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2018-07756	Why is it that we find sodium chloride tastes good, but bicarbonate of soda does not?	Because sodium and chloride are both vital to our survival, so our taste receptors have evolved to like the taste of salt. Bicarbonate of soda has one component of salt, the sodium cation, so it does taste a bit salty. But the anion is bicarbonate (HCO3-) which is a base and tastes bitter and unpleasant. No, the sodium per gram is based on the total molecular weight of the salt. NaHCO3 is about 28% sodium by weight, NaCl is about 39% sodium by weight.	[ "Sodium bicarbonate, as \"bicarbonate of soda\", was a frequent source of punch lines for Groucho Marx in Marx brothers movies. In \"Duck Soup\", Marx plays the leader of a nation at war. In one scene, he receives a message from the battlefield that his general is reporting a gas attack, and Groucho tells his aide: \"Tell him to take a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda and a half a glass of water.\" In \"A Night at the Opera\", Groucho's character addresses the opening night crowd at an opera by saying of the lead tenor: \"Signor Lassparri comes from a very famous family. His mother was a well-known bass singer. His father was the first man to stuff spaghetti with bicarbonate of soda, thus causing and curing indigestion at the same time.\"\n", "In 1791, French chemist Nicolas Leblanc produced sodium carbonate, also known as soda ash. In 1846, two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory in the United States to produce baking soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.\n\n\"Saleratus\", potassium or sodium bicarbonate, is mentioned in the novel \"Captains Courageous\" by Rudyard Kipling as being used extensively in the 1800s in commercial fishing to prevent freshly caught fish from spoiling.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSodium bicarbonate is produced industrially from sodium carbonate:\n", "Heat can also by itself cause sodium bicarbonate to act as a raising agent in baking because of thermal decomposition, releasing carbon dioxide. When used this way on its own, without the presence of an acidic component (whether in the batter or by the use of a baking powder containing acid), only half the available CO is released. Additionally, in the absence of acid, thermal decomposition of sodium bicarbonate also produces sodium carbonate, which is strongly alkaline and gives the baked product a bitter, \"soapy\" taste and a yellow color. To avoid an over-acidic taste from added acid, nonacid ingredients such as whole milk or Dutch-processed cocoa are often added to baked foods.\n", "Because it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, and bicarbonate of soda. The term \"baking soda\" is more common in the United States, whereas \"bicarbonate of soda\" is more common in Australia and Britain. In colloquial usage, the names sodium bicarbonate and bicarbonate of soda are often truncated; forms such as sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, bicarbonate, and bicarb are common.\n\nThe word \"saleratus\", from Latin \"sal æratus\" meaning \"aerated salt\", was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Cooking.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cooking.:Leavening.\n\nIn cooking, baking soda is primarily used in baking as a leavening agent. When it reacts with acid, carbon dioxide is released, which causes expansion of the batter and forms the characteristic texture and grain in pancakes, cakes, quick breads, soda bread, and other baked and fried foods. Acidic compounds that induce this reaction include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, and vinegar. Baking soda may be used together with sourdough, which is acidic, making a lighter product with a less acidic taste.\n", "Limited amounts of product are further obtained by solution mining, pumping heated water through previously mined nahcolite beds and reconstituting the dissolved nahcolite above ground through a natural cooling crystallization process. Currently, only Genesis Alkali (formerly Tronox, formerly FMC) in the Green River Wyoming basin has successfully commercially solution mined the product.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Film.\n", "Antacid (such as baking soda) solutions have been prepared and used by protesters to alleviate the effects of exposure to tear gas during protests.\n", "The second step of the Solvay process, heating sodium bicarbonate, is used on a small scale by home cooks and in restaurants to make sodium carbonate for culinary purposes (including pretzels and alkali noodles), as sodium bicarbonate is commonly available as baking soda and the temperatures required ( to ) to convert baking soda to sodium carbonate can be achieved in conventional kitchen ovens.\n\nSection::::Production.:Hou's process.\n", "Similarly to its use in baking, sodium bicarbonate is used together with a mild acid such as tartaric acid as the excipient in effervescent tablets: when such a tablet is dropped in a glass of water, the carbonate leaves the reaction medium as carbon dioxide gas ( HCO + H → HO + CO↑ or, more precisely, HCO + HO → 2 HO + CO↑ ) leaving the medication dissolved in the water together with the resulting salt (in this example, sodium tartrate).\n\nSection::::Uses.:Medical uses and health.:Personal hygiene.\n", "It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 tonnes/year (as of 2001). Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate precipitates as a solid from this solution.\n\nRegarding the Solvay process, sodium bicarbonate is an intermediate in the reaction of sodium chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. The product however shows low purity (75%).\n", "Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with calcium acid phosphate, sodium aluminium phosphate, or cream of tartar. Baking soda is alkaline; the acid used in baking powder avoids a metallic taste when the chemical change during baking creates sodium carbonate.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cooking.:Other.\n\nSodium bicarbonate was sometimes used in cooking green vegetables, as it gives them a bright green colour—which has been described as artificial-looking—due to its reacting with chlorophyll to produce chlorophyllin. However, this tends to affect taste, texture and nutritional content, and is no longer common. \n", "BULLET::::- NaCO + HO = 2NaOH + CO\n\nBULLET::::- NaHCO = NaOH + CO\n", "The size of lithium and potassium ions most closely resemble those of sodium, and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast, rubidium and caesium ions are far larger, so their salty taste differs accordingly. The saltiness of substances is rated relative to sodium chloride (NaCl), which has an index of 1. Potassium, as potassium chloride (KCl), is the principal ingredient in salt substitutes and has a saltiness index of 0.6.\n", "Baking soda is still used to soften pulses (peas, beans) before and during cooking, as in the traditional British mushy peas recipe for soaking the peas. The main effect of sodium bicarbonate is to modify the pH of the soaking solution and cooking water, that in turn softens the hard external shell, reduces cooking times and may alter the percentage of nutrients in the dish, its flavour and consistence. \n\nBaking soda may react with acids in food, including vitamin C (-ascorbic acid).\n", "Bicarbonate (HCO) has a pK of 10.3 with carbonate (CO), far further from physiologic pH (7.35–7.45), and so it is more likely to accept a proton than to donate one, but it is also far less likely for it to do either, thus bicarbonate will be the major species at physiological pH.\n", "In the United Kingdom and Canada today, drink mixers sold as \"soda water\" or \"club soda\" contain bicarbonate of soda, which gives them a specific flavor and differentiates them from carbonated water. It is popularly used for mixed drinks such as whiskey and soda and Campari soda.\n\nSection::::History.:Popularity.\n", "Section::::Influences.\n\nThe main influence that Soda Stereo received during their career was of British rock. Among the most influential artists for the band sound are the Beatles and solo careers of George Harrison, Paul McCartney and John Lennon; the Police, the Cure, Television, Talking Heads, Elvis Costello, David Bowie, Virus, XTC, the Specials, Squeeze, Pink Floyd, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Queen (in 1997 band recorded tribute song \"Algún día\"), My Bloody Valentine and Cocteau Twins.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "BULLET::::- Sodium bromite – NaBrO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium carbide – NaC\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium carbonate – NaCO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium chlorate – NaClO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium chloride – NaCl\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium chlorite – NaClO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium cobaltinitrite – CoNNaO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium cyanate – NaCNO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium cyanide – NaCN\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium dichromate – NaCrO.2HO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium dioxide – NaO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium dithionite – NaSO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium ferrocyanide – NaFe(CN)\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium fluoride – NaF\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium fluorosilicateFNaSi Sodium fluorosilicate\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium formate – HCOONa\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hydride – NaH\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hydrogen carbonate (Sodium bicarbonate) – NaHCO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hydrosulfide – NaSH\n", "and there is concern about its invasiveness in California's salt marshes. It is also reported to be naturalized in South America.\n\nSection::::Soda ash and the biology of sodium accumulation.\n\nThe ashes obtained by the burning of \"S. soda\" can be refined to make a product called soda ash, which is one of the alkali materials essential to making soda-lime glass, soap, and many other products. The principal active ingredient is sodium carbonate, with which the term \"soda ash\" is now nearly synonymous. The processed ashes of \"S. soda\" contain as much as 30% sodium carbonate.\n", "BULLET::::- For a CO pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks (formula_4 ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the p\"K\" value (3.60), giving [HCO] [HCO] at high pressures.\n\nBULLET::::- A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.\n\nBULLET::::- Remark\n", "Many commercial products mix a percentage of sodium percarbonate with sodium carbonate. The average percentage of an \"Oxy\" product in the supermarket is 65% sodium percarbonate and 35% sodium carbonate. The \"ultra boosters\" seen on infomercials may contain as much as 80% sodium percarbonate. However, sodium percarbonate is less expensive in its pure form and can be adjusted to any percentage the user desires.\n", "Various receptors have also been proposed for salty tastes, along with the possible taste detection of lipids, complex carbohydrates, and water. Evidence for these receptors is, however, shaky at best, and is often unconvincing in mammal studies. For example, the proposed ENaC receptor for sodium detection can only be shown to contribute to sodium taste in \"Drosophilia\".\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Carbonation.\n\nAn enzyme connected to the sour receptor transmits information about carbonated water.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Fat.\n", "Section::::History.:Pittsburgh Activated Carbon (1960s-1980s).\n\nThe company's activated carbon division developed new water treatment methods in 1960, and two years later the division installed 40,000 pounds of their carbon for the Virginia-American Water Co, a notable contract for the company. Also in the early 1960s the company began using their granular activated carbon (GAC) for removing tastes and odors. \n", "BULLET::::- High sodium carbonate content – Purity levels of at least 99.2% and typically 99.8%\n\nBULLET::::- Low impurity levels – chloride and iron\n\nMedium dense soda ash dissolves faster than dense soda ash and is typically used as an alternative to Chemical synthesis\|synthetic light soda ash in compact detergent manufacture\n\nSection::::Environmental record.\n", "The Solvay process recycles its ammonia. It consumes only brine and limestone, and calcium chloride is its only waste product. The process is substantially more economical than the Leblanc process, which generates two waste products, calcium sulfide and hydrogen chloride. The Solvay process quickly came to dominate sodium carbonate production worldwide. By 1900, 90% of sodium carbonate was produced by the Solvay process, and the last Leblanc process plant closed in the early 1920s. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03894	How do birthmarks on skin become formed and what determines where they are located?	Generally, these are formed from overgrowth of blood vessels or associated skin tissue cells. The localization is based on how skin cells migrate during development and any imbalances can lead to concentrated areas of cells. The localization of birthmarks is not thought to be hereditary.	[ "Section::::Vascular types.\n\nSection::::Vascular types.:Stork bite.\n\nColloquially called a \"stork bite\", \"angel's kiss\" or \"salmon patch\", telangiectatic nevus appears as a pink or tanned, flat, irregularly shaped mark on the knee, back of the neck, and/or the forehead, eyelids and, sometimes, the top lip. The skin is not thickened and feels no different from anywhere else on the body; the only difference is in appearance. Nearly half of all babies have such a birthmark.\n\nSection::::Vascular types.:Strawberry mark.\n", "Section::::Pigmented types.:Café au lait spot.\n\nCafé au lait spot macules may occur anywhere on the body. They are most commonly oval in shape and light brown, or milk coffee, in color. These birthmarks may be present at birth, or appear in early childhood, and do not fade much with age. One or two on an individual is common; however, four or more may be an indicator of neurofibromatosis. In the event of weight gain, the birthmark can stretch with the skin and become larger.\n\nSection::::Pigmented types.:Mongolian spot.\n", "Section::::Vascular types.:Port-wine stain.\n", "In Dutch, birthmarks are called \"moedervlekken\", in Danish \"modermærke\" and in German \"Muttermal\", all meaning \"mother-spots\" because it was thought that an infant inherited the marks solely from the mother. The Hungarian word for any flat mole, as opposed to only congenital birthmarks, \"anyajegy\", is also derived from this belief.\n\nSome myths associated with birthmarks are that they are caused when an expectant mother sees something strange, or experiences a great deal of fear, sometimes called a maternal impression.\n\nIn Iranian folklore, a birthmark appears when the pregnant mother touches a part of her body during a solar eclipse.\n", "The exact cause of most birthmarks is unknown, but they are thought to occur as a result of a localized imbalance in factors controlling the development and migration of skin cells. In addition, it is known that vascular birthmarks are not hereditary.\n\nSection::::Pigmented types.\n\nSection::::Pigmented types.:Mole.\n", "Congenital melanocytic nevus is a type of melanocytic nevus, the medical term for what is colloquially called a \"mole\", found in infants at birth. Occurring in about 1% of infants in the United States, it is located in the area of the head and neck 15% of the time, but may occur anywhere on the body. It may appear as light brown in fair-skinned people, to almost black in people with darker skin. Coming in a variety of sizes and appearances, they may be irregular in shape and flat, or raised and lumpy in appearance and feel. Such naevi can also manifest themselves as beauty marks, which most commonly appear on the face, neck or arms.\n", "Café au lait spot\n\nCafé au lait\" spots, or café au lait\" macules, are flat, pigmented birthmarks. The name \"café au lait\" is French for \"coffee with milk\" and refers to their light-brown color. They are also called \"giraffe spots,\" or \"coast of Maine spots,\" which refers to their jagged borders.\n\nThey are caused by a collection of pigment-producing melanocytes in the epidermis of the skin.\n\nThese spots are typically permanent and may grow or increase in number over time.\n", "A number of additional factors appear to promote the appearance of stretchmarks: one study of 324 women, done just after they had given birth, demonstrated that low maternal age, high body mass index, weight gain over 15 kg (33 pounds) and higher neonatal birth weight were independently correlated with the occurrence of striae. Teenagers were found to be at the highest risk of developing severe striae.\n", "Dermatologists divide birthmarks into two types. Pigmented birthmarks caused by excess skin pigment cells include moles, café au lait spots, and Mongolian spots. Vascular birthmarks, also called red birthmarks, are caused by increased blood vessels and include macular stains (salmon patches), hemangiomas, and Port-wine stains. A little over 1 in 10 babies have a vascular birthmark present by age 1. Several birthmark types are part of the group of skin lesions known as nevi or naevi, which is Latin for \"birthmarks\".\n", "A birthmark like crest of around 5 cm of diameter that appears in the skin of all the Reyvateils in specific spots (though strictly speaking it isn't a birthmark, but part of the Grathnode compound in their bodies appearing on their skins). All of the Origins have it programmed to appear in their hips, but all other Reyvateils have their Ports appearing in very varied areas. It is through this Install Port that Grathnode Crystals can be Installed, as well as also being the place through which the Life Extending Agent is administered to Third Generations. As the Install Port carries such an important role in the maintenance of their own lives, as well as being said the part of the body that exposes the mind of the Reyvateil to anyone that looks at it, the Reyvateils will never show it to anyone excepting for people in which they have an extreme amount of trust.\n", "Infants may be born with one or more slate grey nevus ranging from small area on the buttocks to a larger area on the back. The birthmark is prevalent among East, South, Southeast, North and Central Asian peoples, Indigenous Oceanians (chiefly Micronesians and Polynesians), certain populations in Africa, Amerindians, non-European Latin Americans, Caribbeans of mixed-race descent, and Turkish people. \n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nMost birthmarks are harmless and do not require treatment. Pigmented marks can resolve on their own over time in some cases. Vascular birthmarks may require reduction or removal for cosmetic reasons. Treatments include administering oral or injected steroids, dermatological lasers to reduce size and/or color, or dermatologic surgery.\n\nSection::::Folklore.\n", "Birthmarks are called \"voglie\" in Italian, and \"wiham\" in Arabic; both of which translate to \"wishes\" because, according to folklore, they are caused by unsatisfied wishes of the mother during pregnancy. For example, if a pregnant woman does not satisfy a sudden wish or craving for strawberries, it's said that the infant might bear a strawberry mark.\n\nIn Mongolia, a birthmark is believed to be a sign that an individual is a shaman.\n", "The prevalence and severity of striae gravidarum varies among populations. The current literature suggest that in the general population of the US, there is a 50%-90% prevalence of striae associated with pregnancy, partly as a result of the normal hormonal changes of pregnancy and partly due to stretching of skin fibers. Many women experience striae gravidarum during their first pregnancy. Nearly 45% percent of women develop striae gravidarum before 24 weeks of gestation. Many women who develop lesions during the first pregnancy do not develop them during later pregnancies. Genetic factors such as family history and race also seem to be predictive in the appearance of striae.\n", "Section::::Non-specific stress indicators.:Skeletal non-specific stress indicators.:Harris lines.\n\nHarris lines form before adulthood, when bone growth is temporarily halted or slowed down due to some sort of stress (either disease or malnutrition). During this time, bone mineralization continues, but growth does not, or does so at very reduced levels. If and when the stressor is overcome, bone growth will resume, resulting in a line of increased mineral density that will be visible in a radiograph. If there is not recovery from the stressor, no line will be formed.\n\nSection::::Non-specific stress indicators.:Hair.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nOccasional darker striae or grooves of Retzius result from systemic disturbances in the human body. For example, a fever can cause some lines to appear darker than those surrounding them. Normally, amelogenesis involves a period of enamel matrix formation and a rest period. In case of any disturbance, the rest periods are prolonged and occur close to one another. Consequently, the line of Retzius appears broader and much more prominent, often presenting a brownish colour under the microscope. The neonatal line is the darkest band, which represents the disrupted enamel formation due to the stress of being born.\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics of newborn.:Skin.\n\nImmediately after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the newborn begins to breathe, usually within a minute or two, the skin's color reaches its normal tone. Newborns are wet, covered in streaks of blood, and coated with a white substance known as vernix caseosa, which is hypothesised to act as an antibacterial barrier. The newborn may also have Mongolian spots, various other birthmarks, or peeling skin, particularly on the wrists, hands, ankles, and feet.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics of newborn.:Genitals.\n", "Nevus flammeus nuchae\n\nNaevus flammeus nuchae, or coll. stork bite, is a congenital capillary malformation present in newborns. It is a common type of birthmark in a newborn and is usually temporary.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nStork bites occur in a significant number of newborns, with estimates ranging from to ; they are reported more frequently for white babies than for infants of other races. They result from a dilation of capillaries in the skin, and may become darker when the child cries or strains.\n", "Koplik's spots are named after Henry Koplik (1858-1927), an American pediatrician who published a short description of them in 1896, emphasising their appearance before the skin rash and their value in the differential diagnosis of diseases with which measles might be mistaken. He published two further papers on the spots, including one with a colour illustration. An anonymous reviewer of Koplik's \"The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood\" refers to the illustration as \"the now famous coloured plate\".\n", "Epidermolysis Bullosa, sometimes referred to as \"Butterfly Skin\", is a rare genetic connective tissue disorder that, in all forms, results in extremely fragile skin that blisters or tears at the slightest friction or trauma. EB typically manifests at birth or early childhood. According to the Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa Research Association of America (DEBRA), an estimated 1 out of every 20,000 live births are affected with some type of EB and the disorder occurs in every racial and ethnic group throughout the world and affects both sexes equally.\n", "A \"hemangioma of infancy\", colloquially called a strawberry mark, is a benign self-involuting tumor (swelling or growth) of endothelial cells, the cells that line blood vessels. It usually appears during the first weeks of life and resolves by age 10. It is the most common tumor of infancy.\n\nPHACES Syndrome, a rare condition that often involves brain, heart, and arterial abnormalities, is generally accompanied by the presence of large facial hemangiomas. In such cases, what appears to be a small bruise or birthmark may grow rapidly and take on a puffy appearance in the first days or weeks of life.\n", "The source material states that each of the houses are not traced back to a single member bearing a certain mark, rather that certain marks manifested in certain regions on specific races and families. After several generations these families began to understand the significance of each individual mark and came to see certain marks as \"true marks\", marks that breed true in a bloodline. Aberrant marks are those that manifest as a consequence of interbreeding of bloodlines.\n", "Section::::Non-specific stress indicators.:Skeletal non-specific stress indicators.:Harris lines.\n\nHarris lines are stress indicators on the skeleton that form due to malnutrition, disease, or other stress factors during childhood. During this time, bone growth is temporarily stopped or slowed down but bone mineralization will continue. Once the stress has decreased or stopped, bone growth will resume, which results in a line of increased mineral density that can be seen in radiographs. If there is no recovery from stress, no line will be formed.\n", "BULLET::::- Scarification can be used for healing increasing their cultural desirability. It may help a patient change their status from victim to survivor. These individuals pass through various kinds of ritual death and rebirth, and redefine the relationship between self and society through the skin\n\nBULLET::::- Most people in certain regions of Africa who have \"markings\" can be identified as belonging to a specific tribe or ethnic group. Some of the tribes in Northern Ghana who use the markings are the Gonjas, Nanumbas, Dagombas, Frafras and Mamprusis.\n", "While being driven to the funeral, House works with his team by phone. Their discussions are interrupted when Wilson is pulled over by a policeman for a House-created traffic offense. The stop results in Wilson’s arrest on an old out-of-state warrant, still open because of another House-related error. House and Wilson end up explaining the circumstances under which they met to the arresting officer; House describes Wilson as \"the one [person] I thought wasn't boring\", thus revealing their first encounter and eventual friendship.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15015	Why do snowflakes form symmetrically?	They typically don't. Snowflakes are a crystalline formation, and they crystallise along hexagonal patterns. They are roughly symmetrical because at each point when more ice crystals are forming at the edges, they are experiencing approximately the same conditions as at corresponding points of rotational symmetry. Because of the hexagonal structure there are limited ways the ice can crystallise at the edges, this limitation forces the shapes into more regular patterns. The smaller snowflakes are the more uniform and closer to symmetrical they are.	[ "As Nakaya discovered, shape is also a function of whether the prevalent moisture is above or below saturation. Forms below the saturation line trend more towards solid and compact. Crystals formed in supersaturated air trend more towards lacy, delicate and ornate. Many more complex growth patterns also form such as side-planes, bullet-rosettes and also planar types depending on the conditions and ice nuclei. If a crystal has started forming in a column growth regime, at around , and then falls into the warmer plate-like regime, then plate or dendritic crystals sprout at the end of the column, producing so called \"capped columns\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Melt Forms (MF)\" – Range from clustered round grains of wet snow through melt-freeze rounded polycrystals when water in veins freezes to loosely bonded, fully rounded single crystals and polycrystals.to polycrystals from a surface layer of wet snow that refroze after having been wetted by melt or rainfall.\n", "Although snowflakes are never completely symmetrical, a non-aggregated snowflake often grows so as to exhibit an approximation of six-fold radial symmetry. The symmetry gets started due to the hexagonal crystalline structure of ice. At that stage, the snowflake has the shape of a minute hexagon. The six \"arms\" of the snowflake, or dendrites, then grow independently from each of the corners of the hexagon, while either side of each arm grows independently. The microenvironment in which the snowflake grows changes dynamically as the snowflake falls through the cloud and tiny changes in temperature and humidity affect the way in which water molecules attach to the snowflake. Since the micro-environment (and its changes) are very nearly identical around the snowflake, each arm tends to grow in nearly the same way. However, being in the same micro-environment does not guarantee that each arm grow the same; indeed, for some crystal forms it does not because the underlying crystal growth mechanism also affects how fast each surface region of a crystal grows. Empirical studies suggest less than 0.1% of snowflakes exhibit the ideal six-fold symmetric shape. Very occasionally twelve branched snowflakes are observed; they maintain the six-fold symmetry.\n", "The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. Rarely, at a temperature of around , snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry — triangular snowflakes. The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. It is unlikely that any two snowflakes are alike due to the estimated 10 (10 quintillion) water molecules which make up a typical snowflake, which grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the snowflake falls through on its way to the ground. Snowflakes that look identical, but may vary at the molecular level, have been grown under controlled conditions.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nSnowflakes nucleate around mineral or organic particles in moisture-saturated, subfreezing air masses. They grow by net accretion to the incipient crystals in hexagonal formations. The cohesive forces are primarily electrostatic.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Nucleus.\n", "The shape of a snowflake is determined primarily by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. The most common snow particles are visibly irregular. Freezing air down to promotes planar crystals (thin and flat). In colder air down to , the crystals form as needles, hollow columns, prisms or needles. In air as cold as , shapes become plate-like again, often with branched or dendritic features. At temperatures below , the crystals becomes plate-like or columnar, depending on the degree of saturation. As Nakaya discovered, shape is also a function of whether the prevalent moisture is above or below saturation. Forms below the saturation line trend more towards solid and compact. Crystals formed in supersaturated air trend more towards lacy, delicate and ornate. Many more complex growth patterns also form such as side-planes, bullet-rosettes and also planar types depending on the conditions and ice nuclei. If a crystal has started forming in a column growth regime, at around , and then falls into the warmer plate-like regime, then plate or dendritic crystals sprout at the end of the column, producing so called \"capped columns\".\n", "Section::::Classification.\n\nSnowflakes form in a wide variety of intricate shapes, leading to the notion that \"no two are alike\". Although nearly-identical snowflakes have been made in laboratory, they are very unlikely to be found in nature. Initial attempts to find identical snowflakes by photographing thousands of them with a microscope from 1885 onward by Wilson Alwyn Bentley found the wide variety of snowflakes we know about today.\n\nUkichiro Nakaya developed a crystal morphology diagram, relating crystal shape to the temperature and moisture conditions under which they formed, which is summarized in the following table:\n", "Among non-living things, snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry; each flake's structure forms a record of the varying conditions during its crystallization, with nearly the same pattern of growth on each of its six arms. Crystals in general have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits; they can be cubic or octahedral, but true crystals cannot have fivefold symmetry (unlike quasicrystals). Rotational symmetry is found at different scales among non-living things, including the crown-shaped splash pattern formed when a drop falls into a pond, and both the spheroidal shape and rings of a planet like Saturn.\n", "Snow develops in clouds that themselves are part of a larger weather system. The physics of snow crystal development in clouds results from a complex set of variables that include moisture content and temperatures. The resulting shapes of the falling and fallen crystals can be classified into a number of basic shapes and combinations, thereof. Occasionally, some plate-like, dendritic and stellar-shaped snowflakes can form under clear sky with a very cold temperature inversion present.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.:Cloud formation.\n", "A snowflake consists of roughly 10 water molecules, which are added to its core at different rates and in different patterns, depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the snowflake falls through on its way to the ground. As a result, snowflakes vary among themselves, while following similar patterns.\n", "BULLET::::- Combination of columnar and plate crystals (CP) – Subdivided into: Column with plane crystal at both ends, bullet with plane crystals, plane crystal with spatial extensions at ends\n\nBULLET::::- Columnar crystal with extended side planes (S) – Subdivided into: Side planes, scalelike side planes, combination of side planes, bullets, and columns\n\nBULLET::::- Rimed crystal (R) – Subdivided into: Rimed crystal, densely rimed crystal, graupellike crystal, graupel\n\nBULLET::::- Irregular snow crystal (I) – Subdivided into: Ice particle, rimed particle, broken piece from a crystal, miscellaneous\n", "In the tetragonal system, cyclical contact twins are the most commonly observed type of twin, such as in rutile titanium dioxide and cassiterite tin oxide. \n\nIn the orthorhombic system, crystals usually twin on planes parallel to the prism face, where the most common is a {110} twin which produces cyclical twins, such as in aragonite, chrysoberyl, and cerussite.\n\nIn the monoclinic system, twin occur most often on the planes {100} and {001} by the Manebach Law {001}, Carlsbad Law [001], Braveno Law {021} in orthoclase, and the Swallow Tail Twins {001} in gypsum.\n", "Section::::Precipitation.:Classification of snowflakes.\n\nMicrography of thousands of snowflakes from 1885 onward, starting with Wilson Alwyn Bentley, revealed the wide diversity of snowflakes within a classifiable set of patterns. Closely matching snow crystals have been observed.\n\nNakaya developed a crystal morphology diagram, relating crystal shapes to the temperature and moisture conditions under which they formed, which is summarized in the following table.\n", "There is further parallelism between the hydrophobicity and icephobicity. The hydrophobicity is crucial for the “hydrophobic effect” and hydrophobic interactions. For two hydrophobic molecules (e.g., hydrocarbons) placed in water, there is an effective repulsive hydrophobic force, entropic in its origin, due to their interaction with the water medium. The hydrophobic effect is responsible for folding of proteins and other macro-molecules leading to their fractal shape. During ice crystal (snowflake) formation, the synchronization of branch growth occurs due to the interaction with the medium (oversaturated vapor) – is somewhat similar to the hydrophobic effect – the apparent repulsion of the hydrophobic particles due to their interaction with the medium (water). Consequently, despite the shapes of snowflakes being very diverse with “no two flakes similar to each other,” most snow crystals are symmetric with each of the six branches almost identical to other five branches. Furthermore, both hydrophobicity and icephobicity can lead to quite complex phenomena, such as self-organized criticality-driven complexity as a result of hydrophobic interactions (during wetting of rough/heterogeneous surfaces or during polypeptide chain folding and looping) or ice crystallization (fractal snowflakes).\n", "Twinning can often be a problem in X-ray crystallography, as a twinned crystal does not produce a simple diffraction pattern.\n\nSection::::Twin laws.\n\nTwin laws are either defined by their twin planes (i.e. {hkl}) or the direction of the twin axes (i.e. [hkl]). If the twin law can be defined by a simple planar composition surface, the twin plane is always parallel to a possible crystal face and never parallel to an existing plane of symmetry (remember that twinning adds symmetry).\n", "But in general, based on the relationship between the twin axis and twin plane, there are 3 types of twinning:\n\nSection::::Modes of formation.\n", "For the intermediate material phase called liquid crystals the existence of icosahedral symmetry was proposed by H. Kleinert and K. Maki \n\nand its structure was first analyzed in detail in that paper. See the review article here.\n\nIn aluminum, the icosahedral structure was discovered experimentally three years after this\n\nby Dan Shechtman, which earned him the Nobel Prize in 2011.\n\nSection::::Related geometries.\n", "Two geometric figures have the same \"symmetry type\" when their symmetry groups are \"conjugate\"subgroups of the Euclidean group: that is, when the subgroups \"H\", \"H\" are related by for some \"g\" in E(\"n\"). For example:\n\nBULLET::::- two 3D figures have mirror symmetry, but with respect to different mirror planes.\n\nBULLET::::- two 3D figures have 3-fold rotational symmetry, but with respect to different axes.\n\nBULLET::::- two 2D patterns have translational symmetry, each in one direction; the two translation vectors have the same length but a different direction.\n", "BULLET::::- Reflection in a line and glide reflection are preserved on expansion/contraction along, or perpendicular to, the axis of reflection and glide reflection. It changes p\"6\"m, p\"4\"g, and p\"3\"m\"1 into cmm, p\"3\"m\"1 into cm, and p\"4\"m, depending on direction of expansion/contraction, into pmm or cmm. A pattern of symmetrically staggered rows of points is special in that it can convert by expansion/contraction from p\"6\"m to p\"4\"m.\n", "A variety of nanostructures (e.g. condensing argon, metal atoms, and virus capsids) assume icosahedral form on size scales where surface forces eclipse those from the bulk. A twinned form of these nanostructures is sometimes found to occur e.g. in face-centered-cubic (FCC) metal-atom clusters. This may occur when the building blocks beneath each of the 20 facets of an initially icosahedral cluster (which cannot fill space without defects) \"make the case\" (as the surface-to-volume ratio of these facets decreases with size) for conversion to a translationally symmetric (e.g. defect-free face-centered-cubic) crystalline form\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Description of the thermally induced shape-memory effect.:Physically crosslinked SMPs.:Other thermoplastic polymers.\n\nA linear, amorphous polynorbornene (Norsorex, developed by CdF Chemie/Nippon Zeon) or organic-inorganic hybrid polymers consisting of polynorbornene units that are partially substituted by polyhedral oligosilsesquioxane (POSS) also have shape-memory effect.\n\nSection::::Description of the thermally induced shape-memory effect.:Chemically crosslinked SMPs.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nIf a molten linear polymer (such as polyethylene) is cooled down rapidly, then the orientation of its molecules, which are randomly aligned, curved and entangled remain frozen and the solid has disordered structure. However, upon slow cooling, some polymer chains take on a certain \"orderly configuration\": they align themselves in plates called \"crystalline lamellae\".\n", "According to Robert Jaulin, the asymmetrical relation portrayed by these pairs is but the starting point of totalitarian movement, its static and temporary position. Its dynamics derives from the “wished for” or prospective \"inversion\" of the relation between its two poles. This may happen through the totalitarian pair defining the pre-existing situation, the design of a new one or, more often, through recovery and adaptation of old formulas.\n", "BULLET::::- perpendicular cut to one of the three (cubic) axes: two sets of bands at right angles each other\n\nBULLET::::- parallel cut to one of the octahedron faces (cutting all 3 cubic axes at the same distance from the crystallographic center) : three sets of bands running at 60° angles each other\n\nBULLET::::- any other angle: four sets of bands with different angles of intersection\n\nSection::::Structures in non-meteoritic materials.\n", "As solidification slows and growth kinetics become rate-limiting, the ice crystals begin to exclude the particles, redistributing them within the suspension. A competitive growth process develops between two crystal populations, those with their basal planes aligned with the thermal gradient (z-crystals) and those that are randomly oriented (r-crystals) giving rise to the start of the TZ.\n" ]	[ "Snowflakes form symmetrically", "Snowstorms form symmetrically, but can roughly form symmetrically depending on how small they are. " ]	[ "While snowflakes crystallize along hexagonal patterns, they are not typically symmetrical.", "Snowstorms do not form symmetrically, " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Snowflakes form symmetrically", "Snowstorms form symmetrically, but can roughly form symmetrically depending on how small they are. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "While snowflakes crystallize along hexagonal patterns, they are not typically symmetrical.", "Snowstorms do not form symmetrically, " ]
