off flavors. These 'muddy' or 'musty' flavors are normally caused by geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol, organic products of ubiquitous cyanobacteria that are often present or bloom sporadically in water bodies and soil. These flavors are no indication of freshness or safety of the fish, but they make the product unattractive to consumers. Simple quality control procedures are known to be effective in ensuring the quality of fish entering the market.\n", "Section::::Detection.\n\nTo detect the mode water we can use the minimum value in the vertical gradient of potential density, or equivalently in the Brunt–Väisälä frequency. Since temperature profiles are more abundant and both salinity and temperature are relatively homogeneous in mode water, vertical temperature gradients are sometimes used instead of potential vorticity or the vertical gradient of potential density to identify the core of the mode water. There is no specific values of those gradients to define the boundaries of a given mode water.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n", "BULLET::::- \"C\" is the molar concentration of the solute;\n\nBULLET::::- the index \"i\" represents the identity of a particular solute.\n\nOsmolarity can be measured using an osmometer which measures colligative properties, such as Freezing-point depression, Vapor pressure, or Boiling-point elevation.\n\nSection::::Osmolarity vs. tonicity.\n", "Ramune is one of the modern symbols of summer in Japan and is widely consumed during warm festival days and nights. Empty bottles are usually collected for recycling at stalls where it is sold.\n\nSection::::Flavors.\n", "Section::::Relaxed constraint.\n\nNeutral evolution in the bitter taste trait in humans is well documented by evolutionary biologists. In all human populations there have been high rates of synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions that cause pseudogenization. These events cause alleles that are present to this day because of relaxed selective constraint by the environment. The genes under neutral evolution in humans are very similar to several genes in chimpanzees in both their synonymous and non-synonymous mutation rates, suggesting that relaxed selective constraint started before the divergence of the two species.\n", "The term \"Sweetwater\" is a name often given to freshwater which tastes good in regions where much of the water is bitter to the taste. The Spanish called the river \"Agua Dulce\", a name they applied to good clear water anywhere they lived.\n\nSection::::Course.\n", "This finding ran contrary to much of the learning literature of the time in that the aversion could occur after just a single trial and over a long delay. Garcia proposed that the sweetened water became regarded negatively because of the nausea inducing effects of the radiation, and so began the study of conditioned taste aversion.\n", "Oddly Taste also lacks a number of features of MindWrite, although it appears to have been written by an entirely different programming team. For instance, Taste does not have a built-in outliner, the \"killer feature\" of MindWrite which made it a favorite for many years. Nor does Taste include features like sorting or list generation.\n", "Pure water is neutral, but most water samples contain impurities. If an impurity is an acid or base, this will affect the concentrations of hydronium ion and hydroxide ion. Water samples that are exposed to air will absorb some acidic carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid (HCO) and the concentration of HO will increase due to the reaction HCO + HO = HCO + HO. The concentration of OH will decrease in such a way that the product [HO][OH] remains constant for fixed temperature and pressure. Thus these water samples will be slightly acidic. If a pH of exactly 7.0 is required, it must be maintained with an appropriate buffer solution.\n", "Potassium can be detected by taste because it triggers three of the five types of taste sensations, according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ions taste sweet, allowing moderate concentrations in milk and juices, while higher concentrations become increasingly bitter/alkaline, and finally also salty to the taste. The combined bitterness and saltiness of high-potassium solutions makes high-dose potassium supplementation by liquid drinks a palatability challenge.\n\nSection::::Commercial production.\n\nSection::::Commercial production.:Mining.\n", "Animals, specifically humans, have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy (sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to eat while others, such as bitter, are not enjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no taste. Fats, on the other hand, especially saturated fats, are thicker and rich and are thus considered more enjoyable to eat.\n\nSection::::Taste perception.:Sweet.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Bitter.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13616	asking for a friend, can you explain as simple as possible what happens when you sit in a tank and hit a concrete wall that doesn't move.	Well something has to take the energy If you smack a tank into a concrete wall its generally going to crack or crumble, this will absorb a fair amount of energy If the wall is somehow made of adamantium and takes no damage then the tank will come to an abrupt halt and it will absorb the energy. If its going too fast then it'll break the tank.	[ "The hydraulic containment process is accomplished by three major configurations:\n\nBULLET::::- a pumping well alone;\n\nBULLET::::- a subsurface drain combined with a pump well;\n\nBULLET::::- a well within a barrier wall system: The configuration may involve continuous reactive barriers, funnel-and-gate systems, arrays of wells filled with reactive materials, injected systems.\n", "Lost circulation situations can, of course, also lead to well kill situations.\n\nSection::::Methods of well kill.:Reverse circulation.\n\nThis is often the tidiest way of making a planned well kill. It involves pumping kill fluid down the 'A' annulus of the well, through a point of communication between it and the production tubing just above the production packer and up the tubing, displacing the lighter well bore fluids, which are allowed to flow to production.\n", "\"When I was a kid, my father told me about an accident that happened while he was working on Grand Coulee Dam in Washington. (At the time, Grand Coulee Dam was the world’s largest dam.) One day, a crane operator failed to see him, swung a quarter-ton bucket of wet concrete into his side, and knocked him off the dam. He managed to reach around in midair, grabbed the bottom rim of the bucket, swung out with it, and when it came back in dropped into the middle of a patch of fresh concrete.\"\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Fatalities.\n\nSources:\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSeveral factors might have contributed to the disaster. The tank was constructed poorly and tested insufficiently, and carbon dioxide production might have raised the internal pressure due to fermentation in the tank. Warmer weather the previous day would have assisted in building this pressure, as the air temperature rose from over that period. The failure occurred from a manhole cover near the base of the tank, and a fatigue crack there possibly grew to the point of criticality.\n", "Section::::Kick.:Causes.:Lost circulation.\n\nAnother cause of kick during completion/workover operations is lost circulation. Loss of\n\ncirculation leads to a drop of both the fluid level and hydrostatic pressure in a well. If the\n\nhydrostatic pressure falls below the reservoir pressure, the well kicks. Three main causes of lost circulation are:\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive pressure overbalance\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive surge pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Poor formation integrity\n\nSection::::Kick.:Causes.:Abnormal pressure.\n", "Section::::Background/production.\n\n\"Medusa Challenger\" was shot in the summer of 1976, before the Lake Shore Drive \"S\" curve was straightened. The film was released in theaters in 1977, premiering at Chicago’s Biograph Theater. \"Medusa Challenger\" was produced by Phillip Koch and written and directed by Steven Elkins.\n", "Tanks or structural tubing such as bench seat supports or amusement park rides can accumulate water and moisture if the structure does not allow for drainage. This humid environment can then lead to internal corrosion of the structure affecting the structural integrity. The same can happen in tropical environments leading to external corrosion.\n\nSection::::Types of corrosion situations.:External corrosion.:Galvanic corrosion.\n\nSee main article Galvanic corrosion\n", "The tank is 80 feet (24.6 m) in diameter and 40 feet (12.3 m) in height, formed of seven rings of riveted steel plate. Horizontal joints have a single row of rivets; vertical joints are four rivets wide but are more widely spaced towards the bottom of the tank. The plates are lap-jointed horizontally and butt-jointed vertically, with fishplates over each vertical joint carrying the rivets.\n", "There have been numerous catastrophic failures of storage tanks, one of the most notorious being that which occurred at Boston Massachusetts USA on January 14, 1919. The large tank had only been filled eight times when it failed, and resulting wave of molasses killed 21 people in the vicinity. The Boston molasses disaster was caused by poor design and construction, with a wall too thin to bear repeated loads from the contents. The tank had not been tested before use by filling with water, and was also poorly riveted. The owner of the tank, United States Industrial Alcohol Company, paid out $300,000 (nearly $4 million in 2012 ) in compensation to the victims or their relatives.\n", "BULLET::::- failure of one of the three pressure transmitters will not compromise the HIPPS functionality, as two readings of high pressure are needed for activation.\n\nBULLET::::- failure of one of the two block valves will not compromise the HIPPS functionality, as the other valve will close on activation of the HIPPS.\n", "BULLET::::- final elements, that actually perform the corrective action in the field by bringing the process to a safe state. In case of a HIPPS this means shutting off the source of overpressure. The final element consists of a valve, actuator and solenoids.\n\nSection::::Diagram.\n", "BULLET::::6. A third key witness (the \"off-duty employee of another unit\") stated that \"he had been told by a close friend of one of the MIC operators that water had entered through a tube that had been connected to the tank.\" This had been discovered by the other MIC operators (so the story was recounted) who then tried to open and close valves to prevent the release.\n\nBULLET::::7. A fourth key witness (the \"operator from a different unit\") stated that after the release, two MIC operators had told him that water had entered the tank through a pressure gauge.\n", "Section::::Notable fatigue failures.:Alexander L. Kielland oil platform capsizing.\n", "DREADFUL ACCIDENT: Wm. P. Slocomb, a young man about 18 years old, son of R.W. Slocomb, of the Tenth District, met with a terrible accident yesterday. He was riding home on horseback, and when about Bush Street and Van Ness Avenue, met a milk team running away. The team struck the horse young Slocomb was riding, and knocked down horse and rider. His foot caught in the stirrup, and animal ran away, dragging the boy for some distance, and finally breaking his skull.\n\nSection::::Today.\n", "The point of communication was traditionally a device called a sliding sleeve, or sliding side door, which is a hydraulically operated device, built into the production tubing. During normal operation, it would remain closed sealing off the tubing and the annulus, but for events such as this, it would be opened to allow the free flow of fluids between the two regions. These components have fallen out of favour as they were prone to leaking. Instead, it is now more common to punch a hole in the tubing for circulation kills. Although this permanently damages the tubing, given that most planned well kills are for workovers, this is not an issue, since the tubing is being pulled for replacement anyway.\n", "BULLET::::- Plano Research Corporation FlowSim is a fully implicit 3-phase, 3-D, black oil and compositional finite difference reservoir simulator with LGRs, dual porosity dual permeability, and parallel capabilities.\n\nBULLET::::- GrailQuest's ReservoirGrail employs a patented approach called Time Dynamic Volumetric Balancing to simulate reservoirs during primary and secondary recovery.\n\nBULLET::::- Gemini Solutions Merlin is a fully implicit 3-Phase finite difference reservoir simulator originally developed at the Texaco research department and currently used by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement to calculate Worst Case Discharge rates and burst/collapse pressures on casing shoes and blowout preventers.\n", "The key to the debris protection in the design and prototype units was successive layers of Nextel, a material commonly used as insulation under the hoods of many cars, spaced between several-inches-thick layers of open cell foam, similar to foam used for chair cushions on Earth. The Nextel and foam layers cause a particle to shatter as it hits, losing more and more of its energy as it penetrates deeper.\n", "Where γ is the weight density. Weight density may also be described as the pressure gradient because it directly determines how much extra pressure will be added by increasing depth of the column of fluid.\n\nThe objective in a well kill, is to make the pressure at the bottom of the kill fluid equal (or slightly greater) than the pressure of the reservoir fluids.\n\nSection::::Principles.:Example.\n", "Controlled Impact Rescue Tool\n\nControlled Impact Rescue Tool, or CIRT, is a concrete breaching tool produced by Raytheon, that is capable of providing Urban Search & Rescue (USAR) teams with the ability to penetrate a reinforced concrete wall up to four times faster than traditional methods.\n\nIn development since 2007, this 38-inch long, 105-pound tool uses blank ammunition cartridges to drive a\n\npiston that generates a high-energy jolt to create a contained hole in the concrete. A series of these holes\n", "When the risk of tank failure is not as likely or when it would not cause extensive damage, the bunding may be designed to merely contain small leaks from hoses and valves. This bunding may not be able to contain the entire volume of the tank. Plastic and steel are used, but another common method is making a hump or lip around the perimeter of a concrete floor. Some bunding is temporary, such as short-term chemical storage in the field. A hump or slope type bunding is helpful when vehicles need access to the area. There is also a type of bunding that compresses when a vehicle passes over and expands once it has passed.\n", "BULLET::::- A combination of the Rescue Saver with the Rescue Dozer. Its Final Rescue is called the Dozer Drive, which is able to crush anything between the jaws formed by the grill and dump bed of Rescue Dozer.\n\nSection::::Rescue Vehicles.:Rescue Diver.\n", "Section::::Incidents.\n\nOn August 15, 2011, 20 people were injured in the park after a high concentration of chlorine was released into a wave pool. The chlorine quickly became airborne and a gas cloud formed. When people in or near the pool inhaled the gas, they became ill with symptoms such as eye irritation, burning in the throat or lungs, and difficulty breathing. The park was evacuated and an investigation was conducted. The cause was identified as a faulty pump—when a backup pump was activated, the chlorine that had accumulated was released all at once.\n\nSection::::Slides and attractions.\n", "During all well kills, careful attention must be paid to not exceeding the formation strength at the weakest point of the wellbore (or casing/ liner pipes, as appropriate), the \"fracture pressure\", otherwise fluid will be lost from the wellbore to the formation. Since this lost volume is unknown, it becomes very hard to tell how the kill is proceeding, especially if gas is involved with its large volume change through different parts of the wellbore. Combining a well kill with such a \"lost circulation\" situation is a serious problem.\n", "There were plans for a waterpark in Cedar Park, Texas, but plans for the park are currently on hold, although conversations continue.\n\nSection::::Incidents.\n\nBULLET::::- On March 6, 2013, Nicolas “Nico” Benavidez, a 20 year old seasonal employee at Schlitterbahn South Padre was fatally injured when an overhead gate slammed down and pinned him. He was left on life support for organ donation and later died from the injuries on March 11. OSHA investigated and fined Schlitterbahn $96,000 for six safety violations related to the fatal incident.\n", "The term can also refer to dikes, but it is frequently used to describe liquid containment facilities that prevent leaks and spillage from tanks and pipes, though sometimes any barrier is referred to as bunding. Frequently, the liquids in these tanks and pipes are toxic, and bunding is used to prevent the liquid from causing damage (either by force or its chemistry). If a large tank has a catastrophic failure, the liquid alone can cause extensive damage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01399	Why are stem cells and psilocybin mushroom put as a controlled substance before they were tested medically?	Ooooh, that's a complicated question There are probably more factors to this, but one of the big reasons we don't automatically use every kind of treatment that helps us is because of ethics Namely, is the use of a certain treatment on humans considered ethically permissible. The question is, what does that actually mean? Well, let's look at mushrooms first. They're controlled substances because they were found to be very easily abused. So, many countries decided to prohibit their use in medicine because the harm outweighed the benefits. I'm speaking in vague terms here because I'm not an expert on pharmaceuticals. Stem cells on the other hand I do know more about. And these also came under a lot of ethical fire, and still do to a certain extent. When we say stem cells in a conventional sense, we mean human embryonic stem cells. In order to isolate these cells, they needed to be extracted from human embryonic tissues. And how do we do that? By creating and subsequently destroying a human embryo. You can probably see the ethical dilemma here. It meant that we had to locate a donor who would be willing to give up their eggs, allow it be effectively fertilized and begin to grow, and then be broken to extract the cells. So it's a battle of science versus ethics that stops research being done	[ "In this sense, the U.S. Controlled Substances Act is stricter than the Convention requires. Both have a tightly restricted category of drugs called Schedule I, but the US Act restricts medical use of Schedule I substances to research studies, while the Convention allows broader, but limited, medical use of Schedule I substances.\n\nSection::::Psychedelic plants and fungi.\n", "Section::::Legality.:United States.\n\nNew Mexico appeals court ruled on June 14, 2005, that growing psilocybin mushrooms for personal consumption could not be considered \"manufacturing a controlled substance\" under state law. However, it still remains illegal under federal law.\n\nIn December 2018, Oregon’s Secretary of State approved a ballot initiative that would make psychedelic mushrooms legal among licensed therapists.\n", "In the United States there is no federal law mentioning the possession of \"Psilocybe\" spores, this is because only the psilocybin and psilocin compounds are considered Schedule I drugs and there is no presence of these compounds in the spores themselves, only in the fruiting body of the cultivated spores. However, there are several US states that have actually prohibited possession of these spores because they can be cultivated to produce these hallucinogenic, Schedule I drugs. These states includes California, Georgia, and Idaho.\n", "Furthermore, in a letter, dated 13 September 2001, to the Dutch Ministry of Health, Herbert Schaepe, Secretary of the UN International Narcotics Control Board, clarified that the UN Conventions do not cover \"preparations\" of psilocybin mushrooms:\n", "Psilocybin mushrooms are not regulated by UN treaties. From a letter, dated 13 September 2001, from Herbert Schaepe, Secretary of the UN International Narcotics Control Board, to the Dutch Ministry of Health:\n", "Many countries, however, have some level of regulation or prohibition of psilocybin mushrooms (for example, the US Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, and the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act). The prohibition of psilocybin mushrooms has come under criticism, from the general public and from researchers who see therapeutic potential with regard to drug addictions and other mental instabilities, such as PTSD, anxiety and depression. Among regulated drugs, psilocybin mushrooms also have relatively few medical risks.\n", "In many national, state, and provincial drug laws, there is a great deal of ambiguity about the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms, as well as a strong element of selective enforcement in some places, since psilocybin and psilocin are deemed illegal to possess without license as substances, but mushrooms themselves are not mentioned in these laws. The legal status of \"Psilocybe\" spores is even more ambiguous, as the spores contain neither psilocybin nor psilocin, and hence are not illegal to sell or possess in many jurisdictions, though many jurisdictions will prosecute under broader laws prohibiting items that are used in drug manufacture. A few jurisdictions (such as the US states of Georgia and Idaho) have specifically prohibited the sale and possession of psilocybin mushroom spores. Cultivation of psilocybin mushrooms is considered drug manufacture in most jurisdictions and is often severely penalized, though some countries and one US state has ruled that growing psilocybin mushrooms does not qualify as \"manufacturing\" a controlled substance.\n", "The purified chemicals psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. However, the UN drug treaties do not apply to cultivation, preparation, or international transport of psilocybin mushrooms.\n\nInternationally, the two chemicals are generally considered controlled substances. However, there is much ambiguity about what is considered a \"container\" of these compounds in several countries (e.g. Brazil), the chemicals themselves are listed as controlled substances, but the mushrooms that contain the chemicals are not, therefore deemed legal.\n", "\"P. cyanescens\" specimens do not fall under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances because the convention does not cover naturally occurring plants that incidentally contain a scheduled drug. However, many countries choose to prohibit possession of psilocybin containing mushrooms, including \"P. cyanescens\", under their domestic laws. \n", "The Secretary disagrees with Mr. Gettman's assertion that \"[t]he accepted contemporary legal convention for evaluating the abuse potential of a drug or substance is the relative degree of self-administration the drug induces in animal subjects.\" As discussed above, self-administration tests that identify whether a substance is reinforcing in animals are but one component of the scientific assessment of the abuse potential of a substance. Positive indicators of human abuse liability for a particular substance, whether from laboratory studies or epidemiological data, are given greater weight than animal studies suggesting the same compound has no abuse potential.\n", "Psilocin and psilocybin are scheduled drugs in many countries, and mushrooms containing them are prohibited by extension. In the United States, Federal law was passed in 1971 that put the psychoactive components into the most restricted schedule I category. For about three decades following this, several European countries remained relatively tolerant of mushroom use and possession. In the 2000s (decade), in response to increases in prevalence and availability, all European countries banned possession or sale of psychedelic mushrooms; the Netherlands was the last country to enact such laws in 2008. However, they did not include psilocybin-containing sclerotia in the 2008 law, and thus, psilocybin-containing fungal compounds are available commercially in the Netherlands. In parallel legal developments in Asia, \"P. tampanensis\" was one of 13 psychoactive mushrooms specifically prohibited by law in Japan in 2002.\n", "However, possession of the spores by a qualified mycologist in California is legal if being put to use for research purposes, which must be approved by Research Advisory Panel. If not authorized by law, possession of spores or cultivation of fruiting bodies of the \"Psilocybe\" is punishable to not more than one year in county jail or state prison.\n", "Most national drug laws have been amended to reflect the terms of the convention; examples include the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the US Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978, Australia Poisons Standard (October 2015), the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of 1996, and the Japanese Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Law of 2002. The possession and use of psilocybin is prohibited under almost all circumstances, and often carries severe legal penalties.\n", "In the United States, possession of \"Psilocybe\" mushroom fruiting bodies is illegal in every state except for Florida. This is because the Supreme Court of Florida does not believe that these mushrooms could \"reasonably be found to be containers of the schedule I substance, psilocybin\".\n", "Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms\n\nThe legal status of unauthorised actions with psilocybin mushrooms varies worldwide. Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Schedule I drugs are defined as drugs with a high potential for abuse or drugs that have no recognized medical uses. However, psilocybin mushrooms have had numerous medicinal and religious uses in dozens of cultures throughout history and have a significantly lower potential for abuse than other Schedule I drugs.\n", "Psilocybin mushrooms are regulated or prohibited in many countries, often carrying severe legal penalties (for example, the US Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and Drugs Act 2005, and in Canada the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act).\n\nSection::::Legality.:UN position.\n\nPsilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Schedule I drugs are deemed to have a high potential for abuse and are not recognized for medical use.\n\nSection::::Legality.:Austria.\n\nPsychoactive mushrooms, in their fresh form, remain legal in some countries, such as Austria.\n\nSection::::Legality.:Netherlands.\n", "The Expert Committee's evaluation of MDMA during its 22nd meeting in 1985 was marked by pleas from physicians to allow further research into the drug's therapeutic uses. Paul Grof, chairman of the Expert Committee, argued that international control was not yet warranted, and that scheduling should be delayed pending completion of more studies. The Expert Committee concluded that because there was \"insufficient evidence to indicate that the substance has therapeutic usefulness,\" it should be placed in Schedule I. However, its report did recommend more MDMA research:\n", "As you are aware, mushrooms containing the above substances are collected and used for their hallucinogenic effects. As a matter of international law, no plants (natural material) containing psilocine and psilocybin are at present controlled under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. Consequently, \"preparations made of these plants are not under international control and, therefore, not subject of the articles of the 1971 Convention\" [emphasis added]. Criminal cases are decided with reference to domestic law, which may otherwise provide for controls over mushrooms containing psilocine and psilocybin. As the Board can only speak as to the contours of the international drug conventions, I am unable to provide an opinion on the litigation in question.\n", "In April 2016, a white button mushroom (\"Agaricus bisporus\") modified using the CRISPR technique received \"de facto\" approval in the United States, after the USDA said it would not have to go through the agency's regulatory process. The agency considers the mushroom exempt because the editing process did not involve the introduction of foreign DNA.\n", "Section::::Provisions.:Licenses issued by Administrator.\n\nIt is required that every person who is trained to prepare biological products subject to the VSTA shall have an unexpired, unsuspended, and unrevoked U.S. Veterinary Biologics Establishment License and at least one unexpired, unsuspended, and unrevoked U.S. Veterinary Biological Product License issued by the Administrator to prepare a biological product. Applicants who apply for an establishment license must also apply for at least one product license. An establishment license will not be issued without a license allowing the production of a biological product in the establishment.\n\nSection::::Provisions.:Types of license applications and their regulations.\n", "Section::::Specific drugs.:Psilocybin (mushrooms).\n\nPsilocybin and its metabolized counterpart psilocin are Schedule 1 on the California Uniform Controlled Substances Act. Mushrooms containing psilocybin and psilocin, as well as psilocybin mushroom spores are illegal to possess, import, buy, sell, trade, or give away if intended to be cultivated. Growing psilocybin-containing mushrooms from spores is considered manufacturing a controlled substance.\n\nSection::::Other drugs.\n", "However, the official \"Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances\" makes it clear that psychedelic plants (and indeed any plants) were not included in the original Schedules and are not covered at all by the Convention. This includes \"infusion of the roots\" of \"Mimosa tenuiflora\" (M. hostilis; which contains DMT) and \"beverages\" made from psilocybin mushrooms. The purpose of Paragraph 4 of Article 32 was to allow States to \"make a reservation assuring them the right to permit the continuation of the traditional use in question\" in the case that plants were in the future added to the Schedule I. Currently, no plants or plant products are included in the Schedules of the 1971 Convention.\n", "The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances (adopted in 1971) requires its members to prohibit psilocybin, and parties to the treaty are required to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled conditions. However, the mushrooms containing the drug were not specifically included in the convention, due largely to pressure from the Mexican government.\n", "There are also specific conditions for research involving post-delivery placenta, dead fetus, or fetal material. These require studies to comply with federal, state, and local laws. In addition, if individuals from the research can be in any way identified, those individuals are research subjects and must be treated with all necessary legal requirements.\n", "EU Member States or the European Chemicals Agency, on request of the European Commission, can submit propositions to identify Substances of Very High Concern, based on the criteria laid down in article 57 of REACH:\n\nBULLET::::- Carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for reproduction meeting the criteria for classification as CMR category 1A or 1B, in accordance with Regulation n°1272/2008 (CLP),\n\nBULLET::::- Persistents bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT),\n\nBULLET::::- Very persistent and very bioaccumulative (vPvB),\n\nBULLET::::- Or substances of equivalent concern.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11719	how do some drugs make you drowsy?	Diphenhydramine is the active ingredient in Benadryl and many other hay fever medications. One of its effects is blocking a histamine receptor in your brain which also regulates your wakefulness cycles. This results in drowsiness. Notably, diphenhydramine is also the active ingredient in Unisom and other sleep aids for this exact reason. Non-drowsy allergy medications do not inhibit this particular receptor.	[ "The main treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy is central nervous system stimulants such as methylphenidate, amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, modafinil, and armodafinil. In late 2007 an alert for severe adverse skin reactions to modafinil was issued by the FDA.\n\nModafinil and sodium oxybate are the most effective treatment of sleepiness although it is only moderately effective. Several studies also showed that sodium oxybate is effective to treat cataplexy.\n", "Given the possible role of hyper-active GABA receptors in the primary hypersomnias (narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia), medications that could counteract this activity are being studied to test their potential to improve sleepiness. These currently include clarithromycin and flumazenil.\n\nSection::::Research.:GABA-directed medications.:Flumazenil.\n", "Methaqualone is a sedative that increases the activity of the GABA receptors in the brain and nervous system. When GABA activity is increased, blood pressure drops and the breathing and pulse rates slow, leading to a state of deep relaxation. These properties explain why methaqualone was originally mainly prescribed for insomnia.\n\nMethaqualone was not recommended for use while pregnant and is in pregnancy category D.\n\nSection::::Overdose.\n\nOverdose can lead to nervous system shutdown, coma and death.\n", "BULLET::::- Eugeroics (armodafinil and modafinil) are classified as \"wakefulness-promoting agents\"; modafinil increases alertness, particularly in sleep deprived individuals, and facilitates reasoning and problem solving in non-ADHD youth. In a systematic review of small, preliminary studies where the effects of modafinil were examined, when simple psychometric assessments were considered, modafinil intake enhanced executive function. Modafinil does not produce improvements in mood or motivation in sleep deprived or non-sleep deprived individuals.\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine a meta-analysis found an increase in alertness and attentional performance.\n", "BULLET::::- Phenylephrine - This drug is administered to those with hypotension post intubation as a result of lidocaine, midazolam, fentanyl, propofol, and ketamine. The dosages range from 50 to 200 μg in adults. It has quick onset and quick elimination. The common side effect is reflex bradycardia.\n\nSection::::Common medications.:Paralytics.\n", "Drugs which induce sleep, known as hypnotics, include benzodiazepines, although these interfere with REM; Nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics such as eszopiclone (Lunesta), zaleplon (Sonata), and zolpidem (Ambien); Antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and doxylamine; Alcohol (ethanol), despite its rebound effect later in the night and interference with REM; barbiturates, which have the same problem; melatonin, a component of the circadian clock, and released naturally at night by the pineal gland; and cannabis, which may also interfere with REM.\n", "Scientists at Britain's chemical and biological defense labs at Porton Down analyzed residue from the clothing of three hostages and the urine of one hostage rescued during the Moscow theater hostage crisis and found two chemical derivatives of fentanyl, remifentanil and carfentanil.\n\nSection::::Sleeping gas.:Bolivian rapes.\n", "Stimulants, which inhibit sleep, include caffeine, an adenosine antagonist; amphetamine, MDMA, empathogen-entactogens, and related drugs; cocaine, which can alter the circadian rhythm, and methylphenidate, which acts similarly; and other analeptic drugs like modafinil and armodafinil with poorly understood mechanisms.\n", "Second-generation antihistamines cross the blood–brain barrier to a much lower degree than the first ones. This results in their primarily affecting peripheral histamine receptors, and therefore having a much lower sedative effect. High doses can still induce the central nervous system effect of drowsiness.\n\nSection::::Types.:Others.:Antidepressants.\n\nSome antidepressants have sedating effects.\n\nExamples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors\n\nBULLET::::- Trazodone\n\nBULLET::::- Tricyclic antidepressants\n\nBULLET::::- Amitriptyline\n\nBULLET::::- Doxepin\n\nBULLET::::- Trimipramine\n\nBULLET::::- Tetracyclic antidepressants\n\nBULLET::::- Mianserin\n\nBULLET::::- Mirtazapine\n\nSection::::Types.:Others.:Antipsychotics.\n\nExamples of antipsychotics with sedation as a side effect:\n\nBULLET::::- First-generation\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorpromazine\n\nBULLET::::- Second-generation\n\nBULLET::::- Clozapine\n\nBULLET::::- Olanzapine\n\nBULLET::::- Quetiapine\n\nBULLET::::- Risperidone\n", "Health experts have warned that the herbal ingredients in Drank and similar beverages induce drowsiness and sedation, which can be dangerous when combined with medications or products that do similar things, such as alcohol or anti-depressants. Gregory Carter, a neurologist on the clinical staff of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, told the \"Dallas Morning News\" that there is enough melatonin in Drank to induce sleepiness, and that this effect could occur quickly because the melatonin is in dissolved form. Regarding Valerian, Carter found that the content was probably \"not enough to have a strong effect\".\n", "Paradoxical reaction\n\nA paradoxical reaction or paradoxical effect is an effect of a chemical substance, mostly a medical drug, opposite to the effect which would normally be expected. An example of a paradoxical reaction is pain caused by a pain relief medication.\n\nSection::::Substances.\n\nSection::::Substances.:Amphetamines.\n\nAmphetamines a class of psychoactive drugs that are stimulants. Paradoxical drowsiness can sometimes occur in adults.\n\nSection::::Substances.:Antibiotics.\n", "The third use is when James Bond is about to deal with two gangsters in \"The Spy Who Loved Me\" over a long night at the Dreamy Pines Motor Court. The book says Bond, \"...took out two and when I gave him the coffee he swallowed them down. 'Benzedrine. That'll keep me awake for tonight.'\"\n\nSection::::History and culture.:References in literature.:Tom Robbins' \"Even Cowgirls Get The Blues\".\n", "In any case, there is nonetheless a good deal of evidence to indicate that modafinil is producing at least a portion of its wakefulness-promoting effects by acting as a DRI, or at least via activation of the dopaminergic system. In support of modafinil acting as a dopaminergic agent, its wakefulness-promoting effects are abolished in DAT knockout mice (although it is important to note that DAT knockout mice show D and D receptor and norepinephrine compensatory abnormalities, which might confound this finding), reduced by both D and D receptor antagonists (although conflicting reports exist), and completely blocked by simultaneous inactivation of both D and D receptors. In accordance, modafinil shows full stimulus generalization to other DAT inhibitors including cocaine, methylphenidate, and vanoxerine, and discrimination is blocked by administration of both ecopipam (SCH-39166), a D receptor antagonist, and haloperidol, a D receptor antagonist. Partial substitution was seen with the DRA dextroamphetamine and the D receptor agonist PNU-91356A, as well as with nicotine (which indirectly elevates dopamine levels through activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors).\n", "BULLET::::- vertigo\n\nBULLET::::- hypotension\n\nBULLET::::- salivation changes\n\nBULLET::::- gastro-intestinal disturbances\n\nBULLET::::- visual disturbances\n\nBULLET::::- dysarthria\n\nBULLET::::- tremor\n\nBULLET::::- changes in libido\n\nBULLET::::- incontinence\n\nBULLET::::- urinary retention\n\nBULLET::::- blood disorders and jaundice\n\nBULLET::::- skin reactions\n\nBULLET::::- dependence and withdrawal reactions\n\nResidual \"hangover\" effects after nighttime administration of lormetazepam such as sleepiness, impaired psychomotor and cognitive functions may persist into the next day which may impair the ability of users to drive safely and increase risks of falls and hip fractures.\n", "In a Netflix original directed by Madonna, King Edward the VIII livens up his sleeping guests with a Benzedrine pill added to every glass of champagne and announces \"It's time to wake these people up\" to Wallis Simpson. The party transforms a sleep cinema display of Charlie Chaplin to a raucous party with laughter and dancing and a much greater sense of euphoria.\n\nSection::::History and culture.:References in movies and TV.:\"The Last Tycoon\".\n", "Diazepam has a range of side effects common to most benzodiazepines, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Suppression of REM sleep and Slow wave sleep\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired motor function\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired coordination\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired balance\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Depression\n\nBULLET::::- Reflex tachycardia\n", "Caffeine is the most widely used alerting drug in the world and has been shown to improve alertness in simulated night work. Caffeine and naps before a night shift reduces sleepiness during the shift. Modafinil and armodafinil are non-amphetamine alerting drugs originally developed for the treatment of narcolepsy that have been approved by the FDA (the US Food and Drug Administration) for excessive sleepiness associated with SWSD.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications that promote daytime sleep.\n", "BULLET::::- Sedative-hypnotics\n\nBULLET::::- gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB)\n\nSection::::Table II.:Class B.\n\nBULLET::::- Amphetamine stimulants including:\n\nBULLET::::- Amphetamine\n\nBULLET::::- Dextroamphetamine\n\nBULLET::::- Methamphetamine and levomethamphetamine\n\nBULLET::::- Tetrahydrocannabinol\n\nBULLET::::- Zipeprol\n\nBULLET::::- Other stimulants, including anorectics\n\nBULLET::::- Methylphenidate\n\nBULLET::::- Cathine\n\nBULLET::::- Cathinone\n\nBULLET::::- Methcathinone\n\nBULLET::::- Phendimetrazine\n\nBULLET::::- Fenethylline\n\nSection::::Table II.:Class C.\n\nBULLET::::- Barbiturates\n\nBULLET::::- Amobarbital\n\nBULLET::::- Butabarbital\n\nBULLET::::- Butalbital\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclobarbital\n\nBULLET::::- Pentobarbital\n\nBULLET::::- Secobarbital\n\nBULLET::::- Benzodiazepines\n\nBULLET::::- Flunitrazepam\n\nBULLET::::- Opioids\n\nBULLET::::- Buprenorphine\n\nBULLET::::- Codeine\n\nBULLET::::- Pentazocine\n\nBULLET::::- Propoxyphene\n\nBULLET::::- Other sedative-hypnotics\n\nBULLET::::- Mecloqualone\n\nBULLET::::- Methaqualone\n\nBULLET::::- Glutethimide\n\nSection::::Table III.\n", "The second instance of James Bond using Benzedrine is in \"Moonraker\" where early in the book he uses a champagne and Benzedrine mixed drink, of which he says \"Never Again,\" to stay alert enough to beat the villain Hugo Drax at a game of high-stakes contract bridge.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Short-term effects.\n\nEven in small doses, stimulants cause a decrease in appetite, an increase in physical activity and alertness, convulsions, an elevated body temperature, increased respiration, irregular heart beat and increased blood pressure; some of which can cause sudden death depending upon the medical history of the user, even among first time users.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Long-term effects.\n", "Phenmetrazine was taken by the Beatles early in their career. Paul McCartney was one known user. McCartney's introduction to drugs started in Hamburg, Germany. The Beatles had to play for hours, and they were often given the drug (referred to as \"Prellies\") by the maid who cleaned their housing arrangements, German customers, or by Astrid Kirchherr (whose mother bought them). McCartney would usually take one, but John Lennon would often take four or five. Hunter Davies asserted, in his 1968 biography of the band, that their use of such stimulants then was in response to their need to stay awake and keep working, rather than a simple desire for kicks.\n", "Many sedative/hypnotic drugs act by binding to and potentiating GABA-A receptors. These include older drugs such as ethanol, chloral hydrate and barbiturates, as well as newer benzodiazepines and \"non-benzodiazepine\" drugs (such as zolpidem, which bind to the same receptor but have a different chemical configuration), and even anesthetics such as propofol and isoflurane. As the VLPO inputs to the arousal system use this same receptor, these drugs at low doses essentially act by potentiating the VLPO, producing a sleepy state. Animal studies show that VLPO neurons show cFos activation after sedative doses of these drugs, and that VLPO lesions produce resistance to their sedative effects. However, at high doses that produce a surgical plane of anesthesia, these drugs have much more widespread inhibitory effects, that do not depend upon the VLPO.\n", "BULLET::::- After drug discontinuation, \"e.g.\" heroin or fentanyl withdrawal\n\nBULLET::::- Neuroleptic malignant syndrome; rare, life-threatening hyperpyrexia caused by antidopaminergic drugs (mostly antipsychotics) \"e.g.\" Haloperidol, Chlorpromazine\n\nBULLET::::- Serotonin syndrome; excessive serotonergic activity due usually to combined use of serotonergic drugs (\"e.g.\" antidepressants, stimulants, triptans)\n\nBULLET::::- 5HT2A agonists, \"e.g.\" psilocybin or LSD\n\nBULLET::::- Malignant hyperthermia\n\nSection::::Clinical treatment.\n", "Withdrawal symptoms which can occur from stopping benzodiazepines such as lormetazepam can include:\n\nBULLET::::- rebound insomnia and nightmares\n\nBULLET::::- anxiety, panic attacks, and agoraphobia\n\nBULLET::::- clinical depression\n\nBULLET::::- malaise\n\nBULLET::::- lack of concentration\n\nBULLET::::- abdominal discomfort\n\nBULLET::::- depersonalisation and feelings of unreality\n\nBULLET::::- emotional lability\n\nBULLET::::- cognitive impairment\n\nBULLET::::- tinnitus\n\nBULLET::::- paraesthesiae, tingling, numbness, and pain\n\nBULLET::::- muscle pain, weakness, tension, painful tremor, shaking attacks, jerks, blepharospasm\n\nBULLET::::- excitability, jumpiness, and restlessness\n\nBULLET::::- stiffness\n\nBULLET::::- sweats\n\nAbrupt or over rapid withdrawal from high doses can provoke:\n\nBULLET::::- epileptic seizures\n\nBULLET::::- hallucinations (visual, auditory)\n\nBULLET::::- misperceptions\n", "Microsleeps sometimes are a side effect of various drugs, particularly in reference to dopamine-stimulating drugs in Parkinson's Disease. Particularly, somnolence is a recognized adverse effect of dopamine agonists, pramipexole and ropinirole. These drugs are known to cause sudden-onset sleep spells in roughly 50% of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) while they were driving. Therefore, clinical interventions pertaining to microsleeps may also encompass reducing excessive sleepiness as a side effect of drug administration.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23023	How do we know that EnChroma glasses actually work if the only people they work for can't see color like the rest of us?	Simple. If a colorblind person looks at two colors and he can't tell them apart, then he puts the glasses on and can tell them apart more easily, then the glasses are doing their job.	[ "In 2018, researchers from the University of Granada studied EnChroma lenses and proved that they merely helped color blind people to see the same colors in a different way since the colored filter altered the way colors appeared in their eyes.\n", "In other research on the effects of wearing EnChroma glasses on red-green CVD, R. Mastey recruited 27 males: eight deuteranomalous, ten deuteranopic and nine protanopic, while E. J. Patterson recruited fifteen males: seven deuteranopic, six deuteranomalous, one protanomalous and one protanopic. For the research, the researchers used the Color Assessment and Diagnosis (CAD) test that provides chromatic discrimination thresholds.\n\nSection::::University experiments.:University of Otago.\n", "The research involved 48 color blindness volunteers, four were women and 44 were men, aged between 14 and 64. These participants were already aware of their own condition of CVD. The study concluded that, although an improvement in color vision has been accomplished since the colors are enhanced by the effect of the glasses, the technology could not be considered completely effective because the color vision it offers ws not identical to the non-colour blind individuals.\n", "In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the glasses, the color vision of the participants was evaluated without the EnChroma glasses using the Ishihara test, Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test, and a color-naming test (with 21 colors from an X-Rite GretagMacbeth Chart). The tests were repeated under the same conditions while wearing EnChroma glasses. In order to measure the full effect of EnChroma lenses, an adaptation time of 30 minutes was given to the participants. Between the two sections of the tests, more than 2 weeks passed in order to reduce the likelihood of participants memorizing the color patterns.\n", "The Pacific University College of Optometry's experiment tested whether the glasses helped people with particular deficiencies improve the way they see colors. The study involved ten individuals with hereditary deficiencies (nine males and one female from age 19 to 52).\n\nThe EnChroma Cx-14 filters did not significantly influence the vision of CVD subjects but, for two of them, the error score was improved.\n\nSection::::University experiments.:University of Granada.\n", "90% of the participants said they would recommend them to other people, and more than 50% of those people stated that EnChroma glasses improved their life. 10% of the remaining participants reported that the glasses did not have any impact on their life. 40% of the participants identified green as the color range that changed the most.\n", "In 2015 Dr. Blake Porter of the University of Otago conducted an experiment with 406 participants, of whom 42 already used EnChroma glasses. The participants were asked questions about their color blindness, their personal experience with the lens and the effects of those on their life and on the way they saw the colors.\n", "The researchers claimed that the effect of using EnChroma glasses is similar to glasses where the use of color filters changes the user’s perception and increases the contrast among the colors, such as those used for shooting or hunting. The research showed that EnChroma glasses did not reveal any improvement in the Ishihara test and Farnsworth Munsell 100 hue test.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Optical filters.\n", "Different models of sunglasses exist, according to the color deficiency the person suffers from.\n\nSection::::Products incorporating EnChroma lenses.:Indoor glasses.\n\nThis version of the glasses for people with CVD can be used indoors, but they work best in bright lighting and have applications for people who spend a lot of time facing a computer monitor. \n\nStudents with color blindness can have a benefit from the glasses, because they can understand particular color-coded information better at their school or at university.\n\nSection::::Products incorporating EnChroma lenses.:Children, industrial safety and sports glasses.\n", "Mice, which normally have only two cone pigments, can be engineered to express a third cone pigment, and appear to demonstrate increased chromatic discrimination, arguing against some of these obstacles; however, the original publication's claims about plasticity in the optic nerve have also been disputed.\n", "With various improvements over the years, these algorithms remain today the basis of all significant public deployments of iris recognition, and they are consistently top performers in NIST tests (implementations submitted by L-1, MorphoTrust and Morpho, for whom Daugman serves as Chief Scientist for Iris Recognition). But research on many aspects of this technology and on alternative methods has exploded, and today there is a rapidly growing academic literature on optics, photonics, sensors, biology, genetics, ergonomics, interfaces, decision theory, coding, compression, protocol, security, mathematical and hardware aspects of this technology.\n", "The glasses are available in single vision lenses, bifocals, and progressive lens. The sunglasses are also used by some senior citizens to help with sunlight sensitivity or due to medical conditions such as diabetes, glaucoma, macular degeneration, cataracts, multiple sclerosis, and eye cancer.\n\nSection::::University experiments.\n\nSection::::University experiments.:Pacific University and Qassim University.\n\nThe Qassim University and the Pacific University conducted joint experiments.\n\nThe Qassim University experiment involved 25 males aged from 20 to 25 years. Two of those 25 were excluded because of a vision disease that may affect the CVD deficiency.\n", "Glass scientist Dr. Donald McPherson invented EnChroma glasses by accident. He originally invented this type of lens to protect surgeons during laser operations. In 2002 at the Ultimate Frisbee tournament in Santa Cruz, California McPherson lent a pair to a friend who was color blind. His friend saw colors he had never seen before. McPherson started studying color blindness, and with Andrew Schmeder founded the company EnChroma Inc. in 2010 to sell glasses that compensate for color vision deficiency. EnChroma glasses target people with difficulties in distinguishing reds and greens. The first pair of commercial glasses were released in 2012.\n", "Section::::Chromaturgy.:Superchromat.\n\nSuperchromats have extremely acute vision when it come to colors. The inverse of those who are Subchromats (colorblindness), Superchromats can see the minute changes in shades between what most people would assume are the same color. This is extremely helpful for drafters, as different shades of Luxin have different properties, even within the same color, Yellow Luxin being a prime example. Half of all female Drafters are Superchromats, but hardly any male, with only 10 male Superchromats in the entire Chromeria.\n\nSection::::Chromaturgy.:Color Wight.\n", "As this process is absolutely vital for proper color processing it is not surprising that mutations in GNAT2 lead to achromatopsia. The known mutations in this gene, all result in truncated proteins. Presumably, then, these proteins are non-functional and, consequently, cone opsin that has been activated by light does not lead to altered cGMP levels or photoreceptor membrane hyperpolarization.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nThere is generally no treatment to cure achromatopsia. However, dark red or plum colored filters are very helpful in controlling light sensitivity.\n", "It was like the Rosetta stone. With this quantitative correspondence, they were able to plot the nonlinear refractive performance of millions of glasses and find the one with the lowest possible value. We then worked with our industrial partners to make a composition with the characteristics we needed.\n", "In some subjects, improvements due to the technology do not happen immediately because the brain requires time to rewire and create new links, neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity depends on the age of the individual. Younger people reported that they perceived little changes from the first time they wore glasses and a second wearing in which they have had time to adapt to the technology. Middle age people reported that the colors continued to change from the first time they wore the lens, and that color brightness and enhancement got better with time. Most participants related that the biggest effects of the glasses are not perceived initially but after a few days, confirming that the neuroplasticity takes time.\n", "The \"software\" in multivariate optical computing is encoded directly into an optical element spectral calculation engine such as an interference filter based multivariate optical element (MOE), holographic grating, liquid crystal tunable filter, spatial light modulator (SLM), or digital micromirror device (DMD) and is specific to the particular application. The optical pattern for the spectral calculation engine is designed for the specific purpose of measuring the magnitude of that multi-wavelength pattern in the spectrum of a sample, without actually measuring a spectrum.\n", "An instrument which implements this approach may be described as a multivariate optical computer. Since it describes an approach, rather than any specific wavelength range, multivariate optical computers may be built using a variety of different instruments (including Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman).\n", "Lenses that filter certain wavelengths of light can allow people with a cone anomaly, but not dichromacy, to see better separation of colors, especially those with classic \"red/green\" color blindness. They work by notching out wavelengths that strongly stimulate both red and green cones in a deuter- or protanomalous person, improving the distinction between the two cones' signals. As of 2012, sunglasses that notch out color wavelengths are available commercially.\n\nSection::::Management.:Apps.\n", "The filters designed by the method have a spectral transmittance that can be essentially described as a multi-band filter, made up by a plurality of passbands interleaved with stopbands. This technology makes it possible to remove the overlapping of colours.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Lens material.\n", "Future treatments may involve gene therapy. In fact it seems that in case of a genetic deletion of the human cone visual pigment there is a sufficient number of photoreceptors to warrant Gene Therapy. In 2015 scientists at the University of Pennsylvania evaluated possible outcoming measures of BCM gene therapy\n\nA previous important result shows that in adult primates it is possible to restore colour vision through an AAV gene therapy that introduced a new opsin in the primate retina. A mouse model of blue cone monochromacy has been treated with gene-based therapy.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Production.:Atomic layer deposition.\n\nResearchers at the University of Connecticut are using a technique called selective area atomic layer deposition that is capable of producing them reliably and at industrial scales. Research is ongoing to tune them to the optimal frequencies for visible and infrared light.\n\nSection::::Proof of principle.\n", "While each chemical problem presents its own unique challenges and opportunities, the design of a system for a specific analysis is complex and requires the assembly of several pieces of a spectroscopic puzzle. The data necessary for a successful design are spectral characteristics of light sources, detectors and a variety of optics to be used in the final assemblage, dispersion characteristics of the materials used in the wavelength range of interest, and a set of calibrated sample spectra for pattern-recognition-based analysis. With these pieces assembled, suitable application specific multivariate optical computer designs can be generated and the performance accurately modeled and predicted.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06805	How come snot is solid when the weather is warm, but becomes fluid when the weather is cold.	It's because the cold weather actually prompts your nose to run more in the first place. The mucous producing glands In your nose are triggered by the change in ambient climate. It's called vasomotor rhinitis. The solidity of your mucous/snot is just a byproduct of how dry or viscous it is. Source: am an ENT	[ "During cold, dry seasons, the mucus lining nasal passages tends to dry out, meaning that mucous membranes must work harder, producing more mucus to keep the cavity lined. As a result, the nasal cavity can fill up with mucus. At the same time, when air is exhaled, water vapor in breath condenses as the warm air meets the colder outside temperature near the nostrils. This causes an excess amount of water to build up inside nasal cavities. In these cases, the excess fluid usually spills out externally through the nostrils.\n\nSection::::Respiratory system.:Lower respiratory tract.\n", "Here, formula_14 is the total volumetric flowrate and formula_15 is the volumetric flowrate according to the law of effusion. As it turns out, for many gasses, we notice equal contributions from molecular and viscous regimes when the pore size is significantly larger than the mean-free-path of the fluid, for nitrogen this occurs at a pore diameter of 393 nm, 6.0× larger than the mean-free-path.\n", "Section::::Properties of mucus.:Tunable swelling capacity.\n\nMucus is able to absorb water or dehydrate through pH variations. The swelling capacity of mucus stems from the bottlebrush structure of mucin within which hydrophilic segments provide a large surface area for water absorption. Moreover, the tunability of swelling effect is controlled by polyelectrolyte effect.\n\nSection::::Properties of mucus.:Tunable swelling capacity.:Polyelectrolyte effect in mucus.\n", "In the case that the material consists of a mixture of two or more species, the right hand side of the above equation would consist of the sum of the molecular polarizability contribution from each species, indexed by \"i\" in the following form: (see Lorrain and Corson - Electromagnetic Field and Waves, 1962, 2nd Edition, page 116)\n", "Studies suggest that one biochemical mechanism of low-temperature tolerance is achieved by altering the composition and total content of fatty-acids in their membrane, a phenomenon called homeoviscous adaptation.\n\nSection::::White-nose syndrome.\n", "The pressure difference causes the mucosal lining of the sinuses to become swollen and submucosal bleeding follows with further difficulties ventilating the sinus, especially if the orifices are involved. Ultimately fluid or blood will fill the space.\n", "If the medium is not the whole space, in order to solve the heat equation uniquely we also need to specify boundary conditions for \"u\". To determine uniqueness of solutions in the whole space it is necessary to assume an exponential bound on the growth of solutions.\n", "Blood flow is directly influenced by the thermodynamics of the body. Changes in temperature affect the viscosity and surface tension of the blood, altering the minimum blood flow rate. At high temperatures the minimum flow rate will decrease and the capillary will expand. This allows heat transfer through the increased surface area of the inner capillary lining and through increased blood flow. At low temperatures the minimum flow rate will increase and the capillary will constrict. This restricts blood flow and decreases the surface area of the capillary, reducing heat transfer.\n", "Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the \"mesopause anomaly\"). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.\n", "The discussion above can be summarized by the fundamental consistency result that, given a forcing poset formula_9, we may assume the existence of a generic filter formula_41, not belonging to the universe formula_1, such that formula_224 is again a set-theoretic universe that models formula_54. Furthermore, all truths in formula_224 may be reduced to truths in formula_1 involving the forcing relation.\n", "The effect of the increased resistance (compared to stoma breathing without HME) in laryngectomy patients is poorly understood, but HMEs add a variable resistance to the airflow resistance, depending on the flow rate, though the outcomes of studies are not consistent.\n", "Section::::Properties of mucus.:Tunable swelling capacity.:Mechanism of pH-tunable swelling.\n", "Under Suber's initial ruleset, rules are divided into two types: mutable and immutable. The main difference between these is that immutable rules must be changed into mutable rules (called \"transmuting\") before they can be modified or removed. Immutable rules also take precedence over mutable ones. A rule change may be:\n\nBULLET::::- the addition of a new mutable rule\n\nBULLET::::- an amendment to a mutable rule\n\nBULLET::::- the repeal of a mutable rule\n\nBULLET::::- the transmutation of a rule from mutable to immutable\n\nBULLET::::- or the transmutation of a rule from immutable to mutable\n", "BULLET::::- Advocates point out that liquid in the hose (where it is all within 3/16 inch (5 mm) of the air) warms or cools relatively rapidly toward the ambient temperature, and value the reduction of this when nearly all the liquid is in the bladder. There it is as much as several inches (10 cm) from the bladder surface, and it may be still further insulated by a pack and its other contents. When the air temperature is below freezing if the hose isn't cleared it can rapidly freeze blocking the hose. This often occurs skiing where high wind speed and low temperatures are combined.\n", "BULLET::::- Julian Vincent drew from the study of pinecones when he developed in 2004 \"smart\" clothing that adapts to changing temperatures. \"I wanted a nonliving system which would respond to changes in moisture by changing shape\", he said. \"There are several such systems in plants, but most are very small — the pinecone is the largest and therefore the easiest to work on\". Pinecones respond to higher humidity by opening their scales (to disperse their seeds). The \"smart\" fabric does the same thing, opening up when the wearer is warm and sweating, and shutting tight when cold.\n", "If the container contains particles of different sizes, the downward-moving region at the sides is often narrower than the largest particles. Thus, larger particles tend to become sorted to the top of such a mixture. This is one possible explanation of the Brazil nut effect.\n\nSection::::Convection mechanisms.:Solid-state convection in ice.\n\nIce convection on Pluto is believed to occur in a soft mixture of nitrogen ice and carbon monoxide ice. It has also been proposed for Europa, and other bodies in the outer solar system.\n\nSection::::Convection mechanisms.:Thermomagnetic convection.\n", "Section::::Refrigerator mother theory.\n", "Section::::Routes of Administration.:Nasal.\n", "Most materials that are fluid at common temperatures expand when they are heated, becoming less dense. Correspondingly, they become denser when they are cooled. At the heat source of a system of natural circulation, the heated fluid becomes lighter than the fluid surrounding it, and thus rises. At the heat sink, the nearby fluid becomes denser as it cools, and is drawn downward by gravity. Together, these effects create a flow of fluid from the heat source to the heat sink and back again. \n", "We use our nose and throat as a regenerative heat exchanger when we breathe. The cooler air coming in is warmed, so that it reaches the lungs as warm air. On the way back out, this warmed air deposits much of its heat back onto the sides of the nasal passages, so that these passages are then ready to warm the next batch of air coming in. Some animals, including humans, have curled sheets of bone inside the nose called nasal turbinates to increase the surface area for heat exchange.\n\nSection::::Types of regenerators.:Cryogenics.\n", "For all practical purposes, temperature can be treated as constant in the articulatory system. Thus, Boyle's Law can usefully be written\n\nas the following two equations.\n", "Let formula_11 be the total entropy change of the fluid in the process of intake of heat. \n\nwhere the temperature of the fluid is always slightly lesser than formula_9, in this process.\n\nSo, one would get \n\nSimilarly, at the time of heat injection from the fluid to the cold reservoir one would have, for the magnitude of total entropy change formula_13 of the fluid in the process of expelling heat:\n\nwhere, during this process of transfer of heat to the cold reservoir, the temperature of the fluid is always slightly greater than formula_14.\n", "In Mason's formulation the changes in temperature across the boundary layer can be related to the changes in saturated vapour pressure by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation; the two energy transport terms must be nearly equal but opposite in sign and so this sets the interface temperature of the drop. The resulting expression for the growth rate is significantly lower than that expected if the drop were not warmed by the latent heat.\n\nThus if the drop has a size \"r\", the inward mass flow rate is given by\n\nand the sensible heat flux by\n", "In electrostatics, this is equivalent to the case where the space under consideration contains an electrical charge.\n\nThe steady-state heat equation without a heat source within the volume (the homogeneous case) is the equation in electrostatics for a volume of free space that does not contain a charge. It is described by Laplace's equation:\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Particle diffusion.\n\nOne can model particle diffusion by an equation involving either: \n\nBULLET::::- the volumetric concentration of particles, denoted \"c\", in the case of collective diffusion of a large number of particles, or\n", "Section::::Properties of mucus.:Charge selectivity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03433	Are lithium-ion batteries, and by extension, electric vehicles, worse for the environment than regular cars/combustion engines?	Yes, mining lithium is pretty damn bad. But, on the contrary, you only have to do it once per a whole lot of batteries due to their recyclability; this, if used to the full potential, can ensure what is basically a closed loop for production. Unfortunately, it is not economically feasible at the moment to recycle li-ion batteries since they can cost up to 5 times to reuse than just buying raw lithium. Due to a rise in the demand of lithium (e.g. due to the increase in electric/hybrid cars), these technologies can and will be used in the future - even now, America and Japan have a few up their sleeve. In terms of the coal plant vs. petrol, even in some of the most coal-dependent states (e.g. Texas) the gasoline car is more than twice as pollutive as the electric (see [this official page]( URL_0 ) for info). The li-ion batteries themselves are actually landfill-safe, so they're not that dangerous even if they're discarded. There's a lot more info about this topic but rest assured that you're ALWAYS better off environmentally buying a high-quality dependable electric car (like Ford's or Tesla's) than a petrol.	[ "In February 2014, the Automotive Science Group (ASG) published the result of a study conducted to assess the life-cycle of over 1,300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America. The study found that among advanced automotive technologies, the Nissan Leaf holds the smallest life-cycle environmental footprint of any model year 2014 automobile available in the North American market with at least four-person occupancy. The study concluded that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the battery electric technology is more than offset with increased environmental performance during operational life. For the assessment, the study used the average electricity mix of the U.S. grid in 2014.\n", "The mines that are used to produce the lithium and cobalt used in the battery are also creating problems for the environment, as fish are dying up to 150 miles downstream from mining operations due to chemical leaks and the chemicals also leak into the water sources the people that live near the mines use, creating health problems for the animals and people that live nearby.\n\nSection::::Vehicles by type.:Special-purpose vehicles.\n", "To account for the upstream emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g /kWh in California to 986 g /kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g /kWh. In the case of plug-in hybrids, and since their all-electric range depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver.\n", "According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries (about 10 kg of lithium per car) could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey. Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread use of hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.\n", "A 2016 study by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) found that availability of lithium and other finite materials used in the battery packs will not be a limiting factor for the adoption of electric vehicles. BNEF estimated that battery packs will require less than 1% of the known reserves of lithium, nickel, manganese, and copper through 2030, and 4% of the world's cobalt. After 2030, the study states that new battery chemistries will probably shift to other source materials, making packs lighter, smaller, and cheaper.\n\nBULLET::::- Rare-earth elements\n", "At the corporate level, lithium must be evaluated in terms of its importance to the company, and see to what extent a substitute is possible in short term values. It is important to note that both Ford and Toyota's current and most used batteries in Electric cars are Lithium-ion. Ford Motor company’s senior manager of energy storage research stated, “There are foreseen limits of lithium ion technology,” this was stated in coordination with a graph estimating a diminishing number by 2017. . According to Toyota’s environmental technology corporate strategy, “As Toyota anticipates the widespread use of electric vehicles in the future, we have begun research in developing next-generation secondary batteries with performance that greatly exceeds that of lithium-ion batteries.” \n", "Electric cars also have impacts arising from the manufacturing of the vehicle. Since battery packs are heavy, manufacturers work to lighten the rest of the vehicle. As a result, electric car components contain many lightweight materials that require a lot of energy to produce and process, such as aluminium and carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers. Electric motors and batteries add to the energy of electric-car manufacture. There are two kinds of motors used by electric cars: permanent magnet motors (like the one found in the Tesla model 3), and induction motors (like the one found on the Tesla model S). Induction motors do not use magnets, but permanent magnet motors do. The magnets found in permanent magnet motors used in electric vehicles contain rare-earth metals which are used to increase the power output of these motors. In a study released in 2012, a group of MIT researchers calculated that global mining of two rare-earth metals, neodymium and dysprosium, would need to increase 700% and 2600%, respectively, over the next 25 years to keep pace with various green-tech plans. Substitute strategies introduce trade-offs in efficiency and cost. The same MIT study noted that the materials used in batteries are harmful to the environment. The mining and processing of metals such as lithium, copper, and nickel requires much energy and it can release toxic compounds. In developing countries with weak legislature and/or enforcement thereof, mineral exploitation can increase risks further. As such, the local population may be exposed to toxic substances through air and groundwater contamination. New battery technologies may be needed to resolve those problems. Potential battery technologies that could one day replace Li-ion batteries are the aluminum-ion battery and the sodium-ion battery, but for the moment recycling of these is not any better than the recycling of li-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries recycling is rarely done in developing and developed countries. In fact, in 2017, only just 5% of lithium-ion batteries were actually recycled in the EU.\n", "In February 2014, the Automotive Science Group (ASG) published the result of a study conducted to assess the life-cycle of over 1,300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America. The study found that among advanced automotive technologies, the Nissan Leaf holds the smallest life-cycle environmental footprint of any model year 2014 automobile available in the North American market with minimum four-person occupancy. The study concluded that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the battery electric technology is more than offset with increased environmental performance during operational life. For the assessment, the study used the average electricity mix of the U.S. grid in 2014.\n", "Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two mentioned above.\n", "Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants. In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.\n", "BULLET::::- Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles. Though lithium supply and cost is a limitation, there are alternatives. Herding more people into clean public transit such as electric trains can also help. Nevertheless, even in emission-free electric vehicles, rubber tires produce significant amounts of air pollution themselves, ranking as 13th worst pollutant in Los Angeles.\n", "BULLET::::- 13 times more energy efficient than a sedan\n\nBULLET::::- 6 times more energy efficient than rail transit\n\nBULLET::::- and, of about equal impact to the environment as a conventional bicycle.\n\nOne major concern is disposal of used lead batteries, which can cause environmental contamination if not recycled.\n\nThere are strict shipping regulations for lithium-ion batteries, due to safety concerns. In this regard, lithium iron phosphate batteries are safer than lithium cobalt oxide batteries.\n\nSection::::Experience by country.\n\nSection::::Experience by country.:China.\n", "With some villages in Africa operating more cell phones than bathrooms, it is reasonable to estimate a large percent of the world uses lithium, and to predict that the material usage will increase as industrialization and technological dependency grows. In terms of Toyota and Ford’s lithium usage, it is important to note that as of 2005, global zinc air production could produce enough zinc-air batteries to power 1 billion electric vehicles, and lithium reserves could only power ten million lithium-ion powered vehicles .\n\nSection::::Environmental implication.\n", "Lithium-ion batteries have proven fragile and fire-prone, and their capacity deteriorates with age. However, alternatives are being pursued, such as Sodium-ion batteries.\n\nSection::::Climate change.:Reducing air travel.\n\nSection::::Climate change.:Reducing air travel.:Personal choices and social pressure.\n", "Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place between the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2010 and 2014, when the battery type was changed to nickel-metal hydride batteries which do not pose the same risk of thermal runaway as lithium-ion batteries. As a result of these incidents, the United States, Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) conducted a study to establish whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose an exceptional fire hazard. The research looked at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged, and when the vehicles are involved in an accident. Regarding the risk of electrochemical failure, [this] report concludes that the propensity and severity of fires and explosions from the accidental ignition of flammable electrolytic solvents used in Li-ion battery systems are anticipated to be somewhat comparable to or perhaps slightly less than those for gasoline or diesel vehicular fuels. The overall consequences for Li-ion batteries are expected to be less because of the much smaller amounts of flammable solvent released and burning in a catastrophic failure situation.\n", "The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is conducting a study due in 2014 to establish whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard. The research is looking at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident. Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug-in electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Rare-earth metals availability and supply security.\n", "Common technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare-earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals, and other specific elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term. , the Toyota Prius battery contains more than of the rare-earth element lanthanum, and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium. While only of lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) are required in a smartphone and in a tablet computer, electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems for homes, businesses or industry use much more lithium in their batteries. a hybrid electric passenger car might use of LCE, while one of Tesla's high performance electric cars could use as much as .\n", "The same is true of ICE vehicles. The sourcing of fossil fuels (oil well to tank) causes further damage and use of resources during the extraction and refinement processes, including high amounts of electricity.\n\nThe cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid by health cost savings in less than 3 years.\n\nIn December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion kilometers (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016.\n\nSection::::Environmental aspects.:Lithium availability.\n", "Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium\n\nThe main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia. In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Advantages and disadvantages of EVs.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Advantages and disadvantages of EVs.:Environmental.\n\nEVs release no tail pipe air pollutants at the place where they are operated. They also typically generate less noise pollution than an internal combustion engine vehicle, whether at rest or in motion. The energy that electric and hybrid cars consume is usually generated by means that have environmental impacts. Nevertheless, adaptation of EVs would have a significant net environmental benefit, except in a few countries that continue to rely on older coal fired power plants for the bulk of their electricity generation throughout the life of the car.\n", "Most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ions or LIBs). Lithium ion batteries have higher energy density, longer life span and higher power density than most other practical batteries. Complicating factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature and voltage ranges in order to operate safely and efficiently.\n\nIncreasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs. One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.\n", "The lower risk of danger that come with aqueous Li-ion batteries make them appealing for industries that manufacture vehicles that prioritize safety over energy density, such as airplanes and submarines.\n\nSection::::Challenges.\n", "Lithium-ion cells in pouch format are being investigated to power battery electric vehicles. While it is possible to use a large number of cells of small capacity to obtain required levels of power and energy to drive a vehicle, some manufacturers and research centres are looking into large-format lithium-ion cells of capacities exceeding 50 Ah for this purpose. With higher energy content per cell, the number of cells and electrical connections in a battery pack would certainly decrease but the danger associated with individual cells of such high capacity might be greater.\n", "In general, results differ vastly dependent on the region considered, due to difference in energy sources to produce electricity that fuels electric vehicles. When considering only CO emissions, it is noted that production of electric cars generate about twice as much emissions as that of internal combustion cars. However, emissions of CO during operation are much larger (on average) than during production. For electric cars, emissions caused during operation depend on energy sources used to produce electricity and thus vary a lot geographically. Studies suggest that when taking into account both production and operation, electric cars would cause more emissions in economies where production of electricity is not clean, e.g., it is mostly coal based.. For this reason, some studies found that driving electric cars is less environmentally damaging in western US states than in eastern ones, where less electricity is produced using cleaner sources. Similarly, in countries like India, Australia or China, where large portion of electricity is produced by using coal, driving electric vehicles would cause larger environmental damage than driving petrol vehicles. When justifying use of electric cars over petrol cars, these kinds of studies do not provide sufficiently clear results. Environmental impact is calculated based on fuel mix used to produce electricity that powers electric cars. However, when a gas vehicle is replaced by an equivalent electric vehicle, additional power must be installed in electrical grid. This additional capacity would normally not be based on the same ratios of energy sources (\"clean\" versus fossil fuels) than the current capacity. Only when additional electricity production capacity installed to switch from petrol to electric vehicles would predominantly consist of clean sources, switch to electric vehicles could reduce environmental damage. Another common problem in methodology used in comparative studies is that it only focuses on specific kinds of environmental impact. While some studies focus only on emission of gas pollutants over life cycle or only on greenhouse gas emissions such as CO, comparison should also account for other environmental impacts such as pollutants released otherwise during production and operation or ingredients that can not be effectively recycled. Examples include use of lighter high performing metals, lithium batteries and more rare metals in electric cars, which all have high environmental impact.\n", "Electric cars burn no petroleum, thereby shifting any environmental impact from the car user to the electric utility. In South Africa an electric car, will be powered by coal generated electricity and harm the environment. In Norway an electric car will be powered by hydroelectricity and be harmless. Electric cars by themselves are neither beneficial or harmful, it depends how your region generates electricity.\n" ]	[ "Batteries and electric vehicles are worse for the environment than regular cars." ]	[ "Electric cars are better for the environment than regular cars. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Batteries and electric vehicles are worse for the environment than regular cars." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Electric cars are better for the environment than regular cars. " ]
2018-04792	How did cherry get almost exclusively paired with limeade and strawberry with lemonade?	Is this actually a thing? It might only be regional because I've never heard of it before. There was a point in history where lemon and lime flavoured products were the best selling; however, times and tastes are constantly changing, and the demand for those flavours isn't as prevalent as it used to be. A lot of manufacturers are completely phasing out those flavours. For example: green Skittles are now green apple, green Swedish Fish are now pineapple. So the combination of cherry-lime and strawberry-lemon could be a marketing strategy to make the product appeal to a larger audience of people. Why those combinations specifically? I don't know. It could be that the flavours are complementary, they tested well during market research, or that those flavours are a highly grossing product. It would make sense for everyone else to capitalize on the best selling flavours in order to compete in the marketplace. This is why I assume you've seen those combinations where you live and I've never seen them where I live, because they just didn't sell well where I am. Another explanation may be because it's cheaper and easier to manufacture that way. Blue raspberry became popular because manufacturers had loads of blue dye sitting around, and the cheap red dye of the time was outlawed by the FDA because kids were having bad reactions to it.	[ "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Background and development.\n", "BULLET::::- Cherry cake – a traditional British cake that consists of glacé cherries evenly suspended within a Madeira sponge.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry ice cream – ice cream flavored with cherries. Cherry juice is also sometimes used in its production. Cherry ice cream has been mass-produced in the United States since at least 1917.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry juice\n\nBULLET::::- Cherries jubilee – a dessert dish made with cherries and liqueur (typically Kirschwasser), which is subsequently flambéed, and commonly served as a sauce over vanilla ice cream\n", "BULLET::::- Cherry Mash - A candy bar consisting of a soft, cherry-flavored center containing maraschino cherries, covered in a mixture of chopped roasted peanuts and chocolate.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry pie – a pie baked with a cherry filling\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry Ripe – a chocolate bar brand manufactured by Cadbury Australia. It was introduced by the Australian confectioner MacRobertson's in 1924, it is now Australia's oldest chocolate bar and one of the top chocolate bar brands sold in the country.\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate-covered cherry – a dessert confection that is mass-produced and also prepared in homemade versions\n", "Cherry Mash\n\nCherry Mash is an American candy bar consisting of a soft, cherry-flavored center containing maraschino cherries, covered in a mixture of chopped roasted peanuts and chocolate.\n\nThe Cherry Mash was formulated in 1918 by Ernest Chase, son of Dr. George Washington Chase, who went into the candy business in St. Joseph, Missouri in 1876.\n\nThe original candy consisted of a quarter-pound mound of chopped roasted peanuts, blended with chocolate coating over a smooth cherry fondant center. It was originally called Cherry Chase, and then Cherry Chaser before becoming known as Cherry Mash.\n", "In the Southern Hemisphere, cherries are usually at their peak in late December and are widely associated with Christmas. 'Burlat' is an early variety which ripens during the beginning of December, 'Lapins' ripens near the end of December, and 'Sweetheart' finish slightly later.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Pests and diseases.\n", "Later, a public call-in contest was held where people would vote for a new Fruit Winders flavor. The choices were Tropical, Raspberry and Lemon. The winning flavor was Tropical, but Raspberry and Lemon were introduced later on afterwards. In 2006, Fruit Winders discontinued the Orange, Tropical, Raspberry and Lemon flavors along with the spin-off products, and made the strands small enough ti fit two on each winder. Apple and Blackcurrant were placed into the Doubles, including brands with Strawberry, leaving Strawberry the only flavour to be sold as a single packets, but with two smaller winders. As of 2017, there had been a new flavor of Very Cherry added, and is sold only in select stores.\n", "SweeTarts\n\nSweetTarts (; officially stylized as SweeTARTS) are sweet and sour candies invented by Jeff Sousa in 1962. The candy was created using the same basic recipe as the already popular Pixy Stix and Lik-M-Aid products, in response to parents' requests for a less-messy candy. In 1963, SweeTarts were introduced with the same flavors as the popular Pixy Stix: cherry, grape, lemon, lime, and orange.\n", "Pie could be served up to three times a day and many varieties were prepared depending on the season. During the spring months, pies would be made of rhubarb and strawberry; in summer peach, cherry, blackberry, blueberry, elderberry and grape; and in fall apple.\n", "In the United States, most sweet cherries are grown in Washington, California, Oregon, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Important sweet cherry cultivars include Bing, Ulster, Rainier, Brooks, Tulare, King, and Sweetheart. Both Oregon and Michigan provide light-colored 'Royal Ann' ('Napoleon'; alternately 'Queen Anne') cherries for the maraschino cherry process. Most sour (also called tart) cherries are grown in Michigan, followed by Utah, New York, and Washington. Sour cherries include 'Nanking' and 'Evans'. Traverse City, Michigan is called the \"Cherry Capital of the World\", hosting a National Cherry Festival and making the world's largest cherry pie. The specific region of northern Michigan known for tart cherry production is referred to as the \"Traverse Bay\" region.\n", "BULLET::::- Cherpumple – a British novelty dish where several different flavor pies are baked inside of several different flavors of cake and stacked together. According to the Cherpumple's creator, pop culture humorist Charles Phoenix, \"Cherpumple is short for cherry, pumpkin and apple pie. The apple pie is baked in spice cake, the pumpkin in yellow and the cherry in white.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry Blossom – a chocolate bar in Canada produced by Hershey Canada Inc.. Hershey used to produce it at its Canadian manufacturing facility in Smiths Falls, Ontario. It is now produced in Mexico.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Prunus stipulacea\" Maxim.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prunus subhirtella\" Miq. – Higan cherry or spring cherry\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prunus takesimensis\" Nakai – Takeshima flowering cherry\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prunus tomentosa\" Thunb. – Nanking cherry, Manchu cherry, downy cherry, Shanghai cherry, Ando cherry, mountain cherry, Chinese dwarf cherry, Chinese bush cherry\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prunus verecunda\" (Koidz.) Koehne – Korean mountain cherry\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prunus virginiana\" L. – chokecherry\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prunus × yedoensis\" Matsum. – Yoshino cherry or Tokyo cherry\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry ice cream\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry juice\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry pit oil\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry pitter\n\nBULLET::::- Dried cherry\n\nBULLET::::- List of Award of Garden Merit flowering cherries\n", "Common garnishes for an Old Fashioned include an orange slice or a maraschino cherry or both, although these modifications came around 1930, some time after the original recipe was invented. While some recipes began making sparse use of the orange zest for flavor, the practice of muddling orange and other fruit gained prevalence as late as the 1990s.\n\nSome modern variants have greatly sweetened the Old Fashioned, e.g. by adding blood orange soda to make a Fizzy Old Fashioned, or muddled strawberries to make a strawberry old fashioned.\n\nSection::::Cultural impact.\n", "BULLET::::- Citrus limetta, or Persian sweet lime, small and round like a common lime, with sweet juice, a citron/sour orange hybrid.\n\nBULLET::::- Lumia, a big dry citron-like fruit that is pear shaped and not necessarily sweet. This is itself a mixed group: one member has been found to have resulted from a lemon crossing with a citron/pomelo hybrid, a second member is a micrantha/citron mix.\n\nBULLET::::- Palestinian sweet lime, \"Citrus\" × \"latifolia\", mainly used as a rootstock, a citron/mandarin/pomelo hybrid.\n", "After Prohibition was repealed, lobbying by the non-alcoholic preserved cherry industry encouraged the Food and Drug Administration to revise federal policy toward canned cherries. It held a hearing in April 1939 to establish a new standard of identity. Since 1940, \"maraschino cherries\" have been defined as \"cherries which have been dyed red, impregnated with sugar, and packed in a sugar syrup flavored with oil of bitter almonds or a similar flavor.\"\n", "Cherry wine is a type of fruit wine made with cherries, usually tart cherries that provide sufficient acid. Cherry wines can be used to make fortified wines and liqueurs. Michigan wine makers, located in the leading tart-cherry-producing region of the United States, produce several varieties of cherry wine, including spiced versions and cherry-grape blends. \"Cherry Kijafa\" is a fortified fruit wine that is produced in Denmark from cherries with added natural flavors, and usually contains 16% alcohol by volume. Among cherry liqueurs \"Maraska\", a cherry wine made from Marasca cherry from Croatia, is among the best known. The last couple of years Fredriksdal Cherry Wine (partly invented by distinguished restaurant owner Jan Friis-Mikkelsen) has been produced in Denmark. Cherry wine production is becoming popular in China, where cherry production is high.\n", "Cherry tomatoes are believed to have been cultivated by the Aztecs in Mexico in the 15th century. The first tomatoes grown in Europe were yellow cherry tomatoes.Cherry tomatoes have been popular in the United States since at least 1919. Recipes using cherry tomatoes can be found in articles dating back to 1967.\n\nSection::::Cultivars.\n", "Fruits have been used as a beer adjunct or flavouring for centuries, especially with Belgian lambic styles. Cherry, raspberry, and peach are a common addition to this style of beer. Modern breweries may add only flavoured extracts to the finished product, rather than actually fermenting the fruit.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2007, the flavor assortment was changed to a more tropical-themed array. Pineapple and mango were introduced. Watermelon, blue raspberry, and cherry were all discontinued.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2009, green apple and grape were added to the mix. Pineapple and mango were removed. Green apple reused the cherry shape, and grape reused the mango shape.\n\nSection::::Varieties.\n\nA chewy version of Runts known as Chewy Runts was previously available, including the same mix of fruits as the original crunchy runts. Chewy Runts were discontinued in 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- Blueberry pie\n\nBULLET::::- Buttermilk pie\n\nBULLET::::- Chess pie\n\nBULLET::::- Blackberry pie - from the native blackberry ripening in early summer\n\nBULLET::::- Fried pies - peach, apple, cherry and chocolate are most common\n\nBULLET::::- Grape hull pie - scuppernong or muscadine grape pie\n\nBULLET::::- Jefferson Davis pie - a molasses pie containing dates\n\nBULLET::::- Key lime pie\n\nBULLET::::- Lemon ice box pie\n\nBULLET::::- Lemon meringue pie\n\nBULLET::::- Mississippi mud pie\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut pie\n", "BULLET::::- \"Canna\" 'West Grove'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Canna\" 'Wintzer's Colossal'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Canna\" 'Wyoming'\n\nSection::::Cultivars created.:Roses.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rosa\" 'Peace'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rosa\" 'Mister Lincoln'\n\nBULLET::::- Sunblaze®\n\nBULLET::::- Meidiland®\n\nBULLET::::- Carefree®\n\nBULLET::::- Romantica®\n\nBULLET::::- Knock Out®\n\nBULLET::::- Drift®\n\nSection::::Cultivars created.:Perennials.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caryopteris\" Grand Bleu® Bluebeard\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coreopsis\" Crème Caramel™ Tickseed\n\nBULLET::::- \"Echinacea\" Purple Fantasy™\n\nBULLET::::- \"Echinacea\" Panther Pink™\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium\" 'Little Joe'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nepeta\" Junior Walker™\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salvia\" 'Bright Eyes'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salvia\" 'Dancing Dolls'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salvia\" 'Fire Dancer'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salvia\" 'Golden Girl'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salvia\" 'Orchid Glow'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salvia\" 'Shell Dancer'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Veronica\" 'Tickled Pink'\n\nSection::::Cultivars created.:Woody Plants.\n\nBULLET::::- Arctic Emerald Boxwood\n", "List of cherry dishes\n\nThis is a list of notable cherry dishes and foods that are prepared using cherries as a primary ingredient.\n\nSection::::Cherry dishes and foods.\n\nBULLET::::- Black Forest gateau – a chocolate sponge cake with a rich cherry filling based on the German dessert \"Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte\", literally \"Black Forest Cherry-torte\".\n", "On April 3, 2018, Saucony teamed up with the Massachusetts-based doughnut and coffee company, Dunkin' Donuts to produce a strawberry-frosted donut themed running shoe to commemorate the 122nd running of the Boston Marathon. The Saucony X Dunkin’ Kinvara 9 comes in a donut box and the heel of the shoe is covered in rainbow sprinkles. The company again released a Dunkin' themed running shoe in March 2019 on the successor to the Kinvara 9, the Kinvara 10.\n\nSection::::Originals.\n", "Bassett's have released two varieties of allsorts that do not feature any liquorice. Fruit Allsorts feature mixed-fruit flavoured sweets, while Dessert Allsorts have flavours such as apple tart and lemon cheesecake. Both retain the shapes and textures of the original sweet. Red allsorts, with fruit-flavoured liquorice, were briefly released in the late 1990s, discontinued and later reintroduced to the UK with flavours including Blueberry Cube, Strawberry Check, and a red liquorice \"Betty Bassett\".\n\nDuring the 1970s, the sweets were promoted in television commercials with the slogan: \"All sorts love Allsorts and Bassett's make 'em best!\"\n\nSection::::Names.\n", "Common rootstocks include Mazzard, Mahaleb, Colt, and Gisela Series, a dwarfing rootstock that produces trees significantly smaller than others, only 8 to 10 feet (2.5 to 3 meters) tall. Sour cherries require no pollenizer, while few sweet varieties are self-fertile.\n\nA cherry tree will take three to four years once it's planted in the orchard to produce its first crop of fruit, and seven years to attain full maturity.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Growing season.\n", "Current flavors for \"original dots\" include cherry (red), lemon (yellow), lime (green), orange (orange), and strawberry (pink). Sour Dots have five flavors, but are created with a sour sugar: cherry, lemon, orange, grape, and green apple. Flavors for Tropical Dots include Island Nectar, Wild Mango, Grapefruit Cooler, Carambola Melon, and Paradise Punch; and for Yogurt Dots, Banana, Orange, Blackberry, and Lemon-Lime.\n" ]	[ "Cherry is almost exclusively paired with limeade and strawberry is almost exclusively paired with lemonade." ]	[ "These combinations sell well in some locations but are not available in others." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cherry is almost exclusively paired with limeade and strawberry is almost exclusively paired with lemonade." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "These combinations sell well in some locations but are not available in others." ]