2018-17341	How can humans know they found a new species of animal and not an already discovered one?	Imagine that you have a bunch of photos of cars. Thousands of them. They're all the same type of car - say a four door sedan - and none of them have visible brand and model names. Your job is to find each and every unique model of car. Obviously you wouldn't compare each car to every other car to find out which one is a duplicate. Instead, you'd sort them into different categories - blocky or round shape, long or short hood, features distinctive to certain brands like the BMW grill, thin or thick columns, etc. Now when you get a new car, you just identify its distinct features and find the right category. Then you just compare it to the different models which are already there and look whether or not it's already on your list. It's not much different with plants or animals. All those different species of termites can be ordered into smaller subgroups of more closely related species. So for example, if you find a termite with stubby legs and large eyes in South America, you can rule out all species of termites living in Africa or having long legs or having small eyes. You might only need to compare it to 20 other species of termite which share those features.	[ "In a 2015 study it was found that over 94% of observations submitted to iSpot are identified to some level, (80% at species level), and that 92% of a representative sample of the identifications could be externally verified. Most observations were given an initial identification within an hour of posting. Identification is refined as other members review and agree with an existing identification, or propose an alternative. There is no time limit to this process.\n\nSection::::Function.:Database.\n\nThe number of observations uploaded with photographic records exceeds 500 000 as of May 2015.\n", "Attempts have been made to identify new locations where the species could occur based on identification of suitable habitats using computational models.\n\nSection::::Species discovery.\n", "These developments could not have come at a better time. As the taxonomic community already knows, the world is running out of specialists who can identify the very biodiversity whose preservation has become a global concern. In commenting on this problem in palaeontology as long ago as 1993, Roger Kaesler recognized:\n", "As an example, consider the data Corbet provided Fisher in the 1940s. Using the Good–Toulmin model, the number of unseen species is found usingformula_57This can then be used to create a relationship between formula_56 and formula_59.\n\nThis relationship is shown in the plot below.\n", "Individual countries particularly rich in species newly described during this period are:\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Peru\n\nBULLET::::- Indonesia\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines\n\nA number of individuals have been particularly prolific in describing new species, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Niels Krabbe\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Coopmans\n\nBULLET::::- Bret Whitney\n\nSection::::Species described that were not valid species.\n\nA number of species described during this period have turned out not to be valid species. There are a number of reasons for this. The following is a list of these species:\n", "BULLET::::- Sweden: The species was recorded at five sites in the south of the country, starting in 2008, on the basis of echolocation calls.\n\nBULLET::::- Switzerland: \"M. alcathoe\" has been recorded from the Col du Marchairuz in the Jura Mountains (canton of Vaud). The species is acoustically detected in 2003 in the canton of Geneva, and subsequent captures led to the discovery of the first breeding sites for the country.\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey: Eight individuals have been caught at three sites in close vicinity in the European part of the country in 2006.\n", "While conducting botanical research at the Bilsa Biological Reserve in Ecuador, botanist Margot Bass realized the importance and value in scientifically photographing the rainforest. Bass continued her work in 1996 in Ecuador's Yasuní National Park, where she and other botanists established Finding Species to document and conserve plant species.\n", "Section::::Nature as source.:Screening.\n\nTwo main approaches exist for the finding of new bioactive chemical entities from natural sources.\n\nThe first is sometimes referred to as random collection and screening of material, but the collection is far from random. Biological (often botanical) knowledge is often used to identify families that show promise. This approach is effective because only a small part of earth's biodiversity has ever been tested for pharmaceutical activity. Also, organisms living in a species-rich environment need to evolve defensive and competitive mechanisms to survive. Those mechanisms might be exploited in the development of beneficial drugs.\n", "The spaceship lands. He steps out. He points it around. It says ‘friendly–unfriendly—edible–poisonous—safe– dangerous—living–inanimate’. On the next sweep it says ‘\"Quercus oleoides—Homo sapiens—Spondias mombin—Solanum nigrum—Crotalus durissus—Morpho peleides\"—serpentine’. This has been in my head since reading science fiction in ninth grade half a century ago.\n\nSection::::The species identification problem.\n", "If formula_1 independent samples are taken, formula_2, and then if formula_3 more independent samples were taken, the number of unseen species that will be discovered by the additional samples is given byformula_4with formula_5 being the second set of formula_6 samples.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Considering the various sources of evidence of their growing in districts from rainforested city surrounds through to villages and to places far from cities' basic facilities or herbaria for botanical science, it is not surprising that official national herbaria hold numerous specimens of un-described, potentially new species, for example in Papua New Guinea's national herbarium in Lae.\n", "Most CSIs that have been identified have been found to exhibit high predictive value and they generally retain the specificity for the originally identified clades of species. Therefore, based upon their presence or absence, it should be possible to identify both known and even previously unknown species belonging to these groups in different environments.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Group specific.\n", "Together with paleontologist and ground sloth specialist Greg McDonald of the U.S. National Park Service, Oren agreed to appear on a Discovery Channel special on location at the Amazon basin where he expected he might find a Mapinguari. Oren attempted to lure the creature by employing sounds he speculated would draw the animal. He received no response. A hired Amazon guide identified a dung sample as likely that of a Mapinguari but DNA testing revealed it to be that of an anteater.\n", "\"Heteropoda maxima\" was first described in 2001 by P. Jäger, after being discovered in a cave in Laos. Over a thousand new species of plant and animal were found between 1997 and 2007 in the Greater Mekong Subregion.\n\nA representative of the World Wide Fund for Nature stated that \"some of these species really have no business being recently discovered\", suggesting that it is surprising for such a large species to go undiscovered for so long.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "all in 1998, and the Taiwan bush-warbler \"Bradypterus alishanensis\" in 2000. She rediscovered the forest owlet \"Athene blewitti\", which had not been seen since 1884, in western India, previous searches by S. Dillon Ripley, Salim Ali and others having failed because they relied on fake documentation from Richard Meinertzhagen. In November 1997, Rasmussen and Ben King of the American Museum of Natural History spent ten days unsuccessfully searching two east Indian locations before driving west to the site of another old specimen, where King spotted a small, chunky owl with short, heavily white-feathered legs and huge claws, which Rasmussen confirmed as the target species whilst the owl was videotaped and photographed.\n", "He could identify bird calls and songs even in the presence of many other birds, as when the bird was a member of a mixed-species flock. On more than one occasion, he identified a bird new to him by its call, since he recognized the genus and knew what species lived in the area. Once, hearing a recording of a dawn chorus in Bolivia, he realized that one of the sounds was an antwren of the genus \"Herpsilochmus\"—but since he knew all the sounds of those birds, he knew he was hearing a previously unknown species. The following year, the new species was discovered.\n", "Analysis of DNA sequences is becoming increasingly standard for species recognition and may in many cases be the only useful method. Different methods are used to analyse such genetic data, for example molecular phylogenetics or DNA barcoding. Such methods have greatly contributed to the discovery of cryptic species, including such emblematic species as the fly agaric or the African elephants.\n\nSection::::Evolution and ecology.\n\nSection::::Evolution and ecology.:Speciation process.\n", "Section::::Implementations.\n\nBULLET::::- iNaturalist is a global citizen science project and social network of naturalists that incorporates both human and automatic identification of plants, animals, and other living creatures via browser or mobile apps.\n\nBULLET::::- Leaf Snap is an iOS app developed by the Smithsonian Institution that uses visual recognition software to identify North American tree species from photographs of leaves.\n\nBULLET::::- FlowerChecker bot is a Facebook Chatterbot that uses visual recognition software to identify plant species from photographs. The bot uses plant a database collected by FlowerChecker app for mobile phones.\n", "Alien species can be detected via barcoding. Barcoding can be suitable for detection of species in e.g. border control, where rapid and accurate morphological identification is often not possible due to several similar specimens, lack of sufficient diagnostic characteristics and/or lack of taxonomic expertise. Barcoding and metabarcoding can also be used to screen ecosystems for invasive species, and to distinguish between an invasive species and native, morphologically similar, species.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Delimiting cryptic species.\n", "A well publicized expedition to Bhutan initially reported that a hair sample had been obtained which by DNA analysis by Professor Bryan Sykes could not be matched to any known animal. Analysis completed after the media release, however, clearly showed the samples were from a brown bear (\"Ursus arctos\") and an Asiatic black bear (\"Ursus thibetanus\").\n", "In 2006 pictures were published of a potential new species of carnivoran, known in the press as the cat-fox. The images were taken by a night-time camera trap set by the WWF, on the Indonesian side of Borneo. At first sight they seem to show some kind of viverrid, slightly larger than a cat, with red fur. The creature may turn out to be a new species, though some speculate it could be the exceedingly rare Hose's palm civet (\"Diplogale hosei\"). It has recently been argued that the animal on the photos may, in fact, be the poorly known Thomas' flying squirrel (\"Aeromys thomasi\").\n", "The IISE also releases an annual report that inventories the complete list of species cataloged two years prior and discusses the state of new species discovery. The 2011 report, for example, found that 19,232 species were named in 2009, a 5.6% increase over the prior year. The report takes about two years to compile due to the lack of standardized registration for new species, and issue which IISE has campaigned for. It routinely finds that insects make up roughly half of all new species discovered, followed by vascular plants and arachnids.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Homepage\n", "Section::::Universal primer technology.\n\nIn March 2001, Verma and Lalji Singh claimed to have invented a method that they called \"universal primer technology\", which allowed the identification of any unknown biological sample and its assignment to a known species source.\n", "All ATBIs are inherently incomplete since, a) the biota of even well-studied areas includes many undescribed and often difficult-to-study species, and b) new species are regularly established through immigration and introduction.\n\nA study assessed the species richness of megadiverse order of insects as a result of Zurquí All Diptera Biodiversity Inventory project at Costa Rica for one year, identifying more than 40000 flies to 4332 species, including 73 of the world's 160 Diptera families.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biodiversity\n\nBULLET::::- Measurement of biodiversity\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The study examined the conclusions of testing for cryptic species, published in 2010, within the poorly understood and rare populations of a purportedly monotypic species. \n\nThe authors of the 2010 research had sought to test the ability of a genetic study to reveal hidden taxa, with implications for research and conservation of diversity, and the conclusion in this example was number of definable species was grossly underestimated; the authors comment on their surprise at the number of potential species discovered within a 'developed country'. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "It is not probable for humans to know if an animal is a new species or not due to the possibility of it already being discovered." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "By looking for distinct features within the discovered animal and comparing it to all other discovered animals within the same category, one can determine if an animal has been discovered or not." ]
2018-15315	Why do adhesives weaken as temperature increases?	Adhesives start out in the liquid state, and then once they're applied, they dry out and become a solid. On a chemical level, this means that the molecules that make up the adhesive are disordered (i.e. not fixed in any particular pattern) and can move around relative to each other fairly easily. Once they become dry (how this happens depends on the type of adhesive), the molecules become "stuck" to each other and can't move around anymore. When you increase their temperature, you're adding heat energy to those molecules, which allows some of them to break free from the forces holding them still, and thus weakening their ability to hold things together.	[ "Surface factors such as smoothness, surface energy, removal of contaminants, etc. are also important to proper bonding.\n\nPSAs are usually designed to form a bond and hold properly at room temperatures. PSAs typically reduce or lose their tack at low temperatures and reduce their shear holding ability at high temperatures; special adhesives are made to function at high or low temperatures.\n\nSection::::Structural and pressure-sensitive adhesives.\n", "Different adhesive systems behave differently in regards to oxidation which means they age differently in an oxidizing environment; therefore, it is crucial to have a method of predicting the oxidation aging of an adhesive that is applicable to the actual service without producing unwanted stress factors. Use of temperature as an acceleration factor for polymers and adhesives may not be appropriate. This is due to possibilities of parallel reactions forming at high temperatures that otherwise would not exist at lower service environment.\n", "Extreme cold temperatures can cause viscoelastic materials to change to the glass phase and become brittle. For example, exposure of pressure sensitive adhesives to extreme cold (dry ice, freeze spray, etc.) causes them to lose their tack, resulting in debonding.\n\nSection::::Viscoelastic creep.\n\nWhen subjected to a step constant stress, viscoelastic materials experience a time-dependent increase in strain. This phenomenon is known as viscoelastic creep.\n", "If the BCB is hard-baked (far over 50%), it loses its adhesives properties and results in an increased amount of void formation. But also if the soft-curing is above 210 °C the adhesive cures too much, so that the material is not soft and sticky enough to achieve a high bonding strength.\n", "However, the substrate can still be affected by humidity and UV exposure if the substrate is applied in an environment that it was not designed for. For instance, one could get substrate failure by using a tape that was made to be used in a desert in a place such as Florida. The difference in temperature might not be very large, but there is a huge difference in humidity. Any environmental effect on the substrate is dependent on the identity and purpose of the substrate.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Mechanical wear.\n", "In order to keep the duration of the tests short (under 2 hours), the testing temperature is raised above 180 °C. Basically, the test sample is heated then maintained at constant temperature for some time to stabilize. Oxygen/air is then applied and the time of application to beginning of oxidation is the “oxidation induction time” (OIT). As mentioned above, high temperature exposure may interfere with correlation of the measured data with actual in-service behavior of some adhesive systems. This makes the use these tests limited and at times, unreliable.\n", "The adhesive is largely affected by the temperature as polymeric adhesives are commonly used today. Polymeric materials used today are viscoelastic materials, which enables easy application and quick adherence to the substrate. Adhesive degradation in the bulk is largely due to temperature effects, which reduce adhesion causing delamination of the adhesive tape. Too low a temperature can cause the polymeric adhesive to enter its glass state becoming very brittle and reducing adhesion. Raising the temperature, on the other hand, causes the polymer to become more fluid and mobile. As the mobility increases, the polymer adhesion is reduced as the polymer starts to flow as opposed to adhere. Both temperature extremes ultimately results in delamination. The ideal temperature range is largely dependent on the adhesive identity, which comes down to polymer structure. The more rigid the polymer chain is, the stronger the Intermolecular Forces between polymer chains, and the stronger the interactions between the substrate and the adhesive will ultimately result in a strong adhesion and, as a result, a higher ideal temperature range for adhesion.\n", "The predominant factors affecting the bulk of the adhesive tape are temperature and mechanical wear. Temperature changes and extremes could cause degradation of the substrate and the adhesive, while mechanical wear could cause delamination of the adhesive tape depending on the magnitude and direction of the applied forces. Substrate degradation, while unlikely, could also result in delamination though this will be case and environment specific.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Bulk exposure conditions.:Adhesive degradation.\n", "As the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry.\n\nIncreasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that:\n\nBULLET::::- The bonded zone is large\n\nBULLET::::- It is mainly loaded in mode II\n\nBULLET::::- Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a local failure.\n\nSection::::Shelf life.\n", "That being said, in order to avoid delamination, selection of an adhesive tape needs to be based upon the conditions that the tape will experience over its lifetime. This selection process will reduce the chains of adhesive tape degradation and failure occurring during the lifetime of the tape though there is not guarantee that this process will completely avoid the possibility.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Effects on recycling.\n", "Temperature plays a big role in behavior of polymers. Characteristics such as melting, softening, glass transition, etc. are all temperature basic factors in polymers. Some or all of these characteristics happen at low temperatures in some polymers and as mentioned before, tests that exceed these temperatures do not correlate well with actual service life of a part.\n\nOne of the most important advantages of Chemiluminescence (CL) in studying the oxidation of polymers/adhesives is that, it does not need to be run at high temperatures. This makes the CL results more applicable to the oxidation rather than other secondary reactions.\n", "Section::::Hot melt specific properties.\n\nBULLET::::- Melt viscosity: one of the most noticeable properties. Influences the spread of applied adhesive, and the wetting of the surfaces. Temperature-dependent, higher temperature lowers viscosity.\n\nBULLET::::- Melt flow index: a value roughly inversely proportional to the molecular weight of the base polymer. High melt flow index adhesives are easy to apply but have poor mechanical properties due to shorter polymer chains. Low melt flow index adhesives have better properties but are more difficult to apply.\n", "This limitation makes alternate tests, which are conducted at lower temperature and collect the same data, more applicable to adhesive oxidation process.\n\nSection::::Chemiluminescence (CL).\n", "Most PSAs are best suited to be used in moderate temperatures of around 59-95 °F. Within this temperature range typical adhesives maintain their balance in viscous and elastic behavior where optimal surface wetting can be achieved. At extremely high temperatures the tape may be able to stretch more than it could initially. This could cause problems after application to the surface because if the temperature drops the tape may experience additional stress. This may lead to the tape losing some of its contact area, lowering its shear adhesion or holding power. At lower temperatures the adhesive polymers become harder and stiffer which lowers the overall elasticity of the tape and begins to react like glass. The lower elasticity makes it harder for the adhesives to be in contact with the surface and lowers its wet-ability. An adhesive can be formulated to maintain tack in cooler temperatures or a greater amount of adhesive coating on the tape may be necessary. The backing of the adhesives may also be plasticized in order to lower its glass transition temperature and retain its flexibility.\n", "Another circumstance under which diffusive bonding occurs is “scission”. Chain scission is the cutting up of polymer chains, resulting in a higher concentration of distal tails. The heightened concentration of these chain ends gives rise to a heightened concentration of polymer tails extending across the interface. Scission is easily achieved by ultraviolet irradiation in the presence of oxygen gas, which suggests that adhesive devices employing diffusive bonding actually benefit from prolonged exposure to heat/light and air. The longer such a device is exposed to these conditions, the more tails are scissed and branch out across the interface.\n", "Section::::Physics.:Wear.:Rubbing Wear or Fretting.\n\nThe rubbing wear occurs in systems subject to more or less intense vibrations, which cause relative movements between the surfaces in contact with the order of the nanometer. These microscopic relative movements cause both adhesive wear, caused by the displacement itself, and abrasive wear, caused by the particles produced in the adhesive phase, which remain trapped between the surfaces. This type of wear can be accelerated by the presence of corrosive substances and the increase in temperature.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Wear.:Erosion Wear.\n", "Temperature is an important factor in the time it takes for an adhesive to form the green strength. While this can vary from adhesive to adhesive, general speaking, heat can speed up the process to form the green strength and the overall curing time. Time-Temperature-Transformation Diagrams exist for various adhesives that relate the time and temperature to the state of the adhesive during curing. This allows for a proper understanding of when the green strength will be reached for an adhesive joint based on certain conditions.\n\nSection::::Adhesives.:Testing.\n", "The surface of the tape will experience various conditions imposed on it such as varying temperatures, humidity levels, UV exposure levels, mechanical wear, or even degradation of adhesive exposed to the surface. While the bulk will experience mechanical wear and adhesive degradation, these effects are not as widespread or as large in magnitude within the bulk as they are within the surface. The response of the tape to varying conditions is largely due to the adhesive and backing composition as well as adhesive properties such as the Glass Transition Temperature and adhesive-substrate interactions due to adhesion strength.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Environmental conditions.\n", "Temperature has a direct effect on the fracture mechanics. At low temperatures, below the glass transition temperature of the rubber, the dispersed phase behaves like a glass rather than like a rubber that toughens the polymer. As a result, the continuous phase will fail by mechanisms characteristic of the pure polymer, as if the rubber was not present. As temperature increases past the glass transition temperature, the rubber phase will increase the crack initiation energy. At this point the crack self-propagates due to the stored elastic energy in the material. As temperature rises further past the glass transition of the rubber phase, the impact strength of a rubber-polymer composite still dramatically increases as crack propagation requires additional energy input.\n", "BASF tape production did not use the unstable formulation, and their tape production rarely shows this type of coating instability, although BASF LH Super SM cassettes manufactured in the mid-70s are prone to the problem.\n\nAs of 2015, some 35 mm magnetic fullcoat tapes produced by Kodak, such as those used for the audio portion of older IMAX films, are also reported to be exhibiting sticky-shed. As tapes remain in storage for a longer time, it is possible that other binder formulations may develop problems.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n", "BULLET::::- Pot life stability: the degree of stability in molten state, the tendency to decompose and char. Important for industrial processing where the adhesive is molten for prolonged periods before deposition.\n\nBULLET::::- Bond-formation temperature: minimum temperature below which sufficient wetting of substrates does not occur\n\nSection::::General terms.\n\nBULLET::::- Open time: the working time to make a bond, where the surface still retains sufficient tack, can range from seconds for fast-setting HMAs to infinity for pressure-sensitive adhesives\n\nBULLET::::- Set time: time to form a bond of acceptable strength\n", "BULLET::::- Tack: the degree of surface stickiness of the adhesive; influences the strength of the bond between wetted surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Surface energy: which influences wetting of different kind of surfaces.\n\nSection::::Materials used.\n", "The glue is typically a two-part epoxy resin (usually for paste products) or cyanoacrylate (for tapes). The thermally conductive material can vary including metals, metal oxides, silica or ceramic microspheres. The latter are found in products that have much higher dielectric strength, although this comes at the cost of lower thermal conductivity.\n\nEnd-user modding heatsinks may be supplied with thermal (tape) adhesive attached. For products sold through s this is rarely the case; the adhesives are sold separately to professionals.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Computer cooling\n\nBULLET::::- Hot-melt adhesive\n\nBULLET::::- Phase-change material\n\nBULLET::::- Thermally conductive pad\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal grease\n", "Over time, rubber-insulated cables become brittle because of exposure to atmospheric oxygen, so they must be handled with care and are usually replaced during renovations. When switches, socket outlets or light fixtures are replaced, the mere act of tightening connections may cause hardened insulation to flake off the conductors. Rubber insulation further inside the cable often is in better condition than the insulation exposed at connections, due to reduced exposure to oxygen.\n", "BULLET::::- rubber, either natural rubber or synthetic thermoplastic elastomer\n\nBULLET::::- silicone rubber\n\nBULLET::::- and others\n\nThese materials often are blended with a tackifier to produce permanent tack (“grabbing power”) at room temperature, are somewhat deformable, have low surface energy, and are moisture resistant. To meet these requirements, these materials are typically low cross-linking density, low viscosity (η 10,000 cP), and broad molecular weight distribution to enable deformation of the adhesive material to the rough surface of the substrate under various temperatures and peel conditions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03824	How is the ozone repairing itslef when not much about our lifestyles seems to have changed?	Not every spray can deplete the ozone layer, only those which contain [CFC]( URL_0 ) do. Once we realized the bad effects of CFC (and other similar chemicals) we stopped using them.	[ "On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the American Geophysical Union, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed down significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward \"healing\" was reported in 2016.\n", "A 2005 IPCC review of ozone observations and model calculations concluded that the global amount of ozone has now approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability is expected from year to year, including in polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is expected to begin to recover in coming decades due to declining ozone-depleting substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal Protocol.\n", "The 2010 report found, \"Over the past decade, global ozone and ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet increasing. The ozone layer outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre-1980 levels some time before the middle of this century. In contrast, the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later.\"\n", "Section::::Science background.\n\nThere are various links between the two fields of human-atmospheric interaction. Policy experts have advocated for a closer linking of ozone protection and climate protection efforts.\n", "Reductions of up to 70 percent in the ozone column observed in the austral (southern hemispheric) spring over Antarctica and first reported in 1985 (Farman et al.) are continuing. Antarctic total column ozone in September and October have continued to be 40–50 percent lower than pre-ozone-hole values since the 1990s. A gradual trend toward \"healing\" was reported in 2016. In 2017, NASA announced that the ozone hole was the weakest since 1988 because of warm stratospheric conditions. It is expected to recover around 2070.\n", "Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most-significant compounds have been declining. These substances are being gradually removed from the atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine (EECl) level in the atmosphere had dropped about 10 percent by 2008. The decrease in ozone-depleting chemicals has also been significantly affected by a decrease in bromine-containing chemicals. The data suggest that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric methyl bromide (). The phase-out of CFCs means that nitrous oxide (), which is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone-depleting substance and is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century.\n", "The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood—absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in long-term stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by two percent.\n", "As a result, it is estimated that human life-years lost as a result of the chronic effects of ozone exposure will be about 2,300,000 lower in 2010 than in 1990. In addition, there will be approximately 47,500 fewer premature deaths resulting from ozone and particulate matter in the air. Furthermore, the amount of vegetation exposed to excessive ozone levels will be reduced by 44% from 1990 levels.\n", "The Antarctic ozone hole is expected to continue for decades. Ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica will increase by 5–10 percent by 2020 and return to pre-1980 levels by about 2060–2075. This is 10–25 years later than predicted in earlier assessments, because of revised estimates of atmospheric concentrations of ozone-depleting substances, including a larger predicted future usage in developing countries. Another factor that may prolong ozone depletion is the drawdown of nitrogen oxides from above the stratosphere due to changing wind patterns. A gradual trend toward \"healing\" was reported in 2016.\n\nSection::::Research history.\n", "BULLET::::- In some recent cold Arctic winters during the last decade, maximum total column ozone losses due to halogens have reached 30%, but in warmer winters Arctic ozone loss is small.\n\nBULLET::::- Ozone remains depleted in the midlatitudes of both hemispheres. The global-average total column ozone amount for the period 1997-2001 was approximately 3% below the pre-1980 average values.\n\nBULLET::::- Models capture the observed long-term ozone changes in northern and southern midlatitudes.\n\nSection::::Findings.:Predictions.\n", "BULLET::::- A new assessment of the ozone hole, published by the UN, shows it to be recovering faster than previously thought. At projected rates, the Northern Hemisphere and mid-latitude ozone is expected to heal completely by the 2030s, followed by the Southern Hemisphere in the 2050s and polar regions by 2060.\n\nBULLET::::- Scientists report the discovery of the smallest known ape, \"Simiolus minutus\", which weighed approximately eight pounds, and lived about 12.5 million years ago in Kenya in East Africa.\n", "The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (NO), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made organohalogen compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicals are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.\n", "Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB exposure, using crude approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. A detailed assessment of ocular exposure to UVB was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases in average annual ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical opacity. In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date. Based on these results, ozone depletion is predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional cataracts by 2050.\n", "Section::::Consequences of ozone layer depletion.:Increased UV.\n\nOzone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the slant-path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth’s surface. UV-driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.\n", "It is more accurate to speak of ozone depletion in middle latitudes rather than holes. Total column ozone declined below pre-1980 values between 1980 and 1996 for mid-latitudes. In the northern mid-latitudes, it then increased from the minimum value by about two percent from 1996 to 2009 as regulations took effect and the amount of chlorine in the stratosphere decreased. In the Southern Hemisphere's mid-latitudes, total ozone remained constant over that time period. There are no significant trends in the tropics, largely because halogen-containing compounds have not had time to break down and release chlorine and bromine atoms at tropical latitudes.\n", "An estimate of the rate of this termination step to the cycling of atomic oxygen back to ozone can be found simply by taking the ratios of the concentration of O to O. The termination reaction is catalysed by the presence of certain free radicals, of which the most important are hydroxyl (OH), nitric oxide (NO) and atomic chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br). In the second half of the 20th Century the amount of ozone in the stratosphere was discovered to be declining, mostly because of increasing concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and similar chlorinated and brominated organic molecules. The concern over the health effects of the decline led to the 1987 Montreal Protocol, the ban on the production of many ozone depleting chemicals and in the first and second decade of the 21st Century the beginning of the recovery of stratospheric ozone concentrations.\n", "BULLET::::- The long term modeling of the process, its measurement, study, design of theories and testing take decades to document, gain wide acceptance, and ultimately become the dominant paradigm. Several theories about the destruction of ozone were hypothesized in the 1980s, published in the late 1990s, and are currently being investigated. Dr Drew Schindell, and Dr Paul Newman, NASA Goddard, proposed a theory in the late 1990s, using computational modeling methods to model ozone destruction, that accounted for 78 percent of the ozone destroyed. Further refinement of that model accounted for 89 percent of the ozone destroyed, but pushed back the estimated recovery of the ozone hole from 75 years to 150 years. (An important part of that model is the lack of stratospheric flight due to depletion of fossil fuels.)\n", "BULLET::::- Decreases in ozone amounts lead to increases in UV radiation. Calculations of UV irradiance based on relationships with total ozone and total irradiance suggest that UV irradiance has increased since the early 1980s by 6-14% at more than 10 sites distributed over mid- and high latitudes of both hemispheres. But complexities (e.g. clouds, aerosol, snow cover, sea ice cover, and total ozone) limit the ability to describe fully surface ultraviolet radiation on the global scale. Surface ultraviolet data records, which started in the early 1990s, are still too short and too variable to permit the calculation of statistically significant long-term (i.e., multidecadal) trends.\n", "Industrially, ozone is used to:\n\nBULLET::::- Disinfect laundry in hospitals, food factories, care homes etc.;\n\nBULLET::::- Disinfect water in place of chlorine\n\nBULLET::::- Deodorize air and objects, such as after a fire. This process is extensively used in fabric restoration\n\nBULLET::::- Kill bacteria on food or on contact surfaces;\n\nBULLET::::- Water intense industries such as breweries and dairy plants can make effective use of dissolved ozone as a replacement to chemical sanitizers such as peracetic acid, hypochlorite or heat.\n\nBULLET::::- Disinfect cooling towers and control legionella with reduced chemical consumption, water bleed-off and increased performance.\n", "In 2012, NOAA and NASA reported \"Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the second smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres. The hole reached its maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 21.2 million square kilometres.\" A gradual trend toward \"healing\" was reported in 2016.\n", "Drew Shindell has used climate models to assess both climate change and ozone depletion. In his view, while research up to now has been more about the impact of CFC emissions on stratospheric ozone, the future will be more about the interaction between climate change and ozone feedback. Ozone is a greenhouse gas itself. Many ozone-depleting substances are also greenhouse gases, some agents of radiative forcing are thousands of times more powerful than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. The increases in concentrations of these chemicals have produced 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m of radiative forcing, corresponding to about 14% of the total radiative forcing from increases in the concentrations of well-mixed greenhouse gases. Already the natural ozone variability in the stratosphere seems to be closely correlated with the 11-year solar cycle of irradiance changes and has, via a dynamic coupling between the stratosphere and troposphere, a significant impact on climate.\n", "There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution, as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance. Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed \"monumental\" and a combined synopsis provided.\n", "The adaptive immune system is the branch of immunity that provides long-term protection via the development of antibodies targeting specific pathogens and is also impacted by high ozone exposure. Lymphocytes, a cellular component of the adaptive immune response, produce an increased amount of inflammatory chemicals called \"cytokines\" after exposure to ozone, which may contribute to airway hyperreactivity and worsening asthma symptoms.\n", "The Montreal and Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established. Until the 1980s, EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British government had all issued further different scientific reports with dissenting conclusions. Sir Robert (Bob) Watson, Director of the Science Division of at National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) played a crucial role in achieving unified reporting. The IPCC started from scratch with a more unified approach.\n\nSection::::Findings.\n\nSection::::Findings.:Changes in Ozone-Depleting Compounds.\n\nBULLET::::- In the troposphere observations show that the total abundance of ozone-depleting compounds continues to decline slowly from the peak that occurred in 1992-1994.\n", "As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03867	Why do steam downloads on my windows laptop take days when the same game on my MacBook takes 30 minutes?	> What factors affect the download speed relating to the OS? None. Whatever you're experiencing is likely a hardware, network, or bandwidth availability issue. All other things equal, you will see zero difference in download/upload speeds between different OSs. For example, if your Mac has a SSD (as most apple computers by default have higher end hardware) but the PCs you're used to using don't, your DOWNLOAD speed isn't being limited but a mechanical hard drive can only write so fast, so the computer will only download the file as fast as it can write it to disk.	[ "Section::::Platforms.:macOS.\n", "In South America, smartphones alone took majority from desktops on Christmas Day, but for a full-week-average, desktop is still at least at 58%.\n\nThe UK desktop-minority dropped down to 44.02% on Christmas Day and the for the eight days around to the end of the year. Ireland joined some other European countries with smartphone-majority, for three days after Christmas, topping that day at 55.39%.\n\nIn the US, desktop-minority happened for three days on and around Christmas (while a longer four-day stretch happened in November, and happens frequently on weekends).\n", "On the official release of Steam Machines in November 2015, Ars Technica compared the rendering performance of cross-platform games on SteamOS and Windows 10 running on the same machine, using average frame-per-second measurements, and found that games were rendered between 21% and 58% slower on SteamOS compared to Windows 10. Ars Technica considered this might be due to the inexperience of developers optimizing on OpenGL in contrast to DirectX, and believed that the performance might improve with future titles. Ars Technica noted that its benchmark, comprising only six games on a single computer, was far from comprehensive.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::System requirements.\n\nBULLET::::- Intel-powered Mac server or desktop computer running Mac OS X Server Leopard\n\nBULLET::::- Minimum 2 GB RAM\n\nBULLET::::- 40.5 MB hard disk space for Parallels Server for Mac\n\nBULLET::::- Minimum 150 GB for VM files and virtual hard disks\n\nBULLET::::- Optical drive\n\nBULLET::::- Ethernet or FireWire network adapter\n\nSection::::Key features.\n\nUsers can run 32- and 64-bit guest operating systems such as Mac OS X Server, Windows, Linux, and Apple UNIX runtime for Xserve and DTK in virtual machines on Apple Xserves and Mac Pros.\n", "Following the release of Intel-based Macs, third-party platform virtualization software such as Parallels Desktop, VMware Fusion, and VirtualBox began to emerge. These programs allow users to run Microsoft Windows or previously Windows-only software on Macs at near native speed. Apple also released Boot Camp and Mac-specific Windows drivers that help users to install Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, 8.1 or 10 and natively dual boot between Mac OS X and Windows. Although not condoned by Apple, it is possible to run the Linux operating system using Boot camp or other virtualization workarounds. Unlike most PCs, however, Macs are unable to run many legacy PC operating systems. In particular, Intel-based Macs lack the A20 gate.\n", "Online usage of Linux kernel derivatives (Google systems + GNU/Linux) exceeds that of Windows. This has been true since some time between January and April 2016, according to W3Counter and StatCounter.\n\nBut even before that, the figure for all Unix-like OSes, including those from Apple, was higher than that for Windows. \n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n\nSection::::Desktop and laptop computers.\n", "BULLET::::- 64-bit Windows Server 2012 and 2012 R2\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit Windows 10 (including at least 10.0.14393)\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit Windows Server 2016 (including at least 10.0.14393.0)\n\nMac OSX:\n\nBULLET::::- 32-bit 10.5.x Leopard (the only 64-bit 10.5 is Server, which isn't supported)\n\nBULLET::::- 32-bit 10.6.x Snow Leopard\n\nBULLET::::- 32-bit 10.7.x Lion\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit 10.6.x Snow Leopard\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit 10.7.x Lion\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit 10.8.x Mountain Lion\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit 10.9.x Mavericks\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit 10.10.x Yosemite\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit 10.11.x El Capitan\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit 10.12.x Sierra\n\nLinux:\n\nBULLET::::- 32-bit Linux kernels 2.6.11 to 4.2.3\n\nBULLET::::- 64-bit Linux kernels 2.6.11 to 4.2.3\n", "In the area of desktop and laptop computers, Microsoft Windows is generally above 70% in most markets and at 78% globally, Apple's macOS at around 14%, Google's ChromeOS at about 3% (in North America) and Linux at around 2%. All these figures vary somewhat in different markets, and depending on how they are gathered.\n", "Processor type and speed are checked during installation and installation halted if insufficient; however, Leopard will run on slower G4 processor machines (e.g., a 733 MHz Quicksilver) if the installation is performed on a supported Mac and its hard drive then moved to a slower/unsupported one (the drive may either be an internal mechanism or a Firewire external).\n\nSection::::System requirements.:Supported machines.\n", "Steam for Mac OS X was originally planned for release in April 2010; but was pushed back to May 12, 2010, following a beta period. In addition to the Steam client, several features were made available to developers, allowing them to take advantage of the cross-platform Source engine, and platform and network capabilities using Steamworks. Through \"SteamPlay\", the macOS client allows players who have purchased compatible products in the Windows version to download the Mac versions at no cost, allowing them to continue playing the game on the other platform. Some third-party games may require the user to re-purchase them to gain access to the cross-platform functionality. The Steam Cloud, along with many multiplayer PC games, also supports cross-platform play, allowing Windows, macOS, and Linux users to play with each other regardless of platform.\n", "On tablets and smartphones, the situation is the opposite, with Unix-like operating systems dominating the market, including the iOS (BSD-derived), Android, Tizen, Sailfish and Ubuntu (all Linux-derived). Microsoft's Windows phone, Windows RT and Windows 10 are used on a much smaller number of tablets and smartphones. However, the majority of Unix-like operating systems dominant on handheld devices do not use the X11 desktop environments used by other Unix-like operating systems, relying instead on interfaces based on other technologies.\n\nSection::::Desktop environments for the X Window System.\n", "MacTech’s cross platform tests timed how long it took users to perform multi-step tasks that moved data between Mac OS X and Windows. VMware Fusion, which is designed for increased isolation from the host, requires more manual steps to move data between the host and the virtual environment. Parallels Desktop, which is designed to run transparently with the Mac OS X host, requires fewer steps to perform the same tasks. Therefore, Parallels Desktop was faster.\n\nSection::::2009 Benchmark tests.:Networking and file I/O tests.\n", "The desktop computer version of the game was straightforward for Redwood to produce, as the core game was already developed on a Windows computer, although changing the balance of the game for a mouse rather than a touchscreen was a source of particular difficulty The Android version, along with a Linux version, were later announced for release in March 2013 and have since gone live.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- PDF printer for Windows to print from any Windows application to a PDF on the Mac desktop, even if the application doesn't have that functionality\n\nBULLET::::- Compatibility with OS X 10.9 \"Mavericks\"\n\nBULLET::::- Easily install and access complimentary security software subscriptions from one location\n\nBULLET::::- Up to 40% better disk performance than previous versions\n\nBULLET::::- Virtual machines shut down up to 25% faster and suspend up to 20% faster than with Parallels Desktop 8\n\nBULLET::::- 3D graphics and web browsing are 15% faster than in Parallels Desktop 8\n\nEnterprise version:\n\nBULLET::::- Set an expiration date for the virtual machine.\n", "It is currently unknown if these features have been abandoned altogether, or if they will show up in a later build of version 3.0.\n\nBuild 4560, released on July 17, 2007, added an imaging tool which allowed users to add capacity to their virtual disks.\n\nSection::::Version 3.0.:Feature update.\n\nBuild 5160, released on September 11, 2007, added some new features and updated some current features.\n", "Due to the time involved in licensing and porting the product, Macintosh versions of games ported by third-party companies are usually released anywhere from three months to more than a year after their Windows-based counterparts. For example, the Windows version of \"Civilization IV\" was released on October 25, 2005, but Mac gamers had to wait eight months until June 30, 2006 for the release of the Mac version.\n\nSection::::Windows games.:Boot Camp.\n", "This can be accomplished via a web browser, if the host computer is running and the device and host computer share the same network; in this case, pushing harvested content from content sources is supported on a regular interval (\"subscription\"). Also, if the Calibre library on the host computer is stored in a cloud service, such as Box.net, Google Drive, or Dropbox, then either the cloud service or a third-party app, such as Calibre Cloud or CalibreBox, can be used to remotely access the library.\n", "BULLET::::- Multiple versions of Windows, including Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 (Windows 8.1 must generally be installed from a DVD, since Microsoft offered only the \".exe\" version of Windows 8.1 in downloadable form, and did not offer the \".iso\" version as a download (Microsoft has released an ISO version of Windows 8.1 a few months earlier)).\n\nBULLET::::- Mac OS X Leopard Server, Snow Leopard Server, and Mac OS X Lion (only with Mac OS X Lion as host OS)\n\nBULLET::::- Various Linux distributions\n\nBULLET::::- FreeBSD\n\nBULLET::::- eComStation, OS/2, Solaris\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of VMware Fusion and Parallels Desktop\n", "There is no set limit on how many copies of desktop apps can run simultaneously. For example, one user may run as many copies of programs such as Notepad, Paint or Firefox as the system resources support. (Some desktop apps, such as Windows Media Player, are designed to allow only a single instance, but this is not enforced by the operating system.) However, in Windows 8, only one copy of Metro-style apps may run at any given time; invoking the app brings the running instance to the front. True multi-instancing of these apps were not available until Windows 10 version 1803 (released in May 2018).\n", "Only PowerPC Macs can be booted from retail copies of the Tiger client DVD, but there is a Universal DVD of Tiger Server 10.4.7 (8K1079) that can boot both PowerPC and Intel Macs.\n\nSection::::Releases.:Version 10.5: \"Leopard\".\n", "For public Internet servers Linux is generally counted as dominant, powering about twice the number of hosts as Windows Server which is trailed by many smaller players including traditional mainframe OSs.\n\nThe supercomputer field is completely dominated by Linux with 100% of the TOP500 now running on this OS.\n\nSection::::Worldwide device shipments.\n\nAccording to Gartner, the following is the worldwide device shipments (referring to wholesale) by operating system, which includes smartphones, tablets, laptops and PCs together.\n", "Prior to March 2019, both the personal computer and the Steam Link hardware device or mobile device using Steam Link software had to be on the same internal network. With an update in March 2019, Valve introduced the Steam Link Anywhere update that allows one to stream across the internet, though the performance of the streaming will be strongly affected by the bandwidth and latency between the personal computer and device with Steam Link.\n\nSection::::Hardware.\n", "Section::::Version 14.\n\nReleased August 21, 2018, Parallels Desktop 14 supports macOS 10.14 \"Mojave\".\n\nSection::::Supported operating systems.\n\nParallels Desktop for Mac Business, Home and Pro Editions requires these versions of MacOS:\n\nParallels Desktop 11 and 12 only partially support macOS \"High Sierra\":\n\nSection::::Supported operating systems.:Guest.\n\nIn Parallels Desktop 10 for Mac, support for guest operating systems includes a variety of 32-bit and 64-bit x86 operating systems, including:\n\nBULLET::::- MS-DOS\n", "Consequently, Mac OS X Tiger boots much faster than previous releases. The system only has to register the daemons that are to run, not actually launch them. In fact, the progress bar that appears during boot time is just a placebo application (named WaitingForLoginWindow) that does not really show anything other than the passage of time.\n", "Codsall is typically served by two trains per hour in each direction between Birmingham New Street and Shrewsbury via Wolverhampton. One train in each direction stops at all stations on the Wolverhampton to Shrewsbury line, whereas the second service only calls at Codsall, , and Wellington. These services are operated by West Midlands Trains with some extra trains at peak times on weekdays. There are fewer trains on Sundays, typically one every hour.\n\nSection::::Recent history.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Downloads on windows laptop are different than on macbook." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "They should not be different given the same hardware. If they are different then the hardware may be faulty. " ]
2018-21162	Why are they called "Soup & Oyster Crackers" when no one eats them with oysters?	They are eaten with oyster stew. My parents used to make oyster stew to eat with good family friends. It was always a special occasion and oyster crackers were always a standard addition.	[ "Roast beef was New Orleans' most popular po'boy filler up to the 1970s and fried oyster po'boys are popular enough that they are sometimes called an oyster loaf, but the fillings can be almost anything, according to Sarah Rohan who in her book \"Gumbo Tales\" mentions fried shrimp, catfish, crawfish, Louisiana hot sausage, fried chicken, baked ham, duck, and rabbit.\n", "From the 1860s through the 1890s, small hard clams (quahogs) from Little Neck Bay were served in the best restaurants of New York and several European capitals. Eventually, the term \"littleneck\" or \"littleneck clam\" came to be used as a size category for all hard clams, regardless of origin.\n\nSection::::History.:20th century.\n", "Oyster stew\n\nOyster stew is a stew made with oysters. It is popular in the United States and in The Gambia.\n\nIn New England cuisine, oyster stew is often associated with Thanksgiving. In Southern United States cuisine, oyster stew is often prepared on Christmas Eve. \n", "Today traditional po' boy shops offer gumbos, bisques, jambalaya, crawfish kickers and boudin, a Cajun sausage.\n\nSection::::Origin of the term.\n\nIn the late 1800s fried oyster sandwiches on French loaves were known in New Orleans as \"oyster loaves\", a term still in use in the 21st century. A sandwich containing both fried shrimp and fried oysters is often called a \"peacemaker\" or .\n", "In 19th century French and English cooking, \"oyster sauce\" referred to a variant of sauce blanche flavoured with oysters, using a base of milk and melted butter rather than purely reducing the oysters by cooking. The white sauce version was moistened with cream, whereas in brown oyster sauce, the cream was replaced with gravy. Common recipes using the sauce included \"Steak and oyster sauce\", documented as early as 1806, and \"Cod and oyster sauce\". This sauce was still being eaten in Australia in the 1970s.\n\nSection::::Health.\n", "The origins of the name Vichyssoise are a subject of debate among culinary historians; one version of the story is that Louis XV of France was afraid of being poisoned and had so many servants taste the potato leek soup that, by the time he tried it, the soup was cold, and since he enjoyed it that way it became a cold soup. Julia Child called it \"an American invention\", whereas others observe that \"the origin of the soup is questionable in whether it's genuinely French or an American creation\".\n", "The Central Park Casino was offering \"soft clams a la Casino\" as early as 1900.\n\nAccording to Merrill Shindler, \"in the first decades of this century [the 20th], if a restaurant wanted to be noted, it came up with a dish that involved the baking of shellfish\". While there was a profusion of this type of menu offering (often with the meat taken out of the shell, prepared with sauce, and returned to the shell), clams casino and oysters Rockefeller \"are among the few surviving dishes from the shellfish fad\".\n", "A dish of cooked seafood with a piquant sauce of some kind is of ancient origin and many varieties exist. Oyster or shrimp dishes of this kind were popular in the United States in the late nineteenth century and some sources link the serving of the dish in cocktail glasses to the ban on alcoholic drinks during the 1920s prohibition era in the United States.\n", "Oysters can be eaten on the half shell, raw, smoked, boiled, baked, fried, roasted, stewed, canned, pickled, steamed, or broiled, or used in a variety of drinks. Eating can be as simple as opening the shell and eating the contents, including juice. Butter and salt are often added. In the case of Oysters Rockefeller, preparation can be very elaborate. They are sometimes served on edible seaweed, such as brown algae.\n", "Philadelphia Pepper Pot, a soup of tripe, meat, vegetables, is claimed to have been created during the American Revolutionary War and named after the home city of its creator. \n\nSnapper Soup, a thick brown turtle soup served with sherry, is a Philadelphia delicacy, generally found in area bars and seafood restaurants. In many places, it is served with oyster crackers (such as OTC Crackers, OTC being an abbreviation for \"Original Trenton Cracker\") and horseradish.\n", "Many different companies produce oyster crackers with different combinations of shortenings and other ingredients, but retaining the same general shape and size.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe origin of the term \"oyster cracker\" is unclear, but it may be that they were originally served with oyster stew or clam chowder or merely that they look like an oyster in its shell. Other names include \"water cracker,\" \"Philadelphia cracker,\" and \"Trenton cracker\".\n\nSection::::Origins and history.\n\nThe Westminster Cracker Company, currently of Rutland, Vermont, has been making oyster crackers since 1828. However, a counterclaim is that Adam Exton is credited with inventing the oyster cracker.\n", "There have been a number of different explanations offered for oyster stew being traditionally consumed on Christmas Eve. Bill Neal suggests that before the acceptance of refrigerated food transport, sufficient cold weather for shipping was not guaranteed before December, and so \"Far from the coast, oysters became a symbol of the arrival of the winter holiday season, appearing in the markets by Christmas Eve and on tables that night as oyster stew. Stephanie Butler, however, gives an alternate explanation: Irish Catholic immigrants would not eat meat on Christmas Eve, and were used to eating ling fish stew instead. Butler suggests that \"oysters taste pretty similar to dried ling: they're salty, briny and can be quite chewy. The ling stew recipe was quickly adapted for oysters.\" \n", "In the Netflix original series global cooking competition, \"The Final Table\", Season 1, Episode 6: USA the competitors are tasked with creating a thanksgiving meal in a single dish. The team consisting of Charles and Rodrigo served a dish with the turkey oyster as the main component.\n\nIn \"\", on BBC Two, on 28th November 2018, three competitors began their competition with a skills test set by Monica Galetti to cook chicken oysters with pommes puree.\n", "Steamed clams\n\nSteamed clams is a seafood dish consisting of various types and preparations of clam which are cooked by steaming according to local custom in various countries.\n\nIn the United States the dish is commonly prepared with a kind of shellfish called steamers, a somewhat generic name that usually refers to a small soft-shell clam harvested and served along the East Coast and in New England. Steamers are so named because of the way are most often prepared.\n", "Oyster crackers are popular in the northeastern United States, where they are served as an accompaniment to soup, and in the Cincinnati area, where they are frequently served with the city's distinctive chili. In New England, oyster crackers are served in oyster stew and chowders. Additionally, plain oyster crackers are sometimes seasoned with spices. They usually have a taste similar to saltine crackers, but far less salty. In other areas of the United States, they are among the choices for crackers with soup. They are often available in single serving packages for restaurant use.\n", "Section::::Germany.\n\nIn the Oldenburg and Ammerland regions of Germany, \"\"—the English designation \"mock turtle\" retained—is a traditional meal, dating from the time of the personal union between the Kingdom of Hanover and the Kingdom of Great Britain.\n\nSection::::United States.\n", "The dish was named Oysters Rockefeller after John D. Rockefeller, the then-wealthiest American, for its extreme richness. It consists of oysters on the half-shell topped with a green sauce and bread crumbs, then baked or broiled. \n\nThough the original sauce recipe is a secret, it includes a purée of a number of green vegetables that may include spinach. Similar versions of the dish have proliferated in New Orleans, with none noted as an accurate duplicate.\n", "BULLET::::- Gumbo – often includes seafood, made with shrimp or crab stock\n\nBULLET::::- Herring soup\n\nBULLET::::- Jaecheopguk\n\nBULLET::::- Lohikeitto\n\nBULLET::::- Lung fung soup\n\nBULLET::::- Maeutang\n\nBULLET::::- Mohinga\n\nBULLET::::- Paila marina\n\nBULLET::::- Phở – some versions use seafood\n\nBULLET::::- Pindang\n\nBULLET::::- Psarosoupa\n\nBULLET::::- She-crab soup\n\nBULLET::::- Sliced fish soup\n\nBULLET::::- Sopa marinera — a Spanish seafood dish made with oysters, clams, seashells, crab, lobster, shrimp and spices like achiote and cumin\n", "The existence of portable soups (called \"bouillons en tablettes\" in French) is mentioned, in 1690, in Antoine Furetière's \"Dictionnaire universel\", under the article \"Tablette\": \"On a vue des consommés reduits en tablettes, ou des bouillons à porter en poche.\" (\"We have seen consommés reduced into tablets, or broth to carry in your pocket.\")\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Section::::Human history.\n", "BULLET::::- Clam liquor – a liquid extracted during cooking and opening of clams. Undiluted it is called clam broth.\n\nBULLET::::- Clam pie\n\nBULLET::::- White clam pie – a pizza variety\n\nBULLET::::- Clam soup – a soup prepared using clams as a main ingredient\n\nBULLET::::- Clam chowder – a well-known chowder soup\n\nBULLET::::- Jaecheop-guk – a clear Korean soup made with small freshwater clams\n", "In the U.S. version of the show \"MasterChef\", in Season 5, Episode 13, chicken oysters were used to make a dish served by contestants Elizabeth and Leslie, and they appeared again in Season 7 Episode 8.\n\nIn \"MasterChef Junior\", during the finale of Season 2, Samuel served a chicken oyster appetizer as one of his dishes. In Season 5 Episode 8, with her advantage, Jasmine selected the oysters to help her win her way back into the competition after being eliminated in the previous episode.\n", "Clams oreganata\n\nClams Oreganata is an Italian American seafood dish served most commonly as an appetizer. The dish consists of a number of clams (usually six or twelve) that are topped with bread crumbs (usually moistened with olive oil or butter), oregano and sometimes other ingredients, and baked. Lemons are often included so that the orderer may squeeze the lemon juice onto the clams. The name comes from the addition of oregano to the bread crumbs\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Clams casino\n\nBULLET::::- List of clam dishes\n\nBULLET::::- List of seafood dishes\n\nBULLET::::- New England clam bake\n", "Recipes for soup made of pureed leeks and potatoes were common by the 19th century in France. In 19th-century cookbooks, and still today, they are often named \"Potage Parmentier\" or \"Potage a la Parmentier\" after Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, the French nutritionist and scholar who popularized the use of potatoes in France in the 18th Century. The French military cookbook of 1938 includes a recipe for \"Potage Parmentier for 100 men\" using milk instead of cream but with proportions and directions that are similar to the recipe for \"Vichyssoise Soup\" given later by Julia Child.\n" ]	[ "No one eats Soup & Oyster Crackers with oysters.", "Noone eats \"Soup & Oyster Crackers\" with oysters." ]	[ "Soup & Oyster Crackers are eaten with oyster stew.", "\"Soup & Oyster Crackers\" are eaten with oyster stew." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "No one eats Soup & Oyster Crackers with oysters.", "Noone eats \"Soup & Oyster Crackers\" with oysters." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Soup & Oyster Crackers are eaten with oyster stew.", "\"Soup & Oyster Crackers\" are eaten with oyster stew." ]