2018-09943	Why do cars in a funeral procession have their hazard lights on? Is it a tradition or due to a law made specifically for funeral processions?	Al least where I am from funeral processions are not expected to be broken up by stopping at red lights or stop signs. If everyone has their hazard lights on they are marking themselves as being a part of the procession so other drivers know that they will be ignoring stops.	[ "While funeral vehicles may also use amber, more recently, some funeral vehicles in Ontario, and more recently Alberta; have begun using purple lights for identification. Often, as a courtesy, motorists yield to funeral processions. However, they are not required to by law.\n\nBULLET::::- Red and Blue: police; and ‘other non-police law enforcement’ in all provinces and territories.\n\nBULLET::::- Red: Fire Department, Volunteer FD responders in certain Provinces (Manitoba); other non-police law enforcement in the provinces of ON and QC and search and rescue vehicles in BC.\n", "Amber lights are often used on vehicle involved in non-emergency work. Most utility companies, towing services, oversize load vehicles, slow vehicles, and certain types of construction equipment mount some type of lightbar or lighting system for a higher degree of visibility.\n\nIn Detroit, Michigan, Angels' Night volunteers will patrol neighborhoods with yellow lights to help deter vandalism during Devil's Night and Halloween. Typically these lights are the single beacon kind, although lightbars have been used for vehicles of this type, especially on wreckers/tow trucks.\n", "BULLET::::- In Oregon, and some other states, the ‘command’ vehicle at a fire scene may use a green light to identify its location.\n\nBULLET::::- In Tennessee, motorcycles in funeral processions use green lights.\n\nBULLET::::- In Ohio, snowplows used by the Ohio Department of Transportation use a combination of green and amber lights.\n\nBULLET::::- In New York, Connecticut and Indiana, volunteer EMTs use green lights\n", "The optical and mechanical characteristics of the lights used can have a significant effect on the look of the vehicle and how readily it gains attention in emergencies.\n\nSection::::Optical types.:Steady burning.\n", "Police cars, emergency vehicles, and those competing in road rallies are sometimes equipped with an auxiliary lamp, sometimes called an alley light, in a swivel-mounted housing attached to one or both a-pillars, directable by a handle protruding through the pillar into the vehicle.\n\nSection::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.\n", "In Virginia any member of a fire department, volunteer fire company, or volunteer emergency medical services agency and any police chaplain may equip one vehicle owned by him with no more than two flashing or steady-burning red or red and white combination warning light units of types approved by the Superintendent of the State Police.\n\nSection::::Colors.\n", "In the United States, colors are generally regulated at the state and local levels, but there are some commonalities.\n\nSection::::Usage by country.:United States of America.:Red.\n\nBULLET::::- Almost always denotes an emergency vehicle if the lights are facing forward\n\nBULLET::::- A near universal exception to this rule is school buses which are allowed to use rear and forward-facing, usually alternatively phased flashing red lights just before, during, and after passenger loading & unloading as a signal for all other traffic to stop.\n\nBULLET::::- In Iowa, red lights can also be used on a funeral hearse, but only during funerals.\n", "This function is meant to indicate a hazard such as a vehicle stopped in or near moving traffic, a disabled vehicle, a vehicle moving substantially slower than the flow of traffic such as a truck climbing a steep grade, or the presence of stopped or slow traffic ahead on a high speed road.\n", "Interior lighting is available in a variety of form factors, ranging from flat LED panels under the sun visors, to halogen or strobe lights mounted on the rear deck, to ‘cherry’ or oscillating ‘teardrop’ lights mounted on the dash. These may be permanently mounted and wired into the vehicle's electrical system, or they may be temporarily mounted and plug into the vehicle's cigarette lighter. They are often fitted with shields which direct the light through the window, but prevent reflections in to the cab.\n", "The simplest form of lighting is a steadily burning lamp. These may be white lights used on scene to enable emergency workers to see what they are doing, or they may be colored lights that advertise the emergency vehicle's presence. In the latter case, steadily burning lights are often used alongside rotating or flashing lights rather than on their own, though historically some emergency vehicles only displayed steadily burning lights. For example, California Vehicle Code Section 25252 states: “Every authorized emergency vehicle shall be equipped with at least one steady burning red warning lamp visible from at least 1,000 feet to the front of the vehicle”\n", "Until about the 1970s in France, Spain, Morocco, and possibly other countries, many commercial vehicles and some Soviet road trains from \"Sovtransavto\" had a green light mounted on the rear offside. This could be operated by the driver to indicate that it was safe for the following vehicle to overtake.\n\nSection::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:Emergency warning devices.\n\nSection::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:Emergency warning devices.:Hazard flashers.\n", "Many countries regulate the installation and use of driving lamps. For example, in Russia each vehicle may have no more than three pairs of lights including the original-equipment items, and in Paraguay auxiliary driving lamps must be off and covered with opaque material when the vehicle is operated in urban areas.\n\nSection::::Forward illumination.:Auxiliary lamps.:Front fog lamps.\n", "These are not considered emergency lights, but are often used on the roof of command vehicles at the scene of incidents.\n\nSection::::Usage by country.:Germany.\n", "Some types of light can be mounted on to the outside of the vehicle (usually a permanent install) and these can be used to provide directional lighting in key areas, such as in front for clearing traffic, or to the rear for scene protection. They can also form part of the main lighting arrangement for subtly marked or unmarked vehicles. In this application, the operating service may choose to use lights with clear lenses so as to minimize the possibility of the lights being noticed when not on.\n", "Section::::On service vehicles.:Taxi displays.\n\nTaxicabs are distinguished by special lights according to local regulations.\n\nThey may have an illuminated \"Taxi\" sign, a light to signal that they are ready to take passengers or off duty, or an emergency panic light the driver can activate in the event of a robbery to alert a passersby to call the police.\n\nSection::::Light sources.\n\nSection::::Light sources.:Incandescent lamps.\n", "Many fire chiefs’ cars have, in addition to the red lights, a single green beacon to indicate command post status. On the other hand, in Chicago and some nearby communities, fire vehicles show a green light on the right, or starboard, side of the vehicle, reflecting nautical tradition.\n", "BULLET::::- Historically, white was used in combination with red bulb lenses in the Federal signal company Beacon Ray, introduced in the late 1940s and the later 1960s and 1970s model P A lights equipped with Clear domes on through the 1980s, when revolving bulb and reflector type emergency lighting including the later 1970s Twinsonic and aerodynamic light bars were supplanted with newer strobe types. The clear dome extended Hi base 4-Bulb Beacon Ray with colored lenses over the bulbs were used extensively in the 1960s by the NYPD with two red bulbs alternated with a white bulb and an amber bulb canted upwards at a 45-degree angle so the amber flash would reflect off upper-floor building windows for added traffic attention/visibility. This clear dome/colored bulb lens combination also found extensive use across the US as fire apparatus and ambulance lighting.\n", "Sometimes, the existing lighting on a vehicle is modified to create warning beacons. In the case of wig-wag lighting, this involves adding a device to alternately flash the high-beam headlights, or, in some countries, the rear fog lights. It can also involve drilling out other lights on the vehicle to add ‘hideaway’ or ‘corner strobes’.\n\nSection::::Mounting types.:Interior mounted.\n", "BULLET::::- Certain railroad-related machines, like fueling tankers, track maintenance and switching engines, may also use a flashing white light.\n\nBULLET::::- In some states, certain government vehicles such as rural mail delivery vehicles use a flashing white beacon .\n\nSection::::Usage by country.:United States of America.:Green.\n\nBULLET::::- Since 9/11 green is used by Homeland Security Agencies and government/private security agencies protecting high risk government and critical infrastructure.\n", "Section::::Optical types.:LED lighting.\n\nLED-based lighting is becoming very popular in the emergency services for several reasons. Light-emitting diodes are small, completely solid state, very power-efficient, long-lasting (as they have no filaments to burn out) and can be seen very easily even at great distances and in sunlight.\n", "White lights are used on most newer emergency vehicles, both as an extra color on lightbars and in the form of ‘wig-wag’ headlights.\n\nMany police motor vehicles, and less often other emergency services, also fit LED matrix variable message displays to vehicle lightbars. Such message bars used in New South Wales by the police and fire brigade are capable of displaying numerous messages warning motorists of various hazards or dangers.\n\nSection::::Usage by country.:Belgium.\n", "Ohio is one if the few states that allows the use of sirens in conjunction with lights. Volunteer Firemen and EMTs in the state of Ohio may display red flashing lights and use traditional warning sirens in the same way that a traditional fire apparatus would so long as they pass an inspection by the Ohio State Highway Patrol.\n", "In states that do not enforce specific rules about green, yellow or white lights, these colors are often used by entities like private security companies which may be ineligible to use blue or red lights but need emergency lights for traffic and site visibility. Security vehicles generally use their lights on private property, in addition some security vehicles are off-road only such as ATV and Golf cart type vehicles. and in most jurisdictions security vehicles are generally not allowed a ‘courtesy’ or ‘emergency’ status on public roads.\n\nSection::::Usage by country.:United States of America.:Optional colors.\n", "Many U.S. states allow volunteer fire, EMS and Search and Rescue personnel to place emergency warning lights in their personal vehicles for use when responding to emergencies. The degree of lighting is mandated by law and also by local custom in most areas, and can vary from a single rotating light on the dashboard or roof, to a setup much like modern police cruisers. Some states also allow volunteer use of sirens and air horns to request the right of way.\n", "Section::::Usage by country.:Sweden.\n\nSection::::Usage by country.:Sweden.:Blue.\n\nPolice vehicles, medical vehicles and fire engines along with other government vehicles such as the Swedish Military Police and the Swedish Customs Service use white and dark ‘Euro blue’ emergency lights. Ordinary traffic are required to make way for these vehicles if the lights are on.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21277	why does your body wait with sweating until you’re done moving sometimes?	It just feels that way. One of the purposes of sweat is to cool you down by evaporating, so as you are moving around and sweat is released and evaporates, it helps cool you down. Once you have stopped moving the evaporation stops and you notice the sweat. How much you are sweating plays a factor as well. if you are sweating a lot, your sweat would overcome the evaporation factor and you might notice it even when you are moving.	[ "Freezing of Gait (FOG) is typically a transient episode – lasting less than a minute, in which gait is halted and the patient complains that his/her feet are glued to the ground. When the patient overcomes the block, walking can be performed relatively smoothly. The most common form of FOG is 'start hesitation' (which happens when the patient wants to start walking) followed in frequency by 'turning hesitation' FOG can also be experienced in narrow or tight quarters such as a doorway, whilst adjusting one’s steps when reaching a destination, and in stressful situations such as when the telephone or the doorbell rings or when the elevator door opens. As the disease progresses, FOG can appear spontaneously even in an open runway space.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n", "A US military study conducted in 2012 found that teaching individuals with lower leg chronic exertional compartment syndrome to change their running style to a forefoot running technique abated symptoms in those with symptoms limited to the anterior compartment. Running with a forefoot strike limits use of the tibialis anterior muscle which may explain the relief in symptoms in those with anterior compartment syndrome.\n", "Several researchers have noted that symptoms overlap with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and have proposed an unknown hantavirus as the cause. A critique of this hypothesis argued that sweating sickness was thought to be transmitted from human to human, whereas hantaviruses are rarely spread that way. However, infection via human contact has been suggested in hantavirus outbreaks in Argentina.\n", "Relapsing fever has been proposed as a possible cause. This disease is spread by ticks and lice, and it occurs most often during the summer months, as did the original sweating sickness. However, relapsing fever is marked by a prominent black scab at the site of the tick bite and a subsequent skin rash.\n", "Although sweating is found in a wide variety of mammals, relatively few (exceptions include humans and horses) produce large amounts of sweat in order to cool down.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nBULLET::::- The words diaphoresis and hidrosis both can mean either perspiration (in which sense they are synonymous with \"sweating\") or excessive perspiration (in which sense they can be either synonymous with hyperhidrosis or differentiable from it only by clinical criteria involved in narrow specialist senses of the words).\n\nBULLET::::- Hypohidrosis is decreased sweating from whatever cause.\n", "A sweat response stimulates M3 muscarinic receptors on sweat glands and a sudomotor axon reflex. In the sudomotor reflex, cholinergic agents bind to the nicotinic receptors on the sudomotor nerve terminals, evoking an impulse that travels towards the soma, or opposite of the normal impulse. At the soma of the postganglionic sympathetic sudomotor neuron, the impulse branches and travels orthodromically, or away from the soma. Finally, as this impulse reaches other sweat glands, it causes an indirect axon-reflex sweat response. Sudomotor axon reflexes can be peripherally amplified in the transmission of the action potential magnitude by acetylcholine. Acetylcholine also activates sudomotor fibers and primary afferent nociceptors, triggering axon reflexes in both. However, with nerve damage (neuropathy) there is still some increase in axon reflex mediated sweating.\n", "BULLET::::- Flood, John L. \"Englischer Schweiß und deutscher Fleiß. Ein Beitrag zur Buchhandelsgeschichte des 16. Jahrhunderts,\" in \"The German book in Wolfenbüttel and abroad. Studies presented to Ulrich Kopp in his retirement,\" ed. William A. Kelly & Jürgen Beyer [Studies in reading and book culture 1] (Tartu: University of Tartu Press, 2014), pp. 119–178.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sweating Fever\" Jim Leavesley commemorates the 500th anniversary of the first outbreak – transcript of talk on \"Ockham's Razor\" ABC Radio National\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nTypical regions of excessive sweating include the hand palms, underarms, the sole of the foot, and sometimes groin, face, and scalp. Indeed, profuse sweating is present mostly in the underarms, followed by the feet, palms and facial region. Sweating patterns of focal hyperhidrosis are typically bilateral or symmetric and rarely occur in just one palm or one underarm. Night sweats or sweating while sleeping is also rare. The onset of focal hyperhidrosis is usually before the age of 25 years. This is in contrast to generalized hyperhidrosis which tends to occur in an older age group.\n", "The denominator is a triangle number equal to formula_7 In the more general case the denominator will always be the sum of the individual weights.\n\nWhen calculating the WMA across successive values, the difference between the numerators of WMA and WMA is \"np\" − \"p\" − ⋅⋅⋅ − \"p\". If we denote the sum \"p\" + ⋅⋅⋅ + \"p\" by Total, then\n\nThe graph at the right shows how the weights decrease, from highest weight for the most recent datum points, down to zero. It can be compared to the weights in the exponential moving average which follows.\n\nSection::::Exponential moving average.\n", "Section::::Popular culture.\n", "A study of certain aspects of motion sickness among medical transport attendants showed that the onset of the sopite syndrome is likely to occur independently of the mode of transportation; little difference was observed in the frequency of sopite symptoms for ground transport compared to air transport. Also, the length of time exposed to vehicular motion did not appear to affect the occurrence (or lack thereof) or severity of the sopite syndrome. No difference was observed in the incidence of the sopite syndrome for men versus women.\n", "This same reaction mechanism is also responsible for the loss of body heat in the extremities, demonstrated via the Hunter's Test. One clinical test for the patient that can be performed is the QSART, or the Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Testing, which stimulates the autonomic nervous system of an individual by stimulating sweat glands through the promotion of axon reflexes. The skin is stimulated with electricity, causing said axon reflexes, which allows for the assessment of the type and severity of autonomic nervous disorders and peripheral neuropathies like asthma or multiple sclerosis.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Sweat response.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nThe term 'compensatory' is largely misleading, as it indicates that there is a compensatory mechanism that takes effect after sympathectomy, in which the body 'redirects' the sweating from the palms or face to other areas of the body. Sweating after sympathetic surgery is a reflex cycle between the sympathetic system and the anterior portion of the hypothalamus. Reflex sweating will not happen if hand sweating can be stopped without interrupting sympathetic tone to the human brain.\n", "Jet lag is a chronobiological problem, similar to issues often induced by shift work and the circadian rhythm sleep disorders. When travelling across a number of time zones, the body clock (circadian rhythm) will be out of synchronisation with the destination time, as it experiences daylight and darkness contrary to the rhythms to which it has grown accustomed. The body's natural pattern is upset, as the rhythms that dictate times for eating, sleeping, hormone regulation, body temperature variations, and other functions no longer correspond to the environment, nor to each other in some cases. To the degree that the body cannot immediately realign these rhythms, it is jet lagged.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.:Final outbreak.\n\nThe last major outbreak of the disease occurred in England in 1551. John Caius wrote \"A Boke or Counseill Against the Disease Commonly Called the Sweate, or Sweatyng Sicknesse\" as an eyewitness account. Henry Machin also recorded it in his diary:\n\nReference is made in 1551 to an outbreak in the Halifax Parish resulting in the deaths of 44 persons. There was an outbreak in Tiverton, Devon in 1644 recorded in Martin Dunsford's History which led to the deaths of 443 people, 105 of them buried in the month of October.\n\nSection::::Picardy sweat.\n", "Washing the infected area with an antiseptic solution is part of the treatment for mud fever. However, washing a horse's legs repeatedly can remove the natural oils in the skin and may allow the condition to become established. The legs should be dried thoroughly after washing with antibacterial shampoo using paper towels,\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Care products.\n", "As hominins adapted to bipedalism they would have lost some speed, becoming less able to catch prey with short, fast charges. They would, however, have gained endurance and become better adapted to persistence hunting. Although many mammals sweat, few have evolved to use sweating for effective thermoregulation, humans and horses being notable exceptions. This coupled with relative hairlessness would have given human hunters an additional advantage by keeping their bodies cool in the midday heat.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Current hunter-gatherers.\n", "As stimuli increase, those affected likely will attempt to ascertain the cause(s); some may walk around their immediate area, look in rooms or offices, and open doors. They may call the custodian or building superintendent to find out the problem. If no response is forthcoming, those affected likely will begin to talk among themselves and figure out the best plan of action. Depending on the information and cues available, this pre-movement time can last from a few seconds to several minutes.\n", "A similar illness occurred in France between 1718 and 1918 known as the Picardy sweat. Llywelyn Roberts noted \"a great similarity between the two diseases.\" It was accompanied by a rash, which was not described as a feature of the English disease. However, Henry Tidy argued that John Caius' report applies to fulminant cases fatal within a few hours, in which type no eruption may develop. A 1906 outbreak of Picardy sweat struck 6,000 people; bacteriologist André Chantemesse led a commission which studied it, and they attributed infection to the fleas of field mice. Henry Tidy found \"no substantial reason to doubt the identity of \"sudor anglicus\" and Picardy sweat.\"\n", "Sweating sickness\n\nSweating sickness, also known as English sweating sickness or English sweat, was a mysterious and contagious disease that struck England and later continental Europe in a series of epidemics beginning in 1485. The last outbreak occurred in 1551, after which the disease apparently vanished. The onset of symptoms was sudden, with death often occurring within hours. Its cause remains unknown, although it has been suggested that an unknown species of hantavirus was responsible.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Sickness behavior in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. This also limits an animal’s exposure to predators while it is cognitively and physically impaired.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Specific advantages.\n", "“I wasn’t limited in the car at all,” Denny Hamlin said after finishing sixth with a torn right ACL. “You really don’t notice anything until you stop, and that’s the thing, feeling the throbbing, feeling my heart beat in my knee. I thought it (his knee) was good at first. I had it drained right before the race started, which helped a lot, getting a bunch of that blood out of there. After that, I felt pretty good. Obviously, any kind of heat brings swelling back. I’m sure it swelled again at the end of the race, and that’s why I’m as stiff as I am.”\n", "A similar situation can arise for pilots who have long gaps between simulator uses. During simulation training, the body will eventually adapt to the environment to diminish the effects of simulator sickness. However, when long periods of time are spent outside of the simulator, the body is not able to adequately adapt and symptoms will reappear.\n", "Section::::Background.\n" ]	[ "Sometimes your body waits to sweat until you're done moving.", "The body does not sweat until you're done exerting yourself." ]	[ "When one is moving and sweating, movement is evaporating the sweat making it less noticeable, compared to stopping movement, which slows sweat evaporation. than when one stops moving, and sweat evaporation stops.", "It just feels that way - you do sweat as you move around and the sweat is released and then evaporates." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Sometimes your body waits to sweat until you're done moving.", "The body does not sweat until you're done exerting yourself." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When one is moving and sweating, movement is evaporating the sweat making it less noticeable, compared to stopping movement, which slows sweat evaporation. than when one stops moving, and sweat evaporation stops.", "It just feels that way - you do sweat as you move around and the sweat is released and then evaporates." ]
2018-04141	Why do movies look smooth at 24 fps but video games look choppy under 60 fps?	A computer frame is a rendering of an exact point in time. A camera frame is a capture of everything over a short period of time (e.g. 1/24th of a second). Lets say a baseball pitcher throws a ball to a catcher. A computer will render the ball as it leaves the pitchers hand, every new frame the ball will appear to "leap" a few feet closer to the catcher leading to a choppy video. A camera will instead capture a white blur a few feet long, and the next frame the blur will be a few feet closer to the catcher. You won't be able to see much detail on the ball but it's motion will appear smoother. Poor MS paint drawing of what I'm talking about: URL_0	[ "25 Hz material, for all practical purposes, looks and feels the same as 24 Hz material. 30 Hz material is in the middle, between 24 and 50 Hz material, in terms of \"fluidity\" of the motion it captures; but, in TV systems, it is handled similarly to 24 Hz material (i.e. displayed at least twice the capture rate).\n\nSection::::Capture.\n", "In video games the use or not of motion blur is somewhat controversial. Some gamers claim that the blur actually makes gaming worse since it does blur images, making more difficult to recognize objects, especially in fast-paced moments. This does become noticeable the lower the frame rate is. Improvements in the visual quality of modern post-process motion blur shaders as well as a tendency towards high frame rate video games has lessened the visual detriment of undersampled motion blur effects.\n\nSection::::Restoration.\n\nAn example of blurred image restoration with Wiener deconvolution:\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "FMVs in games today typically consist of high-quality pre-rendered video sequences (CGI). These sequences are created in similar ways as computer generated effects in movies. Use of FMV as a selling point or focus has diminished in modern times. This is primarily due to graphical advancements in modern video game systems making it possible for in-game cinematics to have just as impressive visual quality. Digitized video footage of real actors in games generally ended for mainstream games in the early 2000s with a few exceptions such as \"\" released in 2006, \"\" released in 2010, \"Tesla Effect\" released in 2014, \"Her Story\" released in 2015, the 2015 reboot of \"Need for Speed\", and \"Obduction\" released in 2016.\n", "Suppose that for a desired motion, \"walk,\" there exist two example motions that convey different moods (e.g., happy and sad). A happy walking motion may be characterized by a simulated figure's posture being upright and its gait being energetic and fast-paced. A sad walking motion may be characterized by a slouched posture and a slow gait.\n", "Other filmmakers who intend to use the high frame rate format include James Cameron in his \"Avatar\" sequels and Andy Serkis in his adaptation of George Orwell's \"Animal Farm\".\n\nSection::::Out of the cinema.\n\nFrame rates higher than 24 FPS are quite common in TV drama and in-game cinematics.\n", "Many complain that the soap opera effect ruins the theatrical look of cinematic works, by making it appear as if the viewer is either on set or watching a behind the scenes featurette. For this reason, almost all manufacturers have built in an option to turn the feature off or lower the effect strength.\n", "Some of the better-known games that utilise this are the recent Need for Speed titles, Unreal Tournament III, , among many others. There are two main methods used in video games to achieve motion blur: cheaper full-screen effects, which typically only take camera movement (and sometimes how fast the camera is moving in 3-D Space to create a radial blur) into mind, and more \"selective\" or \"per-object\" motion blur, which typically uses a shader to create a velocity buffer to mark motion intensity for a motion blurring effect to be applied to or uses a shader to perform geometry extrusion. Classic \"motion blur\" effects prior to modern per-pixel shading pipelines often simply drew successive frames on top of each other with slight transparency, which is strictly speaking a form of video feedback.\n", "When showing a movie or a game, a display is able to show both shadowy nighttime scenes and bright outdoor sunlit scenes, but in fact the level of light coming from the display is much the same for both types of scene (perhaps different by a factor of 10). Knowing that the display does not have a huge dynamic range, the producers do not attempt to make the nighttime scenes accurately dimmer than the daytime scenes, but instead use other cues to suggest night or day. A nighttime scene will usually contain duller colours and will often be lit with blue lighting, which reflects the way that the sensitive rod cells in the human eye sees colours at low light levels.\n", "Without this simulated effect each frame shows a perfect instant in time (analogous to a camera with an infinitely fast shutter), with zero motion blur. This is why a video game with a frame rate of 25-30 frames per second will seem staggered, while natural motion filmed at the same frame rate appears rather more continuous. Many modern video games feature motion blur, especially vehicle simulation games. \n", "BULLET::::- In 2010 Walt Disney Pictures released a sci-fi sequel entitled \"\" with a digitally rejuvenated digital look-alike of actor Jeff Bridges playing the antagonist CLU.\n\nBULLET::::- In SIGGGRAPH 2013 Activision and USC presented a real time \"Digital Ira\" a digital face look-alike of Ari Shapiro, an ICT USC research scientist, utilizing the USC light stage X by Ghosh et al. for both reflectance field and motion capture. The end result both precomputed and real-time rendering with the modernest game GPU shown here and looks fairly realistic.\n", "Section::::Hardware applications.:Relationship to advertised display framerate.\n", "For a neutral walking motion that is neither (or equally) happy or sad, the corresponding degrees of freedom for the existing motions are used for interpolation. As a result, a tuple of degrees of freedom is created for a simulated figure walking a neutral walking motion at a generic time.\n", "Many graphical software products (e.g. Adobe Photoshop or GIMP) offer simple motion blur filters. However, for advanced motion blur filtering including curves or non-uniform speed adjustment, specialized software products (e.g. VirtualRig Studio) are necessary.\n\nSection::::Applications of motion blur.:Biology.\n", "BULLET::::- Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip (2015): Weta\n\nBULLET::::- \"American Sniper\" (2014): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arrival\" (2016): Framestore\n\nBULLET::::- \"Avatar\" (2009): Framestore\n\nBULLET::::- Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015): Framestore\n\nBULLET::::- Avengers: Infinity War (2018): Weta\n\nBULLET::::- Batman vs Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016): MPC Film, Weta\n\nBULLET::::- Beauty and the Beast (2017): Framestore\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bedtime Stories\" (2008): Tippett Studio\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ben Hur\" (2016): BOT VFX\n\nBULLET::::- \"Beverly Hills Chihuahua\" (2008): Tippett Studio\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blade Runner 2049\" (2017): Framestore, MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bridge to Terabithia\" (2007): Weta\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2010): Tippett Studio\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clash of the Titans\" (2010): Framestore\n", "BULLET::::2. Control of comfortable disparity depending on scene type and motion – too much parallax or conflicting depth cues may cause eye-strain and nausea effects\n", "Traditionally, hair representation in video games has been sub-par for several reasons. For short hair (especially on male characters), hair has often been represented by a detailed texture on a character's skeleton. This makes it difficult to represent hair styles that are not pressed flat against the skull. Longer hair is often represented as a texture on a moving part of a skeleton and thus moves as a multi-jointed appendage. While this hair has more movement than the former, the movement is usually physically unrealistic – the hair moves as one body and movement is very often under or over damped.\n", "BULLET::::- The Jungle Book (2016): Weta\n\nBULLET::::- The Lake (2017): BOT VFX\n\nBULLET::::- The Legend of Tarzan (2016): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- The Lion King (2019): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lone Ranger\" (2013): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lovely Bones\" (2009): Weta\n\nBULLET::::- The Martian (2015): BOT VFX, Framestore\n\nBULLET::::- The Mountain Between Us (2017): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- The Mummy (2017): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- The Nutcracker and the Four Realms (2018): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- The Predator (2018): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty\" (2013): MPC Film\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Smurfs\" (2011): Tippett Studio\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Spiderwick Chronicles\" (2008): Tippett Studio\n", "Video game reviewers from gaming websites and magazines mainly criticized the game for the Xbox Live Vision Camera bundled with the game. Even before the game's release, EyeToy's Sandy Spangler thought there would be some technical difficulties with players; he stated, \"They're using some technical elements that are not reliable, at least not according to our experience. They're using background subtraction to put you in the movie, and it's not very robust, that's why we haven't done it in any of our games.\"\n", "To interpolate these motions, they must be in canonical form. This means that their times must be made generic so that significant structural events occur simultaneously. To elaborate, the two example walking motions may vary in time, as the happy walk is described as fast-paced and the sad walk is described as slow. However, scaling their lengths of time to be equivalent is not sufficient for interpolation. This is because the slow walking motion is not simply an elongation of the happy walking motion. These motions must have their walk cycle key frames aligned, so that at a given generic time, both motions make a forward point contact.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Guardians of the Galaxy\" (2014) - 3D Stereoscopic Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2014) - 3D Stereoscopic Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- \"Olympus Has Fallen\" (2013)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Killing Season\" (2014)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Conan the Barbarian 3D\" (2011) - 3D Stereoscopic Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alice in Wonderland\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silent Hill\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hollywoodland\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dinosaur\" (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mummy\" (1999)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Armageddon\" (1998)\n\nBULLET::::- \"From the Earth to the Moon\" (1998)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Titanic (1997)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dante's Peak\" (1997)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1997)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Outbreak\" (1995)\n", "Section::::Quarter Pixel (QPel) and Half Pixel motion compensation.\n\nIn motion compensation, quarter or half samples are actually interpolated sub-samples caused by fractional motion vectors. Based on the vectors and full-samples, the sub-samples can be calculated by using bicubic or bilinear 2-D filtering. See subclause 8.4.2.2 \"Fractional sample interpolation process\" of the H.264 standard.\n\nSection::::3D image coding techniques.\n\nMotion compensation is utilized in Stereoscopic Video Coding\n\nIn video, \"time\" is often considered as the third dimension. Still image coding techniques can be expanded to an extra dimension.\n", "Alternatively, if the mood of the simulated figure were to change in real time from happy to sad, the interpolation would be more influenced by the happy walking motion at the start of the transition. Towards the end of the transition, the interpolation would be more influenced by the sad walking motion until the figure simply walks the sad walking motion.\n", "The early 2000s saw the advent of fully virtual cinematography with its audience debut considered to be in the 2003 films \"The Matrix Reloaded\" and \"The Matrix Revolutions\" with its digital look-alikes so convincing that it is often impossible to know if some image is a human imaged with a camera or a digital look-alike shot with a simulation of a camera. The scenes built and imaged within virtual cinematography are the \"\"Burly brawl\"\" and the end showdown between Neo and Agent Smith. With conventional cinematographic methods the burly brawl would have been prohibitively time consuming to make with years of compositing required for a scene of few minutes. Also a human actor could not have been used for the end showdown in Matrix Revolutions: Agent Smith's cheekbone gets punched in by Neo leaving the digital look-alike naturally unhurt.\n", "BULLET::::- Match cut\n\nBULLET::::- Montage\n\nBULLET::::- Point of view shot\n\nBULLET::::- Screen direction\n\nBULLET::::- Sequence shot\n\nBULLET::::- Smash cut\n\nBULLET::::- Slow cutting\n\nBULLET::::- Split screen\n\nBULLET::::- SMPTE timecode\n\nBULLET::::- Shot reverse shot\n\nBULLET::::- Wipe\n\nSection::::Special effects (FX).\n\nBULLET::::- 3D computer graphics\n\nBULLET::::- 3D film for movie history\n\nBULLET::::- Bluescreen/Chroma key\n\nBULLET::::- Bullet time\n\nBULLET::::- Computer-generated imagery\n\nBULLET::::- Digital compositing\n\nBULLET::::- Optical effects\n\nBULLET::::- Stereoscopy for 3D technical details\n\nBULLET::::- Stop motion\n\nBULLET::::- Stop trick\n\nSection::::Sound.\n\nSound is used extensively in filmmaking to enhance presentation, and is distinguished into diegetic and non-diegetic sound:\n", "The game's developers were forced to sacrifice visual effects for performance, because they did not want the game to run with motion blur or framerate drops, due to the hardware limitations of the PlayStation 4. The game runs at a stable 60 frames per second (FPS), and Staniszewski believes that games that run at lower FPS than 60 are not the \"proper way that games should look on TVs\".\n\nSection::::Development.:Post-release patches.\n" ]	[ "If movies look smooth at 24fps, then video games at a higher frame rate should not look choppy. " ]	[ "Computer frames render at an exact point in time, while a camera frame is a capture of everything over a short period of time, making the capture of camera frames appear much smoother." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If movies look smooth at 24fps, then video games at a higher frame rate should not look choppy. ", "If movies look smooth at 24fps, then video games at a higher frame rate should not look choppy. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Computer frames render at an exact point in time, while a camera frame is a capture of everything over a short period of time, making the capture of camera frames appear much smoother.", "Computer frames render at an exact point in time, while a camera frame is a capture of everything over a short period of time, making the capture of camera frames appear much smoother." ]
2018-20333	I've always read on here that the US helped destabilize a few governments in South and Central America. How was this done and how would it benefit the US in any way?	The CIA has a long history of supporting military coups and providing support to dictators that are anti-communist. It was all part of the Cold War doctrine to prevent communist expansion, even if that meant propping up anti-democractic dictators. Having pro-US dictators in South America allowed the US to get trade benefits and natural resources from those nations like Oil, and Copper. But of course this backfired on a variety of occasions. The Shah in Iran was deposed by pro-Muslim forces creating the Iran of today. Saddam Hussein was originally backed by the US and we all know how that ended up. The Mujahedin were given US military aid to fight the USSR and after the USSR pulled out the Taliban took over. South Vietnam was ruled by a ruthless pro-west dictator that marginalized the Buddhist majority of his country. The list goes on...	[ "After World War II, the Organization of American States was established in 1949. However, the U.S. began to shift its focus to aid and rebuilding efforts in Europe and Japan. These U.S. efforts largely neglected the Latin American countries, though U.S. investors and businessmen did have some stake in the nations to the South. In the late 1950s, United States strengthened relations with Latin America, launching the Inter-American Development Bank and later the Alliance for Progress. However, in the late 1960s, as part of the Cold War, the United States government provided support to right-wing dictatorships with Operation Condor. Also, in the context of the War on Drugs, the United States government has collaborated with local governments to fight cartels, for example with the Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative.\n", "Section::::Creation and dissolution of the OPS.\n\nThe United States has a long history of providing police aid to Latin American countries. In the 1960s the U.S. Agency for International Development's (USAID) Office of Public Safety (OPS) provided Latin American police forces with millions of dollars' worth of weapons and trained thousands of Latin American police officers. In the late 1960s, such programs came under media and congressional scrutiny because the U.S.-provided equipment and personnel were linked to cases of torture, murder and \"disappearances\" in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay.\n", "United States involvement in regime change\n\nUnited States involvement in regime change has entailed both overt and covert actions aimed at altering, replacing, or preserving foreign governments. In the latter half of the 19th century, the U.S. government initiated actions for regime change mainly in Latin America and the southwest Pacific, and included the Mexican–American, Spanish–American and Philippine–American wars. At the onset of the 20th century the United States shaped or installed friendly governments in many countries around the world, including neighbors Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.\n", "Through the Office of Public Safety, an organization dependent of the USAID and close to the CIA, the US assisted Latin American security forces, training them in interrogation methods, riot control, and sending them materiel. Dan Mitrione in Uruguay and Luis Posada Carriles in Venezuela became infamous for their systematic use of torture.\n\nSection::::1970s.\n", "On 2008, the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) created a new regional security council to take care of their own defence issues.\n\nOn 5 June 2012, ALBA countries Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Venezuela, under the leadership of leftist governments, initiated the retirement from the TIAR, a decision which the Obama Administration deplored as \"unfortunate\" but respected. The treaty has been denounced by Nicaragua on 20 September 2012, Bolivia on 17 October 2012, Venezuela on 14 May 2013, and Ecuador on 19 February 2014.\n", "The era of the Good Neighbor Policy ended with the ramp-up of the Cold War in 1945, as the United States felt there was a greater need to protect the Western Hemisphere from Soviet influence. The changes conflicted with the Good Neighbor Policy's fundamental principle of non-intervention and led to a new wave of US involvement in Latin American affairs. Until the end of the Cold War the United States directly or indirectly attacked all suspected socialist or communist movements in the hope of ending the spread of Soviet influence. U.S. interventions in this era included the CIA overthrow of Guatemala's President Jacobo Árbenz in 1954, the unsuccessful CIA-backed Bay of Pigs Invasion in Cuba in 1961, occupation of the Dominican Republic 1965-66, CIA subversion of Chilean President Salvador Allende in 1970–73, Operation Charly in Central America, the Plan Condor in South America, and CIA subversion of Nicaragua's Sandinista government from about 1981 to 1990.\n", "Throughout the Cold War-era, the United States, along with its allies in the Americas, staged military interventions in several countries in North America, in an effort to contain communism. Military interventions of this nature include the Dominican Civil War in 1963, and the invasion of Grenada in 1983. As the Central American crisis unraveled in the late 1970s, several Central American states including El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, saw civil wars and pro-communist revolutions erupt in their country. Various factions involved in those conflicts saw support from either the United States, or the Eastern Bloc, as the civil conflicts became proxies of the larger Cold War.\n", "Another important aspect of United States involvement in Latin America is the case of the filibuster William Walker. In 1855, he traveled to Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take the land for the United States. With only the aid of 56 followers, he was able to take over the city of Granada, declaring himself commander of the army and installing Patricio Rivas as a puppet president. However, Rivas's presidency ended when he fled Nicaragua; Walker rigged the following election to ensure that he became the next president. His presidency did not last long, however, as he was met with much opposition from political groups in Nicaragua and neighbouring countries. On May 1, 1857, Walker was forced by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers. When Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed.\n", "Although it is difficult to document linkages and causality, it appears that the increased use of CBMs in the Central American conflict scenario, and the involvement of several South American nations in the Contadora and Esquipulas effort, produced a \"contagion effect\" under which CBMs concepts and techniques were transferred from the Central to the South American conflict scenarios. \n", "BULLET::::- Review, \"Highlights parallels in the practices of U.S. government operatives and their local 'assets' in the current conflict and in the civil wars that wracked Central America in the 1980s and early 1990s.\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nSection::::External links.:Media and documentaries.\n\nBULLET::::- On 20th Anniversary of Killings of 6 Jesuit Priests, Thousands Protest \"School of the Assassins\" – video report by \"Democracy Now!\" (retrieved November 20, 2010)\n\nBULLET::::- La Escuela de Las Americas – Documentary by Andrés Thomas Conteris – Spanish and English (retrieved November 20, 2010)\n", "Although often ignored outside of the region, South America has a series of historic strains between pairs of bordering states which have always had the potential of flaring up and reaching the conflict stage. Because the military establishments of many of the South American nations have considerably greater potential than the Central American ones, any inter-state armed conflict would be far more damaging than in Central America (the example of the 1982 Anglo-Argentina war over the Falklands/Malvinas is illustrative). \n", "Section::::From the United States of America interventions to the \"Good Neighbor\" policy.:Cold War (1945–1992).:Bay of Pigs Invasion.\n\nEncouraged by the success of Guatemala in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, in 1960, the U.S. decided to support an attack on Cuba by anti-Castro rebels. The Bay of Pigs invasion was an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba in 1961, financed by the U.S. through the CIA, to overthrow Fidel Castro. The incident proved to be very embarrassing for the new Kennedy administration.\n\nSection::::From the United States of America interventions to the \"Good Neighbor\" policy.:Cold War (1945–1992).:Alliance for Progress.\n", "In an effort to reducing the export of Heroin from Afghanistan, the United States committed a large number of resources to the Colombian government to combat the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias Colombianas (FARC) insurgency in Colombia. The FARC was identified as a key component in the Heroine supply chain. Instead of deploying forces to Colombia to conduct counterinsurgency operations, the United States maintained a minimal presence. Instead, the United States focused on providing resources and training to the Colombian military and police force to conduct their own Counterinsurgency operations. By 2011, the FARC had been marginalized and Columbia had established a strong central government.\n", "The significance of CBMs in Central America in the early 1990s was highlighted at the July 1991 San Salvador presidential summit, when the Hondurans floated their comprehensive disarmament and confidence-building proposal (a \"Central American Security Treaty\") which would set ceilings on military inventories and troops. The Honduran proposal had a heavy emphasis on confidence-building measures as a way of diminishing the possibility of inter-state conflicts. These confidence-building measures would include a pledge by the Central American nations to forsake the use of force to settle disputes, and a commitment from the U.S. not to support irregular movements (i.e., the Contras) in Central America. The proposal also included suggestions of new tasks for the armed forces, such as involvement in the control of drugs and protection of natural resources. Some of the Honduran ideas found an echo in the speeches made at the Ibero-American Summit which followed immediately afterwards, including Peruvian President Fujimori's proposal for a disarmed Latin America .\n", "The Central American crisis began in the late 1970s, when major civil wars and communist revolutions erupted in various countries in Central America, resulting in it becoming the number one region among US's foreign policy hot spots in the 1980s. In particular, the United States feared that victory by communist forces would isolate the rest of South America from the United States if the countries of Central America were to be installed with pro-Soviet communist governments. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, the United States often pursued its interests through puppet governments and the elite classes, who tended to ignore the demands of the peasant and working class.\n", "These measures were repeatedly used by Congress, with varying success, to affect U.S. foreign policy towards the inclusion of Human Rights concerns. Specific examples include El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala and South Africa. The Executive (from Nixon to Reagan) argued that the Cold War required placing regional security in favor of U.S. interests over any behavioral concerns of national allies. Congress argued the opposite, in favor of distancing the United States from oppressive regimes. Nevertheless, according to historian Daniel Goldhagen, during the last two decades of the Cold War, the number of American client states practicing mass murder outnumbered those of the Soviet Union. John Henry Coatsworth, a historian of Latin America and the provost of Columbia University, suggests the number of repression victims in Latin America alone far surpassed that of the USSR and its East European satellites during the period 1960 to 1990. W. John Green contends that the United States was an \"essential enabler\" of \"Latin America's political murder habit, bringing out and allowing to flourish some of the region's worst tendencies\".\n", "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States periodically intervened militarily in Latin American nations to protect its interests, particularly the commercial interests of the American business community. After the Roosevelt Corollary of 1904, whenever the United States felt its debts were not being repaid in a prompt fashion, its citizens' business interests were being threatened, or its access to natural resources were being impeded, military intervention or threats were often used to coerce the respective government into compliance. This made many Latin Americans wary of U.S. presence in their region and subsequently hostilities grew towards the United States.\n", "The U.S. government supported the 1971 coup led by General Hugo Banzer that toppled President Juan José Torres of Bolivia. Torres had displeased Washington by convening an \"Asamblea del Pueblo\" (People's Assembly or Popular Assembly), in which representatives of specific proletarian sectors of society were represented (miners, unionized teachers, students, peasants), and more generally by leading the country in what was perceived as a left wing direction. Banzer hatched a bloody military uprising starting on August 18, 1971 that succeeded in taking the reigns of power by August 22, 1971. After Banzer took power, the U.S. provided extensive military and other aid to the Banzer dictatorship as Banzer cracked down on freedom of speech and dissent, tortured thousands, \"disappeared\" and murdered hundreds, and closed labor unions and the universities. Torres, who had fled Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated in 1976 as part of Operation Condor, the US-supported campaign of political repression and state terrorism by South American right-wing dictators.\n", "After numerous attacks, the MIR and Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV) members of Congress were finally arrested. It became clear that Fidel Castro had been arming the rebels, so Venezuela protested to the Organization of American States (OAS). At the same time, the U.S. suspended economic and/or broke off diplomatic relations with several dictatorships between 1961 and JFK's assassination in 1963, including Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras and Peru. However, these suspensions were imposed only temporarily, for periods of only three weeks to six months. However, the US finally decided it best to train Latin American militaries in counter-insurgency tactics at the School of the Americas. In effect, the Alliance for Progress included U.S. programs of military and police assistance to counter Communism, including Plan LAZO in Colombia from 1959 to 1964.\n", "Section::::History.:Guatemala.\n", "By the late 1980s, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras all implemented reforms such as privatizing state companies, liberalizing trade, weakening labor laws, and increasing consumption taxes in attempts to stabilize their economies. , violence still reigns over Central America. A common legacy of the Central American crisis was the displacement and destruction of indigenous communities, especially in Guatemala where they were considered potential supporters of both the government and guerilla forces.\n\nSection::::Peace efforts.\n", "Since one of the ideological hallmarks of Latin American populism was the empowerment of the nation and its identification with the state, including nationalization of the land, natural resources and key industries as common practice, it was seen almost from the start by American policy makers to offer a challenge to US hegemony over the Americas. The US has intervened in Latin American governments on many occasions where populism was seen threatening its interests: the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, when the populist Arbenz government was overthrown by a coup backed by the American company United Fruit and the American ambassador in 1954, and the support given by the US to the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état are just two cases of American intervention. Another example of US intervention has been seen in Colombia, particularly since the assassination of the populist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán in April 1948. Gaitán supported land reform and other populist initiatives, and his murder is assumed to have foreclosed subsequent development of populism in mainstream Colombian politics.\n", "Argentina played a role in supporting the Salvadoran government during the El Salvador Civil War. As early as 1979, the National Reorganization Process supported the Salvadoran government militarily with intelligence training, weapons and counterinsurgency advisors. This support continued until well after the United States had established itself as the principle supplier of weapons to the Salvadoran security forces. According to secret documents from the Argentine military, the purpose of this aid was to strengthen inter-military relations between Argentina and El Salvador and \"contribute to hardening [El Salvador's] position in the widening struggle against subversion, alongside other countries in the region.\"\n", "After several peasant and workers uprisings in the country against the oligarchic and anti-democratic governments, often under the control of powerful American companies' interests like the United Fruit Company, with the appearance of figures like Farabundo Martí who lead these social revolts and were violently crushed, efforts to take the power democratically were often thwarted by US intervention. Civil war spread with US-endorsed far-right governments in El Salvador facing far-left guerrillas.\n", "Section::::Developments since.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19975	Why is glass transparent / clear?	If you took a pane of glass and tried looking through the end of it to the other end, you'll likely see a lot of green or some other color. It isn't perfectly transparent, it just happens to have really low opacity until you get to an appreciable thickness. As for why it is very transparent, there's just not a lot in the glass that absorbs photons in the visible frequencies, which makes it handy for use as a window. Meanwhile, infrared and some ultraviolet can be blocked by glass. A similar idea is an experiment with a glass of water. The water is transparent (unless we're talking dirty water or deep as a pond or something), right? It doesn't absorb those photons in the visible EM spectrum. But if you put some red food coloring in there, the food coloring does reflect the photons in the red range, making it look red.	[ "Most of the time, it is a combination of the above that happens to the light that hits an object. The states in different materials vary in the range of energy that they can absorb. Most glasses, for example, block ultraviolet (UV) light. What happens is the electrons in the glass absorb the energy of the photons in the UV range while ignoring the weaker energy of photons in the visible light spectrum. But there are also existing special glass types, like special types of borosilicate glass or quartz that are UV-permeable and thus allow a high transmission of ultra violet light.\n", "Perceptual transparency\n\nPerceptual transparency is the phenomenon of seeing one surface behind another.\n\nIn our everyday life, we often experience the view of objects through transparent surfaces.\n\nPhysically transparent surfaces allow the transmission of a certain amount of light rays\n\nthrough them. Sometimes nearly the totality of rays is transmitted across the surface without\n\nsignificant changes of direction or chromaticity, as in the case of air; sometimes only light at\n\na certain wavelength is transmitted, as for coloured glass.\n\nPerceptually, the problem of transparency is much more challenging: both the light rays\n", "Some materials allow much of the light that falls on them to be transmitted through the material without being reflected. Materials that allow the transmission of light waves through them are called optically transparent. Chemically pure (undoped) window glass and clean river or spring water are prime examples of this.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Introduction.\n", "Section::::Colours.\n\nSection::::Colours.:Transparent glass.\n", "BULLET::::- Objects that [[Transparency and translucency\|transmit light]] are either \"translucent\" (scattering the transmitted light) or \"transparent\" (not scattering the transmitted light). If they also absorb (or reflect) light of various wavelengths differentially, they appear tinted with a color determined by the nature of that absorption (or that reflectance).\n", "BULLET::::- At the electronic level, absorption in the ultraviolet and visible (UV-Vis) portions of the spectrum depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or \"quantized\") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific frequency, and does not violate selection rules. For example, in most glasses, electrons have no available energy levels above them in range of that associated with visible light, or if they do, they violate selection rules, meaning there is no appreciable absorption in pure (undoped) glasses, making them ideal transparent materials for windows in buildings.\n", "Section::::Physical properties.:Optical.\n\nMaterials can transmit (e.g. glass) or reflect (e.g. metals) visible light.\n\nMany materials will transmit some wavelengths while blocking others. For example, window glass is transparent to visible light, but much less so to most of the frequencies of ultraviolet light that cause sunburn. This property is used for frequency-selective optical filters, which can alter the color of incident light.\n", "Section::::History.:Dissolution.\n", "Section::::Absorption of light in solids.:Infrared: Bond stretching.\n", "BULLET::::- A molecule absorbs the photon which results in reflection or scattering.\n\nBULLET::::- A molecule cannot absorb the energy of the photon and the photon continues on its path. This results in transmission (provided no other absorption mechanisms are active).\n", "Most liquids and aqueous solutions are highly transparent. For example, water, cooking oil, rubbing alcohol, air, and natural gas are all clear. Absence of structural defects (voids, cracks, etc.) and molecular structure of most liquids are chiefly responsible for their excellent optical transmission. The ability of liquids to \"heal\" internal defects via viscous flow is one of the reasons why some fibrous materials (e.g., paper or fabric) increase their apparent transparency when wetted. The liquid fills up numerous voids making the material more structurally homogeneous.\n", "Glass is a non-crystalline, amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative uses in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are \"silicate glasses\" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term \"glass\", in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO), sodium oxide (NaO) from sodium carbonate (NaCO), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and several minor additives.\n", "The atoms that bind together to make the molecules of any particular substance contain a number of electrons (given by the atomic number Z in the periodic chart). Recall that all light waves are electromagnetic in origin. Thus they are affected strongly when coming into contact with negatively charged electrons in matter. When photons (individual packets of light energy) come in contact with the valence electrons of atom, one of several things can and will occur:\n\nBULLET::::- A molecule absorbs the photon, some of the energy may be lost via luminescence, fluorescence and phosphorescence.\n", "Materials which do not allow the transmission of any light wave frequencies are called opaque. Such substances may have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Most materials are composed of materials which are selective in their absorption of light frequencies. Thus they absorb only certain portions of the visible spectrum. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected back or transmitted for our physical observation. In the visible portion of the spectrum, this is what gives rise to color.\n", "Section::::Glass transition.\n", "\"The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass.\"\n", "In order to reduce the amount of damaging light radiation transmitted through glazing, some glass coatings are designed to either \"reflect\" or \"absorb\" the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum. The following technologies are used to reduce the amount of UV from reaching the artwork:\n", "According to Fresnel equations, the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about 4% per surface (at normal incidence in air), and the transmissivity of one element (two surfaces) is about 90%. Glass with high germanium oxide content also finds application in optoelectronics—e.g., for light-transmitting optical fibers.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Other properties.\n", "Section::::Colours.:Green glass.\n\nWhile very pale green is the typical colour of transparent glass, deeper greens can be achieved by the addition of Iron(II) oxide which results in a bluish-green glass. Together with chromium it gives glass of a richer green colour, typical of the glass used to make wine bottles.\n\nThe addition of chromium yields dark green glass, suitable for flashed glass. Together with tin oxide and arsenic it yields emerald green glass.\n\nSection::::Colours.:Blue glass.\n", "The exact nature of the coating determines the appearance of the coated optic; common AR coatings on eyeglasses and photographic lenses often look somewhat bluish (since they reflect slightly more blue light than other visible wavelengths), though green and pink-tinged coatings are also used.\n", "Materials which do not transmit light are called opaque. Many such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption of white light frequencies. They absorb certain portions of the visible spectrum while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected or transmitted for our physical observation. This is what gives rise to color. The attenuation of light of all frequencies and wavelengths is due to the combined mechanisms of absorption and scattering.\n", "Few materials do not cause diffuse reflection: among these are metals, which do not allow light to enter; gases, liquids, glass, and transparent plastics (which have a liquid-like amorphous microscopic structure); single crystals, such as some gems or a salt crystal; and some very special materials, such as the tissues which make the cornea and the lens of an eye. These materials can reflect diffusely, however, if their surface is microscopically rough, like in a frost glass (Figure 2), or, of course, if their homogeneous structure deteriorates, as in cataracts of the eye lens.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n\nAs in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids. Due to chemical bonding characteristics, glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Formation from a supercooled liquid.\n" ]	[ "Glass is transparent." ]	[ "Glass is not perfectly transparent, although it does have low opacity until you reach a certain thickness." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Glass is transparent.", "Glass is transparent." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Glass is not perfectly transparent, although it does have low opacity until you reach a certain thickness.", "Glass is not perfectly transparent, although it does have low opacity until you reach a certain thickness." ]
2018-08102	How did people with bad vision deal with their vision before glasses?	They didn't. They did work that didn't require them to have very good vision. There was nothing there could possibly do about it before corrective lenses.	[ "Fick's lens was large and unwieldy, and could be worn only for a couple of hours at a time. August Müller in Kiel, Germany, corrected his own severe myopia with a more convenient blown-glass scleral contact lens of his own manufacture in 1888.\n", "In the middle of the 19th century, doctors tested for optical error using single hand-held lenses, held one at a time in front of the patient's eye, or in a trial frame. A wooden case with dozens or hundreds of lenses was held on the doctor's lap, or in a case near the patient's chair, as he or she examined the patient.\n", "There are many stories or anecdotes of the phenomenon, preceding the first documented case, including one from the year 1020, of a man of thirty operated upon in Arabia.\n\nBefore the first known human cases, some tests were done rearing animals in darkness, to deny them vision for months or years, then discover what they see when given light. A. H. Reisen found severe behavioural losses in such experiments; but they might have been due to degeneration of the retina.\n", "The first spectacles utilized quartz lenses since optical glass had not been developed. The lenses were set into bone, metal and leather mountings, frequently fashioned like two small magnifying glasses with handles riveted together and set in an inverted V shape that could be balanced on the bridge of the nose. The use of spectacles extended from Italy to Germany, Spain, France and Portugal.\n", "The earliest pictorial evidence for the use of eyeglasses is Tommaso da Modena's 1352 portrait of the cardinal Hugh de Provence reading in a scriptorium. Another early example would be a depiction of eyeglasses found north of the Alps in an altarpiece of the church of Bad Wildungen, Germany, in 1403. These early glasses had convex lenses that could correct both hyperopia (farsightedness), and the presbyopia that commonly develops as a symptom of aging. It was not until 1604 that Johannes Kepler published the first correct explanation as to why convex and concave lenses could correct presbyopia and myopia.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Precursors.\n\nScattered evidence exists for use of visual aid devices in Greek and Roman times, most prominently the use of an emerald by emperor Nero as mentioned by Pliny the Elder.\n", "Robert Grosseteste's treatise \"De iride\" (\"On the Rainbow\"), written between 1220 and 1235, mentions using optics to \"read the smallest letters at incredible distances\". A few years later in 1262, Roger Bacon is also known to have written on the magnifying properties of lenses.\n\nThe development of the first eyeglasses took place in Northern Italy in the second half of the 13th century.\n\nIndependently of the development of optical lenses, some cultures developed \"sunglasses\" for eye protection, without any corrective properties.\n", "Though disability was present throughout the Middle Ages, very few cases were documented during the Early and High Medieval periods, as few physicians could properly diagnose many conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- King Charles VI of France (1368–1422; ruled 1380–1422), known as \"Charles le Fou (Charles the Mad)\", known to have suffered from Glass delusion during his rule.\n\nBULLET::::- King Henry VI of England (1421–1471; ruled 1422–1461 and 1470–1471)\n\nBULLET::::- Nicasius Voerda, born blind and attended Louvain University in 1459, qualifying in arts and theology, later enrolling in University of Cologne in 1489 and earning a doctorate of canon law.\n", "In the summer of 1826, Frothingham was afflicted by weekly violent headaches.\n\nIn 1859, on a third foreign tour of eighteen months, in Europe with his wife and daughters, Frothingham first became aware of a defect in his vision. He could not enjoy picture-galleries, and saw distorted figures and blurred colors. He consulted oculists in Paris and London, but no disease was visible in his eyes. When he returned home in the autumn of 1860, the dimness had increased.\n", "Dandolo's blindness appears to have been total. Geoffrey de Villehardouin, whom Dandolo accompanied on the Fourth Crusade, wrote that \"although his eyes appeared normal, he could not see a hand in front of his face, having lost his sight after a head wound\". This piece of primary evidence seems to support Madden's theory that Dandolo's blindness was cortical, since his eyes appeared to be unharmed.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::History of opticians and spectacle makers.\n\nThe first known artistic representation of eyeglasses was painted by Tommaso da Modena in 1352. He did a sequence of frescoes of brothers efficiently reading or replicating manuscripts; one holds a magnifying glass while the other has glasses suspended on his nose. Once Tommaso had established the example, other painters positioned spectacles on the noses of many of subjects, almost certainly as a representation of wisdom and respect.\n", "The first wearable eyeglasses were invented in Italy around 1286.\n", "Section::::Working method.\n\nFrederick Brock made many contributions to vision therapy, and his work focussed mainly on the application of vision training to the diagnosis and therapy of binocular dysfunction.\n", "In the preface to the book, Huxley describes how, at the age of sixteen, he had a violent attack of \"keratitis punctata\" which made him nearly completely blind for eighteen months, and left him thereafter with severely impaired sight. He managed to live as a sighted person with the aid of strong spectacles, but reading, in particular, was a great strain. In 1939 his ability to read became increasingly degraded, and he sought the help of Margaret Corbett, who was a teacher of the Bates method. He found this immensely helpful, and wrote “At the present time, my vision, though very far from normal, is about twice as good as it used to be when I wore spectacles, and before I had learned the art of seeing”.\n", "Roman doctors had a variety of terms to describe different degrees of optical impairment. Aulus Cornelius Celsus in his treatise \"On Medicine\" (\"De Medicina)\", devoted a chapter to the subject of common eye infections, disease, problems, and their cures.\n\nSection::::Roman laws on disability.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Paire of Spectacles for Sir Humphrey Linde to see his way withall; or, an Answeare to his booke called Via Tuta, a Safe Way\", s.l. 1631. This has been sometimes attributed to Robert Jenison. Humphrey Lynde's \"Via Tuta\", 1628, was answered more fully by John Heigham.\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Ferdinand von Arlt (1812–1887), the elder (Austrian), proved that myopia is largely due to an excessive axial length, published influential textbooks on eye disease, and ran annual eye clinics in needy areas long before the concept of volunteer eye camps became popular. His name is still attached to some disease signs, e.g., von Arlt's line in trachoma. His son Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt, the younger, was also an ophthalmologist.\n", "Born sighted in Galt, Missouri, he dropped out of school and at age 16, went to Montana, where he worked as a cowboy until a gun accident wounded him in the face and eyes. Taken unconscious to the hospital, he remained in critical condition for nearly two weeks. His doctors removed his eyes, which they felt were injured beyond recovery, to prevent infection and save his life.\n", "Thus, flat panes of smoky quartz, were used in 12th-century China. Similarly, the Inuit have used snow goggles for eye protection.\n\nSection::::History.:Invention.\n\nThe first eyeglasses were made in Northern Italy, most likely in Pisa, by about 1290:\n", "BULLET::::- Eratosthenes, who among other things was a Greek geographer and mathematician, contracted ophthalmia as he aged, becoming blind around 195 BC, depressing him and causing him to voluntarily starve himself to death. He died in 194 BC at the age of 82.\n\nBULLET::::- Hannibal's sight was lost in his right eye in 217 BC by what was likely ophthalmia. He lost the sight while crossing a swamp area on a four-day march through water early in his Italian campaign.\n", "\"Glasses\" was the only story in \"Embarrassments\" excluded from the New York Edition of 1909.\n\nSection::::Misc.\n\nBULLET::::- Complete Stories 1892–1898 from Library of America\n", "Marco Polo is sometimes claimed to have encountered eyeglasses during his travels in China in the 13th century. However, no such statement appears in his accounts. Indeed, the earliest mentions of eyeglasses in China occur in the 15th century and those Chinese sources state that eyeglasses were imported.\n", "Spectacles were invented as an improvement of the \"reading stones\" of the high medieval period in Northern Italy in the second half of the 13th century. This was the start of the optical industry of grinding and polishing lenses for spectacles, first in Venice and Florence in the late 13th century, and later in the spectacle-making centres in both the Netherlands and Germany.\n", "Giordano's colleague Friar Alessandro della Spina of Pisa (d. 1313) was soon making eyeglasses. The \"Ancient Chronicle of the Dominican Monastery of St. Catherine in Pisa\" records: \"Eyeglasses, having first been made by someone else, who was unwilling to share them, he [Spina] made them and shared them with everyone with a cheerful and willing heart.\" By 1301, there were guild regulations in Venice governing the sale of eyeglasses.\n", "It is unknown when the first spectacles were made. The British scientist and historian Sir Joseph Needham, in his \"Science and Civilization in China\", discusses the occasional claim that spectacles were invented in China. He states that the belief may have been based on a source that was modified during the Ming dynasty (14th - 17th century), that the original document made no references to eyeglasses, and that the references that were there stated the eyeglasses were imported.\n" ]	[ "Before glasses, people with bad vision had some way to deal with their bad vision.", "People with bad vision dealt with their vision before glasses." ]	[ "Before glasses, people with bad vision did work that didn't require them to have good vision.", "They couldn't do anything about it and had to just live with it. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Before glasses, people with bad vision had some way to deal with their bad vision.", "People with bad vision dealt with their vision before glasses." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Before glasses, people with bad vision did work that didn't require them to have good vision.", "They couldn't do anything about it and had to just live with it. " ]
2018-04284	Why/how are bacteria adapting and becoming resistant to antibiotics? What can be done about it?	When bacteria is exposed to antibiotics most die, but some stay alive and continue to reproduce. These "offspring" are more resistant because their progenitors survived so when they get exposed a larger percentage of the population is likely to survive. So on and so forth over many bacterial generations and you have a colony that is almost completely resistant to the antibiotic. The only thing that can be done about it is to limit the use of antibiotic to only when absolutely needed, and to find new antibiotics.	[ "According to World Health Organization, policymakers can help tackle resistance by strengthening resistance-tracking and laboratory capacity and by regulating and promoting the appropriate use of medicines. Policymakers and industry can help tackle resistance by: fostering innovation and research and development of new tools; and promoting cooperation and information sharing among all stakeholders.\n\nSection::::Further research.\n\nIt is unclear if rapid viral testing affects antibiotic use in children.\n\nSection::::Further research.:Vaccines.\n", "Cultures should be taken before treatment when indicated and treatment potentially changed based on the susceptibility report.\n\nAbout a third of antibiotic prescriptions written in outpatient settings in the United States were not appropriate in 2010 and 2011. Doctors in the U.S. wrote 506 annual antibiotic scripts for every 1,000 people, with 353 being medically necessary.\n\nHealth workers and pharmacists can help tackle resistance by: enhancing infection prevention and control; only prescribing and dispensing antibiotics when they are truly needed; prescribing and dispensing the right antibiotic(s) to treat the illness.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the individual level.\n", "Some bacteria have developed resistance to multiple antibiotics, so-called \"superbugs.\" Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one example, and can be life-threatening without the appropriate therapy. Other examples of emerging resistant organisms include vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE), \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\" carbapenemase (KPC), and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing E coli (ESBL).\n\nIn order to combat the rise of antimicrobial resistance, antimicrobial stewardship programs have begun that focus on educating clinicians to improve their use of antibiotics by focusing on evidence-based approaches to minimize resistance.\n\nSection::::Examples of broad-spectrum antibiotics.\n\nIn humans: \n\nBULLET::::- Aminoglycosides (except for streptomycin)\n\nBULLET::::- Ampicillin\n\nBULLET::::- Amoxicillin\n\nBULLET::::- Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (Augmentin)\n", "World Antibiotic Awareness Week has been held every November since 2015. For 2017, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) are together calling for responsible use of antibiotics in humans and animals to reduce the emergence of antibiotic resistance.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms and organisms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms and organisms.:Bacteria.\n\nThe four main mechanisms by which bacteria exhibit resistance to antibiotics are:\n", "Studies have found that bacteria that evolve antibiotic resistance towards one group of antibiotic may become more sensitive to others. This phenomenon can be utilized to select against resistant bacteria using an approach termed collateral sensitivity cycling, which has recently been found to be relevant in developing treatment strategies for chronic infections caused by \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\".\n\nSection::::Further research.:Development of new drugs.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the hospital level.\n\nAntimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the farming level.\n", "Antimicrobial resistance is increasing globally because of greater access to antibiotic drugs in developing countries. Estimates are that 700,000 to several million deaths result per year. Each year in the United States, at least 2 million people become infected with bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics and at least 23,000 people die as a result. There are public calls for global collective action to address the threat that include proposals for international treaties on antimicrobial resistance. Worldwide antibiotic resistance is not completely identified, but poorer countries with weaker healthcare systems are more affected.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "There have been increasing public calls for global collective action to address the threat, including a proposal for international treaty on antimicrobial resistance. Further detail and attention is still needed in order to recognize and measure trends in resistance on the international level; the idea of a global tracking system has been suggested but implementation has yet to occur. A system of this nature would provide insight to areas of high resistance as well as information necessary for evaluation of programs and other changes made to fight or reverse antibiotic resistance.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Duration of antibiotics.\n", "Destruction of the resistant bacteria can also be achieved by phage therapy, in which a specific bacteriophage (virus that kills bacteria) is used.\n\nThere is research being done using antimicrobial peptides. In the future, there is a possibility that they might replace novel antibiotics.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Antibiotic resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Fecal bacteriotherapy\n\nBULLET::::- Mass drug administration\n\nBULLET::::- Multidrug resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmacoepidemiology\n\nBULLET::::- Small multidrug resistance protein\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eleftheria terrae\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations—An EU project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European hospitals\n\nBULLET::::- Merck - Tolerance and Resistance\n", "Antibiotic resistance is becoming a serious problem in today's agriculture industry and for humans. One reason for this occurring resistance is that natural resistomes are present in different environmental niches. These environmental resistomes function as an antibiotic resistance gene. There are many questions and research that needs to be further done to find out if these environmental resistomes play a big role in the antibiotics resistance that is occurring in humans, animals, and plants. A recent study was done and reported that 700 000 annual deaths were taken by infections due to drug resistant pathogens This study also reported that if unchecked then this number will increase to 10 million by 2050. The National Antimicrobial Monitoring System is a system used to monitor antimicrobial resistance among bacteria that is isolated from animals that are used as food In 2013 they found that about 29% of turkeys, 18% of swine, 17% of beef, and 9% of chicken were multi drug resistance, meaning they had resistance to 3 or more classes of antimicrobials. Having these resistance for both animals and humans makes it easier for zoonotic diseases to be transferred between them and also makes it easier for the resistance of these antimicrobials to be passed on. With this being said there are many possible risk management options that can be taken to help reduce this possibility. Most of these risk management options can take place on the farm or at the slaughter house for animals. When it comes to humans risk management has to be done by you yourself and you have to be responsible for good hygiene, up to date vaccinations, and proper use of antibiotics. With that being said the same management on farms needs to be taken for proper use of antibiotics and only using them when it is absolutely necessary and improving the general hygiene in all stages of production. With these management factors added in with research and knowledge on the amount of resistance within our environment Antimicrobial resistance may be able to be controlled and help reduce the amount of zoonotic diseases that are passed between animals and humans.\n", "As bacteria replicate quickly, the resistant bacteria that enter water bodies through wastewater replicate their resistance genes as they continue to divide. In addition, bacteria carrying resistance genes have the ability to spread those genes to other species via horizontal gene transfer. Therefore, even if the specific antibiotic is no longer introduced into the environment, antibiotic-resistance genes will persist through the bacteria that have since replicated without continuous exposure. Antibiotic resistance is widespread in marine vertebrates, and they may be important reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the marine environment.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "It is necessary to develop new antibiotics over time since the selection of resistant bacteria cannot be prevented completely. This means with every application of a specific antibiotic, the survival of a few bacteria which already got a resistance gene against the substance is promoted, and the concerning bacterial population amplifies. Therefore, the resistance gene is farther distributed in the organism and the environment, and a higher percentage of bacteria means they no longer respond to a therapy with this specific antibiotic. In addition to developing new antibiotics, new strategies entirely must be implemented in order to keep the public safe from the event of total resistance. New strategies are being tested such as UV light treatments and bacteriophage utilization, however more resources must be dedicated to this cause.\n", "In the 1980s the antibiotic class of cephalosporins was introduced, further increasing bacterial resistance. During this decade infection control programs began to be established in hospitals, which systematically recorded and investigated hospital-acquired infections. Evidence-based treatment guidelines and regulation of antibiotic use surfaced. Australian researchers published the first medical guideline outcomes research.\n", "Antibacterial resistance may impose a biological cost, thereby reducing fitness of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria.\n\nPaleontological data show that both antibiotics and antibiotic resistance are ancient compounds and mechanisms. Useful antibiotic targets are those for which mutations negatively impact bacterial reproduction or viability.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nBacteria with resistance to antibiotics predate medical use of antibiotics by humans. However, widespread antibiotic use has made more bacteria resistant through the process of evolutionary pressure.\n\nReasons for the widespread use of antibiotics in human medicine include:\n\nBULLET::::- increasing global availability over time since the 1950s\n\nBULLET::::- uncontrolled sale in many low or middle income countries, where they can be obtained over the counter without a prescription, potentially resulting in antibiotics being used when not indicated. This may result in emergence of resistance in any remaining bacteria.\n\nOther causes include:\n", "In the United States, drug companies and the administration of President Barack Obama have been proposing changing the standards by which the FDA approves antibiotics targeted at resistant organisms.\n\nOn 18 September 2014 Obama signed an executive order to implement the recommendations proposed in a report by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) which outlines strategies to stream-line clinical trials and speed up the R&D of new antibiotics. Among the proposals:\n", "Antibiotic stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antibiotic resistance. The antibiotic stewardship program will also provide pharmacists with the knowledge to educate patients that antibiotics will not work for a virus.\n", "The phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance caused by overuse of antibiotics was predicted by Alexander Fleming who said \"The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily under-dose himself and by exposing his microbes to nonlethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.\" Without the creation of new and stronger antibiotics an era where common infections and minor injuries can kill, and where complex procedures such as surgery and chemotherapy become too risky, is a very real possibility. Antimicrobial resistance threatens the world as we know it, and can lead to epidemics of enormous proportions if preventive actions are not taken. In this day and age current antimicrobial resistance leads to longer hospital stays, higher medical costs, and increased mortality.\n", "Preventive measures include only using antibiotics when needed, thereby stopping misuse of antibiotics or antimicrobials. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance, as well as side effects. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential. Health care providers can minimize spread of resistant infections by use of proper sanitation and hygiene, including handwashing and disinfecting between patients, and should encourage the same of the patient, visitors, and family members.\n", "After continued exposure to an antibiotic, bacteria may develop changes in their structure or function that make them resistant to the antibiotic. These resistant organisms will live, while the susceptible organisms will die, leaving the population of bacteria entirely resistant to a given antibiotics. For example, after the discovery of penicillin and its subsequent use to treat bacterial infections, bacteria were found to have begun producing an enzyme, penicillinase, which rendered the penicillin molecule inactive. In response to this newly-acquired resistance, newer penicillins were produced that could not be de-activated by penicillinases. This cycle of bacteria evolving resistance to antibiotics and necessitating the development of new antibiotics has been referred to as a \"bacterial arms race.\"\n", "Excessive antibiotic use has become one of the top contributors to the development of antibiotic resistance. Since the beginning of the antibiotic era, antibiotics have been used to treat a wide range of disease. Overuse of antibiotics has become the primary cause of rising levels of antibiotic resistance. The main problem is that doctors are willing to prescribe antibiotics to ill-informed individuals who believe that antibiotics can cure nearly all illnesses, including viral infections like the common cold. In an analysis of drug prescriptions, 36% of individuals with a cold or an upper respiratory infection (both viral in origin) were given prescriptions for antibiotics. These prescriptions accomplished nothing other than increasing the risk of further evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria.\n", "A community-wide antibiogram that lists the susceptibility of community-acquired and hospital-acquired bacteria is helpful in guiding empiric therapy. Many professional organizations (for example, the Infectious Disease Society of America) publish guidelines for empiric antibiotic therapy, as do hospitals, with their choices tailored for their specific resistance patterns. Many of these guidelines also offer guidance on antibiotic dose and duration of therapy.\n\nOnce a specific species has been identified and its susceptibilities determined, antibiotics can be \"narrowed\" to a medication which targets a more specific range of bacteria. If no specific species are identified, patients may continue on the empiric regimen.\n", "For the United States 2016 budget, U.S. president Barack Obama proposed to nearly double the amount of federal funding to \"combat and prevent\" antibiotic resistance to more than $1.2 billion. Many international funding agencies like USAID, DFID, SIDA and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged money for developing strategies to counter antimicrobial resistance.\n", "The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.\n", "Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that \"most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections.\" On 26 May 2016 an E coli bacteria \"superbug\" was identified in the United States resistant to colistin, \"the last line of defence\" antibiotic.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15131	how do fish "breathe"?	TL;DR: A fish's gill is, essentially, an inside-out human lung. If you take a chemical analysis of the air we humans breathe, you'll see that it's mostly nitrogen, but has oxygen and carbon dioxide and some other gases in it too. Inside our human lungs are a tremendous number of little tiny sacs with a thin moist film on their inside. Blood is pumped right next to and around all these sacs. When we breathe in, the oxygen in that air goes right through that moist membrane into our blood that's moving by; meanwhile carbon dioxide goes out in the other direction and exits our lungs when we breathe out. The oxygen then gets tied up in our blood and gets pumped to where it's needed. Now let's look at water. A chemical analysis shows it's almost all fluid... but dissolved in that fluid is oxygen. The fish's gills work almost the same way as our lungs do, except rather than a moist film, the whole volume of water is what carries that direct oxygen into the bloodstream. Fish gills are designed to work in water, not air though - they need a big volume of water passing over them and transferring oxygen to the fish's pumped-through blood, or the gill system doesn't work well enough. That's why most fish die when they're brought into air. In return, we die when our lungs fill with water because the fluid doesn't have the level of oxygen needed to force it into our bloodstream. We're set up to breathe a much less dense substance.	[ "BULLET::::2. Those who think that the major part of the respiratory changes result from the detection of muscle contraction, and that respiration is adapted as a consequence of muscular contraction and oxygen consumption. This would imply that the brain possesses some kind of detection mechanisms that would trigger a respiratory response when muscular contraction occurs.\n\nMany now agree that both mechanisms are probably present and complementary, or working alongside a mechanism that can detect changes in oxygen and/or carbon dioxide blood saturation.\n\nSection::::Respiration.:Bony fish.\n", "Scientists have investigated what part of the body is responsible for maintaining the respiratory rhythm. They found that neurons located in the brainstem of fish are responsible for the genesis of the respiratory rhythm. The position of these neurons is slightly different from the centers of respiratory genesis in mammals but they are located in the same brain compartment, which has caused debates about the homology of respiratory centers between aquatic and terrestrial species. In both aquatic and terrestrial respiration, the exact mechanisms by which neurons can generate this involuntary rhythm are still not completely understood (see Involuntary control of respiration).\n", "The major means of respiration in teleosts, as in most other fish, is the transfer of gases over the surface of the gills as water is drawn in through the mouth and pumped out through the gills. Apart from the swim bladder, which contains a small amount of air, the body does not have oxygen reserves, and respiration needs to be continuous over the fish's life. Some teleosts exploit habitats where the oxygen availability is low, such as stagnant water or wet mud; they have developed accessory tissues and organs to support gas exchange in these habitats.\n", "Air breathing fish can be divided into \"obligate\" air breathers and \"facultative\" air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, are obligated to breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish \"Hypostomus plecostomus\", only breathe air if they need to and can otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen. Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators.\n", "Another important feature of the respiratory rhythm is that it is modulated to adapt to the oxygen consumption of the body. As observed in mammals, fish \"breathe\" faster and heavier when they do physical exercise. The mechanisms by which these changes occur have been strongly debated over more than 100 years between scientists. The authors can be classified in 2 schools:\n\nBULLET::::1. Those who think that the major part of the respiratory changes are pre-programmed in the brain, which would imply that neurons from locomotion centers of the brain connect to respiratory centers in anticipation of movements.\n", "Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow, seasonally variable waters where the water's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline. Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen, such as perch and cichlids, quickly suffocate, while air-breathers survive for much longer, in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud. At the most extreme, some air-breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water, entering a state of aestivation (summertime hibernation) until water returns.\n", "Gills use a countercurrent exchange system that increases the efficiency of oxygen-uptake from the water. Fresh oxygenated water taken in through the mouth is uninterruptedly \"pumped\" through the gills in one direction, while the blood in the lamellae flows in the opposite direction, creating the countercurrent blood and water flow (Fig. 22), on which the fish's survival depends.\n", "Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow, seasonally variable waters where the water's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline. Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen, such as perch and cichlids, quickly suffocate, while air-breathers survive for much longer, in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud. At the most extreme, some air-breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water, entering a state of aestivation (summertime hibernation) until water returns.\n", "Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.\n\nSection::::Anatomy and physiology.:Respiration.:Air breathing.\n", "Air breathing fish can be divided into \"obligate\" air breathers and \"facultative\" air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, are obligated to breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish \"Hypostomus plecostomus\", only breathe air if they need to and can otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen. Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators.\n", "brainstem of fish are responsible for the genesis of the respiratory rhythm. The position of these neurons is slightly different from the centers of respiratory genesis in mammals but they are located in the same brain compartment, which has caused debates about the homology of respiratory centers between aquatic and terrestrial species. In both aquatic and terrestrial respiration, the exact mechanisms by which neurons can generate this involuntary rhythm are still not completely understood (see Involuntary control of respiration).\n", "In most fish, and a number of other aquatic animals (both vertebrates and invertebrates) the respiratory system consists of gills, which are either partially or completely external organs, bathed in the watery environment. This water flows over the gills by a variety of active or passive means. Gas exchange takes place in the gills which consist of thin or very flat filaments and lammelae which expose a very large surface area of highly vascularized tissue to the water.\n", "Air breathing fish can be divided into obligate air breathers and facultative air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, \"must\" breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish \"Hypostomus plecostomus\", only breathe air if they need to and will otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen. Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators.\n\nSection::::Anatomy and physiology.:Circulation.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Respiration.:Gills.\n", "In fish, the hypoxic signal is carried up to the brain for processing by the glossopharyngeal (cranial nerve IX) and vagus (cranial nerve X) nerves. The first branchial arch is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX); however all four arches are innervated by the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X). Both the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves carry sensory nerve fibres into the brain and central nervous system.\n\nSection::::Oxygen sensing.:Locations of oxygen sensors.\n", "Most fish exchange gases using gills on either side of the pharynx (throat). Gills are tissues which consist of threadlike structures called filaments. These filaments have many functions and \"are involved in ion and water transfer as well as oxygen, carbon dioxide, acid and ammonia exchange. Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. In some fish, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing countercurrent exchange. The gills push the oxygen-poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx.\n", "Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow, seasonally variable waters where the water's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline. Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen, such as perch and cichlids, quickly suffocate, while air-breathers survive for much longer, in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud. At the most extreme, some air-breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water, entering a state of aestivation (summertime hibernation) until water returns.\n\nSection::::Parasites on gills.\n", "BULLET::::- A large surface area to allow as much oxygen to enter the gills as possible because more of the gas comes into contact with the membrane\n\nBULLET::::- Good blood supply to maintain the concentration gradient needed\n\nBULLET::::- Thin membrane to allow for a short diffusion pathway\n\nBULLET::::- each gill arch has two rows (hemibranchs) of gill filaments\n\nBULLET::::- each gill filament has many lamellae\n\nIn osteichthyes, the gills contain 4 gill arches on each side of the head, two on each side for chondrichthyes or 7 gill baskets on each side of the fish's head in Lampreys.\n", "When breathing air, the spiral valve of the conus arteriosus closes (minimizing the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood), the third and fourth gill arches open, the second and fifth gill arches close (minimizing the possible loss of the oxygen obtained in the lungs through the gills), the sixth arteriole's ductus arteriosus is closed, and the pulmonary arteries open. Importantly, during air breathing, the sixth gill is still used in respiration; deoxygenated blood loses some of its carbon dioxide as it passes though the gill before reaching the lung. This is because carbon dioxide is more soluble in water. Air flow through the mouth is tidal, and through the lungs it is bidirectional and observes \"uniform pool\" diffusion of oxygen.\n", "Section::::Breathing without gills.\n\nAlthough most fish respire primarily using gills, some fishes can at least partially respire using mechanisms that do not require gills. In some species cutaneous respiration accounts for 5 to 40 percent of the total respiration, depending on temperature. Cutaneous respiration is more important in species that breathe air, such as mudskippers and reedfish, and in such species can account for nearly half the total respiration.\n", "The African lungfish is an example of how the evolutionary transition from breathing water to breathing air can happen. Lungfish are periodically exposed to water with low oxygen content or situations in which their aquatic environment dries up. Their adaptation for dealing with these conditions is an outpocketing of the gut, related to the swim bladder of other fishes, that serves as a lung. The lung contains many thin-walled blood vessels, so blood flowing through those vessels can pick up oxygen from air gulped into the lung.\n", "Section::::Lungs.:Perfusion of air.\n", "Bony fish use countercurrent flow to maximize the intake of oxygen that can diffuse through the gill. Countercurrent flow occurs when deoxygenated blood moves through the gill in one direction while oxygenated water moves through the gill in the opposite direction. This mechanism maintains the concentration gradient thus increasing the efficiency of the respiration process as well and prevents the oxygen levels from reaching an equilibrium. Cartilaginous fish do not have a countercurrent flow system as they lack bones which are needed to have the opened out gill that bony fish have.\n\nSection::::Control of respiration.\n", "BULLET::::5. Storage of oxygen in hemoglobin molecules in hemolymph\n\nBULLET::::6. Taking oxygen from surface via breathing tubes (siphons)\n\nThe larvae and nymphs of mayflies, dragonflies and stoneflies possess tracheae but when in larval stage the tracheae are connected to gills, which are very thin extensions of the exoskeleton through which oxygen in the water can diffuse.\n", "In some primitive bony fishes and amphibians, the larvae bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches. These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes and by lungs in most amphibians. Some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods.\n\nSection::::Respiration.:Cartilaginous fish.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09426	How does swarm intelligence work? How are ants or bees smarter as a group than an individual?	Each individual has a very short list of rules. For an ant, it might read something like, “When outside, look for food. When you have food, release scent. If you have no food, follow the scent.” For any individual, these instinctive behaviors don’t appear very intelligent. The average ant wanders around at random until he finds food and begins laying a scent trail. But when you have a thousand of them, those individual behaviors add up so that you have a network of ants running back and forth along scent trails. At the micro level it is chaos, but at the macro level it looks almost planned. There is no single individual responsible for making plans or coordinating the activity. They have just learned or inherited a set of behaviors that resemble “If/Then/Else” statements. They are like tiny robots, and each one only makes a very simple decision. Each individual probably has no idea what the overall goal is. They just repeat their programmed behavior and the next generation inherits it. If the behavior was ineffective, they die and that failed strategy does not get passed to the next generation.	[ "Section::::Models of swarm behavior.:Self-propelled particles (Vicsek \"et al\". 1995).\n", "Howard Bloom has discussed mass behavior – collective behavior from the level of quarks to the level of bacterial, plant, animal, and human societies. He stresses the biological adaptations that have turned most of this earth's living beings into components of what he calls \"a learning machine\". In 1986 Bloom combined the concepts of apoptosis, parallel distributed processing, group selection, and the superorganism to produce a theory of how collective intelligence works. Later he showed how the collective intelligences of competing bacterial colonies and human societies can be explained in terms of computer-generated \"complex adaptive systems\" and the \"genetic algorithms\", concepts pioneered by John Holland.\n", "Bloom traced the evolution of collective intelligence to our bacterial ancestors 1 billion years ago and demonstrated how a multi-species intelligence has worked since the beginning of life. Ant societies exhibit more intelligence, in terms of technology, than any other animal except for humans and co-operate in keeping livestock, for example aphids for \"milking\". Leaf cutters care for fungi and carry leaves to feed the fungi.\n", "SI systems consist typically of a population of simple agents or boids interacting locally with one another and with their environment. The inspiration often comes from nature, especially biological systems. The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to the emergence of \"intelligent\" global behavior, unknown to the individual agents. Examples of swarm intelligence in natural systems include ant colonies, bird flocking, hawks hunting, animal herding, bacterial growth, fish schooling and microbial intelligence.\n", "Section::::Metaheuristics.:Particle swarm optimization (Kennedy, Eberhart & Shi 1995).\n", "Section::::Applications.:Coordination.:Coordinating collective actions.\n\nImprovisational actors also experience a type of collective intelligence which they term \"group mind\", as theatrical improvisation relies on mutual cooperation and agreement, leading to the unity of \"group mind\".\n", "In the late 1980s, Eshel Ben-Jacob began to study bacterial self-organization, believing that bacteria hold the key to understanding larger biological systems. He developed new pattern-forming bacteria species, Paenibacillus vortex and Paenibacillus dendritiformis, and became a pioneer in the study of social behaviors of bacteria. \"P. dendritiformis\" manifests a collective faculty, which could be viewed as a precursor of collaborative intelligence, the ability to switch between different morphotypes to adapt with the environment. Ants were first characterized by entomologist W. M. Wheeler as cells of a single \"superorganism\" where seemingly independent individuals can cooperate so closely as to become indistinguishable from a single organism. Later research characterized some insect colonies as instances of collective intelligence. The concept of ant colony optimization algorithms, introduced by Marco Dorigo, became a dominant theory of evolutionary computation. The mechanisms of evolution through which species adapt toward increased functional effectiveness in their ecosystems are the foundation for principles of collaborative intelligence.\n", "It is theorized that the collective intelligence factor \"c\" is an emergent property resulting from bottom-up as well as top-down processes. Hereby, bottom-up processes cover aggregated group-member characteristics. Top-down processes cover group structures and norms that influence a group's way of collaborating and coordinating.\n\nSection::::Collective intelligence factor \"c\".:Processes.\n\nSection::::Collective intelligence factor \"c\".:Processes.:Top-down processes.\n", "A further key concept in the field of swarm intelligence is stigmergy. Stigmergy is a mechanism of indirect coordination between agents or actions. The principle is that the trace left in the environment by an action stimulates the performance of a next action, by the same or a different agent. In that way, subsequent actions tend to reinforce and build on each other, leading to the spontaneous emergence of coherent, apparently systematic activity. Stigmergy is a form of self-organization. It produces complex, seemingly intelligent structures, without need for any planning, control, or even direct communication between the agents. As such it supports efficient collaboration between extremely simple agents, who lack any memory, intelligence or even awareness of each other.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Ant-based routing.\n", "The value of parallel collective intelligence was demonstrated in medical applications by researchers at Stanford University School of Medicine and Unanimous AI in a set of published studies wherein groups of human doctors were connected by real-time swarming algorithms and tasked with diagnosing chest x-rays for the presence of pneumonia. When working together as \"human swarms,\" the groups of experienced radiologists demonstrated a 33% reduction in diagnostic errors as compared to traditional methods.\n\nSection::::Collective intelligence factor \"c\".:Evidence.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nExamples of collective animal behavior include: \n\nBULLET::::- Flocking birds\n\nBULLET::::- Herding ungulates\n\nBULLET::::- Shoaling and schooling fish\n\nBULLET::::- Schooling Antarctic krill\n\nBULLET::::- Pods of dolphins\n\nBULLET::::- Marching locusts\n\nBULLET::::- Nest building ants\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Social insect colonies are an excellent example of a decentralized system, because no individual is in charge of directing or making decisions for the colony. Several groups of social insects have been shown to use quorum sensing in a process that resembles collective decision-making.\n\nSection::::Social insects.:Examples.\n\nSection::::Social insects.:Examples.:Ants.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "There are further more advanced concepts and factor models attempting to explain individual cognitive ability including the categorization of intelligence in fluid and crystallized intelligence or the hierarchical model of intelligence differences. Further supplementing explanations and conceptualizations for the factor structure of the Genomes of collective intelligence besides a general \"'c\" factor', though, are missing yet.\n\nSection::::Collective intelligence factor \"c\".:Controversies.\n", "Section::::Robotics.\n\nThe application of swarm principles to robots is called swarm robotics, while swarm intelligence refers to the more general set of algorithms.\n", "Besides, this scientific idea also aims to explore the causes affecting collective intelligence, such as group size, collaboration tools or group members' interpersonal skills. The MIT Center for Collective Intelligence, for instance, announced the detection of \"The Genome of Collective Intelligence\" as one of its main goals aiming to develop a \"taxonomy of organizational building blocks, or genes, that can be combined and recombined to harness the intelligence of crowds\".\n\nSection::::Collective intelligence factor \"c\".:Causes.\n", "Section::::Metaheuristics.:Ant colony optimization (Dorigo 1992).\n\nAnt colony optimization (ACO), introduced by Dorigo in his doctoral dissertation, is a class of optimization algorithms modeled on the actions of an ant colony. ACO is a probabilistic technique useful in problems that deal with finding better paths through graphs. Artificial 'ants'—simulation agents—locate optimal solutions by moving through a parameter space representing all possible solutions. Natural ants lay down pheromones directing each other to resources while exploring their environment. The simulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in later simulation iterations more ants locate for better solutions.\n", "Airlines have used swarm theory to simulate passengers boarding a plane. Southwest Airlines researcher Douglas A. Lawson used an ant-based computer simulation employing only six interaction rules to evaluate boarding times using various boarding methods.(Miller, 2010, xii-xviii).\n\nSection::::Applications.:Human swarming.\n", "The term collective intelligence originally encompassed both collective and collaborative intelligence, and many systems manifest attributes of both. Pierre Lévy coined the term \"collective intelligence\" in his book of that title, first published in French in 1994. Lévy defined \"collective intelligence\" to encompass both collective and collaborative intelligence: \"a form of universally distributed intelligence, constantly enhanced, coordinated in real time, and in the effective mobilization of skills\". Following publication of Lévy's book, computer scientists adopted the term collective intelligence to denote an application within the more general area to which this term now applies in computer science. Specifically, an application that processes input from a large number of discrete responders to specific, generally quantitative, questions (e.g. what will the price of DRAM be next year?) Algorithms homogenize input, maintaining the traditional anonymity of survey responders to generate better-than-average predictions.\n", "Section::::Alternative views.:Artificial intelligence views.\n", "Note as well that the field of collective intelligence research is quite young and published empirical evidence is relatively rare yet. However, various proposals and working papers are in progress or already completed but (supposedly) still in a scholarly peer reviewing publication process.\n\nSection::::Collective intelligence factor \"c\".:Predictive validity.\n", "Collective intelligence was introduced into the machine learning community in the late 20th century, and matured into a broader consideration of how to design \"collectives\" of self-interested adaptive agents to meet a system-wide goal. This was related to single-agent work on \"reward shaping\" and has been taken forward by numerous researchers in\n\nthe game theory and engineering communities.\n\nSection::::Dimensions.\n", "To address the problems of serialized aggregation of input among large-scale groups, recent advancements collective intelligence have worked to replace serialized votes, polls, and markets, with parallel systems such as \"human swarms\" modeled after synchronous swarms in nature. Based on natural process of Swarm Intelligence, these artificial swarms of networked humans enable participants to work together in parallel to answer questions and make predictions as an emergent collective intelligence. In one high-profile example, a human swarm challenge by CBS Interactive to predict the Kentucky Derby. The swarm correctly predicted the first four horses, in order, defying 542–1 odds and turning a $20 bet into $10,800.\n", "Section::::Social insects.:Examples.:Honey bees.\n\nHoney bees (\"Apis mellifera\") also use quorum sensing to make decisions about new nest sites. Large colonies reproduce through a process called swarming, in which the queen leaves the hive with a portion of the workers to form a new nest elsewhere. After leaving the nest, the workers form a swarm that hangs from a branch or overhanging structure. This swarm persists during the decision-making phase until a new nest site is chosen.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Ants or bees are smarter as a group than as individuals." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Ants or bees are not smarter as a group, their simple individual behaviors add up like a coordinated network." ]