2018-21847	Why does swallowing a piece of watermelon whole not relieve my thirst like chewing it before swallowing would?	Because you're essentially just swallowing a block of food without chewing it, rather than piercing it with your teeth to release the juices which wet and hydrate your mouth	[ "BULLET::::- SET: \"for we have heard how HASHEM dried up the waters of the Sea of Reeds for you when you went forth from Egypt and what you did to the two kings of the Amorites who were across the Jordan - to Sihon and to Og - whom you utterly destroyed.\"\n\nJoshua’s speech to the troops shortly before the conquest of Jericho:\n", "The swallowing of whole leaves by apes without chewing has been observed for over 40 plant species.\n", "Section::::Re-release in 2015.\n\nOn February 2, 2015, in order to honor the 45th anniversary of Peebles critically acclaimed film Sweetback's Baadasssss Song, the documentary was revamped, re-released and distributed by Music Box Films Home Entertainment, with add ons in a complete DVD set. The complete set includes new bonus features, including a new interview with Peebles, three of Peebles news commentaries, and two live concert performances.\n", "in's separation from the group may have been related to the annihilation of the tigers, killed many years previously by the people. It is not clear to the reader whether the tigers were actual tigers, human beings or somehow anthropomorphic: they killed and ate people, including the narrator's parents, but they could also talk, sing, and play musical instruments, and were at least competent with arithmetic. Two tigers were killed on a bridge known later as the \"abandoned\" bridge. The last tiger was killed on a spot later developed into a trout farm.\n", "Speaking in 2006, Dov Weisglass, an advisor to Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, allegedly said that, \"The idea is to put the Palestinians on a diet, but not to make them die of hunger.\" Although this quote is widely reported, the original quote appears to have been: \"It's like an appointment with a dietician. The Palestinians will get a lot thinner, but won't die.\" Weisglass has denied this report.\n", "BULLET::::- wine and grape juice\n\nBULLET::::- fruit and nuts\n\nBULLET::::- vegetables\n\nBULLET::::- all other foods and drinks\n\nWhen an individual eats two foods together, one of which is primary and the other of which is subsidiary to it, only one blessing is recited, as stated in B.Mishna Berachot 6:7, \"Whenever a primary food [\"ikar\"] is accompanied by a subsidiary food [\"tafel\"], the blessing is recited on the primary food, exempting the subsidiary food.\"\n", "Wild chimpanzees sometimes seek whole leaves of the \"Aspilia\" plant. These contain thiarubrine-A, a chemical active against intestinal nematode parasites, however, it is quickly broken-down by the stomach. The chimpanzees pick the \"Aspilia\" leaves and, rather than chewing them, they roll them around in their mouths, sometimes for as long as 25 seconds. They then swallow the capsule-like leaves whole. As many as 15 to 35 \"Aspilia\" leaves may be used in each bout of this behaviour, particularly in the rainy season when there are many parasitic larvae leading to an increased risk of infection.\n", "Some drugs are inactive in the digestive tract, but this can be avoided if held between the upper lip and gum. This prevents the substances from getting swallowed with salivation, as would normally occur between the lower lip and gum, permitting slow release of the drug to prolong the duration of action.\n", "BULLET::::- SET: \"and what He did to the army of Egypt, to its horses and its chariots, over whom He swept the waters of the Sea of Reeds when they pursued you, and HASHEM caused them to perish until this day; \"\n\nTestimony of Rahab to Joshua’s spies before the conquest of Jericho:\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Strategic and tactical considerations.\n", "“… I ate five or six [seeds] and drank some of the water from one of the aforesaid holes, but after an interval of about three hours I and five more of the others who had also eaten the said fruit began to vomit so violently that there was hardly any distinction between death and us.”\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "The long Musmus Pass across the Mount Carmel Range had been in use since before the 15th century BC when the army of the Egyptian Pharaoh Thothmes III travelled through it, and during the 1st century AD by the Roman Emperor Vespasian and his army. The pass rises to above sea level, as it follows the Wadi Ara up the southern side of the Samarian Hills, at the time only about wide. Beyond Kh. 'Ara and 'Arara (not to be confused with Arara in the Judean Hills, which was captured during the Battle of Arara on 19 September 1918), both high up on either side of the Musmus Pass, the pass narrows for several miles as it approaches Musmus on the watershed. From here the route becomes very narrow, descending to a steep ridge and a rough section before reaching Lejjun at the mouth of the pass on the Esdraelon Plain with the whole of the Esdraelon Plain stretching out below.\n", "The Film was directed and written by Joe Angio and produced by Joe's good friend Michael Solomon. Surprised that no one of the caliber of Spike Lee, or St. Clair Bourne had made a film about Peebles yet, the production of the film started in early 1998 and didn’t finish until 2005. Angio was once asked what type of guy Van Peebles was in an interview with Evan Jacobs; \"After being around him for all that time, what have you taken away about him personally?\" He stated in his response that Van Peebles is probably one of the hardest workingmen he has ever met. In order for him to have the influence that he has, he had to be. Anglo states, \"I feel like being lazy and procrastinating I think of the ten things Melvin has probably already accomplished while I was laying in bed.\"\n", "During swallowing or yawning, several muscles in the pharynx (throat) act to elevate the soft palate and open the throat. One of these muscles, the tensor veli palatini, also acts to open the Eustachian tube. This is why swallowing or yawning is successful in equalizing middle ear pressure. Contrary to popular belief, the jaw does not pinch the tubes shut when it is closed. In fact, the Eustachian tubes are not located close enough to the mandible to be pinched off. People often recommend chewing gum during ascent/descent in aircraft, because chewing gum increases the rate of salivation, and swallowing the excess saliva opens the Eustachian tubes.\n", "The Third Immortal King told the Emperor: In the old days I followed a dietetic regimen and attained immortality. My teacher made me increase the sweet spring in my mouth and swallow it in accordance with the following incantation: \"The white stones, hard and rocky, are rolling on and on. The gushing spring, bubbling and pervasive, becomes a thick juice. Drink it and attain long life – Longevity forever longer!\" \n", "\"An upper echelon administrator in one of the Israeli school systems streams, recounted his experience as a dormitory child in one of Jerusalem’s institutions many decades ago.\n\nThe food served in the institution was fairly meager and the young boy was always hungry. One day the institution served chocolate pudding and the boy took his portion and wolfed it down and then got back in line and asked for another portion. The server refused his request with a nasty remark. Frustrated and angered, the boy then turned over the entire chocolate pudding pot and spilled its contents on the ground.\n", "Considerable research has confirmed that chimpanzees self-medicate with \"A. aequinoctiale\" by swallowing the leaves whole. Not normally a part of the chimpanzee's diet, this behaviour is most often witnessed during rainy seasons, when the animals are most likely to be afflicted with the parasitic nematodes \"Oesophagostomum stephanostomum\" and other species of parasitic worms. Examination of the faecal matter of chimpanzees shows that the whole-swallowed leaves remain intact, along with multiple expelled worms. In one dung sample, as many as 20 worms were found, along with 50 undigested leaves. The mechanism through which \"A. aequinoctiale\" causes these worms to be expelled from the primates is not yet fully established, though a common factor in the chimpanzee's whole-leaf swallowing of \"A. aequinoctiale\" and other plants is the presence of trichomes on the leaves. Trichomes not being easily digestible, the un-chewed and rough surfaces of the leaves are thought to help physically extract the worms from the intestines.\n", "There have been cases where swallowing gum has resulted in complications in young children requiring medical attention. A 1998 paper describes a four-year-old boy being referred with a two-year history of constipation. The boy was found to have \"always swallowed his gum after chewing five to seven pieces each day\", being given the gum as a reward for good behavior, and the build-up resulted in a solid mass which could not leave the body. A 1½-year-old girl required medical attention when she swallowed her gum and four coins, which got stuck together in her esophagus. A bezoar is formed in the stomach when food or other foreign objects stick to gum and build up, causing intestinal blockage. As long as the mass of gum is small enough to pass out of the stomach, it will likely pass out of the body easily, but it is recommended that gum not be swallowed or given to young children who do not understand not to swallow it.\n", "Za'atar is used as a seasoning for meats and vegetables or sprinkled onto hummus. It is also eaten with labneh (yogurt drained to make a tangy, creamy cheese), and bread and olive oil for breakfast, most commonly in Jordan, Palestine, Israel, Syria, and Lebanon, as well as other places in the Arab world. The Lebanese speciality \"shanklish\", dry-cured balls of labneh, can be rolled in za'atar to form its outer coating.\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n\nNadel's officers suggested taking the crest and then moving down to the Israeli Hermon. Brigadier-General Yekutiel Adam, Deputy Chief of Northern Command, rejected this suggestion, saying Golani should capture the outpost it had lost. The paratroop officers suggested that Golani would attack from the east, but were rejected because the eastern slope was considered too vulnerable to Syrian artillery and too steep to safely evacuate the wounded. On the night of October 20, Drori arrived at Northern Command and was advised by a paratroop officer to change his orders. He refused.\n", "Herod asks for Salome to eat with him, drink with him; indolently, she twice refuses, saying she is not hungry or thirsty. Herod then begs Salome to dance for him, \"Tanz für mich, Salome,\" though her mother objects. He promises to reward her with her heart's desire – even if it were one half of his kingdom.\n", "Exceptions to Uchchhishta are given in the \"Vasishtha Dharmasutra\". Food remnants stuck in teeth or food currently in the mouth are not considered impure, as they are treated part of the mouth like teeth. Swallowing the same cleanses the individual. While pouring water for someone to drink, if drops of water fall on the person's feet; the drops are not Uchchhista, but considered part of the ground.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1946 film \"Two Smart People\", the two main characters played by Lucille Ball and John Hodiak discuss the preparation of ortolans, stating that the birds are wrapped in grape leaves and placed on sautéed plums, but \"...the plums are not to be eaten, they merely serve as a garnish for the ortolans.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03331	Is it safe to swim in a lake of a old mine that still contains Wolfram/tungsten?	French soldiers were getting poisoned after drinking Tungsten contaminated drings (they poured it through their gun barrels). So drinking that water can certainly be dangerous depending on concentration, as for swimming, same thing I guess, depending on concentration and exposure time, it may not be too good. Maybe the local wildlife around can give you a better hint..	[ "Some near-surface brines in the western United States contain anomalously high concentrations of dissolved tungsten. Should recovery ever prove economic, some brines could be significant sources of tungsten. For instance, brines beneath Searles Lake, California, with concentrations of about 56 mg/l tungsten (70 mg/l WO), contain about 8.5 million short tons of tungsten. Although 90% of the dissolved tungsten is technically recoverable by ion exchange resins, recovery is uneconomic.\n\nSection::::Materials recovered from brines.:Uranium.\n", "BULLET::::- Hingston Down mine (which worked westwards towards Kit Hill). This was a very early mine, and evidence shows it may have started in the 17th century: it closed in 1885.\n\nBULLET::::- South Kit Hill Mine was worked from 1856 to 1884.\n\nSection::::Atomic Energy Authority.\n", "In 2006 there is renewed interest in mining wolfram, molybdenite and bismuth at Wolfram, and an open cut mining operation approximately south of the site of the former La Société Française des Métaux Rares plant, is proposed. In 2016, the open cut mine was sold to ATC Alloys Limited.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nThe site of the former La Société Française des Métaux Rares treatment plant is across six levels excavated from the side of hill on the eastern bank of Bulluburrah Creek.\n", "BULLET::::- Frood Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Fraser Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Garson Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Geco Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Goderich Salt Mines - Sifto Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Golden Giant Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Hagersville-CGC\n\nBULLET::::- Hemlo Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Hermiston-McCauley Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Hollinger Mines\n\nBULLET::::- Holloway Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Holt Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Hoyle Pond Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Kanichee Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Keeley-Frontier Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Kidd Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Lac Des Iles Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Lacnor Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Shore Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Leckie Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Lockerby Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Madawaska Mine\n\nBULLET::::- McIntyre Mines\n\nBULLET::::- McWatters Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Milliken Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Montcalm Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Murray Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Musselwhite mine\n\nBULLET::::- Nickel Rim Mine\n", "BULLET::::- Hazardous chemicals: Mines dug in wet areas give underground water a path to percolate through rock and exit via the tunnel systems. In some areas, the mine water can contain various types of heavy metals. Bacterial action can create acids and other compounds that are hazardous to humans. Acid mine drainage is of great concern in some areas. Also, mills and other processing areas may contain traces of cyanide and mercury compounds that were once used to separate precious metals from the ore.\n", "BULLET::::- Nickel Rim South Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Nordic Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Norrie Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Northland Pyrite Mine\n\nBULLET::::- O'Connor Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Pamour Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Panel Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Paymaster Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Probe Mines\n\nBULLET::::- Pronto Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Quirke Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Red Lake Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Redstone Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Sherman Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Sifto Salt Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Spanish American Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Stanleigh Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Stanrock Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Strathcona Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Talon Chutes\n\nBULLET::::- Temagami-Lorrain Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Thayer-Lindsay Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Timmins West Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Victor Diamond Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Windsor Salt Mine - Canadian Salt Company\n\nBULLET::::- Wilroy Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Wright-Hargreaves Mine\n\nBULLET::::- Young Davidson Mine\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "This difficulty is shown by tracer experiments conducted by UC Davis in 1997 and 1998 to find the subsurface water flow from the Herman Pit to the lake. The tracers used were Rhodamine-WT, sulfur hexafluoride, and a mixture of sulfur hexafluoride and neon-22.\n", "Research done by OMSHR is primarily focused in two locations: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Spokane, Washington. The OMSHR Pittsburgh site focuses on a larger scope of mine safety and health issues, including dust monitoring and control, mine ventilation, hearing loss prevention and engineering noise controls, diesel particulate monitoring and control, emergency response and rescue, firefighting and prevention, training research, ergonomics and machine safety, mine ground control, electrical safety, explosives safety, surveillance, and technology transfer. The OMSHR Spokane site primarily focuses on metal and nonmetal mining.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mining\n\nBULLET::::- Occupational safety and health\n\nBULLET::::- Research center\n", "Bulk sampling of the deposit using an underground drift for ore, and a pilot HMS and Gravity plant for processing, was undertaken in 1980. On average recoveries of around 65% were made, although in excess of 70% was achieved. The final revision of the mining feasibility study concluded in 1982 that a within a global resource of 73 million tonnes of ore, at grades of 0.143% tungsten trioxide and 0.026% tin, there was an in pit reserve of 38 million tonnes, at grades of 0.183% tungsten trioxide and 0.029% tin.\n", "BULLET::::- Black Trout Adit in Tarnowskie Góry, Poland. Part of a former silver mine, the adit was used for removing water from the mine. It still carries water from old galleries to the nearest river. A part of it is open for tourists, who go down the steps in one shaft, have a ride in a boat, and go up the stairs in another shaft.\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Hawk Mine near Kelowna, BC, Canada.\n\nBULLET::::- NORCAT's Underground Mine Centre (Fecunis Adit), in Onaping, ON, Canada, used for underground training and mining technology development.\n", "Contact with contaminates from the mine can result in both cancerous and non-cancerous health effects depending on where, when, and how long the exposure occurred. Arsenic poses the most significant health risk to exposed individuals via contact with contaminated surface water and sediment. Other risks for exposure include eating fish, plants and wild game collected near the mine, inhalation of dust near the mine, and or eating animals raised near Leviathan. In general, avoiding contact with mine tailings, surface water, and sediments in Leviathan, Aspen, and Bryant creeks, as well as the River Ranch Irrigation channel will reduce contaminate exposure and therefore reduce health risks.\n", "BULLET::::- Caldbeck Fells, Brae Fell Mine: Mottramite is quite common on the mine dump at Brae Fell Mine, Roughton Gill, Caldbeck Fells, as coatings of minute rice-grain shaped crystals less than 0.1 mm long on quartz. The crystals are dark brown to buff in colour, often associated with pyromorphite, and occasionally associated with cerussite.\n\nBULLET::::- Caldbeck Fells, Sandbed Mine: A yellow-brown crust on samples from the dumps of the Sandbed mine has been identified as mottramite.\n", "Table 1 is taken from a study done based on the findings in the San Francisco mine. Section 1 displays the results based from an electron microprobe test which resulted in loss of water. Section 2 displays the normalized results taken from crystal structure analysis. \n", "The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry was also established by CERCLA under the federal Department of Health and Human Services. The Registry assesses the health hazards and risks at contaminated sites and makes recommendations reducing those hazards. The mine site has been proposed for listing on the NPL since 1988 and the Registry published its report the next year, concluding Sulphur Bank Mine is a public health hazard. (\"See also Mercury poisoning.\")\n\nIn 1990, the EPA began studies on the flooded pit, waste rock piles, lake sediments and a nearby wetland.\n", "BULLET::::- Timbarra, Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia (gold greisen deposit)\n\nBULLET::::- Anchor Mine, Tasman Fold Belt, Australia (tin greisen)\n\nBULLET::::- Pitinga topaz granite, Brazil (tin, topaz, beryl)\n\nBULLET::::- Lost River, Alaska, USA (tin greisen)\n\nBULLET::::- Sisson Brook, Burnt Hill and other deposits, New Brunswick, Canada (tin-tungsten-molybdenum greisen)\n\nBULLET::::- Erzgebirge, Czech Republic (tin greisen)\n\nBULLET::::- Tungsten deposit at Panasqueira Mine, Portugal\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- ; specifically for S-type and I-type distinction\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Evans, A.M., 1993. \"Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals, An Introduction.\", Blackwell Science,\n", "The mine was the most productive in the Gympie goldfield producing of gold from of ore between 1867 and 1923.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nThe place consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- The standing assay office which has been conserved\n\nBULLET::::- Concrete foundations of the compressor room, engine room and secondary crushing equipment\n\nBULLET::::- A 4-head prospecting stamp battery\n\nBULLET::::- Engine foundations\n\nBULLET::::- Battery foundations\n\nBULLET::::- Very large in-ground water tank\n\nBULLET::::- Capped shaft, headframe foundations and foundations of the winding house.\n\nSection::::Heritage listing.\n", "In active mining operations, the threat from blackdamp is addressed with proper mineshaft ventilation as well as various detection methods, typically using miner's safety lamps or hand-held electronic gas detectors. The safety lamp is merely a specially designed lantern with a flame that is designed to automatically extinguish itself at an oxygen concentration of approximately 18% (normal atmospheric concentration of oxygen is c. 21%). This low detection threshold gives miners an unmistakable warning and allows them to escape before any potentially incapacitating effects are felt.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mazuku\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- FNiP No. 530 in English (translation) Federal norms and regulations in the field of industrial safety 'Instruction for isolation of not used mine openings and mined-out spaces in coal mines' Rostechnadzor Order No. 530 dated 28.11.2014\n\nBULLET::::- FNiP No. 704 in English (translation) Federal norms and regulations in the field of industrial safety 'Instruction for control mine air composition, determination of gas volume and mine category determination by concentration of methane and/or carbon dioxide' Rostechnadzor Order No. 704 dated 06.12.2012\n", "People can be exposed to tungsten in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 5 mg/m over an 8-hour workday and a short term limit of 10 mg/m.\n\nSection::::Patent claim.\n\nTungsten is unique amongst the elements in that it has been the subject of patent proceedings. In 1928, a US court rejected General Electric's attempt to patent it, overturning granted in 1913 to William D. Coolidge.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Field emission gun\n\nBULLET::::- Tungsten oxide\n", "It is unclear how far back mining activity goes in this location. Early records date from the 1500s. Some archaeological evidence points to mining here in the Roman era or even as far back as the Bronze Age.\n", "There is a large deposit of tungsten ore on the edge of Dartmoor in the United Kingdom, which was exploited during World War I and World War II as the Hemerdon Mine. Following increases in tungsten prices, this mine was reactivated in 2014, but ceased activities in 2018.\n", "Gold-bearing skarn in the Battle Mountain region of northeast Nevada is an important target for mining. Up to 263 polymetallic veins contain sphalerite, galena, jamesonite and tetrahedrite. Polymetallic molybdenum, antimony, uranium, copper, gold zinc, lead and silver ores have been mined in the Reese River area since the 1800s.\n", "In April 1975, the concentrations of cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, and nickel in the filtered waters of Millers Run were all less than . The titanium and vanadium concentrations were and less than , respectively. The manganese concentration ranged from less than to , while the iron concentration was . The aluminum concentration was and the molybdenum concentration was less than . The mercury concentration was less than . Detectable amounts of boron, cobalt, lithium, and zinc were observed.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1902 Louis Kirgan was killed with a fall of slate.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1903 Greene Harris was killed also from a fall of slate.\n\nBULLET::::- 1907 two men were killed within three days, Elmer Shinn was killed from a fall of slate and then Edmond Poole went back on a delayed shot and was killed.\n\nBULLET::::- From 1907 to 1936 the mine had a national safety record working without a fatal accident.\n", "The preferred prevention strategy involves engineering controls to eliminate noise sources. Administrative controls and hearing protection can also be used when engineering controls are not feasible.\n\nSection::::Hazards and prevention.:Cave-ins and rock falls.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02992	What makes succulents' roots more predisposed to rotting if waterlogged than other plants?	During a normal day in most plant's lives the sun evaporates water from the soil. At the same time, the plant draws water through it's roots, transports it up to its leaves, and proceeds with photosynthesis. Most plants breathe through little holes in their leaves, called stomata. When these holes are open, they can get more CO2, but also lose a bunch of water to the surrounding air. So when the sun goes down, and photosynthesis virtually stops (for these plants), they close their stomata, and thus conserve water during the night. In very arid environments, a different type of photosynthesis evolved, where the plants keep their stomata closed during the day. This means that less photosynthesis is occurring, but also means that they are losing less water. Because of this (and other factors) they are not able to take much water up from the soil, as plants are limited in their water uptake based on transpiration (moving water from roots to leaves and air). They instead open their stomata during the night, and that's when they exchange gases like O2 and CO2, and also when they lose more of their water. Because their transpiration rate is so low during the day, they are able to live in much drier areas, but they don't pull as much moisture from the soil. Now, everything that lives on earth requires at least some moisture, and fungus/mold, bacteria, viruses, etc, are not different. The more water you have, the more likely it is that some sort of life is going to flourish. In the soil, it's mostly fungi and bacteria. If you have a plant that has soggy toes, it's creating a good environment for fungi and bacteria. These organisms actually eat parts of the plant, and cause it to die. Some of them eat the root hairs (organs that are responsible for increasing the surface area and absorption rates of roots), and some of them actually infect the plant as a parasite. So, if you are a plant living in a nice moist area, you spend your days pulling water from the ground, and if the ground stays dry enough, you make the soil an inhospitable home for the unwanted pathogens. If you live in a dry environment, you care more about staying hydrated, since the environment already does a decent job of keeping those pathogens out. To make a long story more understandable, succulents are one of those plants that has adapted to very dry environments, and doesn't like having soggy soil for too long. When that happens, bacteria and fungi grow, and eventually eat the root hairs and roots of the plant.	[ "The desert habitat of this species receives its sparse rainfall mainly in Spring and early Summer, with very little rainfall in the winter. The plants may receive water from dew or condensation in the winter, because in cultivation \"Conophytum burgeri\" can be treated as a winter-rainfall species, like most other \"Conophytum\" species. All \"Conophytums\" have an annual growing period when they receive some water, and a dry dormancy period. In their growing period the soil must always dry out completely between waterings. In their dormancy they can be left dry and only given water if they visibly start to shrivel. \n", "BULLET::::- Drainage: In soils of bad drainage the water delivered through rain or irrigation may pool and stagnate. As a result, prevail anaerobic conditions and plant roots suffocate. Stagnant water also favors plant-attacking water molds. In soils of excess drainage, on the other hand, plants don't get to absorb adequate water and nutrients are washed from the porous medium to end up in groundwater reserves.\n", "BULLET::::- Water: very drought tolerant. Water may be needed at higher temperatures. The deep roots act as water wells providing water to the plant as needed. The dymondia carpet normally appears green/silver in color, but when roots are depleted and the plant needs water the leaves curl and their silver undersides are exposed to view. Water as needed in the silver colored areas to uncurl the leaves and return to green/silver color.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold hardiness: 20 °F\n\nBULLET::::- Heat Tolerance: no known\n\nBULLET::::- Origin: South Africa\n", "\"Chamaegigas intrepidus\" is one of approximately 330 desiccant-tolerant vascular plants, 90% of which are found growing on inselbergs. It is one of the rare desiccant-tolerant vascular plants that is not a fern or monocotyledon. The basal leaves can survive complete drying for 4.5 months, with more than 50% of them reviving after receiving moisture—so the plants simply resume growing once the pools fill again after a dry spell. New floating leaves, which do not survive drying as well as the basal leaves, can reach the water surface as soon as 2–4 days after the pool refills, with flowers appearing as early as 4 days after breaking dormancy.\n", "Some Lauraceae species have adapted to demanding conditions in semiarid climates, but they tend to depend on favorable edaphic conditions, for example, perennial aquifers, periodic groundwater flows, or periodically flooded forests in sand that contains hardly any nutrients. Various species have adapted to swampy conditions by growing pneumatophores, roots that grow upward, that project above the levels of periodic floods that drown competing plants which lack such adaptations.\n", "Once water is restored to the plant tissues, the sugar crystals dissolve and the plant's metabolism, until then paralyzed, reactivates. Leaves that seemed dead turn green, and open.\n\nSection::::Lifestyle.\n\nSection::::Lifestyle.:Desert conditions.\n", "In fact, in the desert areas of South Africa where aridity increases, including the Karroid central region, the dominant vegetation consists of xerophytic dwarf shrubs and succulents, including many members of the Genus Senecio. In these areas of very low moisture, the grasslands typical of other areas of Africa give way to areas in which grass is subdominant to these drought-tolerant plants, which are frequently spaced far apart with wide expanses of sandy or rocky stretches in between.\n\nSection::::Habitat and Ecology.\n", "BULLET::::- Researchers from the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology and a number of US institutions studied the combined effects of drought and heat stress on \"Arabidopsis thaliana\". Their research suggests that the combined effects of heat and drought stress cause sucrose to serve as the major osmoprotectant.\n\nBULLET::::- Plant physiologists from The University of Putra Malaysia and The University of Edinburgh investigated the relative effects of tree age and tree size on the physiological attributes of two broadleaf species. A photosynthetic system was used to measure photosynthetic rate per unit of leaf mass.\n", "Most plants have the ability to close their stomata at the start of water stress, at least partially, to restrict rates of transpiration. They use signals or hormones sent up from the roots and through the transpiration stream. Since roots are the parts responsible for water searching and uptake, they can detect the condition of dry soil. The signals sent are an early warning system - before the water stress gets too severe, the plant will go into water-economy mode.\n", "A further difficulty is that plants are not either \"succulent\" or \"non-succulent\". In many genera and families there is a continuous gradation from plants with thin leaves and normal stems to those with very clearly thickened and fleshy leaves or stems, so that deciding what is a succulent is often arbitrary. Different sources may classify the same species differently.\n\nSection::::Appearance.\n\nThe storage of water often gives succulent plants a more swollen or fleshy appearance than other plants, a characteristic known as succulence. In addition to succulence, succulent plants variously have other water-saving features. These may include:\n", "A general definition of succulents is that they are drought resistant plants in which the leaves, stem or roots have become more than usually fleshy by the development of water-storing tissue. Other sources exclude roots as in the definition \"a plant with thick, fleshy and swollen stems and/or leaves, adapted to dry environments.\" This difference affects the relationship between succulents and \"geophytes\" – plants that survive unfavorable seasons as a resting bud on an underground organ. These underground organs, such as bulbs, corms and tubers, are often fleshy with water-storing tissues. Thus if roots are included in the definition, many geophytes would be classed as succulents. Plants adapted to living in dry environments such as succulents are termed \"xerophytes\". However, not all xerophytes are succulents, since there are other ways of adapting to a shortage of water, e.g., by developing small leaves which may roll up or having leathery rather than succulent leaves. Nor are all succulents xerophytes, since plants like \"Crassula helmsii\" are both succulent and aquatic.\n", "\"Pachypodium\" trunks and branches are thickened with water-storing tissue. Plants must rely on the food and water stored in their thickened trunks during seasonal or intermittent drought when leaves have been shed and no water is available from the substrate. In addition to the lower surface-to-volume ratio which aides in water retention, the thickened trunks and branches can also possess photosynthetic surface tissue to allow nutrient synthesis even when leaves are not present.\n", "Many plant families have multiple succulents found within them (over 25 plant families). In some families, such as Aizoaceae, Cactaceae, and Crassulaceae, most species are succulents. The habitats of these water preserving plants are often in areas with high temperatures and low rainfall. Succulents have the ability to thrive on limited water sources, such as mist and dew, which makes them equipped to survive in an ecosystem which contains scarce water sources.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "\"Cryptantha affinis\" physiology appears to be influenced by nutrients of Deer excretions. Increased photosynthesis and higher plant nitrogen levels have been observed in habitats frequented by mule deer, antelope, and Eelk. Higher nutrients appear to increase growth and reproduction in wet years. In dry years survival is increased by the shading of \"Cryptantha\" by the presence of large shrubs. Although shading increases survival in dry years, in wet years growth and reproduction seem to be reduced even when nutrient levels in the soil are high.\n", "For example, in hot weather they may overheat and suffer from temperature stress. They have no specific adaptations to overcome this, but, if there is enough water in the soil to allow this, they can increase their rate of transpiration by opening their stomata, thus meaning some heat is removed by the evaporating water. However these plants can only tolerate saturated soil for a certain amount of time without a warm temperature. In dry weather they may suffer from water stress (losing more water via transpiration than can be gained from the soil). Again they have no specific adaptations to overcome this, and can only respond by closing their stomata to prevent further \n", "However, for many terminally overwatered houseplants, the initial symptoms of waterlogging can resemble those due to drought. This is particularly true for flood-sensitive plants that show drooping of their leaves due to epinasty (rather than wilting).\n\nSection::::Plants.:concentration.\n", "A villous broad leafed plant with a single hollow stem and favoring mud flats like Marsh Groundsel (\"Senecio hydrophilus\") but not alike in that marsh ragwort cannot tolerate alkaline sites nor standing water.\n\nIn the early stages of growth, the leaves, stem, and flower heads are all covered with translucent hairs, producing a \"greenhouse effect\" close to the surface of the plant, essentially extending the growing season by a few vital days by allowing the sun to warm the tissues, and preventing the heat from escaping.\n\nLeaves and stems: An erect plant \n", "Waterlogging reduces the supply of oxygen to the roots and can kill a plant within days. Plants cannot avoid waterlogging, but many species overcome the lack of oxygen in the soil by transporting oxygen to the root from tissues that are not submerged. Species that are tolerant of waterlogging develop specialised roots near the soil surface and aerenchyma to allow the diffusion of oxygen from the shoot to the root. Roots that are not killed outright may also switch to less oxygen-hungry forms of cellular respiration. Species that are frequently submerged have evolved more elaborate mechanisms that maintain root oxygen levels, such as the aerial roots seen in mangrove forests.\n", "As a native to the Cape Province area of South Africa,\"Senecio radicans\" is a succulent that can grow in warm, tropical areas and also fares well in arid regions. Its succulent tissues help to conserve moisture, rendering it well-adapted for the dry, hot conditions characteristic of many parts of its native South Africa.\n\nLike most succulents, this species is frost-tender and cannot withstand freezing temperatures (below 32 degrees F), restricting it to areas where the annual temperatures do not drop below this point.\n\nSection::::Morphology.\n", "\"S. imbricata\" is a halophytic plant; under conditions of salt stress, the plant increases its water content (becomes more succulent) and decreases the surface area of its leaves. Tests on the germination rates of seeds show that \"Salsola imbricata\" sprouts more quickly and consistently at 20 °C than at higher temperatures, and shows higher germination rates at lower salinity levels than high ones. However, seeds treated at high salinity levels recovered their germination potential after immerssion in unsalted water.\n", "Plant habit can also refer to whether the plant possesses any specialised systems for the storage of carbohydrates or water, allowing the plant to renew its growth after an unfavourable period. Where the amount of water stored is relatively high, the plant is referred to as a succulent. Such specialised plant parts may arise from the stems or roots. Examples include plants growing in unfavourable climates, very dry climates where storage is intermittent depending on climatic conditions, and those adapted to surviving fires and regrowing from the soil afterwards.\n\nSome types of plant habit include:\n", "If its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant has been stressed; usually this means that it needs less water, or less or more fertilizer.\n", "Most crops require specific soil moisture conditions, and do not grow well in wet, mucky soil. Even in soil that is not mucky the roots of most plants do not grow much deeper than the water table. Early in the growing season when water is in ample supply, plants are small and do not require as much water. During this time, the plants do not need to develop their roots to reach the water. As the plants grow and use more water water becomes more scarce. During this time, the water table begins to fall. Plants then need to develop roots to reach the water. During periods of dryness the water table can fall faster than the rate at which plants grow roots to reach it, which condition can gravely stress the plants.\n", "Marcescent leaves may protect some species from water stress or temperature stress. For example, in tropical alpine environments a wide variety of plants in different plant families and different parts of the world have evolved a growth form known as the \"caulescent rosette\", characterized by evergreen rosettes growing above marcescent leaves. Examples of plants for which the marcescent leaves have been confirmed to improve survival, help water balance, or protect the plant from cold injury are \"Espeletia schultzii\" and \"Espeletia timotensis\", both from the Andes.\n", "There are many factors which affect water availability, which is the major limiting factor of seed germination, seedling survival, and plant growth. These factors include infrequent raining, intense sunlight and very warm weather leading to faster water evaporation. An extreme environmental pH and high salt content of water also disrupt plants' water uptake.\n\nSection::::Types.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20620	How do fiber optic cables carry the internet?	The cables are like tubes for light. Shine light in one end and it illuminates the other. Using this, you can turn a light on and off on one end and have a sensor on the other to read it. By using pre-determined binary sequences of ons and offs, it can transmit data in the same way that computers and electronics do.	[ "Section::::Research areas.\n\nSection::::Research areas.:Transmission technology and fiber optics.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nModern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send through the optical fiber, a cable containing bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through underground conduits and buildings, multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal. The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone systems and cable television companies.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Transmitters.\n", "Section::::Parameters.:Last mile.\n", "Specialized cables are used for long distance subsea data transmission, e.g. transatlantic communications cable. New (2011–2013) cables operated by commercial enterprises (Emerald Atlantis, Hibernia Atlantic) typically have four strands of fiber and cross the Atlantic (NYC-London) in 60–70ms. Cost of each such cable was about $300M in 2011. \"source: The Chronicle Herald.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Gigabit Ethernet\n\nBULLET::::- HIPPI\n\nBULLET::::- Synchronous Digital Hierarchy\n\nBULLET::::- Synchronous Optical Networking\n\nBULLET::::- Optical Transport Network (OTN)\n\nTOSLINK is the most common format for digital audio cable using plastic optical fiber to connect digital sources to digital receivers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dark fiber\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber to the x\n\nBULLET::::- Free-space optical communication\n\nBULLET::::- Information theory\n\nBULLET::::- Submarine communications cable\n\nBULLET::::- Passive optical network\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber-Optic Technologies by Vivek Alwayn\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Keiser, Gerd. (2011). \"Optical fiber communications\", 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill,\n", "Transmission medium over which the signal is transmitted. For example, the transmission medium for sounds is usually air, but solids and liquids may also act as transmission media for sound. Many transmission media are used as communications channel. One of the most common physical medias used in networking is copper wire. Copper wire is used to carry signals to long distances using relatively low amounts of power. Another example of a physical medium is optical fiber, which has emerged as the most commonly used transmission medium for long-distance communications. Optical fiber is a thin strand of glass that guides light along its length.\n", "First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optics have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed world.\n\nThe process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, usually from an electrical signal\n\nBULLET::::2. relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak\n\nBULLET::::3. receiving the optical signal\n", "Another common practice is to bundle many fiber optic strands within long-distance power transmission cable. This exploits power transmission rights of way effectively, ensures a power company can own and control the fiber required to monitor its own devices and lines, is effectively immune to tampering, and simplifies the deployment of smart grid technology.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Amplification.\n", "For FTTC and FTTN, the combined internet, video and telephone signal travels to the building over existing telephone or cable wiring until it reaches the end-user's living space, where a VDSL or DOCSIS modem converts data and video signals into ethernet protocol, which is sent over the end-user's category 5 cable.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- National broadband plans from around the world\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber to the Home Council: Asia-Pacific\n\nBULLET::::- Fibre to the Home Council: Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber to the Home Council: North America\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber to the Home Council: Latin America Chapter\n", "BULLET::::4. converting it into an electrical signal\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "For FTTH and for some forms of FTTB, it is common for the building's existing ethernet, phone, and cable TV systems to connect directly to the optical network terminal or unit. If all three systems cannot directly reach the unit, it is possible to combine signals and transport them over a common medium such as Ethernet. Once closer to the end user, equipment such as a router or network interface controller can separate the signals and convert them into the appropriate protocol.\n", "BULLET::::- An \"optical fiber\" is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity from electrical interference. Optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent, and helps enable data rates of up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for undersea cables to interconnect continents.\n", "This optical transmitter converts the electrical signal to a downstream optically modulated signal that is sent to the nodes. Fiber optic cables connect the headend or hub to optical nodes in a point-to-point or star topology, or in some cases, in a protected ring topology.\n\nSection::::Description.:Fiber optic nodes.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Fiber cable types.\n\nAn optical fiber cable consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer coating), in which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal reflection. The core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractive-index) are usually made of high-quality silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibers is done by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores.\n", "Multi-system operators (MSOs) developed methods of sending the various services over RF signals on the fiber optic and coaxial copper cables. The original method to transport video over the HFC network and, still the most widely used method, is by modulation of standard analog TV channels which is similar to the method used for transmission of over-the-air broadcast.\n", "In the present day a variety of electronic systems optically transmit and receive information carried by pulses of light. Fiber-optic communication cables are now employed to send the great majority of the electronic data and long distance telephone calls that are not conveyed by either radio, terrestrial microwave or satellite. Free-space optical communications are also used every day in various applications.\n\nSection::::Forms.:Semaphore line.\n", "Section::::Forms.:Optical fiber.\n\nOptical fiber is the most common type of channel for optical communications. The transmitters in optical fiber links are generally light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes. Infrared light, rather than visible light is used more commonly, because optical fibers transmit infrared wavelengths with less attenuation and dispersion. The signal encoding is typically simple intensity modulation, although historically optical phase and frequency modulation have been demonstrated in the lab. The need for periodic signal regeneration was largely superseded by the introduction of the erbium-doped fiber amplifier, which extended link distances at significantly lower cost.\n\nSection::::Forms.:Signal lamps.\n", "The FLAG terrestrial crossings do not contain repeaters for reliability reasons. The terminal stations in land crossings use optical amplifiers, high performance transmitter / receivers, and forward error correction to cross the large distances without repeaters. Amplification at the terminal output provides output signal power as high as +17 dBm, and optical amplification at the receiver improves the receiver sensitivity as much as 8 dB.\n", "There are two types of transmuxing – electrical transmuxing and Optical transmuxing (sometimes called portless transmuxing). In electrical transmuxing, TDM signals (typically DS1/T1 or DS3) are brought in using copper connections, transmuxed to SONET and transported across the network until the reverse occurs. In optical transmuxing, TDM signals (DS1/T1, DS3, OCx) are brought in using fiber optics, transmuxed to SONET and transported across the network until the reverse occurs. In the U.S. and Japan, DS1/T1 signals are transmuxed into a SONET virtual tributary called a VT1.5.\n\nSection::::Traffic grooming.\n", "The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-8, based on Desurvire optimised laser amplification technology. It went into operation in 1988.\n", "Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as \"FC\", \"SC\", \"ST\", \"LC\", \"MTRJ\", \"MPO\" or \"SMA\". Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by \"splicing\", that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion splicing, which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For quicker fastening jobs, a “mechanical splice” is used.\n", "CATV (cable television), HDTV (high definition television), VoIP (voice over internet protocol), and broadband internet are some of the most common applications now being supported by fibre optic networks, in some cases directly to the home (FTTh – Fibre To The Home). These types of fibre optic networks incorporate a wide variety of products to support and distribute the signal from the central office to an optic node, and ultimately to the subscriber (end-user).\n\nSection::::Traffic.\n\nSection::::Traffic.:Types.\n", "In order to package fiber into a commercially viable product, it typically is protectively coated by using ultraviolet (UV), light-cured acrylate polymers, then terminated with optical fiber connectors, and finally assembled into a cable. After that, it can be laid in the ground and then run through the walls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper cables. These fibers require less maintenance than common twisted pair wires once they are deployed.\n", "As with an HFC architecture, video controllers and data-networking services are fed through a CMTS/edge router. These electrical signals are then converted to optical ones, and transported via a 1550 nm wavelength through a wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) platform and a passive splitter to a fiber-optic micro-node located at the customer premises. If necessary, an optical amplifier can be used to boost the downstream optical signal to cover a greater distance.\n", "Section::::Physical connectivity and protocols.:Twisted pair cables.\n\nMost wired network infrastructures found in homes utilize Category 5 or Category 6 twisted pair cabling with RJ45 compatible terminations. This medium provides physical connectivity between the Ethernet interfaces present on a large number of residential IP-aware devices. Depending on the grade of cable and quality of installation, speeds of up to 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, 1 Gbit/s, or 10Gbit/s are supported.\n\nSection::::Physical connectivity and protocols.:Fiber optics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04634	Why are movies available for purchase much faster to the public now vs recent years?	Piracy. The longer people have to wait for a movie the more chance illegal downloads will happen...	[ "The video industry underwent some of the same changes as the music industry. The video industry gained their revenues with selling DVDs to customers and the sell of rights to cinemas and television channels. In 1997, the first ‘online distributors’ emerged in the market, which has slowly risen and was still small over a decade later. During this time two waves of different ‘online film’ pioneers have risen but failed to survive mainly due to lower quality compared to hardcopy films. Until the third wave came about: streaming services such as Netflix, iTunes, Hulu, Amazon and Blockbuster which have majorly disrupted the Film industry market. Note that these waves are not chronologically based but based on increase in popularity. For example Netflix has started in 1997, but only started to disrupt the market more than a decade later.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2012, Samsung overtook Nokia for the first time as the largest mobile phone maker in the world, tablet and smartphone sales overtook netbooks, Google Chrome became the world's most used web browser, replacing Internet Explorer, and the Wikimedia Foundation started developing Wikidata, its first new project in six years.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2013 in developed countries, smartphone sales surpassed feature phones, and streaming media and rental kiosk services such as Netflix and Redbox forced video rental chains such as Blockbusters to close.\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 – \"Children of Men\", \"Pan's Labyrinth\", \"The Departed\", \"Dreamgirls\", \"The Lives of Others\", \"The Prestige\", \"The Queen\", \"Happy Feet\", \"Borat\", \"Little Miss Sunshine\", \"Night at the Museum\", \"The Pursuit of Happyness\", \"Inside Man\", \"The History Boys\", \"An Incovenient Truth\", \"The Holiday\", \"The Last King of Scotland\", \"Snakes on a Plane\", \"Babel\", \"United 93\"; First Blu-rays released\n", "Ty Burr suggested that in January 2013 that no new movies should be released in January. Instead, \"studios would have to rerelease their most underrated entertainments from the previous year for a second chance.\" He gave \"The Cabin in the Woods\" or \"Chronicle\", itself a January release in 2012, as examples of such films. Failing that happening, he wrote that he was using home media to catch up on older films.\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – \"The Wolf of Wall Street\", \"\", \"12 Years a Slave\", \"Gravity\", \"Bhaag Milkha Bhaag\", \"Rush\", \"Frozen\", \"American Hustle\", \"Filth\", \"Dallas Buyers Club\", \"Captain Phillips\", \"Her\", \"Under the Skin\", \"Blue is the Warmest Colour\", \"Prisoners\", \"The Conjuring\", \"Inside Llewyn Davis\", \"Nebraska\", \"Pacific Rim\", \"World War Z\", \"Philomena\", \"This is the End\", \"The World's End\", \"Blue Jasmine\"\n", "Other strategies are also being deployed in order to make up for slow DVD sales. Most major studios have considered making movies available to VOD services shortly after their theatrical release for a premium price. In July 2010 Netflix secured a deal with Relativity Media in which the latter agreed to distribute a number of major movies to the aforementioned VOD service before Pay TV.\n", "Movies and television struggled to maintain their position, as online viewing grew rapidly. Internet piracy was a major concern for the industry. In 2012 Viacom launched a US$1 billion lawsuit against YouTube for copyright infringement. In early 2012, the United States Congress began debating the SOPA and PIPA bills that were heavily lobbied by the entertainment industry.\n\nMost popular\n\n\"\" grossed , becoming the highest-grossing superhero film of all time and the highest-grossing movie of all time, surpassing 2009's \"Avatar\".\n\nAward winners\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 – \"Forrest Gump\", \"Pulp Fiction\", \"The Shawshank Redemption\", \"The Lion King\", \"Legends of the Fall\", \"\", \"Clerks\", \"Interview with the Vampire\", \"True Lies\", \"Speed\", \"Maverick\", \"The Mask\", \"\", \"\", \"Dumb and Dumber\", \"Four Weddings and a Funeral\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 – \"Braveheart\", \"Se7en\", \"Toy Story\", \"Heat\", \"A Moment of Innocence\", \"12 Monkeys\", \"The Usual Suspects\", \"Apollo 13\", \"Babe\", \"Jumanji\", \"Leaving Las Vegas\", \"Sense and Sensibility\", \"Rumble in the Bronx\", \"Bad Boys\", \"Clueless\", \"Before Sunrise\"; first DVDs released\n", "This, along with the explosion of independent film and ever-decreasing costs for filmmaking, changed the landscape of American movie-making once again and led a renaissance of filmmaking among Hollywood's lower and middle-classes—those without access to studio financial resources. With the rise of the DVD in the 21st century, DVDs have quickly become even more profitable to studios and have led to an explosion of packaging extra scenes, extended versions, and commentary tracks with the films.\n\nSection::::Internet.\n", "2013 in film\n\nThe following tables list films released in 2013. Three popular films (\"Top Gun\", \"Jurassic Park\", and \"The Wizard of Oz\") were all re-released in 3D and IMAX.\n\nSection::::Highest-grossing films.\n\nThe top ten films released in 2013 by worldwide gross:\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 - HD DVD is launched on 18 April; Blu-ray Disc is launched on 20 June. After nearly 30 years, VHS ends as a format for major motion pictures, with \"A History of Violence\" becoming the last major film to be released in the medium.\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 - AACS is circumvented.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 - Blu-ray becomes new video medium after long competition with HD-DVD. British home media company Eureka Entertainment acquires and consolidates the Masters of Cinema organization.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009\n\nSection::::2010s.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010\n\nBULLET::::- 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n\nBULLET::::- 2014\n\nBULLET::::- 2015\n", "BULLET::::- \"Skyfall\" grossed over $1.108 billion, becoming the 14th highest-grossing film of all time. It also became the first film to gross more than £100 million, amassing a total of £102.9 million.\n\nBULLET::::- Two other films (\"\", \"\",), are also among the 50 highest-grossing films of all time\n\nBULLET::::- With their 3-D re-releases, two films achieved new milestones: \"\" reached $1.027 billion, and \"Titanic\" reached $2.186 billion, becoming the second film to surpass the $2 billion mark, following \"Avatar\".\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – \"Home Alone\", \"Goodfellas\", \"Ghost\", \"Wild at Heart\", \"Edward Scissorhands\", \"Miller's Crossing\", \"Dances with Wolves\", \"House Party\", \"Total Recall\", \"Kindergarten Cop\", \"Pretty Woman\", \"Troll 2\", \"Misery\", \"The Hunt for Red October\", \"Journey of Hope\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 – \"The Silence of the Lambs\", \"\", \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"JFK\", \"A Brighter Summer Day\", \"Thelma & Louise\", \"The Addams Family\", \"My Girl\", \"Hot Shots!\", \"Boyz n the Hood\", \"Point Break\"\n", "Feature films that have been released directly to YouTube or other streaming sites include \"Home\" (2009), \"The Cult of Sincerity\" (2008), \"Life in a Day\" (2011), \"\" (2012) and \"\" (2007).\n\nSection::::Film release.:Shrinking of the theatrical window.\n\nWhile originally conceived for a six months duration, the theatrical window has today been reduced to an average of four weeks. Major movie studios have reportedly been pushing to shrink the duration of the theatrical window in an attempt to make up for the substantial losses in the DVD market they've been suffering from since the 2004 sales peak.\n", "The following tables list films released in 2012. Most notably, the two oldest surviving American film studios, Universal and Paramount both celebrated their centennial anniversaries, marking the first time that two major film studios celebrate 100 years, and the Dolby Atmos sound format was launched for the premiere of \"Brave\". The \"James Bond\" film series celebrated its 50th anniversary and released its 23rd film, \"Skyfall\". Six box-office blockbusters from previous years (\"Beauty and the Beast\", \"\", \"Titanic\", \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\", \"Finding Nemo\", and \"Monsters, Inc.\") were re-released in 3D and IMAX. Also 2012 in film marked the debut for high frame rate technology. The first film using 48 fps, a higher frame rate than the film industry standard 24 fps, was \"\".\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 – \"Caché\", \"The New World\", \"Brokeback Mountain\", \"The Death of Mr. Lazarescu\", \"A History of Violence\", \"Pride & Prejudice\", \"Walk the Line\", \"Batman Begins\", \"March of the Penguins\", \"Munich\", \"Serenity\", \"Sin City\", \"Good Night, and Good Luck\", \"Crash\", \"The 40 Year Old Virgin\", \"King Kong\" (2005), \"\", \"Capote\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – \"Rain Man\", \"The Last Temptation of Christ\", \"My Neighbor Totoro\", \"Midnight Run\", \"Dead Ringers\", \"Who Framed Roger Rabbit\", \"Die Hard\", \"Beetlejuice\", \"Akira\", \"The Accused\", \"Child's Play\", \"Heathers\", \"Big\", \"\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 – \"Do the Right Thing\", \"Driving Miss Daisy\", \"The Little Mermaid\" (which starts off the Disney Renaissance), \"Crimes and Misdemeanors\", \"The Abyss\", \"Close-Up\", \"Batman\", \"A Fish Called Wanda\", \"Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure\", \"Born on the Fourth of July\", \"Dead Poets Society\", \"Field of Dreams\", \"Honey, I Shrunk the Kids\", \"When Harry Met Sally...\"; first publication of \"Empire\"\n\nSection::::1990s.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 – \"The Artist\", \"Drive\", \"The Intouchables\", \"Hugo\", \"A Separation\", \"The Tree of Life\", \"The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo\", \"Midnight in Paris\", \"Bridesmaids\", \"The Descendants\", \"War Horse\", \"Moneyball\", \"Thor\", \"Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy\", \"The Muppets\", \"The Help\", \"The Cabin in the Woods\", \"Super 8\", \"Rise of the Planet of the Apes\", \"The Adventures of Tintin\"\n", "BULLET::::- Thousands of full-length films were produced during the 1990s. Many were specifically filmed or edited to be displayed both on theater screens as well as on the smaller TV screens, such as showing close-up scenes during dialog, rather than just wide-angle scenes in a room. The home-video market became a major factor in total revenue for a film, often doubling its total income.\n", "BULLET::::- 2000 – \"In the Mood for Love\", \"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon\", \"Platform\", \"Memento\", \"Erin Brockovich\", \"Cast Away\", \"Gladiator\", \"Chicken Run\", \"Billy Elliot\", \"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\", \"American Psycho\", \"Meet the Parents\", \"Dinosaur\", \"Traffic\", \"X-Men\", \"High Fidelity\", \"Unbreakable\" trilogy (2000, 2016, 2019) begins, \"Final Destination\", \"Before Night Falls\", \"Almost Famous\", \"Requiem for a Dream\"; first digital cinema projection in Europe by Philippe Binant\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – \"Unforgiven\", \"Aladdin\", \"Reservoir Dogs\", \"The Player\", \"Basic Instinct\", \"The Crying Game\", \"A Few Good Men\", \"Indochine\", \"The Bodyguard\", \"Army of Darkness\", \"League of Their Own\", \"Sister Act\", \"Pure Country\", \"Wayne's World\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 – \"Schindler's List\", \"The Piano\", \"In the Name of the Father\", \"Groundhog Day\", \"Jurassic Park\", \"Philadelphia\", \"\", \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", \"Mrs. Doubtfire\", \"Hocus Pocus\", \"Cliffhanger\", \"The Firm\", \"Sleepless in Seattle\", \"Dazed and Confused\", \"True Romance\", \"Free Willy\"\n", "BULLET::::- The highest-grossing films of the decade are (in order from highest to lowest \"domestic\" grossing): \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\", \"Return of the Jedi\", \"The Empire Strikes Back\", \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\", \"Batman\", \"Rain Man\", \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\", \"Back to the Future\", \"Who Framed Roger Rabbit\", \"Top Gun\", \"Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom\", \"Back to the Future Part II\", \"\"Crocodile\" Dundee\", \"Fatal Attraction\" and \"Beverly Hills Cop\".\n", "List of films shot on digital video prior to 2015\n\nIn the last decade a large number of movies have been shot digitally. Some of them are independent, low-budget productions, while others are major studio productions. The movies on the following list are shot mainly digitally.\n\nSection::::Notable firsts.\n\nBULLET::::- First major studio film shot primarily on digital video: \"\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- First film shot digitally in Official Competition at Cannes Film Festival: \"Russian Ark\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- First nominees for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography shot mainly on digital video: \"The Curious Case of Benjamin Button\" and \"Slumdog Millionaire\" (2009)\n", "3D films gained popularity, led by \"Avatar\" and \"\" in late 2009. In 2010, \"Avatar\" became the first film to gross more than US$2 billion. Other 3D releases were also successful. 360-degree video also became widely available with the introduction of consumer virtual reality.\n\nDistribution\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – \"Life of Pi\", \"Marvel's The Avengers\", \"\", \"Argo\", \"Lincoln\", \"Django Unchained\", \"Les Misérables\", \"Prometheus\", \"Ted\", \"Silver Linings Playbook\", \"Pitch Perfect\", \"21 Jump Street\" (film), \"Magic Mike\", \"Moonrise Kingdom\", \"Wreck-It Ralph\", \"Looper\", \"The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel\", \"The Master\", \"Beasts of the Southern Wild\", \"Brave\", \"Zero Dark Thirty\", \"Amour\", \"The Hunger Games\", \"The Dark Knight Rises\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00736	why do some foods need to be refrigerated after opening?	Before it was opened the food/condiment was sealed off. Now that you’ve opened it it becomes exposed to air/germs. A restaurant goes through a ketchup bottle way faster than you do so it’s not really a problem.	[ "Once opened for consumption, the product is immediately exposed to atmospheric oxygen and floating dust particles containing bacteria and mold spores, and all protections from the preservation process are immediately lost. At room temperature, mold and bacteria growth resumes almost immediately, and warmer temperatures can lead to an explosion of growth that rapidly degrades the food product. This organism growth can result in the accumulation of poisonous bacterial substances in the food product such as botulin, that lead to food poisoning, sickness, or death.\n", "BULLET::::- Keep the container closed and the contents contained for the specified shelf life until time of opening\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a barrier to dirt, oxygen, moisture, etc. Control of permeation is critical to many types of products: foods, chemicals, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Keep the product secure from undesired premature opening\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a means of reclosing or reusing the container\n\nBULLET::::- Assist in dispensing and use of product\n", "Refrigerate after opening\n\nThe term refrigerate after opening is an instruction on commercial preserved food products to cool the container after it has been opened and the contents exposed to open air.\n\nMoist foods are commonly preserved using canning and vacuum sealing to kill off any bacteria and molds, and to prevent further growth by removing oxygen. Dry-product containers are often preserved with heating and filling the empty container spaces with an inert nonreactive gas such as nitrogen.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life, often without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "Cooling the food product to a temperature just above freezing in a refrigerator is generally required to slow the growth of these organisms. This cooling can permit foods to remain safely edible for up to two weeks after opening.\n\nSimply loosening the lid of a vacuum-packed food product to break the seal is enough to permit the bacteria and mold growth to resume. The amount of air inhaled into the container when the seal is broken is small, but sufficient to permit slow growth of contaminating and decomposing organisms.\n", "Sous vide, French for \"under vacuum\", implies that food should be sealed in a plastic bag with all the air removed. An alternative method is to place the food in an open-sided plastic bag and partially submerge the bag into the water, forcing out the air. This method involves clipping the open side of the bag to the side of the pot to keep water from leaking into the opening. The goal is to have the food completely in contact with the hot water to assure even cooking while reducing off-flavors from oxidation.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "Dairy products are constantly in need of refrigeration, and it was only discovered in the past few decades that eggs needed to be refrigerated during shipment rather than waiting to be refrigerated after arrival at the grocery store. Meats, poultry and fish all must be kept in climate-controlled environments before being sold. Refrigeration also helps keep fruits and vegetables edible longer.\n", "Food rotation is important to preserve freshness. When food is rotated, the food that has been in storage the longest is used first. As food is used, new food is added to the pantry to replace it; the essential rationale is to use the oldest food as soon as possible so that nothing is in storage too long and becomes unsafe to eat. Labelling food with paper labels on the storage container, marking the date that the container is placed in storage, can make this practice simpler. The best way to rotate food storage is to prepare meals with stored food on a daily basis.\n", "Section::::Aseptic packaging.\n\nBiB is also used extensively in the packaging of processed fruit and dairy products in aseptic processes. Using aseptic packaging equipment, products can be packed in aseptic packaging. Pasteurised or UHT treated products packed into this format can be \"shelf stable\", requiring no refrigeration. Some products can have a shelf life of up to 2 years, depending on the type of bag that is used.\n", "Time and temperature control plays a critical role in food safety. To prevent time-temperature abuse, the amount of time food spends in the danger zone must be minimized. A logarithmic relationship exists between microbial cell death and temperature: a significantly large number of cells may survive slightly lower temperatures. In addition to reducing the time spent in the danger zone, foods should be moved through the danger zone as few times as possible when reheating or cooling.\n\nFoods that are potentially hazardous inside the danger zone:\n\nBULLET::::- Meat: beef, poultry, pork, seafood\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs and other protein-rich foods\n", "Just as temperature increases speed up reactions, temperature decreases reduce them. Therefore, to make explosives stable for longer periods, or to keep rubber bands springy, or to force bacteria to slow down their growth, they can be cooled. That is why shelf life is generally extended by temperature control: (refrigeration, insulated shipping containers, controlled cold chain, etc.) and why some medicines and foods \"must\" be refrigerated. Since such storing of such goods is temporal in nature and shelf life is dependent on the temperature controlled environment, they are also referred to as cargo even when in special storage to emphasize the inherent time-temperature sensitivity matrix.\n", "Packaging and package labeling have several objectives\n\nBULLET::::- Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from, among , shock, vibration, compression, temperature, bacteria, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.\n", "Closure (container)\n\nClosures are devices and techniques used to close or seal container such as a bottle, jug, jar, tube, can, etc. Closures can be a cap, cover, lid, plug, etc.\n\nOther types of containers such as boxes and drums may also have closures but are not discussed in this article.\n\nSection::::Purpose of closures.\n\nMany containers and packages require a means of closing. It can be a separate device or seal or sometimes an integral latch or lock. Depending on the contents and container, closures have several functions:\n", "Some foods, such as bananas, are picked when unripe, are cooled to prevent ripening while they are shipped to market, and then are induced to ripen quickly by exposing them to propylene or ethylene, chemicals produced by plants to induce their own ripening; as flavor and texture changes during ripening, this process may affect those qualities of the treated fruit.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition.\n", "Directly following the heat treatment, vegetables/fruits are quickly chilled by cold water. A common alternative to cooling with cold water is cooling with cold air. This method of cooling prevents the leaching of water-soluble nutrients; however, the air causes evaporation and lowers the mass of the vegetable—a monetary disadvantage for industry.\n\nEmerging technologies include ohmic, infrared, microwave, and radio frequency blanching.\n\nSection::::Time and temperature.\n", "Preparation of food under pressure, with or without heat, was developed by American and French engineers in the mid-1960s as an industrial food preservation method. As with Rumford, the researchers learned that the food showed distinctive improvements in flavor and texture. As this method was pioneered, applying pressure to food through vacuum sealing was sometimes called \"cryovacking\". The pressure notably concentrated the flavors of fruits, even without cooking.