2018-10541	How was the first computer program or software created? Wouldn't you need a program to create software for another program?	Early computer either used physical connectors and switches like ENIAC or used punched card/punched tape. The punched tape system had been used long before electronic computers was introduced first with mechanical looms in the 18th century and later in telegraphy. Punched card as information carrier and for information processing was common in electro mechanical tabulating machine from the late 19th century. So storing and using digital information from information processing is a pre computer invention and was quite common before computers.	[ "Computing as a concept goes back to ancient times, beginning with devices such as the abacus and continuing on through early examples of computing such as the Antikythera mechanism. However, these devices were pure hardware and had no software - their computing powers were directly tied to their specific form and engineering.\n\nSoftware requires the concept of a general-purpose processor - what is now described as a Turing machine - as well as computer memory in which reusable sets of routines and mathematical functions comprising programs can be stored, started, and stopped individually, and only appears recently in human history.\n", "An outline (algorithm) for what would have been the first piece of software was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th century, for the planned Analytical Engine. She created proofs to show how the engine would calculate Bernoulli Numbers. Because of the proofs and the algorithm, she is considered the first computer programmer.\n\nThe first theory about software—prior to creation of computers as we know them today—was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay \"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem\" (decision problem).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nProgrammable devices have existed at least as far back as 1206 AD, when the automata of Al-Jazari were programmable, via pegs and cams, to play various rhythms and drum patterns; and the 1801 Jacquard loom could produce entirely different weaves by changing the \"program\" - a series of pasteboard cards with holes punched in them.\n\nHowever, the first computer program is generally dated to 1843, when mathematician Ada Lovelace published an algorithm to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, intended to be carried out by Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine. \n", "However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it programs stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers did not yet exist. The very first electronic computing devices were instead rewired in order to \"reprogram\" them. The ENIAC, one of the first electronic computers, was programmed largely by women who had been previously working as human computers. Engineers would give the programmers blueprints of the ENIAC wiring and expected them to figure out how to program the machine. The women who worked as programmers prepped the ENIAC for its first public reveal, wiring the patch panels together for the demonstrations. Kathleen Booth developed Assembly Language in 1950 to make it easier to program the computers she worked on at Birkbeck College.\n", "The first known computer algorithm was written by Charles Babbage in the 19th century for his planned Analytical Engine, to translate Luigi Menabrea's work on Bernoulli numbers for machine instruction. However, this remained theoretical only - the lesser state of engineering in the lifetime of these two mathematicians proved insufficient to construct the Analytical Engine.\n\nThe first modern theory of software was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay \"Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem)\".\n", "in 1976, Peter R. Jennings for instance created his \"Microchess\" program for MOS Technology's KIM-1 kit, but since it did not come with a tape drive, he would send the source code in a little booklet to his mail-order customers, and they would have to type the whole program in by hand. In 1978, Kathe and Dan Spracklen released the source of their \"Sargon (chess)\" program in a computer magazine. Jennings later switched to selling paper tape, and eventually compact cassettes with the program on it.\n", "Charles Babbage's programs for his Analytical Engine in the 19th century is often considered the founder of the discipline, though both mathematicians' efforts remained theoretical only, as the technology of Babbage's day proved insufficient to build his computer. Alan Turing is credited with being the first person to come up with a theory for software in 1935, which led to the two academic fields of computer science and software engineering.\n", "British countess and mathematician Ada Lovelace is often considered to be the first computer programmer, as she was the first to publish part of a program (specifically an algorithm) intended for implementation on Charles Babbage's analytical engine, in October 1842. The algorithm was used to calculate Bernoulli numbers. Because Babbage's machine was never completed as a functioning standard in Lovelace's time, she unfortunately never had the opportunity to see the algorithm in action.\n\nThe first person to execute a program on a functioning, modern, electronic computer was the renowned computer scientist Konrad Zuse, in 1941.\n", "The first generation of software for early stored-program digital computers in the late 1940s had its instructions written directly in binary code, generally written for mainframe computers. Later, the development of modern programming languages alongside the advancement of the home computer would greatly widen the scope and breadth of available software, beginning with assembly language, and continuing on through functional programming and object-oriented programming paradigms.\n\nSection::::Before stored-program digital computers.\n\nSection::::Before stored-program digital computers.:Origins of computer science.\n", "History of software\n\nSoftware is programmed instructions stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers for execution by the processor. Software is a recent development in human history, and it is fundamental to the Information Age.\n", "A collection of computer programs, libraries, and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as application software and system software. The underlying method used for some calculation or manipulation is known as an algorithm.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early programmable machines.\n\nThe earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer. In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be woven and repeated by arranging the cards.\n\nSection::::History.:Analytical Engine.\n", "The very first time a stored-program computer held a piece of software in electronic memory and executed it successfully, was 11 am 21 June 1948, at the University of Manchester, on the Manchester Baby computer. It was written by Tom Kilburn, and calculated the highest factor of the integer 2^18 = 262,144. Starting with a large trial divisor, it performed division of 262,144 by repeated subtraction then checked if the remainder was zero. If not, it decremented the trial divisor by one and repeated the process. Google released a tribute to the Manchester Baby, celebrating it as the \"birth of software\". In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a popular innovation was the development of computer languages such as Fortran, COBOL and BASIC. These languages allowed programs to be specified in an abstract way, independent of the precise details of the hardware architecture of the computer. The languages were primarily intended only for specifying numerical calculations.\n", "In 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquard's loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine.\n", "By early March, Paul Allen, Bill Gates, and Monte Davidoff, another Harvard student, had created a BASIC interpreter that worked under simulation on a PDP-10 mainframe computer at Harvard. Allen and Gates had been in contact with Ed Roberts of MITS and in March, 1975 Allen went to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to test the software on an actual machine. To both Paul Allen's and Ed Roberts's surprise the software worked.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nCodes and information by machines were first conceptualized by Charles Babbage in the early 1800s. Babbage imagined that these codes would give him instructions for his Motor of Difference and Analytical Engine, machines that Babbage had designed to solve the problem of error in calculations.\n\nBetween 1822 and 1823, Ada Lovelace, mathematics, wrote the first instructions for calculating numbers on Babbage engines. Lovelace's instructions are now believed to be the first computer program.\n", "Section::::Early days of computer software (1948–1979).:Bundling of software with hardware and its legal issues.\n\nLater, software was sold to multiple customers by being \"bundled\" with the hardware by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) such as Data General, Digital Equipment and IBM. When a customer bought a minicomputer, at that time the smallest computer on the market, the computer did not come with Pre-installed software, but needed to be installed by engineers employed by the OEM.\n", "The first design for a program-controlled computer was Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine in the 1830s. A century later, in 1936, mathematician Alan Turing published his description of what became known as a Turing machine, a theoretical concept intended to explore the limits of mechanical computation. Turing was not imagining a physical machine, but a person he called a \"computer\", who acted according to the instructions provided by a tape on which symbols could be read and written sequentially as the tape moved under a tape head. Turing proved that if an algorithm can be written to solve a mathematical problem, then a Turing machine can execute that algorithm.\n", "Grace Hopper worked as one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I. She later created a 500 page manual for the computer. Hopper is often falsely credited with coining the terms \"bug\" and \"debugging,\" when she found a moth in the Mark II, causing a malfunction; however, the term was in fact already in use when she found the moth. Hopper developed the first compiler and brought her idea from working on the Mark computers to working on UNIVAC in the 1950s. Hopper also developed the programming language FLOW-MATIC to program the UNIVAC. Frances E. Holberton, also working at UNIVAC, developed a code, C-10, which let programmers use keyboard inputs and created the Sort-Merge Generator in 1951. Adele Mildred Koss and Hopper also created the precursor to a report generator.\n", "The word \"software\" was used as early as 1953, but did not regularly appear in print until the 1960's. Before this time, computers were programmed either by customers or the few commercial computer manufacturers of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to specifically provide software products and services was the Computer Usage Company, in 1955.\n", "The word \"software\" was coined as a prank as early as 1953, but did not appear in print until the 1960s. Before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to provide software products and services was Computer Usage Company in 1955.\n", "Section::::Early days of computer software (1948–1979).:Packaged software (Late 1960s-present).\n\nAn industry producing independently packaged software - software that was neither produced as a \"one-off\" for an individual customer, nor \"bundled\" with computer hardware - started to develop in the late 1960s.\n\nSection::::Early days of computer software (1948–1979).:Unix (1970s–present).\n\nUnix was an early operating system which became popular and very influential, and still exists today. The most popular variant of Unix today is macOS (previously called OS X and Mac OS X), while Linux is closely related to Unix.\n\nSection::::Early days of computer software (1948–1979).:The rise of Microcomputers.\n", "Some consider these devices to be the oldest examples of the computer. \"The Writer\", a mechanical boy who writes with a quill pen upon paper with real ink, has an input device to set tabs, defining individual letters written by the boy, that form a programmable memory. It has 40 cams that represent the read-only programme. The work of Pierre Jaquet-Droz predates that of Charles Babbage by decades.\n", "Section::::History.:The first stored-program computer.\n\nSeveral computers could be considered the first stored-program computer, depending on the criteria.\n\nBULLET::::- IBM SSEC, became operational in January 1948 but was electromechanical\n\nBULLET::::- In April 1948, modifications were completed to ENIAC (initially completed in 1945) to function as a stored-program computer, with the program in its function tables (by setting dials on its function tables, which could store 3,600 decimal digits for instructions.\n", "By this time, the first mechanical devices driven by a binary pattern had been invented. The industrial revolution had driven forward the mechanization of many tasks, and this included weaving. Punched cards controlled Joseph Marie Jacquard's loom in 1801, where a hole punched in the card indicated a binary \"one\" and an unpunched spot indicated a binary \"zero\". Jacquard's loom was far from being a computer, but it did illustrate that machines could be driven by binary systems .\n\nSection::::Creation of the computer.\n", "During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea. The memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first written computer program.\n\nSection::::History.:Universal Turing machine.\n\nIn 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine—a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine.\n" ]	[ "You always need a computer program to create software for another program." ]	[ "As for example in the punched tape system, storing and using digital information from information processing is a pre-computer invention." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You always need a computer program to create software for another program.", "You always need a computer program to create software for another program." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "As for example in the punched tape system, storing and using digital information from information processing is a pre-computer invention.", "As for example in the punched tape system, storing and using digital information from information processing is a pre-computer invention." ]
2018-08242	Why does nicotine use seem to not be a factor in blood donation and how does the blood affect a non-user recipient?	Depends on what type of blood youre donating $not talking A B O$ if youre donating platelets or red blood cells, smoking is not an issue although when you donate plasma it is recommended not to smoke because that is where the nicotin is. But even if you smoke its most likely fine for a non\-smoker.	[ "Nico-N was treated in the form of chewing gum to 36 healthy male smokers with at least 2 years of smoking history. Urine analysis showed that cotinine concentration of smokers treated with Nico-N increased dose dependently compared to the non-treated control group. Cotinine, a nontoxic metabolite of nicotine, could be removed from the body in urine. Increase of the cotinine production from the smokers treated with Nico-N indicates the detoxification effect of Nico-N against nicotine.\n", "Smoking tends to increase blood cholesterol levels. Furthermore, the ratio of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, also known as the \"good\" cholesterol) to low-density lipoprotein (LDL, also known as the \"bad\" cholesterol) tends to be lower in smokers compared to non-smokers. Smoking also raises the levels of fibrinogen and increases platelet production (both involved in blood clotting) which makes the blood thicker and more likely to clot. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying component in red blood cells), resulting in a much stabler complex than hemoglobin bound with oxygen or carbon dioxide—the result is permanent loss of blood cell functionality. Blood cells are naturally recycled after a certain period of time, allowing for the creation of new, functional red blood cells. However, if carbon monoxide exposure reaches a certain point before they can be recycled, hypoxia (and later death) occurs. All these factors make smokers more at risk of developing various forms of arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). As the arteriosclerosis progresses, blood flows less easily through rigid and narrowed blood vessels, making the blood more likely to form a thrombosis (clot). Sudden blockage of a blood vessel may lead to an infarction (stroke or heart attack). However, it is also worth noting that the effects of smoking on the heart may be more subtle. These conditions may develop gradually given the smoking-healing cycle (the human body heals itself between periods of smoking), and therefore a smoker may develop less significant disorders such as worsening or maintenance of unpleasant dermatological conditions, e.g. eczema, due to reduced blood supply. Smoking also increases blood pressure and weakens blood vessels.\n", "Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Renal.\n\nIn addition to increasing the risk of kidney cancer, smoking can also contribute to additional renal damage. Smokers are at a significantly increased risk for chronic kidney disease than non-smokers. A history of smoking encourages the progression of diabetic nephropathy.\n\nSection::::Health effects of smoking.:Influenza.\n", "The effect of Swedish snus on blood pressure has been studied at Umeå University in a randomly selected population sample of 4,305 Swedish men between the ages of 25 and 74. In the study, published in November 2008, the researchers found no elevation of blood pressure in snus users who had never been smokers compared to tobacco nonusers. Snus users had lower systolic blood pressure than tobacco nonusers in the unadjusted data.\n\nSection::::Tobacco-free snus.\n", "NicVAX is administered by injection into the arm; the 3'-aminomethylnicotine molecule found in the vaccine instigates an immune response in which 'nicotine' antibodies are created. The antibodies bind to nicotine molecules, causing the nicotine-antibody complexes to be too large to enter the brain; this prevents nicotine from being able to affect addiction-relevant pathways in the brain. The idea behind the drug is that since often even a single cigarette can deliver enough nicotine to the brain to reinstate the addiction, blocking the entry of nicotine into the brain might prevent this renewed dependence. This treatment works for nicotine addiction from any source. \"Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics\" considers this method \"attractive,\" since the antibody does not enter the brain; as a result, side effects on the central nervous system are minimal, if any. Additionally, the antibodies produced bind only to nicotine and not to nicotine metabolites or any similar endogenous structures such as acetylcholine.\n", "In a series of reports by Ahluwalia and colleagues, they showed in a cross over protocol of 14 volunteers who ingested inorganic nitrates, plasma and saliva nitrite level increased 3 hours post ingestion with a significant reduction of blood pressure. Nitrate extracted from blood by the salivary gland, accumulates in saliva, which is then reduced to nitric oxide to have a direct blood pressure lowering effect. Decreasing saliva nitrite in volunteers that already had elevated levels, a rise in systolic and diastolic blood pressure resulted. Furthermore, pre-hypertensives may be more sensitive to the blood pressure lowering effects of the dietary nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway. Monitoring the bioconversion of plant-derived nitrate into salivary nitrite serves as a surrogate biomarker for total body nitric oxide status.\n", "Nicotine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or to facilitate a medicolegal death investigation. Urinary or salivary cotinine concentrations are frequently measured for the purposes of pre-employment and health insurance medical screening programs. Careful interpretation of results is important, since passive exposure to cigarette smoke can result in significant accumulation of nicotine, followed by the appearance of its metabolites in various body fluids. Nicotine use is not regulated in competitive sports programs.\n\nSection::::History, society, and culture.\n", "When the study began the primary outcome being measured was whether the vaccine decreased the viral load, which is amount of HIV in the blood of study participants who received the vaccine then later became infected with HIV. At that time, researchers stated that the vaccine was very unlikely to provide any protection from HIV infection. In August 2011 because of new data from other clinical trials, NIAID shifted the focus of the study to determine whether vaccination was also able to prevent HIV infection. As a result of this change to the research questions, NIAID also announced an expansion in the desired enrollment to a total of 2200 participants. The study was further expanded to 2500 participants in 2012 to ensure that there would be enough data to meaningfully answer the research questions.\n", "FMD is a noninvasive measure of blood vessel health (endothelial dysfunction) which is at least as predictive of cardiovascular disease as traditional risk factors. FMD is a sensitive marker for the amount of blood vessel damage caused by cigarette smoke. So-called light cigarettes (having reduced tar and nicotine) were shown to impair FMD as much as regular cigarettes.\n\nImproved FMD results in greater perfusion and oxygen supply to peripheral tissue.\n", "NicVAX\n\nNicVAX is an experimental conjugate vaccine intended to reduce or eliminate physical dependence to nicotine. According to the U.S. National Institute of Drug Abuse, NicVAX can potentially be used to inoculate against nicotine addiction. This proprietary vaccine is being developed by Nabi Biopharmaceuticals of Rockville, MD. with the support from the U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse. NicVAX consists of the hapten 3'-aminomethylnicotine which has been conjugated (attached) to \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" exoprotein A.\n", "Minor blood transfusions are used by a minority of nyaope drug addicts in South Africa to economically share the high the drug induces in a practice colloquially known as \"Bluetoothing\", named after the wireless technology of the same name.\n\nSection::::Veterinary use.\n", "Flushing occurs in many patients treated therapeutically with nicotinic acid, and as a result, nicotinamide holds more clinical value as it is not associated with the same uncomfortable flushing. The adult dose of nicotinamide is 100 mg taken orally every 6 hours until resolution of major acute symptoms, followed with oral administration of 50 mg every 8–12 hours until skin lesions heal. For children, treatment involves oral ingestion of 10–15 mg of nicotinamide, depending on weight, every 6 hours until signs and symptoms are resolved. Severe cases require 1 gram every 3–4 hours, administered parenterally.\n", "Historically, red blood cell transfusion was considered when the hemoglobin level fell below 100 g/L or hematocrit fell below 30%. Because each unit of blood given carries risks, a trigger level lower than that, at 70 to 80 g/L, is now usually used, as it has been shown to have better patient outcomes. The administration of a single unit of blood is the standard for hospitalized people who are not bleeding, with this treatment followed with re-assessment and consideration of symptoms and hemoglobin concentration. Patients with poor oxygen saturation may need more blood. The advisory caution to use blood transfusion only with more severe anemia is in part due to evidence that outcomes are worsened if larger amounts are given. One may consider transfusion for people with symptoms of cardiovascular disease such as chest pain or shortness of breath. In cases where patients have low levels of hemoglobin due to iron deficiency, but are cardiovascularly stable, parenteral iron is a preferred option based on both efficacy and safety. Other blood products are given where appropriate, e.g., to treat clotting deficiencies.\n", "Sharper peaks in blood nicotine levels from inhalation causes greater nicotine dependence than oral consumption. Nicotine replacement products, for instance, deliver nicotine in a slow, stable manner, and are thus less addictive. Inhaling nicotine reaches the blood quicker than oral consumption. Blood nicotine levels drop fairly quickly, halving every 1 to 2 hours. Nicotine withdrawal causes deteriorating mood, driving craving for nicotine consumption.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Pregnancy.\n", "Section::::Clinical relevance.:Clinical marker.\n\nA multi-locus genetic risk score study based on a combination of 27 loci, including the ABO gene, identified individuals at increased risk for both incident and recurrent coronary artery disease events, as well as an enhanced clinical benefit from statin therapy. The study was based on a community cohort study (the Malmo Diet and Cancer study) and four additional randomized controlled trials of primary prevention cohorts (JUPITER and ASCOT) and secondary prevention cohorts (CARE and PROVE IT-TIMI 22).\n\nSection::::Alteration of ABO antigens for transfusion.\n", "E-cigarettes resembling cigarettes typically produce much less blood nicotine levels. When compared to traditional cigarettes older devices usually delivered low amounts of nicotine. E-cigarette use can be associated with a substantial dispersion of nicotine, thus generating a plasma nicotine concentration which can be comparable to that of traditional cigarettes. This is due to the minute nicotine particles in the e-cigarette vapor, which permit quick delivery into the bloodstream. The nicotine delivered from e-cigarettes enters the body slower than traditional cigarettes. Studies suggest that inexperienced users obtain moderate amounts of nicotine from e-cigarettes. Concerns were raised over inconsistent amounts of nicotine delivered when drawing on the device.\n", "Blood transfusions in those without symptoms is not recommended until the hemoglobin is below 60 to 80 g/L (6 to 8 g/dL). In those with coronary artery disease who are not actively bleeding transfusions are only recommended when the hemoglobin is below 70 to 80g/L (7 to 8 g/dL). Transfusing earlier does not improve survival. Transfusions otherwise should only be undertaken in cases of cardiovascular instability.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents.\n", "Smoking a traditional cigarette yields between 0.5 and 1.5 mg of nicotine, but the nicotine content of the cigarette is only weakly correlated with the levels of nicotine in the smoker's bloodstream. The amount of nicotine in the e-cigarette aerosol varies widely either from puff-to-puff or among devices of the same company. In practice e-cigarette users tend to reach lower blood nicotine concentrations than smokers, particularly when the users are inexperienced or using first-generation devices. Nicotine in cigarette smoke is absorbed into the bloodstream rapidly, and e-cigarette aerosol is relatively slow in this regard. Vaping typically gives a lower amount of nicotine per puff than smoking cigarettes. The concentration of nicotine in e-liquid ranges up to 36 mg/ml. In practice the nicotine concentration in an e-liquid is not a reliable guide to the amount of nicotine that reaches the bloodstream.\n", "Evidence from two large studies in 2017 showed that the transfusion of blood from younger donors to older people led to outcomes that were either no different from, or led to worse outcomes than, blood from older donors. Research on blood transfusion outcomes has been complicated by the lack of careful characterization of the transfusion products that have been used in clinical trials; studies had focused on how storage methods and duration might affect blood, but not on the differences among lots of blood themselves.\n\nSection::::Commercial development.\n", "Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. The level of cotinine in the blood, saliva, and urine is proportionate to the amount of exposure to tobacco smoke, so it is a valuable indicator of tobacco smoke exposure, including secondary (passive) smoke. People who smoke menthol cigarettes may retain cotinine in the blood for a longer period because menthol can compete with enzymatic metabolism of cotinine. African American smokers generally have higher plasma cotinine levels than Caucasian smokers. Males generally have higher plasma cotinine levels than females. These systematic differences in cotinine levels were attributed to variation in CYP2A6 activity. \n", "This study determined that, based on the proportions and differences of pre- vs post- branding levels, mean concentrations of plasma epinephrine (EPI) at 30 seconds were higher for H calves than F and S calves. Heart rates, hormone concentrations, and EPI were increased for H calves. In terms of vocalization, one H and two F calves expressed distress during branding.\n", "BULLET::::- Exchange transfusion - Exchange transfusion is used when bilirubin reaches either the high or medium risk lines on the nonogram provided by the American Academy of Pediatrics (Figure 4). Cord bilirubin 4 is also indicative of the need for exchange transfusion.\n\nSection::::Transfusion Reactions.\n\nOnce a woman has antibodies, she is at high risk for a transfusion reaction. For this reason, she must carry a medical alert card at all times and inform all doctors of her antibody status.\n", "Up until recently cardiovascular disease was considered to be a contraindication to nicotine replacement therapy products. However, in 2003 the French Agency for the Safety of Health Products (AFSSAPS) removed all cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease contraindications. In 2005 the UK Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency followed suit. The rationale is that the benefit of nicotine replacement therapy outweighs the risks of nicotine medication, even in smokers with cardiovascular disease.\n\nIn 2013 the US FDA stated that the contraindication concerning usage of NRT products while smoking is no longer valid.\n", "BULLET::::- Ferritin - because most infants affected by HDN have iron overload, a ferritin must be run before giving the infant any additional iron.\n\nBULLET::::- Newborn Screening Tests - Transfusion with donor blood during pregnancy or shortly after birth can affect the results of the Newborn Screening Tests. It is recommended to wait and retest 10–12 months after last transfusion. In some cases, DNA testing from saliva can be used to rule out certain conditions.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Higher platelet transfusion thresholds have been used in premature neonates, but this has been based on limited evidence. There is now evidence that using a high platelet count threshold (50 x 10/L) increases the risk of death or bleeding compared to a lower platelet count threshold (25 x 10/L) in premature neonates.\n\nSection::::Medication use.:Prevention of bleeding.:Dose.\n" ]	[ "Nicotine use is not be a factor in blood donation.", "Blood donation of nicotine users should be addressed due to the possibilities of it affecting the recipient negatively. " ]	[ "When donating platelets or red blood cells nicotine is not a factor, but when donating plasma it is recommended not to smoke.", "Nicotine in most cases depending on the type of blood donated (platelets or red blood cells) usually does not cause issues for a non smoking recipient." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Nicotine use is not be a factor in blood donation.", "Blood donation of nicotine users should be addressed due to the possibilities of it affecting the recipient negatively. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When donating platelets or red blood cells nicotine is not a factor, but when donating plasma it is recommended not to smoke.", "Nicotine in most cases depending on the type of blood donated (platelets or red blood cells) usually does not cause issues for a non smoking recipient." ]
2018-01921	How many generations does it take to be able to reproduce without genetic diseases ? And how can we know if two person are closely related or not ?	There isn't a hard cutoff line or measurable point like that, at least biologically speaking. Many jurisdictions legally define what is and is not considered incest but that doesn't necessarily take biology into account. It's true that we're all distantly related, but after just a few degrees of separation we share so little genetic material in common that it becomes irrelevant. Every degree of separation reduces the chance of genetic disease, so that a child of two first cousins is less likely to have problems than the child of two siblings, but more likely to have problems than the child of two second cousins. It's not guaranteed that any child will be born with ill effects from inbreeding, it's just a lot more likely the more closely related the parents are. As for your example, even 200 years is plenty of time. At that point someone of the same generation as you would be at closest, your eighth cousin, which is practically a stranger. And yes it's super easy to tell if you're related to someone, just get a DNA test.	[ "Studies of genetic disorders are often performed by means of family-based studies. In some instances population based approaches are employed, particularly in the case of so-called founder populations such as those in Finland, French-Canada, Utah, Sardinia, etc. Diagnosis and treatment of genetic disorders are usually performed by a geneticist-physician trained in clinical/medical genetics. The results of the Human Genome Project are likely to provide increased availability of genetic testing for gene-related disorders, and eventually improved treatment. Parents can be screened for hereditary conditions and counselled on the consequences, the probability it will be inherited, and how to avoid or ameliorate it in their offspring.\n", "Whole-population approaches are another important method of demonstrating the probability of modifier gene interactions. These approaches typically involve more complex statistical modeling, but ultimately serve the same purpose of family studies, by controlling for sources of phenotypic variance in disease populations to estimate the degree of residual heritability attributable to modifier loci. Wexler et al. use these methods in a sample of about 4,000 Huntington's disease (HD) patients from one of the world's best characterized populations in Venezuela to estimate that about 40% of residual variation in age of onset is attributable to unidentified genetic loci, aside from the HD locus.\n", "Variations within the human genome can be studied to determine susceptibility to infectious diseases. The study of variations within microbial genomes will also need to be evaluated to use genomics of infectious disease within public health. The ability to determine if a person has greater susceptibility to an infectious disease will be valuable to determine how to treat the disease if it is present or prevent the person from getting the disease. Several infectious diseases have shown a link between genetics and susceptibility in that families tend to have heritability traits of a disease.\n", "Due to the nature of inheritance of CMTX, affected males will pass the GJB1 gene mutation to all female children and none of their male children, whilst females who are carriers will have a 50% chance of passing on the mutation to each of their offspring. With the development of genetic testing, it is possible to perform both prenatal and pre-implantation testing elected by the patient, when their type of mutation has been identified. Results from genetic testing can then be used to prevent the transmission of this disease to their offspring.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Connexin\n\nBULLET::::- Gap junction\n", "Genetic epidemiological research follows 3 discreet steps, as outlined by M.Tevfik Dorak:\n\nBULLET::::1. Establishing that there is a genetic component to the disorder.\n\nBULLET::::2. Establishing the relative size of that genetic effect in relation to other sources of variation in disease risk (environmental effects such as intrauterine environment, physical and chemical effects as well as behavioral and social aspects).\n\nBULLET::::3. Identifying the gene(s) responsible for the genetic component.\n\nThese research methodologies can be assessed through either family or population studies.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Epigenetics\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Mendelian randomization\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular epidemiology\n\nBULLET::::- Mutation\n\nBULLET::::- Population genetics\n", "BULLET::::- assist in uncovering the causes of common diseases, such as breast cancer and asthma.\n\nBeyond benefits to individual patients, increased understanding of our genomes and their function enables governments to implement effective public health strategies and interventions. A complete understanding of the genomic determinants of health will enable more effective public health strategies, including:\n\nBULLET::::- carrier detection programmes designed to identify potential parents who are at risk of conceiving a child with a genetic disorder;\n", "Genetic Broadly speaking, genetic diseases are caused by aberrations in genes or chromosomes. Many genetic diseases are developed from before birth. Genetic disorders account for a significant number of the health care problems in our society. Advances in the understanding of this diseases have increased both the life span and quality of life for many of those affected by genetic disorders. Recent developments in bioinformatics and laboratory genetics have made possible the better delineation of certain malformation and mental retardation syndromes, so that their mode of inheritance can be understood. This information enables the genetic counselor to predict the risk for occurrence of a large number of genetic disorders. Most genetic counseling is done, however, only after the birth of at least one affected individual has alerted the family to their predilection for having children with a genetic disorder. The association of a single gene to a disease is rare and a genetic disease may or may not be a transmissible disorder. Some genetic diseases are inherited from the parent’s genes, but others are caused by new mutations or changes to the DNA. In other occurrences, the same disease, for instance, some forms of carcinoma or melanoma, may stem from an inbred condition in some people, from new changes in other people, and from non-genetic causes in still other individuals.\n", "Some current tests for genetic diseases include: cystic fibrosis, Tay–Sachs disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease, high cholesterol, some rare cancers and an inherited susceptibility to cancer. A select few are explored below.\n\nSection::::Genetic susceptibility to disease.:Herpesvirus and bacterial infections.\n", "Testing for a disease can be expensive, and distinguishing between two diseases can be prohibitively difficult in many countries. One standard means of determining if a person has had a particular disease is to test for the presence of antibodies that are particular to this disease. In the case of H5N1, for example, there is a low pathogenic H5N1 strain in wild birds in North America that a human could conceivably have antibodies against. It would be extremely difficult to distinguish between antibodies produced by this strain, and antibodies produced by Asian lineage HPAI A(H5N1). Similar difficulties are common, and make it difficult to determine how widely a disease may have spread.\n", "In the 1960s and 1970s, epidemiology played a part in strategies for the worldwide eradication of naturally occurring smallpox.\n\nSection::::Fundamentals.\n\nTraditionally, the study of the role of genetics in disease progresses through the following study designs, each answering a slightly different question:\n\nBULLET::::- Familial aggregation studies: Is there a genetic component to the disease, and what are the relative contributions of genes and environment?\n\nBULLET::::- Segregation studies: What is the pattern of inheritance of the disease (e.g. dominant or recessive)?\n\nBULLET::::- Linkage studies: On which part of which chromosome is the disease gene located?\n", "About 40 rare diseases have a far higher prevalence in Finland; these are known collectively as Finnish heritage disease. Similarly, there are rare genetic diseases among the Amish religious communities in the US and among ethnically Jewish people. \n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nRare diseases are usually genetic and are therefore chronic. EURORDIS estimates that at least 80% of them have identified genetic origins. Other rare diseases are the result of infections and allergies or due to degenerative and proliferative causes.\n\nSymptoms of some rare diseases may appear at birth or in childhood, whereas others only appear once adulthood is reached.\n", "Population genetic substructure also can aid genetic association studies. For example, populations that represent recent mixtures of separated ancestral groups can exhibit longer-range linkage disequilibrium between susceptibility alleles and genetic markers than is the case for other populations. Genetic studies can use this disequilibrium to search for disease alleles with fewer markers than would be needed otherwise. Association studies also can take advantage of the contrasting experiences of racial or ethnic groups, including migrant groups, to search for interactions between particular alleles and environmental factors that might influence health.\n\nSection::::Human genome projects.\n", "Host genetic factors play a major role in determining differential susceptibility to major infectious diseases of humans. Infectious diseases in humans appear highly polygenic with many loci implicated but only a minority of these convincingly replicated. Over the course of time, humans have been exposed to organisms like \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\". It is possible that the human genome has evolved in part from our exposure to \"M. tuberculosis\". Animal model studies and whole genome screens can be used to identify potential regions on a gene that suggest evidence of tuberculosis susceptibility. In the case of \"M. tuberculosis,\" animal model studies were used to suggest evidence of a locus which was correlated with susceptibility, further studies were done to prove the link between the suggested locus and susceptibility. The genetic loci that have been identified as associated with susceptibility to tuberculosis are HLA-DR, INF-γ, SLC11A1, \"VDR\", MAL/TIRAP, and CCL2. Further studies will be needed to determine genetic susceptibility to other infectious diseases and ways public health officials can prevent and test for these infections to enhance the concept of personalized medicine.\n", "What is known about human traits inherited through patients' families can save their lives—that is why gathering a person's complete and accurate medical family history is extremely important even as genetic medicine continues to explain more diseases. Many advances in biological medical science are anticipated in the future now that the human genome has been discovered. \n", "Section::::Race and disease.:Single-gene disorders.\n\nThere are many single gene genetic disorders that differ in frequency between different populations due to the region and ancestry. While some assume this diseases to be solely based on race, other authors point out that race is not a useful markers as self-reported ancestry and racial identity or classification does not determine the genome of individuals. Some examples of single-gene disorders include:\n\nBULLET::::- Cystic fibrosis, the most common life-limiting autosomal recessive disease among people of Northern European heritage\n", "Genetic linkage analysis and association studies are widely used methods of identifying modifier loci. The advent of new genetic markers and automated genotyping methods have led to great diversity in applications of these studies. Common methodologies used to identify human disease modifier loci include linkage analysis in families, candidate association studies, and whole-genome association studies.\n", "BULLET::::- In recent years genetic and genomic tools were used to understand the mode of inheritance, dominance and epistasis of parasite resistance loci in the host genome. At the same time the group of Ebert mapped the location of the resistance gene in the genome and discovered a Supergene with a cluster of three resistance genes in strong physical linkage\n\nSection::::Mentoring.\n", "For the common case in which a major locus is causally associated with disease, but there exists considerable, unexplained phenotypic variation, this process of discovery typically begins with establishing heritability of the disease phenotype, and the reasonable likelihood that modifier genes contribute to the observed phenotypic variation. The process proceeds with the identification of modifier loci and functional determination of the mechanisms of their interactions with other disease-causing genes, and culminates with the discovery and development of effective therapeutics for disease, informed by mechanistic understanding of the functions of modifier genes. For skilled researchers using modern techniques, each step in this process of curing human genetic disease by studying modifier gene interactions poses great challenges.\n", "In May 2014, Schadt and his team announced the Resilience Project in collaboration with Sage Bionetworks. The project is intended to perform genotyping on as many as 1 million people to find protective biological mechanisms that prevent disease-causing genetic mutations from becoming active. Participants will be healthy people age 30 and older, and the project will initially target variations linked to 127 Mendelian diseases. Based on an analysis of publicly available data, scientists in the Resilience Project estimate that one person in 15,000 has a protective mechanism preventing activity of disease-causing genetic variants.\n\nSection::::Media appearances and awards.\n", "Modern genetics began on the foundation of Gregor Mendel's work. Once this became widely known, it spurred a revolution in studies of hereditary throughout the animal kingdom; with studies showing genetic transmission and control over characteristics and traits. As gene variation was shown to affect disease, work began on quantifying factors affecting disease, accelerating in the 20th century. The period since the second world war saw the greatest advancement of the field, with scientists such as Newton Morton helping form the field of genetic epidemiology as it is known today, with the application of modern genetics to the statistical study of disease, as well as the establishment of large-scale epidemiological studies such as the Framingham Heart Study.\n", "More recently, the scope of genetic epidemiology has expanded to include common diseases for which many genes each make a smaller contribution (polygenic, multifactorial or multigenic disorders). This has developed rapidly in the first decade of the 21st century following completion of the Human Genome Project, as advances in genotyping technology and associated reductions in cost has made it feasible to conduct large-scale genome-wide association studies that genotype many thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms in thousands of individuals. These have led to the discovery of many genetic polymorphisms that influence the risk of developing many common diseases.\n\nSection::::Approaches.\n", "An important question was whether and where such extended genealogies might be found. It was not one that occurred to many leading geneticists to ask with regard to common diseases. As an Icelander, Stefansson knew the country's passion for genealogy first hand and had grown up with and trained in its national health system. In 1995, he and his colleague and former graduate student, Jeffrey Gulcher, decided to go to Iceland to study multiple sclerosis. Working with doctors in the national health system they identified hundreds of patients and relatives who gave them blood samples to begin their research. As Icelanders they were almost by definition related, and due to the national pastime of genealogy those relationships could be established.\n", "The completion of the human genome has changed the way the search for disease genes is performed. In the past, the approach was to focus on one or a few genes at a time. Now, projects like the DisGeNET exemplify the efforts to systematically analyze all the gene alterations involved in a single or multiple diseases. The next step is to produce a complete picture of the mechanistic aspects of the diseases and the design of drugs against them. For that, a combination of two approaches will be needed: a systematic search and in-depth study of each gene.\n", "Tauxe's research interests include bacterial enteric diseases, epidemiology and pathogenesis of infectious diseases, epidemiological and clinical consequences of bacterial genetic exchange, antimicrobial use and resistance to antimicrobial agents, and teaching epidemiological methods. He has participated in or supervised numerous domestic and overseas epidemiological investigations all over the world, most notably the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack, the 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak, the 2010-2013 Haiti cholera outbreak, establishment of Pulsenet, and the West African Ebola virus epidemic.\n", "The science of public health is focused on determining why some populations are less healthy than others and devising strategies to improve the health of populations. By studying how the characteristics of individuals, communities, and large populations contribute to the local and global distribution of communicable and non-communicable diseases, Dr. Blanchard is contributing to the development of effective public health strategies for disease prevention. He studies communicable and non-communicable diseases on two continents, paying particular attention to how diverse characteristics of individuals, communities, and large populations contribute to diseases distribution.\n" ]	[ "There is a number of generations it takes to be able to safely reproduce with a relative." ]	[ "There isn't a hard cutoff like that make it safe to reproduce it a spectrum of chance for genetic disease." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is a number of generations it takes to be able to safely reproduce with a relative.", "There is a number of generations it takes to be able to safely reproduce with a relative." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There isn't a hard cutoff like that make it safe to reproduce it a spectrum of chance for genetic disease.", "There isn't a hard cutoff like that make it safe to reproduce it a spectrum of chance for genetic disease. " ]
2018-02595	What happens if someone loses a court case and owes money but isn't able to pay it?	It depends on the circumstances and what the courts decide is appropriate. They can do anything from garnish your wages to sieze and auction your property. There are generally limitations so you can't be completely left high-and-dry, though.	[ "In England and Wales, a Claimant starts a case by issuing a Claim Form. This either states a monetary figure on it, together with fixed costs and court fees; alternatively if the amount cannot be determined, it will be for an amount 'to be assessed'. A Claimant may not wish to recover money at all, in which case the Claim Form states this.\n\nThe Claim Form (together with other documents, known as \"Particulars of Claim\" and a \"Response Pack\") are served on the Defendant.\n", "BULLET::::- the judgment creditor has sent a registered letter to the debtor at his last known address, informing him of the judgment debt and the amount outstanding, and that an emoluments attachment order will be issued ten days from the posting of the letter. The judgment creditor must place an affidavit before the court setting out the outstanding amount of the judgment, and how the specific instalment and cash have accumulated from the date of the judgment, and the balance owing.\n", "For example, in California, a judgment creditor must file an \"Acknowledgment of Satisfaction of Judgment\" where it has been paid in full by the judgment debtor within 15 days of the judgment debtor's request. This document has the effect of formally closing the case and terminating any ongoing garnishment arrangements or liens. In Saskatchewan, upon either the satisfaction or withdrawal of a judgment, a judgment debtor can seek a discharge of judgment. If successful, the judgment is removed from the Judgment Registry and detached from any property registered on the Personal Property registry, titles, or interests in land.\n", "Some jurisdictions have a statute of limitations that limits the time between the last activity on the debt and the commencement of a civil suit. Once the limitation period expires, debtors can use this fact to stop the calls from an agency by demanding a civil suit be initiated, at which point they may successfully defend based on the expiration of the limitation period.\n\nSection::::Methods of avoidance used.:Foreign bank accounts.\n", "The debt does not need to be argued in the High Court; provided the amount owed is at least £600 (in 2014), the debt did not arise in a matter covered by the Consumer Credit Act 1974, and payment has not been made within the specified time, a County Court judgment can be transferred to the High Court for enforcement. The High Court fee for issuing a writ of control is just £66; together with the HCEO's fees, this £66 court fee is added by the writ to the amount to be recovered from the debtor.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Once the writ is awarded, the judgment debtor can avoid the removal and sale of assets by either paying in full or agreeing a repayment plan. If they take this action, the assets will still technically remain seized and belong to the court until the debt is fully cleared, but are normally left \"in situ\" under a walking-possession agreement. Any proposed repayment schedule will have to be agreed by the claimant. Should the judgment debtor subsequently default on a payment, the claimant can instruct the HCEO to attend to remove and sell the seized assets; if the debtor disposes of the assets, they are committing contempt of court.\n", "If money is claimed but the amount is not fixed, a \"Disposal Hearing\" is listed to determine the amount of money.\n\nIf any other remedy is claimed, the Claimant would have had to apply to the procedural judge for the Judgment in Default, and therefore the Judge will determine what happens next.\n\nJudgments in Default are covered by Part 12 of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998\n\nSection::::Specific jurisdictions.:England and Wales.:Effect of judgment.\n\nThe judgment is binding and failure to comply with it means that enforcement action could be taken.\n", "Section::::Post-litigation.:Debt collection.:Debt-collecting procedure in regard to certain classes of debtor.:Debtors against whom judgment has been granted in the High Court.\n\nSection 65M provides that, where judgment for the payment of money has been given by a division of the High Court, the judgment creditor may file with the clerk of the court a certified copy of that judgment and an affidavit specifying the amount still owing and how it has been arrived at.\n", "Where there has been judgment for the payment of a sum of money, and the judgment debtor has made a written offer to pay in instalments, and where such offer is accepted by the judgment creditor or his attorney, the judgment creditor may apply to the clerk of the court for an order that the debtor pay such amount in accordance with the offer. Such an order is deemed to be an order for the purpose of launching the following procedures:\n\nSection::::Post-litigation.:Debt collection.:Section 65 procedure.:Notice to summon debtor to appear before court.\n", "If it is apparent from the evidence that, after receipt of the notice to appear in court in terms of section 65A(1), the judgment debtor made a written offer to pay the judgment debt in instalments or otherwise, or that the debtor is able to pay the debt in reasonable instalments, the court may order him to pay the judgment debt and costs in specified instalments, and may also authorise the issuing of an emoluments attachment order.\n", "The litigant who sues on delict sues to recover a loss sustained because of the wrongful conduct of another, in other words that the amount by which his patrimony has been diminished by such conduct should be restored to him.\n", "Different enforcement mechanisms exist, including seizure and sale of the judgment debtor's property or garnishment. Some jurisdictions, like California, also allow for additional enforcement mechanisms depending on the circumstances, such as suspending the judgment debtor's driver's license or professional license. In Germany, a bailiff is responsible for enforcing the judgment and is empowered to use a number of different enforcement mechanisms.\n", "If money is claimed, the Claimant can choose how their judgment will be phrased. Almost always there will be a request that the money claimed, the court fee, and interest at 8% on the money from when the Claim Form was issued up until date of judgment, and if legally represented a fixed contribution to legal costs, be ordered to be paid immediately. However, the Claimant could simply request the Defendant be ordered to pay at a later date or in installments.\n", "Default can be compared to a forfeit victory in sports. In a civil trial involving damages, a default judgment will enter the amount of damages pleaded in the original complaint. If proof of damages is required, the court may schedule another hearing on that issue. A party can have a default judgment vacated, or set aside, by filing a motion, after the judgment is entered, by showing of a proper excuse.\n\nSection::::Specific jurisdictions.\n\nSection::::Specific jurisdictions.:England and Wales.\n\nSection::::Specific jurisdictions.:England and Wales.:How judgment arises.\n", "BULLET::::4. Damage - finally the conduct must have resulted in some form of loss or harm to the claimant in order for them to have a claim. This damage can take the form of patrimonial loss (a reduction in a person's financial position, such as is the case where the claimant incurred medical expenses) or non-patrimonial damages (damages that cannot be related to a person's financial estate, but compensation for something like pain and suffering).\n", "BULLET::::- unless the judgment creditor or an appointed attorney has\n\nBULLET::::- sent a registered letter to the judgment debtor at his or her last known address informing the judgment debtor of the amount of the judgment debt and the costs which remain unpaid, and also warning that an emoluments attachment order will be issued if the mentioned amount is not paid within seven days after the date on which that registered letter has been posted; and\n\nBULLET::::- filed with the clerk an affidavit or affirmation wherein is indicated\n", "Section 56 provides that a registered letter of demand may be sent by the attorney acting for a creditor to a debtor who is liable for the payment of the debt (“any liquidated sum of money due”) claimed in the letter.\n", "In terms of section 56, the letter of demand must be sent by registered post by an attorney to the debtor. In terms of rule 4B, the letter must contain particulars of the nature and amount of the claim.\n\nSection::::Post-litigation.:Debt collection.:Recovery of debts in terms of Chapter VIII of the Act.:Section 57.\n\nSection 57 provides\n\nBULLET::::- that the defendant may admit his liability to the plaintiff;\n\nBULLET::::- that he may offer to pay the debt in instalments; and\n", "County Court judgments are recorded in the Register of Judgments, Orders and Fines and in the defendant's credit records held by credit reference agencies. This information is used in consumer credit scores, making it difficult or more expensive for the defendant to obtain credit. In order to avoid the record being kept for years in the register, the debt must be settled within thirty days after the date the County Court judgment was served (unless the judgment was later set aside). If the debt was not fully paid within the statutory period, the entry will remain for six full years.\n", "Some jurisdictions allow a clerk of court to enter default judgment in certain simple cases. These typically involve no exercise of judgment or discretion. Otherwise, a default judgment must be issued by a judge, who may require the plaintiff to present proof of his claims.\n\nSection::::Specific jurisdictions.:United States.:Relief from default judgment.\n", "Judgment creditors can register their judgments through the property registry system in their jurisdictions, levy the property in question through a writ of execution, or seek a court order for enforcement depending on the options available in their jurisdiction.\n", "BULLET::::2. The defendant is bringing the application to rescind the default judgment, but does not wish to defend the proceedings. This happens where the defendant would have been happy to pay if he had known about he summons. As soon as he finds out about the judgment he makes arrangements to pay, but by that time he already has a judgment against his name. He now wants to remove the judgment. There is no need to show good cause in this situation, but the defendant must satisfy the court that he was not in wilful default, and that the judgment was satisfied or arrangements were made to satisfy the judgment within a reasonable time after it came to his knowledge.\n", "Rule 18 of the new Magistrates' Courts Rules has essentially replicated rule 34 of the High Courts Rules.\n\nThe defendant may make an unconditional payment into the court with an admission of liability, in which case the matter then terminates. The plaintiff is only entitled to costs up to that point. The defendant is not a judgment debtor.\n", "Indigent judgment-proof defendants are no longer imprisoned; debtor's prisons have been outlawed by statute, constitutional amendment, or international human rights treaties in the vast majority of common law jurisdictions.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "In the past, the judgment debtor could have been committed to prison or have a receiving order made against him in a judgment summons under the Debtors Act 1869.\n\nSpecific debts are non-dischargeable, such as debts for fraud and civil judgments that are obtained in a civil Adversary proceeding in bankruptcy. During such proceedings (US law) the judge who presides over the bankruptcy declares that a specific debt be deemed as non-dischargeable, in that the bankruptcy will not dismiss the debt, and the debtor is obligated for the full amount of the judgment for life.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03626	With today's technology why is it so hard to make counterfeit coins or counterfeit bills?	The same answer - today's technology has been used to make bills much more difficult to counterfeit. High value bills have dozens of countermeasures - from the paper, the ink, the printing techniques, etc. - all designed to make it difficult and expensive to do on your own. This deters most people looking to counterfeit - they don't have the skills or the investment money. For lower value bills/coins, there are fewer countermeasures, but that is because the payoff is so low. No one wants to counterfeit $1 bills or quarters because you have to make a ton for it to be worth your while.	[ "Counterfeiting, the forgery of banknotes, is an inherent challenge in issuing currency. It is countered by anticounterfeiting measures in the printing of banknotes. Fighting the counterfeiting of banknotes and cheques has been a principal driver of security printing methods development in recent centuries.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Coin counterfeiting\n\nCoin counterfeiting of valuable antique coins is common; modern high-value coins are also counterfeited and circulated.\n\nCounterfeit antique coins are generally made to a very high standard so that they can deceive experts; this is not easy and many coins still stand out.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nCounterfeits of higher-value coins in circulation, designed for general circulation at face value, have been made by criminals for thousands of years.\n\nSection::::Circulating coins.\n", "The ease with which paper money can be created, by both legitimate authorities and counterfeiters, has led both to a temptation in times of crisis such as war or revolution to produce paper money which was not supported by precious metal or other goods, thus leading to Hyperinflation and a loss of faith in the value of paper money, e.g. the Continental Currency produced by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution, the Assignats produced during the French Revolution, the paper currency produced by the Confederate States of America and the individual states of the Confederate States of America, the financing of World War I by the Central Powers (by 1922 1 gold Austro-Hungarian krone of 1914 was worth 14,400 paper Kronen), the devaluation of the Yugoslav Dinar in the 1990s, etc. Banknotes may also be overprinted to reflect political changes that occur faster than new currency can be printed.\n", "BULLET::::3. Manufacturing or issue costs. Coins are produced by industrial manufacturing methods that process the precious or semi-precious metals, and require additions of alloy for hardness and wear resistance. By contrast, bank notes are printed paper (or polymer), and typically have a higher cost of issue, especially in larger denominations, compared with coins of the same value.\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas McAnea, also known as Hologram Tam, a Scottish master counterfeiter regarded as one of the most skillful in Europe with regard to banknote security holograms.\n\nBULLET::::- Emerich Juettner, documented in Mister 880, he was possibly the longest uncaught counterfeiter in history. For ten or more years he eluded government authorities while he printed and spent fake $1 bills in his New York neighborhood.\n\nBULLET::::- Catherine Murphy, convicted of coining in 1789 and was the last woman to suffer execution by burning in England.\n", "During the American Civil War, the Confederate States dollar was heavily counterfeited by private interests on the Union side, often without the sanction of the Union government in Washington. The Confederacy's access to modern printing technology was limited while many Northern-made imitations were printed on high quality banknote paper procured through extralegal means. As a result, counterfeit Southern notes were often equal or even superior in quality compared to genuine Confederate money.\n\nIn 1834, counterfeit copper coins manufactured in the United States were seized from several ships with American flags in Brazil. The practice seemed to end after that.\n\nSection::::Instances.\n", "Counterfeit United States currency\n\nCounterfeiting of the currency of the United States is widely attempted. According to the United States Department of Treasury, an estimated $70 million in counterfeit bills are in circulation, or approximately 1 note in counterfeits for every 10,000 in genuine currency, with an upper bound of $200 million counterfeit, or 1 counterfeit per 4,000 genuine notes.\n\nHowever, these numbers are based on annual seizure rates on counterfeiting, and the actual stock of counterfeit money is uncertain because some counterfeit notes successfully circulate for a few transactions.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "People are not the only economic actors who are required to accept banknotes. In the late 20th century, vending machines were designed to recognize banknotes of the smaller values long after they were designed to recognize coins distinct from slugs. This capability has become inescapable in economies where inflation has not been followed by introduction of progressively larger coin denominations (such as the United States, where several attempts to make dollar coins popular in general circulation have largely failed). The existing infrastructure of such machines presents one of the difficulties in changing the design of these banknotes to make them less counterfeitable, that is, by adding additional features so easily discernible by people that they would immediately reject banknotes of inferior quality, for every machine in the country would have to be updated.\n", "BULLET::::6. Cost of acceptance. Coins can be checked for authenticity by weighing and other forms of examination and testing. These costs can be significant, but good quality coin design and manufacturing can help reduce these costs. Banknotes also have an acceptance cost, the costs of checking the banknote's security features and confirming acceptability of the issuing bank.\n\nThe different disadvantages between coins and banknotes imply that there may be an ongoing role for both forms of bearer money, each being used where its advantages outweigh its disadvantages.\n\nSection::::Materials used for banknotes.\n\nSection::::Materials used for banknotes.:Paper banknotes.\n", "For modern coins in general circulation, the most common method of protection from forgeries is the use of bi-metallic coins made of two metals of different color, which are difficult to counterfeit at low cost. The most common way of forging these coins is to change the area that should be a different color by painting it; however, the paint is often easy to scratch off and the coins soon look very crude once worn. An increasing number of coins are cast from the same composition alloy as the real coin, but have poor reproduction of details such as the milling on the side of the coin and the stamped lettering. \n", "The type of mintage method (being hammered, milled or cast) does limit the materials which can be used for the coin. For example, antimony coins, (which are very rare) are nearly always cast examples, because of the brittle nature of the metal, and thus it would break if deformed, which is a key part of the milling and hammering process.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient Chinese coinage\n\nBULLET::::- Coinage of India\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- World Coin Gallery - Self-proclaimed largest coin site in the world, with over 10,000 coins\n\nBULLET::::- http://www.worldcoins.ws/ world coin collectors site for\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 Pakistan fake medicine crisis — a batch of counterfeit medicine that killed over 100 heart patients at a hospital in Punjab\n\nBULLET::::- Counterfeit United States currency — some notable examples of counterfeit operations\n\nBULLET::::- Fake Indian Currency Note — fake currency in circulation in the Indian economy\n\nBULLET::::- Operation Bernhard — a Nazi plot to destabilise the British economy by dropping counterfeit notes out of aircraft\n\nBULLET::::- Superdollar — a very high-quality counterfeit United States hundred dollar bill\n", "BULLET::::2. Counterfeiting paper notes has always been a problem, especially since the introduction of color photocopiers and computer image scanners. Numerous banks and nations have incorporated many types of countermeasures in order to keep the money secure. However, extremely sophisticated counterfeit notes known as superdollars have been detected in recent years.\n", "BULLET::::- In late 1989, in response to public outcry against exporting and dumping of hazardous wastes from developed countries to developing countries, the Basel Convention was adopted in Basel, Switzerland. In the decades following this convention, most of the developed countries have adopted this convention with the major exception of the USA. During this period the United States has continued to export its hazardous e-waste to the developing world, primarily China, where e-waste recycling has become a way of life, despite its toxic effect on the people processing this waste. This e-waste provides the valuable raw materials for today's counterfeiter.\n", "Social media and mobile applications have turned into ideal platforms for transactions and trades. Counterfeit users and sellers would set up online accounts on Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook and post counterfeit or illicit products through ways of sponsored ads and deals. The consumer can easily contact buyers and purchase the counterfeit goods unknowingly, by email, WhatsApp, WeChat, and PayPal. As social media watchdogs and groups are working on cracking and shutting down accounts selling counterfeit goods, counterfeiters continue to operate 24 hours, with advanced systems in algorithms, artificial intelligence, and spambots, also tactics involving automatic account creation, avoid in detection and tax-and-duty-free law. It is advised by many that brands, tech platforms, governments and consumers require a comprehensive strategy and cross-sector collaboration to combat the multifaceted system enabling the international counterfeit market.\n", "This increase in instances of counterfeit products entering the supply chain has been made possible by fundamental changes to the supply chain for electronic components as characterized by the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Globalization\n\nBULLET::::- Dot-Com boom-Bust – The massive investment in telecommunications and data bandwidth during the dot-com bubble made communication tools and services available at a very low cost to business.\n\nBULLET::::- Outsourcing and off-shoring – The gradual shift of manufacturing from North American and Europe to the Far East facilitates technology transfer and awareness.\n", "At the same time, in countries where paper money is a small fraction of the total money in circulation, the macroeconomic effects of counterfeiting of currency may not be significant. The microeconomic effects, such as confidence in currency, however, may be large.\n\nSection::::Anti-counterfeiting measures.\n", "English currency was in disarray in the late 17th century. Hand struck silver coins from prior to 1662 had been clipped around the edges and thus their value (weight) reduced so that they were no longer a viable tender, especially abroad. Since the machine-struck silver coins produced by the Royal Mint in the Tower of London after 1662 were protected from clipping by an engraved, decorated and milled edge, they were instead forged, both by casting from counterfeit moulds and by die stamping from counterfeit dies.\n", "Section::::Materials and Prevention.\n\nIn the United States, counterfeiters in small operations develop the fake currency using tools which often include; printers, an iron, and green colored water. Upon collecting bills, the Federal Reserve checks all notes, destroying any whose appearance fails to fit that of a federal bill.\n\nSection::::Notable American counterfeiters.\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Alston, was the late 18th Century and early 19th Century counterfeiter and river pirate, who is believed to be Little Harpe's associate and partner in the murder of notorious outlaw leader Samuel Mason in 1803\n", "There are well made counterfeit gold coins in circulation. For example, the St. Gaudens Double Eagle omega counterfeit is infamous for its complexity and has fooled many numismatics experts. It is a high relief business strike, and due to the extensive wear on the die, these coins were not made for many years.\n", "In buying counterfeit goods directly from other smaller sellers, location is becoming less a factor, since consumers can purchase products from all over the world and have them delivered straight to their doors by regular carriers, such as USPS, FedEx and UPS. Whereas in previous years international counterfeiters had to transport most counterfeits through large cargo shipments, criminals now can use small parcel mail to avoid most inspections.\n\nSection::::Types.:Apparel and accessories.\n", "In 2014, it was estimated that 3.04% of all UK £1 coins in circulation are counterfeit. These coins were replaced on 15 October 2017 with new, harder to counterfeit, 12-sided bi-metallic coins.\n\nSection::::Collectible counterfeit coins.\n", "Recent investigations by the European Commission have shown that counterfeit sophistication is increasing, making prompt detection more difficult. In 2008, Irish MEP Eoin Ryan called for tighter regulation over tokens and medals that are being increasingly used for small purchases mainly in vending machines across Europe.\n\nSection::::Small-denomination coins.\n", "BULLET::::- David Farnsworth, was a British Loyalist American counterfeiter and spy, in the American Revolutionary War. He was hanged for his crimes, after George Washington had taken a personalised interest in his case.\n\nBULLET::::- Francis Greenway was an English-born architect transported to Australia in 1814, as a convict for the crime of forgery, where he rose as a prominent planner of public buildings. He later posthumously became probably the only forger to be depicted on a banknote, the Australian $10.\n", "BULLET::::4. Wear costs. Banknotes don't lose economic value by wear, since, even if they are in poor condition, they are still a legally valid claim on the issuing bank. However, banks of issue do have to pay the cost of replacing banknotes in poor condition and paper notes wear out much faster than coins.\n\nBULLET::::5. Cost of transport. Coins can be expensive to transport for high value transactions, but banknotes can be issued in large denominations that are lighter than the equivalent value in coins.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04597	Why do you need to put your seat back up for landing?	So the air hostess doesn't have to put every seat upright for take off. Why do your seats have to be upright for take off you ask? It's easier to board a plane when the seats are upright.	[ "The most common cause of gear-up landings is the pilot simply forgetting to extend the landing gear before touchdown. On any retractable gear aircraft, lowering the landing gear is part of the pilot's landing checklist, which also includes items such as setting the flaps, propeller and mixture controls for landing. Pilots who ritually perform such checklists before landing are less likely to land gear-up. However, some pilots neglect these checklists and perform the tasks by memory, increasing the chances of forgetting to lower the landing gear. Even careful pilots are at risk, because they may be distracted and forget to perform the checklist or be interrupted in the middle of it by other duties such as collision avoidance or another emergency. In the picture shown above, the B-17 Dutchess' Daughter had landed normally, when the copilot inadvertently flipped the landing gear switch to retract. The gear collapsed near the end of the landing roll.\n", "In some cases, the pilot may be warned of an unsafe gear condition by the aircraft's flying characteristics. Often very sleek, high-performance airplanes will be very difficult to slow to a safe landing speed without the aerodynamic drag of the extended landing gear.\n\nSection::::Causes and prevention.:Mechanical failure.\n", "An evacuation is more urgent than a \"rapid disembarkation\", which entails using the aircraft's ordinary exits while leaving luggage behind. A 2017 incident at Cork Airport saw passengers use the overwing doors and slides after misinterpreting the captain's rapid disembarkation instruction as an emergency evacuation instruction.\n\nSection::::Ejection seats.\n", "Preliminary investigations revealed serious flight control problems that traumatized passengers and crew on the aircraft's previous flight, as well as signs of Angle of attack (AoA) sensor and other instrument failures on that and previous flights, tied to a potential design flaw involving the Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System (MCAS) of the 737 MAX series. As a result, the United States Federal Aviation Administration and Boeing issued warnings and training advisories to all operators of the 737 MAX series to avoid letting the MCAS cause an abrupt dive similar to the Lion Air flight.\n", "pivot around its skid or wheel. This can occur for a\n\nvariety of reasons, including the failure to remove a\n\ntiedown or skid securing device, or if the skid or wheel\n\ncontacts a fixed object while hovering sideward, or if\n\nthe gear is stuck in ice, soft asphalt, or mud. Dynamic\n\nrollover may also occur if the pilot does not use the proper\n\nlanding or takeoff technique or while performing slope\n\noperations. Whatever the cause, if the gear or skid\n\nbecomes a pivot point, dynamic rollover is possible if\n\nthe pilot does not use the proper corrective technique.\n", "This particular model of ejection seat is known as a \"Zero-Zero\" seat; this is because it is designed to be activated whenever there is an emergency, whether at speed or at zero speed and zero altitude.\n", "Hard landings can cause extensive damage to aircraft if not carried out safely or properly. On 20 June 2012, a Boeing 767 of All Nippon Airways landed with such force that a large crease formed in the aircraft's skin.\n\nWhen the final approach isn't stabilised, the crew should abort and go around, as expressed by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau after investigating the hard landing of a Malaysia Airlines Airbus A330 in Melbourne Airport coming from Kuala Lumpur on March 14, 2015.\n", "The NTSB also stated about another accident in 1997, that \"a display of angle of attack on the flight deck would have maintained the flightcrew's awareness of the stall condition and it would have provided direct indication of the pitch attitudes required for recovery throughout the attempted stall recovery sequence.\" The NTSB also believed that the accident may have been prevented if a direct indication of AoA was presented to the flightcrew (NTSB, 1997).\"\n", "In both cases, the pilot in command must make a clear and unequivocal Yes/No decision upon arrival at the MAP point – either the runway (or its specified environment) is positively visible and accessible for landing using a safe and \"stabilized approach\" (i.e. no excessively steep bank or descent angles required), in which case the approach to landing may be continued, or else the approach must be discontinued and the published missed approach procedure must be initiated immediately.\n\nSection::::Visual descent point (U.S.).\n", "Section::::Explanation.:Back flying.\n\nBack flying is the ability to fly on the back in a stable and controlled fashion. This skill is critical so that when the flyer flips out of some of the more advanced positions they stay in control and do not endanger themselves or other skydivers.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Sit flying.\n\nSit flying is called such because it looks similar to the position taken while sitting in a chair.\n", "A basic means of controlling an aircraft with disabled flight controls, discovered through crew experience, is by making use of the position of the engines. If the engines are mounted under the centre of gravity, as is the case in most passenger jets, then increasing the thrust will raise the nose, while decreasing the thrust will lower it. This control method may call for control inputs that go against the pilot's instinct: when the aircraft is in a dive, adding thrust will raise the nose and vice versa.\n", "In cases where only one landing gear leg fails to extend, the pilot may choose to retract all the gear and perform a belly landing because he or she may believe it to be easier to control the aircraft during rollout with no gear at all than with one gear missing.\n\nSome aircraft, like the A-10 Thunderbolt II, are specifically designed to make belly landings safer. In the A-10's case, the retracted main wheels protrude out of their nacelles, so the plane virtually rolls on belly landings.\n\nSection::::Unmanned belly landings.\n", "In 2006, Airbus was quietly polling airlines to see about the viability of a \"perch seat\", which it had created in 2003.\n", "If an aircraft malfunction occurred on take off or above V1, the airport allows flight crews to continue the takeoff or land back on the runway should it be long enough to safely bring the aircraft to a stop. A long runway was available during the incident, which should have been sufficient to bring the aircraft to a halt. However, the crew opted to not choose this option and continued their flight. The investigation stated that the crew were likely opted not to land back to the airport because of company policy to continue their flight for an engine malfunction at or above V1.\n", "Unauthorized passengers have been known to stowaway on larger aircraft by climbing a landing gear strut and riding in the compartment meant for the wheels. There are extreme dangers to this practice, with numerous deaths reported. Dangers include a lack of oxygen at high altitude, temperatures well below freezing, crush injury or death from the gear retracting into its confined space, and falling out of the compartment during takeoff or landing.\n\nSection::::Spacecraft.\n\nSection::::Spacecraft.:Launch vehicles.\n", "If the slider hangs up midway down the lines, the canopy will inflate almost normally (and may or may not be safe to land in that condition). In this case, the slider can be usually \"worked\" the rest of the way down by pulling on the rear risers, or by releasing the steering lines (\"brakes\") and pulling them down repeatedly (\"pumping\"). If the malfunction can not be cleared sufficiently and one decides to cut away, the decision to do so must be made at a high enough altitude to allow the reserve to deploy.\n\nSection::::Low speed malfunctions.\n", "BULLET::::- On 30 September 2015, Luxair Flight 9562, operated by a Bombardier Q400, was taking off from Saarbrücken Airport when the first officer retracted the landing gear prior to the aircraft lifting off. The aircraft collapsed onto its belly and came to a stop on the runway. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair and Luxair ordered a replacement Q400 to be delivered in August 2016.\n", "On older 737s, pulling back on the control column \"would cut off electronic control of the stabilizers, allowing the pilots to control them manually. That feature was disabled on the Max when MCAS was activated — another change that pilots were unlikely to have been aware of.\" Boeing told airlines after the Lion Air crash that when MCAS is activated, pulling back on the control column will not stop a stabilizer runaway. CBS Safety expert Sully Sullenberger testified, \"The logic was that when MCAS was activated, it had to be, and must not be prevented.\" \n", "Section::::Causes and prevention.\n\nSection::::Causes and prevention.:Pilot error.\n", "Most swivel seats have a safety switch so the stair lift won’t move unless the seat is locked into its travel position. Special models with seats facing the bottom of the staircase have been produced for users with spinal or other conditions which prevent use of the conventional seat layout. More room is need on the landing with these special seats.\n\nSection::::Popular types.\n\nSection::::Popular types.:Straight-rail stair lifts.\n", "BULLET::::- a reminder that seat belts are securely fastened and that all aisles, bulkheads and emergency exit rows must remain clear at all times\n\nBULLET::::- that seatbacks and tray tables should be in their upright and locked position, leg- or footrest put away in premium cabins, and carry-on luggage stowed in the overhead locker or underneath a seat prior to takeoff;\n\nBULLET::::- video screen (if available) put away if it is not in the back of the seat in front of the passenger and was therefore pulled out to watch the video;\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nU.S. regulations require at least two flight crew members to be in the cockpit at all times for safety reasons, to be able to help in any medical or other emergency, including intervening if a crew member would try to crash the plane. Following the deliberate crash of Germanwings Flight 9525 on March 24, 2015, some European and Canadian airlines adopted a two-in-cockpit policy as did all Australian airlines for aircraft with fifty or more passenger seats.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aviation accidents and incidents\n\nBULLET::::- Aviation safety\n", "BULLET::::- \"Precautionary landing\" may result from a planned landing at a location about which information is limited, from unanticipated changes during the flight, or from abnormal or even emergency situations. This may be as a result of problems with the aircraft, or a medical or police emergency. The sooner a pilot locates and inspects a potential landing site, the less the chance of additional limitations being imposed by worsening aircraft conditions, deteriorating weather, or other factors.\n", "After the near-miss, UA863 was vectored out to sea to dump fuel to reduce weight and return to San Francisco for an overweight landing. During the climbout, the first officer stated he had noted the aircraft was handling sluggishly and was slow to climb, which he instinctively responded to by \"[pulling] the nose up just a bit more to climb away from the ground.\" The first officer had limited experience, having made only one takeoff and landing in a 747 during the year preceding the occurrence.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "On March 14, Boeing reiterated that pilots can always use manual trim control to override software commands, and that both its Flight Crew Operations Manual and November 6 bulletin offer detailed procedures for handling incorrect angle-of-attack readings. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00628	Why do they call it a 2x4 if the board is actually 1.5x3.5	> Historically, the nominal dimensions were the size of the green (not dried), rough (unfinished) boards that eventually became smaller finished lumber through drying and planing (to smooth the wood). Today, the standards specify the final finished dimensions and the mill cuts the logs to whatever size it needs to achieve those final dimensions. Typically, that rough cut is smaller than the nominal dimensions because modern technology makes it possible and it uses the logs more efficiently. For example, a "2×4" board historically started out as a green, rough board actually 2 by 4 inches (51 mm × 102 mm). After drying and planing, it would be smaller, by a nonstandard amount. Today, a "2×4" board starts out as something smaller than 2 inches by 4 inches and not specified by standards, and after drying and planing is reliably 1 1⁄2 by 3 1⁄2 inches URL_0	[ "BULLET::::- Board: the distinctive 40-space board (see illustration) was marked on a cotton cloth or a blanket.\n", "Typically there are A or B grade squares made and sold, B grade being perfectly serviceable for most general use where accuracy is required in a workshop situation. A grade squares are typically used in applications where a higher grade of accuracy is required, in a toolroom for example, or for checking other squares for square, or for making jigs and fixtures where supreme accuracy is needed. \n\nSection::::Accuracy checking and calibration.\n", "The board (\"mal-pan\", 말판) is normally made of stitched cloth. The modern board is a rectangular shape, but historically there was also a round variation. There are four straight courses and two diagonal ones. Each of the straight courses comes with five stations, the diagonal ones have five stations, too, but one is shared. This brings the number of stations to twenty-nine in total. The board is also known to sometimes be drawn onto the floor.\n", "At each corner and along the edges of the board are drawn 12 smaller squares, called \"boxes\", of about six inches (15 cm) a side each (see diagram). These boxes are labeled \"1\" to \"12\" in a pattern so that the path from one square to the next requires—as much as possible—crossing through a large center square called the \"skull\" or \"skully\" (hence the name of the game). Boxes \"1\" and \"2\" are in opposite corners of the board, as are \"3\" and \"4\".\n", "Board foot is the unit of measure for rough lumber (before drying and planing with no adjustments) or planed/surfaced lumber. An example of planed lumber is softwood 2 × 4 lumber one would buy at a large lumber retailer. The 2 × 4 is actually only but the dimensions for the lumber when purchased wholesale could still be represented as full 2 × 4 lumber, although the \"standard\" can vary between vendors. This means that nominal lumber includes air space around the physical board when calculating board feet in some situations, while the true measurement of \"board feet\" should be limited to the actual dimensions of the board.\n", "The field kloot is a round ball of wood or synthetic material, made heavier with lead. The diameter of the kloot is mostly between 7 and 8 centimetres, but these can deviate according to the preference of the participants. There is a minimum diameter of 5 centimetres.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Street.\n", "BULLET::::- 16x16, that is, in both depth and diameter. This was the original size and is still most common.\n\nBULLET::::- x14 for jazz and fusion kits, and very occasionally with a 16x16 as well.\n\nBULLET::::- 18x16; that is, in diameter and 16 in depth, the most common size for a second floor tom, used with a 16x16.\n\nBULLET::::- 16x18, a rarer size sometimes used for a second floor tom, also with a 16x16.\n\nFloor toms can be mounted:\n\nBULLET::::- In the traditional manner, with three adjustable legs.\n", "In recent years this scale has also gained popularity for model military vehicles, and is also used for Japanese anime science fiction models, die-cast model cars, figures, and radio-control model ships, as well as soldiers.\n\nSection::::Die-cast models.\n\n1:72 scale is becoming increasingly popular for die-cast toys. The beginning of die-cast production in this scale can be connected to the noted Hong Kong model car producer Hongwell Company, which opened its factory dedicated to these model cars in 1997.\n", "Shooting boards can be made in various sizes and shapes to accommodate different tasks and it would not be uncommon to find a number of them in the workshop. One accessory that may be fitted to a shooting board is an angled stop, most commonly at 45 degrees. This allows mitres to be trimmed.\n", "BULLET::::- Once a player connects all three sides of the board, the game ends and that player wins. The corners count as belonging to both sides of the board to which they are adjacent.\n\nAs in most connection games, the size of the board changes the nature of the game; small boards tend towards pure tactical play, whereas larger boards tend to make the game more strategic.\n\nSection::::Relation to other connection games.\n", "A piece of wood that is rectangular, flat, and has all edges (faces, sides, and ends) 90 degrees is called four square. A board is often milled four square in preparation for using it in building furniture. A traditional try square has a broad blade made of steel that is riveted to a wooden handle or \"stock\". The inside of the wooden stock usually has a brass strip fixed to it to reduce wear. Some blades also have graduations for measurement. Modern try squares may be all-metal, with stocks that are either die-cast or extruded.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Combination square\n", "BULLET::::2. The board is filled in the beginning with all the players pieces. The only point vacant on the board is the middle point. Each player's pieces are placed on their half of the board, and lined up on the right-hand side of the 5th. rank (the middle horizontal line of the grid board).\n", "The dimensions of the skully board can vary depending upon physical restrictions and neighborhood game play practices. Earlier versions of the board had only 9 boxes, and boards used in the similar games like \"deadbox\" (played mainly in Philadelphia) have upwards of 15 boxes.\n\nIn some layouts, the central area is labeled \"MUD\" and if your bottlecap lands in the MUD you lose 3 turns. The 13 is in a small circle in the middle of the MUD.\n\nSection::::Game play.\n", "BULLET::::- 1:1200 scale: A common scale for ship models and accessories. Lines Bros. Ltd. produced an extensive range of ship models in this scale from 1959 - 1965 under the name Tri-ang Minic Ships.\n\nBULLET::::- Meccano (Dinky Toys) aircraft were made at scales ranging from 1/122 to 1/265 and their ships from 1/1200 to 1/1985.\n\nSection::::Accessories.\n", "The scaffolding width is determined by the width of the boards, the minimum width allowed is 600 mm but a more typical four-board scaffold would be 870 mm wide from standard to standard. More heavy-duty scaffolding can require 5, 6 or even up to 8 boards width. Often an \"inside board\" is added to reduce the gap between the inner standard and the structure.\n\nThe lift height, the spacing between ledgers, is 2 m, although the base lift can be up to 2.7 m. The diagram above also shows a kicker lift, which is just 150 mm or so above the ground.\n", "Shooting board\n\nA shooting board is a jig for woodworking which is used in combination with a hand plane to trim and square up the edges and ends of boards. It would typically be used on a workbench. A plank or board with edges planed flat is called a shot edge board.\n", "The components of the game are stored in a cardboard box with a lid. The box depicts an Australian stockman herding sheep on horseback. The components consist of\n\nBULLET::::- A square game board with a hexagonal layout representing 6 sheep stations and a monopoly like set of squares printed around the edges of the board that pieces move around\n\nBULLET::::- Two \"Ready Reckoner reference\" cards\n", "The bottom part is for recording speed. It has four rows of holes. Each column represents a certain speed, measured in knots. Three more columns to the right give fractional knots: , , and . Eight pegs are attached to this part of the board.\n", "Caster board\n\nA caster board or vigorboard is a two-wheeled, human-powered land vehicle. It is a skateboard. Other names are waveboard \"J-board\" and RipStik (sometimes written \"rip stick\"), both of which are derived from commercial brands.\n", "BULLET::::- Carveboarding : A board that has wheels similar to a car except smaller, it turns better than most boards on four wheels, its main purpose is to cruise and carve, it can turn 65 degrees, and has spring-loaded trucks that are almost as unique as a flowboards trucks.\n", "There are two specific purposes to which shooting boards are applied: jointing and end grain trimming. The design of the shooting board remains fundamentally the same in both cases but the length of the board will vary - with the boards used for jointing being much longer than those intended for end grain trimming.\n\nA shooting board consists of a flat board, the \"base\", with a stop at one end, similar to a bench hook, on which the board to be planed is rested. The stop prevents the board from sliding as it is planed. \n", "Board\n\nBoard or Boards may refer to:\n\nSection::::Flat surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Lumber, or other rigid material, milled or sawn flat\n\nBULLET::::- Plank (wood)\n\nBULLET::::- Cutting board\n\nBULLET::::- Sounding board, of a musical instrument\n\nBULLET::::- Cardboard (paper product)\n\nBULLET::::- Paperboard\n\nBULLET::::- Corrugated fiberboard\n\nBULLET::::- Fiberboard\n\nBULLET::::- Hardboard, a type of fiberboard\n\nBULLET::::- Particle board, also known as \"chipboard\"\n\nBULLET::::- A reusable writing surface\n\nBULLET::::- Chalkboard\n\nBULLET::::- Whiteboard\n\nSection::::Recreation.\n\nBULLET::::- Boardsport platform, such as a surfboard, skateboard, or snowboard\n\nBULLET::::- Board (bridge), a device used in playing duplicate bridge\n\nBULLET::::- Level (video games)\n\nBULLET::::- Diving board (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Board game\n\nBULLET::::- Chessboard\n", "1:72 scale is a scale used for scale models, most commonly model aircraft, corresponding to one sixth of an inch representing one foot (or 1 inch to 6 feet). In other words, 72 of a given model placed end to end would represent the length of the real thing. In this scale, a man who is six feet tall would be exactly one inch in height. The scale was popular for aircraft because small fighters and large bombers were represented, and was practically the only choice of scale if a modeler wanted to have all aircraft types represented in the same scale.\n", "There is an additional board class, the 10' 6\". These boards are not used in the long ocean races that are run with the Stock, 14 Foot and Unlimited boards, but are used in surf and sprint races. 10' 6\" class boards are known by several names: Ten-Six, Sprint Board, Surf Racer, or Racing Mal.\n", "Although this board uses surface-mount components, the layout is the same as in the V3 main board, apart from the omission of the DIY-oriented prototype area (the 3.57 is not meant to be a DIY board, of course). Component numbering remains the same in nearly all cases. In fact, this board version started with the V3 main board, and maintains the 4-layer construction and power distribution. It is the same size (4\" x 6\") and the connectors are in the same places, so it fits in the standard case with no modifications (though some modifications may be necessary for additional functionality).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00086	In Anna Karenina , Oblonsky says "it's all my fault--all my fault, though I'm not to blame". I don't understand this sentence, so whats the explanation and story behind this sentence?	what Oblosnky means is that while the action was committed by him, and in that sense is his fault, it was inevitable as if by a force of nature acting through him. what else was a susceptible man with an unappealing wife supposed to do? He is not to blame because what happened could not NOT have happened. This is an example of Fatalism being used as the excuse: he is denying blame by denying responsibility altogether. (the reader is not necessarily inclined to agree)	[ "Who is to Blame?\n\nWho is to Blame? () is a novel by Alexander Herzen.\n\nSection::::History.\n\n\"Who is to Blame?\" was first published in the journal \"Otechestvennye Zapiski\" (1845-1846), with some cuts by the censor. It was published in book form in 1847. It was the first purely \"social\" novel in Russian literature. Vissarion Belinsky remarked that the novel was artistically weak but was valuable as a social and psychological evaluation of contemporary Russian life.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Whilst at the railway station to meet Anna, Stiva bumps into Vronsky who is there to meet his mother, the Countess Vronskaya. Anna and Vronskaya have traveled and talked together in the same carriage. As the family members are reunited, and Vronsky sees Anna for the first time, a railway worker accidentally falls in front of a train and is killed. Anna interprets this as an \"evil omen.\" Vronsky, however, is infatuated with Anna, and donates two hundred roubles to the dead man’s family to impress her. Anna is uneasy about leaving her young son, Sergei (\"Seryozha\"), alone for the first time.\n", "Section::::Translations into English.:Comparisons of translations.\n", "In \"Honor\" Clay finally (though indirectly) admits his feelings for Coach Stopframe, in front of his wife, and children. Stopframe, however, coldly refuses him, saying it's \"too late,\" and Clay leaves dejected and defeated. A picture of him and Bloberta both frowning is seen on the wall in Orel's home in the final scene, a stark contrast to Orel and Christina.\n", "BULLET::::- Alexander Herzen, \"Who is to Blame?\" (1847 novel): Krutsifersky is the tutor of Lyubonka, an illegitimate daughter of the retired general, Negrov. Upon forming an emotional attachment to Lyubonka, Krutsifersky is allowed to marry her. The emphasis given to Lyubonka's illegitimacy was of personal concern to Herzen, who was himself illegitimate.\n\nBULLET::::- Nathaniel Hawthorne, \"The Scarlet Letter\" (1850 novel): Hester Prynne gives birth after committing adultery, refuses to name the father, and is cast out of Puritan society.\n", "Larry's father takes a more dangerous job within the mine in order to make more money to pay for Larry's schooling. However, there is an accident while Mike Riordan and Tom are in the mine. Larry's father dies, and without an income Mother begins to take in others’ laundry. One of Mother's customers is the butcher's wife, Mrs. Koch, who is very particular about her laundry. Larry stains a load of her clothing and Mother takes the blame.\n\nRollie Weems leaves town after rumors start that he got Mattie Perkins pregnant.\n", "Years later, Bloberta mirrors her mother's habits by showing favoritism towards Shapey. Another habit is bossing Clay around. Bloberta denies this. In \"Honor\" Bloberta shows that she tries to be better than her mother by wanting to have Orel in the family choir.\n\nBloberta may have realized that she did her mother a favor by leaving the Hymentact family. Mrs. Hymentact may be glad that Bloberta is gone. Throughout the series, Bloberta failed to stand up to her mother.\n\nShe is Orel's grandmother, but it is not shown that the two of them have ever met.