\n", "Food can be pasteurized in two ways: either before or after being packaged into containers. When food is packaged in glass, hot water is used to lower the risk of thermal shock. Plastics and metals are also used to package foods, and these are generally pasteurized with steam or hot water since the risk of thermal shock is low.\n", "Shelf-stable food (sometimes ambient food) is food of a type that can be safely stored at room temperature in a sealed container. This includes foods that would normally be stored refrigerated but which have been processed so that they can be safely stored at room or ambient temperature for a usefully long shelf life.\n", "Section::::Essential features.\n\nSealing the food in sturdy plastic bags retains juices and aroma that otherwise would be lost in the process.\n", "BULLET::::- Barrier protection – A barrier to oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile and safe for the duration of the intended shelf life is a primary function. A barrier is also implemented in cases where segregation of two materials prior to end use is required, as in the case of special paints, glues, medical fluids, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Eggs cooked for immediate service\n\n145°F (63°C) for 4 minutes\n\nBULLET::::- Roasts (can be cooked to lower temperatures for increased lengths of time)\n\n135°F (57°C) for 15 seconds\n\nBULLET::::- Cooked fruits or vegetables that will be held for a length of time before eaten\n\nBULLET::::- Any commercially processed, ready-to-eat foods that will be held for a length of time before eaten\n", "Fresh fruits and vegetables are sometimes packed in plastic packages and cups for fresh premium markets, or placed in large plastic tubs for sauce and soup processors. Fruits and vegetables are usually refrigerated at the earliest possible moment, and even so have a shelf life of two weeks or less.\n", "Section::::Preventing freezer burn.\n\nWhen foods are frozen without preparation, freezer burn can occur. It happens when the surface of the food is dehydrated, and this leads to a dried and leathery appearance. Freezer burn also ruins the flavor and texture of foods. Vacuum packing reduces freezer burn by preventing the food from exposure to the cold, dry air.\n\nSection::::Sous-vide cooking.\n\nVacuum packaging also allows for a special cooking method, sous-vide. Sous-vide, French for \"under vacuum\", involves poaching food that is vacuum sealed in a plastic bag.\n\nSection::::Food safety.\n", "It is important to note that there are two distinct low temperature processes: chilling and freezing. Chilling is the application of temperatures within the range of 0-8 °C, while freezing is usually below 18 °C. Refrigeration does slow spoilage in food and reduce the risk of bacterial growth, however, it does not improve the quality of the product.\n\nSection::::Food safety.:Mechanisms.:Irradiation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17089	Why does blood taste like copper?	It's more a metallic taste than copper specifically. Blood contains iron in the hemoglobin. Fun fact. Some animals use hemocyanin, which does use copper instead of iron as the oxygen transport.	[ "Like chevaliers and chiroptera, the Schiff have enhanced speed and strength, and must drink blood to survive. However they are different in two key ways: sunlight will burn them to death, and they form a condition they call \"Thorn\" that causes them to slowly crystallize. It initially manifests itself as red cracks that usually appear on the neck, spreading along the body until the afflicted Schiff shatters completely.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp. 1161–1208(48) Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative Stress\n\nBULLET::::- Material: Copper (Cu), bulk, MEMS and Nanotechnology Clearinghouse.\n\nBULLET::::- Copper transport disorders: an Instant insight from the Royal Society of Chemistry\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Copper at \"The Periodic Table of Videos\" (University of Nottingham)\n\nBULLET::::- Copper and compounds fact sheet from the National Pollutant Inventory of Australia\n\nBULLET::::- CDC–NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Copper (dusts and mists) from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Toxicity.\n\nCopper in the blood and blood stream exists in two forms: bound to ceruloplasmin (85–95%), and the rest \"free\", loosely bound to albumin and small molecules. Nutritionally, there is a distinct difference between organic and inorganic copper, according to whether the copper ion is bound to an organic ligand.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:EPA cancer data.\n", "Section::::Biological role.:Dietary recommendations.\n", "Section::::Essentiality.:Absorption.\n\nIn mammals copper is absorbed in the stomach and small intestine, although there appear to be differences among species with respect to the site of maximal absorption. Copper is absorbed from the stomach and duodenum in rats and from the lower small intestine in hamsters. The site of maximal copper absorption is not known for humans, but is assumed to be the stomach and upper intestine because of the rapid appearance of Cu64 in the plasma after oral administration.\n\nAbsorption of copper ranges from 15–97%, depending on copper content, form of the copper, and composition of the diet.\n", "Many popular vitamin supplements include copper as small inorganic molecules such as cupric oxide. These supplements can result in excess free copper in the brain as the copper can cross the blood-brain barrier directly. Normally, organic copper in food is first processed by the liver which keeps free copper levels under control.\n\nSection::::Copper deficiency and excess health conditions (non-genetic).\n", "Section::::Essentiality.:Excretion.\n\nBile is the major pathway for the excretion of copper and is vitally important in the control of liver copper levels. Most fecal copper results from biliary excretion; the remainder is derived from unabsorbed copper and copper from desquamated mucosal cells.\n\nSection::::Dietary recommendations.\n\nVarious national and international organizations concerned with nutrition and health have standards for copper intake at levels judged to be adequate for maintaining good health. These standards are periodically changed and updated as new scientific data become available. The standards sometimes differ among countries and organizations.\n\nSection::::Dietary recommendations.:Adults.\n", "Section::::History.:Copper vessel plating.\n\nThe ingredients in Moscow mule cocktails are acidic, and the resulting beverage has a pH well below 6.0. This creates a problem when using traditional copper mugs, as copper can start dissolving into acidic solutions. Copper in solution is considered toxic at concentrations above 1 mg/L.\n", "Copper sulfate is used to test blood for anemia. The blood is tested by dropping it into a solution of copper sulfate of known specific gravity – blood which contains sufficient hemoglobin sinks rapidly due to its density, whereas blood which does not sink or sinks slowly has insufficient amount of hemoglobin.\n\nIn a flame test, its copper ions emit a deep green light, a much deeper green than the flame test for barium.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Organic synthesis.\n", "Almost always, death occurs if the disease is untreated. Fortunately, identification of the mutations in the Wilson ATPase gene underlying most cases of Wilson's disease has made DNA testing for diagnosis possible.\n", "Copper is essential for the normal growth and development of human fetuses, infants, and children. The human fetus accumulates copper rapidly in its liver during the third trimester of pregnancy. At birth, a healthy infant has four times the concentration of copper than a full-grown adult. Human milk is relatively low in copper, and the neonate's liver stores falls rapidly after birth, supplying copper to the fast-growing body during the breast feeding period. These supplies are necessary to carry out such metabolic functions as cellular respiration, melanin pigment and connective tissue synthesis, iron metabolism, free radical defense, gene expression, and the normal functioning of the heart and immune systems in infants.\n", "Acquired copper deficiency has recently been implicated in adult-onset progressive myeloneuropathy and in the development of severe blood disorders including myelodysplastic syndrome. Fortunately, copper deficiency can be confirmed by very low serum metal and ceruloplasmin concentrations in the blood.\n", "Spectral changes with temperature:\n", "Three experimental studies were conducted that demonstrate a threshold for acute gastrointestinal upset of approximately 4–5 mg/L in healthy adults, although it is not clear from these findings whether symptoms are due to acutely irritant effects of copper and/or to metallic, bitter, salty taste. In an experimental study with healthy adults, the average taste threshold for copper sulfate and chloride in tap water, deionized water, or mineral water was 2.5–3.5 mg/L. This is just below the experimental threshold for acute gastrointestinal upset.\n\nSection::::Copper deficiency and excess health conditions (non-genetic).:Chronic exposures.\n", "Some of the effects of aging may be associated with excess copper.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Indian childhood cirrhosis.\n\nOne manifestation of copper toxicity, cirrhosis of the liver in children (Indian childhood cirrhosis), has been linked to boiling milk in copper cookware. The Merck Manual states recent studies suggest that a genetic defect is associated with this particular cirrhosis.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Wilson's disease.\n", "Other diseases in which abnormalities in copper metabolism appear to be involved include Indian childhood cirrhosis (ICC), endemic Tyrolean copper toxicosis (ETIC), and idiopathic copper toxicosis (ICT), also known as non-Indian childhood cirrhosis. ICT is a genetic disease recognized in the early twentieth century primarily in the Tyrolean region of Austria and in the Pune region of India.\n\nICC, ICT, and ETIC are infancy syndromes that are similar in their apparent etiology and presentation. Both appear to have a genetic component and a contribution from elevated copper intake.\n", "There are conditions in which an individual's copper metabolism is compromised to such an extent that birth control may cause an issue with copper accumulation. They include toxicity or just increased copper from other sources, as well as the increased copper level of the individual's mother via the placenta before birth.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Some of the effects of aging may be associated with excess copper. In addition, studies have found that people with mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, had heightened levels of copper in their systems. However, it is unknown at this stage whether the copper contributes to the mental illness, whether the body attempts to store more copper in response to the illness, or whether the high levels of copper are the result of the mental illness.\n\nSection::::Minerals.:Copper.:Toxicity.:Alzheimer's disease.\n", "The diseases arise from defects in two similar copper pumps, the Menkes and the Wilson Cu-ATPases. The Menkes ATPase is expressed in tissues like skin-building fibroblasts, kidneys, placenta, brain, gut and vascular system, while the Wilson ATPase is expressed mainly in the liver, but also in mammary glands and possibly in other specialized tissues. This knowledge is leading scientists towards possible cures for genetic copper diseases.\n\nSection::::Hereditary copper metabolic diseases.:Menkes disease.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Copper (disambiguation)\n\nCopper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29.\n\nCopper may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Color.\n\nBULLET::::- Copper (color), the color of the metal\n\nBULLET::::- Copper (heraldry), when used as a metal tincture in heraldry\n\nSection::::Places.\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Mountain (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Lake (disambiguation)\n\nSection::::Places.:United States.\n\nBULLET::::- Copper, Oregon (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Copper, Jackson County, Oregon, a submerged town\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Salmon Wilderness, Oregon\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Mine Gulch, California\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Mountains, Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Peak, Michigan\n\nBULLET::::- Copper Country, an area in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan\n", "Section::::Copper deficiency and excess health conditions (non-genetic).:Acute exposures.\n\nIn case reports of humans intentionally or accidentally ingesting high concentrations of copper salts (doses usually not known but reported to be 20–70 grams of copper), a progression of symptoms was observed including abdominal pain, headache, nausea, dizziness, vomiting and diarrhea, tachycardia, respiratory difficulty, hemolytic anemia, hematuria, massive gastrointestinal bleeding, liver and kidney failure, and death.\n", "Several rare genetic diseases (Wilson disease, Menkes disease, idiopathic copper toxicosis, Indian childhood cirrhosis) are associated with the improper utilization of copper in the body. All of these diseases involve mutations of genes containing the genetic codes for the production of specific proteins involved in the absorption and distribution of copper. When these proteins are dysfunctional, copper either builds up in the liver or the body fails to absorb copper.\n", "Copper(II) oxide\n\nCopper(II) oxide or cupric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula CuO. A black solid, it is one of the two stable oxides of copper, the other being CuO or cuprous oxide. As a mineral, it is known as tenorite. It is a product of copper mining and the precursor to many other copper-containing products and chemical compounds.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Menkes disease, a genetic condition of copper deficiency, was first described by John Menkes in 1962. It is a rare X-linked disorder that affects approximately 1/200,000 live births, primarily boys. Livers of Menkes disease patients cannot absorb essential copper needed for patients to survive. Death usually occurs in early childhood: most affected individuals die before the age of 10 years, although several patients have survived into their teens and early 20s.\n" ]	[ "Blood tastes like copper.", "Blood taste like copper." ]	[ "It's more a metallic taste than copper specifically.", "Blood has a more metallic taste than copper." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Blood tastes like copper.", "Blood taste like copper." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It's more a metallic taste than copper specifically.", "Blood has a more metallic taste than copper." ]
2018-03279	Why does stretching when you wake up feel so good?	Your joints’ metabolism works through the liquid in the joints. When they are not moving and the fluid stays still, the process makes the liquid have the metabolites, which makes the cartilages somewhat sore. So when you stretch and the fluid gets stirred around, you feel the refreshment. A similar thing happens during pregnancy when the child’s metabolites gather in the woman’s body overnight causing morning sickness	[ "In its most basic form, stretching is a natural and instinctive activity; it is performed by humans and many other animals. It can be accompanied by yawning. Stretching often occurs instinctively after waking from sleep, after long periods of inactivity, or after exiting confined spaces and areas.\n\nIncreasing flexibility through stretching is one of the basic tenets of physical fitness. It is common for athletes to stretch before (for warming up) and after exercise in an attempt to reduce risk of injury and increase performance.\n", "During the next two decades, Shelter Publications produced a series of fitness books, including Bob Anderson's \"Stretching\" (which has sold three million copies and is in 31 languages), \"Galloway's Book on Running\" by Olympian Jeff Galloway, and \"Getting Stronger\" by legendary bodybuilder Bill Pearl. More recently, Shelter produced StretchWare, software that reminds you to stretch at your computer.\n", "Although static stretching is part of some warm-up routines, a study in 2013 indicated that it weakens muscles. For this reason, an active dynamic warm-up is recommended before exercise in place of static stretching.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nStudies have shed light on the function, in stretching, of a large protein within the myofibrils of skeletal muscles named titin. A study performed by Magid and Law demonstrated that the origin of passive muscle tension (which occurs during stretching) is actually within the myofibrils, not extracellularly as had previously been supposed.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.:Pt. 2.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n\nSection::::Commercial performance.:Pt. 1.\n", "Dynamic stretching, because it is movement-based, may not isolate the muscle group as well or have as intense of a stretch, but it is better at increasing the circulation of blood flow throughout the body, which in turn increases the amount of oxygen able to be used for an athletic performance. This type of stretching has shown better results on athletic performances of power and speed, when compared to static stretching .\n", "Kinesiological stretching is used to avoid the stretch reflex, while increasing the range of motion of a specific muscle. This is strikingly different from previously known stretching techniques, which look to increase the ROM (or Range of motion) in a specific degree of freedom of a joint or group of joints. The stretching method is also used in the treatment of abnormal scapulothoracic joint combined with the patient's awareness of his/her postural faults.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "White thy fambles, red thy gan\n\nAnd thy quarrons dainty is.\n\nCouch a hogshead with me then.\n\nIn the Darkmans clip and kiss.\n", "Stretching prior to strenuous physical activity has been thought to increase muscular performance by extending the soft tissue past its attainable length in order to increase range of motion. Many physically active individuals practice these techniques as a “warm-up” in order to achieve a certain level of muscular preparation for specific exercise movements. When stretching, muscles should feel somewhat uncomfortable but not physically agonizing.\n", "Stretching\n\nStretching is a form of physical exercise in which a specific muscle or tendon (or muscle group) is deliberately flexed or stretched in order to improve the muscle's felt elasticity and achieve comfortable muscle tone. The result is a feeling of increased muscle control, flexibility, and range of motion. Stretching is also used therapeutically to alleviate cramps.\n", "However, other studies have found that removing portions of these series-elastic components (by way of tendon length reduction) had little effect on muscle performance.\n\nStudies on turkeys have, nevertheless, shown that during SSC, a performance enhancement associated with elastic energy storage still takes place but it is thought that the aponeurosis could be a major source of energy storage (Roleveld et al., 1994).\n", "Because it is used for so many movements and is in a shortened position when seated, the TFL becomes tight easily. TFL stretches lengthen this important muscle.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Strain.\n\nA small case notes that “it seems possible that a sloped or banked surface could predispose an individual to a TFL strain.” In such a case, “treatment usually consists of rest, heat, and flexibility exercises”, such as lliotibial band stretching.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Dynamic stretching is a movement based stretch aimed on increasing blood flow throughout the body while also loosing up the muscle fibers. Standard dynamic stretches typically involve slow and controlled active contraction of muscles. An example of such a dynamic stretch are lunges. Another form of dynamic stretching is ballistic stretching, which is an active stretch that involves bouncing or swinging back and forth at a high speed in order to take a muscle beyond its typical range of motion using momentum. Ballistic stretching may cause damage to the joints.\n\nSection::::Types of stretches.:Static stretching.\n", "Kinesiological stretching is used to train particular muscles to attain motion beyond the normal range. Generally there are various limiting factors for different muscles to attain a range of motion beyond the normal range, and these limiting factors are known as passive limiting factors. Kinesiological stretching eliminates these passive limiting factors.\n", "In 2010 Stretch wrote the first ever Choose Your Own Adventure audio novel to appear on Spotify. It was read by the actress Anna Friel and marked the release of the debut album by the band Hurts.\n", "Flexibility is improved by stretching. Stretching should only be started when muscles are warm and the body temperature is raised. To be effective while stretching, force applied to the body must be held just beyond a feeling of pain and needs to be held for at least ten seconds. Increasing the range of motion creates good posture and develops proficient performance in everyday activities increasing the length of life and overall health of the individual.\n\nSection::::Stretching.:Dynamic.\n", "There are different positives and negatives for the two main types of stretching: static and dynamic. Static stretching is better at creating a more intense stretch because it is able to isolate a muscle group better. But this intense of a stretch may hinder one's athletic performance because the muscle is being over stretched while held in this position and, once the tension is released, the muscle will tend to tighten up and may actually become weaker than it was previously . Also, the longer the duration of static stretching, the more exhausted the muscle becomes. This type of stretching has been shown to have negative results on athletic performance within the categories of power and speed .\n", "Although many people engage in stretching before or after exercise, the medical evidence has shown this has no meaningful benefit in preventing specifically muscle soreness. \n\nStretching does not appear to reduce the risk of injury during exercises, except perhaps for runners. There is some evidence that pre-exercise stretching may increase athletes' range of movement.\n", "BULLET::::- Passive stretching (also called: static-passive stretching; assisted relaxed stretching) - 1. A static stretch (See: \"static stretching\") in which an external force (such as the floor or another person) holds the performer in the static position. 2. The practice of having a relaxed limb moved beyond its normal range of motion with the assistance of a partner. In \"active stretching\", in contrast, the limb is extended to its maximum range using only the muscles of that limb.\n\nBULLET::::- Pike - To be bend forward at the waist with the legs and trunk kept straight.\n", "Section::::Muscle expansion.\n\nMuscle tissue may also expand and grow, in a process known as stretch-induced myofibrillogenesis.\n\nSection::::Tissue inflammation.\n", "Section::::Music career.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "While necessary for sports and ordinary motions, this protective reaction is counterproductive for stretching, i.e., lengthening muscles.\n\nSection::::A history of active stretching.\n\nBULLET::::1. Sir Charles Sherrington conceptualized the principle of reciprocal innervation circa 1904 and demonstrated it circa 1913.\n\nBULLET::::2. A. D. Munrow's work proposed these principles for ‘active’ mobilizing exercises. 1962\n", "It is also implicated in the generation and maintenance of REM sleep. In animal studies, lesions of the pontine tegmentum greatly reduce or even eliminate REM sleep. Injection of a cholinergic agonist (e.g. carbachol), into the pontine tegmentum produces a state of REM sleep in cats. PET studies seem to indicate that there is a correlation between blood flow in the pontine tegmentum and REM sleep\n", "The practice of holding yoga postures or \"asanas\" for extended periods of time is a significant part of traditional yoga practice, both in the hatha yoga tradition of India and in the Taoist yoga tradition of the greater China area. For example, B. K. S. Iyengar recommended holding Supta Virasana (reclining hero pose) for 10–15 minutes. Long-held stretches are recommended in other physical disciplines, such as gymnastics and ballet, to increase flexibility.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03149	How do our bodies separate solids from liquids during digestion? Especially when you drink while eating. What prevents us from urinating out solids or vice versa?	> How do our bodies separate solids from liquids during digestion? Everything is absorbed through the intestines into the bloodstream. The kidneys then filter liquids and wastes out of the blood and produce urine. There is no direct connection between the digestive system and the kidneys/bladder so there is no way for solid wastes to make their way there (except by deposition of dissolved solids into kidney stones). And of course there is no way for urine to make its way into the digestive system either.	[ "Section::::Formation of urine.:Reabsorption.\n\nTubular reabsorption is the process by which solutes and water are removed from the tubular fluid and transported into the blood. It is called \"reabsorption\" (and not \"absorption\") both because these substances have already been absorbed once (particularly in the intestines) and because the body is reclaiming them from a postglomerular fluid stream that is well on its way to becoming urine (that is, they will soon be lost to the urine unless they are reclaimed).\n", "Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.\n", "After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (KMK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.\n", "Tubular secretion occurs simultaneously during reabsorption of Filtrate. Substances, generally produced by body or the by-products of cell metabolism that can become toxic in high concentration, and some drugs (if taken). These all are secreted into the lumen of renal tubule. Tubular secretion can be either active or passive or co-transport.\n\nSubstances mainly secreted into renal tubule are; H+, K+, NH3, urea, creatinine, histamine and drugs like penicillin. \n", "Section::::Products.:Wastewater.\n\nThe final output from anaerobic digestion systems is water, which originates both from the moisture content of the original waste that was treated and water produced during the microbial reactions in the digestion systems. This water may be released from the dewatering of the digestate or may be implicitly separate from the digestate.\n", "Section::::Overview of vertebrate digestion.\n\nIn most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),\n\nBULLET::::2. Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex molecules into simple structures,\n", "The largest component of secreted fluids is ions and water, which are first secreted and then reabsorbed along the tract. The ions secreted primarily consist of H, K, Cl, HCO and Na. Water follows the movement of these ions. The GI tract accomplishes this ion pumping using a system of proteins that are capable of active transport, facilitated diffusion and open channel ion movement. The arrangement of these proteins on the apical and basolateral sides of the epithelium determines the net movement of ions and water in the tract.\n", "It occurs when insufficient fluid is absorbed by the colon. As part of the digestion process, or due to fluid intake, food is mixed with large amounts of water. Thus, digested food is essentially liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result.\n", "Digestion begins in the mouth, which chews food into smaller pieces for easier digestion. Then it is swallowed, and moves through the esophagus to the stomach. In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric acids to allow the extraction of nutrients. What is left is called chyme; this then moves into the small intestine, which absorbs the nutrients and water from the chyme. What remains passes on to the large intestine, where it is dried to form feces; these are then stored in the rectum until they are expelled through the anus.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Systems.:Endocrine system.\n", "Chemical digestion involves hydrolysis reactions that liberate the sub unit molecules—primarily monosaccharides, amino acids and fatty acids—from the food. These products of chemical digestion pass through the epithelial lining of the gut into the blood, in a process known as absorption. Any molecules in the food that are not absorbed cannot be used by the animal. These waste products are excreted, or defecated from the anus.\n\nSection::::Extracellular digestion in other animals.\n\nSection::::Extracellular digestion in other animals.:Annelids.\n", "The liver detoxifies and breaks down chemicals, poisons and other toxins that enter the body. For example, the liver transforms ammonia (which is poisonous) into urea in fish, amphibians and mammals, and into uric acid in birds and reptiles. Urea is filtered by the kidney into urine or through the gills in fish and tadpoles. Uric acid is paste-like and expelled as a semi-solid waste (the \"white\" in bird excrements). The liver also produces bile, and the body uses bile to break down fats into usable fats and unusable waste.\n", "HO also diffuses out of the cell into the blood stream, from where it is excreted in the form of perspiration, water vapor in breath, or urine from the kidneys. Water, along with some dissolved solutes, are removed from blood circulation in the nephrons of the kidney and eventually excreted as urine.\n\nThe products of fermentation can be processed different ways, depending on the cellular conditions.\n", "Although the strictest sense of the word \"excretion\" with respect to the urinary system is urination itself, renal clearance is also conventionally called excretion (for example, in the set term \"fractional excretion of sodium\").\n\nSection::::Formation of urine.:Filtration.\n", "In some cases, reabsorption is indirect. For example, bicarbonate (HCO) does not have a transporter, so its reabsorption involves a series of reactions in the tubule lumen and tubular epithelium. It begins with the active secretion of a hydrogen ion (H) into the tubule fluid via a Na/H exchanger:\n\nBULLET::::- In the lumen\n\nBULLET::::- The H combines with HCO to form carbonic acid (HCO)\n\nBULLET::::- Luminal carbonic anhydrase enzymatically converts HCO into HO and CO\n\nBULLET::::- CO freely diffuses into the cell\n\nBULLET::::- In the epithelial cell\n", "In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It also contains rennin in case of infants and toddlers. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.\n", "Secretion\n\nSecretion is the movement of material from one point to another, e.g. secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland. In contrast, excretion, is the removal of certain substances or waste products from a cell or organism. The classical mechanism of cell secretion is via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called porosomes. Porosomes are permanent cup-shaped lipoprotein structure at the cell plasma membrane, where secretory vesicles transiently dock and fuse to release intra-vesicular contents from the cell.\n", "Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called a glomerulus and is collected in the Bowman's capsule, which filters the blood from its contents—primarily food and wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients it needs, while the wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then secreted out of the body via the urinary bladder.\n\nSection::::Clinical signifiance.\n\nSection::::Clinical signifiance.:Kidney Stones.\n", "Human digestive system\n\nThe human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The process of digestion has three stages. The first stage is the cephalic phase of digestion which begins with gastric secretions in response to the sight and smell of food. This stage includes the mechanical breakdown of food by chewing, and the chemical breakdown by digestive enzymes, that takes place in the mouth.\n", "Urine\n\nUrine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra.\n\nThe cellular metabolism generates many by-products which are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from the bloodstream, such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These by-products are expelled from the body during urination, which is the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body. A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body.\n", "Renal urea handling\n\nRenal urea handling is the part of renal physiology that deals with the reabsorption and secretion of urea. Movement of large amounts of urea across cell membranes is made possible by urea transporter proteins.\n", "Dialysis works on the principles of the diffusion of solutes and ultrafiltration of fluid across a semi-permeable membrane. Diffusion is a property of substances in water; substances in water tend to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Blood flows by one side of a semi-permeable membrane, and a dialysate, or special dialysis fluid, flows by the opposite side. A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material that contains holes of various sizes, or pores. Smaller solutes and fluid pass through the membrane, but the membrane blocks the passage of larger substances (for example, red blood cells, large proteins). This replicates the filtering process that takes place in the kidneys when the blood enters the kidneys and the larger substances are separated from the smaller ones in the glomerulus.\n", "BULLET::::- Secretin, a hormone produced by the duodenal \"S cells\" in response to the stomach chyme containing high hydrogen atom concentration (high acidicity), is released into the blood stream; upon return to the digestive tract, secretion decreases gastric emptying, increases secretion of the pancreatic ductal cells, as well as stimulating pancreatic acinar cells to release their zymogenic juice.\n", "The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "Urea can be produced as prills, granules, pellets, crystals, and solutions.\n\nSection::::Production.:Industrial methods.:Finishing.:Solid forms.\n", "In mammals, including humans, the transport of amino and imino acids from the lumen (interior) of the intestine or the renal proximal tubule into the cells occurs at the brush border membrane of the epithelium (moist, tightly packed cellular lining of many tissues and organs of the body). Here, cotransporters such as sodium or chloride (part of the system of Na-K-Cl cotransporters) couple with the amino or imino acids on the molecular level and transport them through specific integral membrane proteins that form ion channels, which are located within the cell membrane. From the cells, the absorbed or reabsorbed amino and imino acids eventually reach the blood. Absorption refers to the overall process happening in the intestine in lieu of normal digestive breakdown of proteins, while reabsorption refers to the process occurring in the renal proximal tubule to reclaim amino and imino acids that have been filtered out of the blood via the glomerulus.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09349	why does alcohol burn small cuts	Normally your skin protects you from corrosive substances like alcohol, but when you have a cut, obviously that defense is gone. Alcohol kills cells, your body doesn't like that, so it sends a type of pain signal to your brain, which your brain interprets as an unpleasant burning sensation.	[ "A study by a team of researchers at the University of Idaho, Washington State University, and the US Department of Agriculture's Nutrient Data Laboratory calculated the percentage of alcohol remaining in a dish based on various cooking methods. The results are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- alcohol added to boiling liquid and removed from heat: 85% alcohol retained\n\nBULLET::::- alcohol flamed: 75% alcohol retained\n\nBULLET::::- no heat, stored overnight: 70% alcohol retained\n\nBULLET::::- baked, 25 minutes, alcohol not stirred into mixture: 45% alcohol retained\n\nBULLET::::- baked/simmered, alcohol stirred into mixture: (see table)\n\nSection::::Alcohol as cooking fuel.\n", "BULLET::::- Significance of research:\n", "BULLET::::- Significance of research:\n", "BULLET::::- the encapsulation of filaments of a self-assembling bi-copper complex in polymer nanowires.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Alcohol.