\n\nSection::::The Puppingtons.:Raymond Hymentact.\n", "Section::::Translations into English.:Comparisons of translations.:\"Anna Karenin\" vs. \"Anna Karenina\".\n", "The Gods Are Not to Blame\n\nThe Gods Are Not To Blame is a 1968 play and a 1971 novel by Ola Rotimi. An adaptation of the Greek classic \"Oedipus Rex\", the story centres on Odewale, who is lured into a false sense of security, only to somehow get caught up in a somewhat consanguineous trail of events by the gods of the land.\n", "Nikitin takes his wife and son and drives away, believing that the building is being evacuated. However, as they drive past it, Nikitin realizes that no attempts at evacuation are being made. His wife is fearful and wants to leave immediately, but Nikitin is angry and tells her to leave him forever. Nikitin decides to stay and help the residents even if his life is at stake. The wife drives off, leaving Nikitin behind. Knowing Nikitin's actions, his parents feel sorry for him and ask him to forgive them for not equipping him to live with and through the reality of the world.\n", "Sixteen years later, the farms are now prosperous. Alexandra and her brothers have divided up their inheritance, and Emil has just returned from college. The Linstrum farm has failed, and Marie, now married to Frank Shabata, has bought it. That same day, the Bergsons are surprised by a visit from Carl Linstrum, whom they have not seen for thirteen years. [Note: Carl says it has been sixteen years, but this is a textual error. John Bergson died sixteen years earlier, and Carl's family left during the drought that occurred three years later.] Having failed at a job in Chicago, he is on his way to Alaska, but decides to stay with Alexandra for a while. Carl notices the growing flirtatious relationship between Emil and Marie. Lou and Oscar suspect that Carl wants to marry Alexandra, and are resentful at the idea that Carl might end up owning Alexandra's share of the farm, which they still view as belonging to them and which would otherwise be inherited by their children. This causes problems between Alexandra and her brothers, and they stop speaking to each other. Carl, recognizing a problem, decides to leave for Alaska. At the same time, Emil announces he is leaving to travel through Mexico. Alexandra is left alone.\n", "Kenneth Yablonski appears in documentary filmmaker Barbara Kopple's film, \"Harlan County, USA\", which won the 1976 Academy Award for Documentary Feature. He is shown making an emotional public statement, saying \"We [my brother and I] loved and admired our father. We respected him, and my brother and I would like to carry him to his final resting place. But we deem it proper to do otherwise. My brother Joseph with our cousins from my mother's family will carry our mother, and I with our cousins from my father's family will carry our sister Charlotte. We entrust our father to the coal miners, whom he loved so much.\"\n", "The concept \"sanction of the victim\" is defined by Leonard Peikoff as \"the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the evil, to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the 'sin' of creating values\". Accordingly, throughout \"Atlas Shrugged\", numerous characters are frustrated by this sanction, as when Hank Rearden appears duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility toward him; later, the principle is stated by Dan Conway: \"I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain\". John Galt further explains the principle: \"Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us\", and, \"I saw that evil was impotent ... and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it\".\n", "When Kate claims to Chris (who is still intent on marrying Ann) that moving on from Larry will be forsaking Joe as a murderer, Chris concludes that George was right. Joe, out of excuses, explains that he sent out the cracked airheads to avoid closure of the business, intending to notify the base later that they needed repairs. However, when the fleet crashed and made headlines, he lied to Steve and abandoned him at the factory to be arrested. Chris cannot accept this explanation, and exclaims in despair that he is torn about what to do about his father now.\n", "He also has a collection of firearms in his study, including a Heckler & Koch PSG1 sniper rifle and what is revealed in \"Nature Pt.1\" to be an extensive arsenal. During a mostly unsuccessful camping trip with Orel, a drunk Clay rants violently about how awful his life is and then accidentally shoots Orel in the leg but denies any responsibility. He sinks even lower when, in \"Honor,\" it is revealed that he continues to blame Orel for the injury, telling anyone who asked that it had happened because his son was either clumsy or had gotten in the way.\n", "In 1975, Andrew, an electrical engineer, was declared to have inherited his father's insanity. He was expelled from the USSR to the USA, two years before Petro and Zinaida Grigorenko themselves travelled to the United States. Andrew was repeatedly told that since his father was mentally ill, then he was also mad. If he did not stop speaking out in defense of human rights and his father, they told him, he would also be sent to the psikhushka.\n\nSection::::Name spelling versions.\n", "When Joe returns and excuses his guilt on account of his life's accomplishments, his son wearily responds, \"I know you're no worse than other men, but I thought you were better. I never saw you as a man ... I saw you as my father.\" Finally, the letter, read by Chris, reveals that because of his father's guilt, Larry planned to commit suicide. With this final blow, Joe finally agrees to turn himself in, saying of Larry, \"Sure, he was my son. But I think to him they were all my sons. And I guess they were, I guess they were\". Joe goes inside to get his coat, and kills himself with a gunshot off stage. At the end, when Chris expresses remorse in spite of his resolve, Kate tells him not to blame himself and to move on with his life.\n", "BULLET::::- Taranteyev and Ivan Matveyevich are Oblomov's “friends”, who repeatedly swindle him. Taranteyev and Ivan end up blackmailing Oblomov out of all of his income from the country estate. This stunt lasts for over a year before Stoltz discovers the situation and reports Ivan Matveyevich and Taranteyev to his supervisor. When Taranteyev's behavior at last reaches insufferable lows, Oblomov confronts him, slaps him around a bit and finally kicks him out of the house.\n\nSection::::Style.\n\nSection::::Style.:Narrator.\n", "The trio and the passengers make it back to the airport on foot, only to find the Tu-204 standing empty and Zinchenko and the rest of the passengers gone. The group climbs into the plane. Seeing that it is impossible to take off from the main runway due to its damage, Gushchin decides to use the shorter runway, which is covered in burning oil. After a water tower breaks and puts out the fire, Gushchin is able to take off successfully. Despite several engine fires from the ash cloud, the crew manages to escape the zone. The crew then comes into contact with Zinchenko's plane. Valera, knowing of his father's actions and seeing them as unjust, tells him over the radio, \"I will never forgive you\".\n", "As soon as Katerina's father arrives at her and Danilo's home the next morning, an argument starts when he demands that she explain her late return the previous night. Danilo also notices that, unlike the Cossacks, his father-in-law refuses to eat halušky and pork, only pretends to drink mead, and generally acts more like the Poles and Turks than one of their own. In the ensuing saber and gun fight, Katerina's father shoots Danilo in the arm before she intervenes and begs them to forgive one another.\n", "The novel explores a diverse range of topics throughout its approximately one thousand pages. Some of these topics include an evaluation of the feudal system that existed in Russia at the time—politics, not only in the Russian government but also at the level of the individual characters and families, religion, morality, gender and social class.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n\nThe novel is divided into eight parts. Its epigraph is \"Vengeance is mine; I will repay\", from , which in turn quotes from .\n\nThe novel begins with one of its most often-quoted lines:\n\nSection::::Plot summary.:Part 1.\n", "Section::::Historical context.\n", "John did speak the madness of his mother with some teachers but nobody believes him. Furthermore his mother is manipulative and convinces everyone she is the victim as “being the solid mother with an unmanageable, respectless son”.\n", "\"Atonement\" contains a (fictional) letter addressed to Briony by the literary critic and editor Cyril Connolly. Like Connolly, Elizabeth Bowen is revealed to have reviewed Briony's earlier novel.\n\nSection::::Awards and critiques.\n", "Some time later, a large herd of cattle is found in one of the outside communities. MacAllister orders Dwight's father, Colonel Jeff Allison, to bring the cattle to the bunker for \"government protection\". Dwight believes it would be wrong to take the cattle when the outsiders depend on them for survival and hurries to tell Bill. Bill and Dwight decide that the best course of action would be to leave the bunker and warn the community which owns the cattle; Ophelia accompanies them, but she does so because they are the people she is closest to, not because she feels they are doing the right thing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05324	Why are variable propelling nozzles seemingly only fitted to jets with afterburners?	Most planes are designed to operate effectively at their cruising speed. They're going to take off, climb quickly to altitude, then spend a few hours cruising at a fixed speed and altitude before they descend. Their engines are optimized for this speed and altitude, and most of their thrust comes from the big fan at the front, not the exhaust from the jet. Aircraft with afterburning turbojets generally operate under different conditions. They need to be able to operate effectively at a wide range of speeds(both subsonic and supersonic), work at a wide range of altitudes, have a huge range of fuel rates depending on if they're cruising or hitting the afterburner, and generally need maximum performance over anything else(weight, money, fuel) The variable nozzle lets the engine operate more efficiently over the wide operating range of the aircraft and can result in increased thrust which is important to a fighter plane but not to jetliner. On an afterburning turbojet, all of the thrust comes from the combustion of fuel in the turbine so it is important to optimize the exhaust.	[ "BULLET::::- On some engines that are equipped with an afterburner the nozzle area is also varied during non-afterburning or dry thrust conditions. Typically the nozzle is fully open for starting and at idle. It may then close down as the thrust lever is advanced reaching its minimum area before or at the Military or maximum dry thrust setting. Two examples of this control are the General Electric J-79 and the Tumansky RD-33 in the MIG-29. Reasons for varying the nozzle area are explained in section \"Nozzle area control during dry operation\".\n\nSection::::Principle geometries.\n\nSection::::Principle geometries.:Convergent nozzle.\n", "The resulting increase in afterburner exit volume flow is accommodated by increasing the throat area of the propulsion nozzle. Otherwise, the upstream turbomachinery rematches (probably causing a compressor stall or fan surge in a turbofan application). The first designs, e.g. Solar afterburners used on the F7U Cutlass, F-94 Starfire and F-89 Scorpion, had 2-position eyelid nozzles. Modern designs incorporate not only VG nozzles but multiple stages of augmentation via separate spray bars.\n\nTo a first order, the gross thrust ratio (afterburning/dry) is directly proportional to the root of the stagnation temperature ratio across the afterburner (i.e. exit/entry).\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n", "Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave only one area available for afterburning use.\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.:Ejector.\n", "Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary, nozzle. This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet expansion.\n\nSection::::Further topics.:Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples.\n", "Section::::Types of nozzle.:Fixed-area nozzle.:In rockets (with high area ratio).\n\nRocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet engines.\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.:Variable-area for afterburning.\n", "In either system, the pulse jet has problems during the combustion process. As the fuel burns and expands to create thrust, it is also pushing any remaining unburnt charge rearward, out of the nozzle. In many cases some of the charge is ejected before burning, which causes the famous trail of flame seen on the V-1 flying bomb and other pulse jets. Even while inside the engine, the mixture's volume is constantly changing which inefficiently converts fuel into usable energy.\n\nSection::::Concept.:PDEs.\n", "The nozzle area is increased during afterburner operation to limit the upstream effects on the engine. To run a turbofan to give maximum airflow (thrust), the nozzle area may be controlled to keep the fan operating line in its optimum position. For a turbojet to give maximum thrust, the area may be controlled to keep the turbine exhaust temperature at its limit.\n\nSection::::Further topics.:What happens if the nozzle doesn't open when the afterburner is selected?\n", "Early jet engines were prone to flameout following disturbances of inlet airflow, or sudden or inappropriate thrust lever movements, which resulted in incorrect air-fuel ratios in the combustion chamber. Modern engines are much more robust in this respect, and are often digitally controlled, which allows for a significantly more effective control of all engine parameters to prevent flameouts and even initiate an automatic restart if a flameout occurs.\n", "Certain aircraft, like the German Bf-109 and the Macchi C.202/205 were fitted with \"ejector-type exhausts\". These exhausts converted some of the waste energy of the (internal combustion) engines exhaust-flow into a small amount of forward thrust by accelerating the hot gasses in a rearward direction to a speed greater than that of the aircraft. All exhaust setups do this to some extent, provided that the exhaust-ejection vector is opposite/dissimilar to the direction of the aircraft movement.\n", "Due to temperature limitations with the gas turbines, jet engines do not consume all the oxygen in the air ('run stoichiometric'). Afterburners burn the remaining oxygen after exiting the turbines, but usually do so inefficiently due to the low pressures typically found at this part of the jet engine make the subsequent nozzle inefficient at extracting the heat energy; however afterburners still gain significant thrust, which can be useful. Engines intended for extended use with afterburners often have variable nozzles and other details.\n\nSection::::Major components.:Nozzle.\n", "BULLET::::- Wide range of operation. Most combustors must be able to operate with a variety of inlet pressures, temperatures, and mass flows. These factors change with both engine settings and environmental conditions (I.e., full throttle at low altitude can be very different from idle throttle at high altitude).\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental emissions. There are strict regulations on aircraft emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides, so combustors need to be designed to minimize those emissions. (See \"Emissions\" section below)\n\nSources:\n\nSection::::Fundamentals.:History.\n", "Pilots can activate and deactivate afterburners in-flight, and jet engines are referred to as operating \"wet\" when afterburning is being used and \"dry\" when not. An engine producing maximum thrust wet is at \"maximum power,\" while an engine producing maximum thrust dry is at \"military power\".\n\nSection::::Principle.\n", "The first engine design to include an expanding nozzle appears to be the Pratt & Whitney XLR-129. The XLR-129 was intended to power a McDonnell Aircraft boost-glide aircraft design that was entered as part of the Project ISINGLASS (or RHEINBERRY) study looking at follow-on designs to replace the Lockheed A-12 that was just entering service. It was a liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen design that used staged combustion and generated about thrust. An enlarged version of the XLR-129 was proposed for the Space Shuttle Main Engine contest, but this was won by an enlarged Rocketdyne HG-3 instead. Since these engines are fired from the point of liftoff into extra-atmospheric space flight, any sort of altitude compensation could dramatically improve their overall performance. The expanding nozzle was later abandoned in a cost-cutting phase. During its time of operation, the SSMEs consequently suffered a 25% loss of performance at low altitude as a result.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nEarly British reheat work included flight tests on a Rolls-Royce W2/B23 in a Gloster Meteor I in late 1944 and ground tests on a Power Jets W2/700 engine in mid-1945. This engine was destined for the Miles M.52 supersonic aircraft project.\n\nEarly US research on the concept was done by NACA, in Cleveland, OH, leading to the publication of the paper \"Theoretical Investigation of Thrust Augmentation of Turbojet Engines by Tail-pipe Burning\" in January 1947.\n\nUS work on afterburners in 1948 resulted in Solar installations on early straight-wing jets such as the Pirate, Starfire and Scorpion.\n", "In addition to the propellant turbopumps, staged combustion engines often require smaller boost pumps to prevent both preburner backflow and turbopump cavitation. For example, the RD-180 and RS-25 use boost pumps driven by tap-off and expander cycles, as well as pressurized tanks, to incrementally increase propellant pressure prior to entering the preburner.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Full-flow staged combustion cycle.\n", "Examples are the F-16 at Mach2.0 and the XB-70 at Mach3.0.\n\nAnother consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of , by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.\n", "The disadvantages of aerospikes seem to be extra weight for the spike, and increased cooling requirements to the extra heated area, the spike. Furthermore, the larger cooled area can reduce performance below theoretical levels by reducing the pressure against the nozzle. Aerospikes work relatively poorly between Mach 1–3, where the airflow around the vehicle has reduced the pressure, thus reducing the thrust.\n\nSection::::Principles.:Variations.\n", "The first production afterburning turbofan engine was the Pratt & Whitney TF30, which initially powered the F-111 Aardvark and F-14 Tomcat. Current low-bypass military turbofans include the Pratt & Whitney F119, the Eurojet EJ200, the General Electric F110, the Klimov RD-33, and the Saturn AL-31, all of which feature a mixed exhaust, afterburner and variable area propelling nozzle.\n\nSection::::Common types.:High-bypass turbofan.\n", "Nonetheless, low area ratio nozzles have subsonic applications.\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.:Fixed-area nozzle.\n\nNon-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle.\n\nThis is not the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.:Fixed-area nozzle.:With low area ratio.\n", "Section::::Safety and reliability.\n\nJet engines are usually very reliable and have a very good safety record. However, failures do sometimes occur.\n\nSection::::Safety and reliability.:Engine surge.\n", "GE developed a variable afterburner for the engine, although electronic control linked with engine controls had to wait until the J47. Marrett describes one of the consequences if the link is human on an afterburning engine. If the afterburner lit but the nozzle didn't open (not noticed by the pilot) the RPM governor would overfuel the engine until the turbine failed.\n\nSection::::Operational history.\n", "Confusingly, the term \"plug nozzle\" may also be used to refer to an entirely different class of engine nozzles, the aerospikes. In theory the aerospike should look roughly like a lance. with a wide base and long tapering forebody. However, the \"spike\" portion can be cut off with only minor effects on performance, leaving just the base section. This looks very similar to a common drain plug or bung, and leads to widespread use of the term \"plug nozzle\" for this design as well.\n\nSection::::In aircraft and missiles.\n", "Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a \"Zwiebel\" [wild onion] from its shape), had a translating plug to vary the nozzle area. The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and thrust. The 004's \"Zwiebel\" possessed a range of forward/reverse travel to vary the exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area just behind the exit turbine.\n", "Propelling nozzles may have a fixed geometry, or they may have variable geometry to give different exit areas to control the operation of the engine when equipped with an afterburner or a reheat system. When afterburning engines are equipped with a C-D nozzle the throat area is variable. Nozzles for supersonic flight speeds, at which high nozzle pressure ratios are generated, also have variable area divergent sections.\n", "The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on the EJ200 (Eurofighter). Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.:Additional features.\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.:Additional features.:Thrust-vectoring.\n\nNozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable geometry F119 (F-22).\n\nSection::::Types of nozzle.:Additional features.:Thrust-reversing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16802	Why does mostly the top of our feet hurt when our feet land on something hard?	If you look at a human skeleton, you will see that there are long bones at the top of our feet. Those are called metatarsal bones. The force of the impact of landing hard on your feet will travel through those bones, which is painful.	[ "BULLET::::- The tendon of fibularis longus similarly passes behind the lateral malleolus into the sole.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n\nThe soles of the feet are extremely sensitive to touch due to a high concentration of nerve endings, with as many as 200,000 per sole. This makes them sensitive to surfaces that are walked on, ticklish and some people find them to be erogenous zones.\n\nMedically, the soles are the site of the plantar reflex, the testing of which can be painful due to the sole's sensitivity.\n", "The talus is most commonly fractured by two methods. The first is hyperdorsiflexion, where the neck of the talus is forced against the tibia and fractures. The second is jumping from a height - the body is fractured as the talus transmits the force from the foot to the lower limb bones.\n", "Section::::United States.\n", "A doctor who specializes in the treatment of the feet practices podiatry and is called a podiatrist. A pedorthist specializes in the use and modification of footwear to treat problems related to the lower limbs.\n\nFractures of the foot include:\n\nBULLET::::- Lisfranc fracture – in which one or all of the metatarsals are displaced from the tarsus\n\nBULLET::::- Jones fracture – a fracture of the fifth metatarsal\n\nBULLET::::- March fracture – a fracture of the distal third of one of the metatarsals occurring because of recurrent stress\n\nBULLET::::- Calcaneal fracture\n", "Patients with painful disorders of sensation (dysesthesia) of the soles of the feet may have a similar gait but do not have foot drop. Because of the extreme pain evoked by even the slightest pressure on the feet, the patient walks as if walking barefoot on hot sand.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Pain is usually a deep, dull ache that feels like a bruise.\n\nBULLET::::- Pressing with the thumb into the centre of the heel should re-create the pain.\n\nBULLET::::- Condition can often be attributed to a blow to the heel – landing hard while barefoot on a hard surface, jumping in dress shoes with a hard heel, stepping on a stone while running.\n\nBULLET::::- Pain is aggravated by walking barefoot on hard surfaces like ceramic tile, concrete, hardwood floors, etc.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The ball is a common area in which people develop pain, known as metatarsalgia. People who frequently wear high heels often develop pain in the balls of their feet from the immense amount of pressure that is placed on them for long periods of time, due to the inclination of the shoes. To remedy this, there is a market for ball-of-foot or general foot cushions that are placed into shoes to relieve some of the pressure. Alternately, people can have a procedure done in which a dermal filler is injected into the balls of the feet to add cushioning.\n", "Direct Lisfranc injuries are usually caused by a crush injury, such as a heavy object falling onto the midfoot, or the foot being run over by a car or truck, or someone landing on the foot after a fall from a significant height. Indirect Lisfranc injuries are caused by a sudden rotational force on a plantar flexed (downward pointing) forefoot. Examples of this type of trauma include a rider falling from a horse but the foot remaining trapped in the stirrup, or a person falling forward after stepping into a storm drain.\n", "In athletic trauma, Lisfranc injuries occur commonly in activities such as windsurfing, kitesurfing, wakeboarding, or snowboarding (where appliance bindings pass directly over the metatarsals). American football players occasionally acquire this injury, and it most often occurs when the athlete's foot is plantar flexed and another player lands on the heel. This can also be seen in pivoting athletic positions such as a baseball catcher or a ballerina spinning.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The metatarsal bones are often broken by association football players. These and other recent cases have been attributed to the lightweight design of modern football boots, which provide less protection to the foot. In 2010 some soccer players began testing a new sock that incorporated a rubber silicone pad over the foot to provide protection to the top of the foot. Stress fractures are thought to account for 16% of injuries related to sports participation, and the metatarsals are the bones most often involved. These fractures are sometimes called march fractures, based on their traditional association with military recruits after long marches. The second and third metatarsals are fixed while walking, thus these metatarsals are common sites of injury. The fifth metatarsal may be fractured if the foot is oversupinated during locomotion.\n", "BULLET::::- \"midfoot strike\" – heel and ball land simultaneously\n\nBULLET::::- \"heel strike\" – heel-toe: heel of foot lands, then plantar flexes to ball\n\nIn sprinting, gait typically features a forefoot strike, but the heel does not contact the ground.\n\nSome researchers classify foot strike by the initial center of pressure; this is mostly applicable to shod running (running while wearing shoes). In this classification:\n\nBULLET::::- a rearfoot strike (heel strike) has the initial center of pressure in the rear third of the shoe (rear 1/3 of shoe length);\n", "BULLET::::- Lowering refers to returning to the normal position of flat feet and \"soft\" i.e., lightly flexed knees.\n", "Lower leg injuries are common while running or playing sports. About 10% of all total injuries involve the lower extremities in athletes. The majority of athletes sprain their ankles, which are mainly caused by the increased loads onto the feet when they move into the foot down or in an outer ankle position. All areas of the foot, which are the forefoot, midfoot, and rearfoot, absorb various forces while running and can lead to injuries as well. Running and various activities can cause stress fractures, tendinitis, musculotendinous injuries, or any chronic pain to our lower extremities such as the tibia.\n", "So-called 'traditional' running shoes are designed to give more support and cushion the landing to reduce the effects of impact. They allow for more comfortable running on hard surfaces such as asphalt and also protect the foot when stepping on rocks or other potentially sharp objects. However, the cushioning provided in traditional running shoes is thought to encourage a foot strike pattern, where the heel lands first. Heel striking generates a relatively large amount of impact force that can put different parts of the lower extremities under excessive stress. \n\nSection::::Footwear.:Barefoot running.\n", "Because wear on the hip joint traces to the structures that support it (the posture of the legs, and ultimately, the feet), proper fitting shoes with adequate support are important to preventing GTPS. For someone who has flat feet, wearing proper orthotic inserts and replacing them as often as recommended are also important preventive measures.\n\nStrength in the core and legs is also important to posture, so physical training also helps to prevent GTPS. But it is equally important to avoid exercises that damage the hip.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The midfoot consists of five bones that form the arches of the foot (the cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiform bones) and their articulations with the bases of the five metatarsal bones, and these articulations are damaged in a Lisfranc injury. Such injuries typically involve the ligaments between the medial cuneiform bone and the bases of the second and third metatarsal bones, and each of these ligaments is called Lisfranc ligament.\n\nLisfranc injuries are caused when excessive kinetic energy is applied either directly or indirectly to the midfoot and are often seen in traffic collisions or industrial accidents.\n", "Lower leg and foot pain management is critical in reducing the progression of further injuries, uncomfortable sensations and limiting alterations while walking and running. Most individuals suffer from various pains in their lower leg and foot due to different factors. Muscle inflammation, strain, tenderness, swelling and muscle tear from muscle overuse or incorrect movement are several conditions often experienced by athletes and the common public during and after high impact physical activities. Therefore, suggested pain management mechanisms are provided to reduce pain and prevent the progression of injury.\n\nSection::::Pain management.:Plantar fasciitis.\n", "The beatings are usually aimed at the vaults of the foot, not directly hitting the bone structure of the balls and the heels. The vaults are highly pain-sensitive due to the tight clustering of nerve tissue in that area.\n\nAs bastinado usually causes a high amount of suffering for the receiving person while physical evidence remains mostly undetectable after a certain time, it is often used for interrogation purposes in certain countries as well.\n\nSection::::Arts and entertainment.\n", "A 2012 study involving Harvard University runners found that those who \"habitually rearfoot strike had approximately twice the rate of repetitive stress injuries than individuals who habitually forefoot strike\". This was the first study that investigated the link between foot strike and injury rates. However, earlier studies have shown that smaller collision forces were generated when running forefoot strike compared to rear-foot strike. This may protect the ankle joints and lower limbs from some of the impact-related injuries experienced by rear-foot strikers.\n", "Section::::Military performance.\n", "The cause of this change in gait in shoe running is unknown, but Liebermann noted that there is correlation between the foot-landing style and exposure to shoes. In some individuals, the gait pattern is largely unchanged – the leg position and foot position are identical in barefoot and shoe running – but the wedge shape of the padding moving the point of impact back from the forefoot to the midfoot. In other cases, it is conjectured that the padding of the heel softens the impact and resulting in runner modifying their gait to contact further back in the foot.\n", "The most common injuries in running involve the knees and the feet. Various studies have focused on the initial cause of these running related injuries and found that there are many factors that correlate to these injuries. Female distance runners who had a history of stress fracture injuries had higher vertical impact forces than non-injured subjects. The large forces onto the lower legs were associated with gravitational forces, and this correlated with patellofemoral pain or potential knee injuries. Researchers have also found that these running related injuries affect the feet as well because runners with previous injuries showed more foot eversion and over pronation while running than non-injured runners. This causes more loads and forces on the medial side of the foot, causing more stress on the tendons of the foot and ankle (peroneal tendons). Most of these running injuries are caused by overuse and that running at longer distances weekly for a long duration is a risk for injuring the lower legs.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Metabolic theory: Insulin affects multiple processes within the body, including inflammation, blood flow, and tissue remodeling. Change in insulin regulation may lead to laminitis. Hyperinsulinemia has been shown to cause increased length of the secondary lamellae and epidermal cell proliferation.\n\nBULLET::::- Traumatic theory: Concussion is thought to directly damage lamellae, and increased weight-bearing is thought to decrease blood supply to the foot.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Rotation, sinking, and founder.\n", "\"Tabes dorsalgia\" is a related lancinating back pain.\n\n\"Tabetic gait\" is a characteristic ataxic gait of untreated syphilis where the person's feet slap the ground as they strike the floor due to loss of proprioception. In daylight the person can avoid some unsteadiness by watching their own feet.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03839	How do Search and Rescue teams looking for lost hikers ensure they don't get lost themselves?	One could argue that perhaps search and rescue teams are little bit more prepared than some lost people are. What with radios, maps, gps, compasses, and an entire support team of people who are aware of and being updated regularly by the SAR team.	[ "In 2008, two lost hikers on Mount Hood, Oregon, after spending the night in a snow cave, stumbled across a geocache and were able to phone this information out to rescuers, resulting in their timely rescue.\n", "In some cases avalanche victims are not located until spring thaw melts the snow, or even years later when objects emerge from a glacier.\n\nSection::::Search and rescue equipment.\n", "Survival time is short, if a victim is buried. The search for victims must start immediately; many people have died because the surviving companions or witnesses failed to do even the simplest search.\n", "BULLET::::- Search and rescue: the wilderness aspect of many areas of the National Park System offers unique natural hazards for visitors. Search and rescue trained rangers help visitors with injuries or illnesses suffered in remote wilderness areas or who become stranded in technical environments like swift water and high angle rock. These rangers are often expert climbers, boaters, or managers of the Incident Command System. Searches can range from children who wander away from Visitor Centers to expert climbers who suffer a major accident while climbing.\n\nSection::::Education.\n", "The MLU was designed after a school group with two adults and seven children perished on Mount Hood in 1986. (See Mount Hood climbing accidents.) The bodies of some of the group were found in a snow cave a day after the searchers had passed within fifteen feet of their shelter without noticing them.\n", "The first step is to stabilize the situation and free up the climbers still outside the crevasse. This can be done in several ways, typically involving one person anchoring the rope with a boot-axe belay, while the other person probes for the edge of the crevasse and attempts to communicate with the victim.\n", "North Shore Rescue volunteers respond at the discretion of police, often after family members or friends call 9-1-1 to report that someone has failed to return from an outing in the mountains. Because the North Shore Mountains are very close to Vancouver, the dangers of their terrain and weather are often underestimated. Underpreparation and recklessness are factors in many incidents.\n\nIn addition to searching on foot, the team sometimes uses a Helicopter Flight Rescue System, in which a volunteer is lowered from a helicopter via a rope to evacuate a stranded and/or injured person.\n", "Probing can be a very time-consuming process if a thorough search is undertaken for a victim without a beacon. In the U.S., 86% of the 140 victims found (since 1950) by probing were already dead. Survival/rescue more than 2 m deep is rare (about 4%). Probes should be used immediately after a visual search for surface clues, in coordination with the beacon search.\n\nSection::::Search and rescue equipment.:Shovels.\n\nEven when the snowpack consists of loose powder, avalanche debris is hard and dense. The energy of the avalanche causes the snow to melt, and the debris refreezes immediately after it stops.\n", "When the snow gives way under the victim, the others on the team must immediately prepare for the impending yanks, usually by flopping down and digging ice axes and knees (or boots if not wearing crampons) into the snow in a self-arrest position, facing away from the crevasse if possible, and holding tight until everything stops moving. Many crevasses are small or slanted, and the fallen climber may be able to escape by digging or wiggling out; but if the climber is hanging in midair, one of several rescue techniques will need to be used.\n", "In 2015, the coastguard were called to a group of geocachers who were spotted walking into the Severn Estuary off the coast of Clevedon, England, in search of clues to a multi-cache. Although they felt they were safe and were able to return to land, they were considered to be in danger and were airlifted back to the shore.\n\nIn October 2016, four people discovered a crashed car at the bottom of a ravine in Benton, Washington, while out geocaching. They spotted the driver still trapped inside, and alerted the emergency services who effected a rescue.\n", "BULLET::::- If the climber in the crevasse is able to move, he or she may be able to use prusik hitches with slings, cordelette, or Jumars to ascend the rope. The related bilgeri technique involves the use of a second rope, and prusik hitches by the rescuers instead of the victim.\n\nOnce the victim reaches the lip of the crevasse, some combination of hauling and flailing will be needed to get over it, since the victim is still suspended by the waist, with feet still in the crevasse.\n", "Harris' ice axe and jacket were found near Rob Hall's body several days later. Before he died, Hall also mentioned that Harris had been with him, but was now missing. It is likely that Harris went to aid Rob Hall and Doug Hansen when they were trapped higher up on the mountain as the storm came in. It is unknown what truly happened to him; his body was never found.\n\nSection::::Memorial.\n", "In March, 2014, two teenage boys, one a local resident and the other a visitor from Switzerland, got lost hiking on Mount Juneau. The teens were able to call for help on a cell phone, and told emergency dispatchers that they were \"cold and disoriented\". JMR volunteers, working with a commercial helicopter company, located the teenagers and returned them to town.\n", "Crevasse rescue\n\nCrevasse rescue is the process of retrieving a climber from a crevasse in a glacier. Because of the frequency with which climbers break through the snow over a crevasse and fall in, crevasse rescue technique is a standard part of climbing education.\n", "Witnesses to an avalanche that engulfs people are frequently limited to those in the party involved in the avalanche. Those not caught should try to note the locations where the avalanched person or persons were last seen. In fact, anyone planning to enter an avalanche area should discuss this step as part of their preparation. Once the avalanche has stopped and the danger of secondary slides has passed, witnesses should mark these points with objects for reference. Then, survivors should take a headcount to determine who may be lost. If the area is safe to enter, the searchers should visually scan along a downslope trajectory from the marked points last seen. Victims who are partially or shallowly buried can often be located quickly by visually scanning the avalanche debris and pulling out clothing or equipment that may be attached to someone buried.\n", "Chances of a buried victim being found alive and rescued are increased when everyone in a group is carrying and using standard avalanche equipment, and have trained in how to use it. A beacon, shovel and probe is considered the minimum equipment to carry for companion rescue. Organized rescue involves ski patrols and mountain rescue teams who are often equipped with other technologies to search for buried victims. Rescue equipment can make a difference, and in 2010 the French National Association for the Study of Snow and Avalanches (ANENA) recommended that all off-piste skiers should carry beacons, probes, shovels, and Recco reflectors.\n", "The group concentrates its efforts in the 480 km area of the North Shore Mountains near Vancouver. However, its skills and equipment are occasionally called into play by other agencies looking for missing persons. Sgt. Ron Fairweather of the Vancouver Police Department has said, \"They're an awesome unit, the equipment they have is phenomenal. We don't have the extent of equipment they have access to. And their expertise is second to none.\"\n\nSection::::Volunteers.\n", "Portland Mountain Rescue is called upon by sheriff departments when there is a reported missing climber, hiker, or other rescue mission requiring the unit's specialized skills. Law enforcement does not climb the mountain, but relies on mountain rescue organizations for their skill, expertise, and experience.\n\nSince its inception, Portland Mountain Rescue has been involved in most rescues on Mount Hood.\n", "On-site rescuers (usually companions) are in the best position to save a buried victim. However, organized rescue teams can sometimes respond very quickly to assist in the search for a buried victim. The sooner organized rescue can be notified the sooner they can respond, and this difference can mean the difference in living or dying for a critically injured patient. The International Commission for Alpine Rescue recommends, “early notification is essential, e.g., by mobile phone, satellite phone, or radio, wherever possible” \n", "BULLET::::- In low spots where the snow may collect (gullies, crevasses, creeks, ditches along roads, etc.)\n\nAlthough less likely, check other areas if initial searches are not fruitful.\n\nOnce buried victims are found and their heads and chests are freed, perform first aid (airway, breathing, circulation/pulse, arterial bleeding, spinal injuries, fractures, shock, hypothermia, internal injuries, etc.), according to local law and custom.\n\nSection::::Organized rescue.\n", "Avalanche rescue\n\nAvalanche rescue involves locating and retrieving people who have been buried in avalanches.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Locating the victim precedes assessment and intervention and in the case of wilderness response is often a difficult matter. Specialists in white water rescue, mountain rescue, mine disaster response and other fields are often employed. In some cases, emergency extrication procedures at incidents such as automobile accidents are required before assessment is possible. Only once the location of the victim has been determined, a trained responder has been dispatched and successfully reached the victim, can the ordinary first aid process begin.\n", "Although the mechanical principle of rescue is simple, the reality is far messier. The victim may be injured and/or disoriented from the fall, the rescuers on the scene may be anxious or uncertain, equipment and ropes are scattered everywhere, and everybody will likely already be exhausted and out of breath because of the climbing and altitude. It may also be that additional crevasses are nearby, and rescuers have died in unsuspected crevasses because they unroped in order to set up a rescue of the first victim.\n", "Section::::Search and rescue equipment.:Avalanche cords.\n", "In most countries, the police are the primary agency for carrying out searches for a missing person on land. Some places have voluntary search and rescue teams that can be called out to assist these searches.\n\nSection::::Types of search and rescue.:Mountain rescue.\n\nMountain rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged and mountainous terrain.\n\nSection::::Types of search and rescue.:Cave rescue.\n\nCave rescue is a highly specialized form of rescue for rescuing injured, trapped or lost cave explorers.\n\nSection::::Types of search and rescue.:Urban search and rescue.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04745	Why is the blonde & brunette female duo so common in live action tv?	Some prefer blondes some prefer brunettes. The cast must be in such a way you at least like someone.	[ "French magazine \"Le Monde\" believes that the rivalry is more prevalent in the United States. In a 2012 article, \"Le Monde\" argued that American TV has almost, without exception, characterized blonde women as having the positive values of purity, goodness, and sincerity, frequently at the expense of their brunette counterparts. The article provided several examples including \"Bewitched\" (where Samantha, the blonde witch, displays a sense of tolerance while her dark haired cousin Serena plays the wild one), \"Dynasty\" (where blonde Krystal pitted against brunette Alexis), and \"V\" (in both the original series in 1984 and the remake in 2009 shows an intelligent, humanistic blonde battling a brunette leader of the alien cannibals).\n", "The article argues that in recent years, the American TV industry has begun to move away from the positive blonde stereotype and has begun to portray brunettes in a more favorable manner.\n\nSection::::In the media and entertainment industry.:Other movie and TV examples.\n\nOther notable movies and TV shows that used an obvious blonde vs. brunette setup or was perceived as using such by the media include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Thief in Paradise\". Directed by George Fitzmaurice the movie includes a polo match between a team of brunettes and another team of blondes, each attired in bathing suits.\n", "A different perspective on the Hollywood blonde vs. brunette rivalry was offered up by the dark-haired Teri Hatcher in a 1994 interview while she was starring in , \"I love that there are no blondes on our show. You see so many shows with so many blondes, and isn't everyone\n\nsick of that?\"\n", "In a November 16, 2011 article titled \"\"Blondes vs. Brunettes: TV Shows with Betty and Veronica-Style Love Triangles\"\", media critic Tucker Cummings cited several TV shows that featured a \"classic war between blonde and brunette love interests.\" Typically, she wrote, \"... the blonde (is) stable, and typifies the 'girl next door,' while (the) ... brunette, is haughty, and a bit more exotic.\" Shows cited by Cummings that feature blondes and brunettes competing for a man include: \"The Office\" (where lighter haired Pam Beesly competes with brunette Karen Filipelli for the attention of Jim Helpert), \"Suits\" (where blonde Jenny Griffith competes with brunette Rachel Zane for the attention of Mike Ross), and \"Dexter\" (where blonde Rita Bennent and brunette Lila West compete for the affections of Dexter Morgan, the main character).\n", "In a November 16, 2011 article titled \"\"Blondes vs. Brunettes: TV Shows with Betty and Veronica-Style Love Triangles\"\", media critic Tucker Cummings cited several TV shows that featured a \"classic war between blonde and brunette love interests\", including \"The Office\" (where lighter haired Pam Beesly competes with brunette Karen Filipelli for the attention of Jim Halpert), \"Suits\" (where blonde Jenny Griffith competes with brunette Rachel Zane for the attention of Mike Ross), and \"Dexter\" (where blonde Rita Bennent and brunette Lila West compete for the affections of Dexter Morgan, the main character). Typically, she wrote, \"... the blonde (is) stable, and typifies the 'girl next door,' while (the) ... brunette, is haughty, and a bit more exotic.\" In Archie comics, Betty Cooper and Veronica Lodge have been engaged in a mostly friendly competition for over 70 years.\n", "Arraying blondes against brunettes, is not unique to the American film industry. The British film company Hammer Films produced a 1967 movie that took the blonde vs. brunette concept to an extreme. The film \"Slave Girls\" (also released under the title \"Prehistoric Women\") starred Martine Beswick in the role of Kari, the queen of a tribe of brunettes who had enslaved a tribe of blondes. Their existence was disrupted by the arrival of a male explorer who discovered the two tribes by means of a time portal. Witnessing the brunette's cruel treatment of the blondes, he rejected Beswick's advances and was subsequently enslaved himself. He soon discovered a group of men who were also held in bondage. He eventually led a rebellion where the blondes overwhelmed the brunettes, Beswick was killed, and the explorer managed to escape back through the portal. The production has been described as one of the most bizarre films ever released.\n", "During \"Dynasty\"s run, Collins co-hosted \"Blondes vs. Brunettes\" for ABC. The show featured a number of skits that gently poked fun at popular culture's blonde vs. brunette rivalry. The final skit featured Collins and co-host Morgan Fairchild in their elderly years offering a toast to each other.\n", "Section::::In the media and entertainment industry.:Popular examples.\n\n\"Three's Company\", an ABC sitcom that ran from 1977-1984 also featured a blonde and brunette triangle. The blonde, Chrissy Snow, was played by Suzanne Somers and the brunette, Janet Wood, was played by Joyce DeWitt. The man in the middle, Jack Tripper, was played by John Ritter. Somers and DeWitt were continually faced with media stories that described both an on and off-screen \"rivalry\" between the two co-stars. Both women repeatedly denied the stories and attempted to dispel \"...the myth that women, especially blondes and brunettes, can’t get along in Hollywood.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bewitched\" – Samantha Stevens, a blonde witch who is the perfect hostess and wife. In a comic twist the actress Elisabeth Montgomery who played Samantha also portrayed her dark haired cousin Serena, who embodies mostly negative qualities.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dynasty\" – Blonde Krystal (portrayed by Linda Evans), pitted against brunette Alexis Carrington (played by Joan Collins).\n\nBULLET::::- \"V\" – In the science fiction show, in both the original series in 1984 and the 2009 remake, featured an intelligent, humanistic blonde battling a brunette who was the leader of the alien cannibals.\n", "Pitting blondes and brunettes against each other, especially as romantic rivals, is a Hollywood technique that extends back to at least the early 1930s. In a 1932 interview with an Australian newspaper, Hollywood director Dorothy Arzner stated that lead women and women in supporting roles must always have different hair color to accentuate the contrasting beauty of each type. Arzner also stated that blondes were usually cast as the fickle types while brunettes are cast as the more serious and emotional types. Using hair color in the casting process, has sometimes resulted in Hollywood altering versions of established characters found in other media forms. As an example, in the 1936 Flash Gordon serial, blonde Jean Rogers was cast as Dale Arden who had been portrayed as a brunette in the Flash Gordon comic strips. However, since the producers had already cast brunette Priscilla Lawson as Dale Arden's nemesis, Princess Aura, the decision was made to cast a blonde in the role of Arden to help the audience differentiate between the two women.\n", "Even when there is one female lead, various rivals always threaten the relationship between the lead characters, often creating complicated \"love polygons\". These can vary from being from mundane characters such as men who fight for the affection of the female (and rarely male) lead, or rivals from the female lead's origins.\n", "At the same time ABC was running the \"Three's Company\" sitcom, it was also running \"Dynasty\", a night time soap opera. The show starred John Forsythe as Blake Carrington, an oil tycoon embroiled in a love triangle that featured his blonde wife Krystle Carrington (Linda Evans) and his ex-wife, brunette Alexis Carrington Colby (Joan Collins). During the show's 10-year run the women had a number of fights. The spectacle of two middle aged woman engaged in a catfight during prime time boosted the show's ratings considerably. Feminist author and cultural critic Susan J. Douglas believed that the shows emphasis on the male lead character, highlighted by women fighting over him, confirmed the traditional patriarchal role of men in society. Notwithstanding, Douglas and other feminists were not only huge fans of the show but were captivated by the sight of two women engaged in a catfight. Douglas even suggested that in popular culture, the \"purest\" form of a catfight was between a blonde and a brunette.\"Dynasty upped the ante ... On one side was the blonde stay at home Krystal Carrington ... in the other corner was the most delicious bitch ever seen on television, the dark haired, scheming, career vixen, Alexis Carrington Colby ... Krystal just wanted to make her husband happy; Alexis wanted to control the world. How could you not love a catfight between these two?\"\n", "The most enduring blonde vs. brunette rivalry in American culture may exist in the comic book industry where blonde Betty Cooper and brunette Veronica Lodge have been engaged in a mostly friendly competition for over 70 years. The teenage girls form two-thirds of a blonde vs. brunette love triangle that is completed by their high school classmate and object of their affection, Archie Andrews. As Archie's next door neighbor in the fictional town of Riverdale, the blonde and blue-eyed Betty Cooper is portrayed in the comic book series as a wholesome, popular, middle class girl. Her high school friend and chief competitor for Archie's affection is the vain, spoiled, upper class brunette Veronica Lodge. Despite their rivalry they remain good friends. Other comics have used a similar construct where two girls compete for the affections of a young man and the blonde girl is the \"good girl, while her brunette rival is the bad girl.\" The comic book industry's blonde vs. brunette rivalry over a male has been replicated in other forms of media, including television.\n", "\"Most people would tell you, if asked, that it doesn't matter what your hair colour is. What style your hair is in. They would say whatever is best for your face,\" explained Walker. \"But from a very young age these stereotypes appear. In cartoons and children's programming, we see the way women are portrayed based on their hair. The associations continue through childhood into adulthood.”\n", "Blonde versus brunette rivalry\n\nOne aspect of how women are portrayed in popular culture is a purported rivalry between blondes and brunettes. The rivalry is a cultural phenomenon found in many countries that have significant populations of both blondes and brunettes. In the United States, evidence of a blonde versus brunette rivalry is common in the popular media and especially in television and film.\n\nSection::::Competitive events.\n", "BULLET::::- In the late 1960s and early 1970s, \"Bewitched\" and \"I Dream of Jeannie\" both featured their lead character in recurring dual roles. Elizabeth Montgomery played Samantha and her wicked cousin Serena, while Barbara Eden played Jeannie, her evil fraternal twin (Jeannie II), and their mother. In both cases, the blonde character's evil counterpart was a brunette.\n", "Section::::In the media and entertainment industry.\n", "There are numerous shows that tend to pair up two unexpected characters with other. For instance, Pacey Witter and Joey Potter from the drama \"Dawsons Creek\". Pacey and Joey did not like each other at all first, and Joey was in love with her soulmate Dawson Leery, but they eventually fell in love and became a supercouple of the show. Kurt Hummel and Blaine Anderson and Santana Lopez and Brittany Pierce from \"Glee\" and are regularly quoted as TV's first LGBTQ powercouples.\n", "Magical girlfriends can be one or many in a single series (always attached to the male lead). Because of the tendency for rivals to appear even when there is one female lead and because of the unnatural gender balance among the cast, magical girlfriend comedies are often conflated with harem comedies. A good example of this conflation is \"Oh My Goddess!\" which is \"one of the prototypical 'harem' titles\" despite the short-lived nature of most of the romantic rivalries.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Cinderella – In the TV series, Cinderella has long brown hair and wears different dresses. She is one of the citizens of Storybrook Village and appears in some episodes.\n\nBULLET::::- Ella – Ella is a star girl who wears yellow. Her skirt shapes like a star and her hair matches her dress. Her only appearance is \"The Stars in the Sky.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Odette – Although, she is called the \"Swan Maiden\", Odette dresses in white with white hair and pink ballet slippers with a matching flower on her head. Her only appearance is \"The Swan Maiden\".\n", "During the Second World War Tran and Helle appeared in a number of short films to deter Germans from actions detrimental to Germany's war effort or security.\n\nBetween 1950 and 1980, the most popular comedy duo of East Germany, Herricht & Preil, ran a very successful double act, with Hans-Joachim Preil as the straight man and Rolf Herricht as the comic.\n\nSection::::Interchangeable roles.\n\nDouble acts who do not use the \"Straight Man/Funny Man\" dynamic or whose roles are interchangeable — as well as notable examples:\n\nBULLET::::- Ade Edmondson & Rik Mayall\n\nBULLET::::- Alexander Armstrong and Ben Miller\n", "The supercouple phenomenon spread to foreign shores, with Scott and Charlene, portrayed by Jason Donovan and Kylie Minogue on the Australian soap opera \"Neighbours\". The success of their romance prompted a fellow Australian daytime drama \"Home and Away\" to shelve out their own supercouple, Shane and Angel, and Den and Angie from \"EastEnders\" emerged as Britain's most famous soap opera couple.\n", "Occasionally, the straight-man/funny-man dynamic appeared in unexpected contexts between characters not normally thought of as comics. This often appeared in the James T. Kirk (William Shatner)/Mr. Spock (Leonard Nimoy) relationship in several episodes of the original \"Star Trek\" series.\n\nSection::::History.:1980s.\n", "With some fictional supercouples from soap opera or primetime, the couple may have started out as an unexpected pairing and with or without a paradigm. Due to viewers becoming excited over the prospect of chemistry between the two, the show's producers and writers later decide to pair them.\n\nSection::::Film.\n", "More recently, the model has been largely supplanted by that of the \"buddy movie\" genre, which has introduced several notable comedy partnerships not formally billed as a single \"act\" in the traditional manner. The earliest example of such a team may have been Bob Hope and Bing Crosby; later examples include Gene Wilder and Richard Pryor, Dan Aykroyd and John Belushi, Mike Myers and Dana Carvey, David Spade and Chris Farley and child stars Kenan Thompson and Kel Mitchell. Based on the gag-man/straight-man concept, \"Stoner\" duos like Cheech and Chong, Jay & Silent Bob, and Harold and Kumar have also proven quite popular with audiences.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02301	How do thermometers differentiate the actual temperature from the “feels like” temperature (and how is that measured)?	They can't. A thermometers can detect the temperature, but human can't do that. What human can do is feel the rate of energy transfer between your skin and your environment. That's why water feel a lot colder than the same temperature in the air. Since water absorb energy faster than air, the water will absorb heat from your body faster, which ''feel'' colder to us. Something similar happen with wind. Without wind, your body heat a layer of air around your body, which slow down the lost of heat. But wind will blow out that layer of air, making sure you are constantly in contact with cold air so you will lose heat faster. There is several factors that will affect how fast you lose heat.	[ "BULLET::::- Comparison calibrations: is commonly used with secondary SPRTs and industrial RTDs. The thermometers being calibrated are compared to calibrated thermometers by means of a bath whose temperature is uniformly stable. Unlike fixed-point calibrations, comparisons can be made at any temperature between −100 °C and 500 °C (−148 °F to 932 °F). This method might be more cost-effective, since several sensors can be calibrated simultaneously with automated equipment. These electrically heated and well-stirred baths use silicone oils and molten salts as the medium for the various calibration temperatures.\n\nSection::::Element types.\n", "Apparent temperature\n\nApparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The measure is most commonly applied to the perceived outdoor temperature. However it also applies to indoor temperatures, especially saunas and when houses and workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled.\n\nBULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n", "where \"P\" is the gas pressure, \"B\" is a constant that depends on the thermocouple temperature, the gas composition and the vacuum-chamber geometry, \"V\" is the thermocouple voltage at zero pressure (absolute), and \"V\" is the voltage indicated by the thermocouple.\n\nThe alternative is the Pirani gauge, which operates in a similar way, over approximately the same pressure range, but is only a 2-terminal device, sensing the change in resistance with temperature of a thin electrically heated wire, rather than using a thermocouple.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Heat flux sensor\n\nBULLET::::- Bolometer\n\nBULLET::::- Giuseppe Domenico Botto\n\nBULLET::::- Resistance thermometer\n\nBULLET::::- Thermistor\n", "Other important devices for measuring temperature include:\n\nBULLET::::- Thermocouples\n\nBULLET::::- Thermistors\n\nBULLET::::- Resistance temperature detector (RTD)\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrometer\n\nBULLET::::- Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma)\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared\n\nBULLET::::- Other thermometers\n", "Section::::Indirect methods of temperature measurement.\n\nIn theory any physical phenomenon exhibiting a temperature dependence could be used as a thermometer, measuring temperature indirectly. Some of these properties have been exploited. For example, blackbody radiation allows one to measure the temperature in a blast furnace or kiln, or the temperature of a distant star\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal expansion\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Density\n\nBULLET::::- Thermochromism\n\nBULLET::::- Fluorescence\n\nBULLET::::- Optical absorbance spectra\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical potential\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear magnetic resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetic susceptibility\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "One must be careful when measuring temperature to ensure that the measuring instrument (thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In such a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system, but also with the heat transfer properties of the system.\n", "Section::::Primary and secondary thermometers.\n", "While an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from to approximately .\n\nSection::::Temperature.:Early developments.\n\nVarious authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development.\n", "\"\" br\n\n\"Q\" = the dry heat loss, or power, recorded by the manikinbr\n\n\"t\" = the skin temperature of the manikinbr \n\n\"t\" = the equivalent temperature of the room (the calibration temperature)\n\nThis factor may then be used to calculate equivalent temperature during further experiments in which radiant temperature and air velocity are not controlled using the equation:br\n\nSection::::Setup.\n", "The temperature of the air near the surface of the Earth is measured at meteorological observatories and weather stations, usually using thermometers placed in a shelter such as Stevenson screen, a standardized well-ventilated white-painted instrument shelter. The thermometers should be positioned 1.25–2 m above the ground. Details of this setup are defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).\n", "Section::::Calibration.\n\nSection::::Calibration.:Temperature sensors.\n", "A thermometer is called primary or secondary based on how the raw physical quantity it measures is mapped to a temperature. As summarized by Kauppinen et al., \"For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise voltage or current of an electrical resistor, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field.\"\n", "Thermopiles do not respond to absolute temperature, but generate an output voltage proportional to a local temperature difference or temperature gradient. The amount of voltage and power are very small and they are measured in milli-watts and milli-volts using controlled devices that are specifically designed for such purpose.\n", "Some electronic thermometers may work by contact (the electronic sensor is placed in the location where temperature is to be measured, and left long enough to reach equilibrium). These typically reach equilibrium faster than mercury thermometers; the thermometer may beep when equilibrium has been reached, or the time may be specified in the manufacturer's documentation.\n\nSection::::Classification by technology.:Electronic.:Remote.\n", "Section::::Precision, accuracy, and reproducibility.\n\nThe precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible to make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest 10 °C or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1 °C. Special instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this precision does not mean the reading is true or accurate, it only means that very small changes can be observed.\n", "BULLET::::1. Immerse the sensing portion in a stirred mixture of pure ice and water at atmospheric pressure and mark the point indicated when it had come to thermal equilibrium.\n\nBULLET::::2. Immerse the sensing portion in a steam bath at Standard atmospheric pressure and again mark the point indicated.\n\nBULLET::::3. Divide the distance between these marks into equal portions according to the temperature scale being used.\n", "In contrast, \"Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature.\"\n\nSection::::Calibration.\n", "Section::::Classification by location.:Forehead.\n\nThe band thermometer is applied to the patient's brow. It is typically a band coated with different temperature-sensitive markings using plastic strip thermometer or similar technology; at a given temperature the markings (numerals indicating the temperature) in one region are at the right temperature to become visible. This type may give an indication of fever, but is not considered accurate.\n\nSection::::Classification by technology.\n\nSection::::Classification by technology.:Liquid-filled.\n", "Medical thermometer\n\nA medical thermometer (also called clinical thermometer) is used for measuring human or animal body temperature. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue (\"oral\" or \"sub-lingual temperature\"), under the armpit (\"axillary temperature\"), or into the rectum via the anus (\"rectal temperature\").\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe medical thermometer began as an instrument more appropriately called a water thermoscope, constructed by Galileo Galilei circa 1592–1593. It lacked an accurate scale with which to measure temperature and could be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure.\n", "Thermometers increasingly use electronic means to provide a digital display or input to a computer.\n\nSection::::Physical principles of thermometry.\n", "The table below shows examples for three locations in the city of San Francisco, California. Note the corrected barometer readings are identical, and based on equivalent sea-level pressure. (Assume a temperature of 15 °C.)\n", "The heat index and its counterpart the humidex both take into account only two variables, shade temperature and atmospheric moisture (humidity), thus providing only a limited estimate of thermal comfort. Wind passing over wet or sweaty skin causes evaporation and a wind chill effect that the heat index does not measure. The other major factor is sunshine; standing in direct sunlight can add up to to the apparent heat compared to shade. There have been attempts to create a universal apparent temperature, such as the wet-bulb globe temperature, \"relative outdoor temperature\", \"feels like\", or the proprietary \"RealFeel\".\n\nSection::::Meteorological considerations.\n", "The apparent temperature (AT), invented in the late 1970s, was designed to measure thermal sensation in indoor conditions. It was extended in the early 1980s to include the effect of sun and wind. The AT index used here is based on a mathematical model of an adult, walking outdoors, in the shade (Steadman 1994). The AT is defined as; the temperature, at the reference humidity level, producing the same amount of discomfort as that experienced under the current ambient temperature and humidity.\n\nThe formula is:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" = dry bulb temperature (°C)\n\nBULLET::::- \"e\" = water vapour pressure (hPa)\n", "To characterize the \"R\" vs \"T\" relationship of any RTD over a temperature range that represents the planned range of use, calibration must be performed at temperatures other than 0 °C and 100 °C. This is necessary to meet calibration requirements. Although RTDs are considered to be linear in operation, it must be proven that they are accurate with regard to the temperatures with which they will actually be used (see details in Comparison calibration option). Two common calibration methods are the fixed-point method and the comparison method.\n", "Since compact and inexpensive methods of measuring and displaying temperature became available, electronic thermometers (often called \"digital\", because they display numeric values) have been used. Many display readings to great precision (0.1 °C or 0.2 °F, sometimes half that), but this should not be taken as a guarantee of accuracy: specified accuracy must be checked in documentation and maintained by periodical recalibration. A typical inexpensive electronic ear thermometer for home use has a displayed resolution of 0.1 °C, but a stated accuracy within ±0.2 °C (±0.35 °F) when new. The first electronic clinical thermometer, invented in 1954, used a flexible probe that contained a Carboloy thermistor.\n" ]	[ "Thermometers can detect a difference in the actual temperature and a \"feels like\" temperature.", "Thermometers differentiate the actual temperature from the feels like temperature." ]	[ "Thermometers do no detect a difference. The feels like temperature is a calculated temperature based on models of how the human body absorbs heat. ", "Thermometers most definitely can't differentiate the actual temperature from the feels like temperature." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Thermometers can detect a difference in the actual temperature and a \"feels like\" temperature.", "Thermometers differentiate the actual temperature from the feels like temperature." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Thermometers do no detect a difference. The feels like temperature is a calculated temperature based on models of how the human body absorbs heat. ", "Thermometers most definitely can't differentiate the actual temperature from the feels like temperature." ]
2018-01743	Why do bottles shatter when you hit the top of the bottle with your hand?	Basically it has to do with the momentum of the liquid and the spring efficiency of a vacuum. When the bottle is hit from the top it pushes the sides and bottom down very quickly. It does this so quickly in fact that the liquid in the bottle doesn't immediately follow along, leaving a gap of partial vacuum between the bottom of the bottle and the liquid. Air pressure above the liquid along with gravity quickly accelerates the liquid down to meet the bottom of the bottle at which point its new speed needs to be shed. The sharp impact of the liquid against the bottom of the bottle breaks the glass around its edges.	[ "Once made, bottles may suffer from internal stresses as a result of unequal, or too rapid cooling. An annealing oven, or 'lehr' is used to cool glass containers slowly to prevent stress and make the bottle stronger. When a glass bottle filled with liquid is dropped or subjected to shock, the water hammer effect may cause hydrodynamic stress, breaking the bottle.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Markings.\n", "At the opening of the bottle, there is a lip that creates a stress concentration. On the vertical seam of the bottle there is a thin, faintly visible, prepared seam, which creates a second stress concentration. At the intersection of the seam and the lip, both stress concentrations combine and the strength of the glass is reduced by more than fifty percent. The impact of the saber on this weak point creates a crack that rapidly propagates through the glass, fueled by the momentum of the saber and the pressure in the bottle. Once the crack has severed the top from the bottle, the pressure inside the bottle and the transferred momentum from the saber will send the top flying, typically for a distance of .\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In his early childhood, Fine's arm was accidentally burned with acid that his father used to test jewelry for its gold content. On this occasion, the young Fine mistook the acid for a beverage and raised the bottle to his lips. Before he could drink any, his father knocked the bottle from his hand, splashing the boy's forearm with acid and causing extensive damage to it.\n", "Glass expands and contracts with changes in temperature and deflects due to wind, so almost all modern glass is set on resilient blocks at the bottom and with space for expansion at the sides and top. The gaskets holding the glass in the frame are also usually resilient to cushion the glass against wind buffeting. If no space is provided at the perimeter of the unit, the glass will bind against the frame, causing internal stresses to develop in the glass which can exceed the strength of glass, resulting in breakage.\n\nSection::::Internal defects and inclusions in the glass.\n", "Under certain conditions, ductile materials can exhibit brittle behavior. Rapid loading, low temperature, and triaxial stress constraint conditions may cause ductile materials to fail without prior deformation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Ductile fracture.\n\nIn \"ductile fracture\", extensive plastic deformation (necking) takes place before fracture. The terms \"rupture\" or \"ductile rupture\" describe the ultimate failure of ductile materials loaded in tension. Rather than cracking, the material \"pulls apart,\" generally leaving a rough surface. In this case there is slow propagation and an absorption of a large amount of energy before fracture.\n", "Plaintiff Gladys Escola was a waitress in a restaurant. She was putting away glass bottles of Coca-Cola when one of the bottles spontaneously exploded in her hand. She suffered a deep five-inch cut, which severed the blood vessels, nerves, and muscles of the thumb and palm of the hand.\n", "There are two different types of fracture: brittle and ductile. Each of these types of failure occur based on the material's ductility. Brittle failure occurs with little to no plastic deformation before fracture. An example of this would be stretching a clay pot or rod, when it is stretched it will not neck or elongate, but merely break into two or more pieces. While applying a tensile stress to a ductile material, instead of immediately breaking the material will instead elongate. The material will begin by elongating uniformly until it reaches the yield point, then the material will begin to neck. When necking occurs the material will begin to stretch more in the middle and the radius will decrease. Once this begins the material has entered a stage called plastic deformation. Once the material has reached its ultimate tensile strength it will elongate more easily until it reaches ultimate failure and breaks.\n", "Some types of mechanical failure mechanisms are: excessive deflection, buckling, ductile fracture, brittle fracture, impact, creep, relaxation, thermal shock, wear, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and various types of fatigue. Each produces a different type of fracture surface, and other indicators near the fracture surface(s). The way the product is loaded, and the loading history are also important factors which determine the outcome. Of critical importance is design geometry because stress concentrations can magnify the applied load locally to very high levels, and from which cracks usually grow.\n", "It is this compressive stress that gives the tempered glass increased strength. This is because annealed glass, which has almost no internal stress, usually forms microscopic surface cracks, and in the absence of surface compression, any applied tension to the glass causes tension at the surface, which can drive crack propagation. Once a crack starts propagating, tension is further concentrated at the tip of the crack, causing it to propagate at the speed of sound in the material. Consequently, annealed glass is fragile and breaks into irregular and sharp pieces. \n", "Section::::Fracture pressure.\n", "The \"diving\" occurs when the flexible part of the larger container is pressed inwards, increasing the pressure inside the larger container, causing the \"diver\" to sink to the bottom until the pressure is released, when it rises back to the surface. If the container is rigid, as with a glass bottle, the cork sealing the bottle would be pressed inwards or drawn outwards.\n", "Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation and possibly necking before fracture.\n", "Section::::Geology.\n", "BULLET::::- Some materials such as primary high explosives may detonate with mechanical shock or impact.\n\nBULLET::::- When glass bottles of liquid are dropped or subjected to shock, the water hammer effect may cause hydrodynamic glass breakage.\n\nSection::::Considerations.\n\nWhen laboratory testing, field experience, or engineering judgement indicates that an item could be damaged by mechanical shock, several courses of action might be considered:\n\nBULLET::::- Reduce and control the input shock at the source.\n\nBULLET::::- Modify the item to improve its toughness or support it to better handle shocks.\n", "An often cited contradiction is the case of experiments carried out by Château Haut-Brion in the 1970s, when 100 bottles were placed under screwcap for long term observation. The result was, according to Haut-Brion manager Jean-Bernard Delmas, that \"it worked perfectly for the first ten years, until the plastic in the caps went brittle and let air in\".\n", "Also the mechanical design of a glass-to-metal seal has an important influence on the reliability of the seal. In practical glass-to-metal seals cracks usually start at the edge of the interface between glass and metal either inside or outside the glass container. If the metal and the surrounding glass are symmetric the crack propagates in an angle away from the axis. So, if the glass envelope of the metal wire extends far enough from the wall of the container the crack will not go through the wall of the container but it will reach the surface on the same side where it started and the seal will not leak despite the crack.\n", "Acoustic resonance is an important consideration for instrument builders, as most acoustic instruments use resonators, such as the strings and body of a violin, the length of tube in a flute, and the shape of, and tension on, a drum membrane.\n\nLike mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in catastrophic failure of the object at resonance. The classic example of this is breaking a wine glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass, although this is difficult in practice.\n\nSection::::Types of resonance.:Electrical resonance.\n", "initially under a uniform stress equal to formula_8 . Introduction of a crack of length formula_84, with a damage zone\n", "Caps were originally designed to be pressed over and around the top of a glass bottle to grab a small flange on the bottleneck. \n\nSection::::Types.:Crown cork.\n\nThe crown cork was patented by William Painter on February 2, 1892 (U.S. Patent 468,258). It had 24 teeth and a cork seal with a paper backing to prevent contact between the contents and the metal cap. The current version has 21 teeth. To open these bottles, a bottle opener is generally used.\n", "While most lever-type bottle openers can be used in either configuration, the designed use can be determined if one of the edges is curved, in which case this edge is designed to sit in the middle of the crown, as the curve concentrates pressure, deforming the crown, and a curved edge does not connect with as much of the crown edge, hence being suboptimal and slipping more frequently if used to connect with the crown edge. This difference can be seen in comparing the traditional opener and contemporary bar blade at right.\n\nSection::::Corkscrews.\n\nSection::::Corkscrews.:Waiter's friend.\n", "Section::::Types of failure.\n\nStructural failure can occur from many types of problems, most of which are unique to different industries and structural types. However, most can be traced to one of five main causes.\n\nBULLET::::- The first is that the structure is not strong and tough enough to support the load, due to either its size, shape, or choice of material. If the structure or component is not strong enough, catastrophic failure can occur when the structure is stressed beyond its critical stress level.\n", "In toughened glass, compressive stresses are induced on the surface of the glass, balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. Due to the residual compressive stress on the surface, toughened glass is more resistant to cracks, but shatter into small shards when the outer surface is broken. A demonstration of the effect is shown by Prince Rupert's Drop, a material-science novelty in which a molten glass globule is quenched in water: Because the outer surface cools and solidifies first, when the volume cools and solidifies, it \"wants\" to take up a smaller volume than the outer \"skin\" has already defined; this puts much of the volume in tension, pulling the \"skin\" in, putting the \"skin\" in compression. As a result, the solid globule is extremely tough, able to be hit with a hammer, but if its long tail is broken, the balance of forces is upset, causing the entire piece to shatter violently.\n", "Spontaneous glass breakage\n\nSpontaneous glass breakage is a phenomenon by which toughened glass (or tempered) may spontaneously break without any apparent reason. \n\nThe most common causes are:\n\nSection::::Installation damage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17944	Why people are so paranoid about being spied on through their web cam?	Because it actually happens, its not the government though, there are multiple spyware programs out there that, if they get on your pc, can access your webcam	[ "Section::::Camera traps.:Privacy concerns.\n", "In a study conducted by Fife, Nelson, and Bayles of focus groups from a Southeastern liberal arts university, five themes were ascertained regarding Facebook use and expectancy violations:\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"\"Don't stalk' – and when you do, don't talk about it\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- Though an understanding exists among Facebook participants that users will use the site to keep track of the behavior of others in a number of ways, excessive monitoring is likely to be perceived as an expectancy violation.\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"Don't embarrass me with bad pictures\"\"\n", "Webcam models have occasionally been the targets of cyber-stalkers and blackmailers. Sex work researcher, Rachel Stuart, reported that while doing her PhD research she encountered webcam models who were concerned about viewers filming and sharing their performances on porn sites, or acquiring personal information which could be used to stalk or blackmail them. In 2013 the New York Times interviewed a woman who prefers to conceal her real identity while working as a camgirl. She revealed that she had been cyber-stalked by a heavy tipper who started making threats and demands about what outfits she should wear. A short while later she found out that her real name and address had been posted on the Internet along with her cam name. When she complained to the police, they said that they could do nothing, because \"putting real information on the Internet is not illegal.\" She later found out that the same individual had also threatened and outed several other camgirls.\n", "Recently webcam privacy software was introduced by such companies such as Stop Being Watched or Webcamlock. The software exposes access to a webcam, and prompts the user to allow or deny access by showing what program is trying to access the webcam. Allowing the user to accept a trusted program the user recognizes, or terminate the attempt immediately. Other companies on the market such as soomz.io manufacture and sell sliding lens covers that allow users to retrofit the computer and close access to the camera lens.\n\nSection::::Risk sources.\n", "Some scholars have even contended that in an age of increased surveillance, users now participate online through the active generation and curation of online images––a form of control. In so doing, users can be seen as rejecting the shame associated with their private lives. Other scholars note that surveillance is fundamentally dependent upon location in both physical and virtual environments. This form of surveillance can be seen in travel websites which enable the user to share their vacation to a virtual audience. The person’s willingness to share their personal information online is validated by the audience, since the audience holds the user accountable and the user vicariously experiences pleasure through the audience. Further, users' mobile data is increasingly being shared to third parties online, potentially underscoring the regulatory challenges inherent in protecting users' online privacy.\n", "Ethically, Zuboff points to the extraction, commodification, and analysis of private human experiences as well as increased surveillance––which is sometimes hidden––in everyday life as violating users' rights to privacy. The usage of surreptitious methods, in which the user is unaware of the extent to which he or she is being tracked, brings tracking mechanisms––such as cookies, flash cookies, and web beacons––into the ethical realm as well since users are not being informed of this tracking perhaps as often as they should.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Behavioral targeting\n\nBULLET::::- Internet privacy\n\nBULLET::::- SilverPush\n\nBULLET::::- Surveillance\n\nBULLET::::- Website visitor tracking\n\nBULLET::::- Advertising\n", "There are several ways for third parties to access user information. Flickr is an example of a social media website that provides geotagged photos that allows users to view the exact location of where a person is visiting or staying. Geotagged photos make it easy for third party users to see where an individual is located or traveling to. There is also growing use of phishing, which reveals sensitive information through secretive links and downloads through email, messages, and other communications. Social media has opened up an entirely new realm for hackers to get information from normal posts and messages.\n", "While there is no policy to do so, researchers must decide if they want to post notices in an area where they are monitoring using one of the above referred to remote devices. The purpose of posting is to allow people in the area to know that they may be recorded, if they enter the area. Unfortunately, some people may not appreciate the perceived invasion on their privacy, and may tamper with or vandalize the cameras. In addition, posting notices about equipment puts it at risk to be stolen by thieves.\n\nSection::::US policies and regulations.:FAA regulation on drones.\n", "In direct response to the panoptic and invasive forms of tracking manifesting themselves within the digital realm, some have turned to sousveillance: a form of inverse surveillance in which users can record those who are surveilling them, thereby empowering themselves. This form of counter surveillance, often used through small wearable recording devices, enables the subversion of corporate and government panoptic surveillance by holding those in power accountable and giving people a voice––a permanent video record––to push back against government abuses of power or malicious behavior that may go unchecked.\n", "Potential solutions to the issue of passive human by-catch include image-altering technology to automatically pixelate identifying portions of images, such as a person's face or license plate number. These issues are separate from a more overt use of drones for the purpose of surveillance. There is a concept of behavioral privacy; the idea that a person's behavior differs if they know they are being watched, or not. If one lives in an area where drone's are being used for surveillance, their behavioral privacy is compromised, as they do not feel that they have the freedom to act naturally.\n\nSection::::Acoustic recording.\n", "Webcams can be used as security cameras. Software is available to allow PC-connected cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected. These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, or uploaded to the Internet. In one well-publicised case, a computer e-mailed images of the burglar during the theft of the computer, enabling the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar's face even after the computer had been stolen.\n\nUnauthorized access of webcams can present significant privacy issues (see \"Privacy\" section below).\n", "Section::::US policies and regulations.:Surveillance policies.\n\nIf cameras and drones become part of everyday life, the importance of privacy and security are more important than ever. With devices that are constantly sensing and recording, the security measures used to protect the privacy of the people in its proximity also need to be adaptable and advanced.\n\nSection::::US policies and regulations.:Notice posting.\n", "BULLET::::- The first is \"media tracking\": audio from the user’s television may be detected by the microphone in the user’s mobile device, allowing malicious actors to gain access to what the user is watching––particularly if it is salacious. Advertisers can similarly gain insight into what a user typically watches. In both scenarios, a user’s real-world behavior is linked to their online identity and used for tracking.\n", "Section::::Effects on modern society.\n", "As digital technology advances with many dangers associated to privacy, individuals are attempting to be more accountable when meeting others. Background check websites and search engine sources reveal just how many people attempt to find information on another person, whatever the reason. Many researchers altogether ignore the idea of privacy when analyzing methods of participatory surveillance. More so, from a social media perspective, some researchers claim that by openly sharing information with others, this cannot be deemed a breach of privacy. However, a few researchers on the topic mention breaches of privacy within the spheres of both digital media studies and infodemiology.\n", "Many users do not wish the continuous exposure for which webcams were originally intended, but rather prefer privacy. Such privacy is lost when malware allow malicious hackers to activate the webcam without the user's knowledge, providing the hackers with a live video and audio feed. This is a particular concern on many laptop computers, as such cameras normally cannot be physically disabled if hijacked by such a Trojan Horse program or other similar spyware programs.\n", "Historically, surveillance has often been associated with governmental and other large organizational security practices. However, artists and activists have challenged those conventional practices. An early example is the film \"Empire\", made by artist Andy Warhol in 1964. It consisted of an extreme long shot of the Empire State Building, held for eight hours in real time, challenging the boundaries of surveillance and watchability. More recently, scholars such as UCLA cinema professor Steve Mamber, have turned attention to the growing trend of using inexpensive, small cameras to unobtrusively record events of daily life. To examine hidden-camera video practices, in 2003 Mamber asked acquaintances if they or anyone they knew might have access to such footage, creating an online archive of the footage. Mamber described the growing practice as \"both a widely pervasive activity and an oddly unexamined one.\" In response, he established the UCLA Center for Hidden Camera Research, another example of how emerging technologies are shifting documentary practice. (see External Links)\n", "Organizations like the Electronic Frontier Foundation are constantly informing users on the importance of privacy, and considerations about technologies like geolocation.\n\nComputer company Microsoft patented in 2011 a product distribution system with a camera or capture device that monitors the viewers that consume the product, allowing the provider to take \"remedial action\" if the actual viewers do not match the distribution license.\n", "A computer that does not have a reasonably up-to-date webcam software or any \"anti-virus\" (or firewall) software installed and operational may be at increased risk for Camfecting. Softcams may nominally increase this risk, if not maintained or configured properly.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Espionage\n\nBULLET::::- Internet privacy\n\nBULLET::::- Optic Nerve (GCHQ)\n\nBULLET::::- Secret photography\n\nBULLET::::- Surveillance\n\nBULLET::::- Trojan\n\nBULLET::::- Webcam\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Protection software for Windows: Mywebcamlock \n\nBULLET::::- Protection software for OSX: Camera Lock \n\nBULLET::::- Physical protection: Sliding Lens Cover \n\nBULLET::::- Web cam hacking virus alert\n\nBULLET::::- Web cam virus writer arrested in Spain\n", "Within \"Cam Girlz\", a documentary film about the industry, male fans often say that they come to camming sites as a way to fulfill emotional needs. The film's director, Sean Dunne, states of the fans, \"they said it's not like a strip club – it's like a community, and you feel it when you’re in these chat rooms. It's a community and entertainment that goes very far beyond sexuality.\"\n", "Another interesting area for spyware vendors is the increasing amount of mobile devices being shipped. Distributors of advertisements have already turned their eyes to these devices. So far this development have not utilized the geographic position data stored in these devices. However, during the time of this writing companies are working on GPS-guided ads and coupons destined for mobile phones and hand-held devices. In other words, development of location-based marketing that allow advertising companies to get access to personal geographical data so that they can serve geographically dependent ads and coupons to their customers. Once such geographic data is being harvested and correlated with already accumulated personal information, another privacy barrier has been crossed.\n", "Some applications are explicitly centered on \"cyber stalking.\" An application named \"Creepy\" can track a person's location on a map using photos uploaded to Twitter or Flickr. When a person uploads photos to a social networking site, others are able to track their most recent location. Some smartphones are able to embed the longitude and latitude coordinates into the photo and automatically send this information to the application. Anybody using the application can search for a specific person and then find their immediate location. This poses many potential threats to users who share their information with a large group of followers.\n", "Sometimes, only asking question from people’s own social networks or friends is not enough. If the question is obscure or time sensitive, no members of their social networks may know the answer. For example, this person’s friends might not have expertise in providing evaluations for a specific model of digital camera. Also asking the current wait time for security at the local airport might not be possible if none of this person’s friends are currently at the airport.\n", "In any type of covert surveillance, footage should only be used for the purpose for which it has been taken, which must be a legitimate security reason. The person in possession of the footage is responsible for its use, and must only retain footage for as long as it is reasonably needed. It is not permitted to release the footage to third parties except when there is a legal necessity.\n", "Professor Todd Herzog states that after the 11 September 2001 attacks, mass surveillance became commonplace. Herzog adds that \"Caché\" follows a tradition of cinema about surveillance, including \"Blow-Up\" (1966) and \"The Conversation\" (1974), but that \"Caché\" is distinctive in being \"about being looked at rather than looking at something or someone\". Haneke reveals life without privacy, Herzog writes. Qian He of the University of Washington writes the precise question of \"who\" is watching is the \"question that haunts our daily life\"; \"Caché\" is one film that explores the question, answers to which have included Google, Big Brother and God. Philosopher William G. Smith tied Haneke's ambiguity as to the sender of the tapes to philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche's writings on interpretation, quoting Haneke: \"There are 1,000 truths. It's a matter of perspective\".\n" ]	[ "The concept of being spied on through a web cam is simply paranoia.", "People are too paranoid about being spied on through their web cam." ]	[ "Being spied on through a web cam actually does happen, through the installation of certain types of malware.", "There are multiple spyware programs that can access your webcam." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The concept of being spied on through a web cam is simply paranoia.", "People are too paranoid about being spied on through their web cam." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Being spied on through a web cam actually does happen, through the installation of certain types of malware.", "There are multiple spyware programs that can access your webcam." ]
2018-09111	If breathing is an involuntary action but can be controlled voluntarily, why can't things like the heart and esophagus be controlled voluntarily as well?	There are lots of cases where you might want to pause your breathing. There are zero cases where you might want to pause your heartbeat.	[ "Ventilation is normally unconscious and automatic, but can be overridden by conscious alternative patterns. Thus the emotions can cause yawning, laughing, sighing (etc.), social communication causes speech, song and whistling, while entirely voluntary overrides are used to blow out candles, and breath holding (to swim, for instance, underwater). Hyperventilation may be entirely voluntary or in response to emotional agitation or anxiety, when it can cause the distressing hyperventilation syndrome. The voluntary control can also influence other functions such as the heart rate as in yoga practices and meditation.\n", "Some common examples of administrative controls include work practice controls such as prohibiting mouth pipetting and recapping of needles, as well as rotating worker shifts in coal mines to prevent hearing loss. Other examples include hours of service regulations for commercial vehicle operators, Safety signage for hazards, and regular maintenance of equipment. \n", "There is a degree of controversy amongst researchers regarding the extent to which restraint positions restrict breathing. Some researchers report that when they conducted laboratory studies of the effects of restraint on breathing and oxygen levels, the effect was limited. Other researchers point out that deaths in real life situations occur after prolonged, violent resistance, which has not been studied in laboratory simulations. \n\nSection::::Positional asphyxia due to accident or illness.\n", "This reasoning matches that in English law where any foreseeable loss of control is excluded from automatism. To hold otherwise would be to excuse any driver or other person engaged in an activity where public safety is an issue, from the consequences of a loss of control that occurred after losing consciousness. Only sudden and unexpected health problems avoid culpability. In Scots law, \"Cardle v Mulrainey\" (1992) SCCR 658 applies the general requirement for cases involving a defence based on insanity or a comparable state, that there must be a total alienation of reason leading to a loss of self-control, to a case in which the accused claimed that he had involuntarily consumed a drug which had the effect that he knew what he was doing but was unable to refrain from acting (at 668):\n", "Within the brain, the autonomic nervous system is regulated by the hypothalamus. Autonomic functions include control of respiration, cardiac regulation (the cardiac control center), vasomotor activity (the vasomotor center), and certain reflex actions such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. Those are then subdivided into other areas and are also linked to ANS subsystems and nervous systems external to the brain. The hypothalamus, just above the brain stem, acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving ANS regulatory input from the limbic system to do so.\n", "Risk factors which may increase the chance of death include prolonged (particularly resisted) restraint, obesity, prior cardiac or respiratory problems, and the use of illicit drugs such as cocaine. Other issues in the way the subject is restrained can also increase the risk of death, for example kneeling or otherwise placing weight on the subject and particularly any type of restraint hold around the subject's neck. Research measuring the effect of restraint positions on lung function suggests that restraint which involves bending the restrained person or placing body weight on them has more effect on their breathing than face-down positioning alone.\n", "Sniffing is fundamentally controlled by respiratory centers in the brainstem, including the Pre-Botzinger complex which governs inhalation/exhalation patterns. Activity from respiratory brain stem structures then modulates nervous activity to control lung contraction. To exert changes to respiration, and thereby evoke sniffing behavior, volitional centers in the cerebral cortex must stimulate brain stem structures. It is through this simple pathway that the decision to inhale or sniff may occur.\n", "Research has suggested that restraining a person in a face-down position is likely to cause greater restriction of breathing than restraining a person face-up. Multiple cases have been associated with the hogtie or hobble prone restraint position. Many law enforcement and health personnel are now taught to avoid restraining people face-down or to do so only for a very short period of time.\n", "The automatic rhythmical breathing in and out, can be interrupted by coughing, sneezing (forms of very forceful exhalation), by the expression of a wide range of emotions (laughing, sighing, crying out in pain, exasperated intakes of breath) and by such voluntary acts as speech, singing, whistling and the playing of wind instruments. All of these actions rely on the muscles described above, and their effects on the movement of air in and out of the lungs.\n", "Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, their movement is involuntary. Heart muscles are controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic nervous system.\n\nSection::::Muscles.:Smooth muscle.\n\nSmooth muscles are controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system and are involuntary, meaning that they are incapable of being moved by conscious thought. Functions such as heartbeat and lungs (which are capable of being willingly controlled, be it to a limited extent) are involuntary muscles but are not smooth muscles.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Contraction.\n", "Administrative controls are policy or training based controls to decrease hazards. A quarterly training session on recognizing symptoms of occupational asthma or proper respirator use would be examples of administrative controls. Administrative controls can be effective in reducing hazards for which personal protective equipment does not exist, for example, no eating or smoking in work areas can prevent ingestion of hazardous chemicals. Training is required by OSHA\n", "This stage was introduced in many protocols as it was found that many people were too quick to undertake potentially dangerous interventions, such as abdominal thrusts, for items which could have been dislodged without intervention. Also, if the choking is caused by an irritating substance rather than an obstructing one, and if conscious, the patient should be allowed to drink water on their own to try to clear the throat. Since the airway is already closed, there is very little danger of water entering the lungs. Coughing is normal after most of the irritant has cleared, and at this point the patient will probably refuse any additional water for a short time.\n", "Section::::Brain involvement.\n\nBrain control of exhalation can be broken down into voluntary control and involuntary control. During voluntary exhalation, air is held in the lungs and released at a fixed rate. Examples of voluntary expiration include: singing, speaking, exercising, playing an instrument, and voluntary hyperpnea. Involuntary breathing includes metabolic and behavioral breathing.\n\nSection::::Brain involvement.:Voluntary expiration.\n", "There is no broad prohibition against an agency's regulation that does not serve the \"public convenience, interest, or necessity.\" The law presumes that rulemaking conducted with procedural safeguards of the statutes and Executive Orders noted above reflect a rational balancing of interests by the agency, and a court will strike down a regulation only for violation of those procedures.\n\nAgencies are permitted to rely on rules in reaching their decisions rather than adjudicate, where the promulgation of the rules is within the agency's statutory authority, and the rules themselves are not arbitrary or capricious. \"Heckler v. Campbell\", .\n", "In some cases the coordination of motor components is hard-wired, consisting of fixed neuromuscular pathways that are called \"reflexes\". Reflexes are typically characterized as automatic and fixed motor responses, and they occur on a much faster time scale than what is possible for reactions that depend on perceptual processing. Reflexes play a fundamental role in stabilizing the motor system, providing almost immediate compensation for small perturbations and maintaining fixed execution patterns. Some reflex loops are routed solely through the spinal cord without receiving input from the brain, and thus do not require attention or conscious control. Others involve lower brain areas and can be influenced by prior instructions or intentions, but they remain independent of perceptual processing and online control.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Processes with ambiguous categorization.\n\nSome cognitive processes are difficult to categorize as distinctly automatic or controlled, either because they contain components of both types of process or because the phenomena are difficult to define or observe. An example of the former is driving a car. An example of the latter is flow.\n\nProcess of breathing, automatic, and controlled, easily observed.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Flow.\n", "In the conscious patient, other signs of airway obstruction that may be considered by the rescuer include paradoxical chest movements, use of accessory muscles for breathing, tracheal deviation, noisy air entry or exit, and cyanosis.\n\nSection::::Breathing.\n\nSection::::Breathing.:Unconscious patients.\n", "Automatic breathing can be overridden to a limited extent by simple choice, or to facilitate swimming, speech, singing or other vocal training. It is impossible to suppress the urge to breathe to the point of hypoxia but training can increase the ability to breath-hold; for example, in February 2016, a Spanish, professional freediver broke the world record for holding the breath underwater at just over 24 minutes.\n", "The typical reason for NPO instructions is the prevention of aspiration pneumonia, e.g. in those who will undergo general anesthesia, or those with weak swallowing musculature, or in case of gastrointestinal bleeding, gastrointestinal blockage, or acute pancreatitis. Alcohol overdoses that result in vomiting or severe external bleeding also warrant NPO instructions for a period.\n\nSection::::Duration.\n", "Some would prefer to define actions as requiring bodily movement (see behaviorism). The side effects of actions are considered by some to be part of the action; in an example from Anscombe's manuscript \"Intention\", pumping water can also be an instance of poisoning the inhabitants. This introduces a moral dimension to the discussion (see also Moral agency). If the poisoned water resulted in a death, that death might be considered part of the action of the agent that pumped the water. Whether a side effect is considered part of an action is especially unclear in cases in which the agent isn't aware of the possible side effects. For example, an agent that accidentally cures a person by administering a poison he was intending to kill him with.\n", "One definition of a controlled process is an intentionally-initiated sequence of cognitive activities. In other words, when attention is required for a task, we are consciously aware and in control. Controlled processes require us to think about situations, evaluate and make decisions. An example would be reading this article. We are required to read and understand the concepts of these processes and it takes effort to think conceptually. Controlled processes are thought to be slower, since by definition they require effortful control; therefore, they generally cannot be conducted simultaneously with other controlled processes without task-switching or impaired performance. So the drawback of controlled processes is that humans are thought to have a limited capacity for overtly controlling behavior. Being tightly capacity-limited, controlled processing imposes considerable limitations on speed and the ability to multitask. In a study, participants were randomly assigned into two conditions, one requiring one task (small cognitive load) and one requiring two tasks (heavy cognitive load). In the one-task condition, participants were told that they would hear an anti- or pro-abortion speech and would have to diagnose the speaker's attitude toward abortion. The two-task condition had the same first assignment, but they were required to switch spots with the speaker and take their place after that. Even after being specifically told that they would be given further instructions at the next step, their cognitive load was affected in this study. Participants in the two-task condition performed more poorly than the one-task condition simply because they had the next task on their mind (they had extra cognitive load). Basically, the more tasks someone tries to manage at the same time, the more their performance will suffer.\n", "Supraglottic techniques use devices that are designed to have the distal tip resting above the level of the glottis when in its final seated position. Supraglottic devices ensure patency of the upper respiratory tract without entry into the trachea by bridging the oral and pharyngeal spaces. There are many methods of subcategorizing this family of devices including route of insertion, absence or presence of a cuff, and anatomic location of the device's distal end. The most commonly used devices are laryngeal masks and supraglottic tubes, such as oropharyngeal (OPA) and nasopharyngeal airways (NPA). In general, features of an ideal supraglottic airway include the ability to bypass the upper airway, produce low airway resistance, allow both positive pressure as well as spontaneous ventilation, protect the respiratory tract from gastric and nasal secretions, be easily inserted by even a nonspecialist, produce high first-time insertion rate, remain in place once in seated position, minimize risk of aspiration, and produce minimal side effects.\n", "Risk factors for pulmonary aspiration include conditions which depress the level of consciousness (such as traumatic brain injury, alcohol intoxication, drug overdose, and general anesthesia). A decreased gag reflex, upper esophageal sphincter and lower esophageal sphincter tone, gastroesophageal reflux, full stomach, as well as obesity, stroke, and pregnancy can all increase the risk of aspiration in the semiconscious. Tracheal intubation or presence of a gastric tube (for example, a feeding tube) may also increase the risk.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Control of ventilation\n\nThe control of ventilation refers to the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of breathing, which is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Ventilation facilitates respiration. Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole, or by individual cells in cellular respiration.\n", "The pre-hospital setting provides unique challenges to management of the airway including tight spaces, neck immobilization, poor lighting, and often the added complexity of attempting procedures during transport. When possible, basic airway management should be prioritized including head-tilt-chin-lift maneuvers, and bag-valve masking. If ineffective, a supraglottic airway can be utilized to aid in oxygenation and maintenance of a patent airway. An oropharyngeal airway is acceptable, however nasopharyngeal airways should be avoided in trauma, particularly if a basilar skull fracture is suspected. Endotracheal intubation carries with it many risks, particularly when paralytics are used, as maintenance of the airway becomes a challenge if intubation fails. It should therefore be attempted by experienced personnel, only when less invasive methods fail or when it is deemed necessary for safe transport of the patient, to reduce risk of failure and the associated increase in morbidity and mortality due to hypoxia.\n" ]	[ "Being able to voluntarily control the heart would be beneficial. " ]	[ "Humans do not want to pause a heart a heartbeat because doing so is not beneficial. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Being able to voluntarily control the heart would be beneficial. ", "Being able to voluntarily control the heart would be beneficial. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Humans do not want to pause a heart a heartbeat because doing so is not beneficial. ", "Humans do not want to pause a heart a heartbeat because doing so is not beneficial. " ]