\n\nAccording to food chemist Udo Pollmer of the European Institute of Food and Nutrition Sciences in Munich, alcohol can be molecularly encapsulated in cyclodextrines, a sugar derivate. In this way, encapsuled in small capsules, the fluid can be handled as a powder. The cyclodextrines can absorb an estimated 60 percent of their own weight in alcohol. A US patent has been registered for the process as early as 1974.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cryptophane\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::As an ingredient.:Flambé.\n\nFlambé is a technique where alcohol, such as brandy, is poured on top of a dish and then ignited to create a visual presentation.\n\nA variation of the flambé tradition is employed in Japanese teppanyaki restaurants where a spirit is poured onto the griddle and then lit, providing both a dramatic start to the cooking, and a residue on the griddle which indicates to the chef which parts of the griddle are hottest.\n\nSection::::As an ingredient.:Alcohol in finished food.\n", "Liquor that contains 40% ABV (80 US proof) will catch fire if heated to about and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called its flash point. The flash point of pure alcohol is , less than average room temperature.\n\nThe flammability of liquor is applied in the cooking technique flambé.\n\nThe flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% ABV to 96% ABV are:\n\nBULLET::::- 10% – – ethanol-based water solution\n\nBULLET::::- 12.5% – about – wine\n\nBULLET::::- 20% – – fortified wine\n\nBULLET::::- 30% –\n\nBULLET::::- 40% – – typical vodka, whisky or brandy\n", "Gregory Fu and colleagues have developed a methodology utilizing a chiral DMAP analogue to achieve excellent kinetic resolution of secondary alcohols. Initial studies utilizing ether as a solvent, low catalyst loadings (2 mol %), acetic anhydride as the acylating agent, and triethylamine at room temperature gave selectivities ranging from 14-52, corresponding to ee's of the recovered alcohol product as high as 99.2%. However, solvent screening proved that the use of tert-amyl alcohol increased both the reactivity and selectivity.\n", "BULLET::::- Alcohol – Alcohol consumption impairs wound healing and also increases the chances of infection. Alcohol affects the proliferative phase of healing. A single unit of alcohol causes a negative effect on re-epithelialization, wound closure, collagen production and angiogenesis.\n\nSection::::Research and development.\n", "Section::::Conclusion and possible further research studies.\n\nThe following was concluded based on ethanol's ability to induce non-lamellar phases:\n\nBULLET::::1. Ethanol does induce non-lamellar phases (non-bilayer) but this process is concentration dependent. On average the bilayers is preserved at approximately less than 10 mol%.\n\nBULLET::::2. Ethanol prefers to bond in the hydrophilic region near phosphate groups which could be contributed to its amphiphilic character.\n\nBULLET::::3. The effects of ethanol can be reversed or hindered in the presence of cholesterol (sterol compounds)\n", "BULLET::::- Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name – \"wood alcohol\".\n", "Both ethanol and methanol have low flash points, 11–17 °C, making them highly flammable; diethylene glycol, with a flash point of 154 °C, is considered safer because spilled DEG fuel will not combust; it needs a wick to burn. The fuel is in a liquid form and thus the canister in which it is contained usually differs by having a more leak resistant screw cap rather than a plug. \n\nSection::::Comparison of energy yield.\n", "Section::::\"The Birth of a Nation\".\n\nIn D.W. Griffith's film \"The Birth of a Nation\" (1915), an adaptation of Thomas Dixon's novel, \"The Clansman\", two sequences depict cross-burning.\n", "BULLET::::- Fractional freezing is also used to concentrate fermented alcoholic solutions, such as traditionally made Applejack (beverage);\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure swing adsorption.\n\nSection::::Purification.:Grades of ethanol.\n\nSection::::Purification.:Grades of ethanol.:Denatured alcohol.\n", "Section::::Research areas.\n\nSection::::Research areas.:NNR.\n\nBULLET::::- Research overview:\n", "As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 1,070 people, 371 households, and 289 families residing in the town. The population density was 396.3 people per square mile (152.9/km²).The racial makeup of the town was 87.2% White, 1.0% African American, 0.8% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian 8.2% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.0% of the population.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Distribution.\n\nUpon ingestion, ethanol is rapidly distributed throughout the body. It is distributed most rapidly to tissues with the greatest blood supply. As such, ethanol primarily affects the brain, liver, and kidneys. Other tissues with lower circulation, such as bone, require more time for ethanol to distribute into. Ethanol crosses biological membranes and the blood–brain barrier easily, through a simple process of passive diffusion. The volume of distribution of ethanol is around . It is only weakly or not at all plasma protein bound.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Metabolism.\n", "Ethanol is a volatile, colorless liquid that has a slight odor. It burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light. The physical properties of ethanol stem primarily from the presence of its hydroxyl group and the shortness of its carbon chain. Ethanol's hydroxyl group is able to participate in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight, such as propane.\n", "Well done cuts, in addition to being brown, are drier and contain few or no juices. Note that searing (cooking the exterior at a high temperature) in no way \"seals in the juices\" – water evaporates at the same or higher rates as unseared meat. Searing does play an important role, however, in browning, a crucial contributor to flavor and texture.\n", "The word comes ultimately from the Latin \"oculus\", “eye”, which was used in a figurative sense by the Romans for the bung hole of a barrel. This was taken into French in the medieval period as \"oeil\", from which a verb \"ouiller\" was created, to fill a barrel up to the bung hole. In turn, a noun \"ouillage\" was created, which was the immediate source of the word's modern form, first recorded in Norman English about 1300, at first in the sense of the amount of liquid needed to fill a barrel up to the bung hole.\n\nSection::::Wine and spirits.\n", "Section::::Research areas.:AMDS.\n\nBULLET::::- Research overview:\n", "BULLET::::- = 2[] + [Glucose]/18 + [ BUN ]/2.8 + [Ethanol]/3.7\n\nBased on the molecular weight of ethanol the divisor should be 4.6 but empiric data shows that ethanol does not behave as an ideal osmole.\n\nSection::::Osmolar gap (OG).\n", "BULLET::::1. A \"pretreatment\" phase, to make the lignocellulosic material such as wood or straw amenable to hydrolysis\n\nBULLET::::2. Cellulose hydrolysis (that is, cellulolysis) with cellulases, to break down the molecules into sugars\n\nBULLET::::3. Separation of the sugar solution from the residual materials, notably lignin\n\nBULLET::::4. Microbial fermentation of the sugar solution\n\nBULLET::::5. Distillation to produce roughly 95% pure alcohol\n\nBULLET::::6. Dehydration by molecular sieves to bring the ethanol concentration to over 99.5%\n", "Whisky that has been aged in oak barrels absorbs substances from the wood. One of these is cis-3-methyl-4-octanolide, known as the \"whisky lactone\" or \"quercus lactone\", a compound with a strong coconut aroma.\n\nCommercially charred oaks are rich in phenolic compounds. One study identified 40 different phenolic compounds. The coumarin scopoletin is present in whisky, with the highest level reported in Bourbon whiskey.\n\nIn an experiment, whiskey aged 3 years in orbit on the International Space Station tasted and measured significantly different from similar test subjects in gravity on Earth. Particularly, wood extractives were more present in the space samples.\n", "When police arrived at the Aurora Tap, a drab, dimly lit tavern, they found about a dozen or so persons standing or\n\nPage 444 U. S. 99\n", "The alcoholic beverage must be heated before lighting it on fire. This is because at room temperature, the liquid is still below the flash point, and there are not enough alcoholic vapors to ignite. By heating it, the vapor pressure increases, releasing enough vapors to catch fire from the match.\n\nSection::::Effects on taste.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03199	When it is said that matter and anti matter annihilate each other into pure energy, what is meant by pure energy?	It means they're broken down into massless particles: the photon. Pure energy is a meaningless term. Energy only exists in the context of stuff, particles. When an electron and positron interact, the result is two (iirc) photons which collectively have the energy of the two interacting particles. So when they annihilate, the energy contained within them is released as light.	[ "Many problems in physics involve matter in motion about some certain point in space, be it in actual rotation about it, or simply moving past it, where it is desired to know what effect the moving matter has on the point—can it exert energy upon it or perform work about it? Energy, the ability to do work, can be stored in matter by setting it in motion—a combination of its inertia and its displacement. Inertia is measured by its mass, and displacement by its velocity. Their product,\n", "There are some important situations in which the magnetic moment is \"not\" invariant:\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetic pumping: If the collision frequency is larger than the pump frequency, μ is no longer conserved. In particular, collisions allow net heating by transferring some of the perpendicular energy to parallel energy.\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclotron heating: If \"B\" is oscillated at the cyclotron frequency, the condition for adiabatic invariance is violated and heating is possible. In particular, the induced electric field rotates in phase with some of the particles and continuously accelerates them.\n", "The rest mass is almost never additive: the rest mass of an object is not the sum of the rest masses of its parts. The rest mass of an object is the total energy of all the parts, including kinetic energy, as measured by an observer that sees the center of the mass of the object to be standing still. The rest mass adds up only if the parts are standing still and do not attract or repel, so that they do not have any extra kinetic or potential energy. The other possibility is that they have a positive kinetic energy and a negative potential energy that exactly cancels.\n", "For a system of particles going off in different directions, the invariant mass of the system is the analog of the rest mass, and is the same for all observers, even those in relative motion. It is defined as the total energy (divided by ) in the center of mass frame (where by definition, the system total momentum is zero). A simple example of an object with moving parts but zero total momentum is a container of gas. In this case, the mass of the container is given by its total energy (including the kinetic energy of the gas molecules), since the system total energy and invariant mass are the same in any reference frame where the momentum is zero, and such a reference frame is also the only frame in which the object can be weighed. In a similar way, the theory of special relativity posits that the thermal energy in all objects (including solids) contributes to their total masses and weights, even though this energy is present as the kinetic and potential energies of the atoms in the object, and it (in a similar way to the gas) is not seen in the rest masses of the atoms that make up the object.\n", "If a combination of particles contains extra energy—for instance, in a molecule of the explosive TNT—weighing it reveals some extra mass, compared to its end products after an explosion. (The weighing must be done after the products have been stopped and cooled, however, as the extra mass must escape from the system as heat before its loss can be noticed, in theory.) On the other hand, if one must inject energy to separate a system of particles into its components, then the initial mass is less than that of the components after they are separated. In the latter case, the energy injected is \"stored\" as potential energy, which shows as the increased mass of the components that store it. This is an example of the fact that energy of all types is seen in systems as mass, since mass and energy are equivalent, and each is a \"property\" of the other.\n", "The antiproton-driven Magnetically Insulated Inertial Confinement Fusion Propulsion (MICF) concept relies on self-generated magnetic field which insulates the plasma from the metallic shell that contains it during the burn. The lifetime of the plasma was estimated to be two orders of magnitude greater than implosion inertial fusion, which corresponds to a longer burn time, and hence, greater gain.\n", "When matter and antimatter come into contact, they annihilate—both matter and antimatter are converted directly and entirely into enormous quantities of energy, in the form of subnuclear particles and electromagnetic radiation (specifically, mesons and gamma rays). In the \"Star Trek\" universe, fictional \"dilithium crystals\" are used to regulate this reaction. These crystals are described as being non-reactive to anti-matter when bombarded with high levels of radiation.\n", "We can work out what this invariant is by first arguing that, since it is a scalar, it doesn't matter in which reference frame we calculate it, and then by transforming to a frame where the total momentum is zero.\n\nWe see that the rest energy is an independent invariant. A rest energy can be calculated even for particles and systems in motion, by translating to a frame in which momentum is zero.\n\nThe rest energy is related to the mass according to the celebrated equation discussed above:\n", "Already in his relativity paper \"On the electrodynamics of moving bodies\", Einstein derived the correct expression for the kinetic energy of particles:\n\nNow the question remained open as to which formulation applies to bodies at rest. This was tackled by Einstein in his paper \"Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content?\", where he used a body emitting two light pulses in opposite directions, having energies of before and after the emission as seen in its rest frame. As seen from a moving frame, this becomes and . Einstein obtained:\n", "Consider the simple case of two-body system, where object A is moving towards another object B which is initially at rest (in any particular frame of reference). The magnitude of invariant mass of this two-body system (see definition below) is different from the sum of rest mass (i.e. their respective mass when stationary). Even if we consider the same system from center-of-momentum frame, where net momentum is zero, the magnitude of the system's invariant mass is not equal to the sum of the rest masses of the particles within it.\n", "Section::::Papers.:Mass–energy equivalence.\n\nOn November 21 \"Annalen der Physik\" published a fourth paper (received September 27) \"Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?\" (\"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?\"), in which Einstein deduced what is arguably the most famous of all equations: .\n", "Just as the relativistic mass of an isolated system is conserved through time, so also is its invariant mass.This property allows the conservation of all types of mass in systems, and also conservation of all types of mass in reactions where matter is destroyed (annihilated), leaving behind the energy that was associated with it (which is now in non-material form, rather than material form). Matter may appear and disappear in various reactions, but mass and energy are both unchanged in this process.\n\nSection::::Applicability of the strict formula.\n", "Following a meeting between McCarthy and Professor Sir Eric Ash in July 2007, Ash reported that \"the \"Orbo\" is a mechanical device which uses powerful magnets on the rim of a rotor and further magnets on an outer shell.\" During this meeting, McCarthy referred to the law of conservation of energy as scientific dogma. However, conservation of energy is a fundamental principle of physics, more specifically a consequence of the unchanging nature of physical laws with time by Noether's Theorem. Ash said that there was no comparison with religious dogma since there is no flexibility in choosing to accept that energy is always conserved. Rejecting conservation of energy would undermine all science and technology. Ash also formed the opinion that McCarthy was truly convinced in the validity of his invention but that this conviction was a case of \"prolonged self-deception.\"\n", "In a collision process where all the rest-masses are the same at the beginning as at the end, either expression for the energy is conserved. The two expressions only differ by a constant that is the same at the beginning and at the end of the collision. Still, by analyzing the situation where particles are thrown off a heavy central particle, it is easy to see that the inertia of the central particle is reduced by the total energy emitted. This allowed Einstein to conclude that the inertia of a heavy particle is increased or diminished according to the energy it absorbs or emits.\n", "Antimatter rockets can be divided into three types of application: those that directly use the products of antimatter annihilation for propulsion, those that heat a working fluid or an intermediate material which is then used for propulsion, and those that heat a working fluid or an intermediate material to generate electricity for some form of electric spacecraft propulsion system.\n", "Part of the rest energy (equivalent to rest mass) of matter may be converted to other forms of energy (still exhibiting mass), but neither energy nor mass can be destroyed; rather, both remain constant during any process. However, since formula_13 is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of an everyday amount of rest mass (for example, 1 kg) from rest energy to other forms of energy (such as kinetic energy, thermal energy, or the radiant energy carried by light and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~formula_14 joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of an everyday amount energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure on a weighing scale, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of large transformations between rest energy (of matter) and other forms of energy (e.g., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in nuclear physics and particle physics.\n", "which is a sum of the rest energy and the kinetic energy. This total energy is mathematically more elegant, and fits better with the momentum in relativity. But to come to this conclusion, Einstein needed to think carefully about collisions. This expression for the energy implied that matter at rest has a huge amount of energy, and it is not clear whether this energy is physically real, or just a mathematical artifact with no physical meaning.\n", "Because the invariant mass includes the mass of any kinetic and potential energies which remain in the center of momentum frame, the invariant mass of a system can be greater than sum of rest masses of its separate constituents. For example, rest mass and invariant mass are zero for individual photons even though they may add mass to the invariant mass of systems. For this reason, invariant mass is in general not an additive quantity (although there are a few rare situations where it may be, as is the case when massive particles in a system without potential or kinetic energy can be added to a total mass).\n", "Pfeifer and coworkers claim that the \"division of the total energy–momentum tensor into electromagnetic (EM) and material components is arbitrary\". In other words, the EM part and the material part in the total momentum can be arbitrarily distributed as long as the total momentum is kept the same. But Mansuripur and Zakharian don't agree, and they suggested a Poynting vector criterion. They say for EM radiation waves the Poynting vector denotes EM power flow in any system of materials, and they claim that the Abraham momentum is \"the sole electromagnetic momentum in any system of materials distributed throughout the free space\".\n", "Pure Energy\n\nPure Energy may refer to:\n\nSection::::Energy.\n\nBULLET::::- Pure Energy Services Ltd., owner of Canadian Sub-Surface oil field services, then acquired by FMC Technologies\n\nBULLET::::- Pure Energy, licensee of Rechargeable alkaline battery technology\n\nSection::::People.\n\nBULLET::::- Mr Pure Energy, Gary David\n\nBULLET::::- Mr Pure Energy, Gary Valenciano\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- Pure Energy (band), an American music group\n\nBULLET::::- PureNRG, pronounced \"pure energy\", an American Christian band\n\nSection::::Music.:Albums.\n\nBULLET::::- Pure Energy (Information Society album), a 2004 compliation\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pure Energy\" 1996 album by Steve Marriott\n\nSection::::Music.:Songs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"What's On Your Mind (Pure Energy)\", a 1988 song by Information Society\n", "Historically, confusion about mass being \"converted\" to energy has been aided by confusion between mass and \"matter\", where matter is defined as fermion particles. In such a definition, electromagnetic radiation and kinetic energy (or heat) are not considered \"matter\". In some situations, matter may indeed be converted to non-matter forms of energy (see above), but in all these situations, the matter and non-matter forms of energy still retain their original mass.\n", "Due to mass–energy equivalence, the rest energy of the system is simply the invariant mass times the speed of light squared. Similarly, the total energy of the system is its total (relativistic) mass times the speed of light squared.\n", "Theories of the beginning of the Universe are based on the currently-known laws of particle physics, where matter is created from energy in such a way that equal amounts of particles and antiparticles are produced. If this is so, then an amount of antimatter equal to the amount of currently visible matter must exist—though there is an equal possibility the bulk of the antimatter may have been annihilated due to the mechanism of CP violation. The aim of BESS therefore is to quantify the amount of antiparticles in the local cosmos and so help to decide between these alternatives.\n", "A consequence of the mass–energy equivalence is that if a body is stationary, it still has some internal or intrinsic energy, called its rest energy, corresponding to its rest mass. When the body is in motion, its total energy is greater than its rest energy, and equivalently its \"total mass\" (also called relativistic mass in this context) is greater than its rest mass. This rest mass is also called the intrinsic or invariant mass because it remains the same regardless of this motion, even for the extreme speeds or gravity considered in special and general relativity.\n", "Section::::Meanings of the strict formula.:Massless particles contribute rest mass and invariant mass to systems.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22919	why is 7up or similar sodas used to help settle upset stomachs?	I can think of two possible reasons. The first is that the CO2 in these sodas help to alleviate gas buildup in your stomach by causing you to burp. The second is that the citrus part of these citrus sodas like 7UP, Sprite, etc. produce alkaline byproducts that neutralize the pH in your upset stomach. Although considering that artificial flavoring is probably used, the first explanation is more reasonable.	[ "The Caesar is popular as a hangover \"cure\", though its effectiveness has been questioned. A study by the University of Toronto released in 1985 showed that drinking a Caesar when taking aspirin could help protect a person's stomach from the damage aspirin causes, as compared with drinking plain tomato juice.\n\nSection::::Preparation and variants.\n", "Section::::Use.\n\nCommonly drunk cold with ice, 7 Up is also very well known as a mixer for highball alcoholic lemon-lime soda cocktails, the most popular version being the Seven and Seven (Seagram's 7 Crown and 7 Up). 7 Up is also used in non-alcoholic punches.\n\nSection::::Formula.\n", "Special attention should be given to monitoring breathing, airway control, and circulation. If treatment occurs within the first hour of ingestion gastric lavage may be effective. If vomiting becomes too intense intravenous fluids are administered, psychiatric care may also be provided.\n\nIn rare cases anticholinergic drugs, such as atropine, may be needed.\n\nSection::::Use in research.\n", "As a home remedy, saltines are consumed by many people in order to ease nausea and to settle an upset stomach. Saltine crackers have also been frequently included in military field rations (Meal, Ready-to-Eat, or MRE) in the United States. For some children in parts of the eastern United States, saltines are traditionally eaten on Christmas Eve.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSoda crackers were described in \"The Young Housekeeper\" by Alcott in 1838.\n", "BULLET::::- First Strike Ration, a fast action meal which troops can eat while on the move; it is designed to be consumed during the first 72 hours of conflict. One example is the HOOAH! Bar, a dairy based energy bar enriched with calcium.\n\nSection::::Effects on health.\n", "Gripe water is a non-prescription product sold in many countries around the world to relieve colic and other gastrointestinal ailments and discomforts of infants. No evidence supports the efficacy of gripe water and one limited study in India questions whether the consumption of gripe water is related to vomiting in babies that already showed signs of colic. The original formula contained alcohol and sugar in addition to sodium bicarbonate and dill oil. Present-day products do not contain alcohol, and may contain fennel, ginger, chamomile or lemon balm in addition to or replacement for dill oil. Some gripe water products still contain sugar. Some contain charcoal. Amounts given are one to several teaspoons (5 ml = one teaspoon) per day.\n", "BULLET::::- Choco Crunch: In 1982, a variant called Choco Crunch, featuring the mascot \"Chockle the Blob\", was introduced. This version contained the yellow corn squares, plus chocolate-flavored Crunch Berries.\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolatey Crunch: Introduced in 2011 and consisting of chocolate-flavored corn squares, Chocolately Crunch was discontinued in July 2016 due to poor sales.\n", "An amount of Phospho soda (normally 1.5 fluid ounce or 45 ml) is usually mixed with water or other clear liquids such as ginger ale. This preparation usually results in a bowel movement anywhere from 30 minutes to 6 hours after it is taken. Phospho soda is also available in various flavors to make it more palatable.\n\nSection::::Safety issues.\n", "In a study of 350 infants conducted in Puducherry, India, two-thirds of mothers of infants ages 1 to 6 months admitted administering gripe water to their children at least once a day. The mothers believed that gripe water helps in digestion and prevents stomach ache. However, infant colic, vomiting and constipation were significantly more common in gripe water administered infants compared to those who were exclusively breast fed. The study did not indicate the rate of constipation or vomiting prior to the use of gripe water to compare with during use. Constipation was reported for 19.5% of the infants who were given gripe water compared to 5.8% for those who were not.\n", "Section::::Culinary uses.:Diet and metabolism.\n\nRelatively small amounts of vinegar (2 to 4 tablespoons) may reduce post-meal levels of blood glucose and insulin in people with and without diabetes.\n\nSection::::Culinary uses.:Nutrition.\n", "Potassium chloride supplements by mouth have the advantage of containing precise quantities of potassium, but the disadvantages of a taste which may be unpleasant, and the potential for side-effects including nausea and abdominal discomfort. Potassium bicarbonate is preferred when correcting hypokalemia associated with metabolic acidosis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Intravenous potassium replacement.\n", "It may be served as a snack or after a meal holding centre stage on table with green tea; it may be just for the family and visitors. Apart from its bittersweet and pungent taste and leafy texture, many believe in its medicinal properties as beneficial for the digestive system and controlling bile and mucus. Its stimulant effect to ward off tiredness and sleepiness is especially popular with students preparing for exams, \"pwè\" goers at all-night theatrical performances, and helpers at funerals who keep watch overnight.\n", "In \"American Dad!\" episode \"A Star is Reborn\" (season 10, episode 13), it was the favorite drink of deceased actor Leonard Zane, and becomes a favorite of Stan Smith, when Zane's wife (June Rosewood), convinced Stan that he is the reincarnated Zane.\n\nOn the American sitcom \"Frasier\" in the episode \"Dinner at Eight\" (season 1 episode 3), Niles and Frasier order Stoli Gibsons \"on the rocks with three pearl onions.\"\n", "Section::::Recipes.\n\nIn Mexican and Central American cuisine, people cook masa nixtamalera with water and milk to make a thick, gruel-like beverage called . When they make it with chocolate and sugar, it becomes . Adding anise and piloncillo to this mix creates , a popular breakfast drink.\n", "Effervescent medicinal beverages date back to the late 1800s and originally arose to mask the taste of bitter waters taken as curatives, during the water cure craze of that era.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Around the world.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Hong Kong.\n\nIn Hong Kong, Horlicks is known better as a café drink than as a sleeping aid. It is served at cha chaan tengs as well as fast-food shops such as Café de Coral and Maxim's Express. It can be served hot or cold, and is usually sweetened with sugar. It is made with warm milk, and ice is added to it if a cold drink is desired.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:India.\n", "The main ingredients of the drink include peanuts/peanut butter, milk and sugar. However, variations occur whereby regular milk is often replaced or added to a mixture including condensed milk, spices (dominantly nutmeg and cinnamon), corn flakes, Angostura bitters, glucose powder and quite often granola mix. The drink is often regarded by some to be an aphrodisiac due to its high fat, protein and overall energy content.\n", "Diet Cherry 7 Up: Diet Cherry 7 Up has recently been reintroduced due to popular demand after having been missing due to the existence of 7 Up Plus Cherry flavor. Ingredients are: filtered carbonated water and contains 2% or less of each of the following: citric acid, natural and artificial flavors, potassium benzoate (protects flavor), aspartame, potassium citrate, acesulfame potassium, red 40. Phenylketonurics: Contains phenylalanine.\n", "BULLET::::- to soothe an upset stomach, similar to the way parrots (and later, humans) in South America originally used it (more recently, industrially-produced kaolinite preparations were common for treatment of diarrhea; the most common of these was Kaopectate, which abandoned the use of kaolin in favor of attapulgite and then (in the United States) bismuth subsalicylate (the active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol))\n\nBULLET::::- for facial masks or soap ( known as \"White Clay\")\n\nBULLET::::- as adsorbents in water and wastewater treatment\n\nBULLET::::- to induce blood clotting in diagnostic procedures, e.g. Kaolin clotting time\n", "Evidence to support the use of antiemetics for nausea and vomiting among adults in the emergency department is poor. It is unclear if any medication is better than another or better than no active treatment.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nNausea and/or vomiting are the main complaints in 1.6% of visits to family physicians in Australia.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nHerodotus, writing on the culture of the ancient Persians and highlighting the differences with those of the Greeks, notes that to vomit in the presence of others is prohibited among Persians.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Social cues.\n", "Stomachic\n\nStomachic is a historic term for a medicine that serves to tone the stomach, improving its function and increase appetite. While many herbal remedies claim stomachic effects, modern pharmacology does not have an equivalent term for this type of action.\n\nHerbs with stomachic effects include:\n\nBULLET::::- Agrimony\n\nBULLET::::- Aloe\n\nBULLET::::- Anise\n\nBULLET::::- Avens (\"Geum urbanum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Barberry\n\nBULLET::::- Bitterwood (\"Picrasmaa excelsa\")\n\nBULLET::::- Cannabis\n\nBULLET::::- Cayenne\n\nBULLET::::- \"Centaurium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleome\"\n\nBULLET::::- Colombo (herb) (\"Frasera carolinensis\")\n\nBULLET::::- Dandelion\n\nBULLET::::- Elecampane\n\nBULLET::::- Ginseng\n\nBULLET::::- Goldenseal\n\nBULLET::::- \"Grewia asiatica\" (Phalsa or Falsa)\n\nBULLET::::- Hops\n\nBULLET::::- Holy thistle\n\nBULLET::::- Juniper berry\n\nBULLET::::- Mint\n", "Many commercial manufacturers of tomato juice also add salt. Other ingredients are also often added, such as onion powder, garlic powder, and other spices. In the United States, mass-produced tomato juice began to be marketed in the mid 1920s, and became a popular breakfast drink a few years thereafter.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"In God We Trust: All Others Pay Cash\" by Jean Shepherd, Ralphie uses it to decode the secret code from the Little Orphan Annie radio show. This book of short stories was the basis for \"A Christmas Story.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1994 film \"Forrest Gump\", Forrest can be see getting on the bus holding a \"Big Chief Tablet\" it also appears in the famous \"run Forrest, run\" scene.\n", "BULLET::::- The Clark Bar, a crispy core with caramel and peanut butter covered with milk chocolate, was the first nationally-marketed combination bar in the United States.\n", "BC Powder has historically been most commonly associated with relief of headaches. In fact, many users of the brand erroneously believe the name of the product to be \"BC Headache Powder.\" However, recent advertising and marketing endeavors by the company suggest that it is eager to associate itself with relief of general bodily aches and pains as well. Goody's, like BC, is also distributed by Prestige Brands.\n\nFor many years, singer and actor Faron Young was the celebrity featured on many of the product's television and radio commercials.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02513	Why are currencies around the world producing smaller increment bank notes? ex. US used to have 1000$ bills and no longer do, UK's 100£ is gone in favor of a 50£. Even the Euro which is relatively new has phased out it's 500€, what gives? THX	Others have already mentioned the criminal/counterfeiting risk, but the other important reason is that people generally don’t want those notes. In the days of debit/credit cards, online purchases, ATMs, and direct deposits there simply isn’t a need for high denomination bills. I mean when was the last time you actually used a hundred dollar or five hundred euro bill?	[ "The American $100 bill has competition from the €500 note, which facilitates the transport of larger amounts of money. One million dollars in $100 bills weighs 22 pounds, and is difficult to carry this much money without a briefcase and physical security. The same amount in €500 notes would weigh less than three pounds, which could be dispersed in clothing and luggage without attracting attention or alerting security devices. In illegal operations, transporting currency is logistically more difficult than transporting cocaine because of its size and weight, and the ease of transporting its banknotes makes the euro attractive to Latin American drug cartels.\n", "The note is used in the 23 countries which have the euro as their sole currency (with 22 legally adopting it), with a population of about 343 million.\n\nInitially, the high denomination notes were introduced very rapidly so that in the first 7 years (up to December 2008) there were 530 million five hundred euro banknotes in circulation. Subsequently, the rate of increase was radically slowed. In May 2019, there were approximately 495 million banknotes in circulation (decreased from 614 million in 2015). It is the second least widely circulated denomination, accounting for 2.2% of the total banknotes.\n", "In particular, Spain had a quarter of all these high-value bills within its borders in 2006. This concentration of €500 notes is far greater than expected for an economy of Spain's size, as prior to conversion to euro the largest banknote was 10,000 Spanish pesetas, worth €60.10. These notes are rarely seen in every-day commerce – they have been nicknamed \"Bin Ladens\" by the populace (as the presence and appearance of the notes are well-known, but the notes themselves are very difficult to find). British and Spanish police are using the bills to track money laundering.