2018-04079	Why do rhymes sound so pleasant to human ear ?	I think it is safe to say that the human brain revolves around pattern recognition. It is a stimulating experience that releases chemicals in your brain. Rhymes, poems, and songs are very common forms of patterns. Perhaps one of the most useful is mathematics.	[ "And be prosperous, though we live dangerous\n\nCops could just arrest me, blamin’ us, we’re held like hostages\n\n/poem\n\nSection::::Imperfect rhyme.:Unconventional exceptions.\n\nChildren's nursery rhyme This Little Piggy displays an unconventional case of slant rhyme. \"Home\" is rhymed with \"none\".\n\npoem\n\nThis little piggy stayed (at) home...this little piggy had none (re: roast beef).\n\n/poem\n\nIn The Hives's song \"Dead Quote Olympics\", singer Howlin' Pelle Almqvist rhymes \"idea\" with \"library\":\n\npoem\n\nThis time you really got something, it’s such a clever idea\n\n/poem\n\nThe Chuck Berry song \"Let It Rock\" (1960) rhymes \"Alabama\" with \"hammer\":\n\npoem\n", "Section::::Types of rhyme.:Identical rhymes.\n\nIdentical rhymes are considered less than perfect in English poetry; but are valued more highly in other literatures such as, for example, \"rime riche\" in French poetry.\n\nThough homophones and homonyms satisfy the first condition for rhyming—that is, that the stressed vowel sound is the same—they do not satisfy the second: that the preceding consonant be different. As stated above, in a perfect rhyme the last stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical in both words.\n", "Just because of applause I have to pause\n\nRight after tonight is when I prepare\n\nTo catch another sucker-duck MC out there\n\nMy strategy has to be tragedy, catastrophe\n\nAnd after this you'll call me your majesty.../poem\n\nAnother prominent hip-hop artist who uses complex internal rhymes is AZ, as shown in \"The Format\":\n\npoem\n\nYoung and gifted, my tongue's prolific\n\nIn the beach bungalow is how I brung in Christmas\n\nTo the streets I'mma flow from the hungriest districts\n\nSwiss kicks crisp when I come to them picnics\n\nPlay slow, paper chase stack and lay low\n", "Section::::Definition of \"perfect rhyme\".\n", "Section::::Contents of folk literature.:Rhymes.\n\nRhymes (Chhara) can be classified into the following groups: nursery rhymes, play rhymes, social rhymes, historical rhymes, satirical rhymes, occupational rhymes, educational rhymes, rhymes for rituals, and magical rhymes. Rhymes are recited or sung to calm and entertain children, many are for fun or to educate people on ethics, morality, mathematics, astrology etc. Some rhymes originated in historical events and preserve the memory of these events.\n\nSection::::Contents of folk literature.:Proverbs.\n", "Rhymes are pleasing to the ears and help to distinguish similarities and differences. It helps the poet to shape the poem and the reader to understand it; creating a link between sound and thought. \n\nExamples\n\nTwo examples of chained verse from William T. Dobson \"Poetical ingenuities and eccentricities\", London, 1882 (see text here for the sources of these examples)\n\nTruth\n\n\"Nerve thy soul with doctrines noble,\" \n\n\"Noble in the walks of time,\" \n\n\"Time that leads to an eternal,\"\n\n\"An eternal life sublime.\"\n\n\"Life sublime in moral beauty,\" \n\n\"Beauty that shall never be;\"\n", "Master gettin cash in an orderly fashion\n\nMessage to the fake n**** flashin\n\nSlow up Ahk, before you get dropped and closed like a caption\n\nFractional kids don't know the time for action\n\nStyles got the rhythm that of an Anglo-Saxon\n\nRound of applause, an avalanche of clappin\n\nWe heavyweight traction, pro-pornographin\n\nSpecialize in science and math and, original black man\n\nBustin thoughts that pierce your mental\n\nThe fierce rippin your sacks and\n\nVocal toe to toe impeccable splittin your back son\n\nSimple as addition and subtraction\n\nBlack Thought, the infinite relaxed one\n", "Jumping rope is an example of melodic learning. Tonal, rhythmic, aural and visual elements interplay as children sing and rhyme. The rope’s motion supplies the kinesthetic element to enhance the process. This may explain why many children learn jump rope rhymes faster and retain them longer than they do for many of their classroom lessons.\n\nA combination of five specific modalities or Learning styles affect how a child learns while playing or while watching Sesame Street or jumping rope:\n", "Perfect and imperfect rhymes\n\nPerfect rhyme—also called full rhyme, exact rhyme, or true rhyme—is a form of rhyme between two words or phrases, satisfying the following conditions:\n\nBULLET::::- The stressed vowel sound in both words must be identical, as well as any subsequent sounds. For example, \"sky\" and \"high\"; \"skylight\" and \"highlight\".\n\nBULLET::::- The onset of the stressed syllable in the words must differ. For example, \"bean\" and \"green\" is a perfect rhyme, while \"leave\" and \"believe\" is not.\n", "Ogden Nash (1902-1971) used multisyllabic rhymes in a comic, satirical way, as is common in traditional comic poetry. For example, in his poem ‘The Axolotl’ he rhymes \"axolotl\" with \"whaxolotl\".\n\nGerard Manley Hopkins (1844–89) is one of few poets who used multisyllabic rhymes to convey non-satirical subject matter.\n\nAn example of this is ‘The Bugler's First Communion’, where he rhymes \"boon he on\" with \"Communion\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Feminine rhyme\n\nBULLET::::- Rhyme Genie\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Edwards, Paul (2009). \"How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC\". Chicago Review Press, .\n", "The language level presents highly vivid and filmic imagery and the extensive use of internal and end rhymes as well as other techniques help convey the increasingly intense image of being paralyzed in front of a big crowd in the listener’s head. Below is a text passage that exemplifies the effective use of language as just described:\n", "Following the strict definition of rhyme, a perfect rhyme demands the exact match of all sounds from the last stressed vowel to the end of the word. Therefore, words with the stress far from the end are more likely to have no perfect rhymes. For instance, a perfect rhyme for \"discomulate\" would have to rhyme three syllables, \"-ulate.\" There are many words that match most of the sounds from the stressed vowel onwards and so are near rhymes, called slant rhymes. \"Ovulate, copulate,\" and \"populate,\" for example, vary only slightly in one consonant from \"discombobulate\", and thus provide very usable rhymes for most situations in which a rhyme for \"discombobulate\" is desired. However, no other English word has exactly these three final syllables with this stress pattern. And since in most traditions the stressed syllable should not be identical—the consonant before the stressed vowel should be different—adding a prefix to a word, as \"be-elbow\" for \"elbow,\" does not create a perfect rhyme for it.\n", "One view of rhyme in English is from John Milton's preface to \"Paradise Lost\":\n\nA more tempered view is taken by W. H. Auden in The Dyer's Hand:\n\nForced or clumsy rhyme is often a key ingredient of doggerel.\n\nSection::::Rhyme in various languages.:French.\n", "Mind rhyme is often a form of word play. The implied rhyme is inferable only from the context. This contrasts with rhyming slang from which the rhyming portion has been clipped, which is part of the lexicon. (An example is \"dogs\", meaning \"feet\", a clipping of rhyming \"dog's meat\".) \n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nA traditional example is the song \"Sweet Violets\" :\n\nThere once was a farmer who took a young missbr\n\nIn back of the barn where he gave her a lecturebr\n\nOn horses and chickens and eggsbr\n\nAnd told her that she had such beautifulbr\n", "Rhymester (group)\n\nSection::::History.\n", "According to Al-Jahiz, the advantages of rhymed prose are twofold; it is pleasing to the ear and easy to remember. He says the Arabs have uttered a far greater quantity of simple than of rhymed prose, and yet not a tenth of the former has been retained while not a tenth of the latter has been lost.\n", "BULLET::::- Nikki Giovanni (b. 1943) is one of the world's most well-known African-American poets. Her work directly addresses the African American experience in \"Spin a Soft Black Song\" and others.\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Lear (1812 – 1888) was the first to use limericks in his writing, authoring \"A Book of Nonsense\" in 1846 and featuring silly poetry and neologisms.\n", "The term ‘Hop-tu-naa’ comes from a Manx Gaelic song traditionally sung during the festival which included the nonsense Hop-tu-naa as part of the rhyme scheme, such nonsense rhymes are common theme in Irish and Scottish Gaelic music.\n\nSection::::Traditions.\n", "Half rhyme is often used, along with assonance, in rap music. This can be used to avoid rhyming clichés (e.g. rhyming \"knowledge\" with \"college\") or obvious rhymes, and gives the writer greater freedom and flexibility in forming lines of verse. Additionally, some words have no perfect rhyme in English, necessitating the use of slant rhyme. The use of half rhyme may also enable the construction of longer multisyllabic rhymes than otherwise possible.\n\nIn the following lines from the song \"N.Y. State of Mind\" by rapper Nas, the author uses half rhyme in a complex cross rhyme pattern:\n\npoem\n", "Most of the games revolve around the themes of love and death (courtship and bereavement), expressed in rhymes passed down the generations by word of mouth. Notes accompanying the issue of the film on video in 1993 explain that \"The rhymes…vary from street to street and change from day to day. (…) What is old seldom dies yet there is always something new appearing. The word is accepted and the poetry is kept alive. No one asks: What does that mean?\". The songs in the film are accompanied by various skipping and ball games.\n", "Half rhyme or imperfect rhyme, sometimes called near-rhyme, lazy rhyme, or slant rhyme, is a type of rhyme formed by words with similar but not identical sounds. In most instances, either the vowel segments are different while the consonants are identical, or vice versa. This type of rhyme is also called approximate rhyme, inexact rhyme, imperfect rhyme (in contrast to perfect rhyme), off rhyme, analyzed rhyme, suspended rhyme, or sprung rhyme.\n\nSection::::Imperfect rhyme.:Use in hip hop/rap.\n", "Traditional rhyme\n\nA traditional rhyme is generally a saying, sometimes a proverb or an idiom, couched in the form of a rhyme and often passed down from generation to generation with no record of its original authorship. Many nursery rhymes may be counted as traditional rhymes.\n\nExamples of a traditional rhyme include the historically significant \"Ring Around the Rosie\", the doggerel love poem \"Roses Are Red\", and the wedding rhyme \"Something old, something new\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"neutron\" rhymes wuth Lutron, an electronics company based in Coopersburg, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- \"ninja, -s\" rhymes with \"Rohingya,\" a minority group in Myanmar, and \"Shinja,\" a Christian who practices martial arts\n\nBULLET::::- \"oblige\" rhymes with \"Nige,\" a hypocoristic for the name Nigel\n\nBULLET::::- \"oink, -s\" rhymes with \"yoink\"/\"yoinks,\" a colloquial interjection expressing the stealing or sudden acquisition of something; and \"boink\"/\"boinks,\" a slang word meaning \"to have sex with\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"opus\" (with a short \"0),\" , rhymes with \"Hoppus,\" a method of measuring timber\n", "Section::::Plot.:Part 1.\n", "Sanskrit language exhibits high richness in sustaining rhyming structures. Thus Sanskrit ashtakams are capable of carrying a limited set of rhymes all over a lengthy composition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03139	Why do soda bottles "glug" when you empty them?	The need for air to fill the space recently emptied inside your bottle. It rushes past your mouth and into the bottle creating those waves, and the glugging. Think of it this way, if the liquid is leaving the bottle, something has to be replacing it right? Otherwise the bottle becomes a vacuum.	[ "The Codd-neck bottle was designed and manufactured with thick glass to withstand internal pressure, and a chamber to enclose a marble and a rubber washer in the neck. The bottles are filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle is pinched into a special shape to provide a chamber into which the marble is pushed to open the bottle. This prevents the marble from blocking the neck as the drink is poured.\n\nSome older examples had the bullet shape of soda bottles.\n\nSection::::Popularity.\n", "Prior to the invention of the crown cork bottle stopper, soda bottles had ordinary cork bottle stoppers and often had rounded bottoms so they could not be stored standing upright. The reason for this is corks have a tendency to dry out and shrink, which allows the gas pressure in the bottle to cause the cork to \"pop.\" Storing bottles on their side prevents the corks from drying out and \"popping.\" After the invention of the crown cork bottle stopper, this problem was eliminated, and soda bottles could be stored standing upright.\n", "Unlike kegs, which can be simply stood upright on the floor, casks are used lying on their sides. This allows the beer to run from the tap under gravity, with room in the \"belly\" of the cask below the outlet for the finings to collect. The shive with the spile will then be the highest point on the cask. As the beer clears (see finings), the inside of the cask becomes coated with sediment. It is important that the stillage holds the cask absolutely still with no rocking or shaking, otherwise the sediment will be shaken into suspension and the beer will be cloudy.\n", "BULLET::::- Gas source inlet or gas switching valve; gaseous samples in collection bottles are connected to what is most commonly a six-port switching valve. The carrier gas flow is not interrupted while a sample can be expanded into a previously evacuated sample loop. Upon switching, the contents of the sample loop are inserted into the carrier gas stream.\n", "Codd-neck bottle\n\nA Codd-neck bottle is a type of bottle used for carbonated drinks. It has a closing design based on a glass marble which is held against a rubber seal, which sits within a recess in the lip.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn 1872, British soft drink maker Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented a bottle designed specifically for carbonated drinks.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "BULLET::::- Flat glass dish, which is equipped with a ground cover. In the case of a bowl in which the weighed substances are hygroscopic and decomposed when exposed to moisture or in contact with air, the sample is bottled in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and then weighed in the sealed glass container.\n\nBULLET::::- Flat boat dish is an oblong, flat-bottomed dish, in which it is easy to weigh out the substance, and then move it the reaction chamber, but is not recommended for hygroscopic or air-reactive samples.\n", "When a soft drink bottle is carbonated, it is pressurized with carbon dioxide to higher than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Eventually the dissolved CO and the CO in the headspace above the liquid reach a dynamic equilibrium, where the amount of CO dissolving in the liquid equals the amount of CO escaping the solution into the headspace, at a pressure of approximately 2 atmospheres. The bottle remains in this dynamic equilibrium until the first time that the cap is removed.\n", "BULLET::::- ; hysterisis issue. \"Such flush tank valves as now commonly used are closed against the pressure of water from a source of supply which pressure opposes the movement of the float under rising water level in the tank. This results in a slow or delayed movement of the valve preliminary to its reaching its fully closed position and accordingly develops an objectionable hissing sound due to the discharge of water through the then slightly open valve under full water pressure; this delayed action continuing until the slowed delivery of water to the tank finally raises the water level to a point where the float will be effective in fully closing the valve. This action of the conventional float controlled valves frequently gives rise to a condition where full closing of the valve does not occur with a consequent continuous leakage of water through the valve with a resulting waste of water.\"\n", "This is the case with certain types of draught beer such as draught stouts. In the case of these draught beers, which before dispensing also contain a mixture of dissolved nitrogen and carbon dioxide, the agitation is caused by forcing the beer under pressure through small holes in a restrictor in the tap. The surging mixture gradually settles to produce a very creamy head.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "BULLET::::- The feeder's amplitude gradually fades or slowly decreases.\n\nBULLET::::- The flow of material discharging from the feeder is turbulent, creating inconsistent flow to the process.\n\nBULLET::::- The feeder output is inconsistent, creating feed rate fluctuations.\n\nSection::::Placement speed.:Placement system set up.\n", "A lift-check valve is a check valve in which the disc, sometimes called a \"lift\", can be lifted up off its seat by higher pressure of inlet or upstream fluid to allow flow to the outlet or downstream side. A guide keeps motion of the disc on a vertical line, so the valve can later reseat properly. When the pressure is no longer higher, gravity or higher downstream pressure will cause the disc to lower onto its seat, shutting the valve to stop reverse flow.\n", "A gyropalette performs the same task automatically on many bottles at the same time, and in a shorter period of time. The bottles are placed in a cage, and are moved in a way which emulates the action of a remueur by means of motors and automatic controls.\n", "And in order for a sample to be representative, it must not contain remains of previous batches that might have stay in the valve's \"dead space\". For example, a ball valve commonly found in tap valves consists of a ball that control the flow of the liquid. Once the valve is closed, liquid stays in the ball and the next time the valve is opened, that liquid flows first. If a sample is taken using a ball valve, the valve has to be flushed before the sample is taken.\n\nThis raises two additional problems: \n", "Gravity feed fuel systems are not immune to vapor lock. Much of the foregoing applies equally to a gravity feed system; if vapor forms in the fuel line, its lower density reduces the pressure developed by the weight of the fuel. This pressure is what normally moves fuel from the tank to the carburetor, so fuel supply will be disrupted until the vapor is removed, either by the remaining fuel pressure forcing it into the float bowl and out the vent or by allowing the vapor to cool and re-condense.\n", "The soda siphon, or seltzer bottle—a glass or metal pressure vessel with a release valve and spout for dispensing pressurized soda water—was a common sight in bars and in early- to mid-20th-century homes where it became a symbol of middle-class affluence.\n\nThe gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas, and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.\n", "Fizz keeper\n\nThe Fizz Keeper is a device that is sold as a means for preserving the carbonation in soft drinks. It comprises a small hand pump that screws onto the top of a plastic soft drink bottle, which is used to pump air into the bottle. Pressurizing the bottle in this way, it is claimed by most of those who sell the device, prevents the drink from going flat.\n", "BULLET::::- Baby All Gone: a doll who is fed \"bananas\" on a magnetic spoon and makes them \"disappear\", although the food and drinks do not move through to minimise mess caused by doll food moving through. They seem to go into the doll's mouth when they are mechanically retracted back into the spoon. Also, she drinks juice from her bottle, although this doll, unlike other Baby Alive dolls, does not wet. The juice, although seeming to disappear, is also retracted back into the bottle instead of being consumed and moving through. A new version of this doll with drink and wet features was introduced in 2017.\n", "Some fluid system designs, especially in chemical or power plants, are schematically represented in piping and instrumentation diagrams. In such diagrams, different types of valves are represented by certain symbols.\n\nValves in good condition should be leak-free. However, valves may eventually wear out from use and develop a leak, either between the inside and outside of the valve or, when the valve is shut to stop flow, between the disc and the seat. A particle trapped between the seat and disc could also cause such leakage.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ball valve\n\nBULLET::::- Control valves\n\nBULLET::::- Directional control valve\n", "The hole in that part of the cask is used for two purposes. Firstly, it is used for cleaning out and then refilling the cask, which requires a large hole. Once the cask arrives at its destination, the hole is used to control the amount of carbon dioxide present in the container, which requires a small hole. The shive is effectively an adaptor that reconciles these conflicting requirements. It is a wooden disk, larger than a keystone, that fits in the hole in the cask and has a smaller hole in its centre.\n", "The bung-hole of the cask is on one of the circular faces, near the rim. When the cask is in service, it is laid on its side with the bunghole at the lowest point on the circumference. The keystone is a small thick wooden or plastic disk inserted into the bunghole which completely seals the cask until it is needed. \n", "Sealed bottles\n\nSealed bottles have an applied glass seal on the shoulder or side of the bottle. The seal is a molten blob of glass that has been stamped with an embossed symbol, name or initials, and often it included a date. Collectors of bottles sometimes refer to them as Applied seals, Blob seals or Prunt seals.\n", "For making single-use sealed bottles, or commercially refillable bottles in a seltzer plant, the bottles are first washed and then evacuated using a vacuum pump and a rubber hose slipped over the nozzle. The bottle with most of the air removed is then held upside-down under the surface of a tub of carbonated water, which is drawn into the bottle by the vacuum inside when the valve is opened. Sometimes a pump is used to force higher pressure into the bottle.\n", "After the forming process, some containers—particularly those intended for alcoholic spirits—undergo a treatment to improve the chemical resistance of the inside, called \"internal treatment\" or dealkalization. This is usually accomplished through the injection of a sulfur- or fluorine-containing gas mixture into bottles at high temperatures. The gas is typically delivered to the container either in the air used in the forming process (that is, during the final blow of the container), or through a nozzle directing a stream of the gas into the mouth of the bottle after forming. The treatment renders the container more resistant to alkali extraction, which can cause increases in product pH, and in some cases container degradation.\n", "If a compartment or tank is either empty or full, there is no change in the craft's center of mass as it rolls from side to side (in strong winds, heavy seas, or on sharp motions or turns). However, if the compartment is only partially full, the liquid in the compartment will respond to the vessel's heave, pitch, roll, surge, sway or yaw. For example, as a vessel rolls to port, liquid will displace to the port side of a compartment, and this will move the vessel's center of mass to port. This has the effect of slowing the vessel's return to vertical.\n", "BULLET::::- Class II valves have no more than 0.5% leakage with 50psi (or less if operating pressure is less) of air pressure at the operating temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Class III valves have no more than 0.1% leakage under those conditions; this may require soft valve seats, or lapped metal surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- Class IV valves have no more than 0.01% leakage under those conditions; this tends to require multiple graphite piston rings or a single Teflon piston ring, and lapped metal seats.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06333	Why do men suffer from natural balding much more than women do?	Androgenic alopecia (which is what causes balding) is a condition that increases activity of androgen receptors in the hair follicles. An example of those androgens is dihydrotestosterone, which is a by-product of testosterone. So because men have much higher levels of testosterone, they are more prone to balding.	[ "Although men grow hair faster than women, baldness is much more common in males than in females. The main cause for this is \"male pattern baldness\" or androgenic alopecia. Male pattern baldness is a condition where hair starts to get lost in a typical pattern of receding hairline and hair thinning on the crown, and is caused by hormones and genetic predisposition.\n\nSection::::Skin and hair.:Color.\n", "There are various reasons for hair loss, most commonly hormonal issues. Fluctuations in hormones will often show in the hair. Not all hair loss is related to what is known as male pattern baldness, women can suffer from baldness just as men do. Formulas for addressing this specific cause of lack of hair growth yet typically they require around three months of consistent use for results to begin to appear. Cessation may also mean that gained growth may dissipate.\n", "Studies have been inconsistent and not stable across cultures how balding men rate on the attraction scale. While a study from South Korea showed most people rated balding men as less attractive, a more recent survey of 1,000 Welsh women rated bald and gray haired men quite desirable.\n", "Although baldness is not as common in women as in men, the psychological effects of hair loss tend to be much greater. Typically, the frontal hairline is preserved, but the density of hair is decreased on all areas of the scalp. Previously, it was believed to be caused by testosterone just as in male baldness, but most women who lose hair have normal testosterone levels.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Levels of free testosterone are strongly linked to libido and DHT levels, but unless free testosterone is virtually nonexistent, levels have not been shown to affect virility. Men with androgenic alopecia are more likely to have a higher baseline of free androgens. However, sexual activity is multifactoral, and androgenic profile is not the only determining factor in baldness. Additionally, because hair loss is progressive and free testosterone declines with age, a male's hairline may be more indicative of his past than his present disposition.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Frequent ejaculation causes baldness.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Myths.\n\nMany myths exist regarding the possible causes of baldness and its relationship with one's virility, intelligence, ethnicity, job, social class, wealth, and many other characteristics.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Baldness is inherited from the mother's father.\n\nA 50% chance exists for a person to share the same X chromosome as his maternal grandfather. Because women have two X chromosomes, they have two copies of the androgen receptor gene, while men only have one.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Weight training and other types of physical activity cause baldness.\n", "Testosterone levels are not a good marker of baldness, and many studies actually show paradoxical low testosterone in balding persons, although research on the implications is limited.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Baldness can be caused by emotional stress, sleep deprivation, etc..\n\nEmotional stress has been shown to accelerate baldness in genetically susceptible individuals.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative therapies.\n\nMany people use unproven treatments. Regarding female pattern alopecia, there is no evidence for vitamins, minerals, or other dietary supplements. As of 2008, there is little evidence to support the use of lasers to treat male-pattern hair loss. The same applies to special lights. Dietary supplements are not typically recommended. A 2015 review found a growing number of papers in which plant extracts were studied but only one randomized controlled clinical trial, namely a study in 10 people of saw palmetto extract.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Psychological.\n", "Incidence of melanoma has strong gender-related differences which vary by age.\n", "Section::::Sex-linked barring mutations and melanoma.\n", "The psychology of hair thinning is a complex issue. Hair is considered an essential part of overall identity: especially for women, for whom it often represents femininity and attractiveness. Men typically associate a full head of hair with youth and vigor. Although they may be aware of pattern baldness in their family, many are uncomfortable talking about the issue. Hair thinning is therefore a sensitive issue for both sexes. For sufferers, it can represent a loss of control and feelings of isolation. People experiencing hair thinning often find themselves in a situation where their physical appearance is at odds with their own self-image and commonly worry that they appear older than they are or less attractive to others. Psychological problems due to baldness, if present, are typically most severe at the onset of symptoms.\n", "Clare Balding applied to read law at Christ's College, Cambridge, but failed her interview and realized that law was not what she most wanted to do. She later successfully applied to Newnham College, Cambridge, and read English. While at university she was President of the Cambridge Union Society in Easter 1992 and graduated in 1993 with a 2:1 honours degree.\n", "The only published study to test correlation between ejaculation frequency and baldness was probably large enough to detect an association (1390 subjects) and found no correlation, although persons with only vertex androgenetic alopecia had fewer female sexual partners than those of other androgenetic alopecia categories (such as frontal or both frontal and vertex). One study may not be enough, especially in baldness, where there is a complex with age. Marital status has been shown in some studies to influence hair loss in cross-sectional studies (NHANES1), although the direction of effect cannot be inferred from a cross sectional study.\n", "There are two types of identification tests for female pattern baldness: the Ludwig Scale and the Savin Scale. Both track the progress of diffused thinning, which typically begins on the crown of the head behind the hairline, and becomes gradually more pronounced. For male pattern baldness, the Hamilton–Norwood scale tracks the progress of a receding hairline and/or a thinning crown, through to a horseshoe-shaped ring of hair around the head and on to total baldness.\n", "MEN1 patients usually have a family history of MEN1. Inheritance is autosomal dominant; any affected parent has a 50% chance to transmit the disease to his or her progeny. MEN1 gene mutations can be identified in 70-95% of MEN1 patients.\n", "BULLET::::- Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. As a rule of thumb, around age 50, about 50% of Europeans have 50% grey hair. Many men are affected by balding, and women enter menopause.\n\nBULLET::::- Hearing. By age 75 and older, 48% of men and 37% of women encounter impairments in hearing. Of the 26.7 million people over age 50 with a hearing impairment, only one in seven uses a hearing aid. In the 70–79 age range, the incidence of partial hearing loss affecting communication rises to 65%, predominantly among low-income males.\n", "After Liam Treadwell's Grand National victory on 4 April 2009, Balding interviewed him and made fun of his apparently bad teeth. Both the BBC and Balding apologized by 6 April. Balding later clarified on BBC's \"Have I Got News For You\" quiz that she believed Treadwell to have had his teeth \"kicked out\" by a horse, a common injury suffered by jockeys, apologizing again for her error.\n\nIn 2014, Balding publicly backed Hacked Off and its campaign towards UK press self-regulation by \"safeguarding the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable.\"\n\nSection::::Ancestors.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Names.\n\nMale pattern hair loss is also known as androgenic alopecia, androgenetic alopecia (AGA), alopecia androgenetica, and male pattern baldness (MPB).\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nAnimal models of androgenic alopecia occur naturally and have been developed in transgenic mice; chimpanzees (\"Pan troglodytes\"); bald uakaris (\"Cacajao rubicundus\"); and stump-tailed macaques (\"Macaca speciosa\" and \"M. arctoides\"). Of these, macaques have demonstrated the greatest incidence and most prominent degrees of hair loss.\n", "Female androgenic alopecia is characterized by diffuse crown thinning without hairline recession, and like its male counterpart rarely leads to total hair loss. Finasteride and minoxidil are usually first line therapy for its treatment. Other options include topical or systemic spironolactone or flutamide, although they have a high incidence of feminising side effects and are better tolerated in female androgenic hair loss.\n", "Section::::Position.\n", "From 1682 to 1801 there was a strict \"man–woman\" sequence on the Russian throne: Peter I the Great, Catherine I, Peter II, Anna, Ivan VI, Elizabeth, Peter III, Catherine II the Great, Paul. Emperor Paul changed the rules of succession to the throne so that only men could rule the country, and the \"man–woman\" interchange was terminated. If Tsarina Sophia (a sister of Peter I and Ivan V and a powerful regent during their minority), is counted as a \"de facto\" ruler, then the sequence could be traced from 1676, when another of Sophia's brothers, Feodor III, succeeded to the throne.\n", "The fact that hair loss is cumulative with age while androgen levels fall as well as the fact that finasteride does not reverse advanced stages of androgenetic alopecia remains a mystery but some possible explanations have been put forward: Higher conversion of testosterone to DHT locally with age as higher levels of 5-alpha reductase are noted in balding scalp, and higher levels of DNA damage in the dermal papilla as well as senescence of the dermal papilla due to androgen receptor activation and environmental stress. The mechanism by which the androgen receptor triggers dermal papilla permanent senescence is not known but may involve IL6, TGFB-1 and oxidative stress. Senescence of the dermal papilla is measured by lack of mobility, different size and shape, lower replication and altered output of molecules and different expression of markers. The dermal papilla is the primary location of androgen action and its migration towards the hair bulge and subsequent signaling and size increase are required to maintain the hair follicle so senescence via the androgen receptor explains much of the physiology.\n", "The desire for men to wear hairpieces is a response to a long-standing cultural bias against balding men that crosses cultures. Between 1 BC and AD 1, the Roman poet Ovid wrote Ars Amatoria (\"The Art of Love\") in which he expressed \"Ugly are hornless bulls, a field without grass is an eyesore, So is a tree without leaves, so is a head without hair.\" Another example of this bias, in a later and different culture, can be found in \"The Arabian Nights\" (c. AD 800-900), in which the female character Scheherazade asks \"Is there anything more ugly in the world than a man beardless and bald as an artichoke?\"\n", "Balding was a lead presenter on Channel 4's Paralympics TV coverage. In August 2012 it was reported that Balding would be presenting Channel 4's racing coverage, while still retaining an option to work for the BBC on non-racing programmes such as rugby league.\n", "Proposed social theories for male-pattern hair loss include that baldness signaled dominance, social status, or longevity. Biologists have hypothesized the larger sunlight exposed area would allow more vitamin D to be synthesized, which might have been a \"finely tuned mechanism to prevent prostate cancer\", as the malignancy itself is also associated with higher levels of DHT. However, this argument is weak considering the fact that baldness is very rare in East Asians. As well, early hominins such as the Neandertals do not possess any of the balding variants on the various association loci, who presumably would have been under positive selection for increased Vitamin D synthesis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24021	Why is it that we are unable to take good photos of the moon using a cellphone camera?	It's exposing for an average of the frame, which is very dark, so the moon which is bright overexposes to white. If you have an exposure slider you can drop it way negative and potentially expose for the moon correctly. Or get a zoom so you can make the moon more than 50% of the frame so it exposes correctly.	[ "Images are recorded on many types of media and imaging devices including single-lens reflex cameras, 35 mm film, digital single-lens reflex cameras, simple amateur-level and professional-level commercially manufactured astronomical CCD cameras, video cameras, and even off-the-shelf webcams adapted for long-exposure imaging. But what is a must is having a tripod or a stable surface to avoid camera shakes.\n", "BULLET::::- Meade Pictor 1616\n\nBULLET::::- Meade Lunar-Planetary Imager\n\nBULLET::::- SBIG ST-8 CCD camera.\n", "Originally, the Air Force had offered NASA several spare cameras from the KH-7 GAMBIT program, but then authorities became concerned over security surrounding the classified cameras, including the possibility of images of the Moon giving away their resolution. Some proposals were made that NASA not publish the orbital parameters of the Lunar Orbiter probes so that the resolution of the images could not be calculated through their altitude. In the end, NASA's existing camera systems, while lower resolution, proved to be adequate for the needs of the mission.\n\nSection::::Spacecraft and subsystems.:Potential backup.\n", "Section::::Lunar photography.\n", "The average pair of binoculars will bring the moon approximately as close as can be observed with a 200mm camera lens. The photos below were shot with a 200mm lens. The first photo was taken on 13 November, 2016 at 6:20pm PST, observing the new supermoon just hours before it would officially become the largest supermoon since 1948. The second photo was shot 24 hours later, and the contrast was enhanced to bring out details such as mountainous terrain. The next supermoon will not occur this large until the year 2034.\n\nSection::::Suggested viewing tools.:Telescopes.\n", "Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended. Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used. Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter.\n", "BULLET::::- June 17, 2004: SMART-1 took a test image of Earth with the camera that would later be used for Moon closeup pictures. It shows parts of Europe and Africa. It was taken on May 21 with the AMIE camera.\n\nBULLET::::- November 2, 2004: Last perigee of Earth orbit.\n\nBULLET::::- November 15, 2004: First perilune of lunar orbit.\n\nBULLET::::- January 15, 2005: Calcium detected in Mare Crisium.\n\nBULLET::::- January 26, 2005: First close up pictures of the lunar surface sent back.\n\nBULLET::::- February 27, 2005: Reached final orbit around the Moon with an orbital period of about 5 hours.\n", "The sunlight reflected from the full Moon onto Earth is about 1/250,000 of the brightness of direct sunlight in daytime. Since , full-moon photography requires 18 stops more exposure than sunlight photography, for which the sunny 16 rule is a commonly used guideline.\n\nSection::::Moonlight photography.:Reciprocity failure.\n", "Between 4 October 2007 and 10 June 2009, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's \"Kaguya (Selene)\" mission, a lunar orbiter fitted with a high-definition video camera, and two small radio-transmitter satellites, obtained lunar geophysics data and took the first high-definition movies from beyond Earth orbit.\n", "In January 2013, NASA tested one-way laser communication with LRO by sending an image of the \"Mona Lisa\" to the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) instrument on LRO from the Next Generation Satellite Laser Ranging (NGSLR) station at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.\n\nIn May 2015, LRO's orbit was altered to fly above the Moon's south pole, allowing higher resolution data to be obtained from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) and Diviner instruments over the permanently shadowed craters there.\n\nSection::::Results.\n", "BULLET::::- Landing Camera (LCAM), mounted on the bottom of the spacecraft, the camera began to produce a video stream at the height of above the lunar surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Terrain Camera (TCAM), mounted on top of the lander and able to rotate 360°, is being used to image the lunar surface and the rover in high definition.\n\nBULLET::::- Low Frequency Spectrometer (LFS) to research solar radio bursts at frequencies between 0.1–40 MHz and to study the lunar ionosphere.\n", "Section::::Instruments.\n\nSection::::Instruments.:AMIE.\n\nThe Advanced Moon micro-Imager Experiment was a miniature colour camera for lunar imaging. The CCD camera with three filters of 750, 900 and 950 nm was able to take images with an average pixel resolution of 80 m (about 260 ft). The camera weighed 2.1 kg (about 4.5 lb) and had a power consumption of 9 watts.\n\nSection::::Instruments.:D-CIXS.\n", "This technique can be applied to 3D imaging of the Moon: one picture is taken at moonrise, the other at moonset, as the face of the Moon is centered towards the center of the Earth and the diurnal rotation carries the photographer around the perimeter, though the results are rather\n\npoor, and much better results can be obtained using alternative techniques.\n\nThis is why high quality published stereos of the moon are done using libration, the slight \"wobbling\" of the moon on its axis relative to the earth.\n", "BULLET::::- Early versions of Google Moon used a Swiss cheese pattern for the closest zoom levels before high-resolution images became available.\n", "A newer spacecraft, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), entered orbit around the Moon on June 23, 2009, and, after testing, it began its photographic mission that September. One of LRO's primary goals is to determine the risk to people working on the surface of the Moon. The LRO can create images of the surface that are comparable to the highest resolution images taken of the Moon during the Apollo era. The original Lunar Orbiter images were the highest resolution images ever taken of the Moon prior to the LRO's photography. Digitized Lunar Orbiter images would be invaluable to scientists studying changes in the Moon's surface.\n", "For many years, the Moon has been recognized as an excellent site for telescopes. It is relatively nearby; astronomical seeing is not a concern; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold, and thus especially useful for infrared telescopes; and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth. The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter. A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid.\n", "BULLET::::4. the infrared 1 μm camera (IR1) is imaging on the night side heat radiation (0.90–1.01 μm) emitted from Venus's surface and help researchers to spot active volcanoes, if they exist. While on the day side, it sensed the solar near-infrared radiation (0.90 μm) reflected by the middle clouds. Unavailable for observation after December 2016 due to an electronic failure.\n", "The imaging system was developed by P.F. Bratslavets and I.A. Rosselevich at the Leningrad Scientific Research Institute for Television and the returned images were processed and analyzed by Iu.N. Lipskii and his team at the Sternberg Astronomical Institute. The camera AFA-E1 was developed and manufactured by the KMZ factory (Krasnogorskiy Mekhanicheskiy Zavod).\n\nThe film, temperature-resistant and radiation-hardened, came from American Genetrix balloons which had been recovered by the Soviets.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chang'e 4, a Chinese December 2018 mission for a robotic probe/lander combination that landed on the Moon's far side, near the lunar south pole (3 January 2019)\n", "BSI-CMOS is another type of CMOS sensor that is gradually entering the compact camera segment which is superior to the traditional CCD sensors. Cameras with small sensors such as: Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX100, Nikon 1 J2 and Canon PowerShot G1X give good images up to ISO 400.\n\nSection::::Moonlight photography.\n", "The Earth's atmosphere absorbs and scatters UV photons, preventing observations of the active Universe. Placing a telescope on the surface of the Moon is advantageous because of its absence of atmosphere and ionosphere offers an unobstructed view of the space in all wavelengths. The Moon surface provides not just a stable platform, but an inexpensive and long-term access to observations in wavelengths not normally used by large orbital telescope missions. The only UV astronomical observations from the Moon to date were made by Apollo 16 team in 1972. LUCI project started in 2013 and is funded by India's Department of Science and Technology. The telescope team is headed by Jayant Murthy.\n", "BULLET::::- Traditional vs. New\n", "Smartphones can usually not fixed on a tripod, which can make problems at filming or at taking pictures with long exposure times.\n\nSection::::Laws.\n", "BULLET::::- Generational Gap\n", "In April 1972, the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.\n\nSection::::Legal status.\n", "BULLET::::- Critique of Historical Documents\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03137	why is nvidia trying to stop miners from buying their GPUs selling 10 GPUs to a miner is better for them profit wise then selling 1 to a gamer?	Primarily, its a PR play first. Nvidia's target audience for their brand and products have been gamers since its start. That is their customer, and their brand. Games. They don't want to lose that association and push gamers to their competitor AMD. Now on the economics side, there are two factors. The first, they seriously don't care who buys it, sales are sales, them asking not to sell to miners is just something their marketing department dreamed up to help combat bad PR and mad gamers that they can't get the cards and the prices are too high. Second, there is a pretty solid chance nvidia think these mining setups are not a good long-term business for them. Gamers are long term, mining may not last. They are looking to the future.	[ "The GeForce Partner Program was first announced by Nvidia in a blog post on March 1, 2018. On March 8, 2018, technology website HardOCP released an article which stated that Kyle Bennett (author of the article and editor-in-chief of HardOCP) had interviewed several people and companies who all said that they thought the terms of the GeForce Partner Program were \"likely illegal\" and that the program would \"tremendously hurt consumer choices\". While a number of manufacturers joined the program (including Asus, MSI, and Gigabyte), it was reported that HP and Dell refused. It was reported that the US Federal Trade Commission and European Commission were investigating the program.\n", "Section::::Finances.\n\nFor the fiscal year 2018, Nvidia reported earnings of US$3.047 billion, with an annual revenue of US$9.714 billion, an increase of 40.6% over the previous fiscal cycle. Nvidia's shares traded at over $245 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$120.6 billion in September 2018.\n\nSection::::GPU Technology Conference.\n", "In April 2016, Nvidia produced the DGX-1 supercomputer based on an 8 GPU cluster, to improve the ability of users to use deep learning by combining GPUs with integrated deep learning software. It also developed Nvidia Tesla K80 and P100 GPU-based virtual machines, which are available through Google Cloud, which Google installed in November 2016. Microsoft added GPU servers in a preview offering of its N series based on Nvidia's Tesla K80s, each containing 4992 processing cores. Later that year, AWS's P2 instance was produced using up to 16 Nvidia Tesla K80 GPUs. That month Nvidia also partnered with IBM to create a software kit that boosts the AI capabilities of Watson, called IBM PowerAI. Nvidia also offers its own NVIDIA Deep Learning software development kit. In 2017, the GPUs were also brought online at the RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project for Fujitsu. The company's deep learning technology led to a boost in its 2017 earnings.\n", "An increase in cryptocurrency mining increased the demand of graphics cards (GPU) in 2017. Popular favorites of cryptocurrency miners such as Nvidia's GTX 1060 and GTX 1070 graphics cards, as well as AMD's RX 570 and RX 580 GPUs, doubled or tripled in price or were out of stock. A GTX 1070 Ti which was released at a price of $450 sold for as much as $1100. Another popular card GTX 1060's 6 GB model was released at an MSRP of $250, sold for almost $500. RX 570 and RX 580 cards from AMD were out of stock for almost a year. Miners regularly buy up the entire stock of new GPU's as soon as they are available.\n", "Many gaming PCs support the use of multiple video cards in SLI or CrossFire, making it possible to spend thousands of dollars in graphics cards alone.\n\nIt is worth noting that, beyond a certain level of performance, price increases dramatically while offering smaller increases in performance; this is a classic example of diminishing returns. For example, a user who purchased 4 Titan X graphics cards in 2015 would have spent over $4000, even though next year's high-end graphics card, the GTX 1080, in 3-way SLI would offer a significant increase in performance at less than half the price.\n", "Section::::Company history.:Founders and initial investment.\n\nThree people co-founded Nvidia in April 1993:\n\nBULLET::::- Jensen Huang (CEO ), a Taiwanese American, previously director of CoreWare at LSI Logic and a microprocessor designer at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Malachowsky, an electrical engineer who worked at Sun Microsystems\n\nBULLET::::- Curtis Priem, previously a senior staff engineer and graphics chip designer at Sun Microsystems\n\nThe company received $20 million of venture capital funding from Sequoia Capital and others.\n\nSection::::Company history.:Major releases and acquisitions.\n", "While physics cards are now available, compatibility and performance increases are still debated. Some people have experienced performance downgrades in GRAW, one of few games currently available that take advantage of additional physics hardware. Graphics card manufacturers plan on including PPUs on their chipsets and also adding a slot for a third graphics card (in addition to the usual 2 slots for SLI or Crossfire setups) to act as a PPU.\n", "The new GPUs were revealed as the Quadro RTX 8000, Quadro RTX 6000 and Quadro RTX 5000. The high end Quadro RTX 8000 features 4,608 CUDA cores and 576 Tensor cores with 48GB of VRAM. Nvidia expects the Turing-based Quadro GPU to be released on Q4 2018. Later during the Gamescom press conference, NVIDIA's CEO Jensen Huang, unveiled the new GeForce RTX series with RTX 2080 Ti, 2080, and 2070 that will use the Turing architecture. The first Turing cards were slated to ship to consumers on September 20th, 2018. Nvidia announced the RTX 2060 on January 6, 2019 at CES 2019.\n", "Nvidia canceled the GeForce Partner Program in May 2018, while asserting that there were a number of \"rumors, conjecture, and mistruths\" being discussed about the program.\n\nSection::::Practices.\n\nThe program was regarded as an anti-consumer practice due to the fact that partnering companies were required to remove their gaming branding from all non-Nvidia graphics cards, hurting consumer choice. Reportedly in response to these restrictions, manufacturers began releasing new brands for the competing AMD Radeon products.\n", "In May 2019 Nvidia announced new RTX Studio laptops. The creators say that the new laptop is going to be seven times faster than a top-end MacBook Pro with a Core i9 and AMD’s Radeon Pro Vega 20 graphics in apps like Maya and RedCine-X Pro.\n\nSection::::Company history.:Class action lawsuit.\n", "As of 2016, the primary suppliers of the GPUs (video chips or chipsets) used in video cards are AMD and Nvidia. In the third quarter of 2013, AMD had a 35.5% market share while Nvidia had a 64.5% market share, according to Jon Peddie Research. In economics, this industry structure is termed a duopoly. AMD and Nvidia also build and sell video cards, which are termed graphics add-in-board (AIBs) in the industry. (See Comparison of Nvidia graphics processing units and Comparison of AMD graphics processing units.) In addition to marketing their own video cards, AMD and Nvidia sell their GPUs to authorized AIB suppliers, which AMD and Nvidia refer to as \"partners\". The fact that Nvidia and AMD compete directly with their customer/partners complicates relationships in the industry. The fact that AMD and Intel are direct competitors in the CPU industry is also noteworthy, since AMD-based video cards may be used in computers with Intel CPUs. Intel's move to APUs may weaken AMD, which until now has derived a significant portion of its revenue from graphics components. As of the second quarter of 2013, there were 52 AIB suppliers. These AIB suppliers may market video cards under their own brands, or produce video cards for private label brands or produce video cards for computer manufacturers. Some AIB suppliers such as MSI build both AMD-based and Nvidia-based video cards. Others, such as EVGA, build only Nvidia-based video cards, while XFX, now builds only AMD-based video cards. Several AIB suppliers are also motherboard suppliers. The largest AIB suppliers, based on global retail market share for graphics cards, include Taiwan-based Palit Microsystems, Hong Kong-based PC Partner (which markets AMD-based video cards under its Sapphire brand and Nvidia-based video cards under its Zotac brand), Taiwan-based computer-maker Asustek Computer (Asus), Taiwan-based Micro-Star International (MSI), Taiwan-based Gigabyte Technology, Brea, California, USA-based EVGA (which also sells computer components such as power supplies) and Ontario, California USA-based XFX. (The parent corporation of XFX is based in Hong Kong.)\n", "The move is both a response to and a driver of competitive consolidation that is sweeping through the game monetization industry. Companies that grew up with one service, such as analytics, are finding that their customers want them to offer more than that. That's why rival Unity Technologies, a 3D game engine maker, acquired game services companies Playnomics and Applifier, and it's also why Kontagent and PlayHaven merged to form Upsight.\n", "In July 2008, Nvidia took a write-down of approximately $200 million on its first-quarter revenue, after reporting that certain mobile chipsets and GPUs produced by the company had \"abnormal failure rates\" due to manufacturing defects. Nvidia, however, did not reveal the affected products. In September 2008, Nvidia became the subject of a class action lawsuit over the defects, claiming that the faulty GPUs had been incorporated into certain laptop models manufactured by Apple Inc., Dell, and HP. In September 2010, Nvidia reached a settlement, in which it would reimburse owners of the affected laptops for repairs or, in some cases, replacement. On January 10, 2011, Nvidia signed a six-year, $1.5 billion cross-licensing agreement with Intel, ending all litigation between the two companies.\n", "Ageia was noted as being the first company to develop hardware designed to offload calculation of video game physics from the CPU to a separate chip. Prior to this, solutions from ATI and Nvidia had not been planned nor announced. Soon after the Ageia implementation of their PhysX processor, \n\nNvidia and ATI announced their own physics implementations.\n", "OpenGL 3.3 (which offers a unified shader model) can still be implemented on hardware that does not have unified shading architecture. Similarly, hardware that supported non unified shader model APIs could be based on a unified shader architecture, as is the case with Xenos graphics chip in Xbox 360, for example.\n\nThe unified shading architecture was introduced with the Nvidia GeForce 8 series, ATI Radeon HD 2000, S3 Chrome 400, Intel GMA X3000 series, Xbox 360's GPU, Qualcomm Adreno 200 series, Mali Midgard, PowerVR SGX GPUs and is used in all subsequent series.\n\nNvidia\n\nBULLET::::- Tesla\n\nBULLET::::- Fermi\n\nBULLET::::- Kepler\n", "BULLET::::- The new contract lowers commissions as they are determined by a fixed percentage of the Net Gaming Revenue(39% for 2017, 37% for 2018, 35% for 2019 and 2020). That commission is then adapted in each quarter depending on customers winnings. If customers win more than anticipated within a quarter part of the agents commission has to be returned.\n\nBULLET::::- In 9 and 10 March 2017 agents were on strike.\n", "During 2014 the Radeon R9 200 series GPUs offered a very competitive price for usage in cryptocurrency mining. This led to limited supply and huge price increases of up to 164% over the MSRP in Q4 of 2013 and Q1 of 2014. Since Q2 of 2018 availability of AMD GPUs as well as pricing has, in most cases, returned to normal.\n\nSection::::Architecture.:CrossFire Compatibility.\n", "GeForce Partner Program\n\nThe Nvidia GeForce Partner Program was a marketing program designed to provide partnering companies with benefits such as public relations support, video game bundling, and marketing development funds. The program proved to be controversial, with complaints about it possibly being an anti-competitive practice. Nvidia canceled the program in May 2018.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Adobe and NVIDIA have co-operated for over 10 years on empowering GPU quickening for a wide arrangement of Adobe's creative and computerized encounter items. This incorporates Sensei-powered features, for example, auto lip sync in Adobe Character Animator CC and face aware editing in Photoshop CC, and also cloud-based AI/ML items and features, for example, picture investigation for Adobe Stock and Lightroom CC and auto-labeling in Adobe Experience Supervisor.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "In 2008, Nvidia took a $150 to 250M charge against revenue because the GPUs were failing at \"higher than normal rates.\" HP provided an extension to their warranty of up to 24 months for notebooks affected by this issue. A class action suit was filed against HP and Nvidia by Whatley Drake & Kallas LLC.\n\nSection::::GeForce 6100 and 6150 series.:GeForce 61XX abnormally high failure rate in notebook computers.:GeForce 6100.\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturing process: 90 nm\n\nBULLET::::- Core Clock: 425 MHz\n\nBULLET::::- Vertex Processors: 1\n\nBULLET::::- Pixel Pipelines: 2\n\nBULLET::::- Shader Model: 3\n\nBULLET::::- DirectX support: v9.0c\n", "Section::::History.:GPU companies.\n\nMany companies have produced GPUs under a number of brand names. In 2009, Intel, Nvidia and AMD/ATI were the market share leaders, with 49.4%, 27.8% and 20.6% market share respectively. However, those numbers include Intel's integrated graphics solutions as GPUs. Not counting those, Nvidia and AMD control nearly 100% of the market as of 2018. Their respective market shares are 66% and 33%. In addition, S3 Graphics and Matrox produce GPUs.\n\nModern smartphones are also using mostly Adreno GPUs from Qualcomm, PowerVR GPUs from Imagination Technologies and Mali GPUs from ARM.\n\nSection::::Computational functions.\n", "The GBL has stated publicly that they would reconsider the Arizona market (Surprise and Mesa) if the league, the city of Mesa and the concessionaire at HoHoKam Park in Mesa could reach agreement on a revenue sharing agreement for concessions sales at Miners games. The Miners were the only team in the league not to receive any funds from concessions sales at their games.\n", "In June 2018, AMD announced 7 nm Radeon Instinct GPUs launching in the second half of 2018. In August 2018, the company has confirmed the release of the GPUs.\n\nIn August 2018, GlobalFoundries announced it was stopping development of 7 nm chips citing cost.\n\nIn August 21, 2018, Huawei announced their HiSilicon Kirin 980 SoC to be used in their Huawei Mate 20 and Mate 20 Pro built using TSMC's 7 nm (N7) process.\n", "The PS4 and Xbox One were released in 2013, they both use GPUs based on AMD's Radeon HD 7850 and 7790. Nvidia's Kepler line of GPUs was followed by the Maxwell line, manufactured on the same process. 28 nm chips by Nvidia were manufactured by TSMC, the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, that was manufacturing using the 28 nm process at the time. Compared to the 40 nm technology from the past, this new manufacturing process allowed a 20 percent boost in performance while drawing less power. Virtual reality headsets have very high system requirements. VR headset manufacturers recommended the GTX 970 and the R9 290X or better at the time of their release. Pascal is the next generation of consumer graphics cards by Nvidia released in 2016. The GeForce 10 series of cards are under this generation of graphics cards. They are made using the 16 nm manufacturing process which improves upon previous microarchitectures. Nvidia has released one non-consumer card under the new Volta architecture, the Titan V. Changes from the Titan XP, Pascal's high-end card, include an increase in the number of CUDA cores, the addition of tensor cores, and HBM2. Tensor cores are cores specially designed for deep learning, while high-bandwidth memory is on-die, stacked, lower-clocked memory that offers an extremely wide memory bus that is useful for the Titan V's intended purpose. To emphasize that the Titan V is not a gaming card, Nvidia removed the \"Geforce GTX\" suffix it adds to consumer gaming cards. A new generation, the RTX Turing GPUs were unveiled on August 20, 2018 that add ray-tracing cores to GPUs, improving their performance on lighting effects. Polaris 11 and Polaris 10 GPUs from AMD are fabricated a 14-nanometer process. Their release results in a substantial increase in the performance per watt of AMD video cards. AMD has also released the Vega GPUs series for the high end market as a competitor to Nvidia's high end Pascal cards, also featuring HBM2 like the Titan V.\n" ]	[ "Nvidia is trying to stop miners from buying cards" ]	[ "Nvidia doesn't care who buys their cards they just have to publicly \"fight the miners and scalpers\" to keep their customer base happy." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Nvidia is trying to stop miners from buying cards" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Nvidia doesn't care who buys their cards they just have to publicly \"fight the miners and scalpers\" to keep their customer base happy." ]
2018-00247	Referencing the "swatting" case, can two people be charged with the same murder? Ignoring personal thoughts on guilt, Legally, can cop and caller both be charged with murder?	More than one person can be charged with murder if more than one committed the act. However, in this case the caller is probably guilty of a different crime.	[ "Warren and Taliaferro heard Douglas' screams from the floor below. Warren called 9-1-1 and told the dispatcher that the house was being burglarized, and requested immediate assistance. The department employee told her to remain quiet and assured her that police assistance would be dispatched promptly.\n", "Warren and Taliaferro crawled back inside their room. They again heard Douglas' continuing screams; again called the police; told the officer that the intruders had entered the home, and requested immediate assistance. Once again, a police officer assured them that help was on the way. This second call was received at 0642 and recorded merely as \"investigate the trouble;\" it was never dispatched to any police officers.\n", "Judge Edmonson was the most vehement in his defense of Deputy Rackard, stating that:\n\nBULLET::::- It was night-time, on the side of a highway, with considerable passing traffic\n\nBULLET::::- Buckley was \"resisting\"\n\nBULLET::::- The Taser was used only after repeated warnings to Buckley\n", "BULLET::::- July 5, 2015 - David James Ellis, a man with a history of mental illness, is shot by Portland police officer Scott Konczal after a confrontation where Ellis cut Konczal's partner's hand with a folding knife. Officers said Ellis was attempting to burglarize a police office. Konczel is not indicted.\n\nBULLET::::- July 10, 2015 - Both parties to \"U.S. v. City of Portland\" reach a mediated settlement to the appeal by City, agreeing to relax a requirement City provide evidence in annual hearings before a Federal judge.\n", "BULLET::::- September 8, 2018 - Judge Micheal Simon accepts the petition for a new amicus to the case, the Mental Health Alliance, representing people with mental illness.\n\nBULLET::::- September 30, 2018 - Portland Police officers Sergeant Garry Britt and Jeffrey Livingston shot and killed 27-year-old Patrick Kimmons. The officers were not indicted.\n", "BULLET::::- In December 2016, a jury in Corpus Christi, Texas acquitted Ray Rosas of attempted capital murder because it concluded that he was unaware the three home intruders he shot were SWAT officers. Prior to his acquittal, Rosas had spent 664 days in jail.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2016, Framingham, Massachusetts agreed to settle claims by the family of Eurie Stamps for $3.75 million after SWAT officers shot the 68-year-old in the back while he was compliant and lying on his stomach. Prosecutors did not file charges against the shooter.\n", "BULLET::::- May 12, 2010 - Keaton Otis, a person with a diagnosis of a mental illness, is shot and killed by Portland Police officers during a routine traffic stop after shooting Officer Christopher Burley twice. On May 28, a grand jury brings no indictment to Otis officers.\n\nBULLET::::- May 12, 2010 - Portland Mayor Sam Adams fires Police Chief Rosie Sizer.\n\nBULLET::::- December 17, 2010 - Darryel Ferguson, a person with a diagnosis of mental illness, is shot and killed by two Portland police officers. On December 30, a grand jury brings no indictment to Ferguson officers.\n", "BULLET::::- December 9, 2016 - Portland police officer Lawrence Keller shot and killed Steven Liffel, a man in a mental health crisis. Keller was not indicted.\n\nBULLET::::- January 28, 2017 - Mayor Ted Wheeler resigned all members of the Community Oversight Advisory Board (COAB), saying he didn't believe the board \"was particularly effective in achieving its objectives.\"\n\nBULLET::::- February 7, 2017 - Portland police officer Andrew Hearst shot and killed 17 year old Quanice Hayes, a teenager in a mental health crisis. Hearst was not indicted.\n", "BULLET::::- February 17, 2013 - Merle Hatch, a person with a diagnosis of mental illness and a long history of drug addiction, is shot six times and killed by Portland Police Sgt. Nathan Voeller and officers Andrew Hearst and Royce Curtiss after he charged them in a hospital parking lot. Hatch had tried to access the hospital for psychiatric care. He was a Federal fugitive at the time of his death. On March 20, 2013, a grand jury finds no cause to indict the three officers.\n", "Section::::Police logs, 7 August 1985.:Event log.\n\nIn 2010 Bamber's lawyers highlighted two police logs in support of Bamber's application to have his case referred back to the Court of Appeal. The question was whether these logs support the prosecution position that there was one call that night to the police, from Bamber alone; or the defence position that there were two calls to police, one from Nevill followed by a second from Bamber.\n", "BULLET::::- In Killeen, Texas, a grand jury indicted Marvin Louis Guy for capital murder after he shot and killed a police detective outside his home during execution of a no-knock warrant on May 9, 2014.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2013, Tucson, Arizona agreed to settle claims by the family of Jose Guereña for $3.4 million after SWAT officers fired 71 shots in the seven seconds after their unannounced entry. Prosecutors did not file charges against the shooters.\n", "The judge told the jury that there were three crucial points, in no particular order. Did they believe Julie Mugford or Jeremy Bamber? Were they sure that Sheila was not the killer who then committed suicide? He said this question involved another: was the second, fatal, shot fired at Sheila with the silencer on? If yes, she could not have fired it. Finally, did Nevill call Bamber in the middle of the night? If there was no such call, it undermined the entirety of Bamber's story; the only reason he would have had to invent the phone call was that he was responsible for the murders.\n", "In court, Rapp testified in May 2018 that he was given no information when he arrived at the scene, including when Finch was given his first verbal command, when the 911 call ended, or whether officers at the scene were aware the caller was still on the phone with 911. Sedgwick County Department of Emergency Communications has also denied an open records request pertaining to the 911 call, stating the police department had asked that no more records be released.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "BULLET::::- May 17, 2015 - Michael Harrison, a man in a mental health crisis, is shot, wounded and arrested by Portland police officer Raelynn McKay. On June 11, a Multnomah County grand jury found McKay was justified in shooting Harrison. McKay is not indicted.\n\nBULLET::::- June 29, 2015 - Allen Bellew, a man with a long history of drug addiction, is shot and killed by Portland police officers Dominic Lovato and Michael Currier. On July 21, a Multnomah County grand jury finds Lovato and Currier justified in killing Bellew. The officers are not indicted.\n", "On September 11, 2014, Bukkit programmer Wesley \"Wolvereness\" Wolfe was the victim of a swatting incident. An unidentified Skype caller told police that Wolfe had shot his parents and was on a killing spree. Wolfe believed he was targeted in retaliation to his issuing of a DMCA takedown of CraftBukkit from the Bukkit repository.\n", "On January 15, 2015, in Sentinel, Oklahoma, Washita County, dispatchers received 911 calls from someone who identified himself as Dallas Horton and told dispatchers he had placed a bomb in a local preschool. Washita County Sheriff's Deputies and Sentinel Police Chief Louis Ross made forced entry into Horton's residence. Ross, who was wearing a bulletproof vest, was shot several times by Horton. Further investigation revealed that the calls did not originate from the home and led Oklahoma State Bureau of Investigation agents to believe Horton was unaware that it was law enforcement officers making entry. James Edward Holly confessed to investigators that he made the calls with two \"nonfunctioning\" phones because he was angry with Horton. Ross, who was shot multiple times in the chest and arm, was injured, but was treated for his injuries and released from a local hospital.\n", "Meanwhile, Warren and Taliaferro crawled from their window onto an adjoining roof and waited for the police to arrive. While there, they observed one policeman drive through the alley behind their house and proceed to the front of the residence without stopping, leaning out the window, or getting out of the car to check the back entrance of the house. A second officer apparently knocked on the door in front of the residence, but left when he received no answer. The three officers departed the scene at 0633, five minutes after they arrived.\n", "In a parallel investigation, Det. Laura Ballard and Det. Stuart Gharty respond to a street shooting witnessed by the victim's mother, sister, and neighbor. The sister identifies the shooter as a local hood named \"either Jacko or Jocko,\" but when Ballard and Gharty track Jacko down, the neighbor who witnessed the shooting mistakenly insists that Jacko is not the man who shot Williams. The cops know that Jacko did it but when he gives an alibi for being in another location, they are unable to prove he is lying because the timeline for running between the two locations is unclear. In the end, to the horror of the victim's family, Jacko gets away with murder.\n", "The defense argued that a prostitute who was accused of stealing checks from Peterson's mailbox might have murdered Laci, but Modesto police detective Mike Hermosa did not indicate that the woman was ever a suspect in her disappearance. Prosecutor Dave Harris noted that the checks were stolen after she vanished, meaning the woman was not involved in her disappearance.\n", "District Attorney Doug Moreau concentrated on establishing that it had not been reasonable for Peairs, a tall, well-armed man, to be so fearful of a polite, friendly, unarmed, boy who rang the doorbell, even if he walked toward him unexpectedly in the driveway, and that Peairs was not justified in using deadly force.\n\nA police detective testified that Peairs had said to him, \"Boy, I messed up; I made a mistake.\"\n", "U.S. V. Andre Burno - Motivated by a desire to steal a police officer's Glock firearm, the defendant ambushed an on-duty police officer, shooting him in the neck. The case/defendant is the subject of an Emmy-Award-winning HBO documentary titled, “Thug Life in DC.”\n", "In this case, the “deliberate indifference” accusation does not make sense, since in a high-speed chase there is no time for deliberation. Furthermore, one must remember that officers are under intense pressure in these situations, where they must “act decisively and show restraint at the same time.\" Thus the Court held: “High-speed chases with no intent to harm suspects physically or to worsen their legal plight do not give rise to liability under the Fourteenth Amendment”\n", "In May 2015, Rayney was acquitted of two charges of tapping his own residential telephone line. He is pursuing a multimillion-dollar defamation action against the state over his having been publicly named as \"the prime and only suspect\".\n", "A grand jury indicted the three rape suspects. Shepherd and Greenlee later told FBI investigators that deputies beat them until they confessed to the crime. U.S. Attorney Herbert Phillips failed to return indictments against Lake County Sheriff's deputies James Yates and Leroy Campbell for their roles.\n", "Section::::Existing law.\n\nThe case would involve two areas of law, both coming under the Fourth Amendment. The first was the privacy rights Quon and the other officers had over text messages sent on equipment paid for by their employers. The other was their rights as public employees, since their superiors were also agents of the state.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00347	if you can't film CRT TVs properly because the screen refresh rate is out of synch with the camera's shutter speed, how to filmmakers create shots with CRT TVs playing normally?	> if you can't film CRT TVs properly because the screen refresh rate is out of synch with the camera's shutter speed, how to filmmakers create shots with CRT TVs playing normally? There are two good ways: You could synchronize the shutter speed with the refresh rate of the CRT, or you could have it show a blue or green screen and edit in whatever you wanted after filming. The former was probably easier early on, and the latter probably became more popular considering the flexibility it offers.	[ "The Fox show \"Arrested Development\" used an elaborate post-production process to adjust colors and brightness levels to match those of film stock.\n", "\"For Us, the Living\" also depicts an early example of homesourcing in fiction. The character of Diana, a nationally renowned dancer, is shown performing in her own home for a broadcast audience, which sees her dancing on sets added by the broadcasting company to her original feed. The mechanism for this homesourcing is not described in much technical detail, but it appears to be similar to a high-definition video signal interfaced with something like modern chroma key technology.\n", "A modern system, having gained ground since the early 1990s, uses a personal computer and special software in place of much of the custom equipment. The sound card of a PC, with special processing software, acts as a modem. The computer screen provides the output. A small digital camera or digital photos provide the input.\n\nSection::::Current systems.:Modulation.\n", "When film is scanned so that an electronic (video) copy can be made, various means are used to help ensure that the variations in frame position as a result of sprocket hole wear are minimized. The more effective these means are, the less of a 'film look' the result will have. On the contrary, if this compensation is reduced or disabled, the resulting electronic copy may exhibit more jump and weave, giving the result a sense of constant jitter.\n\nSection::::Filmized productions.\n", "Filming took place in North London, England and ended in the schedule of 17 days.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Displaying movie content on a TV.\n\nAs movies are usually filmed at a rate of 24 frames per second, while television sets operate at different rates, some conversion is necessary. Different techniques exist to give the viewer an optimal experience.\n\nThe combination of content production, playback device, and display device processing may also give artifacts that are unnecessary. A display device producing a fixed 60 fps rate cannot display a 24 fps movie at an even, judder-free rate. Usually, a is used, giving a slight uneven movement.\n", "The movie was shot with Canon EOS 5D Mark II cameras between October and November 2010 on location at a house in New Rochelle, New York. The house used in the film was found by directors Kentis and Lau entirely empty, and was wallpapered and filled with props and furniture by the production design.\n", "The pilot was shot at a redressed Kmart in Burbank, California, though the rest of the series has been shot on sets constructed on two soundstages.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Ratings.\n", "In certain cases, filmmakers found ways of filming television screens without the use of sync boxes. Documented examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Irwin, director of photography on \"Videodrome\" (1983), did not have access to a sync box during that film for shooting many scenes involving TV screens. He used a camera with a fixed shutter speed to reduce roll bars to very thin lines in that film, thus making them imperceptible.\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Shane as Dave\n\nBULLET::::- Tina Cole as Ruth Stewart\n\nSyndicated columnist, radio and television talk show host and personality Shirley Eder makes a cameo as herself in the record store scene; Mike Henry plays the parking valet at the Riviera Hotel; Dawn Wells and Linda Gray appear as featured extras in non-speaking roles.\n\nSection::::Production notes.\n\nSection::::Production notes.:Development.\n", "Section::::Frame rate differences.\n\nThe most complex part of telecine is the synchronization of the mechanical film motion and the electronic video signal. Every time the video (tele) part of the telecine samples the light electronically, the film (cine) part of the telecine must have a frame in perfect registration and ready to photograph. This is relatively easy when the film is photographed at the same frame rate as the video camera will sample, but when this is not true, a sophisticated procedure is required to change frame rate.\n", "Filming went from 10 February to 16 May 1963. It was filmed on location in Palm Springs, as well as in the studio at Warners.\n\nTroy Donahue later recalled:\n", "Fisher singing in \"Masha and the Bear\" at age 11 was worked into the film. Because Fisher was never filmed turning on a phone in production, during editing a shot of her putting down and turning off a phone was played backwards. Editor Jennifer Lilly and Burnham did not complete post-production until three days before it was first screened in January 2018.\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Melora Hardin was originally cast in the role of Marty's girlfriend Jennifer, but was let go after Stoltz was dismissed, with the explanation that the actress was now too tall to be playing against Fox. Hardin was dismissed before she had a chance to shoot a single scene and was replaced with Claudia Wells. Actress Jill Schoelen had also been considered to play Marty's girlfriend.\n\nSection::::Production.:Filming.\n", "In television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference. In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams are bent by \"magnetic deflection\", a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, although electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes, a type of diagnostic instrument.\n", "Because of higher television production budgets in the US, and a preference for the look of film, many prerecorded TV shows were, in fact, captured onto film at 24 Hz.\n\nSource material filmed at 24 Hz is converted to roughly 60 Hz using the technique called , which includes inserting variable number of duplicate frames, with additional slowdown by the factor of 1.001, if needed. Occasionally, inter-frame mixing is used to smooth the judder.\n", "Knowles rehearsed the pole dancing using two ballet bars, which was when it was decided to add a pole above her head to form an arc. Though she is from Texas, she had never previously been on mechanical bull. There were no problems during warm-ups, but the man operating the bull during the video shoot programmed it to go faster, causing Knowles to fall off when she tried to perform tricks such as lifting up her foot, leaning back and turning around. To minimize the time Knowles spent on the bull, the director shot the sequence at twelve frames per second (see frame rate) and Knowles sang twice as quickly, but it wasn't until 4:00 am that they completed work.\n", "Catastrophic incidents could occur on live television of this era. On 30 November 1958, while Lambert was working as a Production Assistant on \"Armchair Theatre\", an actor died during a broadcast of \"Underground\" and she had to take responsibility for directing the cameras from the studio gallery while director Ted Kotcheff worked with the actors on the studio floor to accommodate the loss.\n", "Due to the unique nature of the film's presentation as a single take, the production crew ran into several technical issues while filming, mainly surrounding lighting issues and mobility around the house. Since filming was carried out in 12-15 minute takes, there were several occurrences where entire sequences had to be thrown out and re-done repeatedly due to lighting problems or missed cues.\n", "The scene in which Uhura and Chekov question passersby about the location of nuclear vessels was filmed with a hidden camera. However, the people with whom Koenig and Nichols speak were extras hired off the street for that day's shooting and, despite legends to the contrary, knew they were being filmed. In an interview with \"StarTrek.com\", Layla Sarakalo, the extra who said, \"I don't know if I know the answer to that... I think it's across the bay, in Alameda,\" stated that after her car was impounded because she refused to move it for the filming, she approached the assistant director about appearing with the other extras, hoping to be paid enough to get her car out of impoundment. She had been told to act naturally, and so she answered them and the filmmakers kept her response in the film, though she had to be inducted into the Screen Actors Guild in order for her lines to be kept.\n", "The preparation and improvisation of the actors went on for 4 months before the principal photography began in November 2014 and continued over the next six months resulting in 63 days of shooting. The editing took eight months and the music and sound design took further six months. The film was entirely shot on locations in Pune. It was executive and line produced by Ashwini Paranjape for Kanade Films and Chaitra Arts. Director of photography was Daniel Katz whose short film \"Curfew\" had won Oscar.\n\nSection::::Critical response.\n\nCRD has received favourable critical reception around the world.\n", "BULLET::::- Frank Williamson as Preston's computer (Macintosh)\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nThe movie was filmed in Austin, San Antonio, and Dallas. The castle house that Preston buys was filmed at 1415 Wooldridge Drive in Austin, which is now owned by filmmaker Robert Rodriguez. The theme park in the beginning of the movie was Six Flags Fiesta Texas; several of the park's attractions, including The Rattler and Power Surge, were filmed in this movie. \n", "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n\nPrincipal photography began on August 12, 1997, and ended on October 27, 1997. Filming took place in various New York City locations, and the structure used for the disco was Loews Landmark Theater Loew's Jersey Theatre in Jersey City, New Jersey, that was in the process of being renovated. The filmmakers had to share the location with another film production that took place there beforehand. The other production paid for the red carpeting used in the building, and the rest of the interior was designed and paid for by Stillman's crew.\n", "A standards converter was used to provide the 405 line service, but according to more than one former RTÉ engineering source the converter blew up and afterwards the 405 line service was provided by a 405 line camera pointing at a monitor. This is not the best conversion technique but it can work if one is going from a higher resolution to a lower one – at the same frame rate. Slow phosphors are required on both orthicons.\n", "Production of the film was in San Francisco. Various locations in the city were used during filming. Parts were filmed at the studios of television station KTVU in Oakland. Street signs for the intersection near the \"Painted Lady\" home, Steiner, and Broadway, were visible onscreen.\n" ]	[ "Filmmakers make shots with real CRT TVs playing footage." ]	[ "The filmmakers put a CRT with a green screen and later edit what is on the screen. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Filmmakers make shots with real CRT TVs playing footage." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The filmmakers put a CRT with a green screen and later edit what is on the screen. " ]
2018-00801	Why is it easier to bend strings on guitars with shorter scale lengths?	The pitch of notes on a guitar string is altered in one of two ways. Increasing the string tension, as in a bend, is one way to raise the pitch because it pulls the string tighter and causes it to vibrate faster and emit a higher frequency. The other method is to change the length of the string by fretting notes along the neck, effectively changing the length between the bridge and where the note is fretted, or between the bridge and nut in the case of an open string. The longer or lower tension the string is, the slower it vibrates and the lower the note that is produced. Likewise a shorter or tighter string will vibrate faster and produce a higher note. Because scale length is set into the design of a guitar, if all were tuned to equal tension then different scale length guitars would not be in tune with one another. The short scale guitars would always be tuned sharper in relation to a long scale guitar. The only alternative to make them equal is to increase the string tension on the longer scale length guitars and tune by pitch instead so that the strings vibrate at the same frequencies as what a shorter scale guitar would produce. It's this increased tension to achieve correct tuning on a longer scale guitar that makes bending the strings slightly more difficult. Therefore, bending strings on a short scale guitar is relatively easier.	[ "The steel-string acoustic guitar typically has a scale slightly shorter than the classical instrument, the most common scales ranging between \"short scale\" : 24 inches (610 mm) and \"long scale\": 25.5 inches (648 mm). Small travel guitars and guitars specifically designed for children can have even shorter scales. For example, a 3/4 size steel string guitar might have a scale length of 23 inches (580 mm).\n\nSection::::Electric guitar.\n", "BULLET::::- Bending, especially wide bending, requires specialized finger strength. It is not uncommon for bending to be awkward or tiring for the hands. However, with proper practice, this subsides. String gauge also plays a big role; typically thicker strings are more difficult to bend. Notable guitarists who used very heavy-gauge strings while still producing musical bends include Stevie Ray Vaughan and Peter Green.\n\nSection::::Guitar.:Behind-the-nut pitch-shifting.\n\nPress the string between the nut and the machine head (tuning key), and the pitch shifts.\n", "Quite an uncommon scale construction using the Novax Fanned-Fret system that \"fan outward\" for the ability to play in tune with the unequal scale lengths of each string that is used to find the optimal equal tonal response and equal string tension from string-to-string for easier playing is represented by Dingwall Basses, who uses a 37\" to 34\" span on their Prima, Z1, Z2, and Afterburner original designs and a shorter 34.25\" to 32\" span for their \"Super J\" Jazz Bass design.\n\nSection::::Electric bass.:Summary.\n\nSection::::Electric bass.:Summary.:Single Scale.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 in (457.2 mm)\n\nBULLET::::- Ashbory bass\n\nBULLET::::- 21 in (533 mm)\n", "Section::::Electric guitar.:History.\n\nMost Fender electric guitars, including the Stratocaster, Telecaster, Esquire, and Jazzmaster use a scale length of 25.5 in (648 mm). A few Fender models such as the Jaguar use a scale length of 24 in (610 mm). Fender has also built some 3/4-size student guitars with a scale length of 22.5 in (572 mm) or shorter.\n", "On instruments strung with metal wire, however, neither of these assumptions is valid, and inharmonicity is the reason.\n", "On a modern bass guitar, 30\" (76 cm) or less is considered \"short\" scale, \"standard\" (also called \"long\") scale is 34\" (86 cm) for a 4-string and 35\" (89 cm) for a B-E-A-D-G 5-string, and \"extra-long\" scale basses of 36\" (91 cm) also exist.\n", "Frets are positioned proportionally to scale length—the shorter the scale length, the closer the fret spacing. Opinions vary regarding the effect of scale length on tone and feel. Popular opinion holds that longer scale length contributes to greater amplitude. Reports of playing feel are greatly complicated by the many factors involved in this perception. String gauge and design, neck construction and relief, guitar setup, playing style and other factors contribute to the subjective impression of playability or feel.\n", "Solving such dilemmas is at the heart of precise tuning by ear, and all solutions involve some stretching of the higher notes upward and the lower notes downward from their theoretical frequencies. In shorter pianos the wire stiffness in the bass register is proportionately high and therefore causes greater stretch; on larger concert grand pianos this effect is reduced. Online sources suggest that the total amount of \"stretch\" over the full range of a small piano may be on the order of ±35 cents: this also appears in the empirical Railsback curve.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic tuner\n\nBULLET::::- Piano acoustics\n", "Guitar strings, especially steel strings, are not \"ideal vibrators\". Generally the thicker the string, the shorter the \"effective length\". This refers to the length of string involved in producing a sound, as opposed to the length between the nut and the bridge. Many guitar designs with fixed bridges have the bridge slanted or stepped so that the distance from nut to bridge is larger for thick strings. The Tune-o-matic extends this idea to make the distance adjustable for all the strings, within limits.\n", "Construction of basses with more than seven strings has largely been the realm of luthiers. Some extended-range basses are built to a player's specific preferences, including variation in scale length, appearance, and electronics. Due to the fact that the scale length of a typical bass guitar () produces excessive tension on the highest strings of extended-range basses, a builder may use slanted or fanned frets to achieve a variable-scale instrument.\n", "Bends of one or two semitones are the most common, but skilled players may use bends from three semitones to as many as five or more semitones, as can be heard in the solo played by David Gilmour on the song \"Another Brick In the Wall Pt.2\" from Pink Floyd's album \"The Wall\". In addition to the player's skill, the range of a pitch bend is limited to some extent by the type of guitar, material and stiffness of the strings, and area of the neck where the bends are played. For example, steel strings bend further in pitch than nylon strings, thin strings further than thick strings, bends in the middle of the neck further than bends near the nut, etc.\n", "String gauge is subject to personal preferences of the musician, but acoustic guitars are typically strung with a heavier gauge than electric guitars. The need for projection due to lack of amplification is one of the main reasons for this.\n\nSection::::Gauge.:Guitar.:Bass guitar.\n\nBass guitar strings are sometimes made for a particular scale length and come in short, medium, long and extra long (sometimes called super long) scale. Almost all bass guitar strings are made wound. Typical bass guitar strings come in the following gauges:\n\nSection::::Bowed strings.\n", "Like that of the violin, the scale of the classical guitar was standardized by the work of its most famous maker. Antonio De Torres (1817–1892) used a scale length of 25.6 in (650 mm), and later makers have followed suit. However, from the mid- 20th Century luthiers seeking increased volume have moved to a 26 in (660mm) scale, which is now the standard for such leading makers as Ramirez.\n\nUnlike Stradivarius, Torres had no strong tradition on which to build regarding scale length, so the 25.6 in figure can be attributed to him with confidence.\n\nSection::::Steel-string acoustic guitar.\n", "Tines and reeds differ from strings in that they are held at one end and free to vibrate at the other. The frequencies of their fundamental and harmonic vibrations are subject to the same inharmonicity as strings. However, because of the comparative thickness of the bars that terminate the tines in an electric piano, the larger (and stronger) vibrations tend to \"see\" termination points slightly deeper in the bar than do smaller, weaker vibrations. This enhances inharmonicity in tines.\n\nSection::::Effects on tuning.\n", "Another cause of poor intonation on a fretted instrument is that the maker didn't cut the string slots in the nut deep enough. If the string is higher than fret height at the nut, the string deflection-caused pitch increase is progressively greater closer to the nut.\n\nSection::::Other instruments.\n", "The scale length of an electric guitar affects both its playability and its tone. Regarding playability, a shorter scale length allows more compact fingering and favors shorter fingers and hand-span. A longer scale allows more expanded finger and favors longer fingers and hand-span. With regard to tone, a longer scale (e.g. Fender Telecasters with 25.5 inch (648 mm) scale length) favors \"brightness\" or cleaner overtones and more separated harmonics versus a shorter scale (e.g., Gibson Les Paul with 24.75 in (628 mm) scale length), which favors \"warmth\" or more muddy overtones. According to Dave Hunter's \"Tone Manual\" (2011), each scale length has its characteristic sound and tone, which is individual from other sounds in the tone chain: strings, pickups, pedals, amplifiers, speakers, and cabinets.\n", "BULLET::::- Bending (especially heavy bending, more than one semitone) usually involves touching more than one string with a left (fretting) hand, as seen in the illustration.\n\nBULLET::::- Bending can make strings break or the guitar go out of tune.\n", "BULLET::::- Rickenbacker Electro (student model) Es-16, Rickenbacker 1996, 320 and 325, notably John Lennon's most famous guitar\n\nBULLET::::- Squier Bullet Mini\n\nBULLET::::- 22.2 in (564 mm)\n\nBULLET::::- Ibanez Mikro GRGM21\n\nBULLET::::- Ibanez PGMM31\n\nBULLET::::- 22.5 in (572 mm), known as \"3/4 scale\" in Fender sales literature:—\n\nBULLET::::- Fender Duosonic\n\nBULLET::::- Fender Musicmaster\n\nBULLET::::- Fender Mustang\n\nBULLET::::- Fender Some Musicmaster II and Duosonic II\n\nBULLET::::- 22.72 in (577 mm):\n\nBULLET::::- Fender Stratocaster Junior\n\nBULLET::::- 22.75 in (578 mm):\n\nBULLET::::- Gibson 3/4 scale Les Paul Junior and Gibson Melody Maker\n\nBULLET::::- Ibanez Mikro RGM55\n\nBULLET::::- Squier Mini\n\nBULLET::::- 23.5 in (597 mm):\n\nBULLET::::- Gibson Byrdland\n", "On almost all modern electric guitars, the bridge has saddles that are adjustable for each string so that intonation stays correct up and down the neck. If the open string is in tune, but sharp or flat when frets are pressed, the bridge saddle position can be adjusted with a screwdriver or hex key to remedy the problem. In general, flat notes are corrected by moving the saddle forward and sharp notes by moving it backwards. On an instrument correctly adjusted for intonation, the actual length of each string from the nut to the bridge saddle is slightly, but measurably longer than the scale length of the instrument. This additional length is called compensation, which flattens all notes a bit to compensate for the sharping of all fretted notes caused by stretching the string during fretting.\n", "The \"long scale necks\" on the first Fender basses— — set the standard for electric basses, although \"short scale\" instruments, such as the Höfner 500/1 \"violin bass\" played by Paul McCartney, and the Fender Mustang Bass are common. Short-scale instruments use the same E-A-D-G tuning as a regular long scale instrument. While , , and scale lengths were once only available in \"boutique\" instruments, these \"extra long\" scale lengths became somewhat more common in the 2000s. This extra-long scale provides a higher string tension, which may yield a more defined, deep tone on the low \"B\" string of five- and six-stringed instruments (or detuned four-string basses).\n", "The round necked version is equally capable in either lap steel or Spanish guitar position. It may be set up with a variety of action heights, ranging from the half inch favored for steel guitar (making use of the frets almost impossible) to the small fraction of an inch used by conventional guitarists. A compromise is most common, allowing use of a bottleneck on the top strings but also use of the frets as desired, with the guitar played in the conventional position.\n", "BULLET::::- Rickenbacker most electric guitars (including 330, 340, 350, 360, 370, 380, 620, 650, 660)\n\nBULLET::::- Squier Bullet Mustang\n\nBULLET::::- Washburn Guitars guitars\n\nBULLET::::- 25 in (635 mm)\n\nBULLET::::- Carvin Guitars guitars\n\nBULLET::::- Danelectro guitars\n\nBULLET::::- Dobro resonator guitars\n\nBULLET::::- Kiesel Guitars guitars\n\nBULLET::::- Kramer early aluminium necked models\n\nBULLET::::- Patrick Eggle most electric guitars\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Reed Smith most electric guitars\n\nBULLET::::- 25.125 in (638 mm):\n\nBULLET::::- Vox Virage II\n\nBULLET::::- Vox Virage Series 77, 55, 33, 22\n\nBULLET::::- 25.2 in (640 mm):\n\nBULLET::::- Selmer Maccaferri Grande Bouche Model\n\nBULLET::::- Rufus Radian, Vector and Axis models\n", "Gibson uses a scale length of 24.75 in (628 mm) on many of its electric guitars, including the Les Paul, Flying V, Explorer, SG, and ES-335. Gibson has used other scale lengths on various models through the years. Gibson's nominal \"24.75\" in scale length has itself varied, sometimes measuring 24 5/8\" or 24 9/16\" depending on the production equipment used. As Gibson necks are not often interchangeable, this usually goes unnoticed in practice.\n\nSection::::Electric guitar.:Summary.\n\nSection::::Electric guitar.:Summary.:Single Scale.\n\nBULLET::::- 19.4 in (492 mm):\n\nBULLET::::- Harley Benton ST-Junior\n\nBULLET::::- 20.7 in (527 mm):\n", "Relief (music)\n\nRelief, or profile, refers to the amount of curvature in the fingerboard of a guitar or other similar stringed instrument. When the strings of a guitar vibrate, they vibrate in an elliptical shape. Thus, providing the best possible action requires that the guitar fingerboard have a slight curve to allow the strings to vibrate freely. Incorrect relief may cause fret buzz.\n", "Unlike the piano, the guitar has the same notes on different strings. Consequently, guitar players often double notes in chord, so increasing the volume of sound. Doubled notes also changes the chordal timbre: Having different \"string widths, tensions and tunings, the doubled notes reinforce each other, like the doubled strings of a twelve-string guitar add chorusing and depth\". Notes can be doubled at identical pitches or in different octaves. For triadic chords, doubling the third interval, which is either a major third or a minor third, clarifies whether the chord is major or minor.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17519	Why does old injuries hurt when there's bad weather?	There's a similar question here from last week. Tl;dr (or ELI5) is that lower barometric pressure during bad weather makes body internal pressure go up, pressing on nerves, muscles, tendons, ligaments, etc. This is microscopic, but sufficiently cumulative to be noticeable and painful. Source... I had major rotator cuff repair and a lumbar fusion. I know whence I speak about pain in bad weather. lol	[ "The first publication of documented changes in pain perception associated with the weather was in the \"American Journal of the Medical Sciences\" in 1887. This case report described a person with phantom limb pain who concluded that \"approaching storms, dropping barometric pressure and rain were associated with increased pain complaint.\" Most investigations examining the relationship between weather and pain have studied people diagnosed with arthritis. After reviewing many case reports, Rentshler reported in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" in 1929 that there was strong evidence that \"warm weather is beneficial and barometric pressure changes are detrimental to patients with arthritis.\"\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Aches and pains.\n\nThere have been medical studies done which indicate some people experience this effect. The most likely reason is that with a fall in atmospheric pressure, blood vessels dilate slightly in reaction. This has the effect of aggravating already-irritated nerves near corns, cavities, or arthritic joints. Studies are inconclusive, however, with some researchers attributing this effect to selective memory.\n\nSection::::Reliability.:Fallibility of lore.\n", "BULLET::::- Repeated application of hot water bottles, heating blankets or heat pads to treat chronic pain—e.g., chronic backache.\n\nBULLET::::- Repeated exposure to heated car seats, space heaters, or fireplaces. Repeated or prolonged exposure to a heater is a common cause of this condition in elderly individuals.\n\nBULLET::::- Occupational hazards of silversmiths and jewellers (face exposed to heat), bakers and chefs (arms)\n", "A study published in the \"British Medical Journal\" in 2017 examined reports of joint or back pain from millions of doctor visits between 2008 and 2012 as recorded by Medicare, the U.S. health system for the elderly. It compared these to rain data as recorded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, but found no correlation.\n\nSection::::Non-English languages.\n", "A person with a torn meniscus can sometimes remember a specific activity during which the injury was sustained. A tear of the meniscus commonly follows a trauma which involves rotation of the knee while it was slightly bent. These maneuvers also exacerbate the pain after the injury; for example, getting out of a car is often reported as painful.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In a Chinese study, epidemic Erythromelalgia appears quite common in southern China, most likely due to a sharp decline in temperature following by a rapid increase of temperature and the effects this has on the body. The acral small superficial arteries intensely constrict and dilate during the sharp decline of temperature, whereas a sharp increase of temperature, the intense expansion of capillaries irritate the nerve endings around, and thus lead to symptoms including burning pain, increased temperature, erythema and swelling.\n", "BULLET::::- Foreign bodies. Sharp, small foreign bodies can penetrate the skin leaving little surface wound but causing internal injury and internal bleeding. For a glass foreign body, \"frequently, an innocent skin wound disguises the extensive nature of the injuries beneath\". First-degree nerve injury requires a few hours to a few weeks to recover. If a foreign body passes by a nerve and causes first-degree nerve injury during entry, then the sensation of the foreign body or pain due to internal wounding may be delayed by a few hours to a few weeks after entry. A sudden increase in pain during the first few weeks of wound healing could be a sign of a recovered nerve reporting internal injuries rather than a newly developed infection.\n", "BULLET::::- An empty socket, which is partially or totally devoid of blood clot. Exposed bone may be visible or the socket may be filled with food debris which reveals the exposed bone once it is removed. The exposed bone is extremely painful and sensitive to touch. Surrounding inflamed soft tissues may overlie the socket and hide the dry socket from casual examination.\n\nBULLET::::- Denuded (bare) bone walls.\n\nSymptoms may include:\n", "Tissue loss and autoamputation are potential consequences of frostbite. Permanent nerve damage including loss of feeling can occur. It can take several weeks to know what parts of the tissue will survive. Time of exposure to cold is more predictive of lasting injury than temperature the individual was exposed to. The classification system of grades, based on the tissue response to initial rewarming and other factors is designed to predict degree of longterm recovery.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Grades.\n\nGrade 1: if there is no initial lesion on the area, no amputation or lasting effects are expected\n", "Section::::Injury.:Thermal trauma.\n", "Pain is present in about 78% of cases. Slight pain is present in the earliest stage of ainhum, caused by pressure on the underlying nerves. Fracture of the phalanx or chronic sepsis is accompanied with severe pain.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "As the consultant talks with the residents of the town and investigates its history, the backstory of his injury is gradually revealed. After repeatedly stubbing his toe and covering it up with Apex bandages, the consultant accidentally stepped into pig feces during a company team retreat. Because of the colored bandage, he never discovered how his toe was badly infected, and fainted on the sidewalk after fleeing from an awards party. This led to the amputation of his toe, his departure from the nomenclature firm, and the beginning of his hermetic lifestyle.\n", "Countering the 1929 barometric pressure claim, in a 2016 article entitled \"Do Your Aches, Pains Predict Rain?\" professor of atmospheric sciences Dennis Driscoll is reported as stating: \"People need to realize that the pressure changes associated with storms are rather small.\" In fact, Driscoll observes that the changes associated with a storm are about equivalent to what a person experiences in going up an elevator in a tall building. So far, there have not been many reports of people with arthritis hobbled by elevator rides in the medical literature.\n", "BULLET::::40. The use of heavy boots, jacket, gloves, etc., is effective in preventing or reducing abrasions and lacerations, which are frequent but rarely severe injuries.\n\nBULLET::::41. Groin injuries were sustained by the motorcyclist in at least 13% of the accidents, and typified by multiple vehicle collision in frontal impact at higher than average speed,\n\nBULLET::::42. Injury severity increases with speed, alcohol involvement and motorcycle size.\n\nBULLET::::43. Seventy-three percent of the accident-involved motorcycle riders used no eye protection, and it is likely that the wind on the unprotected eyes contributed an impairment of vision which delayed hazard detection.\n", "BULLET::::- Early on, the primary symptom is loss of feeling in the skin. In the affected areas, the skin is numb, and possibly swollen, with a reddened border.\n\nBULLET::::- In the weeks after injury, the skin's surface may slough off.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Second degree.\n\nBULLET::::- In second degree frostbite, the skin develops clear blisters early on, and the skin's surface hardens.\n\nBULLET::::- In the weeks after injury, this hardened, blistered skin dries, blackens, and peels.\n\nBULLET::::- At this stage, lasting cold sensitivity and numbness can develop.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Third degree.\n", "Altogether it is of note that, especially in many Western countries, after a motor vehicle collision those involved seek health care for the assessment of injuries and for insurance documentation purposes. In contrast, in many less wealthy countries, there may be limited access to care and insurance may only be available to the wealthy. Against this background, the “(late) whiplash syndrome” (ICD-10: S13.4) has been one special focus of continuous and controversial scientific research since the 1950s as the worldwide incidence of such injuries varies enormously, from 16-2000 per 100,000 population, and the late whiplash syndrome in these cases varies between 18% to 40%. Thus, important work by Schrader et al. in \"The Lancet\" showed that late whiplash syndrome after a motor vehicle collision is rare or uncommon in Lithuania, and Cassidy et al.’s conclusion in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" is that “the elimination of compensation for pain and suffering is associated with a decreased incidence and improved prognosis of whiplash injury”.\n", "BULLET::::- Pain afflicts old people at least 25% of the time, increasing with age up to 80% for those in nursing homes. Most pains are rheumatological or malignant.\n", "Knee pain is more common among people working in the cold than in those in normal temperature. Cold-induced knee pain may also be due to tenosynovitis of the tendons around the knee, in which cold exposure has a specific role, either as a causative or a contributing factor. Frank arthritis has been reported in children due to frostbite from extreme cold causing direct chondrocyte injury.\n\nThere is also a hereditary disease, familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome (FCAS), which often features knee pain, in addition to hives, fever and pain in other joints, following general exposure to cold.\n", "The pain associated with pulp necrosis is often described as spontaneous. Hot temperatures are reported to have exacerbating factors, and cold temperatures are said to soothe this pain. In some cases, the pain presents as a long dull ache as this is due to necrosis of the apical nerves being the last part of the pulp to necrose. Therefore the pain is from the apical nerves, which have residual vitality remaining when the majority of the pulp is necrosed due to the supply of blood to the more medial parts of the apical nerve.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Crown discolouration.\n", "Age also contributes to disorders of the knee. Particularly in older people, knee pain frequently arises due to osteoarthritis. In addition, weakening of tissues around the knee may contribute to the problem. Patellofemoral instability may relate to hip abnormalities or to tightness of surrounding ligaments.\n\nCartilage lesions can be caused by:\n\nBULLET::::- Accidents (fractures)\n\nBULLET::::- Injuries\n\nBULLET::::- The removal of a meniscus\n\nBULLET::::- Anterior cruciate ligament injury\n\nBULLET::::- Posterior cruciate ligament injury\n\nBULLET::::- Posterolateral corner injury\n\nBULLET::::- Medial knee injuries\n\nBULLET::::- Considerable strain on the knee.\n", "BULLET::::- Rheumatoid arthritis: 0.1% in Algeria (urban setting); 0.6% in Democratic Republic of Congo (urban setting); 2.5% and 0.07% in urban and rural settings in South Africa respectively; 0.3% in Egypt (rural setting), 0.4% in Lesotho (rural setting)\n\nBULLET::::- Osteoarthritis: 55.1% in South Africa (urban setting); ranged from 29.5 to 82.7% in South Africans aged 65 years and older\n\nBULLET::::- Knee osteoarthritis has the highest prevalence from all types of osteoarthritis, with 33.1% in rural South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Ankylosing spondylitis: 0.1% in South Africa (rural setting)\n\nBULLET::::- Psoriatic arthritis: 4.4% in South Africa (urban setting)\n", "The perceived relationship between changes in weather and pain has been recorded since the classical Roman age. Hippocrates was the first to note, in about 400 B.C., that many illnesses were related to changes in season. The large body of folklore about how weather affects pain is reflected by traditional sayings and expressions, such as \"aches and pain, coming rains,\" \"feeling under the weather,\" and \"ill health due to evil winds.\"\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Season analysis.\n", "Section::::Injury and redress.\n", "Weather pains\n\nWeather pains, weather-related pain, or meteoropathy is a phenomenon that occurs when people with conditions such as arthritis or limb injuries claim to feel pain, particularly with changes in barometric pressure, humidity or other weather phenomena. Scientific evidence, however, does not support a connection between weather and arthritic pain and concludes that it is largely or entirely due to perceptual errors such as confirmation bias. The term is from Greek \"meteora\", celestial phenomena, and \"pathos\", feeling, pain, suffering.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00497	Why do emojis look different across platforms and why do they look especially bad in web browsers?	Emojis are Unicode characters just like the letters and numbers in the text around them. Character number 65 is "Latin capital letter A", and number 128512 is "Grinning face". When I type 😀, your device just gets that number, and it's up to your device to provide a font with a symbol to represent the character.	[ "The second problem relates to technology and branding. When an author of a message picks an emoji from a list, it is normally encoded in a non-graphical manner during the transmission, and if the author and the reader do not use the same software or operating system for their devices, the reader's device may visualize the same emoji in a different way. Small changes to a character's look may completely alter its perceived meaning with the receiver.\n\nSection::::Emoji communications problems.:Controversial emoji.\n", "Section::::Implementation.:Internationalized domain names.\n\nA limited number of top-level domains allow registration of domain names containing emoji characters. Emoji-containing subdomains are also possible under any top-level domain.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Social media.\n\nFacebook and Twitter replace all Unicode emoji used on their websites with their own custom graphics.\n\nFacebook has different sets for the main site and for its Messenger service, where only the former provides complete coverage. Facebook reactions are only partially compatible with standard emoji.\n", "OS X 10.9 Mavericks introduced a dedicated emoji input palette in most text input boxes using the key combination .\n", "Until 2016, mobile phone vendors HTC and LG deployed variants of NotoColorEmoji.ttf with custom glyphs; Samsung still does. Some Japanese mobile carriers used to equip branded Android devices with emoji glyphs that were closer to the original ones, but apparently have stopped updating these circa 2015.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Apple.\n", "On May 4, 2018, Bruno Crosier created the first .je emoji domain : ❤️.je (xn--qei.je) \n\nSection::::Problems.\n\nSupport among domain name registrars for emoji domains is limited. \n\nAnother problem is that emojis can look different depending on the operating system, applications, and fonts used. Not all browsers support emoji domains. On Google Chrome and Firefox, emoji display as Punycode in the address bar. In Safari, on the other hand, emoji are visible in the address bar. Emoji domains are also visible in Google and Bing search results.\n", "There are also issues with using emoji domains in social media. While they are well supported on Twitter and LinkedIn, Facebook and Instagram impose serious restrictions. Support varies on messaging platforms.\n\nAt present, only Punycode encoding is supported in e-mail domains, as in \"[email protected]\".\n\nSection::::Emoji subdomains.\n", "Chrome OS, through its inclusion of the Noto fonts, supports the emoji set introduced through Unicode 6.2. As of Chrome OS 41, Noto Color Emoji is the default font for most emoji.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Linux.\n\nUbuntu 18.04 and Fedora 28 support color emoji by default, using Noto Color Emoji. Some Linux distributions require the installation of extra fonts. Color emoji are supported by FreeType and Cairo.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Microsoft Windows.\n", "An update for the Segoe UI Symbol font in Windows 7 and in Windows Server 2008 R2 brought a subset of the monochrome Unicode set to those operating systems. The font update rebranded the font as \"Segoe UI Symbol\". The difference between the two fonts is that Segoe UI lacks any and all emoji characters, while Segoe UI Symbol and Segoe UI Emoji include them. Windows 8 and higher supports the full Unicode emoji characters through Microsoft's Segoe UI family of fonts. Emoji characters are accessed through the onscreen keyboard's \"smiley\" key. As of Windows 8.1 Preview, Segoe UI Emoji font supplies full-color pictographs. Differently from macOS and iOS, color glyphs are only supplied when the application supports Microsoft's DirectWrite API, and Segoe UI Emoji is explicitly declared, otherwise monochrome glyphs appear. Segoe UI Emoji and its full-color emoji set is not fully supported by all programs written for Windows; for example, among Web browsers, Internet Explorer and Google Chrome can use the font, but Firefox initially did not (that browser now supports full color emoji and includes the EmojiOne set in installation). Windows 10 Anniversary Update added Unicode 9 emoji.\n", "Samsung almost completely covers the rest of the Miscellaneous Symbols block (U+2600‥FF) as emoji, which includes Chess pieces, game die faces, some traffic sign as well as genealogical and astronomical symbols for instance.\n\nHTC supports most additional pictographs from the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs (U+1F300‥5FF) and Transport and Map Symbols (U+1F680‥FF) blocks. Some of them are also shown as emoji on Samsung devices.\n\nThe open source projects Emojidex and Emojitwo are trying to cover all of these extensions established by major vendors.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Research has shown that emoji are often misunderstood. In some cases, this misunderstanding is related to how the actual emoji design is interpreted by the viewer; in other cases, the emoji that was sent is not shown in the same way on the receiving side.\n\nThe first issue relates to the cultural or contextual interpretation of the emoji. When the author picks an emoji, they think about it in a certain way, but the same character may not trigger the same thoughts in the mind of the receiver. (See also Models of communication.)\n", "The exact appearance of emoji is not prescribed but varies between fonts, in the same way that normal typefaces can display letters differently. For example, the Apple Color Emoji typeface is proprietary to Apple, and can only be used on Apple devices (without additional hacking). Different computing companies have developed their own fonts to display emoji, some of which have been open-sourced to permit their reuse. Both colour and monochrome emoji typefaces exist, as well as at least one animated design.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Android.\n", "Journalists have noted that the ambiguity of emoji has allowed them to take on culture-specific meanings not present in the original glyphs. For example, has been described as being used in English-language communities to signify \"non-caring fabulousness\" and \"anything from shutting haters down to a sense of accomplishment\". Unicode manuals sometimes provide notes on auxiliary meanings of an object to guide designers on how emoji may be used, for example noting that some users may expect to stand for \"a reserved or ticketed seat, as for an airplane, train, or theater\".\n\nSection::::History.:Cultural influence.\n", "Some emoji have been involved in controversy due to their perceived meanings. Multiple arrests and imprisonments have followed usage of gun (), knife (), and bomb () emoji in ways that were deemed by authorities to constitute credible threats.\n", "The font \"Symbola\" contains all emoji through version 10.0 as normal monochrome glyphs. Through version 10, Symbola was a public domain font; beginning with version 11 in 2018, Symbola has been copyrighted with a ban on commercial use and derivative works. Other typefaces including a significant number of emoji characters include Noto Emoji, Adobe Source Emoji, and Quivira.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- The 2009 film \"Moon\" featured a robot named GERTY who communicates using a neutral-toned synthesized voice together with a screen showing emoji representing the corresponding emotional content.\n", "Microsoft displays all Mahjong tiles (U+1F000‥2B, not just ) and alternative card suits (, , , ) as emoji. They also support additional pencils (, ) and a heart-shaped bullet ().\n\nWhile only is officially an emoji, Microsoft and Samsung add the other three directions as well (, , ).\n\nBoth vendors pair the standard checked ballot box emoji with its crossed variant , but only Samsung also has the empty ballot box .\n", "EmojiOne version 2.3, an open-source font available under free license, supports the full emoji set in color through Unicode Emoji 3.0, i.e. Unicode 9.0. EmojiOne version 3.1, with a stricter license that disallows the redistribution of vector images, supports Unicode Emoji 5.0, hence characters added in Unicode 10.0. EmojiTwo, an open-source fork of EmojiOne 2.3, aims to add all emoji from 2017 and later.\n", "Note, however, that not all operating systems have support for color fonts, so in these cases emoji might have to be rendered as black-and-white line art or not at all. OpenType version 1.8 standardizes four different formats for color fonts: one built upon standard glyphs and backed by Microsoft; one built upon SVG and backed by Mozilla, Adobe, and others; one based upon PNG chunks and backed by Google; and one supporting a variety of embedded image formats, but preferably PNG, backed by Apple. This means that color fonts need to come in several formats to be usable on multiple operating systems.\n", "On August 1, 2016, Apple announced that in iOS 10, the gun emoji () would be changed from a realistic revolver to a water pistol. Conversely, the following day, Microsoft pushed out an update to Windows 10 that changed its longstanding depiction of the gun emoji as a toy ray-gun to a real revolver. Microsoft stated that the change was made to bring the glyph more in line with industry-standard designs and customer expectations. By 2018, most major platforms such as Google, Microsoft, Samsung, Facebook, and Twitter had transitioned their rendering of the pistol emoji to match Apple's water gun implementation.\n", "Some Apple emoji are very similar to the SoftBank standard, since SoftBank was the first Japanese network the iPhone launched on. For example, is female on Apple and SoftBank standards but male or gender-neutral on others.\n", "Twitter has released Twemoji, which is their emoji graphics together with a Javascript library to handle them, under the Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 license and the MIT open-source license, respectively. The Android and iOS Twitter apps use emoji native to the platform they are running on.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:General.\n\nAny operating system that supports adding additional fonts to the system can add an emoji-supporting font.\n", "For NTT DoCoMo's i-mode, each emoji is drawn on a 12×12 pixel grid. When transmitted, emoji symbols are specified as a two-byte sequence, in the private-use range E63E through E757 in the Unicode character space, or F89F through F9FC for Shift JIS. The basic specification has 1706 symbols, with 76 more added in phones that support C-HTML 4.0.\n", "Emoji pictograms by Japanese mobile phone brand Au are specified using the IMG tag. SoftBank Mobile emoji are wrapped between SI/SO escape sequences, and support colors and animation. DoCoMo's emoji are the most compact to transmit while Au's version is more flexible and based on open standards.\n\nFrom 2010 onwards, some emoji character sets have been incorporated into Unicode, a standard system for indexing characters, which has allowed them to be used outside Japan and to be standardized across different operating systems.\n", "Android devices support emoji differently depending on the operating system version. Google added native emoji support to Android in July 2013 with Android 4.3, and to the Google Keyboard in November 2013 for devices running Android 4.4 and later. Android 7.0 Nougat added Unicode 9 emoji, skin tone modifiers, and a redesign of many existing emoji.\n", "Web typography refers to the use of fonts on the World Wide Web. When HTML was first created, font faces and styles were controlled exclusively by the settings of each web browser. There was no mechanism for individual Web pages to control font display until Netscape introduced the tag in 1995, which was then standardized in the HTML 3.2 specification. However, the font specified by the tag had to be installed on the user's computer or a fallback font, such as a browser's default sans-serif or monospace font, would be used. The first Cascading Style Sheets specification was published in 1996 and provided the same capabilities.\n", "Additional emoji can be found in the following Unicode blocks: Arrows (8 code points considered emoji), Basic Latin (12), CJK Symbols and Punctuation (2), Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement (41), Enclosed Alphanumerics (1), Enclosed CJK Letters and Months (2), Enclosed Ideographic Supplement (15), General Punctuation (2), Geometric Shapes (8), Geometric Shapes Extended (12), Latin-1 Supplement (2), Letterlike Symbols (2), Mahjong Tiles (1), Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows (7), Miscellaneous Technical (18), Playing Cards (1), and Supplemental Arrows-B (2).\n\nSection::::Unicode blocks.:Additions.\n\nSome vendors, most notably Microsoft, Samsung and HTC, add emoji presentation to some other existing Unicode characters or coin their own ZWJ sequences.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06903	Why do SSDs have a read/write limit? What causes them to stop functioning after a certain number of read/write cycles?	SSDs can be read as many times as you want, but they have a limited number of write/erase cycles SSDs are made using Flash memory which is constructed using floating gate transistors. On a normal FET transistor there is a channel with a thin insulator on top and a gate on top of that, the behavior of the transistor is controlled by the gate. On floating gate transistors there is the channel with a thin insulator, a gate, another thin insulator, and another gate. The gate in the middle isn't wired to anything and is electrically "floating" The bits are stored by charging and discharging this "floating" gate, but it has insulators on both sides of it. The only way to get charges on or off of the floating gate is to blast them through the insulators. This harms the insulator and it breaks down a bit, but you can do this for a few thousand cycles before it breaks down enough to start misbehaving To read the memory, you turn on the correct non-floating gates and can see if a line is pulled low or not, that gives you the status of each bit. This doesn't involve blasting charges through insulators so you can do this as many times as you want, it is also generally a fair bit quicker than writing	[ "SSDs have very different failure modes than traditional magnetic hard drives. Because of their design, some kinds of failure are inapplicable (motors or magnetic heads cannot fail, because they are not needed in an SSD). Instead, other kinds of failure are possible (for example, incomplete or failed writes due to sudden power failure can be more of a problem than with HDDs, and if a chip fails then all the data on it is lost, a scenario not applicable to magnetic drives). However, on the whole statistics show that SSDs are generally highly reliable, and often continue working far beyond the expected lifetime as stated by their manufacturer.\n", "If a particular block was programmed and erased repeatedly without writing to any other blocks, that block would wear out before all the other blocks — thereby prematurely ending the life of the SSD. For this reason, SSD controllers use a technique called wear leveling to distribute writes as evenly as possible across all the flash blocks in the SSD.\n", "Section::::SSD failure.:SSD reliability and failure modes.\n", "BULLET::::- Around 2-7% of SSDs will develop bad chips in their first 4 years of use. Over 2/3 of these chips will have breached their manufacturers' tolerances and specifications, which typically guarantee that no more than 2% of blocks on a chip will fail within its expected write lifetime.\n\nBULLET::::- 96% of those SSDs that need repair (warranty servicing), need repair only once in their life. Days between repair vary from \"a couple of thousand days\" to \"nearly 15,000 days\" depending on the model.\n\nSection::::SSD failure.:Data recovery and secure deletion.\n", "A 2016 study of \"millions of drive days\" in production use by SSDs over a six-year period, reported that \"4-10%\" of their SSDs were replaced in a 4 year period and concluded based upon annual failure rates of HDDs published in 2007 that SSDs fail at a \"significantly lower\" rate than HDDs; however a 2016 study of 71,940 HDDs (26 million drive days) reported annual failure rates comparable to the reported SSD rates, that is, the HDDs on the average had a calculated four year failure rate of 7.5% and with a lowest rate of 1.6%. The 2016 SDD study concluded SSD localized data loss due to unreadable blocks to be more of a problem than with HDDs. It also contained a number of \"unexpected conclusions\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bad blocks in new SSDs are common, and drives with a large number of bad blocks are much more likely to lose hundreds of other blocks, most likely due to die or chip failure. 30-80 percent of SSDs develop at least one bad block and 2-7 percent develop at least one bad chip in the first four years of deployment.\"\n\nBULLET::::- There is no sharp increase in errors after the expected lifetime is reached.\n", "Section::::Architecture and function.:Memory.:Flash-memory-based.\n\nMost SSD manufacturers use non-volatile NAND flash memory in the construction of their SSDs because of the lower cost compared with DRAM and the ability to retain the data without a constant power supply, ensuring data persistence through sudden power outages. Flash memory SSDs are slower than DRAM solutions, and some early designs were even slower than HDDs after continued use. This problem was resolved by controllers that came out in 2009 and later.\n", "Section::::SSD failure.\n", "An early test by \"Techreport.com\" which ran for 18 months during 2013 - 2015 had previously tested a number of SSDs to destruction to identify how and at what point they failed; the test found that \"All of the drives surpassed their official endurance specifications by writing hundreds of terabytes without issue\", described as being far beyond any usual size for a \"typical consumer\". The first SSD to fail was a TLC based drive - a type of design expected to be less durable than either SLC or MLC - and the SSD concerned managed to write over 800,000 GB (800 TB or 0.8 petabytes) before failing; three SSDs in the test managed to write almost three times that amount (almost 2.5 PB) before they also failed. So the capability of even consumer SSDs to be remarkably reliable was already established.\n", "A simple formula to calculate the over-provisioning of an SSD is:\n\nSection::::TRIM.\n", "Another component in higher-performing SSDs is a capacitor or some form of battery, which are necessary to maintain data integrity so the data in the cache can be flushed to the drive when power is lost; some may even hold power long enough to maintain data in the cache until power is resumed. In the case of MLC flash memory, a problem called \"lower page corruption\" can occur when MLC flash memory loses power while programming an upper page. The result is that data written previously and presumed safe can be corrupted if the memory is not supported by a supercapacitor in the event of a sudden power loss. This problem does not exist with SLC flash memory.\n", "In 2013, TechReport has started an experiment using several SSD drives to determine how many writes they can endure. This test has lasted for more than 18 months before all drives used in this test have failed, enduring much larger amount of written data than rated by manufacturers themselves, and even prompting one of the manufacturers, Samsung, to release a humorous music video dedicated to this test.\n\nSection::::Site Structure.\n\nSection::::Site Structure.:Main Page.\n", "SSDs based on NAND Flash will slowly leak charge over time if left for long periods without power. This causes worn-out drives (that have exceeded their endurance rating) to start losing data typically after one year (if stored at 30 °C) to two years (at 25 °C) in storage; for new drives it takes longer. Therefore, SSDs are not suitable for archival storage. 3D XPoint is a possible exception to this rule, however it is a relatively new technology with unknown data-retention characteristics.\n", "Another limitation is that flash memory has a finite number of program erase cycles (typically written as P/E cycles). Most commercially available flash products are guaranteed to withstand around 100,000 P/E cycles before the wear begins to deteriorate the integrity of the storage. Micron Technology and Sun Microsystems announced an SLC NAND flash memory chip rated for 1,000,000 P/E cycles on 17 December 2008.\n", "Flash memory can withstand a limited number of program-erase cycles. If a particular flash memory block were programmed and erased repeatedly without writing to any other blocks, the one block would wear out before all the other blocks thereby prematurely ending the life of the storage device. For this reason flash controllers use a technique called wear leveling to distribute writes as evenly as possible across all the flash blocks in the SSD. In a perfect scenario this would enable every block to be written to its maximum life so they all fail at the same time.\n", "Section::::Technical details.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Device states.\n\nBeginning with Release 8.0 of Fast Dormancy, device states are used to set power consumption and data throughput during periods of inactivity. The standard device states specified by Fast Dormancy are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- DCH (Dedicated Channel) - The state that allows for maximum data connectivity throughput data transfer speeds, hence allowing for full power consumption as if Fast Dormancy was completely turned off.\n", "For reads, the onboard controller first powers up the memory chips from standby. Reads are usually in parallel, error correction is done on the data, then transferred through the interface 16 bits at a time. Error checking is required due to soft read errors. Writes require powerup from standby, wear leveling calculation, a block erase of the area to be written to, ECC calculation, write itself (an individual memory cell read takes around 100 ns, a write to the chip takes 1ms+ or 10,000 times longer).\n", "SSD technology has been developing rapidly. Most of the performance measurements used on disk drives with rotating media are also used on SSDs. Performance of flash-based SSDs is difficult to benchmark because of the wide range of possible conditions. In a test performed in 2010 by Xssist, using IOmeter, 4 kB random 70% read/30% write, queue depth 4, the IOPS delivered by the Intel X25-E 64 GB G1 started around 10,000 IOPs, and dropped sharply after 8 minutes to 4,000 IOPS, and continued to decrease gradually for the next 42 minutes. IOPS vary between 3,000 and 4,000 from around 50 minutes onwards for the rest of the 8+ hour test run.\n", "Section::::Types.:Static wear leveling.\n\nThe other type of wear leveling is called \"static wear leveling\" which also uses a map to link the LBA to physical memory addresses. Static wear leveling works the same as dynamic wear leveling except the static blocks that do not change are periodically moved so that these low usage cells are able to be used by other data. This rotational effect enables an SSD to continue to operate until most of the blocks are near their end of life. This is also sometimes referred to as \"global wear leveling\", as the entire image is leveled.\n\nSection::::Types.:Comparison.\n", "BULLET::::- The uncorrectable bit error rate (UBER) is widely used but is not a good predictor of failure either. However SSD UBER rates are higher than those for HDDs, so although they do not predict failure, they can lead to data loss due to unreadable blocks being more common on SSDs than HDDs. The conclusion states that although more reliable overall, the rate of uncorrectable errors able to impact a user is larger.\n", "The peak random write performance on an SSD is driven by plenty of free blocks after the SSD is completely garbage collected, secure erased, 100% TRIMed, or newly installed. The maximum speed will depend upon the number of parallel flash channels connected to the SSD controller, the efficiency of the firmware, and the speed of the flash memory in writing to a page. During this phase the write amplification will be the best it can ever be for random writes and will be approaching one. Once the blocks are all written once, garbage collection will begin and the performance will be gated by the speed and efficiency of that process. Write amplification in this phase will increase to the highest levels the drive will experience.\n", "Newer flash SSDs, such as the Intel X25-E, have much higher IOPS than traditional HDD. In a test done by Xssist, using IOmeter, 4 KB random transfers, 70/30 read/write ratio, queue depth 4, the IOPS delivered by the Intel X25-E 64GB G1 started around 10000 IOPs, and dropped sharply after 8 minutes to 4000 IOPS, and continued to decrease gradually for the next 42 minutes. IOPS vary between 3000 and 4000 from around the 50th minutes onwards for the rest of the 8+ hours test run. Even with the drop in random IOPS after the 50th minute, the X25-E still has much higher IOPS compared to traditional hard disk drives. Some SSDs, including the OCZ RevoDrive 3 x2 PCIe using the SandForce controller, have shown much higher sustained write performance that more closely matches the read speed.\n", "Section::::Secure erase.:ATA Secure Erase – failure to erase data.\n\nSome drives may either completely or partially fail to erase the data with the ATA Secure Erase, and the data will remain recoverable from such drives.\n\nSection::::Wear leveling.\n\nIf a particular block was programmed and erased repeatedly without writing to any other blocks, that block would wear out before all the other blocks – thereby prematurely ending the life of the SSD. For this reason, SSD controllers use a technique called wear leveling to distribute writes as evenly as possible across all the flash blocks in the SSD.\n", "BULLET::::- In the real world, MLC based designs - believed less reliable than SLC designs - are often as reliable as SLC. (The findings state that \"SLC [is] not generally more reliable than MLC\")\n\nBULLET::::- Device age, measured by days in use, is the main factor in SSD reliability, and not amount of data read or written, which are measured by TBW or DWPD. Because this finding persists after controlling for early failure and other factors, it is likely that factors such as \"silicon aging\" is a cause of this trend. The correlation is significant (around 0.2 - 0.4).\n", "Another example is the Toshiba PX02SS enterprise SSD series, announced in 2016, which is optimized for use in server and storage platforms requiring high endurance from write-intensive applications such as write caching, I/O acceleration and online transaction processing (OLTP). The PX02SS series uses 12 Gbit/s SAS interface, featuring MLC NAND flash memory and achieving random write speeds of up to 42,000 IOPS, random read speeds of up to 130,000 IOPS, and endurance rating of 30 drive writes per day (DWPD).\n\nSection::::Development and history.:Drives using other persistent memory technologies.\n" ]	[ "SSDs have a read limit.", "SSDs have a read limit." ]	[ "SSDs have no read limit, thus can be read as many times as one wishes.", "SSDs only have a write limit but an unlimited read limit." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "SSDs have a read limit.", "SSDs have a read limit." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "SSDs have no read limit, thus can be read as many times as one wishes.", "SSDs only have a write limit but an unlimited read limit." ]
2018-02367	When your car stalls, what causes it to shake so violently?	The engine does not just stop, some cylinders are firing and others aren’t for a few seconds. The unbalanced firing shakes the engine and thus the car until all cylinders stop firing. Much of what makes a modern car drive smoothly is the design that goes into a balanced firing of the cylinders in the engine where the shock wave from each cylinder is balanced by another.	[ "BULLET::::- High-powered sports cars offer the feeling of being pressed into the cushioning, but this is the force of the acceleration. Jerk occurs only in the very first moments, when the torque of the engine starts at zero and grows with the rotational speed, causing a remarkable of the acceleration. A slight whiplash effect is noticeable in the neck, mostly masked by the jerk of gear switching.\n", "Analyses conducted in the mid to late 1990s on Jeep Cherokee and Grand Cherokee vehicles concluded that hundreds of reported sudden accelerations in these vehicles were likely caused by an undesired current leakage pathway that resulted in actuation of the cruise control servo. When this occurred, typically at shift engage (moving the shift lever from park to reverse), the engine throttle would move to the wide open position. While the brakes were operational, operator response was often not quick enough to prevent an accident. Most of these events occurred in close confines in which rapid operator response would be necessary to prevent striking a person, fixed object or another vehicle. Many of these events occurred at car washes, and the Jeep Grand Cherokee continues to experience sudden acceleration at car washes across the country. A statistical analysis of SAIs in 1991 through 1995 Jeeps revealed that the root cause of these incidents could not be human error, as had been historically posited by NHTSA and auto manufacturers.\n", "BULLET::::- 2009: Toyota Avalon displays unintended acceleration without floor mat; observed by dealer.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Chase Weir's experience with sudden acceleration in his Ford Explorer while driving on a freeway was reported by a number of news organisations, along with the released 000 emergency recordings of the incident.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009–2011: Several vehicle models were recalled in the 2009–2011 Toyota vehicle recalls, which resulted in suspension of production and sales of many of Toyota's most popular models, including the Toyota Corolla, Toyota Camry, Toyota Tacoma pickups, Toyota Avalon, Toyota Matrix, Pontiac Vibe, and more.\n", "BULLET::::- Changing gears in an average car, especially with a foot-operated clutch, offers well-known examples: although the accelerating force is limited by engine power, an inexperienced driver lets you experience \"severe\" jerk, just because of intermittent force closure over the clutch.\n", "BULLET::::- BBC News - How the dead have helped the living\n\nBULLET::::- How Force, Power, Torque and Energy Work - Howstuffworks.com\n\nBULLET::::- British TV 'Fifth Gear' programme. How a badly repaired Ford Focus crumple zone fails to work in a crash test.\n\nBULLET::::- British TV 'Fifth Gear' programme. Renault Modus small car with 5 star NCAP rating vs 1990 Volvo 940GLE head on crash test. \n\nBULLET::::- Mythbusters - Car crash force \n\nBULLET::::- Béla Barényi – a history of safety - Mercedes-Benz original\n", "Scuttle shake\n\nScuttle shake (sometimes called cowl shake in the US) is the term used for the phenomenon experienced in many convertible or open top automobiles where, due to lower structural rigidity caused by the lack of a roof, the middle section of the chassis flexes, causing the bulkhead in front of the passenger compartment to move and vibrate when the vehicle is subject to uneven road surfaces. Passengers feel it as a noticeable vibration and shudder.\n", "Other problems may be implicated in the case of older vehicles equipped with carburetors. Weak, disconnected, or mis-connected throttle return springs, worn shot-pump barrels, chafed cable housings, and cables which jump their tracks in the throttle-body crank can all cause similar acceleration problems.\n", "A 20,000+ GVW cooler is highly recommended for all vehicles. Breakdown of the transmission fluid often results in \"converter shudder\" (feels like driving over rumble strips) where converter tries to maintain a steady slip rate during lock-up, but alternates between slipping and grabbing. Frequent fluid changes, especially when used for towing, are the single best method to prevent shudder. Shudder occurs because the torque converter never fully enters \"lock-up\", and ends up bouncing in and out of lock-up to slip. This causes the engine to flare up and then down again as the clutch cannot hold back the power of the engine.\n", "Section::::Items to be balanced.:Fluid.:Shearing resistance.\n\nMetallic parts in an engine are normally designed not to touch each other by being separated by a thin film of oil, but a cam sometimes touches the tappet, and metal bearing surface wears with insufficient oil or with too much / too little clearance. A film of liquid (especially oil) resists being sheared apart, and this resistance could be a source of vibration as experienced on an over-heating engine that is nearing a seizure.\n\nBULLET::::- 21.\n\nSection::::Items to be balanced.:Fluid.:Thermal balance.\n", "BULLET::::- 2005: Ida Starr St John involved in sudden and unintended acceleration accident with her Toyota Camry. The Camry immediately accelerated without her pressing the accelerator pedal and pressing the brake pedal did nothing to stop the vehicle.\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: The 2004 model year Ford Mustang Cobra was recalled by Ford for accelerator pedals that failed to return to idle after being fully pressed.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Incidents involving the 2005 Kia Amanti and Kia Sephia had been reported that were preceded by a racing or highly revving engine.\n", "If an engine hydrolocks while at speed, a mechanical failure is likely. Common damage modes include bent or broken connecting rods, a fractured crank, a fractured head, a fractured block, crankcase damage, damaged bearings, or any combination of these. Forces absorbed by other interconnected components may cause additional damage. Physical damage to metal parts can manifest as a \"crashing\" or \"screeching\" sound and usually requires replacement of the engine or a substantial rebuild of its major components.\n", "The most common anecdotal examples are of parents lifting vehicles to rescue their children, and when people are in life-and-death situations. Hysterical strength can result in torn muscles due to higher mechanical stress.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1982, in Lawrenceville, Georgia, Tony Cavallo was repairing a 1964 Chevrolet Impala automobile from underneath. The vehicle was propped up with jacks, but it fell. Cavallo's mother, Mrs. Angela Cavallo, lifted the car high enough and long enough for two neighbours to replace the jacks and pull Tony from beneath the car.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Other situations.\n\nCommotio cordis may also occur in other situations, such as in children who are punished with blows over the precordium, cases of torture, and frontal collisions of motor vehicles (the impact of the steering wheel against the thorax, although this has decreased substantially with the use of safety belts and air bags). In one fatality, the impact to the chest was the result of an exploding whipped cream canister.\n", "Whiplash can occur at speeds of fifteen miles per hour or less; it is the sudden jolt, as one car hits another, that causes ones head to be abruptly thrown back and sideways. The more sudden the motion, the more bones, discs, muscles and tendons in ones neck and upper back will be damaged. Spinal cord injuries are responsible for about 6,000 deaths in the US each year and 5,000 whiplash injuries per year result in quadriplegia.\n", "Ways of resolving sudden unintended acceleration are to apply the brakes and/or clutch, or shift into Neutral if the car has an automatic transmission.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Automobile safety defect\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive accident\n\nBULLET::::- Drive by wire\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic stability control, comprehensive drive by wire safety systems\n\nBULLET::::- George Russell Weller\n\nBULLET::::- Left-foot braking\n\nBULLET::::- Product recalls\n\nBULLET::::- \"Runaway Car\", a 1997 TV movie about a car with a stuck gas pedal\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota unintended acceleration tests, compares Camry with Infiniti\n\nBULLET::::- Newspaper article on ABS brake failures with author of fixautosa.com\n", "A whiplash injury from an automobile accident is called a cervical acceleration–deceleration injury. Cadaver studies have shown that as an automobile occupant is hit from behind, the forces from the seat back compress the kyphosis of the thoracic spine, which provides an axial load on the lumbar spine and cervical spine. This forces the cervical spine to deform into an S-shape where the lower cervical spine is forced into a kyphosis while the upper cervical spine maintains its lordosis. As the injury progresses, the whole cervical spine is finally hyper-extended.\n", "Production gaskets will let go under these conditions every time, just like the example shown. It is important to note here that no engine should ever be run under these adverse conditions purposely, however during the ‘tuning’ period of many performance engines these severe conditions may be encountered for short periods, so it is vital to have a cylinder head gasket that can withstand brief bursts of detonation without letting go, so that further adjustments can be made to “tune out” any detonation spikes.\n", "Drivers of classic cars must be especially careful. Classic cars often lack what is now considered basic safety features, including seat belts, crumple zones or rollover protection. In September 2009, ABC News' \"Good Morning America\" and \"World News\" showed a U.S. Insurance Institute of Highway Safety crash test of a 2009 Chevrolet Malibu in an offset head-on collision with a 1959 Chevrolet Bel Air sedan. It dramatically demonstrated the effectiveness of modern car safety design, over 1950s X-frame design, particularly of rigid passenger safety cells and crumple zones.\n", "These tests were meant to simulate reports of the time suggesting that the vehicles were at a standstill and accelerated uncontrollably when shifted from park. With modern drive by wire fuel controls, problems are believed to occur exclusively while the vehicle is under way.\n", "BULLET::::- Slow response – sideways acceleration does not start immediately when the steering is turned and may not stop immediately when it is returned to center. This is partly caused by body roll. Other causes include tires with high slip angle, and yaw and roll angular inertia. Roll angular inertia aggravates body roll by delaying it. Soft tires aggravate yaw angular inertia by waiting for the car to reach their slip angle before turning the car.\n\nSection::::Compromises.\n", "BULLET::::- In the beginning of an (emergency) braking a body under tonicity whips forward (with respect to the car) to a bigger extent than the achieved acceleration alone accomplishes during the rest of the braking process, when the muscle tension regains control of the body. A collision can do so to an even greater degree, not allowing for a tonicity controlled body at all. Quantitative testing on living humans (and, for some, on animals) runs afoul of ethical concerns, with the effect that cadavers or crash test dummies must be substituted, which, of course, do not show the physiological reactions to jerk caused by an active control loop described above.\n", "On September 10, 2009, the ABC News programs \"Good Morning America\" and \"World News\" showed a U.S. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety crash test of a 2009 Chevrolet Malibu in an offset head-on collision with a 1959 Chevrolet Bel Air sedan. It dramatically demonstrated the effectiveness of modern car safety design over 1950s design, particularly of rigid passenger safety cells and crumple zones.\n\nSection::::Early development history.\n", "In the July 1978 issue, \"Consumer Reports\" rated the Dodge Omni/Plymouth Horizon automobile \"not acceptable\", the first car it had judged such since the AMC Ambassador in 1968. In its testing they found the possibility of these models developing an oscillatory yaw as a result of a sudden violent input to the steering; the manufacturer claimed that \"Some do, some don't\" show this behavior, but it has no \"validity in the real world of driving\". Nevertheless, the next year, these models included a lighter weight steering wheel rim and a steering damper; \"Consumer Reports\" reported that the previous instability was no longer present.\n", "Section::::Reported incidents.\n\nReported incidents of sudden acceleration, include:\n\nBULLET::::- 1987: The 1982–1987 Audi 5000's sales in the United States fell after recalls linked to sudden unintended acceleration. There were 700 accidents and 6 deaths.\n\nBULLET::::- 1988: 1986 Honda Accords were documented to have had sudden acceleration incidents due to the Vehicle Speed Control component, as reported to the NHTSA.\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Sudden acceleration in Jeep Cherokees and Jeep Grand Cherokees was reported by Diane Sawyer in a March 1997 ABC News \"Primetime\" segment.\n", "Section::::Investigations.:US congressional hearings.\n\nThe House Oversight and Government Reform Committee and the House Energy and Commerce Committee held hearings in February 2010. Retired social worker Rhonda Smith testified before Congress that her car accelerated out of control but the NHTSA investigator determined that a misplaced floor mat had caused the problem; the subsequent owner of the car reported no trouble after driving the car over 27,000 miles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "A car is in a stalled state even when it is shaking." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal", "normal" ]	[ "A car is not completely stalled until the unbalanced firing of cylinders shakes the engine and stops firing." ]
2018-04082	How does the government catch people who use or make counterfeit money?	Governments puts certain special signatures into their money that are hard to duplicate exactly (e.g. watermarks, holograms, etc.). This means eventually any counterfeit bill is going to be discovered whether by a bank or by a store, and then it’s just about tracking the source of who tried to use that bill.	[ "BULLET::::- Peter Alston, was the late 18th Century and early 19th Century counterfeiter and river pirate, who is believed to be Little Harpe's associate and partner in the murder of notorious outlaw leader Samuel Mason in 1803\n\nBULLET::::- Philip Alston, was an 18th-century counterfeiter both before and after the American Revolution in Virginia and the Carolinas before the war, and later in Kentucky and Illinois afterwards.\n\nBULLET::::- Anatasios Arnaouti, a British counterfeiter of more than £2.5 million in fake money, sentenced in 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Mueller, documented in \"Mister 880\", he was possibly the longest uncaught counterfeiter in history. For ten or more years he eluded government authorities while he printed and spent fake $1 bills in his New York neighborhood.\n\nBULLET::::- John A. Murrell, a near-legendary bandit operating in the United States along the Mississippi River in the mid-nineteenth century. Convicted for his crimes in the Circuit Court of Madison County, Tennessee, Murrell was incarcerated in the Tennessee State Penitentiary, modeled after the Auburn penal system, from 1834 to 1844.\n", "BULLET::::- Frank Bourassa, a Canadian counterfeiter, that set up a secret money printing operation capable of printing US$250 million in counterfeit bills. He spent a month and a half in a Canadian jail in 2014, in agreement to not be extradited to the U.S. for prosecution.\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Bonney, an alleged counterfeiter in northern Indiana, who escaped to Nauvoo, Illinois, was a bounty hunter and amateur detective, posed as a counterfeiter, to apprehend the murderers of Colonel George Davenport and infiltrate the Midwestern Banditti of the Prairie.\n", "In this same story, we learn how much Gorgik is trying to utilize the confusion these counterfeits cause. (The story contains an extraordinarily sympathetic critique of S&M practices, and how their meaning differs when they occur across different social power boundaries.)\n", "Section::::Materials and Prevention.\n\nIn the United States, counterfeiters in small operations develop the fake currency using tools which often include; printers, an iron, and green colored water. Upon collecting bills, the Federal Reserve checks all notes, destroying any whose appearance fails to fit that of a federal bill.\n\nSection::::Notable American counterfeiters.\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Alston, was the late 18th Century and early 19th Century counterfeiter and river pirate, who is believed to be Little Harpe's associate and partner in the murder of notorious outlaw leader Samuel Mason in 1803\n", "In most Nero Wolfe novels and novellas, there is at least one unfamiliar word, usually spoken by Wolfe.\n\nBULLET::::- \". . . of Ormus and of Ind.\" Chapter 2, spoken by Raymond Dell, quoting from \"Paradise Lost\".\n\nSection::::\"Assault on a Brownstone\".\n", "In Detroit, men suspected of hiring prostitutes had their automobiles seized. An owner's sailboat was taken after he was caught with a negligible amount of marijuana. Members of the Bergen County Prosecutor's Office were charged with fraud after knowingly selling counterfeit goods at an asset forfeiture auction.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Seizures of firearms.\n", "In the U.S., despite coordinated efforts by Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Customs and Border Protection (CBP) to stem the influx of counterfeit goods into the U.S, there was a 38% increase in counterfeits seized between 2012 and 2016. In a test survey by the GAO of various items purchased online of major brands, all of which stated they were certified by Underwriters Laboratories, the GAO found that 43% were nonetheless fakes.\n", "Bills forged by Anatasios Arnaouti in the UK (2005).\n\nSection::::\"Federal Reserve Bonds\".\n", "BULLET::::- John A. Murrell, a near-legendary bandit operating in the United States along the Mississippi River in the mid-nineteenth century. Convicted for his crimes in the Circuit Court of Madison County, Tennessee, Murrell was incarcerated in the Tennessee State Penitentiary, modeled after the Auburn penal system, from 1834 to 1844.\n\nBULLET::::- King Philip the Fair of France (1268–1314), caused riots and was known as \"the counterfeiter king\" for emitting coinage that was debased compared to the standards that had been prevalent during the half century previous to his reign.\n", "The United States Secret Service was created by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War in 1865 to combat the high counterfeit rate of currency. At the time, one-third to one-half of all U.S currency in circulation was counterfeit. Today, the Secret Service continues its core mission by investigating violations of U.S. laws relating to currency, financial crimes, financial payment systems, computer crimes and electronic crimes. It utilizes investigative expertise, science and technology, and partnerships to detect, prevent and investigate attacks on the U.S. financial infrastructure.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Counterfeit money\n\nBULLET::::- Subversion\n\nBULLET::::- Outline of forgery\n\nBULLET::::- Black propaganda\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas McAnea, also known as Hologram Tam, a Scottish master counterfeiter regarded as one of the most skillful in Europe with regard to banknote security holograms.\n\nBULLET::::- Emerich Juettner, documented in Mister 880, he was possibly the longest uncaught counterfeiter in history. For ten or more years he eluded government authorities while he printed and spent fake $1 bills in his New York neighborhood.\n\nBULLET::::- Catherine Murphy, convicted of coining in 1789 and was the last woman to suffer execution by burning in England.\n", "Archie has concluded that the murdered woman, Tammy Baxter, was a Treasury agent: Leach, when he asked about Miss Baxter, indicated that he knew both her phone number and that she had been to the brownstone earlier that day. He and Wolfe conjecture that she had been placed in Hattie's boardinghouse by the Treasury Department to investigate a counterfeiting operation.\n", "Section::::Forgery of money or government bonds.\n\nCounterfeit money is currency that is produced without the legal sanction of the state or government and in deliberate violation of that country's laws.\n\nThe United States Secret Service, mostly known for its guarding-of-officials task, was initially organized primarily to combat the counterfeiting of American money. Counterfeit government bonds are public debt instruments that are produced without legal sanction, with the intention of \"cashing them in\" for authentic currency or using them as collateral to secure legitimate loans or lines of credit.\n\nSection::::Counterfeiting of documents.\n", "The Federal Reserve Bank of New York writes that\n\nThe Federal Reserve is aware of several scams involving high denomination Federal Reserve notes and bonds, often in denominations of 100 million or 500 million dollars, dating back to the 1930s, usually 1934. In each of these schemes, fraudulent instruments are claimed to be part of a long-lost supply of recently discovered Federal Reserve notes or bonds.\n", "The United States Secret Service is the agency within the United States' government tasked with the protection of U.S. currency. The Secret Service has jurisdiction over violations involving the counterfeiting of United States obligations and securities. Some of the counterfeited United States obligations and securities commonly investigated by the Secret Service include U.S. currency (to include coins), U.S. Treasury checks, Department of Agriculture food coupons and U.S. postage stamps. \n", "BULLET::::- In \"To Catch a Predator\", an NBC reality TV show hosted by Chris Hansen, decoys posing as minors have online conversations with potential sexual predators in an attempt to lure them to a meeting, where they are confronted by Hansen and the police.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"White Collar\", a fictional renowned thief, known as Neal Caffrey, is caught and serves as a criminal consultant for the FBI. Neal during these cases assumes a false identity to lure forgers and other thieves out of hiding so that the FBI can arrest and charge them.\n", "Section::::Training money.\n", "Selling counterfeit illicit drugs is illegal even if the substances used to make the imitation drug are not illegal on themselves. It is illegal to distribute or sell counterfeit fake drugs in many U.S. states including Nevada, Ohio, Illinois, Florida, Michigan and Massachusetts. Selling counterfeit illicit drugs is also illegal in the United Kingdom.\n\nSection::::Legal status.:U.S. Federal Law.\n\nSelling counterfeit illicit drugs is illegal under the U.S. federal law. Relevant parts of the U.S. federal law include 21 U.S.C. Section 331 and 18 U.S. Code § 1001.\n", "During a counterfeit bust in New York in 2007, federal police seized $200 million in fake designer clothing, shoes, and accessories from one of the largest-ever counterfeit smuggling rings. Labels seized included Chanel, Nike, Burberry, Polo, Ralph Lauren and Baby Phat. Counterfeit goods are a \"...major plague for fashion and luxury brands,\" and numerous companies have made legal efforts to block the sale of counterfeits from China. Many of the goods are sold to retail outlets in Brooklyn and Queens.\n", "In early 2018 Interpol confiscated tonnes of fake products worth $25 million and arrested hundreds of suspects and broke up organized crime networks in 36 different countries on four continents. They raided markets, chemists, retail outlets, warehouses and border control points, where they seized among other things, pharmaceuticals, food, vehicle parts, tobacco products, clothing, and agrochemicals. Over 7.2 million counterfeit and illicit items weighing more than 120 tonnes were confiscated.\n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Human rights laws.\n", "BULLET::::- \"King\" David Hartley, was the leader of the Cragg Vale Coiners of rural 18th century England. Producing fake gold coins, he was eventually captured and hanged at Tyburn near York on April 28, 1770 and buried in the village of Heptonstall, W Yorks. His brother, Isaac, escaped the authorities and lived until 1815.\n\nBULLET::::- Stephen Jory, Great Britain's most renowned counterfeiter started his career by selling cheap perfume in designer bottles. He later established his own illegal printing operation to produce and distribute at least fifty million pounds in counterfeit currency throughout the United Kingdom.\n", "The doorbell rings. It's Albert Leach, an agent of the Treasury Department, wanting to know if Archie has seen or spoken with a young woman named Tammy Baxter or an older woman named Hattie Annis. Archie, not caring for Leach's approach, admits to meeting Tammy, but does not mention that Hattie is present in the house. Then he returns to the front room, closely examines one of the twenties, and announces that there will probably be a reward: the bills are counterfeit.\n", "An example of a recent case of fraud is \"Williams v. US\" under the district court of M.D. Florida, Jacksonville Division. In this case, the defendant who is a petitioner has been charged with passing false and fictitious documents (i.e. counterfeit checks) with intent to defraud. The petitioner had argued that his/her action is not sufficient enough to fall under predicate offense, although later discovered that it was sufficient enough to be charged under predicate offense.\n\nSection::::Organised Crime.:Theft.\n", "By May 2013, there were 56 cases of counterfeit banknotes known to the Bank of Canada. Offences related to the production, printing, publication, possession, distribution, use, or circulation of counterfeit currency, or owning, repairing, or using machines or other tools used for the production of counterfeit currency are part of section XII, \"Offences relating to currency\", of the Criminal Code, in sections 448—462. The RCMP maintains a National Anti-Counterfeiting Bureau (NACB) to coordinate policing regarding counterfeit currency, and is the central repository for seized counterfeit money. NACB also has the responsibility for destroying all counterfeit currency once it has been analyzed and is no longer needed for court proceedings.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11722	Aside from HIV, where do STD/STI’s originate from? And where did the first case of it show up?	There's nothing inherently special about STIs. Like all infectious diseases, they evolved as organisms that either mutated to be able to infect humans from other animal populations, or became pathogenic in humans at some point. There have probably been STIs for as long as sexual reproduction has existed in life on Earth. With the exception of HIV, STIs have been around for a very long time, even if we didn't necessarily identify them as such or know what caused them. Many were know in medieval times and even in antiquity, and there were certainly STIs that affected the very first prehistoric humans as well. There's really no way to know when or how the first person got any of these specific STIs. HIV is the outlier because it made the jump to humans so recently.	[ "There are six additional known HIV-2 groups, each having been found in just one person. They all seem to derive from independent transmissions from sooty mangabeys to humans. Groups C and D have been found in two people from Liberia, groups E and F have been discovered in two people from Sierra Leone, and groups G and H have been detected in two people from the Ivory Coast. These HIV-2 strains are probably dead-end infections, and each of them is most closely related to SIVsmm strains from sooty mangabeys living in the same country where the human infection was found.\n", "There are six additional known HIV-2 groups, each having been found in just one person. They all seem to derive from independent transmissions from sooty mangabeys to humans. Groups C and D have been found in two people from Liberia, groups E and F have been discovered in two people from Sierra Leone, and groups G and H have been detected in two people from the Ivory Coast. Each of these HIV-2 strains, for which humans are probably dead-end hosts, is most closely related to SIVsmm strains from sooty mangabeys living in the same country where the human infection was found.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nNot all STIs are symptomatic, and symptoms may not appear immediately after infection. In some instances a disease can be carried with no symptoms, which leaves a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Depending on the disease, some untreated STIs can lead to infertility, chronic pain or death.\n\nThe presence of an STI in prepubescent children may indicate sexual abuse.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Transmission.\n\nA sexually transmitted infection present in a pregnant woman may be passed on to the infant before or after birth.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Bacterial.\n\nBULLET::::- Chancroid (\"Haemophilus ducreyi\")\n\nBULLET::::- Chlamydia (\"Chlamydia trachomatis\")\n", "Section::::Transmission from non-humans to humans.:HIV-2 from sooty mangabeys to humans.\n\nSimilar research has been undertaken with SIV strains collected from several wild sooty mangabey (\"Cercocebus atys atys\") (SIVsmm) populations of the West African nations of Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast. The resulting phylogenetic analyses show that the viruses most closely related to the two strains of HIV-2 that spread considerably in humans (HIV-2 groups A and B) are the SIVsmm found in the sooty mangabeys of the Tai forest, in western Ivory Coast.\n", "More than 30 different bacteria, viruses, and parasites can be transmitted through sexual activity. Bacterial STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viral STIs include genital herpes, HIV/AIDS, and genital warts. Parasitic STIs include trichomoniasis. While usually spread by sex, some STIs can be spread by non-sexual contact with donor tissue, blood, breastfeeding, or during childbirth. STI diagnostic tests are usually easily available in the developed world, but this is often not the case in the developing world.\n", "Many STIs are (more easily) transmitted through the mucous membranes of the penis, vulva, rectum, urinary tract and (less often—depending on type of infection) the mouth, throat, respiratory tract and eyes. The visible membrane covering the head of the penis is a mucous membrane, though it produces no mucus (similar to the lips of the mouth). Mucous membranes differ from skin in that they allow certain pathogens into the body. The amount of contact with infective sources which causes infection varies with each pathogen but in all cases, a disease may result from even light contact from fluid carriers like venereal fluids onto a mucous membrane.\n", "There is another, smaller percentage of individuals who have been recently identified. These are called Highly Exposed Persistently Seronegative (HEPS). This is a small group of individuals and has been observed only in a group of uninfected HIV-negative prostitutes in Kenya and in The Gambia. When these individuals' PBMCs are stimulated with HIV-1 peptides, they have lymphoproliferative activity and have HIV-1 specific CD8+ CTL activity suggesting that transient infection may have occurred. This does not occur in unexposed individuals. What is interesting, is that the CTL epitope specificity differs between HEPS and HIV positive individuals, and in HEPS, the maintenance of responses appears to be dependent upon persistent exposure to HIV.\n", "Specific proposed high-risk transmission channels, allowing the virus to adapt to humans and spread throughout the society, depend on the proposed timing of the animal-to-human crossing. Genetic studies of the virus suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to circa 1910. Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of colonialism and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including a higher degree of sexual promiscuity, the spread of prostitution, and the accompanying high frequency of genital ulcer diseases (such as syphilis) in nascent colonial cities. While transmission rates of HIV during vaginal intercourse are low under regular circumstances, they are increased many fold if one of the partners suffers from a sexually transmitted infection causing genital ulcers. Early 1900s colonial cities were notable due to their high prevalence of prostitution and genital ulcers, to the degree that, as of 1928, as many as 45% of female residents of eastern Kinshasa were thought to have been prostitutes, and, as of 1933, around 15% of all residents of the same city had syphilis.\n", "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), are infections that are commonly spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex and oral sex. Many times STIs initially do not cause symptoms. This results in a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Symptoms and signs of disease may include vaginal discharge, penile discharge, ulcers on or around the genitals, and pelvic pain. STIs can be transmitted to an infant before or during childbirth and may result in poor outcomes for the baby. Some STIs may cause problems with the ability to get pregnant.\n", "HIV/AIDS can be contracted through the vagina during vaginal intercourse, but it is not associated with any local vaginal or vulval disease.\n\nBecause of STIs, health authorities and other health outlets recommend safe sex practices when engaging in sexual activity.\n\nSection::::Types.:Other infectious diseases.\n\nBULLET::::- Candidal vulvovaginitis\n\nBULLET::::- Bacterial vaginosis (BV) associated with the \"Gardnerella\", formerly called \"nonspecific vaginitis\"\n\nSection::::Types.:Vaginismus.\n", "A Sexually transmitted infection (STI) --previously known as a \"sexually transmitted disease (STD)\" or \"venereal disease (VD)--\" is an infection that has a significant likelihood of transmission between humans by means of sexual activity. The CDC analyses the eight most common STI's: chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B virus (HBV), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), syphilis, and trichomoniasis.\n", "Specific proposed high-risk transmission channels, allowing the virus to adapt to humans and spread throughout the society, depend on the proposed timing of the animal-to-human crossing. Genetic studies of the virus suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to circa 1910. Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of colonialism and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including different patterns of sexual contact (especially multiple, concurrent partnerships), the spread of prostitution, and the concomitant high frequency of genital ulcer diseases (such as syphilis) in nascent colonial cities. While transmission rates of HIV during vaginal intercourse are typically low, they are increased manyfold if one of the partners suffers from a sexually transmitted infection resulting in genital ulcers. Early 1900s colonial cities were notable due to their high prevalence of prostitution and genital ulcers to the degree that as of 1928 as many as 45% of female residents of eastern Leopoldville were thought to have been prostitutes and as of 1933 around 15% of all residents of the same city were infected by one of the forms of syphilis.\n", "Two species of HIV infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is more virulent and more easily transmitted. HIV-1 is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world, while HIV-2 is not as easily transmitted and is largely confined to West Africa. Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are of primate origin. The origin of HIV-1 is the central common chimpanzee (\"Pan troglodytes troglodytes\") found in southern Cameroon. It is established that HIV-2 originated from the sooty mangabey (\"Cercocebus atys\"), an Old World monkey of Guinea Bissau, Gabon, and Cameroon.\n", "Like non-exclusive non-penetrative sex acts, STI transmission varies for exclusively non-penetrative sexual activities; some common STIs transmitted through exclusively non-penetrative sex acts, and how they are contracted, are the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Herpes can be spread through kissing or anytime an infected mouth or genitals comes into contact with another individual's mouth or genitals (when it occurs on the genitals, it is known as genital herpes)\n\nBULLET::::- Genital warts is similar to herpes, but caused by a different virus. It is also spread by skin-to-skin contact with the genitals\n", "João Dinis de Sousa, Viktor Müller, Philippe Lemey, and Anne-Mieke Vandamme proposed that HIV became epidemic through sexual serial transmission, in nascent colonial cities, helped by a high frequency of genital ulcers, caused by genital ulcer diseases (GUD). GUD are simply sexually transmitted diseases that cause genital ulcers; examples are syphilis, chancroid, lymphogranuloma venereum, and genital herpes. These diseases increase the probability of HIV transmission dramatically, from around 0.01–0.1% to 4–43% per heterosexual act, because the genital ulcers provide a portal of viral entry, and contain many activated T cells expressing the CCR5 co-receptor, the main cell targets of HIV.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Viruses in semen.\n\nTwenty-seven different viruses have been identified in semen. Information on whether or not transmission occurs or whether the viruses cause disease is uncertain. Some of these microbes are known to be sexually transmitted. Those found in semen are listed by the CDC.\n\nMicrobes known to be sexually transmissible (but not generally considered STDs/STIs) include:\n\nBULLET::::- Marburg virus – Virus in semen for seven weeks after clinical recovery.\n\nBULLET::::- HTLV (both types 1 and 2) – Sexually transmissible, consumption of breast milk breastfeeding, and once mistaken as a HIV, risk of leukemia.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Some STIs such as HIV can be transmitted from mother to child either during pregnancy or breastfeeding.\n", "However, HIV existed long before the 1981 CDC report. Three of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::1. A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\n\nBULLET::::2. HIV found in tissue samples from a 15-year-old African-American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969.\n\nBULLET::::3. HIV found in tissue samples from a Norwegian sailor who died around 1976.\n", "The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of \"Lentivirus\" (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Without treatment, average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype. In most cases, HIV is a sexually transmitted infection and occurs by contact with or transfer of blood, pre-ejaculate, semen, and vaginal fluids. Research has shown (for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples) that HIV is untransmissable through condomless sexual intercourse if the HIV-positive partner has a consistently undetectable viral load. Non-sexual transmission can occur from an infected mother to her infant during pregnancy, during childbirth by exposure to her blood or vaginal fluid, and through breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells.\n", "There is evidence that HIV transmission within heterogeneous sexual networks leaves a trace in HIV phylogenies, in particular making phylogenies more imbalanced and concentrating coalescent events on a minority of lineages.\n\nBy analyzing phylogenies estimated from HIV sequences from men who have sex with men in London, United Kingdom, Lewis et al. found evidence that transmission is highly concentrated in the brief period of primary HIV infection (PHI), which consists of approximately the first 6 months of the infectious period.\n", "BULLET::::- HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) damages the body's immune system, which interferes with its ability to fight off disease-causing agents. The virus kills CD4 cells, which are white blood cells that help fight off various infections. HIV is carried in body fluids, and is spread by sexual activity. It can also be spread by contact with infected blood, breast feeding, childbirth, and from mother to child during pregnancy. When HIV is at its most advanced stage, an individual is said to have AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). There are different stages of the progression of and HIV infection. The stages include primary infection, asymptomatic infection, symptomatic infection, and AIDS. In the primary infection stage, an individual will have flu like symptoms (headache, fatigue, fever, muscle aches) for about 2 weeks. In the asymptomatic stage, symptoms usually disappear, and the patient can remain asymptomatic for years. When HIV progresses to the symptomatic stage, the immune system is weakened, and has a low cell count of CD4+ T Cells. When the HIV infection becomes life-threatening, it is called AIDS. People with AIDS fall prey to opportunistic infections and die as a result. When the disease was first discovered in the 1980s, those who had AIDS were not likely to live longer than a few years. There are now antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) available to treat HIV infections. There is no known cure for HIV or AIDS but the drugs help suppress the virus. By suppressing the amount of virus in the body, people can lead longer and healthier lives. Even though their virus levels may be low they can still spread the virus to others.\n", "While HIV is most likely a mutated form of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a disease present only in chimpanzees and African monkeys, highly plausible explanations for the transfer of the disease between species (zoonosis) exist not involving sexual intercourse. In particular, the African chimpanzees and monkeys which carry SIV are often hunted for food, and epidemiologists theorize that the disease may have appeared in humans after hunters came into blood-contact with monkeys infected with SIV that they had killed. The first known instance of HIV in a human was found in a person who died in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1959, and a recent study dates the last common ancestor of HIV and SIV to between 1884 and 1914 by using a molecular clock approach.\n", "BULLET::::- 1998\n\nBULLET::::- December 10, International Human Rights Day, Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) is launched to campaign for greater access to HIV treatment for all South Africans, by raising public awareness and understanding about issues surrounding the availability, affordability and use of HIV treatments. TAC campaigns against the view that AIDS is a \"death sentence\".\n\nBULLET::::- 1999\n\nBULLET::::- January 31, Studies suggest that a retrovirus, \"SIVcpz\" (simian immunodeficiency virus) from the common chimpanzee \"Pan troglodytes\", may have passed to human populations in west equatorial Africa during the twentieth century and developed into various types of HIV.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Recombination.:Circulating recombinant forms.\n\nCirculating recombinant forms (CRFs) are mosaic viruses - recombinants with randomly assorted genetic material from phylogenetically distinct parental viruses. They spread geographically through human propagation, for example CRF02_AG, which is found in west and central Africa, as well as South America. CRF's account for 10% of HIV infections worldwide. There are 15 known CRFs, reported on 4 continents. More recombinants are likely to arise in regions with a growing HIV epidemic and where viral clades intersect, including Africa, Southeast Asia and South America.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Recombination.:Unique recombinant forms.\n", "In the United States about 1.6 million cases were reported in 2016. The CDC estimates that if one includes unreported cases there are about 2.9 million each year. It affects around 2% of young people. Chlamydial infection is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection in the UK.\n\nChlamydia causes more than 250,000 cases of epididymitis in the U.S. each year. Chlamydia causes 250,000 to 500,000 cases of PID every year in the United States. Women infected with chlamydia are up to five times more likely to become infected with HIV, if exposed.\n\nSection::::External links.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01681	Why hasn't Harvey Weinstein been arrested?	He has been accused of sexual harrassment and abuse but that doesn't lead to an arrest until criminal charges have been brought against him. He was not caught by law enforcement in the act of committing a crime. From the New Yorker: > His behavior has been an open secret to many in Hollywood and beyond, but previous attempts by many publications, including The New Yorker, to investigate and publish the story over the years fell short of the demands of journalistic evidence. Or of police evidence. So no charges, and no arrests.	[ "On May 25, 2018, Weinstein was charged by New York police with \"rape, criminal sex act, sex abuse and sexual misconduct for incidents involving two separate women\". On that day, he was arrested after surrendering to police.\n\nWeinstein was later released after $1 million bail was posted on his behalf. He later surrendered his passport and was required to wear an ankle monitor, with travel being restricted to New York and Connecticut. His lawyer Benjamin Brafman said Weinstein would plead not guilty.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "Criminal investigations into complaints from at least six women are ongoing in Los Angeles, New York City, and London. On May 25, 2018, Weinstein was arrested in New York, charged with rape and other offenses, and released on bail.\n", "In October 2017, the New York City Police Department (NYPD), London's Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) and the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) were reviewing allegations against Weinstein following reports about his conduct. \n\nSection::::Legal response.:Criminal investigations.:New York indictments.\n\nOn November 3, 2017, the NYPD were preparing a warrant to arrest Weinstein for his alleged rape of Paz de la Huerta, an investigation still pending as of May 2018 and unrelated to the later arrest of Weinstein.\n", "On May 25, 2018, Weinstein was charged by New York prosecutors with \"rape, criminal sex act, sex abuse and sexual misconduct for incidents involving two separate women.\" After surrendering to police, he appeared in court before Judge Kevin McGrath. If convicted on the most serious charges, Weinstein could face between five to twenty-five years in prison. Weinstein was released same day on a $1 million bail. He agreed to surrender his passport and wear an ankle monitor confining him to Connecticut and New York. His lawyer Benjamin Brafman said Weinstein intends to plead not guilty.\n", "In October 2017, \"The New York Times\" and \"The New Yorker\" reported that more than a dozen women accused Weinstein of sexually harassing, assaulting, or raping them. Many other women in the film industry subsequently reported similar experiences with Weinstein, who denied \"any nonconsensual sex\". As a result of these accusations, Weinstein was fired from his production company, suspended from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, expelled from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, resigned from the Directors Guild of America, left by his wife Georgina Chapman, and denounced by leading figures in politics whom he had supported. The Los Angeles Police Department opened a criminal investigation for alleged rape, and New York and London police are investigating other sexual assault allegations.\n", "Section::::Allegations of and charges for sexual crimes.\n\nSection::::Allegations of and charges for sexual crimes.:Allegations.\n", "On October 15, 2017, deceased actress Misty Upham's father, Charles Upham, went public with allegations that his daughter was raped by a member of Weinstein's production team at the same Golden Globes ceremony where she was honored for her work on one of Weinstein's films, and that other members of Weinstein's team had not only witnessed the rape but had cheered the rapist.\n", "In September 2009, Weinstein publicly voiced opposition to efforts to extradite Roman Polanski from Switzerland to the U.S. regarding a 1977 charge that he had drugged and raped a 13-year-old, to which Polanski had pleaded guilty before fleeing the country. Weinstein, whose company had distributed \"\", a film about the Polanski case, questioned whether Polanski committed any crime, prompting Los Angeles County District Attorney Steve Cooley to insist that Polanski's guilty plea indicated that his action was a crime, and that several other serious charges were pending.\n", "In 2015 \"The New York Times\" reported that Weinstein was questioned by police \"after a 22-year-old woman accused him of touching her inappropriately.\" The woman, Italian model Ambra Gutierrez, cooperated with the New York City Police Department (NYPD) to obtain an audio recording where Weinstein admitted to having inappropriately touched her. As the police investigation progressed and became public, tabloids published negative stories about Gutierrez that portrayed her as an opportunist. American Media, publisher of the \"National Enquirer\", allegedly agreed to help suppress the allegations by Gutierrez and Rose McGowan. Manhattan District Attorney Cyrus Vance Jr. decided not to file charges against Weinstein, citing insufficient evidence of criminal intent, against the advice of local police who considered the evidence sufficient. The New York district attorney's office and the NYPD blamed each other for failing to bring charges.\n", "In October 2017, following sexual abuse allegations against Weinstein, he was dismissed from his company and expelled from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. By October 31, over 80 women had made allegations against Weinstein. The allegations sparked the #MeToo social media campaign and many similar sexual abuse allegations against and dismissals of powerful men around the world, now called the \"Weinstein effect\". On May 25, 2018, Weinstein was arrested in New York, charged with rape and other offenses, and released on bail.\n\nSection::::Early life.\n", "A group of Weinstein Company employees published a public statement in \"The New Yorker\" asking to be released from their signed nondisclosure agreements, which prohibit them from speaking out about their time at the company. In their statement, they wrote, \"We all knew that we were working for a man with an infamous temper. We did not know we were working for a serial sexual predator.\" They asked the company to lift their NDAs so they could \"speak openly, and get to the origins of what happened here, and how.\"\n", "Attorney Bert Fields of Greenberg Glusker Fields represented Bob and Harvey Weinstein through years of skirmishes between Miramax and its corporate owner Disney, rarely making public statements until he settled up the brothers’ departure in 2005, without litigation.\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n", "In July 2018, Weinstein was indicted on an additional charge of \"predatory sexual assault\" against a woman he allegedly forced into oral sex in 2006. The charge has a maximum sentence of life in prison. On October 11, 2018 a judge dismissed one of the sex assault charges. The trial date was set to September 9, 2019.\n\nSection::::Legal response.:Criminal investigations.:Other investigations.\n\nThe LAPD investigation concerns an allegation of rape by an unnamed actress.\n\nAs of February 2018, London police were investigating fifteen alleged sexual assaults by Weinstein, dating back to the 1990s. The investigation is dubbed \"Operation Kaguyak.\"\n", "In response to the report in \"The New Yorker\", a spokesperson for Weinstein stated:\n\nSubsequent reports and accusations of rape were likewise met with the response that \"any allegations of nonconsensual sex are unequivocally denied by Mr. Weinstein.\"\n", "Section::::Cases.\n", "Fields continues to represent Bob Weinstein, who was accused of sexual harassment on October 17, 2017 by \"The Mist\" film producer Amanda Segel, who worked for Weinstein's Dimension Films. Fields has denied the accusations, stating that \"It is absolutely not true\" and \"What she is claiming is bogus\" and that \"There was nothing that came anywhere near sexual harassment\". He further stated that \"That's not Bob Weinstein. It's Harvey Weinstein, but it sure as hell isn't Bob Weinstein. I've known him for many years. It's all because of what Harvey's done\".\"\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "In May 2013, Calgary Police investigated after footage from the film was found in a landfill by a worker, who mistook it for evidence of an actual murder. It was later noticed that Aykroyd was in the frame, and the police contacted his agent who, after some searching, stated that it was a section from this movie. TMZ reported that after the incident Aykroyd said, \"The movie should have been left in the landfill where it belongs.\"\n", "In July 2018, after many allegations and criminal charges of sexual misconduct, Greek journalist Taki Theodoracopulos reported in \"The Spectator\" that his friend Weinstein told him in an interview, \"Yes, I did offer them [girls] acting jobs in exchange for sex, but so did and still does everyone.\" Weinstein's lawyer later said he had been present, and Weinstein did not make that statement. Theodoracopulos stated he \"may have misrepresented\" Weinstein.\n\nSection::::2017 reports.\n", "Section::::Recent Work.\n", "Another example cited by Biskind was Phillip Noyce's \"The Quiet American\" (2002), whose release Weinstein delayed following the September 11 attacks owing to audience reaction in test screenings to the film's critical tone toward past U.S. foreign policy. After being told the film would go straight to video, Noyce planned to screen the film in Toronto International Film Festival in order to mobilize critics to pressure Miramax to release it theatrically. Weinstein decided to screen the film at the festival only after he was lobbied by star Michael Caine, who threatened to boycott publicity for another film he had made for Miramax. \"The Quiet American\" received mostly positive reviews at the festival, and Miramax eventually released the film theatrically, but it was alleged that Miramax did not make a major effort to promote the film for Academy Award consideration, though Caine was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor.\n", "Section::::Legal action.\n\nSection::::Legal action.:Custody proceedings, statements.\n", "Another change at the Archives that Weinstein affected, albeit indirectly, was the creation of an anti-harassment policy by Ferriero in 2010, partially in response to complaints about Weinstein's conduct at the Archives. The policy was further codified and strengthened in 2013.\n\nSection::::Legacy.:Sexual assault allegations.\n", "Section::::Career.:\"Mission Hill\" and other work.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13445	How does your eye react to small things that you can't see and close on its own.	Your brain reacts to a threat it "sees" before it processes what it has seen. That combined with your body naturally also getting on high alert in this situation help it to respond quicker than what we can physically see. Theres always a slight delay between what is happen and what our brain processes because the nerve impulses have a finite speed; it is very fast, but still not instantaneous. So when faced with a threat, the body first sends a single to make sure the eyes closed, which (at this moment) is more important than knowing what exactly was headed our way.	[ "Section::::Basic biology.:Defense mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Immune responses of the Cornea.\n\n\"Innate immune responses\" defend against pathogens and toxin in a non-discriminatory manner. They provide an inherent barrier against corneal infection while also serving as a primary mode of defense that is present from birth. For instance, the orbit and the eyelid can guard against both traumatic events and exterior debris that may contain microorganisms. Other components of the ocular innate immune system include tears, epithelial cells, keratocytes, corneal nerves, the complement system, and interferons.\n", "\"Acquired immune responses\" are much more pathogen-specific than their innate immune counterparts. These pathways are cell-mediated and are understood to be controlled in part by Langerhans cells in the cornea. These Langerhans cells are antigen-presenting cells, which pick up pieces of invading pathogens and use them to elicit an immune response. Cell-mediated immune responses are much slower acting but more efficient, but can cause damage to surrounding tissue, resulting in damage to the vision.\n\nSection::::Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.\n", "The six muscles around the eye (extraocular muscles) are innervated by three different cranial nerves: Abducens (6th nerve), Trochlear (4th nerve), and Oculomotor (3rd nerve). After nerve trauma around the eye, a combination of any two of these three cranial nerves have been shown to be involved with extra-ocular synkinesis. Moreover, while the abducens and the trochlear nerve each innervate one specific muscle, the oculomotor nerve has many functions including eyelid retraction and pupil constriction. Thus, during synkinesis, one of these functions may be involved. Examples include: \n", "The reflex is mediated by:\n\nBULLET::::- the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic branch (V) of the 5th cranial nerve (trigeminal nerve) sensing the stimulus on the cornea only (afferent fiber).\n\nBULLET::::- the temporal and zygomatic branches of the 7th cranial nerve (facial nerve) initiating the motor response (efferent fiber).\n\nBULLET::::- the center (nucleus) is located in the pons of the brainstem.\n\nUse of contact lenses may diminish or abolish the testing of this reflex.\n", "Section::::Other signals from the retina.\n\nThe SCN is one of many nuclei that receive nerve signals directly from the retina.\n\nSome of the others are the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), the superior colliculus, the basal optic system, and the pretectum:\n\nBULLET::::- The \"LGN\" passes information about color, contrast, shape, and movement on to the visual cortex and itself signals to the SCN.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"superior colliculus\" controls the movement and orientation of the eye.\n\nBULLET::::- The basal optic system also controls eye movements.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"pretectum\" controls the size of the pupil.\n\nSection::::Gene expression.\n", "In the late 1950s, Jerome Lettvin and his colleagues began to expand the feature detection hypothesis and clarify the relationship between single neurons and sensory perception. In their paper \"What the Frog's Eye Tells the Frog's Brain\", Lettvin et al. (1959) looked beyond the mechanisms for signal-noise discrimination in the frog's retina and were able to identify four classes of ganglion cells in the frog retina: \"sustained contrast detectors\", \"net convexity detectors\" (or \"bug detectors\"), \"moving edge detectors\", and \"net dimming detectors.\" \n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nAlthough corneal abrasions may be seen with ophthalmoscopes, slit lamp microscopes provide higher magnification which allow for a more thorough evaluation. To aid in viewing, a fluorescein stain that fills in the corneal defect and glows with a cobalt blue-light is generally instilled first.\n\nA careful search should be made for any foreign body, in particular looking under the eyelids. Injury following use of hammers or power-tools should always raise the possibility of a penetrating foreign body into the eye, for which urgent ophthalmology opinion should be sought.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Prevention.\n", "The optical reflex, on the other hand, is slower and is mediated by the visual cortex, which resides in the occipital lobe of the brain. The reflex is absent in infants under nine months.\n\nThe examination of the corneal reflex is a part of some neurological exams, particularly when evaluating coma. Damage to the ophthalmic branch (V) of the 5th cranial nerve results in absent corneal reflex when the affected eye is stimulated. Stimulation of one cornea normally has a consensual response, with both eyelids normally closing.\n\nSection::::Rates.\n", "Barlow's idea that certain cells in the retina could act as \"feature detectors\" was influenced by E.D. Adrian and Nikolaas Tinbergen. E.D. Adrian, Barlow's advisor, was the discoverer of the frequency code—the observation that sensory nerves convey signal intensity though the frequency of their firing. On the other hand, during Barlow's career, Nikolaas Tinbergen was introducing the concept of the innate release mechanism (IRM) and sign stimulus. IRMs are hard wired mechanisms that give an animal the innate ability to recognize complex stimuli. The sign stimulus is a simple, reduced stimulus including only the necessary features of the stimulus capable of evoking a behavioral response. Tinbergen's examination of the pecking behavior in herring gull chicks illustrated that the pecking response could be evoked by any bill-shaped long rod with a red spot near the end. In his own paper, Barlow later compared a sign stimulus to a password which was either accepted or rejected by a feature detector. Accepted passwords would contain the features necessary to trigger specific behavioral responses in an animal.\n", "The neural pathway of the menace reflex comprises the optic (II) and facial (VII) nerves. It is mediated by tectobulbar fibres in the rostral colliculi of the midbrain passing from the optic tract to accessory nuclei, and thence to the spinal cord and lower motor neurones that innervate the head, neck, and body muscles affected by the reflex. The facial nerve is mediated through a corticotectopontocerebellar pathway.\n", "The cornea has unmyelinated nerve endings sensitive to touch, temperature and chemicals; a touch of the cornea causes an involuntary reflex to close the eyelid. Because transparency is of prime importance, the healthy cornea does not have or need blood vessels within it. Instead, oxygen dissolves in tears and then diffuses throughout the cornea to keep it healthy. Similarly, nutrients are transported via diffusion from the tear fluid through the outside surface and the aqueous humour through the inside surface. Nutrients also come via neurotrophins supplied by the nerves of the cornea. In humans, the cornea has a diameter of about 11.5 mm and a thickness of 0.5–0.6 mm in the center and 0.6–0.8 mm at the periphery. Transparency, avascularity, the presence of immature resident immune cells, and immunologic privilege makes the cornea a very special tissue.\n", "Section::::Lacrimal immune response.\n", "BULLET::::- Zone III: this zone contains the vitreous cavity, retina, and optic nerve; injuries commonly observed in this region are vitreous hemorrhage, traumatic macular holes, retinal detachment, and optic nerve injury. Injury to the optic nerve requires neuro-ophthalmic examination, and may require neurosurgical intervention in the military hospital setting depending on the severity of the injury.\n\nSection::::Assessment and treatment in the military setting.:Open Globe Injuries.\n", "Section::::Function.:Accommodation reflex.\n\nPart of the pretectum, particularly the NOT and NPP, are implicated in the accommodation reflex by which the eye maintains focus. Proprioceptive information from the retina reaches the pretectum via the occulomotor nerve and the trigeminal nerve. From that point the mechanism by which the eye maintains focus through muscular contractions of the retina is similar to that of the pupillary light reflex.\n\nSection::::Function.:Antinociception.\n", "BULLET::::- Zone I: the conjunctiva and corneal surface; the most common injuries seen in this zone are foreign debris retention by the conjunctiva or corneal epithelium/stroma, as well as corneal abrasions. The Seidel test may be used to evaluate the status of the anterior chamber, thereby determining the presence of corneal perforation and pathological anterior chamber leakage.\n", "Peripheral injuries trigger complex changes in the central nociceptive system which can lead to central sensitization that enhances the sensitivity and responsiveness of the brain regions involved in sensory processing. In some cases, these physiological responses progress to neuropathic centralized pain.\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n", "In the visual system, retinal, technically called \"retinene\" or \"retinaldehyde\", is a light-sensitive molecule found in the rods and cones of the retina. Retinal is the fundamental structure involved in the transduction of light into visual signals, i.e. nerve impulses in the ocular system of the central nervous system. In the presence of light, the retinal molecule changes configuration and as a result a nerve impulse is generated.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Optic nerve.\n", "BULLET::::- On attempted abduction of an affected eye, the eye adducts and the eyelid retracts.\n\nBULLET::::- This is an interaction between the abducens nerve and a branch of the oculomotor nerve. Voluntary activation of the abducens nerve (eye abduction) causes involuntary activation of the oculomotor nerve (eye adduction and eyelid elevation).\n\nBULLET::::- On attempted abduction, the eye’s unreactive pupil constricts\n\nBULLET::::- Another interaction, yet different, is between eye abduction (abducens nerve) and pupil constriction (the oculomotor nerve).\n\nBULLET::::- On attempted adduction with eye depression, the eyelid retracts.\n", "Section::::Dark adaptation.:Inhibition.\n\nInhibition by neurons also affects activation in synapses. Together with the bleaching of a rod or cone pigment, merging of signals on ganglion cells are inhibited, reducing convergence. Alpha adaptation, \"i.e.\", rapid sensitivity fluctuations, is powered by nerve control. The merging of signals by virtue of the diffuse ganglion cells, as well as horizontal and amacrine cells, allow a cumulative effect. Thus that area of stimulation is inversely proportional to intensity of light, a strong stimulus of 100 rods equivalent to a weak stimulus of 1,000 rods.\n", "Information for pre-attentive processing is detected through the five senses. In the visual system, the receptive fields at the back of the eye (retina) transfer the image via axons to the thalamus, specifically the lateral geniculate nuclei. The image then travels to the primary visual cortex and continues on to be processed by the visual association cortex. At each stage, the image is processed with increasing complexity. Pre-attentive processing starts with the retinal image; this image is magnified as it moves from retina to the cortex of the brain. Shades of light and dark are processed in the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus. Simple and complex cells in the brain process boundary and surface information by deciphering the image's contrast, orientation, and edges. When the image hits the fovea, it is highly magnified, facilitating object recognition. The images in the periphery are less clear but help to create a complete image used for scene perception.\n", "There are particular factors which affect where eye movements fixate upon, these include bottom-up factors inherent to the stimulus, and top-down factors inherent to the viewer. Even an initial glimpse of a scene has been found to generate an abstract representation of the image that can be stored in memory for use in subsequent eye movements (Castelhano & Henderson, 2007).\n", "As part of the subcortical visual system, neurons within the pretectal nuclei respond to varying intensities of illuminance and are primarily involved in mediating non-conscious behavioral responses to acute changes in light. In general, these responses involve the initiation of optokinetic reflexes, although the pretectum can also regulate nociception and REM sleep.\n\nSection::::Function.:Pupillary light reflex.\n", "BULLET::::- After physical trauma to the skull, the muscle involved in eye abduction can become reinnervated by the branch of the trigeminal nerve involved in innervating the muscles of mastication(chewing muscles). Thus, involuntary abduction of an involved eye will occur upon eating or chewing.\n\nBULLET::::- Trigeminal-Facial Synkinesis\n\nBULLET::::- After surgical trauma, the muscles of mastication can become reinnervated by the facial nerve as opposed to the trigeminal nerve. This causes weakness in voluntary chewing; also, facial movements such as blinking cause the muscles to contract.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Bimanual Synkinesis.\n", "Apoptosis of keratocytes, either in quiescent or active state, is a process that attracts special attention. In a healthy cornea the programmed cell death is a rare occasion, but immediately after an injury to the uppermost layer keratocytes directly under the injury site commit apoptosis. One hypothesis explains such rapid reaction by the need to stem the possible infection from spreading into the cornea, because due to the limitations of ocular immune system the immune cells take up to several hours to arrive at the site of injury. In a normal course of events, the lack of keratocytes is gradually replenished by the mitosis of the adjacent cells. Apoptosis is observed after eye operations, including keratotomy and laser surgery, and may play a role in the development of post-surgery complications.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "An eye closes on its own in reaction to small things." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The brain reacts to the small things and tells the eye to close." ]
2018-02836	Are the ski slopes used for the Olympic downhill event existing slopes that are otherwise open to the public during the season and just modified for the Games, or are they purpose-built and repurposed afterwards?	Depends. Answer are both. Modify existing facilities, create new run and resort or use existing runs. Read the history of past Olympics. Removed	[ "A German provider that guarantees year round skiing is Mr. Snow. The company does not only produce dry slopes for downhill skiing, snowboarding and cross country skiing but also provides tubing tracks and rental opportunities for events. The material of Mr. Snow is claimed to have very good sliding capacities, is predictable in all climates and does not harm the ski or sliding surface. Mr. Snow works without the use of silicone which is not necessary to achieve good sliding characteristics. The snow carpet evidently has no negative environmental impact. So the mats can remain on the surface 365 days a year.\n", "In the US, plans are ongoing to reopen Copper Peak, the only ski flying hill built outside of Europe. It would remain the smallest of the active hills, but the only one equipped for summer events and out-of-competition training.\n\nSection::::Differences to ski jumping.:Events.\n", "But it is also possible to remove them very quickly if it is required. Temporary using can be realized with the 20 sqm modules.\n", "There have been a number of proposed ski flying hills, most of which never reached the construction stage. Two were announced in 2007 in Finland, in Kemijärvi and Ylitornio, but neither project was realized. In Norway, prior to the renovation of Vikersund, there were serious talks about constructing a new ski flying hill at Rødkleiva in Oslo. The most recent proposal has come from China, together with German architects Graft, who are in the development stages of a ski jumping and flying hill complex at the Wangtiane ski resort in the Changbai Mountains.\n", "Section::::Alpine ski halls.\n\nAustralia\n\nBULLET::::- Mt Thebarton Snow and Ice, Adelaide. Operated 1987 - 2005. Built in a state without any ski resorts, it was probably the world’s first indoor ski slope on artificial snow.\n\nBULLET::::- Swiss Pavillion at World Expo 88, Brisbane. Two lifts operated for six months. Included a ski slope on artificial snow serviced by a handle tow and a double chairlift operating on a rectangular route.\n\nBelgium \n\nBULLET::::- Snow Valley, Peer http://www.snowvalley.be\n\nBULLET::::- Ice Mountain, Comines\n\nChina\n", "Between 2015 and 2017, upgrades from K185 to K200 were also completed in Kulm, Planica, and Oberstdorf. In 2018, the hill sizes on all active flying hills were upgraded to a maximum of 240 m, and are now fully equipped for jumps exceeding that distance (previous hill records were broken at each opening event), as well as having improved facilities for athletes and spectators. Harrachov remains the only hill, at K185, to have not been upgraded in any major way since the 1990s. Although the new hills are much larger than ever before, they generally feature longer and less steeply angled slopes, designed purely for the V-style and with the knowledge of 80 years' worth of world record progression.\n", "Dry ski slope\n\nA dry ski slope or artificial ski slope is a ski slope that mimics the attributes of snow using materials that are stable at room temperature, to enable people to ski, snowboard or snow tube in places where natural, snow-covered slopes are inconvenient or unavailable.\n", "List of Olympic venues in ski jumping\n\nFor the Winter Olympics, there are 26 venues that have been or will be used for ski jumping. From 1924 to 1956, the construction point or K-point of the ski jumping hill was not fixed by the International Ski Federation. For 1924, it was ; 1928: ; 1932: ; 1936: ; 1948: ; 1952: ; and 1956: \n", "The Olympic winter turned out to be one with little snow. Voss was a reserve venue, but they needed advance notice to prepare their facilities. The Norefjell course had problems with stones and branches, which had to be removed by hand, and additional snow was brought in from around the course. During the Olympics, grooming, ticket sales and concession sales were undertaken by Krødsherad IL and Ytre Krødsherad IF. The men's downhill course started at above mean sea level; the course was long and fell .\n", "Seeking to co-operate on hill design and event organisation, the venues at Kulm, Oberstdorf and Planica formed the KOP working group in 1962 (KOP being an abbreviation of Kulm/Oberstdorf/Planica). This group would go on to consult with the FIS in all aspects of ski flying, celebrating their 50th anniversary in 2012. In 1953, Kulm hosted the first International Ski Flying Week, which would be the premier event in ski flying until 1972.\n\nSection::::History.:1950s–1960s.:Breaking the 150 metre barrier.\n", "BULLET::::- 1935 – The local slalom racing club, the \"Åre Slalomklubb\", is formed. Over the years, the club's members have included such names as Lars-Börje Eriksson (Olympic bronze medalist in super G, 1988), Patrik Järbyn (World Championships silver medalist in Super G, 1996,) and Richard Richardsson (Olympic silver medalist in snowboard parallel giant slalom, 2002).\n\nBULLET::::- 1940 – The first drag lift is opened in Åre, located near the Olympia area and Lundsgården. The tiny yellow lift cabin is still in place.\n", "Ever since its inception in 1936, ski flying has centred around Slovenia, and more recently Norway. The very first recorded jumps of 100 and 200 m, together with a total of 41 world records, have been set on two different hills in the Alpine valley of Planica: \"Bloudkova velikanka\", which has since been re-established as a ski jumping large hill, and its successor \"Letalnica bratov Gorišek\", dubbed the \"monster hill\". Since 1997, with very few exceptions, the Ski Jumping World Cup has traditionally held its season finale in Planica. This takes place usually on \"Letalnica\", but is occasionally moved to \"Bloudkova\" (most recently in 2014, during renovation at \"Letalnica\").\n", "BULLET::::- Ski Denton/Denton Hill - in Coudersport, Pennsylvania \"(slightly outside the general definition of ski country, no longer in operation)\"\n\nBULLET::::- New York\n\nBULLET::::- Big Basin Ski Area - in Red House, New York. Operated from 1951 until New York's ongoing eminent domain campaign forced most of Red House's private property to be vacated in 1972.\n\nBULLET::::- Bluemont Ski Area - Yorkshire, New York - closed in 1982\n", "BULLET::::- Snowdome at Tamworth, near Birmingham with a slope and two smaller beginner areas long.\n\nBULLET::::- Snow Centre at Hemel Hempstead\n\nUnited States\n\nBULLET::::- SnowLand /SkiTexas, Austin, Texas (In progress)\n\nBULLET::::- Big Snow America, East Rutherford, New Jersey (In progress)\n\nThe first indoor ski slope, \"Schneepalast\" (German for snow palace) operated from 26 November 1927 to May 1928 in Vienna in an abandoned railway station, the Nordwestbahnhof. The snow was made of soda. The world's first commercial indoor ski slope operated from 1987 to 2005 at Mount Thebarton, in Adelaide, South Australia.\n", "No pre-Olympic World Cup alpine events were run at Whistler Mountain, Canada, during the 2009 season. In late February 2008, a women's downhill and super-combined were run on \"Franz's Run\", the women's Olympic course. The most recent men's World Cup events on the \"Dave Murray Downhill\" course were held in late February 1995. The World Cup races in North America were switched to the early part of the season in the fall of 1995, and the men's speed events at Whistler were canceled three consecutive years (December 1996–98) due to weather issues, which prompted the switch to Lake Louise in Alberta in December 1999.\n", "From 1962 until 1990, a pair of rope tows (upper and lower) served 900 vertical feet total and were generally operated by volunteers. From 1990 to 2014 the Birdsall family leased the resort, installing a double chairlift originally installed at the Silver Star Mountain Resort in British Columbia, to replace the ropes, and ran the hill as a family business. In the fall of 2017, a new 360' long Sun Kid Wunder Carpet was installed; it opened in January 2018.\n", "Liberty Mountain Snowflex Centre in Lynchburg, Virginia, was the first Snowflex facility in the United States to open to the public. The year round outdoor ski and snowboard slope includes both a beginner slope and an intermediate slope, as well as three big air kickers with a ninety foot long landing ramp, an 11' tall quarter pipe and wall ride. It also has multiple boxes and rail features for all levels of riders. Two carpet lifts take skiers to the top; a surface cable lift also tows skiers upward.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Artificial ski slopes\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The old inrun was demolished in 2010. Architects of the new and larger hill were Slovenians Janez Gorišek and his son Sebastjan. Janez, together with his brother Lado, is most famous for creating Letalnica Bratov Gorišek in Planica, previously the largest hill in the world at HS 215, before Vikersundbakken was reprofiled and enlarged in 2011. Janez is usually named as the 'father' of modern ski flying and is also known as an expert on ski flying hills.\n", "Ski Wentworth was the main venue for the 2011 Canada Winter games in terms of Alpine and free-style Skiing. As of Summer 2009 construction was underway to enlarge the half-pipe as well as to improve the snow making equipment and re-create the moguls trail. The upgrades also featured new trails.\n\nSection::::Other services.\n", "Many other full scale installations can be seen around the world, including France as mentioned previously, Turkey (where the worlds largest synthetic slope is currently installedin Ankara), South Africa, and the USA. Installations in the United States can be seen at the Liberty Mountain Snowflex Centre near Liberty University in Lynchburg, Virginia, the YMCA of the Rockies in Colorado and at Wolfe Mountain Snowflex slope in Branson, Missouri. \n", "Seven ski flying hills in total were constructed between 1934 and 1980, with subsequent renovations being made in the decades since. Six are currently in use, but only five of them as flying hills. The joint largest hills in the world are Vikersundbakken in Norway and \"Letalnica bratov Gorišek\" in Slovenia. The joint second largest are Kulm in Austria and \"Heini-Klopfer-Skiflugschanze\" in Germany. The smallest is Čerťák in the Czech Republic.\n\nSection::::Differences to ski jumping.:Hills.:Proposals.\n", "Section::::History.:2010s.\n\nSection::::History.:2010s.:Major hill upgrades begin, Vikersund re-emerges.\n\nIn the aftermath of the Planica event and following numerous near-flat ground landings, it became clear that ski flying had once again outgrown an older hill and needed enlarging in the years to come. In 2005, almost immediately after the conclusion of the World Cup season, talks were under way to upgrade the hill in Vikersund. This became a reality in mid-2010, when the FIS announced major rule changes at the 47th International Ski Congress in Antalya, Turkey, to allow for ski flying hills to be constructed to their largest sizes yet.\n", "Beginning with Fijas's world record in 1987, Planica enjoyed a very long period of exclusivity. Much like in the 1930s and 1940s, no other hills would come close to reclaiming the accolade for 24 years, despite nearly all receiving K-point upgrades to 185 m. Only Ironwood remained unchanged at K145, staging its last event to date in 1994 with a hill record of shared between Werner Schuster and Mathias Wallner. Since then, the hill has served as a popular tourist attraction in which sightseers are able to access the top of the inrun via an elevator. In 2013, following almost two decades of disuse as a sporting venue, it was announced that the hill at Copper Peak would be renovated as the world's largest ski jumping hill, additionally capable of staging summer events.\n", "Big White opened the Telus Park in the 2004/2005 season. It features a standard sized half-pipe along with a skier/border cross course and beginner through to advanced rails and jumps. The park is separated into two sides; one has larger jumps, rails, and boxes, and the other has smaller features, the border cross, and a half-pipe. Big White is also exclusive to a snow-cross run identical to the one at the Olympics.\n\nSection::::Skiing terrain.:Nordic trails.\n", "BULLET::::- Pine Mountain Jump, Iron Mountain, Michigan (Continental Cup, World cup ) 133 \| 120\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Peak, Ironwood, Michigan (first ever ski flying hill in the western hemisphere, currently being updated) K 145\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Placid, New York (Continental Cup) 134 \| 120\n\nBULLET::::- Park City, Utah (World Cup) 134 \| 120\n\nBULLET::::- Steamboat Springs, Colorado (Continental Cup) 127 \| 114\n\nBULLET::::- Snowflake Ski Jump, Westby, Wisconsin (Four Hills SuperTour) 118 \| 106\n\nAbandoned\n\nBULLET::::- Papoose Peak Jumps, Squaw Valley, California (Site of 1960 Winter Olympics) 80 \| 60 \| 40\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04061	Why do the first few sips of a beer or alcoholic beverage make me feel more drunk than the entire rest of the drink does?	They don't. That's not how alcohol works. What you might experience is the satisfaction level of the first few sips being greater than the ones that follow. The simple fact is that the more alcohol you ingest, the more inebriated you come.	[ "Section::::Responsiveness to changes in concentration.\n", "Section::::Sensory modes.:Smell.\n", "Section::::Neural evidence.\n", "Several other studies have shown that students who were told they were consuming alcoholic beverages (which in fact were non-alcoholic) perceived themselves as being \"drunk\", exhibited fewer physiological symptoms of social stress, and drove a simulated car similarly to other subjects who had actually consumed alcohol. The result is somewhat similar to the placebo effect.\n", "Section::::Models of attention.:Broadbent.\n", "Section::::Models of attention.:Treisman.\n", "Section::::Sensory modes.:Touch.\n", "Section::::Results.:Alcohol and caffeine.\n", "Section::::Modifiers.:Self-reference effect.\n", "Section::::Models of attention.:Deutsch & Deutsch.\n", "Section::::Modifiers.\n\nFamiliarity, transfer-appropriate processing, the self-reference effect, and the explicit nature of a stimulus modify the levels-of-processing effect by manipulating mental processing depth factors.\n\nSection::::Modifiers.:Familiarity.\n", "A study published in the \"Neuropsychopharmacology\" journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the flavour of beer alone could provoke dopamine activity in the brain of the male participants, who wanted to drink more as a result. The 49 men in the study were subject to positron emission tomography scans, while a computer-controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer, water and a sports drink onto their tongues. Compared with the taste of the sports drink, the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink. Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a dopamine release, even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated.\n", "Section::::Altered states of consciousness.\n", "Alcohol consumption and belief of consumption influenced emotion detection in ten second clips. Participants who thought they had consumed an alcoholic beverage rated one facial expression (approximately 3% of the facial expressions they saw) more in each clip as happy compared to the control group. Thus, impression formation may be affected by even the perception of alcohol consumption.\n\nSection::::Neuroscience.:Cross-cultural differences.\n", "Certain physiological states can also influence an individual’s FOK judgments. Altitude, for instance, has been shown to reduce FOK judgments, despite having no effect on recall. In contrast, alcohol intoxication results in reduced recall while having no effect on FOK judgments.\n\nSection::::Phenomena.:Knowing that you do not know.\n", "Section::::Visual correlates.\n", "The first pass effect (also known as first-pass metabolism or presystemic metabolism) is a phenomenon of drug metabolism whereby the concentration of a drug is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation. It is the fraction of drug lost during the process of absorption which is generally related to the liver and gut wall. Notable drugs that experience a significant first-pass effect are imipramine, morphine, propranolol, buprenorphine, diazepam, midazolam, pethidine, cannabis, cimetidine, lidocaine, and nitroglycerin. In contrast some drugs are enhanced in potency: for example, the effect of the most commonly considered active ingredient in cannabis, THC, is enhanced by transformation of a significant portion into 11-hydroxy-THC that more readily crosses the blood brain barrier and thus achieves greater potency than the original THC. [Cannabis edible]\n", "Section::::Effect in animals.\n", "Section::::Primary perception.:Reactions by the scientific community.\n", "Some literature has attributed the \"Grand Rapids Effect\" to erroneous data or asserted (without support) that it was possibly due to drivers exerting extra caution cautious at low BAC levels or to \"experience\" in drinking. Other explanations are that this effect is at least in part the blocking effect of ethanol excitotoxicity and the effect of alcohol in essential tremor and other movement disorders, but this remains speculative.\n\nSection::::Effects of alcohol on cognitive processes.:Perceived recovery rate.\n", "Some studies have shown greater effects of subliminal messaging with as high as 80% of participants showing a preference for a particular rum when subliminally primed by the name placed in an ad backward.\n", "Different sensory modes, by their nature, involve different depths of processing, generally producing higher recall value in certain senses than others. However, there is significant room for the modifiers mentioned earlier to affect levels-of-processing to be activated within each sensory mode.\n\nSection::::Sensory modes.:Vision.\n", "BULLET::::- Herbert Prior - In the Bar\n\nBULLET::::- Mack Sennett - In the Play / In the Orchestra / In the Bar\n\nBULLET::::- Harry Solter - In the Play\n\nBULLET::::- Herbert Yost - In the Play\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "BULLET::::2. Merging of action and awareness\n\nBULLET::::3. A loss of reflective self-consciousness\n\nBULLET::::4. A sense of personal control or agency over the situation or activity\n\nBULLET::::5. A distortion of temporal experience, one's subjective experience of time is altered\n\nBULLET::::6. Experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding, also referred to as autotelic experience\n\nThose aspects can appear independently of each other, but only in combination do they constitute a so-called \"flow experience\". Additionally, psychology writer Kendra Cherry has mentioned three other components that Csíkszentmihályi lists as being a part of the flow experience: \n\nBULLET::::1. \"Immediate feedback\"\n", "Section::::Neurological basis (and binaural processing).\n\nAuditory attention in regards to the cocktail party effect primarily occurs in the left hemisphere of the superior temporal gyrus (where the primary auditory cortex is); a fronto-parietal network involving the inferior frontal gyrus, superior parietal sulcus, and intraparietal sulcus also accounts for the acts of attention-shifting, speech processing, and attention control. Both the target stream (the more important information being attended to) and competing/interfering streams are processed in the same pathway within the left hemisphere, but fMRI scans shows that target streams are treated with more attention than competing streams. \n" ]	[ "You feel more drunk after a few sips of beer than when you drink the rest.", "The first few sips of alcohol cause more intoxication than the remainder of the drink." ]	[ "The more alcohol you ingest, the more inebriated you become.", "The more alcohol you drink, the more intoxicated you will be, therefore it is not possible to be more intoxicated from your beginning drinks instead of your last. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You feel more drunk after a few sips of beer than when you drink the rest.", "The first few sips of alcohol cause more intoxication than the remainder of the drink." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The more alcohol you ingest, the more inebriated you become.", "The more alcohol you drink, the more intoxicated you will be, therefore it is not possible to be more intoxicated from your beginning drinks instead of your last. " ]
2018-03337	Why don’t we ever hear about common medical conditions (like asthma or diabetes) when reading about history? Are these modem maladies or did they just have different names?	The first recorded instance of asthma is in China in 2600 BC. The first recorded instance of diabetes is in Egypt in 1500 BC. People did die from both, but /u/taylorschneider is correct that more likely , you would from something else sooner. Or, you could die from both as an infant, and that would just be chalked up to the infancy mortality rate of the times.	[ "A notable and well-documented case in the 19th century was that of young Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919). At that time there was no effective treatment. Roosevelt's youth was in large part shaped by his poor health partly related to his asthma. He experienced recurring nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, terrifying the boy and his parents.\n", "Asthma was recognized in ancient Egypt and was treated by drinking an incense mixture known as kyphi. It was officially named as a specific respiratory problem by Hippocrates circa 450 BC, with the Greek word for \"panting\" forming the basis of our modern name. In 200 BC it was believed to be at least partly related to the emotions. In the 12th century the Jewish physician-philosopher Maimonides wrote a treatise on asthma in Arabic, based partly on Arabic sources, in which he discussed the symptoms, proposed various dietary and other means of treatment, and emphasized the importance of climate and clean air.\n", "Many popular ancient disease classification systems largely relied upon humorism, which carried over into medieval times. Early attempts to develop more comprehensive approaches to the classification of diseases were made by Jean Fernel in the 16th century. Early modern nosological efforts grouped diseases by their symptoms, whereas modern systems focus on grouping diseases by the anatomy and cause involved. \n\nIn the 17th century, the English physician Thomas Sydenham was the first to propose a syndrome-based classification of diseases. For Sydenham a disease and a syndrome were equivalent concepts.\n", "Ancient medical treatises had a variety of different ways of classifying and grouping illnesses. Chinese texts like the \"Huangdi Neijing\" categorized diseases by which of the atmospheric influences was believed to be responsible for them. Many ancient Greek, Mesopotamian, Roman, and Egyptian authors categorized diseases by the body parts they affected, while others divided diseases into acute or chronic illnesses. Mental disorders were classified into categories like mania and paranoia by Hippocrates, and this system was utilized by later authors like Najib ad-Din Samarqandi.\n", "The Graves' disease was named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves, who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in 1835. The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840, while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in 1802 and 1810 respectively, and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry (a friend of Edward Jenner) in the late 18th century. Thomas Addison was first to describe Addison's disease in 1849.\n", "Aretaeus offered clinical descriptions of a number of diseases among which he gave classic accounts of asthma, epilepsy, pneumonia, tetanus, uterus cancer and different kinds of insanity. He differentiated nervous diseases and mental disorders and described hysteria, headaches, mania and melancholia. He wrote the first known description of celiac disease, naming it disease of the abdomen, \"koliakos\".\n", "Pathophysiology refers to the physiological processes associated with a disease or injury. In the history of medicine, diseases became better understood as human anatomy became better understood. The development of autopsy in the 15th and 16th centuries was key to this learning. As anatomists detailed the complex structures of the human body, they began to pay more attention to the pathological structures associated with diseases, their causes and effects, and mechanisms of progress. By the 18th century, many such pathologic observations were being published in textbooks and journals. This work lay important foundations for advances in medical treatment and intervention.\n", "His study of the Florentine and Pistoiese Catasto of 1427 is one of the first statistical surveys to use computers to analyze large amounts of data. The resulting book examines statistical patterns in tax-collecting surveys to find indications of social trends.\n\nThe University of San Francisco history department named their annual award for the best student-written history paper the David Herlihy Prize, and Brown University has established a David Herlihy University Professorship.\n\nSection::::Quotes.\n\n“It is not at all certain that the diseases we observe today are the same that troubled our ancestors.”\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "Section::::Early modern.:Michael Servetus.\n\nAccording to Spanish scholar González Echeverría in several communications in the ISHM, the John M. Riddle \"Anonymous B\" (De Materia Medica of 1543) would be Michael Servetus, and that the \"Anonymous D\" (De Materia Medica of 1554 of Mattioli plus non-signed commentaries) is two commentarians, Servetus and Mattioi, being the last one hired for editing the \"\"Lyons printers' Tribute to Michel de Villeneuve\"\" edition.\n", "Early understanding of the origins of diseases constitutes the earliest application of the scientific method to the field of medicine, a development which occurred in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age and in Western Europe during the Italian Renaissance.\n", "BULLET::::- the cycles and trends of infection were very different between the diseases – humans did not develop resistance to the modern disease, but resistance to the Black Death rose sharply, so that eventually it became mainly a childhood disease\n", "The Persian physician, Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037), in \"The Canon of Medicine\" (1025), pioneered the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases.\n\nSection::::Middle Ages.\n", "In 1860, during the international statistical congress held in London, Florence Nightingale made a proposal that was to result in the development of the first model of systematic collection of hospital data. In 1893, a French physician, Jacques Bertillon, introduced the \"Bertillon Classification of Causes of Death\" at a congress of the International Statistical Institute in Chicago.\n", "In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or \"humors\". Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by the dominant humor in a particular person. Derived from the Ancient Greek \"melas\", \"black\", and \"kholé\", \"bile\", melancholia was described as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms by Hippocrates in his \"Aphorisms\", where he characterized all \"fears and despondencies, if they last a long time\" as being symptomatic of the ailment.\n", "Race is also implicated in chronic illness. Racial minorities are 1.5-2 times more likely to have most chronic diseases than white individuals. Non Hispanic blacks are 40% more likely to have high blood pressure that non Hispanic whites, diagnosed diabetes is 77% higher among non Hispanic blacks, and American Indians and Alaska Natives are 60% more likely to be obese than non-Hispanic whites. Some of this prevalence has been suggested to be in part from environmental racism. Flint Michigan for example had high levels of lead poisoning in their drinkable water after waste was dumped into low value housing areas. There are also higher rates of asthma in children who live in lower income areas due to an abundance of pollutants being released on a much larger scale in these areas.\n", "The underlying principle of medieval medicine was the theory of humours. This was derived from the ancient medical works, and dominated all western medicine until the 19th century. The theory stated that within every individual there were four humours, or principal fluids - black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood, these were produced by various organs in the body, and they had to be in balance for a person to remain healthy. Too much phlegm in the body, for example, caused lung problems; and the body tried to cough up the phlegm to restore a balance. The balance of humours in humans could be achieved by diet, medicines, and by blood-letting, using leeches. The four humours were also associated with the four seasons, black bile-autumn, yellow bile-summer, phlegm-winter and blood-spring.\n", "From the records of St. Francis' physical ailments and symptoms, Dr. Edward Frederick Hartung concluded in 1935 that he knew what health problems plagued St. Francis. Hartung believed that he had an eye ailment known as trachoma and quartan malaria.\n", "In examining the statistics of chronic disease among the living elderly, it is also important to make note of the statistics pertaining to fatalities as a result of chronic disease. Heart disease is the leading cause of death from chronic disease for adults older than 65, followed by cancer, stroke, diabetes, chronic lower respiratory diseases, influenza and pneumonia, and, finally, Alzheimer’s disease. Though the rates of chronic disease differ by race for those living with chronic illness, the statistics for leading causes of death among elderly are nearly identical across racial/ethnic groups.\n", "Some accounts, like that of Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of the plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems and is identified with pneumonic plague.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Early modern.:Pietro Andrea Mattioli.\n", "The astrological signs of the zodiac were also thought to be associated with certain humours \n\n. Even now, some still use words \"choleric\", \"sanguine\", \"phlegmatic\" and \"melancholic\" to describe personalities.\n\nSection::::Theories of medicine.:Herbalism and botany.\n", "Chronic granulomatous disease affects all people of all races, however, there is limited information on prevalence outside of the United States. One survey in Sweden reported an incidence of 1 in 220,000 people, while a larger review of studies in Europe suggested a lower rate: 1 in 250,000 people.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The metaphor was elaborated in the Renaissance, and subsequently, as medical knowledge based on Galen was challenged by thinkers such as William Harvey. Analogies were drawn between supposed causes of disease and disorder and their equivalents in the political field, viewed as plagues or infections that might be remedied with purges and nostrums.\n\nSection::::Medieval origins.\n", "Chronic conditions are often associated with non-communicable diseases which are distinguished by their non-infectious causes. Some chronic conditions though, are caused by transmissible infections such as HIV/AIDS.\n\nIn the United States 25% of adults have at least two chronic conditions, Chronic diseases constitute a major cause of mortality, and the World Health Organization (WHO) attributes 38 million deaths a year to non-communicable diseases.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "During the 1930s to 1950s, asthma was known as one of the \"holy seven\" psychosomatic illnesses. Its cause was considered to be psychological, with treatment often based on psychoanalysis and other talking cures. As these psychoanalysts interpreted the asthmatic wheeze as the suppressed cry of the child for its mother, they considered the treatment of depression to be especially important for individuals with asthma.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "We don't ever hear about common medical conditions (like asthma or diabetes) when reading about history? " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are recorded instances in history of asthma and diabetes." ]
2018-06022	Why Netflix and Amazon aren't buying the rights to stream sports	Amazon is buying sports rights. Actually last NFL season, the package they bought for Thursday night football was bought at a hilariously bad rate of at least 2x-3x the next bidder. That’s horrifyingly bad. They got had. Netflix has explicitly said they are not going to buy sports rights and are not a sports service. They have their reasons but won’t say why, as they are notorious for secrecy. We can speculate. But that’s not for this sub.	[ "The \"Thursday Night Football\" contract, uniquely among the league's television packages, has a separate digital contract allowing games to be carried freely to all Internet devices since 2016. Twitter carried the 2016 season before being outbid in 2017 by Amazon, who has held the rights since. For the 2017 season it required an Amazon Prime subscription to access the streams; it began offering the streams freely through its gaming-centric streaming service Twitch.tv in 2018.\n", "Ratings for college football's national championship, NASCAR's Sprint Cup championship race, tennis majors, and golf's Open Championship have suffered from the siphoning to ESPN. NASCAR's new 2015-24 television contract with Comcast's NBCUniversal for NBC and their cable network NBC Sports Network during the second half of the season requires the broadcast of the championship race to be on NBC, where in previous years it only aired on ESPN. Likewise, golf's The Open Championship returned to network television in 2016, with weekend coverage on NBC and early round coverage on Golf Channel. Both the Premier League and The Open are unique in that network television coverage is available in the United States, while coverage in their home country (barring highlights) is limited to pay television.\n", "BULLET::::- Pro14: ESPN and ESPN+\n\nBULLET::::- Currie Cup: ESPN+\n\nBULLET::::- Mitre 10 Cup: ESPN+\n\nBULLET::::- Major League Rugby: ESPN+ and CBS Sports Network\n\nBULLET::::- National Rugby Championship: ESPN+\n\nBULLET::::- Anglo-Welsh Cup: FloSports\n\nBULLET::::- Test matches: ESPN+\n\nNBC Sports has rights to all World Rugby international events through 2023, including:\n\nBULLET::::- 2021 edition of the Women's Rugby World Cup\n\nBULLET::::- 2022 edition of the Rugby World Cup Sevens\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 and 2023 editions of Rugby World Cup\n\nBULLET::::- the annual World Rugby Under 20 Championship\n\nNBC Sports also has the rights to:\n\nBULLET::::- Six Nations Championship\n\nBULLET::::- English Premiership\n", "BULLET::::- NBC Sports and Tennis Channel have the contracts through 2024. Coverage is aired on NBC, NBCSN, Tennis Channel and DirecTV.\n", "BULLET::::- CBS began to carry games airing on their local affiliates through their paid streaming CBS All Access service (where available for an affiliate's live stream) beginning with Week 13 of the 2016 NFL season, which is unrestricted outside of non-Verizon mobile handsets, where they were blacked out due to Verizon's exclusivity. The AFC Championship continues to be offered without the paywall.\n\nBULLET::::- ESPN's rights fee also includes non-exclusive rights to the NFL Draft and special rights in regard to carrying highlights on its sportscasts.\n", "In recent years, a growing number of major domestic and international sporting events previously aired by free-to-air channels have migrated to pay-TV outlets. Since 2007, excluding the World Series, Major League Baseball's postseason playoffs have largely moved to cable, while ESPN airs the majority of bowl games of college football (including the College Football Playoff and National Championship, and those owned and operated by its subsidiary ESPN Events). Three of tennis' Grand Slams are aired exclusively by ESPN (the French Open is held by Tennis Channel and NBC), and the majority of regional broadcasts in major leagues are now shown primarily by regional sports networks (with relatively few or no games broadcast on local free-to-air TV unless it is either nationally televised or only aired over-the-air due to RSN rights conflicts).\n", "On November 23, 2018, the service streamed , a match play golf event between Tiger Woods and Phil Mickelson. Meant as a pay-per-view event, the PPV system struggled to keep up with demand, prompting B/R Live to stream the event for free instead, and all buyers being offered refunds.\n", "BULLET::::- Conference USA: CBS Sports Network, ESPN3, NFL Network, Stadium, Facebook Watch\n\nBULLET::::- Conference USA Football Championship Game: CBS Sports Network\n\nBULLET::::- Mountain West Conference: ESPN networks, CBS Sports Network\n\nBULLET::::- MWC Championship Game: ESPN\n\nBULLET::::- Notre Dame and Bayou Classic: NBC\n\nBULLET::::- Pac-12 Conference: ABC, ESPN networks, Fox Sports, Pac-12 Networks\n\nBULLET::::- Pac-12 Football Championship Game: Fox (in even years), ESPN/ABC (in odd years)\n\nBULLET::::- SEC: CBS, ESPN networks, SEC Network\n\nBULLET::::- Sun Belt Conference: ESPN networks\n\nBULLET::::- Mid-American Conference: ESPN networks\n\nBULLET::::- Ivy League: ESPNU, ESPN+\n\nPost-season\n", "There are arguments in favor of paying athletes. A few schools benefit from owning their own networks. The University of Texas owns The Longhorn Network and Brigham Young University owns BYUtv.\n", "BULLET::::- Professional Darts Corporation:\n\nBULLET::::- PDC World Darts Championship: BBC America\n\nBULLET::::- PDC World Cup of Darts: BBC America\n\nBULLET::::- Premier League Darts: BBC America\n\nBULLET::::- UK Open: DAZN USA\n\nBULLET::::- Professional Bowlers Association: ESPN\n\nBULLET::::- Kabaddi World Cup: ESPN3\n\nBULLET::::- Kabaddi Masters: ESPN3\n\nBULLET::::- Russian Figure Skating Championships: ESPN3\n\nBULLET::::- Mosconi Cup: ESPN3\n\nBULLET::::- Scripps National Spelling Bee: ESPN\n\nBULLET::::- America's Cup: NBCSN\n\nBULLET::::- World Series of Beach Volleyball: ESPN\n\nBULLET::::- FIVB Volleyball Men's Nations League and FIVB Volleyball Women's Nations League: CBSSN\n\nBULLET::::- Association of Volleyball Professionals: NBCSN\n\nBULLET::::- NCAA Beach Volleyball Championship: ESPNU ESPN2 ESPN\n", "On October 16, 2018, Basketball TV and NBA Premium TV returned to Sky Cable, Sky Direct, & Sky On Demand for the first time in 18 months; however it was later removed on October 28, 2018 for unknown reasons.\n\nThe carriage dispute officially ended on January 1, 2019 when all Solar channels: Basketball TV, NBA Premium TV, Solar Sports, and Jack TV were restored on Sky Cable (including Sky On Demand & Sky Direct).\n", "BULLET::::- Women's Cricket Super League:\n\nBULLET::::- Cricket All-Stars:\n\nBULLET::::- Australia national cricket team: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Bangladesh national cricket team: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- England national cricket team:\n\nBULLET::::- India national cricket team: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Ireland national cricket team: ESPN+\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand national cricket team: ESPN+\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan national cricket team: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa national cricket team: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Sri Lanka national cricket team: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- West Indies national cricket team: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Zimbabwe national cricket team: Willow\n\nSection::::Curling.\n\nMore than 300 hours of live curling, broadcast by TSN in Canada, will be live-streamed on ESPN3, including: \n", "Section::::Broadcast rights issues.:Loss of sports rights.\n", "On July 17, 2015, ESPN announced that ABC would add a series of eight of Saturday night games to its slate of broadcasts in the 2015–16 season. The first of these games will air on January 23, 2016, and will air mostly bi-weekly until the end of the regular season. As a result of this change, ABC will no longer have regular Sunday doubleheaders.\n\nFor the 2015-16 season, the NBA and Turner Sports partnered with NextVR to stream the Warriors vs. Pelicans, the first-ever game to be broadcast live in virtual reality.\n", "Rogers Media, who owns television rights to the \"Thursday Night Football\" package in Canada through the end of the 2016 season but has not yet acquired digital rights (the majority of the NFL's media rights in Canada are owned by Rogers's rival, Bell Media), successfully forced Twitter to block the game streams in that country, overriding the league's insistence that the free stream be global. Due to the streaming deal, over-the-top television providers PlayStation Vue and Sling TV are also required to black out the simulcast of the games on NFL Network.\n", "By the mid-2000s and early 2010s, most major U.S. sports leagues (barring the National Football League, which has historically stipulated that all games be shown on terrestrial television in at least the markets of the teams involved) had begun to steadily decrease their presence on broadcast television, and allow more of their content (including post-season coverage in many cases) to air on cable networks, and more recently, digital-only outlets. The NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament and national championship games in college football have also largely moved to cable (since 2016, the semi-finals of the former only air on broadcast television in odd-numbered years). A similar phenomenon has taken root in much of Canadian sport, where the Canadian Football League left broadcast television in 2008. The National Hockey League survives on Canadian broadcast television because Rogers Sportsnet, the cable broadcaster that acquired exclusive rights to the league in 2014, offers two weekly games to CBC Television for free to allow the network to continue the long-running \"Hockey Night in Canada\".\n", "BULLET::::- NBC Sports will feature full season coverage across NBC, NBCSN & CNBC. NBC Sports App will feature live flag-to-flag coverage of all races.\n\nBULLET::::- IMSA Michelin Pilot Challenge\n\nBULLET::::- NBCSN will feature full season coverage on tape delay. IMSA.tv & FansChoice.TV will feature live streaming coverage\n\nBULLET::::- IMSA Prototype Challenge\n\nBULLET::::- NBCSN will feature full season coverage on tape delay. IMSA.tv & FansChoice.TV will feature live streaming coverage\n\nBULLET::::- IMSA Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge USA presented by Yokohama\n", "In June 2016, the group launched NBC Sports Gold, an over-the-top streaming service. It debuted with a Cycling Pass, featuring several UCI road cycling races. In April 2017, a Track and Field Pass was launched, featuring IAAF and USA Track & Field meets, a Rugby Pass featuring the English Premiership, and a Pro Motocross Pass featuring the AMA Motocross Championship. A Premier League Pass was added in June 2017.\n", "Section::::Criticism.\n\nESPN has been criticized for devoting more or less air-time to a sport depending on whether it has rights to the primary organization or league of that sport. Examples include less air-time for National Hockey League (NHL), including the cancellation of NHL 2Night following their expiration of ESPN's rights contract and expanding air-time for NASCAR and the Arena Football League following rights deals.\n", "The toughest thing to do in a poker hand and in this business is stand pat. This year we decided to make our At Bat app universal between the iPad and iPhone, which we knew going in would cost us 100,000 subscribers. We threw in At Bat for free with an MLB.tv subscription, which would also cost us revenue. And we added up a monthly At Bat subscription to get people to test the product out. We gave customers more options and a better deal, and we had a record year in paid content. We learned we're at an inflection point. Customers now understand and appreciate the nuance of content economics. You'll see more of that value pricing from us going forward.\n", "BULLET::::- Army and Navy home games and the Army–Navy Game: CBS and CBS Sports Network\n\nBULLET::::- Atlantic Coast Conference: ABC, ESPN networks, ACC Network\n\nBULLET::::- American Athletic Conference: ESPN networks, CBS Sports Network\n\nBULLET::::- AAC Championship Game: ESPN\n\nBULLET::::- BYU home games: ABC, BYUtv, ESPN networks\n\nBULLET::::- Big Ten Conference: Fox Sports, ABC, ESPN networks, Big Ten Network\n\nBULLET::::- Big Ten Championship Game: Fox\n\nBULLET::::- Big 12 Conference: ABC, ESPN networks (at least one Longhorns home game exclusively on Longhorn Network), Fox Sports\n\nBULLET::::- Big 12 Championship Game: ESPN/ABC\n", "BULLET::::- NBA Summer League: ESPN and NBA TV\n\nBULLET::::- NBA G League: ESPN and NBA TV\n\nBULLET::::- The Basketball Tournament: ESPN\n\nBULLET::::- BIG3: CBS, CBS Sports Network\n\nBULLET::::- ABA Basketball: ESPN3\n\nBULLET::::- Premier Basketball League: ESPN3\n\nBULLET::::- Euroleague: NBA TV\n\nSection::::Cricket.\n\nBULLET::::- Cricket World Cup: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- ICC World Twenty20: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Under-19 Cricket World Cup: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Regional Super50: ESPN3\n\nBULLET::::- Big Bash League: NBCSN, Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Bangladesh Premier League: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Caribbean Premier League: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan Super League: Willow\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Premier League: Willow, Hotstar\n\nBULLET::::- NatWest t20 Blast:\n\nBULLET::::- Royal London One-Day Cup:\n", "Prior to the 2018 season, ESPN invoked its option to take over the out-of-market streaming rights to Major League Soccer. The MLS Live service will be discontinued, as ESPN will stream out-of-market matches on its upcoming subscription service ESPN+. In the meantime, MLS Live was temporarily made available for free until the launch of ESPN+. Twitter replaced Facebook as the English streaming rightsholder for Univision's games under a three-year deal.\n", "ICASA released a preliminary report on 15 April 2019 regarding the dominance of Multichoice within the pay-TV market. The report suggested that a potential remedy would be the spitting up of rights to long-term contracts that are currently exclusive. This would make such content readily available for new entrants into the market. Multichoice is opposed to this in principle as it would threaten the viability of their income model.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Regulation of Netflix.\n", "BULLET::::- MLB Network: 26 non-exclusive \"MLB Network Showcase\" games per-season, two Division Series games, other games simulcast from regional broadcasts.\n\nLocal television\n" ]	[ "Amazon doesn't buy rights to stream sports.", "Amazon isn't buying the rights to stream sports." ]	[ "Amazon bought rights to air NFL Thursday Night Football.", "Amazon has bought the rights to stream sports." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Amazon doesn't buy rights to stream sports.", "Amazon isn't buying the rights to stream sports." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Amazon bought rights to air NFL Thursday Night Football.", "Amazon has bought the rights to stream sports." ]
2018-21000	How is milk make without lactose and why do the different brands seem to taste wildly different?	"Lactose free" milk has the same amount of lactose as normal milk. All they do is put in an enzyme that people with lactose intolerance lack. The enzyme helps you digest it.	[ "BULLET::::- Australia: NASAA Organic Standard\n\nBULLET::::- Canada:\n\nBULLET::::- European Union: EU-Eco-regulation\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden: KRAV\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom: DEFRA\n\nBULLET::::- Norway: Debio Organic certification\n\nBULLET::::- India: NPOP, (National Program for Organic Production)\n\nBULLET::::- Japan: JAS Standards\n\nBULLET::::- United States: National Organic Program (NOP) Standards\n\nSection::::Comparison with conventional milk.\n\nSection::::Comparison with conventional milk.:Chemical composition.\n", "Lactose is found primarily in dairy products, which vary in the amount of lactose they contain:\n\nBULLET::::- Milk – unprocessed cow's milk is about 4.7% lactose; goat's milk 4.7%; sheep's milk 4.7%; buffalo milk 4.86%; and yak milk 4.93%.\n\nBULLET::::- Sour cream and buttermilk – if made in the traditional way, this may be tolerable, but most modern brands add milk solids.\n\nBULLET::::- Butter – the process of making butter largely removes lactose, but it is still present in small quantities; clarified butter contains a negligible amount of lactose.\n", "Section::::Discography.\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 \"Lustiges Tierquartett\", EP 3 titres, Zeb Prod., MILK 001\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 \"Nepla Relou\", EP 4 titres, Autoprod., MILK 007\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 \"Lucrate Milk / MKB\", Split-LP avec MKB Fraction Provisoire, W.W. Rds, WW3326\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 \"Live\", K7, Androidia flux, AF 015 / V.I.S.A.\n\nBULLET::::- 1987, \"Lucrate Milk\", LP, Bondage Records, BR 009\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 \"La Rage Qui Vit\", CD / K7, Division Nada, NADA004 CD / K7,\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 \"La Rage Qui Vit\", CD / K7, Crash Disques, CRASH CD07/K707\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 \"Lucrate Milk\", DVD+2CD, Archives de la Zone Mondiale, FZM016\n", "Section::::Factories in Portugal.\n\nBULLET::::- Tocha – milk collecting and juice\n\nBULLET::::- Oliveira de Azeméis – yogurt, UHT milk, cream\n\nBULLET::::- Vila do Conde – UHT milk, butter, cream and yogurt\n\nBULLET::::- Sanfins (Sever do Vouga) – cheese\n\nBULLET::::- Aviz – cheese, butter\n\nBULLET::::- Leça – pasteurized milk\n\nBULLET::::- Lousado – milk collecting that is stored in order to be sent to Vila do Conde's factory\n\nBULLET::::- Macedo de Cavaleiros – UHT milk\n\nBULLET::::- Azores – cheese\n\n\"Source: Sociedade Portuguesa de Inovação\"\n\nSection::::Brands.\n\nBULLET::::- Mimosa (diverse dairy food)\n\nBULLET::::- Agros (diverse dairy food)\n\nBULLET::::- Gresso (diverse dairy food)\n", "In a modern western context, food products which have been manufactured as dairy substitutes partly to cater for lactose intolerant individuals include milk, yogurt, whipped topping and ice cream. In Asia and Africa, where the rate of lactose intolerance is much higher than in the west and dairy production has been less predominant, many traditional analogues to dairy milk beverages exist, including amazake, douzhi, kunnu aya, kokkoh, poi and sikhye.\n\nSection::::Lactose intolerance.:Lactose-free manufacturing.\n", "Milk products and their fermentation have had an important influence on some cultures’ development. This is the case in Mongolia, where people often practice a pastoral form of agriculture. The milk that they produce and consume in these cultures is mainly mare milk and has a long tradition. But not every part or product of the fresh milk has the same meaning. For instance, the fattier part on the top, the “deež”, is seen as the most valuable part and is therefore often used to honor guests.\n", "Section::::Factors shaping the human milk microbiome.\n\nSection::::Factors shaping the human milk microbiome.:Geographic location.\n\nBoth the taxonomic composition and diversity of bacteria present in human milk likely vary by maternal geographic location, however, more large-scale studies are needed to better understand variation between populations.\n\nSection::::Factors shaping the human milk microbiome.:Lactation stage.\n", "BULLET::::- Amul Ghee\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Mast Dahi\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Kool\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Paneer\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Shrikhand\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Buttermilk\n\nBULLET::::- Sagar Ghee\n\nBULLET::::- Amulya Milk Powder\n\nBULLET::::- Sagar Tea\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee whitener\n\nBULLET::::- Peda\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Bread Spreads\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Cheese\n\nBULLET::::- Amul UHT Milk\n\nBULLET::::- Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Mithai Range\n\nBULLET::::- Mithai Mate\n\nBULLET::::- Lactose Free Milk\n\nBULLET::::- Fresh Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Amul Sour Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Amul lassi\n\nAbove products are marketed by Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation, Anand.\n\nBanas Dairy has 0.18 Million shareholders, which are spread across 1,200 cooperative societies.\n\nSection::::Plants.\n", "For example, as defined by the state of Indiana’s administrative code, Grade A milk shall meet the following standards:\n\nBULLET::::- The bacterial estimate classification shall be \"acceptable\".\n\nBULLET::::- The bacteria count using the standard plate count, direct microscopic count, or plate loop count methods shall be not more than one million (1,000,000) Colony-forming units (cfu) of bacteria per milliliter.\n\nBULLET::::- The somatic cell count shall be not more than one million (1,000,000) cfu cells per milliliter.\n\nBULLET::::- The milk shall not contain drug residues.\n", "Section::::Industrial processing.:Whey.\n\nIn earlier times, whey or milk serum was considered to be a waste product and it was, mostly, fed to pigs as a convenient means of disposal. Beginning about 1950, and mostly since about 1980, lactose and many other products, mainly food additives, are made from both casein and cheese whey.\n\nSection::::Industrial processing.:Yogurt.\n\nYogurt (or yoghurt) making is a process similar to cheese making, only the process is arrested before the curd becomes very hard.\n\nSection::::Industrial processing.:Milk powders.\n", "Water buffalo milk is processed into a large variety of dairy products, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Cream churns much faster at higher fat levels and gives higher overrun than cow cream.\n\nBULLET::::- Butter from water buffalo cream displays more stability than that from cow cream.\n\nBULLET::::- Ghee from water buffalo milk has a different texture with a bigger grain size than ghee from cow milk.\n\nBULLET::::- Heat-concentrated milk products in the Indian subcontinent include \"paneer, khoa, rabri, kheer\" and \"basundi\".\n\nBULLET::::- Fermented milk products include \"dahi\", yogurt, and \"chakka\".\n", "BULLET::::- University of Guelph Dairy Science and Technology Education Series—Online technical information about dairy products.\n\nBULLET::::- Dairy Science and Food Technology: Starters, Probiotics, Cheese and Antimicrobial Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Dairy and the US Congress collection, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Library\n\nBULLET::::- Virtual Museum Exhibit on Past Domestic Production of Milk, Cream and Butter\n\nBULLET::::- Journal of Extension, article on case studies of the impact of large scale dairy agriculture, February 2006 / Volume 44 / Number 1\n", "BULLET::::- \"Milk\", a 2015 album by Better Off\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.:Songs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Milk\" (Kings of Leon song)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Milk\" (song), by Garbage\n\nBULLET::::- \"Milk\", a song by Brockhampton from \"Saturation\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Milk\", a song by the K-pop girl group f(x)\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Television.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Milk\" (\"How I Met Your Mother\"), a 2006 episode of the sitcom \"How I Met Your Mother\"\n\nSection::::Computing and technology.\n\nBULLET::::- Milk (programming language)\n\nBULLET::::- Milk Inc., a company founded by Kevin Rose to work on mobile Web concepts\n\nBULLET::::- Milk Music, a former music streaming service available in the Samsung Electronics app store\n", "BULLET::::- Chhena is like paneer, except some whey is left and the mixture is beaten thoroughly until it becomes soft, of smooth consistency, and malleable but firm.\n\nBULLET::::- Sandesh is a confection made from chhena mixed with sugar then grilled lightly to caramelize, but removed from heat and molded into a ball or some shape.\n\nBULLET::::- Rasogolla is a confection made from mixture of chhena and semolina rolled into a ball and boiled in syrup.\n\nSection::::Non-curdled dairy products.\n\nBULLET::::- Khoa or Mawa is made by reducing milk in an open pan over heat.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blocked milk duct\n\nBULLET::::- Breast milk jewelry\n\nBULLET::::- Breast pump\n\nBULLET::::- Human milk banking in North America\n\nBULLET::::- Infant formula\n\nBULLET::::- La Leche League International\n\nBULLET::::- Lactation\n\nBULLET::::- Lactation room\n\nBULLET::::- Lactivism\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Rose Tully\n\nBULLET::::- Baby Gaga\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Drug Interactions with Human Milk\n\nBULLET::::- \"Human milk and lactation\" by Carol L. Wagner (Overview article, eMedicine, December 14, 2010)\n\nBULLET::::- United Nations University Centre – Constituents of human milk – including comparison of human and cow's milk ones\n\nBULLET::::- Children's Health Topics: Breastfeeding\n", "Lactose-free milk can be produced by passing milk over lactase enzyme bound to an inert carrier. Once the molecule is cleaved, there are no lactose ill effects. Forms are available with reduced amounts of lactose (typically 30% of normal), and alternatively with nearly 0%. The only noticeable difference from regular milk is a slightly sweeter taste due to the generation of glucose by lactose cleavage. It does not, however, contain more glucose, and is nutritionally identical to regular milk.\n", "Section::::Comparison with conventional milk.:Chemical composition.:Nutrient content.\n", "BULLET::::- – dairy products are food produced from the milk of mammals. Dairy products are usually high energy-yielding food products. A production plant for the processing of milk is called a dairy or a dairy factory. Apart from breastfed infants, the human consumption of dairy products is sourced primarily from the milk of cows, yet goats, sheep, yaks, horses, camels, and other mammals are other sources of dairy products consumed by humans.\n\nBULLET::::- List of French cheeses\n\nBULLET::::- List of Irish cheeses\n\nBULLET::::- List of Italian cheeses\n\nBULLET::::- List of Polish cheeses\n\nSection::::Basic foods.:Eggs.\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 - Highest amount of milk production per day achieved with 119.4 mn litres of milk produced at Dushsagar Dairy\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 - 500 Grams Ghee Pouches launched in Market under the brand name \"SAGAR\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 - S.C.M plant started, Tetrapack ghee launched in the market\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 - 1000th Milk Society established\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 - Received ISO and HACCP accreditations\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 - 'Sagar Sfruti', a flavored milk brand introduced in the Market\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 - Mass Cattle Deworming Program for cattle started\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 - Inauguration of Dudhmansagar Dairy\n", "Milk comes in a variety of containers with local variants:\n\nBULLET::::- Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- Australia and New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Chile\n\nBULLET::::- China\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro\n\nBULLET::::- Estonia\n\nBULLET::::- Parts of Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Finland\n\nBULLET::::- Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- Indonesia\n\nBULLET::::- Israel\n\nBULLET::::- Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Kenya\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines\n\nBULLET::::- Poland\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- Uruguay\n", "Section::::Varieties and brands.:Distribution.:United Kingdom.\n", "BULLET::::- SAC (Denmark), purchased the Dutch manufacturer of the \"Galaxy Robot AMS\" in 2005, sell under the brands \"SAC RDS Futureline MARK II\", \"Insentec Galaxy Starline\", \"BouMatic’s ProFlex\"\n\nBULLET::::- BoumaticRobotics (NL), \"MR-S1\", \"MR-D1\"\n\nBULLET::::- Prompt Softech (Ahmedabad, India) Manufacturer of Automatic Milk Collection System.\n\nBULLET::::- ADF Milking (UK), Manufacturer of the Automatic Dipping and Flushing system.\n\nBULLET::::- JSC Mototecha Lithuania, manufacturer of mobile milking parlour systems.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- EU project; Automatic Milking\n\nBULLET::::- Hogeveen, H., W., et al., (2001), “Milking interval, milk production and milk flow-rate in an automatic milking system”, Livestock Production Science, Vol. 72, pp. 157–167.\n", "Lactose-free and lactose-reduced milk can also be produced via ultra filtration, which removes smaller molecules such as lactose and water while leaving calcium and proteins behind. Milk produced via these methods has a lower sugar content than regular milk.\n\nSection::::Varieties and brands.:Additives and flavoring.\n\nIn areas where the cattle (and often the people) live indoors, commercially sold milk commonly has vitamin D added to it to make up for lack of exposure to UVB radiation.\n", "BULLET::::- 2006, \"Lucrate Milk\", DVD, Archives de la Zone Mondiale, FZM017\n\nBULLET::::- 2014, \"Lucrate Milk\", LP : Archives de la Zone Mondiale. DIgital : Atypeek Music ATY061\n\nSection::::Discography.:Compilations.\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 \"Passeport Pour l’Exportation / Cascades 82\", K7 V.I.S.A. / Androidia flux, AF 00\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 \"Canoë 1\", K7, Canoë\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 Canoë vidéo 1, VHS, Canoë\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 \"30 tubes pour l'été\", Gargl ! Tapes 001\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 \"V.I.S.A. Présente\", Compilation Live, LP, V.I.S.A./ Bondage Records, RRR 00B\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 \"Bondage Records\", LP, Oihuka, 0-164, Espagne\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 \"Radio Bondage\", LP/K7, Bondage Records\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official site\n", "There is no standardized method for measuring the lactose content of food. The stated dairy content of a product also varies according to manufacturing processes and labelling practices, and commercial terminology varies between languages and regions. As a result, absolute figures for the amount of lactose consumed (by weight) may not be very reliable. Kosher products labeled \"pareve\" or \"fleishig\" are free of milk. However, if a \"D\" (for \"dairy\") is present next to the circled \"K\", \"U\", or other \"hechsher\", the food product likely contains milk solids, although it may also simply indicate the product was produced on equipment shared with other products containing milk derivatives.\n" ]	[ "Lactose-free milk is made without lactose.", "Milk can be made without lactose. " ]	[ "\"Lactose free\" milk has the same amount of lactose as normal milk, with an enzyme added that people with lactose intolerance lack.", "All milk is created with lactose, the milk brands that claims they are lactose free have an enzyme planted in it to help those lactose intolerant digest lactose." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Lactose-free milk is made without lactose.", "Milk can be made without lactose. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "\"Lactose free\" milk has the same amount of lactose as normal milk, with an enzyme added that people with lactose intolerance lack.", "All milk is created with lactose, the milk brands that claims they are lactose free have an enzyme planted in it to help those lactose intolerant digest lactose." ]
2018-22461	Does dehydration cause nosebleeds? If so, how?	Inside your nose is the mucous membrane - a slimy layer with little blood vessels going all through it. It has to be slimy to catch the dust and bad particles in the air you breathe, and keep them out of your lungs. When you are dehydrated, this slimy layer dries up (there's not enough water in your body to keep it moist), and the blood vessels in it get damaged.	[ "Most causes of nose bleeding are self-limiting and do not require medical attention. However, If nosebleeds are recurrent or do not respond to home therapies, an underlying cause may need to be investigated. Some rarer causes of recurrent or prolonged epistaxis are categorized and listed below:\n\nCoagulopathy:\n\nBULLET::::- Thrombocytopenia (thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura\n\nBULLET::::- Von Willebrand's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Hemophilia\n\nBULLET::::- Leukemia\n\nBULLET::::- HIV\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic liver disease—cirrhosis causes deficiency of factor II, VII, IX,& X\n\nInflammatory:\n\nBULLET::::- Granulomatosis with polyangiitis\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic lupus erythematosus\n\nMedications/Drugs:\n\nBULLET::::- Anticoagulation (warfarin, heparin, etc)\n\nBULLET::::- Insufflated drugs (particularly cocaine)\n", "Nosebleeds can occur due to a variety of reasons. Some of the most common causes include trauma from nose picking, blunt trauma (such as a motor vehicle accident), or insertion of a foreign object (more likely in children). Relative humidity (including centrally heated buildings), respiratory tract infections, chronic sinusitis, rhinitis or environmental irritants can cause inflammation and thinning of the tissue in the nose, leading to a greater likelihood of bleeding from the nose.\n", "One of the most common medical conditions involving the nose is a nosebleed (epistaxis). Most nosebleeds occur in Kiesselbach's plexus, a vascular plexus in the lower front part of the septum involving the convergence of four arteries. A smaller proportion of nosebleeds that tend to be nontraumatic, occur in Woodruff's plexus. Woodruff's plexus is a venous plexus of large thin-walled veins lying in the posterior part of the inferior meatus.\n", "The nasal mucosa contains a rich blood supply that can be easily ruptured and cause bleeding. Rupture may be spontaneous or initiated by trauma. Nosebleeds are reported in up to 60% of the population with peak incidences in those under the age of ten and over the age of 50 and appear to occur in males more than females. An increase in blood pressure (e.g. due to general hypertension) tends to increase the duration of spontaneous epistaxis. Anticoagulant medication and disorders of blood clotting can promote and prolong bleeding. Spontaneous epistaxis is more common in the elderly as the nasal mucosa (lining) becomes dry and thin and blood pressure tends to be higher. The elderly are also more prone to prolonged nose bleeds as their blood vessels are less able to constrict and control the bleeding.\n", "BULLET::::- Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler–Weber–Rendu disease)\n\nBULLET::::- Angioma\n\nBULLET::::- Aneurysm of carotid artery\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Nosebleed\n\nA nosebleed, also known as epistaxis ( ), is the common occurrence of bleeding from the nose. It is usually noticed when blood drains out through the nostrils.\n\nThere are two types: anterior (the most common), and posterior (less common, more likely to require medical attention). Sometimes in more severe cases, the blood can come up the nasolacrimal duct and out from the eye. Fresh blood and clotted blood can also flow down into the stomach and cause nausea and vomiting.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnostic tests may be conducted for various reasons. Firstly, some tests are needed to confirm or refute the diagnosis. Secondly, some are needed to identify any potential complications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Telangiectasias.\n\nThe skin and oral cavity telangiectasias are visually identifiable on physical examination, and similarly the lesions in the nose may be seen on endoscopy of the nasopharynx or on laryngoscopy. The severity of nosebleeds may be quantified objectively using a grid-like questionnaire in which the number of nosebleed episodes and their duration is recorded.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative (more invasive) treatment.:Surgery.\n", "The vast majority of nose bleeds occur in the anterior (front) part of the nose from the nasal septum. This area is richly endowed with blood vessels (Kiesselbach's plexus). This region is also known as Little's area. Bleeding farther back in the nose is known as a posterior bleed and is usually due to bleeding from Woodruff's plexus, a venous plexus situated in the posterior part of inferior meatus. Posterior bleeds are often prolonged and difficult to control. They can be associated with bleeding from both nostrils and with a greater flow of blood into the mouth.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Initial treatment.\n", "Although the sight of large amounts of blood can be alarming and may warrant medical attention, nosebleeds are rarely fatal, accounting for only 4 of the 2.4 million deaths in the U.S. in 1999. About 60% of people have a nosebleed at some point in their life. About 10% of nosebleeds are serious. Nosebleeds appear to have a bimodal distribution, most commonly affecting those younger than 10 and older than 50. \n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::- Cantharidin is an extract of the blister beetle that causes epidermal necrosis and blistering . It is used to treat warts .\n\nSection::::Nasal cauterization.\n\nFrequent nosebleeds are most likely caused by an exposed blood vessel in the nose, usually one in Kiesselbach's plexus.\n", "BULLET::::- Nasal sprays (particularly prolonged or improper use of nasal steroids)\n\nNeoplastic:\n\nBULLET::::- Squamous cell carcinoma\n\nBULLET::::- Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma\n\nBULLET::::- Melanoma\n\nBULLET::::- Nasopharyngeal carcinoma\n\nBULLET::::- Nasopharyngeal angiofibroma\n\nTraumatic:\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomical deformities (\"e.g.\" septal spurs)\n\nBULLET::::- Blunt trauma (usually a sharp blow to the face such as a punch, sometimes accompanying a nasal fracture)\n\nBULLET::::- Foreign bodies (such as fingers during nose-picking)\n\nBULLET::::- Digital trauma\n\nBULLET::::- Middle ear barotrauma (such as from descent in aircraft or ascent in scuba diving)\n\nBULLET::::- Nasal bone fracture\n\nBULLET::::- Septal fracture/perforation\n\nBULLET::::- Surgery (\"e.g.\" septoplasty and functional endoscopic sinus surgery)\n\nVascular Malformation:\n", "An acute nosebleed may be managed with a variety of measures, such as packing of the nasal cavity with absorbent swabs or gels. Removal of the packs after the bleeding may lead to reopening of the fragile vessels, and therefore lubricated or atraumatic packing is recommended. Some patients may wish to learn packing themselves to deal with nosebleeds without having to resort to medical help.\n", "The initial stage is the capillary leak phase, lasting from 1 to 3 days, during which up to 70% of total plasma volume may invade cavities especially in the extremities. The most common clinical features are flu-like symptoms such as fatigue; runny nose; lightheadedness up to and including syncope (fainting); limb, abdominal or generalized pain; facial or other edema; dyspnea; and hypotension that results in circulatory shock and potentially in cardiopulmonary collapse and other organ distress or damage. Acute kidney injury or failure is a common risk due to acute tubular necrosis consequent to hypovolemia and rhabdomyolysis.\n", "A nosebleed (epistaxis) usually occurs in the anterior part of the nose from an area known as Kiesselbach's plexus which consists of arteries. Woodruff's plexus is a venous plexus in the posterior part and a nosebleed here accounts for only between 5 and 10 per cent of nosebleeds. Older adults are most often affected.\n\nA posterior source presents a greater risk of airway compromise, aspiration of blood, and greater difficulty in controlling bleeding.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Treatment.\n\nPosterior nasal packing is needed for posterior epistaxis.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Treatment.:Posterior nasal packing.\n", "BULLET::::- Patients usually complain of nasal obstruction despite the roomy nasal cavity, which can be caused either by the obstruction produced by the discharge in the nose, or as a result of sensory loss due to atrophy of nerves in the nose, so the patient is unaware of the air flow. In the case of the second cause, the sensation of obstruction is subjective.\n\nBULLET::::- Bleeding from the nose, also called epistaxis, may occur when the dried discharge (crusts) are removed.\n\nBULLET::::- Septal perforation and dermatitis of nasal vestibule can occur. The nose may show a saddle-nose deformity.\n", "Most people with HHT have a normal lifespan. The skin lesions and nosebleeds tend to develop during childhood. AVMs are probably present from birth, but don't necessarily cause any symptoms. Frequent nosebleeds are the most common symptom and can significantly affect quality of life.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Nosebleed (disambiguation)\n\nNosebleed also known as an epistaxis, is the common occurrence of bleeding from the nose.\n\nNosebleed or similar may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Nosebleed section, the highest seats of a public arena\n\nBULLET::::- Ed Banger and The Nosebleeds aka The Nosebleeds, a British punk rock band of the 1970s\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nosebleed\", a Jackie Chan film which was cancelled because of the 9/11 attack\n\nBULLET::::- \"Achillea millefolium\", or common yarrow, also called the nosebleed plant for its astringent properties\n\nBULLET::::- Nosebleed stakes, the highest stakes offered in poker, generally in reference to games $200/$400 or higher\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nMost SCLS patients report having flu-like symptoms (like a runny nose), or else gastro-intestinal disorders (diarrhea or vomiting), or a general weakness or pain in their limbs, but others get no particular or consistent warning signs ahead of their episodes. They subsequently develop thirst and lightheadedness and the following conditions measurable in a hospital emergency-room setting:\n\nBULLET::::- hemoconcentration (elevated hematocrit or hemoglobin readings, with hematocrit levels 49% in men and 43% in women, not because of an absolute increase in them but because of the leak of plasma);\n", "Section::::Non-uniform pore effects.\n\nSection::::Non-uniform pore effects.:Odd pore geometries.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Other.\n\nThe utility of local cooling of the head and neck is controversial. Some state that applying ice to the nose or forehead is not useful. Others feel that it may promote vasoconstriction of the nasal blood vessels and thus be useful.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Prevention.\n\nPatients with uncomplicated nosebleeds can use conservative methods to prevent future nosebleeds such as sleeping in a humidified environment or applying petroleum jelly to the nasal nares.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n", "For procedures which carry a risk of aerosolization, such as intubation, the WHO recommends that care providers also:\n\nBULLET::::- Wear a particulate respirator and, when putting on a disposable particulate respirator, always check the seal\n\nBULLET::::- Wear eye protection (i.e. goggles or a face shield)\n\nBULLET::::- Wear a clean, non-sterile, long-sleeved gown and gloves (some of these procedures require sterile gloves)\n\nBULLET::::- Wear an impermeable apron for some procedures with expected high fluid volumes that might penetrate the gown\n", "The treatment of water retention depends on whether or not the primary cause is excessive leakiness of the capillary walls. If this is not the cause, as in cases of heart or kidney disease, then diuretic medicines (diuretics) may be an appropriate treatment.\n", "Ongoing bleeding despite good nasal packing is a surgical emergency and can be treated by endoscopic evaluation of the nasal cavity under general anesthesia to identify an elusive bleeding point or to directly ligate (tie off) the blood vessels supplying the nose. These blood vessels include the sphenopalatine, anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries. More rarely the maxillary or a branch of the external carotid artery can be ligated. The bleeding can also be stopped by intra-arterial embolization using a catheter placed in the groin and threaded up the aorta to the bleeding vessel by an interventional radiologist. There is no difference in outcomes between embolization and ligation as treatment options, but embolization is considerably more expensive. Continued bleeding may be an indication of more serious underlying conditions.\n", "When the crowd at the gig became violent and Garrity and a friend were injured, someone said, \"You're a right bloody mob aren't you? Headbanger here and him with a nosebleed\", inspiring Wild Ram's transformation into Ed Banger and the Nosebleeds.\n\nVini Reilly, later of The Durutti Column played guitar, Garrity (Ed Banger) sang, Tomanov (Toby) played drums and Peter Crookes played bass.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14694	Why is it there are seldom daughters named after mothers, but sons named after fathers (Jr.) are fairly common?	I mean, I’m no expert here but I imagine for the same reason that women historically have taken husband’s names, sons have been more important in a family than daughters, etc... families have historically been patriarchal in much of the world. Dads and sons represented and were breadwinners of the family, while mothers and daughters took care of the dads and sons. It mattered that a son carried on the family legacy, i.e. the father’s name.	[ "Gender name usage also plays a role in the way parents view names. It is not uncommon for American parents to give girls names that have traditionally been used for boys. Boys, on the other hand, are almost never given feminine names. Names like Ashley, Sidney, Aubrey, and Avery originated as boys' names. Traditionally masculine or androgynous names that are used widely for girls have a tendency to be abandoned by the parents of boys and develop an almost entirely female usage.\n\nSection::::Other factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Jane Seymour, unmarried family friend\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Roland Seymour, 56, widower\n\nBULLET::::- Evelyn Seymour, 34, Sir Roland's son\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Naming women.\n\nIn many contexts, etiquette required that respectable women be spoken of as the wife or daughter of X rather than by their own names. On gravestones or dedications, however, they had to be identified by name. Here, the patronymic formula \"son of X\" used for men might be replaced by \"wife of X\", or supplemented as \"daughter of X, wife of Y\".\n", "Naming a child after a relative, friend, or well-known person is a common practice in the English-speaking world. When a son is named for his father, it is customary (primarily in the United States) to add \"Jr.\"/\"II\", \"III'\", or another name suffix to the name of the son (and sometimes \"Sr.\" or a prior number to the father's name), in order to distinguish between individuals, especially if both father and son become famous, as in the case of poet Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. and his son, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Sometimes the \"Jr.\" or \"Sr.\" suffix is applied even when the child's legal name differs from that of the parent. \n", "BULLET::::- A woman could also be named for her father's family and a place of origin (somewhat like men, but without a unique praenomen). For example, in the Robert Graves novel \"I, Claudius\", Caligula's sister Julia Livilla is named Lesbia, reflecting her birthplace, Lesbos.\n", "BULLET::::- A woman could be named for a grandparent. For example, Livilla, sister of Germanicus and Claudius, was named for her paternal grandmother Livia.\n\nBULLET::::- A combination of her family name and the name of a mother or grandmother. Claudius's first wife Plautia Urgulanilla was named for her father's family, Plautii, and her paternal grandmother Urgulania, a close friend of Claudius's own paternal grandmother Livia.\n", "Regardless of origins, many names that are now considered first names in the U.S. have origins as surnames. Names like Riley, Parker, Cooper, Madison, Morgan, Cameron, and Harper originated as surnames. Names that originate as surnames typically start out their lifespan as androgynous names before developing a common usage as either a masculine name or a feminine name. Tyler and Taylor had approximately the same usage for both boys and girls when they came onto the charts before diverging. Tyler is now typically given to boys while Taylor is more often given to girls.\n\nSection::::Names inspired by popular culture.\n", "3 of the 4 possibilities enumerated above are used together in the example below. Such conventions of double surnames were proposed in \"The Seven Daughters of Eve\", and an English family with the matriname \"Phythian\" actually used one of them, as demonstrated and discussed in an online \"feature\" article.\n", "Some Vietnamese names also function this way, as less of a \"tradition\" than a style or trend, in which the mother's maiden name is the child's middle name.\n\nSection::::Europe.\n\nSection::::Europe.:England.\n", "Section::::Unusual naming variants.\n", "BULLET::::- Wilhemina \"Mina\" Smiths: Mina is the daughter of Reverend Amos Smiths and nurse Raymonda Smiths. She is the fifth of six children, all named after kings and queens from European history. She is black, extremely intelligent and perceptive, as well as being a talented dancer and singer. She is popular at school and Dicey's best friend.\n", "BULLET::::- Patti Davis, American actress and daughter of President Ronald Reagan, born Patricia Ann Reagan, began using her mother's maiden name of \"Davis\" while she was a university student. In 2009, she told interviewer Tavis Smiley that she \"had that famous kid thing of I just want my own identity\" and that she chose her mother's maiden name for her new name \"because I really didn't want to anger my parents.\"\n", "Personal names have periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly named people in a generation, and even similarly named families; e.g., \"William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John\".\n\nMany names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Others may be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).\n\nSection::::Types of information.:Place names.\n", "Another example is in some areas of Germany, where siblings were given the same first name, often of a favourite saint or local nobility, but different second names by which they were known (\"Rufname\"). If a child died, the next child of the same gender that was born may have been given the same name. It is not uncommon that a list of a particular couple's children will show one or two names repeated.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Bebb, English actor, born Richard Bebb Williams, he was obliged to change his surname (Williams) to avoid confusion with another player, and elected to use \"Bebb\", his mother's maiden name.\n\nBULLET::::- Beck, born Bek David Campbell; now known as Beck Hansen. Adopted his mother's maiden name (Hansen) after his father was estranged from the family.\n", "In the era of Augustus and thereafter, Roman women used more varied first names and sometimes even two first names. Naming practice became less rigid, as is evidenced among women of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. While Augustus's wives were known by their father's \"gens\" name (Clodia Pulchra, Scribonia, and Livia) and Tiberius's wives were known by their fathers' less-known gentilical names (Vipsania Agrippina and Julia the Elder), by the third generation of the Imperial family, naming patterns had changed. Julia's daughters by her second husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa were Julia the Younger and Agrippina the Elder, not Vipsania Tertia and Vipsania Quarta. Likewise, Agrippina the Elder's daughters were Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Livilla, and not named for their father's adoptive family, the \"gens\" Julia. Likewise, in the family of Octavia the Younger and Mark Antony, the naming patterns for their daughters (Antonia Major and Antonia Minor) and Octavia's by her first husband (Claudia Marcella Major and Claudia Marcella Minor) are conventional, but that for their granddaughter Livilla (daughter of Nero Claudius Drusus) is not.\n", "BULLET::::- Christian Camargo, American actor and director, was born Christian Minnick in New York City, the son of actress Victoria Wyndham and grandson of actor Ralph Camargo. He adopted his mother's maiden name professionally.\n\nBULLET::::- Helen Stuart Campbell, American social reformer and pioneer in the field of home economics, was born Helen Stuart, but made \"Stuart\" her middle name, adopting her mother's maiden name (Campbell) as her surname, for reasons which are unclear.\n", "This information, though, is not present in recent, solid historical books about Nancy Hanks. Perhaps a sign that the Berrys did not consider Nancy a daughter, in Richard Berry's will he mentions a daughter Sarah [Mitchell], but not Nancy.\n", "But before they marry, Mr. Vanstone is killed in a train crash and Mrs. Vanstone dies in childbirth. The girls discover from the lawyer, Mr. Pendril, that their parents have only been married for a few months, and their wedding invalidated the will which left everything to the daughters.\n", "BULLET::::- Chris and Sean Marquette, American actors, borr Christopher George Rodriguez and Sean Anthony Edward Rodriguez, respectively, to Patricia Helen (née Marquette) and Jorge Luis Rodriguez. The brothers adopted their mother's maiden name as their professional surnames.\n\nBULLET::::- Edgar Lee Masters, American writer, first published his early poems and essays under the pseudonym Dexter Wallace, derived from his mother's maiden name and his father's middle name.\n", "Although less common than name joining, a growing trend is the blending of two surnames upon marriage. This means adding \"parts\" of the two names. An example is Dawn O'Porter.\n\nBULLET::::- Birth name as middle name\n\nExamples are Hillary Rodham Clinton and Kim Kardashian West.\n\nSection::::English-speaking world.:Children.\n\nIn the United States, some states or areas have laws that restrict what surname a child may have. For example, Tennessee allows a child to be given a surname that does not include that of the father only upon \"the concurrent submission of a sworn application to that effect signed by both parents.\"\n", "Prior to the 1984 movie \"Splash\", Madison was almost solely heard as a surname, with occasional usage as a masculine name. The name entered the top 1000 list for girls in 1985 and has been a top 10 name since 1997.\n\nIn 2014, the name Arya, the name of a character on the popular series \"Game of Thrones\", saw a dramatic rise to the 216th most popular girls name.\n", "Names in popular culture fare better as inspiration if they fit in with current naming trends. When Barack Obama was inaugurated as president in 2009, his name had a surge in popularity, but still has not made it into the top 1000 names in the United States. His daughter Malia, on the other hand, jumped over 200 spots to the 191st spot that year. While Barack is much more influential than his daughter, Barack is a name with a sound unlike other top American names. Malia is Hawaiian, but sounds similar to top names like Amelia and Sophia. Names that fit current naming trends and have prestige attached to them fare especially well. The name Blair surfaced as a girl's name in the mid-1980s after being featured on \"The Facts of Life\" as the name of the wealthy character Blair Warner. Blair had previously been used infrequently and mostly as a masculine name. When the series aired, the perceived prestige of the name escalated and fit into the surname name trend.\n", "BULLET::::- -aei (Persian) (See -i) for words that end in the long vowel \"A\"\n\nBULLET::::- -ago (Russian) (e.g. Zhivago)\n\nBULLET::::- -aitis (Lithuanian) \"son of\"\n\nBULLET::::- -aitė (Lithuanian) signifies an unmarried female\n\nBULLET::::- -aty Americanized form\n", "BULLET::::- Molly Blackett (real name: Mary) — mother of Nancy and Peggy Blackett (\"Peter Duck\" is dedicated to Mrs Robert Blackett and Mrs E.H.R. Walker)\n\nBULLET::::- Mrs Walker — called \"Mother\" (or \"Mary\" by Ted) — mother of the Swallows\n\nBULLET::::- Cdr Walker — called \"Daddy\" ('Ted' by Mrs Walker/Mary) — father of the Swallows and sender of the famous telegram \"Better drowned than duffers if not duffers won't drown\"\n\nBULLET::::- Professor and Mrs Callum — parents of the Ds; Prof Callum is an archaeologist\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02036	How can one infinity be "larger" than another if they're both infinite?	Mathematicians say that a set has equal size to another set when you can pair each element of one set with one element of the other set and vice versa. For example the sets {1,2,3} and {4,5,6} have equal size because one can pair 1 < --- > 4 2 < --- > 5 3 < --- > 6. Similarly the natural numbers {0,1,2,3,4,...} and the whole numbers {...,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,...} are of equal size because one can pair 0 < --- > 0 -1 < --- > 1 1 < ---- > 2 -2 < --- > 3 2 < --- > 4 . . . and so on. So you always pair every naturual number n with 2 * n and every negative number -m with 2*m-1. So you always have a pair. This does, however, not always work. For example the set of all real numbers (numbers with infinitely many decimal places) cannot be paired up in this way with the natural numbers. One can show that in every possible pairing which uses up all natural numbers there are still unpaired real numbers. Because there are always left over real numbers mathematicians say that the set of real numbers is lager than the set of natural numbers. EDIT: If you are intersted in the argument why we cannot pair the real and the natural numbers check out /u/40oz_coffee's comment about Cantor's diagonal argument.	[ "We now generalize this situation and \"define\" two sets as of the same size if (and only if) there is a bijection between them. For all finite sets this gives us the usual definition of \"the same size\". What does it tell us about the size of infinite sets?\n", "If fractions now are considered there are an infinite number of fractions between any of the two whole numbers, suggesting that the infinity of fractions is bigger than the infinity of whole numbers. Yet Cantor was still able to pair each such fraction to a whole number 1 - /; 2 - /; 3 - / ... etc. through to ∞; i.e. the infinities of both fractions and whole numbers were shown to have the same size.\n", "But when the set of all infinite decimal numbers was considered, Cantor was able to prove that this produced a bigger infinity. This was because, no matter how one tried to construct such a list, Cantor was able to provide a new decimal number that was missing from that list. Thus he showed that there were different infinities, some bigger than others.\n", "Georg Cantor considered the infinite set of whole numbers 1, 2, 3 ... ∞ which he compared with the smaller set of numbers 10, 20, 30 ... ∞. Cantor showed that these two infinite sets of numbers actually had the same size as it was possible to pair each number up; 1 - 10, 2 - 20, 3 - 30 ... etc.\n", "First consider a finite set \"S\" and the counting measure on subsets given by their size. Now consider two subsets of \"S\" and set their distance apart as the size of their symmetric difference. This distance is in fact a metric so that the power set on \"S\" is a metric space. If \"S\" has \"n\" elements, then the distance from the empty set to \"S\" is \"n\", and this is the maximum distance for any pair of subsets.\n", "Some sets are \"infinite\"; these sets have more than \"n\" elements for any integer \"n\". For example, the set of natural numbers, denotable by {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}, has infinitely many elements, and we cannot use any normal number to give its size. Nonetheless, it turns out that infinite sets do have a well-defined notion of size (or more properly, of \"cardinality\", which is the technical term for the number of elements in a set), and not all infinite sets have the same cardinality.\n", "Consider the sets \"A\" = {1, 2, 3, ... }, the set of positive integers and \"B\" = {2, 4, 6, ... }, the set of even positive integers. We claim that, under our definition, these sets have the same size, and that therefore \"B\" is countably infinite. Recall that to prove this we need to exhibit a bijection between them. But this is easy, using \"n\" ↔ 2\"n\", so that\n", "Paul Erdős famously asked the question of whether any set that does not contain arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions must necessarily be small. He offered a prize of $3000 for the solution to this problem, more than for any of his other conjectures, and joked that this prize offer violated the minimum wage law. This question is still open.\n\nIt is not known how to identify whether a given set is large or small in general. As a result, there are many sets which are not known to be either large or small.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of sums of reciprocals\n", "Almost disjoint sets\n\nIn mathematics, two sets are almost disjoint if their intersection is small in some sense; different definitions of \"small\" will result in different definitions of \"almost disjoint\".\n\nSection::::Definition.\n\nThe most common choice is to take \"small\" to mean finite. In this case, two sets are almost disjoint if their intersection is finite, i.e. if\n", "Similarly, an element \"x\" is in the limit supremum if, no matter how large \"n\" is there exists \"m\" ≥ \"n\" such that the element is in \"A\". That is, \"x\" is in the limit supremum iff \"x\" is in infinitely many \"A\". For this reason, a shorthand phrase for the limit supremum is \"\"x\" ∈ \"A\" infinitely often\", typically expressed by \"\"A\" i.o.\".\n", "The ultimate in large numbers was, until recently, the concept of infinity, a number defined by being greater than any finite number, and used in the mathematical theory of limits.\n", "BULLET::::3. Every surjective function from \"S\" onto itself is one-to-one.\n\nBULLET::::4. \"S\" is empty or every partial ordering of \"S\" contains a maximal element.\n\nSection::::Foundational issues.\n", "Section::::Mathematics.:Nonstandard analysis.\n", "There is disagreement on whether the limitation of size doctrine justifies the power set axiom. Michael Hallett has analyzed the arguments given by Fraenkel and Levy. Some of their arguments measure size by criteria other than cardinal size—for example, Fraenkel introduces \"comprehensiveness\" and \"extendability.\" Hallett points out what he considers to be flaws in their arguments.\n", "However, since the 19th century, mathematicians have studied transfinite numbers, numbers which are not only greater than any finite number, but also, from the viewpoint of set theory, larger than the traditional concept of infinity. Of these transfinite numbers, perhaps the most extraordinary, and arguably, if they exist, \"largest\", are the large cardinals. The concept of transfinite numbers, however, was first considered by Indian Jaina mathematicians as far back as 400 BC.\n", "BULLET::::- Surreal numbers also extend real numbers to a system which satisfies the axioms of an ordered field, and so addition behaves similarly to hyperreals, in that \"x\" < \"x\" + 1 for all surreals \"x\". In this system, one may find elements corresponding to infinite ordinals; however, surreal addition and multiplication correspond not to the usual ordinal operations, but to the natural sum and natural product.\n", "BULLET::::- The set of natural numbers is a proper subset of the set of rational numbers; likewise, the set of points in a line segment is a proper subset of the set of points in a line. These are two examples in which both the subset and the whole set are infinite, and the subset has the same cardinality (the concept that corresponds to size, that is, the number of elements, of a finite set) as the whole; such cases can run counter to one's initial intuition.\n", "In his 1975 short story \"The Book of Sand\" (\"El Libro de Arena\"), he deals with another form of infinity; one whose elements are a dense set, that is, for any two elements, we can always find another between them. This concept was also used in the physical book the short-story came from, \"The Book of Sand\" book. The narrator describes the book as having pages that are \"infinitely thin\", which can be interpreted either as referring to a set of measure zero, or of having infinitesimal length, in the sense of second order logic.\n", "Certain sets have a definite 'length' or 'mass'. For instance, the interval [0, 1] is deemed to have length 1; more generally, an interval [\"a\", \"b\"], \"a\" ≤ \"b\", is deemed to have length \"b\"−\"a\". If we think of such intervals as metal rods with uniform density, they likewise have well-defined masses. The set [0, 1] ∪ [2, 3] is composed of two intervals of length one, so we take its total length to be 2. In terms of mass, we have two rods of mass 1, so the total mass is 2.\n", "Instead of relying on ambiguous descriptions such as \"that which cannot be enlarged\" or \"increasing without bound\", set theory provides definitions for the term infinite set to give an unambiguous meaning to phrases such as \"the set of all natural numbers is infinite\". Just as for finite sets, the theory makes further definitions which allow us to consistently compare two infinite sets as regards whether one set is \"larger than\", \"smaller than\", or \"the same size as\" the other. But not every intuition regarding the size of finite sets applies to the size of infinite sets, leading to various apparently paradoxical results regarding enumeration, size, measure and order.\n", "The definition of equinumerosity using bijections can be applied to both finite and infinite sets and allows one to state whether two sets have the same size even if they are infinite. Georg Cantor, the inventor of set theory, showed in 1874 that there is more than one kind of infinity, specifically that the collection of all natural numbers and the collection of all real numbers, while both infinite, are not equinumerous (see Cantor's first uncountability proof). In a controversial 1878 paper, Cantor explicitly defined the notion of \"power\" of sets and used it to prove that the set of all natural numbers and the set of all rational numbers are equinumerous (an example of the situation where a proper subset of an infinite set is equinumerous to the original set), and that the Cartesian product of even a countably infinite number of copies of the real numbers is equinumerous to a single copy of the real numbers.\n", "However, there was a problem that Cantor was unable to solve: Is there an infinity sitting between the smaller infinity of all the fractions and the larger infinity of the decimals? Cantor believed, in what became known as the Continuum Hypothesis, that there is no such set. This would be the first problem listed by Hilbert.\n\nSection::::\"To Infinity and Beyond\".:Poincaré conjecture.\n", "Some sets have infinite cardinality. The set N of natural numbers, for instance, is infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For instance, the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers. However, it can be shown that the cardinality of (which is to say, the number of points on) a straight line is the same as the cardinality of any segment of that line, of the entire plane, and indeed of any finite-dimensional Euclidean space.\n\nSection::::Special sets.\n", "If a number is larger than another one, then the other is \"smaller than\" the first one. Examples: three is smaller than eight () and five is smaller than eight (). The symbol for \"smaller than\" is . A number cannot be at the same time larger and smaller than another number. Neither can a number be at the same time larger than and equal to another number. Given a pair of natural numbers, one and only one of the following cases must be true:\n\nBULLET::::- the first number is larger than the second one,\n", "Cardinal arithmetic can be used to show not only that the number of points in a real number line is equal to the number of points in any segment of that line, but that this is equal to the number of points on a plane and, indeed, in any finite-dimensional space.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12450	Audio jack makes different noises depending on who is holding it. Why?	So no expert at all, but, of you were grounded in some way it would complete a bigger circuit. Also because electronics conduct well through moisture (water). If you're hands were alot sweater it may also have this effect. Also your friends may not have touched it as hard or the same way.	[ "Less commonly, some jacks are provided with normally open (NO) or change-over contacts, and/or the switch contacts may be isolated from the connector.\n", "3-pin XLR connectors and quarter-inch (¼\" or 6.35 mm) TRS phone connectors are commonly used for balanced audio signals. Many jacks are now designed to take either XLR or TRS phone plugs. Equipment intended for long-term installation sometimes uses terminal strips or Euroblock connectors.\n", "Panel-mounting jacks are often provided with switch contacts. Most commonly, a mono jack is provided with one normally closed (NC) contact, which is connected to the tip (live) connection when no plug is in the socket, and disconnected when a plug is inserted. Stereo sockets commonly provide two such NC contacts, one for the tip (left channel live) and one for the ring or collar (right channel live). Some designs of jack also have such a connection on the sleeve. As this contact is usually ground, it is not much use for signal switching, but could be used to indicate to electronic circuitry that the socket was in use.\n", "Where a 3.5 mm or 2.5 mm jack is used as a DC power inlet connector, a switch contact may be used to disconnect an internal battery whenever an external power supply is connected, to prevent incorrect recharging of the battery.\n", "\"Rocksmith 2014\" recommends the use of the \"Hercules\" adapter, a USB cable that connects to the standard in (6.35 mm) output jack of most electric and bass guitars. Other guitars, such as acoustic guitars, may require additional hardware, such as a pickup.\n", "Section::::Implementations.\n", "BULLET::::- Some compact and/or economy model audio mixing desks use stereo jacks for balanced microphone inputs.\n\nBULLET::::- The majority of professional audio equipment uses TS jacks as the standard unbalanced input or output line-level connector. TRS jacks are sometimes used for balanced connections, the latter often alongside (or sometimes in the middle of) and as an alternative to an XLR balanced line connector.\n\nBULLET::::- Modular synthesizers commonly use monophonic cables for creating patches.\n", "BULLET::::- Samsung YP-S MP3 player \"pebble\" uses USB-to-3.5 mm TRRS jack adapter for charging as well as for data transfer.\n\nBULLET::::- On CCTV cameras and video encoders, mono audio in (originating from a microphone in or near the camera) and mono audio out (destined to a speaker in or near the camera) are provided on one three-conductor connector, where one signal is on the tip conductor and the other is on the ring conductor.\n", "BULLET::::- Some cameras (for example, Canon, Sigma, and Pentax DSLRs) use the 2.5 mm stereo jack for the connector for the remote shutter release (and focus activation); examples are Canon's RS-60E3 remote switch and Sigma's CR-21 wired remote control.\n", "The guitar output jack typically provides a monaural signal. Many guitars with active electronics use a jack with an extra contact normally used for stereo. These guitars use the extra contact to break the ground connection to the on-board battery to preserve battery life when the guitar is unplugged. These guitars require a mono plug to close the internal switch and connect the battery to ground. Standard guitar cables use a high-impedance mono plug. These have a tip and sleeve configuration referred to as a TS phone connector. The voltage is usually around 1 to 9 millivolts.\n", "BULLET::::- Devices designed for surround output may use multiple jacks for paired channels (e.g. TRS for front left and right; TRRS for front center, rear center, and subwoofer; and TRS for surround left and right). Circuitry on the sound device may be used to switch between traditional Line In/Line Out/Mic functions and surround output.\n\nBULLET::::- Almost all electric guitars use a in mono jack (socket) as their output connector. Some makes (such as Shergold) use a stereo jack instead for stereo output, or a second stereo jack, in addition to a mono jack (as with Rickenbacker).\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes:\n\nSection::::Design.:Balanced audio.\n", "Section::::Switch contacts.\n", "BULLET::::- Instrument amplifiers for guitars, basses and similar amplified musical instruments. in jacks are overwhelmingly the most common connectors for:\n\nBULLET::::- Inputs. A shielded cable with a mono in phone plug on each end is commonly termed a \"guitar cable\" or a \"patch cable\", the first name reflecting this usage, the second the history of the phone plug's development for use in manual telephone exchanges.\n", "Some newer computers, such as Lenovo laptops, have 3.5 mm TRRS headset sockets, which are compatible with phone headsets and may be distinguished by a headset icon instead of the usual headphones or microphone icons. These are particularly used for Voice over IP.\n\nSection::::Video.\n\nEquipment requiring video with stereo audio input/output sometimes uses 3.5 mm TRRS connectors. Two incompatible variants exist, of and length, and using the wrong variant may either simply not work, or could cause physical damage.\n", "The original purpose of these contacts was for switching in telephone exchanges, for which there were many patterns. Two sets of change-over contacts, isolated from the connector contacts, were common. The more recent pattern of one NC contact for each signal path, internally attached to the connector contact, stems from their use as headphone jacks. In many amplifiers and equipment containing them, such as electronic organs, a headphone jack is provided that disconnects the loudspeakers when in use. This is done by means of these switch contacts. In other equipment, a dummy load is provided when the headphones are not connected. This is also easily provided by means of these NC contacts.\n", "BULLET::::- Microphone input (mono, usually with 5 V power available on the ring. Note that traditional, incompatible, use of a stereo plug for a mono microphone is for balanced output)\n\nBULLET::::- Older laptop computers generally have one jack for headphones and one mono jack for a microphone at microphone level. An attenuating cable can be used to convert line level or use a signal from an XLR connector, but is not designed to record from a stereo device such as a radio or music player. Newer computers may feature a single TRRS female jack (see below).\n", "A standard stereo jack is used on most battery-powered guitar effects pedals to eliminate the need for a separate power switch. In this configuration, the internal battery has its negative terminal wired to the sleeve contact of the jack. When the user plugs in a two-conductor (mono) guitar or microphone lead, the resulting short-circuit between sleeve and ring connects an internal battery to the unit's circuitry, ensuring that it powers up or down automatically whenever a signal lead is inserted or removed. A drawback of this design is the risk of inadvertently discharging the battery if the lead is not removed after use, such as if the equipment is left plugged in overnight.\n", "With XLR connectors, pins 1, 2, and 3 are usually used for the shield (earthed or chassis), the non-inverting signal, and the inverting signal, respectively. (The phrase \"ground, live, return\", corresponding to \"X, L, R\", is often offered as a memory aid, although the inverting signal is not simply a \"return.\") On TRS phone plugs, the tip is non-inverting, the ring is inverting, and the sleeve is ground. \n", "BULLET::::- Loudspeaker outputs, especially on low-end equipment. On professional loudspeakers, Speakon connectors carry higher current, mate with greater contact area, lock in place and do not short out the amplifier upon insertion or disconnection. However, some professional loudspeakers carry both Speakon and TRS connectors for compatibility. Heavy-duty in loudspeaker jacks are rated at 15 A maximum which limits them to applications involving less than 1,800 watts. in loudspeaker jacks commonly are not rigged to lock the plug in place and will short out the amplifier's output circuitry if connected or disconnected when the amplifier is live.\n\nBULLET::::- Line outputs.\n", "BULLET::::- Quarter-inch phone connectors are widely used to connect external processing devices to mixing consoles' insert points (see Insert (effects processing)). Two- or three-conductor phone connectors might be used in pairs as separate \"send\" and \"return\" jacks, or a single three-conductor phone jack might be employed for both \"send\" and \"return\", in which case the signals are unbalanced. The one unbalanced combination send/return TRS insert jack saves both panel space and component complexity, but may introduce a slight buzz. Insert points on mixing consoles may also be XLR, RCA or bantam TT (tiny telephone) jacks, depending on the make and model.\n", "The Apple PlainTalk microphone jack used on some older Macintosh systems is designed to accept an extended 3.5 mm three-conductor phone connector; in this case, the tip carries power for a preamplifier inside the microphone. If a PlainTalk-compatible microphone is not available, the jack can accept a line-level sound input, though it cannot accept a standard microphone without a preamp.\n", "Section::::Historical development.:Less common.\n", "Section::::Other terms.\n\nSpecific models, and connectors used in specific applications, may be termed e.g. \"stereo plug\", \"headphone jack\", \"microphone jack\", \"aux input\", etc. The 3.5 mm versions are commonly called \"mini-phone\", \"mini-stereo\", \"mini jack\", etc.\n", "In the UK, the terms \"jack plug\" and \"jack socket\" are commonly used for the respective male and female phone connectors. In the US, a stationary (more fixed) electrical connector is called a \"jack\". The terms \"phone plug\" and \"phone jack\" are sometimes used to refer to different genders of phone connectors, but are also sometimes used to refer to RJ11 and older telephone plugs and the corresponding jacks that connect wired telephones to wall outlets.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02049	How Are Radioactive Rocks Formed?	Do you mean the kind of rocks that we can determine an absolute age for using radiometric dating methods? They naturally contain certain isotopes (isotopes are the name given to atoms of the same element that differ in mass due to varying numbers of neutrons in their nucleus) which are radioactive, and we can exploit this in certain cases to calculate how long since those isotopes were sealed off in a 'closed system' ie. how long since the mineral they are in cooled off enough to stop exchanging any atoms with melt or solid rock (solid state diffusion is a thing - slow, but exchange of atoms between two solids is perfectly possible). Anyway, like I said some isotopes just happen to be unstable, which means they will radioactively decay into certain other elements. We can measure the difference between the amount of parent isotope left and the amount of daughter isotope present and use it to back calculate a date. As well as being based on fundamental physics and mathematics, what can really make such calculated ages so reliable (within the error bars given), is that you can often run this sort of test on the same rock unit or even the same mineral within a rock for more than one different radiogenic system - there are many, and no, carbon-14 is pretty useless to geologists as that's barely scratching the surface in terms of how far back it can be used for. The gold standards are pretty much te different uranium-lead decay systems or the potassium-argon decay system for certain samples. To bring this back a bit, the point is that our planet has a certain set of ingredients in the form of the different chemical elements, and a certain proportion of them happen to exist in a variety of isotopes, some of which are radioactive. Let's take potassium (K) as an example as it is a relatively common element on Earth, particularly in the crust, and therefore it's in all the surface rocks and environments we know and love. Most potassium consists of the stable isotope ³⁹K, but about 0.01% of it today is the radioactive isotope ⁴⁰K which has one more neutron than ³⁹K, and whose decay to argon is much used in radiometric dating. It has a half life of ~1.2 billion years, which is quite handy for geologists who study the whole of Earth's 4.6 billion year history. Note that we can make calculations based on several half-lives, so that we are not just limited to 1.2 billion years (about 7 or 8 half-lives is the limit before measurements start getting unreliable). Radioactivity is a natural aspect of life on Earth then, and we have evolved to live with a certain amount of background radiation. I'm sure you've also heard that bananas are a source of potassium, so every time you eat a banana, a very small percentage of the potassium being consumed will be those radioactive isotopes.	[ "Lead is perhaps the best example of a partly radiogenic substance, as all four of its stable isotopes (Pb, Pb, Pb, and Pb) are present primordially, in known and fixed ratios. However, Pb is only present primordially, while the other three isotopes may also occur as radiogenic decay products of uranium and thorium. Specifically, Pb is formed from U, Pb from U, and Pb from Th. In rocks that contain uranium and thorium, the excess amounts of the three heavier lead isotopes allows the rocks to be \"dated,\" or the time estimate from when the rock solidified and the mineral held the ratio of isotopes fixed and in place.\n", "Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word \"igneus,\" meaning \"of fire,\" from \"ignis\" meaning \"fire)\" is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. This magma may be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.\n\nIgneous rocks are divided into two main categories:\n", "BULLET::::- Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust. A common example of this type is granite.\n\nBULLET::::- Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or \"fragmental ejecta\", forming minerals such as pumice or basalt.\n\nThe chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically forms a sequence known as Bowen's reaction series. Most major igneous rocks are found along this scale.\n", "Lead and zinc deposits are formed by discharge of deep sedimentary brine onto the sea floor (termed \"sedimentary exhalative\" or SEDEX), or by replacement of limestone, in skarn deposits, some associated with submarine volcanoes (called volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits or VMS), or in the aureole of subvolcanic intrusions of granite. The vast majority of SEDEX lead and zinc deposits are Proterozoic in age, although there are significant Jurassic examples in Canada and Alaska.\n", "Magma trapped below ground in thin intrusions cools more slowly than exposed magma and produces rocks with medium-sized crystals. Magma that remains trapped in large quantities below ground cools most slowly resulting in rocks with larger crystals, such as granite and gabbro.\n\nExisting rocks that come into contact with magma may be melted and assimilated into the magma. Other rocks adjacent to the magma may be altered by contact metamorphism or metasomatism as they are affected by the heat and escaping or externally-circulating hydrothermal fluids.\n\nSection::::Volcanism on other bodies.\n", "Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. The metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such large pressures and temperatures that they are transformed—something that occurs, for example, when continental plates collide. The sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis or lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport and deposition of existing rocks.\n\nThe scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of geology.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "The best known examples of this deposit type are in Arizona, USA, where several of these deposits have been mined.\n\nSection::::Deposit types (IAEA Classification).:Volcanic deposits.\n\nVolcanic deposits occur in felsic to intermediate volcanic to volcaniclastic rocks and associated caldera subsidence structures, comagmatic intrusions, ring dykes and diatremes.\n", "Section::::Formation environments.\n\nThe environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperatures and pressures of igneous melts deep within the Earth's crust to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth's surface.\n\nVarious possible methods of formation include:\n\nBULLET::::- sublimation from volcanic gases\n\nBULLET::::- deposition from aqueous solutions and hydrothermal brines\n\nBULLET::::- crystallization from an igneous magma or lava\n\nBULLET::::- recrystallization due to metamorphic processes and metasomatism\n\nBULLET::::- crystallization during diagenesis of sediments\n", "Nuclides that are produced by radioactive decay are called radiogenic nuclides, whether they themselves are stable or not. There exist stable radiogenic nuclides that were formed from short-lived extinct radionuclides in the early solar system. The extra presence of these stable radiogenic nuclides (such as Xe-129 from primordial I-129) against the background of primordial stable nuclides can be inferred by various means.\n", "Natural radioactive elements are present in very low concentrations in Earth's crust, and are brought to the surface through human activities such as oil and gas exploration or mining, and through natural processes like leakage of radon gas to the atmosphere or through dissolution in ground water. Another example of TENORM is coal ash produced from coal burning in power plants. If radioactivity is much higher than background level, handling TENORM may cause problems in many industries and transportation.\n\nSection::::NORM in oil and gas exploration.\n", "Some biochemical processes, like the activity of bacteria, can affect minerals in a rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis. Fungi and plants (by their roots) and various other organisms that live beneath the surface can also influence diagenesis.\n\nBurial of rocks due to ongoing sedimentation leads to increased pressure and temperature, which stimulates certain chemical reactions. An example is the reactions by which organic material becomes lignite or coal. When temperature and pressure increase still further, the realm of diagenesis makes way for metamorphism, the process that forms metamorphic rock.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Color.\n", "BULLET::::- HREE enrichment: HREE-enriched granitoids are formed by auto-metasomatism. It is a process of chemical alterations of recently crystallised felsic magma by the left-over hydrothermal fluid (e.g. water, CO etc.) at the later stage of magma crystallisation. During the chemical alteration, through various chemical reactions with hydrothermal fluids, HREEs are then introduced into secondary minerals along veinlets.\n\nSection::::Genesis of orebody.:Secondary processes.\n", "Here is a list of radioisotopes formed by the action of cosmic rays; the list also contains the production mode of the isotope. Most cosmogenic nuclides are formed in the atmosphere, but some are formed in situ in soil and rock exposed to cosmic rays, notably calcium-41 in the table below.\n", "Alpha particles that produce nucleogenic reactions come from natural alpha particle emitters in uranium and thorium decay chains. Neutrons to produce nucleogenic nuclides may be produced by a number of processes, but due to the short half-life of free neutrons, all of these reactions occur on Earth. Among the most common are cosmic ray spallation production of neutrons from elements near the surface of the Earth. Alpha emission produced by some radioactive decay also produces neutrons by spallation knockout of neutron rich isotopes, such as the reaction of alpha particles with oxygen-18. Neutrons are also produced by the neutron emission type of radioactive decay, and also from spontaneous fission of fissile elements on Earth, particularly uranium-235.\n", "In addition to the fusion processes responsible for the growing abundances of elements in the universe, a few minor natural processes continue to produce very small numbers of new nuclides on Earth. These nuclides contribute little to their abundances, but may account for the presence of specific new nuclei. These nuclides are produced via radiogenesis (decay) of long-lived, heavy, primordial radionuclides such as uranium and thorium.\n\nSection::::Timeline.\n", "The Frome Embayment in South Australia hosts several deposits of this type including Honeymoon, Oban, Beverley and [Four-Mile] (which is the largest deposit of this class). These deposits are hosted in palaeochannels filled with Cainozoic sediments and sourced their uranium from uranium-rich Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Mount Painter Inlier and the Olary Domain of the Curnamona Province.\n\nSection::::Deposit types (IAEA Classification).:Sandstone deposits.:Structurally related.\n", "There is also a tendency for metasomatism between the igneous magma and sedimentary country rock, whereby the chemicals in each are exchanged or introduced into the other. Granites may absorb fragments of shale or pieces of basalt. In that case, hybrid rocks called skarn arise, which don't have the characteristics of normal igneous or sedimentary rocks. Sometimes an invading granite magma permeates the rocks around, filling their joints and planes of bedding, etc., with threads of quartz and feldspar. This is very exceptional but instances of it are known and it may take place on a large scale.\n", "Section::::Petrographic characteristics.:Subsolidus and alteration minerals.\n\nMinerals that form in the rock as a result of chemical reactions that take place between primary minerals and hydrothermal fluids are classified as subsolidus minerals. They form below the temperature and pressure conditions of the solidus in the absence of a silicate melt. Other alteration minerals may form at surface conditions from interaction of the minerals present in the rock with groundwater and the atmosphere.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Fossils.\n\nAmong the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under magnification.\n", "Precambrian quartz-pebble conglomerate-type uranium deposits occur only in rocks older than two billion years old. The conglomerates also contain pyrite. These deposits have been mined in the Blind River-Elliot Lake district of Ontario, Canada, and from the gold-bearing Witwatersrand conglomerates of South Africa.\n\nUnconformity-type deposits make up about 33% of the World Outside Centrally Planned Economies Areas (WOCA)'s uranium deposits.\n\nSection::::Deposit types.:Igneous or hydrothermal.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nPorphyritic rocks are formed when a column of rising magma is cooled in two stages. In the first stage, the magma is cooled slowly deep in the crust, creating the large crystal grains, with a diameter of 2mm or more. In the final stage, the magma is cooled rapidly at relatively shallow depth or as it erupts from a volcano, creating small grains that are usually invisible to the unaided eye typically referred to as the ground mass.\n", "Tiny amounts of certain nuclides are produced on Earth by artificial means. Those are our primary source, for example, of technetium. However, some nuclides are also produced by a number of natural means that have continued after primordial elements were in place. These often act to create new elements in ways that can be used to date rocks or to trace the source of geological processes. Although these processes do not produce the nuclides in abundance, they are assumed to be the entire source of the existing natural supply of those nuclides.\n\nThese mechanisms include:\n", "Metal sources may include a plethora of rocks. However most metals of economic importance are carried as trace elements within rock-forming minerals, and so may be liberated by hydrothermal processes. This happens because of:\n\nBULLET::::- incompatibility of the metal with its host mineral, for example zinc in calcite, which favours aqueous fluids in contact with the host mineral during diagenesis.\n\nBULLET::::- solubility of the host mineral within nascent hydrothermal solutions in the source rocks, for example mineral salts (halite), carbonates (cerussite), phosphates (monazite and thorianite), and sulfates (barite)\n\nBULLET::::- elevated temperatures causing decomposition reactions of minerals\n", "Cosmogenic Nuclides are radioactive isotopes formed when high-energy particles (i.e. cosmic rays) interact with the nuclei of Solar System atoms. Calculating the abundance of these nuclides is a way to determine the age of exposure of surface rock, also known as Surface Exposure Dating.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n\nRare-earth elements, except scandium, are heavier than iron and thus are produced by supernova nucleosynthesis or by the s-process in asymptotic giant branch stars. In nature, spontaneous fission of uranium-238 produces trace amounts of radioactive promethium, but most promethium is synthetically produced in nuclear reactors.\n\nDue to their chemical similarity, the concentrations of rare earths in rocks are only slowly changed by geochemical processes, making their proportions useful for geochronology and dating fossils.\n\nSection::::Geological distribution.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00848	Why sometimes objects fall on their own?	There are always forces around. Tiny air currents, vibrations, and movement of items. It's possible that apparently stable piles are actually sliding tiny amounts, until the lack of balance overcomes the bulk of the static friction. Friction on a microscopic scale is complex. Others would know better, but I'm pretty sure we wouldn't need to go below microscopic scale to explain it, though. Or maybe it's poltergeists. :-)	[ "Aristotle held that there were four kinds of answers to \"why\" questions (in \"Physics\" II, 3, and \"Metaphysics\" V, 2):\n\nBULLET::::- Matter: a change or movement's material cause, is the aspect of the change or movement which is determined by the material that composes the moving or changing things. For a table, that might be wood; for a statue, that might be bronze or marble.\n", "BULLET::::- For large We (for which the magnitude depends on the specific surface structure), many satellite drops break off during spreading and/or retraction of the drop.\n\nSection::::On a wet solid surface.\n", "Fragile matter\n\nIn materials science, fragile matter is a granular material that is jammed solid. Everyday examples include beans getting stuck in a hopper in a whole food shop, or milk powder getting jammed in an upside-down bottle. The term was coined by physicist Michael Cates, who asserts that such circumstances warrant a new class of materials. The jamming thus described can be unjammed by mechanical means, such as tapping or shaking the container, or poking it with a stick.\n", "As Brown writes in his essay \"Thing Theory\":\n\nWe begin to confront the thingness of objects when they stop working for us: when the drill breaks, when the car stalls, when the window gets filthy, when their flow within the circuits of production and distribution, consumption and exhibition, has been arrested, however momentarily. The story of objects asserting themselves as things, then, is the story of a changed relationship to the human subject and thus the story of how the thing really names less an object than a particular subject-object relation.\n", "Section::::Mereology of material objects.:Conservative Theories.\n\nThere are various attempts to conserve the existence of parthood relationships. These theories all attempt to specify characteristics that a collection of objects must possess in order to compose a whole. Characteristics may derive from some principle or be proposed as brute fact.\n\nSection::::Mereology of material objects.:Conservative Theories.:Principled Accounts.\n", "When two macroscopically smooth surfaces come into contact, initially they only touch at a few of these asperity points. These cover only a very small portion of the surface area. Friction and wear originate at these points, and thus understanding their behavior becomes important when studying materials in contact. When the surfaces are subjected to a compressive load, the asperities deform through elastic and plastic modes, increasing the contact area between the two surfaces until the contact area is sufficient to support the load.\n", "Also in common usage, an object is not constrained to consist of the same collection of matter. Atoms or parts of an object may change over time. An object is defined by the simplest representation of the boundary consistent with the observations. However the laws of Physics only apply directly to objects that consist of the same collection of matter.\n\nIn physics, an object is an identifiable collection of matter, which may be constrained by an identifiable boundary, and may move as a unit by translation or rotation, in 3-dimensional space.\n", "The unsettling nature of impossible objects occurs because of our natural desire to interpret 2D drawings as three-dimensional objects. This is why a drawing of a Necker cube would be most likely seen as a cube, rather than \"two squares connected with diagonal lines, a square surrounded by irregular planar figures, or any other planar figure.\" With an impossible object, looking at different parts of the object makes one reassess the 3D nature of the object, which confuses the mind.\n\nImpossible objects are of interest to psychologists, mathematicians and artists without falling entirely into any one discipline.\n\nSection::::Notable examples.\n", "Section::::Blittable types defined.\n", "These results supported Galileo's hypothesis that objects of different weights, when measured at the same point in their fall, are falling at the same speed because they experience the same gravitational acceleration.\n\nSection::::Antoine Lavoisier.\n", "A stationary object (or set of objects) is in \"static equilibrium,\" which is a special case of mechanical equilibrium. A paperweight on a desk is an example of static equilibrium. Other examples include a rock balance sculpture, or a stack of blocks in the game of Jenga, so long as the sculpture or stack of blocks is not in the state of collapsing.\n\nObjects in motion can also be in equilibrium. A child sliding down a slide at constant speed would be in mechanical equilibrium, but not in static equilibrium (in the reference frame of the earth or slide).\n", "Technically, an object is in free fall even when moving upwards or instantaneously at rest at the top of its motion. If gravity is the only influence acting, then the acceleration is always downward and has the same magnitude for all bodies, commonly denoted formula_1.\n\nSince all objects fall at the same rate in the absence of other forces, objects and people will experience weightlessness in these situations.\n\nExamples of objects not in free fall:\n\nBULLET::::- Flying in an aircraft: there is also an additional force of lift.\n", "The attraction between objects that create depressions can be seen as 2 balls in a trampoline, which have a kind of hill between them but they still fall into each other because the \"hill\" at the opposite side is larger than that in the middle. You only see the depression around the object where the bend is enough to be noticeable, but it reaches the edges of the container. \n", "BULLET::::5. 12–18 months: Tertiary Circular Reaction – The child gains means-end knowledge and is able to solve new problems. The child is now able to retrieve an object when it is hidden several times within his or her view, but cannot locate it when it is outside their perceptual field.\n", "For a rigid body, the boundary of an object may change over time by continuous translation and rotation. For a deformable body the boundary may also be continuously deformed over time in other ways.\n", "Aristotle made a distinction between the essential and accidental properties of a thing. For example, a chair can be made of wood or metal, but this is accidental to its being a chair: that is, it is still a chair regardless of the material from which it is made. To put this in technical terms, an accident is a property which has no necessary connection to the essence of the thing being described.\n", "In his book \"Material Beings\", Van Inwagen argues that all material objects are either elementary particles or living organisms. Every composite material object is made up of elementary particles, and the only such composite objects are living organisms. A consequence of this view is that everyday objects such as tables, chairs, cars, buildings, and clouds do not exist. While there seem to be such things, this is only because there are elementary particles arranged in specific ways. For example, where it seems that there is a chair, Van Inwagen says that there are only \"elementary particles arranged chairwise.\" These particles do not compose an object, any more than a swarm of bees composes an object. Like a swarm of bees, the particles we call a chair maintain a more or less stable arrangement for a while, which gives the impression of a single object. An individual bee, by contrast, has parts that are unified in the right way to constitute a single object (namely, a bee).\n", "In common usage, a physical object or physical body (or simply a object or body) is a collection of matter within a defined contiguous boundary in 3-dimensional space. The boundary must be defined and identified by the properties of the material. The boundary may change over time. The boundary is usually the visible or tangible surface of the object. The matter in the object is constrained (to a greater or lesser degree) to move as one object. The boundary may move in space relative to other objects that it is not attached to (through translation and rotation). An object's boundary may also deform and change over time in other ways.\n", "In continuum mechanics an object may be described as a collection of sub objects, down to an infinitesimal division, which interact with each other by forces which may be described internally by pressure and mechanical stress.\n\nSection::::Quantum mechanics.\n", "BULLET::::3. 4–8 months: Secondary Circular Reactions – Babies will reach for an object that is partially hidden, indicating knowledge that the whole object is still there. If an object is completely hidden however the baby makes no attempt to retrieve it. The infant learns to coordinate vision and comprehension. Actions are intentional but the child tends to repeat similar actions on the same object. Novel behaviors are not yet imitated.\n", "It can be said that two objects in space orbiting each other in the absence of other forces are in free fall around each other, e.g. that the Moon or an artificial satellite \"falls around\" the Earth, or a planet \"falls around\" the Sun. Assuming spherical objects means that the equation of motion is governed by Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation, with solutions to the gravitational two-body problem being elliptic orbits obeying Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This connection between falling objects close to the Earth and orbiting objects is best illustrated by the thought experiment, Newton's cannonball.\n", "Although possible to represent in two dimensions, it is not geometrically possible for such an object to exist in the physical world. However some models of impossible objects have been constructed, such that when they are viewed from a very specific point, the illusion is maintained. Rotating the object or changing the viewpoint breaks the illusion, and therefore many of these models rely on forced perspective or having parts of the model appearing to be further or closer than they actually are.\n", "Section::::General application to elastic materials.\n\nObjects that quickly regain their original shape after being deformed by a force, with the molecules or atoms of their material returning to the initial state of stable equilibrium, often obey Hooke's law.\n", "A roly-poly toy, round-bottomed doll, tilting doll, tumbler or wobbly man is a round-bottomed toy, usually egg-shaped, that tends to right itself when pushed at an angle, and does this in seeming contradiction to the force of gravity. The toy is typically hollow with a weight inside the bottom hemisphere. The placement of this weight is such that the toy has a center of mass below the center of the hemisphere, so that any tilting raises the center of mass. When such a toy is pushed over, it wobbles for a few moments while it seeks the upright orientation, which has an equilibrium at the minimum gravitational potential energy.\n", "Section::::On a dry solid surface.:On superhydrophobic surfaces.\n\nSection::::On a dry solid surface.:On superhydrophobic surfaces.:Small drop deformation.\n" ]	[ "Objects fall on their own." ]	[ "Objects only fall when exposed to a force. It is possible the force was not directly visible." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Objects fall on their own." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Objects only fall when exposed to a force. It is possible the force was not directly visible." ]
2018-02283	Can smartphone companies make a better phone than what they release? Do they really make the best phone they can make or do they not give it their all so they have something new to release the year after?	In any project or manufacturing situation, you can always make a "better" product. However, it will likely cost more, and/or take longer to make. Your goal is not to make a "better" product, its to make a product that is the right quality, right goodness, right price, and right time for release.	[ "BULLET::::- N7x - 7 series is the balanced, least expensive Nseries range with fewer features\n\nBULLET::::- N8x - 8 series is the higher range Nseries range w/ cameras (ex. N82, N85 and N86 8MP)\n\nBULLET::::- N9x - 9 series is the highest end and the most expensive Nseries ran, e models\n\nThere are exceptions though - considering N8x, both the N82 and N86 8MP were top-of-the-range smartphones with advanced cameras, so are clearly 'high-end' as their fellow N9x models.\n\nSection::::Operating systems.\n", "Several phone series have been introduced to address a given market segment, such as the RIM BlackBerry focusing on enterprise/corporate customer email needs; the SonyEricsson Walkman series of musicphones and Cybershot series of cameraphones; the Nokia Nseries of multimedia phones, the Palm Pre the HTC Dream and the Apple iPhone.\n", "BULLET::::- Ericsson T39 – Similar to the T28, but with a GPRS modem, Bluetooth and triband capabilities\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson T65\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson T66\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson T68m – The first Ericsson handset to have a color display, later branded as Sony Ericsson T68i\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson R250s Pro – Fully dust and water resistant telephone\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson R310s\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson R320s\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson R320s Titan – Limited Edition with titanium front\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson R320s GPRS – Prototype for testing GPRS networks\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson R360m – Pre-alpha prototype for the R520m\n\nBULLET::::- Ericsson R380 – First cellphone to use the Symbian OS\n", "BULLET::::- HTC Desire 300, a smaller variant of the HTC Desire 601 with a 4.3 Inch screen\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Desire 700, a large 5 Inch mid-range phone with two SIM card slots\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Desire 501, a lower mid-range device\n\nSection::::2014.\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Desire Eye, first Desire series phone with high-end flagship specs and a 13-megapixel front camera with a host of new camera features\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Desire 820, improvement to the Desire 816\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Desire 816, the first Phablet in the Desire line with higher mid-range specs\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Desire 620, improvement to Desire 616\n", "BULLET::::- TouchWiz Nature UX 5.x – based on Android \"Lollipop\" 5.0.x – 5.1.x, redesigned UI\n\nBULLET::::- TouchWiz Grace UX – based on Android \"Marshmallow\" 6.x, redesigned UI\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Experience 8.x – based on Android \"Nougat\" 7.x, redesigned UI\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Experience 9.x – based on Android \"Oreo\" 8.x, redesigned UI\n\nBULLET::::- Xperia UI\n", "BULLET::::- Sony Xperia X - via Sailfish X\n\nBULLET::::- Inoi R7 - Sailfish OS Rus\n\nBULLET::::- TRI Turing Phone\n\nBULLET::::- Intex Aqua Fish\n\nSection::::Hardware overview.:Planned and announced Devices.\n\nSeveral devices have been announced with official support for for future release.\n\nBULLET::::- F(x)tec Pro1 - announced for July 2019 (formerly announced for Q1/2019 as Livermorium F(x))\n\nBULLET::::- Planet Computers Cosmo Communicator - not yet released\n\nBULLET::::- INOI T10 - announced in 2018\n\nBULLET::::- Inoi R7 Rugged - publicly shown by Jolla, but never seen available\n\nBULLET::::- Youyota Tablet - crowdfunding in 2017; cancelled in 2018\n", "Dan Seifert of \"The Verge\" gave the S9 a score of 8.5, stating that its performance, camera and design were satisfactory. However, he was not amused by the average battery life and the addition of Bixby, also saying that Samsung has a poor history of updating their smartphones.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Sales.\n", "BULLET::::- Motorola Droid XReleased July 15, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid 2Released August 12, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid ProOptimized for business users, released November 18, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Droid Incredible 2Released February 26, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Droid ChargeReleased May 14, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid X2Released May 19, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid 3Released July 7, 2011, shipping with 2.3.6 Gingerbread\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid BionicReleased September 8, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid RazrReleased November 11, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid Razr MaxxShipping January 26, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid 4Released February 10, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Droid Incredible 4G LTEReleased July 5, 2012\n", "BULLET::::- Siemens SL45i\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SL55\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SL56: the American version of the Siemens SL55, available only on AT&T.\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SL65: TFT 130x130 display, GSM 900 / 1800 / 1900, VGA (640 x 480 pixel) camera, IRDA, slider form factor\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SL75\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SP65\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens ST55\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens ST60\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SX1, first and only smartphone produced by Siemens\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SX45\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SX56\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SX66\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens SXG75\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens U10\n\nBULLET::::- Siemens U15\n\nBULLET::::- Xelibri X1\n\nBULLET::::- Xelibri X2\n\nBULLET::::- Xelibri X3\n\nBULLET::::- Xelibri X4\n\nBULLET::::- Xelibri X5\n\nBULLET::::- Xelibri X6\n", "International producers:\n\nBULLET::::- Alcatel (previously Alcatel OneTouch)\n\nBULLET::::- BlackBerry\n\nBULLET::::- Coolpad\n\nBULLET::::- HTC\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei\n\nBULLET::::- Kyocera\n\nBULLET::::- LG\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Mobile Oy (previously part of Nokia Oyj)\n\nBULLET::::- NEC Casio (G'zOne)\n\nBULLET::::- Pantech\n\nBULLET::::- Personal Communications Devices (PCD)\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung\n\nBULLET::::- Sharp\n\nBULLET::::- Sony\n\nBULLET::::- ZTE\n\nSection::::Mobile phone vs. cell phone.\n", "BULLET::::- XT899 Atrix 3\n\nBULLET::::- XT890 RAZR i (first Smartphone with Intel Atom on IA-32-Architecture)\n\nBULLET::::- MT788 RAZR i (China)\n\nBULLET::::- XT894 Droid 4\n\nBULLET::::- XT897 Photon Q LTE (U.S. Sprint Corporation)\n\nBULLET::::- XT901 Electrify M\n\nBULLET::::- Droid RAZR M\n\nBULLET::::- XT905\n\nBULLET::::- XT906\n\nBULLET::::- XT907\n\nBULLET::::- Droid RAZR\n\nBULLET::::- XT910 UMTS (India)\n\nBULLET::::- XT912 LTE (U.S. Verizon Wireless)\n\nBULLET::::- Droid RAZR HD\n\nBULLET::::- XT925 (Europe, South America, Australia and Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- XT926\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Atrix 4G\n\nBULLET::::- Moto E (1st generation)\n\nBULLET::::- XT830C Straight Talk prepaid\n\nBULLET::::- XT1021 single SIM\n\nBULLET::::- XT1022 dual SIM\n", "BULLET::::- N950 does not have support for Near Field Communication (NFC)\n\nBULLET::::- The Nokia N9 has a slightly more sensitive magnetometer and ambient light sensor (ALS)\n\nBULLET::::- N950 has a 1320 mAh battery, Nokia N9 has a 1450 mAh battery\n\nBULLET::::- The Nokia N9’s MeeGo Harmattan software can be updated over-the-air (OTA), this feature is not available in the N950 as it is a MeeGo developers' phone.\n\nSection::::Development tools.\n\nNokia N950 developers can use tools from Nokia including the Qt SDK, or Harmattan Python for software development.\n", "BULLET::::- Motorola Milestone/Droid, 1 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Magic, 1 million sold\n\nSection::::Annual best-selling handsets.:2010.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPhone 4, 40 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S, 20 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung S5620 Monte, 7 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia N8, 6 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Milestone/Droid, 2 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Wave (S8500), 2 million sold\n\nSection::::Annual best-selling handsets.:2011.\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S II, 40 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPhone 4s,16.4 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Y, 15 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- HTC Evo 4G, 14 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Droid Bionic, 13 million sold\n\nBULLET::::- ZTE Blade, 10 million sold\n", "Section::::Modular phone platforms.\n\nSection::::Modular phone platforms.:Current.\n\nBULLET::::- Moto Z, Moto Z Force, and Moto Z Play by Motorola Mobility\n\nBULLET::::- Essential Phone by Essential Products\n\nBULLET::::- Fairphone 2 by Fairphone\n\nBULLET::::- SHIFT6m and SHIFT5me by SHIFT\n\nBULLET::::- LG G5 by LG\n\nSection::::Modular phone platforms.:In development.\n\nBULLET::::- PuzzlePhone\n\nBULLET::::- SHIFTmu by SHIFT\n\nSection::::Modular phone platforms.:Discontinued.\n\nBULLET::::- Project Ara by Google\n\nBULLET::::- Phonebloks\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bug Labs\n\nBULLET::::- Modular laptop\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola\n\nBULLET::::- Modular design\n\nBULLET::::- Prosumer revolution\n\nBULLET::::- Rollable display\n\nBULLET::::- Software release life cycle\n\nBULLET::::- StEP Initiative\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- 2006: PWI manufacturers Ocean, first dual-sliding, double keyboard handset, created for Helio\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Slate, “world’s thinnest phone with a QWERTY keyboard,” created for AT&T\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Launched Breeze, an easy-to-use and “top performing” handset for AT&T\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Launched ‘Matrix Pro’, a dual sliding smart phone for AT&T\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Launched Impact, Pantech's first haptic, dual key-board 3G Quick Messaging phone for AT&T\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Launched Reveal, a slider with simultaneous numeric and QWERTY keypad 3G Quick Messaging phone for AT&T\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Link, Pantech's ultra-slim and sleek messaging phone launches at AT&T\n", "BULLET::::- December 2014, Kodak announced its first phone, the Kodak Ektra smartphone made by Bullitt Group. The phone was expected to become available in December 2016, initially in Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- January 2016, Kodak shows off a prototype of the new Super 8 Camera at CES.\n\nBULLET::::- January 2017, Kodak announced it was bringing back its Ektachrome film.\n\nBULLET::::- May 2017, Kodak released the Ektra smartphone to the US market.\n\nBULLET::::- June 2017, Kodak announced plans to release 7\" and 10\" tablets with ARCHOS in Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- On November 8, 2011, the update was released for the Canadian provider Telus Mobility and its brand Koodo Mobile to all customers with the LG Optimus One P500h.\n\nBULLET::::- On February 9, 2012, LG released the update for LG Phoenix users on AT&T Mobility\n\nBULLET::::- Metro PCS prepare to release LG Optimus M+ with new processor, bigger screen, better bluetooth connectivity and higher camera resolutions than the old one.\n\nBULLET::::- On April 4, 2012, the update for American provider Sprint's LG Optimus S was issued (Android 2.3 ZVJ).\n", "Brian Caulfield of \"Forbes\" in his review wrote that \"the Lumia 900 might be the best Windows handset yet, but it won’t break Apple and Android’s grip on the smartphone market.\"\n", "One exception is Rogers in Canada which has not upgraded the phone past Android 2.1, and NTT Docomo in Japan, which has not upgraded the phone past Android 1.6. Another is Proximus in Belgium and HTC in Taiwan, which has released no updates to the Android 1.5 firmware.\n\nSection::::Hardware.\n\nBULLET::::- Two different hardware platforms exist for this phone; they need different boot images and wireless LAN kernel modules:\n\nBULLET::::- The PVT32A, with a Qualcomm MSM7200A ARM11 processor, and 288 MB RAM.\n\nBULLET::::- The PVT32B, with a Qualcomm MSM7201A ARM11 processor, and 192 MB RAM.\n", "BULLET::::- Huawei Ascend Mate (2013)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Ascend Mate 2 (4G) (2014)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Ascend Mate 7\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate S (2015)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate SE\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 8 (2015)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 9 (2016)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 9 Lite (also called Honor 6x)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 9 Pro (2016)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Porsche Design Mate 9\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 10 (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 10 Pro (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 10 Lite [also known as Huawei Nova 2i or Huawei Maimang 6 or Honor 9i (in India)] (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Porsche Design Mate 10 (2017)\n", "Phone Arena has criticized the lack of microSD slot for storage expansion given so little internal storage, the lack of camera flash, the lack of a front-facing camera, the low-resolution video capture and too little RAM memory (256 MB RAM) that makes the phone slow and prevents running some applications.\n\nOn 25 February 2013, the Nokia Lumia 520, the successor of the Nokia Lumia 510, was presented. The improvements are Windows Phone 8, dual-core 1 GHz Qualcomm S4 chipset, 512 MB of RAM, a better IPS panel display and support for up to 64 GB microSD cards.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Hardware.\n", "BULLET::::- Huawei Porsche Design Mate RS\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 20 (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 20 Pro (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 20 Lite (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 20 X (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 20 Porsche RS (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate X (2019)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 30 (2019)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 30 Pro (2019)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Mate 30 Lite (2019)\n\nSection::::Ascend P series/P series.\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Ascend P1 (2012, discontinued)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Ascend P1 LTE (2012, discontinued)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Ascend P1 S (2012, discontinued)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Ascend P1 XL (2012, discontinued)\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei Ascend P2 (2013, discontinued)\n", "BULLET::::- Alcatel Idol 3\n\nBULLET::::- Fairphone 2\n\nBULLET::::- HP TouchPad\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Moto Z Play\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Moto X Force\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Moto X 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Moto G 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola Moto G4 Plus\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus X\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus One\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3T\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy A5\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Xperia X Compact\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Redmi 2\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Redmi Note 3\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Redmi Note 4\n\nBULLET::::- Xiaomi Redmi 5 Plus\n", "\"The New York Times\"' technology columnist David Pogue praised the attention to detail in its design, along with its performance, camera, and display quality; and considered it to be \"the most beautiful [Android phone] you’ve ever seen\". However, Pogue criticized HTC's continuing usage on the Sense user interface, the arrangement of its physical navigation keys, the inability for users to expand its storage or replace its battery, and its \"typical [one day] 4G LTE Android\" battery life. In conclusion, Pogue stated that \"you could quibble with the software overlays, but it would be hard to imagine a more impressive piece of phone hardware.\"\n", "BULLET::::- March – Google and partners officially launched Android Go (based on Android \"Oreo\" 8.1 but tailored for low-end devices) with Nokia 1, Alcatel 1X, ZTE Tempo Go, General Mobile 8 Go, Micromax Bharat Go and Lava Z50.\n\nBULLET::::- March – Google release Android \"P\" as a developer preview.\n\nBULLET::::- April – Microsoft release Windows 10 Version 1803 \"April 2018 Update\".\n\nBULLET::::- May - Huawei release LiteOS version 2.1.\n\nBULLET::::- June – Apple announced iOS 12.\n\nBULLET::::- August – Google releases Android 9.0 \"Pie\".\n\nBULLET::::- August – Xiaomi officially introduce MIUI for POCO for their Poco series smartphone.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Smartphone companies make the best phone they can make." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Making a better phone is a tradeoff of time and cost so they balance that with other things to arrive at the final product." ]
2018-04093	How are the b52s physically flying with how airline aircraft can only have so many Cabin pressurizations due to micro-fracturing of the metal before they're retired?	Actual flying hours isn't as important to aircraft life as take-offs and landing cycles because that's what stresses the airframe. The jolt of landing, and the pressurization and De-presurization of the aircraft. Take a pop bottle and suck out all the air, then fill it again, then bang it against the desk. Notice how it returns to its original shape, but somewhat deformed. The more you do that, the more damage to the bottle. Eventually it will crack and break. This is also why C-47's and WW2 aircraft are still in service today, because they aren't pressurized and therefore don't deal with the same airframe stresses. As for the B-52'2, the B-52 fleet is very large and has very few missions, hours+cycles compared to commercial airliners. Individual bombers aren't doing 2-3 take offs and landings a day. Also the US air force is willing to pay huge sums of money to retrofit, repair and overhaul the fleet to keep them in service. Airliners don't bother because it's too expensive. The reason for this is that if you have a 737 that's past it's life, it's cheaper to just buy a newer 737 because they still make them. B-52's haven't been made in decades so it's cheaper to refurbish them than to develop a new bomber. TLDR: The US air force has a lot of them, and they don't fly that often.	[ "By then, however, it had been sold to Basler Turbo Conversions of Oshkosh, Wisconsin, to be converted into a BT-67, one of four the company makes from the old DC-3s every year, a process which leaves only 30% of the original craft and scraps the rest. The owner had flown it to Wittman Regional Airport, where Basler is based. The company had put it in their boneyard to await the procedure, which it was scheduled to begin within six months.\n", "Section::::Module construction and deployment timeline.:Expandable habitat modules.:B330.\n\nThe B330 is a full-scale production module weighing approximately , with dimensions of approximately in length and in diameter when expanded. Previous names for the B330 were the BA 330 and the Nautilus.\n", "Section::::Currently.\n\nIn late 2008, the Museum assembled a volunteer restoration team to accelerate the process of bringing B-17G, #44-83684, “Piccadilly Lilly II” back to flight condition. In 2009, significant progress was made with respect to the short-term goals of 1) enhancing the visitor experience and 2) systematically repairing and mitigating on-going degradation of structural components. Efforts have focused on the restoration of various crew stations so that visitors can more easily put themselves in the shoes of a young crew member at 25,000 feet on a bombing run over enemy territory in late World War II.\n", "A need to move goods and equipment made use of different general aviation aircraft and surplus military transports. In 1963 in the United Kingdom the Maidenhead Organ Studios purchased a twin-engined Beagle B.206 to allow them to delivery electronic organs.\n\nSection::::General aviation — Turboprop.\n\nFor the first half of 2018, while business jets deliveries were relatively flat, new turboprops were up 10%, pressurized ones were up 12%, and King Airs were up 30%.\n", "In 1982, Pratt & Whitney studied retrofitting B-52s with four Pratt & Whitney PW2000 (F117) engines, but this was not done, since all B-52s were to be replaced by B-1s and B-2s by the late 1990s. In 1996 Rolls-Royce and Boeing jointly proposed to fit B-52s with four leased Rolls-Royce RB211-535 engines, but this plan failed because of Air Force resistance to leasing combat assets and a negative Air Force economic analysis which was later disputed as flawed.\n", "Section::::Development.:Further development.\n", "In early June, a redesigned blade was flight tested on Rolls-Royce's 747-200 as 35 were grounded, and easing ETOPS restrictions would need convincing regulatory agencies that disrupting a single-engine diversion is improbable enough.\n\nA similar IP Compressor durability issue was identified on some Package B engines, the 166 Package B engines will be inspected on-wing as an EASA will be published in June 2018.\n\nA precautionary redesign of the Package B part was started, as for the Trent 1000 TEN, while its young fleet did not show reduced IPC durability.\n", "Section::::Operators.\n\nThe USAF had 62 B-1Bs in service as of August 2017.\n\nSection::::Aircraft on display.\n\nBULLET::::- B-1A:\n\nBULLET::::- B-1B:\n\nSection::::Accidents and incidents.\n\nFrom 1984 to 2001, ten B-1s were lost due to accidents with 17 crew members or people on board killed.\n", "An B777-300ER's GE90 LLP set is priced at $9 million while the A380's Trent 900 costs $7 million, both for 15,000 cycles.\n\nBetween 2019 and 2038, 5,200 spare airliner engines will be required with at least half leased.\n\nAn engine overhaul for a B737-800 costs $3.1 million every 20,000 hours, or $3.4 million every 15,000 hours for earlier variants, while for a B757 powerplant it costs $4.5 million every 24,000 hours.\n", "B-52s are periodically refurbished at USAF maintenance depots such as Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma. Even while the Air Force works on a new bomber, it intends to keep the B-52H in service until 2045, nearly 90 years after the B-52 first entered service, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft, civilian or military.\n", "The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. The B-52 Stratofortress airframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. The B-21 is projected to replace the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s.\n", "No operational B-2s have been retired by the Air Force to be put on display. B-2s have made periodic appearances on ground display at various air shows.\n", "The -94B for the -200ER is being retrofitted with some of the first FAA-approved 3D-printed components.\n\nIt has an in-flight shutdown rate (IFSD) of one per million engine flight-hours. It accumulated more than 8 million cycles and 50 million flight hours in 20 years.\n\nSection::::Operational history.:Records.\n\nThe GE90-115B is powerful enough to fully operate GE's Boeing 747-100 testbed on its own power, an attribute demonstrated during a flight test.\n", "Throughout the years of air displays across the country, the CAF and the many volunteers kept \"FIFI\" in the air. In 2006, however, following a series of engine problems, including engine failure occurring during an airshow, the B-29/B-24 Squadron made the difficult decision to ground the aircraft until more reliable engines could be fitted. In a joint press release, dated 21 January 2008, the Commemorative Air Force and the Cavanaugh Flight Museum announced a pledge of $1.2 million to re-engine \"FIFI\".\n", "On July 7, 2016, it flew for the first time since 1956, piloted by members of \"FIFI\"'s flight crews. Take off was delayed due to issues with the forward bomb bay doors latching shut, and the flight was conducted with the undercarriage down. The event was livestreamed on YouTube and the Doc's Friends website.\n\nThe Smithsonian Institution's \"Air & Space/Smithsonian\" magazine carried an in depth review of \"Doc's\" history in its September 2016 issue.\n", "Section::::Design.:Avionics and systems.\n", "The first home constructed post-war Chilton was the Canadian \"C-GIST\", built during 1980-91 and powered by a Volkswagen engine. It is currently in the UK, non-flying but with plans for a rebuild with a Walter Mikron. The first UK build was \"G-BWGJ\", powered by the 55 hp Lycoming O-145 engine from the prewar \"G-AFGH\". It flew but has been in store for several years. The Mikron powered \"G-CDXU\" has been flying again since 2009. A second Mikron powered DW1A Chilton, G-JUJU 'Black Magic' flew for the first time in July 2015 and is maintained in airworthy condition\n\nSection::::Survivors.\n", "Many types can be converted from airliner to freighter by installing a main deck cargo door with its control systems; upgrading floor beams for cargo loads and replacing passenger equipment and furnishings with new linings, ceilings, lighting, floors, drains and smoke detectors.\n\nSpecialized engineering teams rival Airbus and Boeing, giving the aircraft another 15–20 years of life.\n\nAeronautical Engineers Inc. converts the Boeing 737-300/400/800, MD-80 and Bombardier CRJ200.\n", "The TCA Canadair North Star airliner has its Rolls-Royce Merlin piston engines overhauled in Winnipeg on a regular schedule. Engine parts are tested, and depending on damage that is detected, may be repaired or replaced. An engine test bay is also available to ensure the engines are ready to go back onto the North Stars. \n", "According to Andrew Edmondson, engineering director of the Trust, the restoration of XH558 was \"the most complex return-to-flight project ever attempted in the world\". The Trust's head often references the 11-year gap between the first flights of the Lancaster bomber and the Vulcan to highlight to the public what a tremendous technological leap forward it was. It is classified by the CAA in the complex category, because there are no manual backups to the powered systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Refurbished after sitting in storage at the \"boneyard\" at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Arizona since 2008, the B-52G Stratofortress \"Ghost Rider\" flies from Davis-Monthan to Barksdale Air Force Base in Shreveport, Louisiana, and returns to active service. It is the first time that the United States Air Force has returned a B-52 that had been in long-term storage to active service.\n\nBULLET::::- 15 February\n", "Section::::Engineering.:Post-restoration.\n\nAs the aircraft operated under visual flight rules (VFR), it could not fly through clouds to higher altitudes where turbulence is lower, as this would require instrument flight rules (IFR) certification. Flying VFR in lower, often turbulent air, the airframe suffers from more fatigue which increases fatigue-index (FI) consumption. A longer-term aim was to make the authorised modifications depending on the usage of fatigue index and engine cycle, to allow the fatigue life to match expected engine life with both expiring at about the same time.\n", "In 2013, the FAA modified 14 CFR part 91 rules to prohibit the operation of jets weighing 75,000 pounds or less that are not stage 3 noise compliant after December 31, 2015. The Learjet 24 is listed explicitly in Federal Register 78 FR 39576. Any Learjet 24s that have not been modified by installing Stage 3 noise compliant engines or have not had \"hushkits\" installed for non-compliant engines will not be permitted to fly in the contiguous 48 states after December 31, 2015. \"14 CFR §91.883 Special flight authorizations for jet airplanes weighing 75,000 pounds or less\" – lists special flight authorizations that may be granted for operation after December 31, 2015.\n", "Section::::Design and development.:Further developments.\n\nWith the demise of the Bede Aircraft Company, the BD-5 entered a sort of limbo while builders completed their kits. The early safety problems and the challenge of adapting a suitable engine exacerbated delays. Over the next few years, however, solutions to most of these problems arrived in one form or another. Many other changes have also been incorporated to improve the original design.\n", "It passed one-million flight hours in October 2017 without any in-flight disruptions and with a dispatch reliability of 99.4%.\n\nBy February 2018, it has completed 1.3 million flight hours with a 99.9% dispatch reliability.\n\nIt took two years to reach one million flying hours and nine months for the second million by July 2018, as 500 were delivered, it has a 99.9% dispatch reliability and had no in-flight shutdown yet.\n" ]	[ "B52s should have a lot of cracks and not be able to fly after a while." ]	[ "The cracks come from pressurization and de pressurization which B52s do not go through. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "B52s should have a lot of cracks and not be able to fly after a while." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The cracks come from pressurization and de pressurization which B52s do not go through. " ]
2018-00140	Why does milk in the US taste different than milk in Canada?	It's all in the cows diet. I've had milk from a cow that got into an onion patch... It definitely tasted like onion and was disgusting.	[ "Milk comes in a variety of containers with local variants:\n\nBULLET::::- Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- Australia and New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Chile\n\nBULLET::::- China\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro\n\nBULLET::::- Estonia\n\nBULLET::::- Parts of Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Finland\n\nBULLET::::- Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- Indonesia\n\nBULLET::::- Israel\n\nBULLET::::- Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Kenya\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines\n\nBULLET::::- Poland\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- Uruguay\n", "Section::::Processing.\n\nIn most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities process milk and products obtained from milk, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the U.S., these dairies usually are local companies, while in the Southern Hemisphere facilities may be run by large multi-national corporations such as Fonterra.\n\nSection::::Processing.:Pasteurization.\n", "BULLET::::- \"homogenized milk\" or \"homo milk\": milk containing 3.25% milk fat, typically called \"whole milk\" in the United States.\n", "The Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC) was established in 1970. The CMSMC was responsible for setting the national Market Sharing Quota (MSQ).\n\nSection::::Administration.\n\nThe Minister of Agriculture and Agri-food is responsible for the Canadian Dairy Commission.\n\nOne of the CDC's mandates is to \"ensure the quality and supply of milk\".\n\nSection::::Administration.:Supply management.\n\nSince the supply management system was put into place, the CDC has been responsible for dairy support prices and market sharing quotas. Canada's supply management system \"coordinates production and demand while controlling imports as a means of setting stable prices for both farmers and consumers.\"\n", "Section::::Regulatory framework.:Milk supply-management.:The Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC).\n\nIn 1970, the Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC), was established to set the national industrial milk Market Sharing Quota (MSQ) which is then allocated among the provinces. The national MSQs \"ensure that Canada is self-sufficient in milk fat.\"\n\nThe CMSMC, which is chaired by the Ottawa-based Canadian Dairy Commission (CDC), administers SM for the dairy sector with the CDC performing a role of supervision, support and regulation.\n\nSection::::Regulatory framework.:Milk supply-management.:Regional milk pools.\n", "Channel Island milk\n\nChannel Island milk, commonly used to distinguish it from bottles of other types of milk, is a creamy, light-beige coloured milk from Jersey and Guernsey breeds of cattle. Today, Channel Island milk is produced in the UK, Australia, South Africa, Denmark, the United States and Canada as well as the Channel Islands.\n", "BULLET::::- Australia: NASAA Organic Standard\n\nBULLET::::- Canada:\n\nBULLET::::- European Union: EU-Eco-regulation\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden: KRAV\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom: DEFRA\n\nBULLET::::- Norway: Debio Organic certification\n\nBULLET::::- India: NPOP, (National Program for Organic Production)\n\nBULLET::::- Japan: JAS Standards\n\nBULLET::::- United States: National Organic Program (NOP) Standards\n\nSection::::Comparison with conventional milk.\n\nSection::::Comparison with conventional milk.:Chemical composition.\n", "The Canadian dairy industry is one of four sectors that is under the supply management system, a national agricultural policy framework that coordinates supply and demand through production and import control and pricing mechanisms designed to prevent shortages and surpluses, to ensure farmers a fair rate of return and Canadian consumer access to a high-quality, stable, and secure supply of these sensitive products. The milk supply management system is a \"federated provincial policy\" with four governing agencies, organizations and committees—Canadian Dairy Commission, Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC), regional milk pools, and provincial milk marketing boards. The dairy supply management system is administered by the federal government through the Canadian Dairy Commission (CDC), which was established in 1966 and is composed mostly of dairy farmers, administers the dairy supply management system for Canada's 12,000 dairy farms. The federal government is involved in supply management through the CDC in the administration of imports and exports. The Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC) was introduced in 1970 as the body responsible for monitoring the production rates of milk and setting the national Market Sharing Quota (MSQ) for industrial raw milk. The supply management system was authorized in 1972 through the Farm Products Agencies Act. Supply management ensures consistent pricing of milk for farmers with no fluctuation in the market. The prices are based on the demand for milk throughout the country and how much is being produced. In order to start a new farm or increase production more share into the SMS needs to be bought into known as “Quota”. in this case farmers must remain up to or below the amount of “quota” they have bought share of. Each province in Canada has their own cap on quota based on the demand in the market. There is a cap on the countries quota known as total quota per month. In 2016 the total butter fat produced per month was 28,395,848 kg. \n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Supply management.\n\nThe government of Canada put in place a supply management system during the early 1970's, as an effort to reduce the surplus in production that had become common in the 1950s and 1960s, and to \"ensure\" a fair return for farmers.\n\nSupply management is a shared jurisdiction between the Federal and Provincial governments. For example, on a Canada-wide basis, there is the Canada-wide Canadian Dairy Commission, composed mostly of dairy farmers, while in Ontario there is the Dairy Farmers of Ontario. Other provinces also have similar local boards.\n", "Geographic location is known to play a role in human milk variation, with country of residence specifically linked with immune factor variation. A study found a variation of in levels of growth factor in both mature milk and colostrum to be correlated with geographic location. However, a larger study found support for consistency in the presence of a small group of immunological factors in mature milk independent of geographic location.\n\nSection::::Impact on health.\n\nSection::::Impact on health.:Health outcomes for Breastfed versus formula-fed infants.\n", "The Guernsey and Jersey dairies each have a monopoly on milk supplies on their respective islands, and both distribute a range of full fat, semi-skimmed and skimmed milk from the local pedigree herds. In the UK, Channel Island milk and dairy products are often targeted at the premium end of the market; the UK retail market for Channel Island milk products is more limited than that in Canada and Denmark, where a wider array of yoghurts, cheeses, cream cheeses and ice creams made from Channel Island milk, in full fat and low fat forms, are sometimes available.\n", "Section::::Factors shaping the human milk microbiome.\n\nSection::::Factors shaping the human milk microbiome.:Geographic location.\n\nBoth the taxonomic composition and diversity of bacteria present in human milk likely vary by maternal geographic location, however, more large-scale studies are needed to better understand variation between populations.\n\nSection::::Factors shaping the human milk microbiome.:Lactation stage.\n", "There is a variation of taste between the UK Cadbury-produced products and the equivalents produced by Irish Cadbury; the same can be said for locally produced Cadbury products elsewhere in the world.\n\nSection::::Advertising.\n\nSection::::Advertising.:Pre-2007 advertising.\n\nIn Ireland Cadbury Dairy Milk used the jingle \"The Perfect Word For Chocolate\" (1986-1988) between (1989-1996) the popular jingle \"The Choice Is Yours The Taste Is Cadbury\" with the \"Mysteries of Love\" was a popular advert through them years. The song Show Me Heaven used in 1996 advert with the jingle \"Tastes Like Heaven\".\n", "Section::::Historic.\n\nMilk producers joined forces in 1983 within the 'Fédération des producteurs de lait du Québec (FPLQ), a federation of 14 syndicates that included two federations: the fluid milk producers (1970) and the industrial milk producers (1966).\n", "Practically everywhere, condensed milk and evaporated milk are distributed in metal cans, 250 and 125 mL paper containers and 100 and 200 mL squeeze tubes, and powdered milk (skim and whole) is distributed in boxes or bags.\n\nSection::::Varieties and brands.:Spoilage and fermented milk products.\n", "Section::::Policy.:Import control.\n\nSM limits dairy imports through tariff-rate quotas (TRQ). Only seven per cent of all milk produced globally is exported, with ninety three per cent \"consumed in the country of origin\". In 2015, the three top dairy imports into the country were specialty cheeses, milk protein substance and whey products. The largest suppliers into Canada were the United States, New Zealand, France and Italy.\n\nSection::::Policy.:Import control.:Tariff-rate quotas (TRQ).\n", "Due to the short shelf life of normal milk, it used to be delivered to households daily in many countries; however, improved refrigeration at home, changing food shopping patterns because of supermarkets, and the higher cost of home delivery mean that daily deliveries by a milkman are no longer available in most countries.\n\nSection::::Varieties and brands.:Distribution.:Australia and New Zealand.\n", "The milk supply management system is a \"federated provincial policy\" with four governing agencies, organizations and committees—Canadian Dairy Commission, Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee (CMSMC), regional milk pools, and provincial milk marketing boards.\n\nSection::::Regulatory framework.:Milk supply-management.:Canadian Dairy Commission (CDC).\n", "There are three regional milk pools—Newfoundland's, the Eastern Canadian Milk Pooling P5 Agreement which includes Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Québec and Ontario and the Western Milk Pooling Agreement (WMP) which includes Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, that operate under the supervision of the CDC. They pool milk sale revenues, costs and markets, and harmonize pricing and establish daily quotas.\n", "The CDC also chairs the Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee, which coordinates the management of industrial milk supplies in Canada.\n\nSection::::Administration.:Supply management.:Support prices for raw milk.\n\nOnce a year, after consultation with industry stakeholders, the CDC sets the support price for support price of butter and skim milk powder. Provincial marketing boards then use these prices as references to determine the price of raw or industrial milk in each province. The CDC oversees the removal from the market of surplus butterfat and SMP for export or later sale.\n\nSection::::Administration.:Supply management.:Market Sharing Quota (MSQ).\n", "Section::::Policy.:Pricing mechanisms.\n\nTo establish a \"fair price\", the CDC consults with \"dairy producers, processors, further processors, restaurateurs and consumers\" each fall, then completes an annual study to determine the support price for industrial raw milk. Along with the study, Commissioners also consider factors such as \"arguments presented by various stakeholders, an evaluation of the processors' margin, and economic indicators such as the consumer price index\". The support price is posted each December and effective in February of the following year.\n", "Although readily available in the warmer months, the following food products are imported when not able to be grown or raised in Canada due to its varying climate:\n\nBULLET::::- Dairy products\n\nBULLET::::- Seafood\n\nBULLET::::- Honey\n\nBULLET::::- Fresh fruits and vegetables\n\nBULLET::::- Meat and poultry products\n\nBULLET::::- Processed products (ex: fruit, vegetables, maple products)\n", "Almost 95% of all milk in the UK is thus sold in shops today, most of it in plastic bottles of various sizes, but some also in milk cartons. Milk is hardly ever sold in glass bottles in UK shops.\n\nSection::::Varieties and brands.:Distribution.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, glass milk bottles have been replaced mostly with milk cartons and plastic jugs. Gallons of milk are almost always sold in jugs, while half gallons and quarts may be found in both paper cartons and plastic jugs, and smaller sizes are almost always in cartons.\n", "Section::::Programs.:Domestic Seasonality Programs.\n\nIn collaboration with the private sector, the CDC monitors the seasonal domestic supply of milk to maintain a balance between supply and demand through its Domestic Seasonality Programs.\n\nSection::::Programs.:Dairy Innovation Program.\n\nThe CDC's Dairy Innovation Program promotes the creation of innovative dairy products for domestic consumption.\n\nSection::::Programs.:Dairy Marketing Program.\n\nCDC's marketing arms promotes consumer awareness of dairy products and ingredients produced in Canada.\n\nSection::::Programs.:Workforce Development Initiative.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03113	Why do some CD-ROM Discs Warn you about NOT playing track one in your CD Player?	The warning isn't about breaking anything. It's just that some CD players will try to play the data as music and make awful noises.	[ "CDS discs contain an initial audio session, similar to that of an unprotected disc. In addition the disc contains a second (data) session and a software player configured for auto-play with a lower-quality, compressed version of the audio for it to play.\n\nThe second session on the disc causes some CD/DVD players to hang, typically some car players (allegedly using CD-ROM drive mechanisms) and some MP3 capable players that can see but not understand the second data session.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Definitely Maybe DVD\": Between the audio for track 11 (\"Married with Children\") and track 12 (\"Sad Song\") are 30 silent seconds. If you click the down button during these 30 seconds at the 11 second mark, the audio track \"Wibbling Rivalry\" will play. It also possible to hold the button down from the start of these 30 seconds and \"Wibbling Rivalry\" will play at the 11 second mark anyway, in case one missed the chance to do it so otherwise.\n", "The play preventions in use intentionally deviate from the standards and intentionally include malformed multisession data or similar with the purpose of confusing the CD-ROM drives to prevent correct function. Simple dedicated audio CD players would not be affected by the malformed data since these are for features they do not support—for example, an audio player will not even look for a second session containing the copy protection data.\n", "Additional data corruption described in the patent includes adding a duplicate entry of the TOC (Table of contents) from the audio session onto the second (data) session. Some older CD drives would only see the second session erroneous values (such as time and track type) and were not able to copy or play these. Another method is to change the start time of the Lead-Out (end of the disc) to an incorrect time in the TOC. Other patent processes include changing the time in the Q channel so it holds, speeds up or flows backwards.\n\nSection::::Interpretation of Corrupted Data.\n", "When playing a CD in the computer, the media player of choice is giving instructions to the CD drive, whether through the operating system's drivers or by accessing the device's low-level interface itself. Usually, Similar to modern players, the media player will be reading audio into memory for later playback, especially given the extreme speeds used by CD ROM drives in order to access raw data on other discs. Because of this, if there is a fault during playback, the player will already be performing a checksum to verify the data read is correct. If it is wrong, the audio is usually stopped depending on the player.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Full Moon Fever\": \"Hello CD Listeners\", featured on the CD version of this album, is played immediately after \"Runnin' Down a Dream\" with the following message: \"Hello, CD listeners. We've come to the point in this album where those listening on cassette or record will have to stand up (or sit down) and turn over the record (or tape). In fairness to those listeners, we'll now take a few seconds before we begin side two... thank you. Here is side two.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\": On the second DVD, on the menu screen, if 'enter' is pressed it will take the viewer into the documentary aisle, and then if the 'Up' button on the remote control is pressed and then 'Enter,' it will select the security camera at the top of the screen, a video entitled \"All Kinds of Everything\" featuring a karaoke version of the Dana song with the sights of Dublin docklands.\n", "The CD-i Ready format uses a particular technique to get audio CD players to skip over the CD-i software and data. CD-i Ready places the software and data in the pregap of track 1 (index 0). Since most CD players assume that the pregap area contains only silence, they skip it. Because of this, CD-i Ready was presented as an alternative to CD-i (which stores data in the regular indexes of the first tracks of a disc), which was more compatible with audio CD players.\n", "Early CD players were very basic in nature. A Laser tracks the blocks of data from the centre of the disc outwards, while the disc itself revolves at a variable speed between a starting speed of 495 RPM, and a minimum finishing speed of 212 RPM. Generally, one cycle constituted one block of data.\n\nIf there is a faulty block of data, the player may do one of the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. Repeat the previous block of audio\n\nBULLET::::2. Skip the faulty block\n\nBULLET::::3. Try and retry to read it causing a stopping and starting of the music\n", "Furthermore, XCP.Sony.Rootkit installs a device driver, specifically a CD-ROM filter driver, which intercepts calls to the CD-ROM drive. If any process other than the included Music Player (player.exe) attempts to read the audio section of the CD, the filter driver inserts seemingly random noise into the returned data, thus making the music unlistenable.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Absolution Tour\": Various other live performances are hidden on the DVD. When in the Extras menu, go down to 'Stockholm Syndrome', press the left button and the 'X' in 'Extras' should light up. Then press play. On the US release of the Black Holes and Revelations album + the Absolution Tour as a bonus disc, when in the extras menu, go down to \"Groove in the States\" and then press right (or left, depending on your remote) and the 'X' in 'Extras' should light up, press play and they will play.\n\nBULLET::::- Mushroomhead:\n", "The hidden tracks may be accessed directly using the Title/Chapter number keys on a DVD player (or DVD remote control). This may not necessarily work from \"inside\" the disc's navigation menus depending on the DVD player. On some players the disc must be fully stopped (sometimes by pushing the \"stop\" button two or three times) to navigate directly to a Title, on others the disc must be playing. This DVD contains user operation prohibition on jumping directly to Titles in an attempt to prevent direct Title access, but not all DVD players obey such prohibitions. There are several duplicates of standard videos among the hidden tracks, in addition to the easter eggs.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Avant que l'ombre...\": \"Nobody Knows\" was not listed as track 15.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Point de Suture\": \"Ave Maria\" following the 10th track, \"Si j'avais au moins...\"\n\nBULLET::::- Fatboy Slim:\n\nBULLET::::- \"You've Come a Long Way, Baby\": An interlude in the style of a radio request plays at the end of track 1, seguing into track 2. The radio request suggests that the DJ plays track 2\n", "An old-fashioned CD player reading subcode correctly sees a missing audio frame and interpolates any missing information that it cannot correct using information from neighbouring frames. Because these missing frames occur at points where the waveform was nearly a straight line anyway, this interpolation is very accurate and generally transparent to the user.\n\nWhat happens with computer drives is very specific to the hardware and firmware of the drive in question, assuming they have at least seen past the second data session and can play the audio session.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Greatest Video Hits 1\": The flame version of the music video for \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" plays when the \"Rhapsody\" menu on the second DVD is displayed while the key combination \"Up, Up, Right, Right, Left, Left\" is entered.\n\nBULLET::::- Queens of the Stone Age:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rated R\": Track 9 is actually a reprise of \"Feel Good Hit of the Summer,\" which makes \"Tension Head\" track 10, \"Lightning Song\" track 11, and \"I Think I Lost My Headache\" track 12 instead of what the album's track listing suggests.\n", "BULLET::::- Q-Tip, \"Amplified\": After the track \"End of Time,\" the hidden track \"Do It, See It, Be It\" starts playing.\n\nBULLET::::- Queen:\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Day at the Races\": The first 1:03 of the first track are the track \"Intro,\" which is only mentioned on the actual 1993 CD with its own track number (track 1), shifting the remaining tracks one track number over. The content on the disc itself though does not separate the intro.\n", "Sony mention this limitation in their manuals as necessary to prevent \"loss of transfer authorization\" on the edited tracks. Considering these transfer authorizations are gone now, it seems possible for Sony to get rid of this limitation as well—so that users may add and erase track marks on their Hi-MD units whenever they please, despite them having been transferred from SonicStage.\n\nThe last version of SonicStage available for Europe was CP 4.3. It was available for download from Sony's website. However, it has been withdrawn and can not be downloaded, even though the Sony pages still exist.\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Europe\n", "BULLET::::- The Rembrandts had a sudden radio hit in 1995 with \"I'll Be There For You\", the theme song to \"Friends\", so it was added at the last minute to their third album \"LP\". As a result, the song was a hidden track on the early printing since the CD packaging had already been completed by the time the song was added. A sticker was however added to the outer shrink wrap advertising the song's inclusion.\n", "The second session has been circumvented by another method, which is to either place masking tape around the disc near the edge, or mark a strip next to the edge with permanent marker. Because it is a multi-session disc, this method will hide the second session, leaving only the first audio session visible.\n", "BULLET::::- This track, as well as being omitted from some pressings of the album (see track listing), is difficult to listen to on all but conventional CD players. Most software CD players do not allow rewinding of this nature, and most MP3 \"ripping\" software will not include the data.\n\nBULLET::::- The track was not hidden on the album's cassette tape release, playing before \"You Think I Ain't Worth a Dollar, But I Feel Like a Millionaire\".\n", "BULLET::::- There appear to be two vinyl versions of the inner groove: the original British pressing (black label with gold logo) has the inner groove play through the entire locked groove and does not include laughter at the beginning of the piece. The re-issue of the British pressing from 1987 (black label with silver logo) starts playing the inner groove long before the needle reaches the locked groove, includes the laughter and, once the needle hits the locked groove, the listener only hears the last two seconds of the piece played over and over again.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\": contains a spoken word track at 10:13 (homage to Ten Thirteen) of Chris Carter explaining the show's conspiracy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spaceballs: The Soundtrack\": At track 10, \"Raise Your Hands\" by Bon Jovi starts playing.\n\nBULLET::::- \"We're a Happy Family\": \"Today Your Love, Tomorrow the World\" by John Frusciante after a period of silence\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wipeout 2097\" (1996 game): The PlayStation, Sega Saturn and Windows discs can be played in CD players, after track 1 which contains the game data\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie Soundtrack\": At track 13, the \"Yu-Gi-Oh!\" Theme starts playing.\n", "In November 2005, it was revealed that Sony was distributing albums with Extended Copy Protection, a controversial feature that automatically installed rootkit software on any Microsoft Windows machine upon insertion of the disc. In addition to preventing the CDs contents from being copied, it was also revealed that the software reported the users' listening habits back to Sony and also exposed the computer to malicious attacks that exploited insecure features of the rootkit software. Though Sony refused to release a list of the affected CDs, the Electronic Frontier Foundation identified \"The Invisible Invasion\" as one of the discs with the invasive software.\n", "In late 2005, Sony BMG Music sparked the Sony CD copy protection scandal when it included a form of copy protection called Extended Copy Protection (\"XCP\") on discs from 52 artists. Upon inserting such a disc in the CD drive of a computer running Microsoft Windows, the XCP software would be installed. If CD ripper software (or other software, such as a real-time effects program, that reads digital audio from the disc in the same way as a CD ripper) were to subsequently access the music tracks on the CD, XCP would substitute white noise for the audio on the disc.\n", "BULLET::::- The Maine (band): \"One Pack of Smokes from Broke\": After some time after \"Waiting for my Sun to Shine,\" in the Album \"Pioneer\".\n\nBULLET::::- The Magic Numbers, \"Hymn For Her\": Unlisted song appears after a pause following final track \"Try\"\n\nBULLET::::- Man or Astro-man?, \"EEVIAC operational index and reference guide, including other modern computational devices\": Final track, \"Automated Liner Notes Sequence,\" is unlisted.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04977	How do phones and cell-towers deal with the Doppler effect?	It doesn't matter The Radio waves are moving at 3x10^8 m/s, thats 300,000,000 m/s. If you travel towards a cell tower at Mach 10 you'll be moving 3,430 m/s and change the wavelength by 3,430/300,000,000 or 0.0011%. You're not traveling anywhere close to Mach 10 so the impact is truly insignificant	[ "Fast moving satellites can have a Doppler shift of dozens of kilohertz relative to a ground station. The speed, thus magnitude of Doppler effect, changes due to earth curvature. Dynamic Doppler compensation, where the frequency of a signal is changed progressively during transmission, is used so the satellite receives a constant frequency signal.\n\nDoppler shift of the direct path can be estimated by the following formula:\n\nformula_34\n", "where formula_15 is the maximum Doppler spread or, maximum Doppler frequency or, maximum Doppler shift given by formula_16 with formula_17 being the center frequency of the emitter.\n", "Section::::Feedback Control of Call Frequency.\n", "Section::::Function of the Doppler Shift Compensation Mechanism.\n", "Doppler effect at 144 MHz band is 300 Hz at moonrise or moonset. The doppler offset goes to around zero when the Moon is overhead. At other frequencies other doppler offsets will exist. At moonrise, returned signals will be shifted approximately 300 Hz higher in frequency. As the Moon traverses the sky to a point due south the Doppler effect approaches nothing. By Moonset they are shifted 300 Hz lower. Doppler effects cause many problems when tuning into and locking onto signals from the Moon.\n", "Section::::Application.\n\nSection::::Application.:Sirens.\n\nA siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus:\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe members of the band met in high school, and describe their beginnings as \"a loose collective of high school friends with a common interest in late nights and loud music.\" Upon graduating, they embarked on a nine-month tour of the Eastern United States that spanned 30,000 miles and 150+ shows.\n", "Section::::Derivation.:Transverse Doppler effect.:Receiver \"sees\" the source as being at its closest point.\n", "If the radar measurements are done vertically, the skewness of the Doppler spectrum gives information about measured cloud microphysics. The horizontal wind within the measured volumes cause only a shift of the whole spectrum within the Doppler domain. This means that the spectrum is shifted along the Doppler velocity axis but it did not influence the broadening of the spectra. So the changes in skewness give information \n\nabout:\n\nBULLET::::- if the minority of the hydrometeors is falling faster or slower as the mean Doppler velocity\n", "The leading ratio has the form of the classical Doppler effect, while the square root term represents the relativistic correction. If we consider the angles relative to the frame of the source, then formula_70 and the equation reduces to , Einstein's 1905 formula for the Doppler effect. If we consider the angles relative to the frame of the receiver, then formula_71 and the equation reduces to , the alternative form of the Doppler shift equation discussed previously.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Doppler effect\n\nBULLET::::- Doppler beaming\n\nBULLET::::- Redshift\n\nBULLET::::- Blueshift\n\nBULLET::::- Time dilation\n\nBULLET::::- Gravitational time dilation\n\nBULLET::::- Special relativity\n", "Doppler tracking\n\nDoppler tracking. The Doppler effect allows the measurement of the distance between a transmitter from space and a receiver on the ground by observing how the frequency received from the transmitter changes as the it approaches the transmitter, is overhead, and moves away.\n\nWhen approaching, the frequency of the transmission appears to be higher and as the transmitter moves away, the frequency appears to be lower. When overhead, the transmitted frequency and the received frequency are the same.\n", "Doppler (building)\n\nDoppler, also known as Amazon Tower I, and Rufus 2.0 Block 14, is a office building in Seattle, Washington that houses the corporate headquarters of Amazon. It is part of the three-tower campus that Amazon is developing in the Denny Triangle neighborhood, located at the intersection of Westlake Avenue and 7th Avenue near the Westlake Center and McGraw Square. The tower houses 3,800 employees. The tower's name, Doppler, refers to the internal codename of the Amazon Echo voice-controlled speaker that launched in 2014.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "Section::::FM Doppler radar.\n", "However, transmitters and receivers rarely share the same carrier oscillator. Communications receiver systems are usually independent of transmitting systems and contain their own oscillators with frequency and phase offsets and instabilities. Doppler shift may also contribute to frequency differences in mobile radio frequency communications systems.\n\nAll these frequency and phase variations must be estimated using information in the received signal to reproduce or recover the carrier signal at the receiver and permit coherent demodulation.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "Channels are spaced at 41.666 kHz and each channel occupies a bandwidth of 31.5 kHz; this allows space for Doppler shifts.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Handoff.\n", "Section::::Experimental verification.:Direct measurement of transverse Doppler effect.\n", "The functional operation and accuracy of Doppler velocity sensors is affected by many factors, including aircraft velocity, attitude and altitude above terrain. It is also affected by environmental factors, including the type of terrain the radar is illuminating, and precipitation in the atmosphere.\n", "There is no modulation on the transmit pulse. Each pulse is a perfectly clean slice of a perfect coherent tone. The coherent tone is produced by the local oscillator.\n\nThere can be dozens of transmit pulses between the antenna and the reflector. In a hostile environment, there can be millions of other reflections from slow moving or stationary objects.\n\nTransmit pulses are sent at the pulse repetition frequency.\n", "The two are subtracted, and the difference is averaged briefly.\n\nIf the average difference falls below a threshold, then the signal is a lock.\n\nLock means that the signal obeys Newtonian mechanics. Valid reflectors produce a lock. Invalid signals do not. Invalid reflections include things like helicopter blades, where Doppler does not correspond with the velocity that the vehicle is moving through the air. Invalid signals include microwaves made by sources separate from the transmitter, such as radar jamming and deception.\n", "Ultra-wideband waveforms have been investigated by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) as a potential approach to Doppler processing due to its low average power, high resolution, and object-penetrating ability. While investigating the feasibility of whether UWB radar technology can incorporate Doppler processing to estimate the velocity of a moving target when the platform is stationary, a 2013 ARL report highlighted issues related to target range migration. However, researchers have suggested that these issues can be alleviated if the correct matched filter is used.\n", "Section::::Implantable transcranial Doppler.\n", "Section::::Usage in other countries.\n\nin 2009, Hörmann Sirens and Sircom AG of Germany has thought of using the SCDF's Public Warning System's siren as a base to make their own sirens, made two types of sirens based on Singapore's PWS designs: the ECN 1200, which is based on SCDF's 'Standard' build but with an unusual arrangement of its eight acoustic radiators and the ground type ECN 2400 also with its unusual arrangement of its radiators and Sircom's version with its sixteen radiators attached to front and rear of the pole.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cell Broadcast\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency population warning\n", "In a typical radar system, the Doppler frequency is a small fraction of the swept frequency range (i.e. the system bandwidth) of the chirp, so the range errors due to Doppler are found to be minor. For example, for fdTerman F. E., \"Electronic and Radio Engineering, 4th Edition\", McGraw Hill 1955, p.1033/ref\n", "The Amazon campus, designed by Seattle architecture firm NBBJ, was approved by the Seattle Department of Planning and Development in late 2012 and excavation on Tower I began under the direction of Sellen Construction in June 2013. The tower was topped out in February 2015 and opened on December 14, 2015.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "If the TX oscillator runs at a frequency that is 20 ppm above the nominal frequency and if the RX oscillator is running at 20 ppm below, then the received baseband signal will have a CFO of 40 ppm. With a carrier frequency of 5.2 GHz in this standard, the CFO is up to ±208 kHz. In addition, if the transmitter or the receiver is moving, the Doppler effect adds some hundreds of hertz in frequency spreading.\n\nCompared to the CFO resulting from the oscillator mismatch, the Doppler effect in this case is relatively minor.\n\nSection::::Effects of synchronization error.\n" ]	[ "Cell towers deal with the doppler effect." ]	[ "The doppler effect is actually insignificant and can be ignored. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cell towers deal with the doppler effect." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The doppler effect is actually insignificant and can be ignored. " ]
2018-00803	What do zoos do with random local wildlife like pigeons, seagulls, rats, squirrels and raccoons?	While I can't answer for all zoos, the National Zoo in Washington, DC has a pretty good solution. In the winter months, a lot of bird from Canada winter in the bird area. They have been coming there for years. The zoo employees feed them, just like the rest of the birds. Also, there was a time when the squirrels in Washington had been all kills (for food or as pests). The city asked the zoo for help, so they turned loose 8 mating pairs. Now, there are squirrels all over the city.	[ "BULLET::::- Blue-capped cordon-bleu\n\nBULLET::::- Blue-gray tanager\n\nBULLET::::- Blue-necked tanager\n\nBULLET::::- Chestnut munia\n\nBULLET::::- Collared finch-billed bulbul\n\nBULLET::::- Crested quail-dove\n\nBULLET::::- Crested wood partridge\n\nBULLET::::- Elliot's laughingthrush\n\nBULLET::::- Emerald starling\n\nBULLET::::- Fairy-bluebird\n\nBULLET::::- Fulvous-crested tanager\n\nBULLET::::- Golden-headed quetzal\n\nBULLET::::- Greater green leafbird\n\nBULLET::::- Green acouchi\n\nBULLET::::- Green-naped pheasant pigeon\n\nBULLET::::- Green-winged pytilia\n\nBULLET::::- Grosbeak starling\n\nBULLET::::- Lavender waxbill\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser green broadbill\n\nBULLET::::- Madagascar buttonquail\n\nBULLET::::- Nicobar pigeon\n\nBULLET::::- Parrot-billed seedeater\n\nBULLET::::- Pied avocet\n\nBULLET::::- Pink-capped fruit dove\n\nBULLET::::- Red-billed leiothrix\n\nBULLET::::- Red-capped cardinal\n\nBULLET::::- Scarlet macaw\n\nBULLET::::- Schalow's turaco\n\nBULLET::::- Southern yellow grosbeak\n\nBULLET::::- Speckled mousebird\n\nBULLET::::- Sunda wrinkled hornbill\n", "BULLET::::- Penguin Cove\n\nPenguin Cove is home to about a dozen African penguins. The penguins can be seen above and under the water as they walk and swim around their exhibit.\n\nBULLET::::- Chimpanzee Forest\n", "BULLET::::- Part of the film \"Turtle Diary\" (1985), based on the novel by Russell Hoban and starring Ben Kingsley and Glenda Jackson, was also filmed here; the film follows a plan to help two of the turtles escape from the zoo.\n\nBULLET::::- In the final scene from the film \"Withnail and I\" (1987), a sad Withnail is shown standing in the pouring rain next to the former wolf enclosure, declaiming the speech What a piece of work is a man from \"Hamlet\".\n", "BULLET::::- The International Snow Leopard Trust - to protect the natural habitat of snow leopards\n\nBULLET::::- Greater Prairie Chicken Project - helping restore and sustain Iowa's population of native chickens\n\nBULLET::::- Giraffe Conservation Foundation - helping to promote and support giraffe conservation initiatives\n\nBULLET::::- The Great Ape Trust - aimed to rescue orangutans and bonobos in areas of deforestation and poaching\n\nBULLET::::- Panamanian Golden Frogs - aimed to sponsor a program to release captive frogs into the wild\n\nSection::::Future plans.\n", "Revamped in 2013, a new larger Chimp World houses a group of seven common chimpanzees, three males and four females. The dominant male of the troop is named Tombe.\n\nBULLET::::- Wallaby Walkabout\n\nAn Australia-themed walk-through enclosure that houses a group of Bennet's wallabies.\n\nBULLET::::- The Lakes\n\nThe Lakes holds a small collection of waterbirds such as Chilean flamingo and formerly Dalmatian pelican along with a large number of red-eared terrapins that live freely in the lakes.\n\nBULLET::::- Medellin Monkeys\n\nThe Medellin Monkeys enclosure is home to one of the main groups of Colombian black spider monkeys.\n", "In the Children's Zoo (), visitors can see farm animals and small domestic animals, such as llamas, goats, cows, pigs, horses, chickens and rabbits.\n\nSection::::Rare species.\n\nBULLET::::- For several years, Copenhagen Zoo was the only zoo outside Australia that had Tasmanian devils. They bred for the first time in Copenhagen Zoo in 2013 and the two females gave birth to a total of seven young.\n", "Section::::Sources of animals.\n\nBy the year 2000 most animals being displayed in zoos were the offspring of other zoo animals. This trend, however was and still is somewhat species-specific. When animals are transferred between zoos, they usually spend time in quarantine, and are given time to acclimatize to their new enclosures which are often designed to mimic their natural environment. For example, some species of penguins may require refrigerated enclosures. Guidelines on necessary care for such animals is published in the \"International Zoo Yearbook\".\n\nSection::::Justification.\n\nSection::::Justification.:Conservation and research.\n", "BULLET::::- In August 2012, a pair of grey foxes arrived from Alligator Adventure in North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. They were rescued as pups from the wild about four or five years prior to arriving at the zoo.\n\nBULLET::::- The zoo's female barred owl was given to the zoo by a wildlife rehabilitator after being rescued in Southbury, Connecticut. She has damaged left wing and a cataract in her left eye, making her unable to survive in the wild.\n\nSection::::Conservation.:Education programs.\n", "BULLET::::- White-faced whistling duck\n\nBULLET::::- White-fronted amazon\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-collared macaw\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-headed amazon\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-knobbed curassow\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-naped amazon\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-shouldered amazon\n\n\"Reptiles\"\n\nBULLET::::- Rhinoceros iguana\n\nBULLET::::- South American yellow-footed tortoise\n\nBULLET::::- KOCH Orangutan & Chimpanzee Habitat\n\n\"An Incredible Habitat for Incredible Creatures\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common chimpanzee\n\nBULLET::::- Sumatran orangutan\n\nBULLET::::- Children's Farm\n\nBULLET::::- African goose\n\nBULLET::::- American Cream Draft\n\nBULLET::::- American Tunis sheep\n\nBULLET::::- Angora goat\n\nBULLET::::- Arapawa goat\n\nBULLET::::- Asiatic buffalo\n\nBULLET::::- Black turkey\n\nBULLET::::- Brown Swiss cow\n\nBULLET::::- Cayuga duck\n\nBULLET::::- Crested duck\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic sheep\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic yak\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic zebu\n\nBULLET::::- Dominique chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Dromedary camel\n", "BULLET::::- Turquoise tanager\n\nBULLET::::- Variable seedeater\n\nBULLET::::- Victoria crowned pigeon\n\nBULLET::::- Violet turaco\n\nBULLET::::- Violet-backed starling\n\nBULLET::::- White-bellied go-away-bird\n\nBULLET::::- White-collared kingfisher\n\nBULLET::::- White-vented bulbul\n\nBULLET::::- Wonga pigeon\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-winged pytilia\n\n\"Fish\"\n\nBULLET::::- African knifefish\n\nBULLET::::- African lungfish\n\nBULLET::::- Apple snail\n\nBULLET::::- Banded archerfish\n\nBULLET::::- Bandit catfish\n\nBULLET::::- Bluegill\n\nBULLET::::- Clown knifefish\n\nBULLET::::- Congo tetra\n\nBULLET::::- Corydoras\n\nBULLET::::- Dwarf gourami\n\nBULLET::::- Featherfin squeaker\n\nBULLET::::- Flying fox sharkminnow\n\nBULLET::::- Giant gourami\n\nBULLET::::- Glowlight tetra\n\nBULLET::::- Gold barb\n\nBULLET::::- Golden-breasted starling\n\nBULLET::::- Green swordtail\n\nBULLET::::- Green sunfish\n\nBULLET::::- Harlequin rasbora\n\nBULLET::::- Iridescent shark\n\nBULLET::::- Largemouth bass\n\nBULLET::::- Leopard bush fish\n", "BULLET::::- Black swan (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- American flamingo (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Bald eagle (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Grey crowned crane (endangered)\n\nBULLET::::- Blue and gold macaw (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Chilean flamingo (near threatened)\n\nBULLET::::- Great horned owl (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Green-winged macaw (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- helmeted guineafowl (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Muscovy duck (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Snow goose (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Whooper swan (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- White peafowl (domestic)\n\nSection::::Animals.:Reptile.\n\nBULLET::::- Oregon spotted frog (vulnerable)\n\nBULLET::::- Chacoan horned frog (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- Green iguana (endangered)\n\nBULLET::::- Burmese python (vulnerable)\n\nBULLET::::- Yacare caiman (least concern)\n\nBULLET::::- African spurred tortoise (vulnerable)\n", "Section::::Exhibits.:\"Polar Bear Watch\".\n\nThe \"Polar Bear Watch\" features a polar bear named Anoki, as well as grizzly bears, ravens, bald eagles, snowy owls and Arctic foxes. Guests can view the polar bear from underwater viewing areas, or from the windows of an actual massive Tundra Buggy, purchased from the Canadian company that creates these one of kind vehicles for viewing the polar bear in its natural habitat.\n\nBeginning in January, 2016, the Polar Bear Watch also became home to two rescued orphaned grizzly bear cubs. They were named Nova and Nita after the names were chosen in a public contest.\n", "BULLET::::- California sea lion (formerly)\n\nBULLET::::- Gray seal\n\nBULLET::::- Harbor seal\n\nSection::::Exhibits.:Regenstein Small Mammal-Reptile House.\n", "BULLET::::- Cape May County Park & Zoo, Cape May Court House\n\nBULLET::::- Cohanzick Zoo, Bridgeton\n\nBULLET::::- Popcorn Park Zoo, Forked River\n\nBULLET::::- Six Flags Great Adventure, Jackson\n\nBULLET::::- Space Farms Zoo and Museum, Beemerville\n\nBULLET::::- Turtle Back Zoo, West Orange\n\nSection::::New Mexico.\n\nBULLET::::- Alameda Park Zoo, Alamogordo\n\nBULLET::::- Albuquerque Biological Park, Albuquerque\n\nBULLET::::- American International Rattlesnake Museum, Albuquerque\n\nBULLET::::- Hillcrest Park and Zoo, Clovis\n\nBULLET::::- Living Desert Zoo and Gardens State Park, Carlsbad\n\nBULLET::::- Rio Grande Zoo, Albuquerque\n\nBULLET::::- Spring River Zoo, Roswell\n\nBULLET::::- Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary, Candy Kitchen\n\nBULLET::::- Wildlife West Nature Park, Edgewood\n\nSection::::New York.\n", "Section::::Animal Inventory.:Key deer.\n\nBULLET::::- Bunsen (M), Little Pine (F), Sugarloaf (F), and Summer Lynn (F)\n\nNotes: Little Pine and Sugar were brought to the zoo since they both need constant care. Little Pine is missing her left eye and Sugar frequently needs her front hooves filed down.\n\nSection::::Animal Inventory.:Florida panther.\n\nBULLET::::- Calusa (Lucy) (F) Micanopy (M) and Walter (M)\n", "In fall 2013, the zoo installed treetop Zoofari, a new zipline and adventure park. The park is scheduled to open January 29, 2014, for Fridays and Saturdays only. It will open Monday-Saturday in spring 2014.\n\nIn Summer 2018, the zoo debuted a pair of Pygmy hippopotamuses to their collection.\n\nIn January 2019 the zoo debuted a pair of young Steller's sea eagles to their collection. They temporary reside in what used to be where the Black-and-white ruffed lemurs were, while their bigger exhibit is being constructed.\n", "Section::::Live feeding and \"baiting\".\n", "BULLET::::- The Louisville Zoo has hand-raised three baby siamangs—Sungai (from the San Francisco Zoo), Zoli (born at the Louisville Zoo), and Zain (from the Albuquerque Biological Park) after Zoli's parents died of \"E. coli\" sepsis and the other two were brought in as companions—and is thought to be the only Zoo to ever hand raise three baby siamangs this young.\n\nBULLET::::- The zoo is also home to several black-footed ferrets, and participates in the black-footed ferret breeding program. The ferrets are one of the most endangered species in North America.\n", "BULLET::::- Northern pintail\n\nBULLET::::- Red wolf\n\nBULLET::::- Smooth green snake\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted turtle\n\nBULLET::::- Wood duck\n\nBULLET::::- Wood turtle\n\nSection::::Exhibits.:Kovler Seal Pool.\n", "Section::::Exhibits.:The Bird House.\n\n The Bird House is closed for renovations for \"Experience Migration\", an exhibition dedicated to migratory birds.\n\nExperience Migration will open in 2021.\n\nSection::::Exhibits.:The Kids' Farm.\n", "BULLET::::- Sunbittern\n\nBULLET::::- Sungazer\n\nReptiles and Birds\n\nBULLET::::- African rock python\n\nBULLET::::- Argus monitor\n\nBULLET::::- Bay-headed tanager\n\nBULLET::::- Green aracari\n\nBULLET::::- Green-winged macaw\n\nBULLET::::- Micronesian kingfisher\n\nBULLET::::- Paradise tanager\n\nBULLET::::- Red-eyed tree frog\n\nBULLET::::- Reticulated python\n\nBULLET::::- Turquoise tanager\n\nFragile Desert\n\nBULLET::::- African crested porcupine\n\nBULLET::::- Bat-eared fox\n\nBULLET::::- Black-footed cat\n\nBULLET::::- Caracal\n\nBULLET::::- Meerkat\n\nBULLET::::- Mohol bushbaby\n\nBULLET::::- Naked mole rat\n\nBULLET::::- Rock hyrax\n\nBULLET::::- Sand cat\n\nFragile Hunters\n\nBULLET::::- African lion\n\nBULLET::::- Amur leopard\n\nBULLET::::- Amur tiger\n\nBULLET::::- Sloth bear\n\nBULLET::::- Snow leopard\n\nFragile Rain Forest\n\nBULLET::::- Binturong\n\nBULLET::::- Burmese python\n\nBULLET::::- Clouded leopard\n\nBULLET::::- Fishing cat\n", "BULLET::::- Secretary bird (formerly)\n\nBULLET::::- Violet Turaco\n\nBULLET::::- Warthog (formerly)\n\nSection::::Exhibits.:Regenstein Center for African Apes.\n", "BULLET::::- Domestic goat\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic pig\n\nBULLET::::- European rabbit\n\nBULLET::::- Jacob (sheep)\n\nBULLET::::- Pony\n\nSection::::Exhibits.:Kovler Lion House.\n", "BULLET::::- Cedar Cove Feline Conservatory & Sanctuary, Louisburg\n\nBULLET::::- Clay Center Zoo, Clay Center\n\nBULLET::::- David Traylor Zoo of Emporia, Emporia\n\nBULLET::::- Eagle Valley Raptor Center, Garden Plain\n\nBULLET::::- Great Bend Zoo, Great Bend\n\nBULLET::::- Hedrick's Exotic Animal Farm, Nickerson\n\nBULLET::::- Hutchinson Zoo, Hutchinson\n\nBULLET::::- Insect Zoo at Kansas State, Manhattan\n\nBULLET::::- Lee Richardson Zoo, Garden City\n\nBULLET::::- Prairie Park Nature Center, Lawrence\n\nBULLET::::- Ralph Mitchell Zoo, Independence\n\nBULLET::::- Rolling Hills Zoo, Salina\n\nBULLET::::- Safari Zoological Park, Caney\n\nBULLET::::- Sedgwick County Zoo, Wichita\n\nBULLET::::- Sunset Zoo, Manhattan\n\nBULLET::::- Tanganyika Wildlife Park, Goddard\n\nBULLET::::- Topeka Zoo, Topeka\n", "BULLET::::- Abilene Zoological Gardens, Abilene\n\nBULLET::::- Amarillo Zoo, Amarillo\n\nBULLET::::- Austin Zoo, Austin\n\nBULLET::::- Bear Creek Pioneers Park Wildlife Habitat/Aviary, Houston\n\nBULLET::::- Caldwell Zoo, Tyler\n\nBULLET::::- Cameron Park Zoo, Waco\n\nBULLET::::- Crocodile Encounter, Angleton\n\nBULLET::::- Capital of Texas Zoo, Cedar Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Dallas Zoo, Dallas\n\nBULLET::::- El Paso Zoo, El Paso\n\nBULLET::::- Ellen Trout Zoo, Lufkin\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Worth Zoo, Fort Worth\n\nBULLET::::- Fossil Rim Wildlife Center, Glen Rose\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Buck Zoo, Gainesville\n\nBULLET::::- Gladys Porter Zoo, Brownsville\n\nBULLET::::- Houston Zoo, Houston\n\nBULLET::::- International Exotic Animal Sanctuary, Boyd\n\nBULLET::::- Moody Gardens, Galveston\n\nBULLET::::- Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, New Braunfels\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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