\n", "Some have proposed a \"reduced cash\" system, where small bills and coins are available for anonymous, everyday transactions, but high-denomination notes are eliminated. This would make the amount of cash needed to move large amounts of value physically awkward and easier to detect. Large notes are also the most valuable to counterfeit. The United Kingdom declared only banknotes of 5 pounds or less were legal tender after World War II because of fear of Nazi counterfeiting. In 1969, the federal government of the United States declared that banknotes of value over $100 would remain legal tender, but any notes in government hands would be destroyed and that no new notes of those denominations would be printed in the future. Such notes were last printed in the USA in 1945. Canada did the same thing with the CAD$1000 banknote in the year 2000. Sweden printed 10,000kr banknotes in 1939 and 1958, but declared them invalid after 31 December 1991. Singapore has recently announced that they would no longer produce the SGD$10,000 banknote. The European Central Bank has announced that the €500 denomination banknote would not be included in the next series of euro banknotes.\n", "Governments vary in their issuance of large banknotes; in August 2009, the number of Fr. 1,000 notes in circulation was over three times the population of Switzerland. For comparison, the number of circulating £50 banknotes is slightly less than three times the population of the United Kingdom; the Fr. 1,000 franc note is worth about £600. The British government has been wary of large banknotes since the counterfeiting Operation Bernhard during World War II, which caused the Bank of England to withdraw all notes larger than £5 from circulation. The bank did not reintroduce other denominations until the early 1960s (£10), 1970 (£20) and March 20, 1981 (£50).\n", "Even though there were some valuable banknotes in the national currencies of Germany, Austria and the Netherlands, the number of banknotes was relatively small compared to the Euro banknotes. At the end of the year 2000 there 89.20 million 1,000 Deutsche Mark banknotes, 13.97 million 5,000 Austrian Schilling banknotes and 13.28 million 1,000 Dutch Guilder banknotes in circulation. Latvia had a negligible number of 500 lat banknotes. In contrast the European Central Bank ordered the production of 371 million €500 banknotes before 1 July 2002.\n", "The Swiss 1,000-franc note, worth slightly more than $1,000, is probably the only other banknote in circulation outside its home country. However, it does not have a significant advantage over the €500 note to the non-Swiss; there are 20 times as many €500 notes in circulation, and they are more widely recognized. As a reserve currency, it makes up about 0.1% of the currency composition of official foreign-exchange reserves.\n", "The €500 banknote peaked at the end of March 2009 at 36.9% of the value of all Euro banknotes. Circulation by numbers of notes peaked at 613,559,542 banknotes in December 2015 when the decision to not include this denomination in the new Europa series was made. The lowest number of €500 banknotes in recent years is, 507,033,274 in February 2018.\n", "The IEOM began issuing banknotes in New Hebrides in 1965, and in New Caledonia and French Polynesia in 1969. On 1 October 1986, a new banknote, the 10,000 francs, was introduced which did not bear any distinguishing mark and was common to both French Polynesia and New Caledonia. These were followed, between 1992 and 1995, by 500, 1000 and 5000 franc notes for all of the French Pacific Territories.\n", "Section::::History.:Changes.\n\nNotes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank, Wim Duisenberg, who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean-Claude Trichet, whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012. Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank, incumbent Mario Draghi.\n", "As of June 2012, current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union. Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series' minimum size for depiction. The European Central Bank is currently introducing a new series of Euro-banknotes. The 500 euro denomination, however, will not be included in the new series as it was decided to phase out issuance of 500 euro banknotes.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "There was some concern that elimination of the high denomination may result in reduction in the overall value of banknotes in circulation. In 2017 and 2018 the ECB produced 88% of the circulating value of old €100, €200 and €500 banknotes in the new Europa €100 and €200 banknotes. As the old notes will be retired slowly, there is little reason to believe that the overall value cash circulating will decrease.\n\nSection::::Legal information.\n", "On September 30, 2002, a new $20 note was introduced. The new $20 is printed on longer-lasting polymer plastic rather than paper. A new $1000 note was issued on November 15, 2004, which was worth about US$88 upon introduction. The Bank of Mexico refers to the $20, $50, and $1000 notes during this wave of change as \"series D1\".\n", "In Germany, Deutsche Telekom modified 50,000 pay phones to take Deutsche Mark coins in 2005, at least on a temporary basis. Callers were allowed to use DM coins, at least initially, with the Mark pegged to equal one euro, almost twice the usual rate.\n\nIn France, receipts still indicate the value of products in the legacy currency along with the euro value. In other eurozone countries this has long been considered unnecessary. In June 2008, \"The New York Times\" reported that many merchants in the French town of Collobrières, in Provence, choose to accept exchangeable franc notes.\n\nSection::::Creation.:Early growth.\n", "One of the best examples of a local currency is the original LETS currency, founded on Vancouver Island in the early 1980s. In 1982, the Canadian Central Bank’s lending rates ran up to 14% which drove chartered bank lending rates as high as 19%. The resulting currency and credit scarcity left island residents with few options other than to create a local currency.\n\nSection::::List of major world payment currencies.\n\nThe following table are estimates of the 15 most frequently used currencies in world payments from 2012 to 2018 by SWIFT.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nRelated concepts\n\nBULLET::::- Counterfeit money\n", "The value of the note is several times greater than many of the largest circulating notes of other major currencies, such as the United States 100 dollar bill. Thus a large monetary value can be concentrated into a small volume of notes. This facilitates crimes that deal in cash, including money laundering, drug dealing, and tax evasion. There have been calls to withdraw the note for this reason. However, some of the currencies the Euro replaced had widely used high-value notes, including the 5,000 Austrian schillings (€363.36), and 1,000 Dutch guilders (\"gulden\") (€453.78), although these did not exceed the value of the €500 note. Two exceptions were the 1,000 Deutsche Marks, which had an equivalent value of €511.29, and 500 Latvian lats, which had an equivalent value of €711.44.\n", "The banknote also has the name \"euro\", but in three scripts: Latin, Greek and Cyrillic (EURO / ΕΥΡΩ / ЕВРО).\n\nThe 2nd series €100 and €200 notes are a different size to the €100 and €200 notes from the 1st series. Both denominations are now the same height (77 mm) as the €50 banknote, which makes them more comfortable to use. Their length remains unchanged.\n", "As of June 2012, current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union: Cyprus is not depicted on current notes, as the map does not extend far enough east; and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series' minimum size for depiction. The European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years, and a second series of banknotes is already in preparation. New production and anti-counterfeiting techniques will be employed on the new notes, but the design will be of the same theme and colours identical to the current series: bridges and arches. However, they will still be recognisable as a new series.\n", "The ease with which paper money can be created, by both legitimate authorities and counterfeiters, has led both to a temptation in times of crisis such as war or revolution to produce paper money which was not supported by precious metal or other goods, thus leading to Hyperinflation and a loss of faith in the value of paper money, e.g. the Continental Currency produced by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution, the Assignats produced during the French Revolution, the paper currency produced by the Confederate States of America and the individual states of the Confederate States of America, the financing of World War I by the Central Powers (by 1922 1 gold Austro-Hungarian krone of 1914 was worth 14,400 paper Kronen), the devaluation of the Yugoslav Dinar in the 1990s, etc. Banknotes may also be overprinted to reflect political changes that occur faster than new currency can be printed.\n", "Section::::History.:Since 1985.\n\nThe new highest denomination 10,000 CFP franc banknote (€83.80) issued on 1 October 1986, was the first one that was not overprinted with a city name. The 500 franc banknote, issued in 1992, and the 1000 and 5000 franc banknotes, issued in 1995, are also without the overprint. The designs of the 500, 1000, 5000 franc banknotes did not change till 2014, when new designs and sizes were introduced.\n", "The overstamped notes circulated until 1976, when 500, 1000 and 5000 francs were introduced by the Institut d'Émission des Comores, the 50 and 100 franc notes being replaced by coins. The central Bank took over production of paper money in 1984. 2500 and 10,000 franc notes were introduced in 1997, followed by 2000 francs in 2005. The 2,500-franc note was demonetized on 31 January 2007.\n", "In 1958, the French language was removed from banknotes and replaced by English. Notes were issued for 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 500 pounds. In 1966, the design of the 25, 50, and 100 pound notes was changed. In 1976 and 1977, the designs changed for all the denominations except the 500-pound note. In 1997 and 1998, a new series of notes was introduced in denominations of 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000 pounds, with the lower denominations replaced by coins. In 2009, the 50, 100, and 200 pound notes were changed with an entirely new design.\n", "Section::::€0 notes.\n\nIn 2015, Richard Faille developed the idea of souvenir Euro notes made to the same standards as the currency, but without value. These can then be sold at a profit to commemorate places or events. Since then these have become increasingly popular, and the European Central Bank has approved their printing. A popular addition to this series was issued in 2018 by the city of Trier, and shows Karl Marx, commemorating the bicentennial of his birth there. In addition, a design commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing in 2019 has been unveiled.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "500 euro note\n\nThe five hundred euro note (€500) is the highest-value euro banknote and was produced between the introduction of the euro (in its cash form) in 2002 until 2014. Since 27 April 2019, the banknote has no longer been issued by central banks in the euro area, but continues to be legal tender and can be used as a means of payment.\n\nIt is one of the highest-value circulating banknotes in the world, worth around 571 USD, 3,939 CNY, 66,677 JPY, 584 CHF or 447 GBP.\n", "As of June 2012, current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union to 27 member states as Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series' minimum size for depiction. Since the European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years after each issue, a second series of banknotes is already in preparation. New production and anti-counterfeiting techniques will be employed on the new notes, but the design will be of the same theme and colours identical of the current series; bridges and arches. However, they would still be recognisable as a new series.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15057	why does the west coast burn while the east coast seems relatively unaffected?	water currents always spin in the same direction. warm water is dragged up from the equator towards the Arctic on the East sides of continents, while cool water is dragged down from the Arctic toward the equator along the west side of continents. the water current along the west coast drags cool water along the coast; moderating temperatures, and keeping it relatively dry. The current on the east coast drags warm water along the coast; giving us varied seasons. this is also why the east coast gets hurricanes, but the west coast doesn't. this is true for all continents. The west coast of Afro-Eurasia has weather like the west coast of America. so Europe is much warmer than the equivalent latitude on the east coast of America; despite being much further North. Europe also never really gets Hurricanes. Compare this to east Asia and their typhoons. Japan is famous for it strong hurricanes, because it and china are affected by the same process as the east coast.	[ "The West Coast of the continental United States makes up part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area of heavy tectonic and volcanic activity that is the source of 90% of the world's earthquakes. The American Northwest sees the highest concentration of active volcanoes in the United States, in Washington, Oregon and northern California along the Cascade Mountains. There are several active volcanoes located in the islands of Hawaii, including Kilauea in ongoing eruption since 1983, but they do not typically adversely affect the inhabitants of the islands. There has not been a major life-threatening eruption on the Hawaiian islands since the 17th century. Volcanic eruptions can occasionally be devastating, such as in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington.\n", "\"Verbesina occidentalis\" has been shown to be one of the plants that is sensitive to the rising ozone levels. Due to the rising of ozone levels \"Verbesina occidentalis\" has been shown to have foliar ozone injury. Foliar ozone injury results in visible damage to the plant. Foliar ozone injury tends to be worse in more sun exposed leaves. In the Smokey Mountain National Park approximately fifty percent of the plants sampled showed symptoms of foliar ozone injury. Approximately seventeen percent of the leaves sampled were injured. The percent of plants injured increases as the elevation increases. The stippling may become more prominent in late summer. It may begin as a few stipples that are angular in shape. The coloring of the stippling may range from a light reddish-purple to black. In prolonged cases the leaves will become yellow color and may eventually die.\n", "The weather on the central coast is similar to that of the north coast except the frequency of sunny or partly cloudy days is higher in the summer, approaching 75%.\n\nSection::::Geography.:South Coast.\n", "In recent years, the expansion of the southern suburbs of Washington, D.C. into Northern Virginia has introduced an urban heat island primarily caused by increased absorption of solar radiation in more densely populated areas. In the American Lung Association's 2018 report, Arlington and Fairfax counties received failing grades for high ozone pollution. Haze in the mountains is caused in part by coal power plants.\n\nSection::::Geography.:Ecosystem.\n", "Section::::Geology.\n\nThe North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, spires, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. \n", "Section::::United States.\n", "However, air quality in Oregon degraded as plumes of smoke drifted northward instead of concentrating in the Central Valley.\n\nSection::::Smoke and air quality.:Spare the Air.\n", "Fire season typically begins in Oregon in May. Fires burning through September 2017 led to the month being dubbed \"Smoketember\" in Oregon, with air quality in western Oregon listed from \"Unhealthy\" to \"Hazardous\" in early weeks. NASA published images of the Oregon, shown the typically green state to be highly obscured by smoke, as seen from space. 2017 was unusual for the large number of fires occurring west of the Cascade Range in dense Douglas-fir forest in contrast to the frequent-fire pine ecosystems to the east.\n", "There are many global patterns that affect and contribute to the climate of the Eastern Temperate Forest region, such as global ocean currents, El Nino, La Nina, the Gulf Stream current, and global air circulation patterns. El Niño, caused by warmer sea-surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, can lead to \"wet winters\" and warm episodes occurring between the months of December and February in the southeastern region of the United States Eastern Temperate Forest. La Niña is caused by cooler than normal sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, it leads to drier than normal conditions in the winter months in the Southeast region of the Eastern Temperate Forest. The global ocean current that effects the Eastern Temperate Forest most is the Gulf Stream current which brings a warm flow of water from South to North along the eastern coast of North America in the Atlantic Ocean, it keeps temperatures in this region relatively warm. The winds that have the greatest effect on the climate of the region are the prevailing westerlies and the tropical easterlies. The prevailing westerlies, caused by the Coriolis Effect, explain why most major events that occur in North America come from the west and proceed east, which is where the majority of the Eastern Temperate Forest is located.\n", "Northern California and the Central Valley saw drastic increases in air pollutants during the height of the July and August fires, while Southern California also experienced an increase in air pollution in August. Air quality in Northern and Central California remained poor until mid-September 2018, when fire activity was drastically diminished. However, during the November Camp Fire, air quality diminished again, with the majority of the Bay Area being subjected to air quality indexes (AQIs) of 200 and above, in the \"unhealthy\" region.\n\nSection::::Wildfires.\n", "Section::::Climate.\n", "Nationally, the burden of wildfires is disproportionally heavily distributed in the southern and western regions. The Geographic Area Coordinating Group (GACG) divides the United States and Alaska into 11 geographic areas for the purpose of emergency incident management. One particular area of focus is wildland fires. A national assessment of wildfire risk in the United States based on GACG identified regions (with the slight modification of combining Southern and Northern California, and the West and East Basin); indicate that California (50.22% risk) and the Southern Area (15.53% risk) are the geographic areas with the highest wildfire risk. The western areas of the nation are experiencing an expansion of human development into and beyond what is called the wildland-urban interface (WUI). When wildfires inevitably occur in these fire-prone areas, often communities are threatened due to their proximity to fire-prone forest. The south is one of the fastest growing regions with 88 million acres classified as WUI. The south consistently has the highest number of wildfires per year. More than 50,000 communities are estimated to be at high to very high risk of wildfire damage. These statistics are greatly attributable to the South's year-round fire season.\n", "Section::::Ecoregions in the United States.\n\nSection::::Ecoregions in the United States.:Marine West Coast Forest.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Coast Range\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Puget Lowland\n\nBULLET::::- 3 Willamette Valley\n\nBULLET::::- 111 Ahklun Mountains and Kilbuck Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- 113 Alaska Peninsula Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- 115 Cook Inlet\n\nBULLET::::- 119 Pacific Coastal Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- 120 Coastal Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forests\n\nThe corresponding CEC ecoregion in Canada is called the Pacific Maritime Ecozone.\n\nSection::::Ecoregions in the United States.:Western Forested Mountains.\n\nBULLET::::- 4 Cascades\n\nBULLET::::- 5 Sierra Nevada\n\nBULLET::::- 9 Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills\n\nBULLET::::- 11 Blue Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- 15 Northern Rockies\n\nBULLET::::- 16 Idaho Batholith\n", "Air pollution is caused predominantly from burning fossil fuels, cars and much more. Natural sources of air pollution include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic compounds, and natural radioactivity. These natural sources of pollution often soon disperse and thin settling near their locale. However, major natural events such as volcanic activity can convey throughout the air spreading, thinning and settling over continents. Fossil fuel burning for heating, electrical generation, and in motor vehicles are responsible for about 90% of all air pollution in the United States.\n\nSection::::Water.\n\nSection::::Water.:Freshwater.\n", "Section::::Invasive species effects.\n\nSection::::Invasive species effects.:Cheatgrass.\n\nOne example of an invasive species that changed fire regime in Western North America is Bromus tectorum. Historical fire return intervals in the Snake River Plain sagebrush was 60–110 years, but currently, due to the presence of cheat grass, it burns every 5 years. The cheat grass is a continuous source of fuel thus changing the fuel characteristics of the ecosystem. Frequent fire makes it difficult to impossible for native vegetation to fully recover.\n\nSection::::Invasive species effects.:Brazilian pepper tree.\n", "A large contributor to fire susceptible forests is past land use; the higher air temperatures make wildfires more common. Wildfires are extremely detrimental for species inhabiting the landscape; they destroy habitats and it takes many years to restore the land to how it used to be.\n", "Section::::Level IV ecoregions.:Low Olympics (1c).\n", "The weather on the south coast is similar to that of the north and central coasts except the frequency of sunny or partly cloudy days is higher in the summer, approaching 90%.\n\nSection::::Communities.\n\nSection::::Communities.:Cities.\n\nBULLET::::- Astoria\n\nBULLET::::- Bandon\n\nBULLET::::- Bay City\n\nBULLET::::- Brookings\n\nBULLET::::- Cannon Beach\n\nBULLET::::- Coos Bay\n\nBULLET::::- Depoe Bay\n\nBULLET::::- Florence\n\nBULLET::::- Garibaldi\n\nBULLET::::- Gearhart\n\nBULLET::::- Gold Beach\n\nBULLET::::- Lincoln City\n\nBULLET::::- Manzanita\n\nBULLET::::- Nehalem\n\nBULLET::::- Newport\n\nBULLET::::- North Bend\n\nBULLET::::- Port Orford\n\nBULLET::::- Reedsport\n\nBULLET::::- Rockaway Beach\n\nBULLET::::- Seaside\n\nBULLET::::- Tillamook\n\nBULLET::::- Waldport\n\nBULLET::::- Warrenton\n\nBULLET::::- Wheeler\n\nBULLET::::- Yachats\n\nSection::::Communities.:Census-designated places and unincorporated communities.\n", "BULLET::::5. Altitude. At a higher altitude it is easier to become burnt, because there is less of the earth's atmosphere to block the sunlight. UV exposure increases about 4% for every 1000 ft (305 m) gain in elevation.\n\nBULLET::::6. Proximity to the equator (latitude). Between the polar and tropical regions, the closer to the equator, the more direct sunlight passes through the atmosphere over the course of a year. For example, the southern United States gets fifty percent more sunlight than the northern United States.\n", "Air quality warnings were issued for many areas due to the fire, because of dangerous levels of smoke and particulates. During the alerts, authorities have recommended that people stay indoors, avoid driving in affected areas and drink plenty of fluids. The east winds that have powered the fire have pushed much of the smoke out to sea or into areas somewhat distant from the fire. When the winds ease, the smoke has hung in the air in many communities. The typical moist, cool daily onshore winds in the evening have also been bringing smoke inland.\n", "BULLET::::- 9f Pumice Plateau Basins\n\nBULLET::::- 9g Klamath/Goose Lake Basins\n\nBULLET::::- 9h Fremont Pine/Fir Forest\n\nBULLET::::- 9i Southern Cascades Slope\n\nBULLET::::- 9j Klamath Juniper Woodland\n\nSection::::Northwest Forested Mountains.:11 Blue Mountains.\n\nBULLET::::- 11a John Day/Clarno Uplands\n\nBULLET::::- 11b John Day/Clarno Highlands\n\nBULLET::::- 11c Maritime-Influenced Zone\n\nBULLET::::- 11d Melange\n\nBULLET::::- 11e Wallowas/Seven Devils Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- 11f Canyons and Dissected Highlands\n\nBULLET::::- 11g Canyons and Dissected Uplands\n\nBULLET::::- 11h Continental Zone Highlands\n\nBULLET::::- 11i Continental Zone Foothills\n\nBULLET::::- 11k Blue Mountain Basins\n\nBULLET::::- 11l Mesic Forest Zone\n\nBULLET::::- 11m Subalpine–Alpine Zone\n\nBULLET::::- 11n Deschutes River Valley\n\nBULLET::::- 11o Cold Basins\n", "The fire ecology of this plant is not known, but open, sparsely vegetated pumice probably does not carry fire well. This plant is neither likely to encounter fire nor tolerate it well.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Conservation status and threats.\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Forest Service — Pacific Southwest Region, Sensitive Species.\n\nBULLET::::- California Native Plant Society Inventory of Rare and Endangered Plants — 2B.2 (Fairly endangered in California).\n\nBULLET::::- NatureServe Vulnerable species — Oregon State Rank S3; California State Rank S1; Global Rank G3.\n", "In total, 71 extant populations have been identified, but most are small in plant numbers and area covered. In North Carolina, there are 18 extant occurrences, 17 of which occur on Fort Bragg. The impact areas support large occurrences of American chaffseed due to frequent fires, establishing Fort Bragg as one of three population centers for the species, the other two being eastern South Carolina and southwestern Georgia/northwestern Florida. Seventeen occurrences on Fort Bragg represent the only known population(s) in North Carolina, except for a very small population in Moore County, just off the installation. Outside of the impact areas, four sites occur, and numbers of individuals are small. Burning of these sites is less frequent than in impact areas. Even on sites with only low herbaceous species densities, American chaffseed occurrences on Fort Bragg decline in the absence of frequent fires, indicating that competition may be influencing these sites less than fire.\n", "Section::::Level IV ecoregions.:Klamath Juniper Woodland (9j).\n", "Much of the Pacific Northwest is forested. The Georgia Strait–Puget Sound basin is shared between British Columbia and Washington, and the Pacific temperate rain forests ecoregion, which is the largest of the world's temperate rain forest ecozones in the system created by the World Wildlife Fund, stretches along the coast from Alaska to California. The dry land area inland from the Cascade Range and Coast Mountains is very different from the terrain and climate of the coastal area due to the rain shadow effect of the mountains, and comprises the Columbia, Fraser and Thompson Plateaus and mountain ranges contained within them. The interior regions' climates largely within eastern Washington, south central British Columbia, eastern Oregon, and southern Idaho are a northward extension of the Great Basin Desert, which spans the Great Basin farther south, although by their northern and eastern reaches, dry land and desert areas verge at the end of the Cascades' and Coast Mountains' rain shadows with the boreal forest and various alpine flora regimes characteristic of eastern British Columbia, northern Idaho and western Montana roughly along a longitudinal line defined by the Idaho border with Washington and Oregon.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11496	Why real flashbangs don't effect in the way we see in video-games?	The difference is one is real life, one is a video game. The video game exaggerates the effect so that it has tactical use. A "virtual flashbang" isn't going to impair a player if it completely mimics a real life one (unless it delivers an actual loud noise that would cause real ringing in one's ears, but then that'd make the game harmful)	[ "In the year 2001, Flash Film works worked on the Eddie Murphy science fiction film \"The Adventures of Pluto Nash\", creating computer generated Moonscapes for the actors to walk through.\n\nFor the Arnold Schwarzenegger action film \"Collateral Damage\", Flash Film works was responsible for over 200 visual effects shots including creating CG Helicopters and debris, multiple rig and wire removal shots and several other types of shots as well.\n", "If the player fails to make it to the exit within the time limit the FED tracks Flash down and kills him upon contact. While the player can run from the FED (giving them a last gasp effort to make it to the end of the level) due to the FED's ability to move over the screen regardless of the physical restraints that the player must encounter (e.g. walls) the player is eventually doomed to losing a life.\n", "Bombs: When a player touches a bomb, or a switch that is connected to a bomb (see above), the bomb detonates and pushes the player (and any other players caught in the blast radius) away from it with a high velocity, similar to a speed pad. They respawn 30 seconds after each use. A bomb's blast radius is not obstructed by walls.\n", "In addition to throwing fragmentation or explosive grenades, players can also spam smoke grenades, which obscures or completely eliminates vision and often lags the server.\n", "Hand-held explosives, ignited using switches, are commonly seen and mentioned in the \"Star Wars\" saga, as well as the expanded universe. Most, if not all of these devices, have real-life counterparts, despite their distinct designs. The thermal detonator is an example of a device seen in \"Return of the Jedi\" that can be charged and its trigger held. The release of the trigger would cause it to explode, destroying anything and anyone near it, as well as the person holding it. Bombs such as those are used by militant groups and military organizations to prevent nearby enemies from shooting them on sight, fearing they would also be dead in the explosion.\n", "Blastfighter\n\nBlastfighter is a 1984 action film directed by Lamberto Bava starring Michael Sopkiw and George Eastman. \n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "There are weapons inspired by FPS games such as the \"Quake\" and \"Unreal\" series. Advanced weapons, such as the grenade-launcher, shotgun and laser, deal more damage than both the spawn weapons (Pistol) but only have limited ammunition. The grenade launcher is a powerful weapon with a quirk that allows players to shoot themselves up walls or higher in the air, enabling them to reach higher points in maps quicker, while harming the player himself.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Gametypes.\n\nCurrently, the official vanilla gametypes are:\n", "The FED acts as a more realistic method for imposing a time limit rather than the player just suddenly dying like in many platform games of this era.\n", "Using the Panasonic AG-AF100 camera, James Rolfe chose to use mostly practical special effects for the film's 942 visual effects shots, creating the majority by filming miniatures in front of a green screen which were then later digitally composited into the film. Though this process was more time consuming than using CGI, Rolfe believed that the use of scale models would help add to the film’s intended B movie feel.\n", "If a bomb explodes and the flame hits another bomb it will cause this second bomb to detonate early. This can cause large chain reactions.\n\nIf the flame from any bomb hits any character it will injure or kill them (unless they are currently invincible).\n\nMost levels start with the grid being partially filled with destructible soft walls. If a bomb blast hits one of these soft walls, then it disintegrates, allowing characters to pass through the now empty space.\n", "Using destruction moves in the tournament mode in the higher difficulty levels sometimes results in the player being challenged by an unranked opponent. Defeating that opponent and using a destruction move on their robot occasionally yields secret components which can be installed on the players HAR, significantly improving the effectiveness of certain special moves and sometimes adding new ones.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Development.\n", "However, many official canonical \"Star Wars\" sources state that blaster technology is different from real lasers. According to official canon, they are a form of particle beam. This is supported by how \"magnetically sealed\" walls deflect them.\n\nThe Polish Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the University of Warsaw managed to film an ultra short laser pulse by using cameras that produce billions of frames per second. These laser pulses were so powerful that they almost instantly ionized the atoms they encountered, resulting in the formation of a plasma fiber filament.\n", "And while Rikkonen found them to be \"a somewhat cheap way of scaring people\", he implemented a number of jump scares to \"keep the players on their toes.\" He explained, \"When you’re making a game about a creature that charges at you with supernatural speed when you’re not looking at it, you pretty much have to have some jump scares.\"\n", "The game's animation has been described as simple, and the game has been described as an \"amateur\" \"no-budget\" production. \"Fox News\" stated experienced video gamers would probably find the game's design \"fairly unimpressive\".\n", "Video games can use a particle system to create blood squirt effects. The blood-gushing special effects in \"Mortal Kombat\" (1992) engendered controversy which only served to boost its popularity.\n\nConan O'Brien has his head first spiked and then bitten off by two kraken-like sea monsters in the SyFy film, \"Sharktopus vs. Pteracuda\" (2014); his head continues to squirt copious amounts of blood as it is tossed by volleyball players.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Television.\n\nThe television series \"Dexter\" concerns the life of a blood spatter analysis specialist Dexter Morgan, who is a serial killer working for the Miami Police Department\n", "In \"Overwatch\" (2016), multiple characters have explosive projectiles that can be used to rocket jump.\n\nRocket jumps are a mechanic in the 2D platformer \"Butcher\" (2016).\n\nSection::::Forms.:Other variations.\n\nBULLET::::- A similar technique can often be performed with other explosives, such as grenades, remotely detonated bombs or explosive objects in the level; depending on the game, these might be more, equally or less viable alternatives to rocket jumps.\n", "FMVs in games today typically consist of high-quality pre-rendered video sequences (CGI). These sequences are created in similar ways as computer generated effects in movies. Use of FMV as a selling point or focus has diminished in modern times. This is primarily due to graphical advancements in modern video game systems making it possible for in-game cinematics to have just as impressive visual quality. Digitized video footage of real actors in games generally ended for mainstream games in the early 2000s with a few exceptions such as \"\" released in 2006, \"\" released in 2010, \"Tesla Effect\" released in 2014, \"Her Story\" released in 2015, the 2015 reboot of \"Need for Speed\", and \"Obduction\" released in 2016.\n", "After a minute and a half the game displays a message to \"Hurry Up!\" and then starts dropping indestructible walls around the edge of the play field (starting bottom left and travelling clockwise), effectively reducing the area players can move around in. If the player gets hit by falling walls, they'll get killed instantly.\n", "Although squibs were once used even for the simulation of bullet hits on live actors, such use has been largely phased out in favor of more advanced devices that are safer for the actor, such as miniature compressed gas packs. These alternate devices are often still referred to as \"squibs\" even though they do not use explosive substances. The devices (whether explosive or not) are coupled with small balloons filled with fake blood (blood squibs) and often other materials to simulate shattered bone and tissue.\n", "The M116/A1 is not technically a stun grenade, but is in fact a hand grenade simulator, designed to create a realistic but not dangerous grenade-like effect for exercises. The M116 series is usually fitted with a pull string igniter and fuze assembly. An improvised stun grenade was created from the M116 series by US Navy SEALs, by replacing this fuze with an M201 series igniting fuze. This new weapon was nicknamed the \"Flash-Crash\". There are certain dangers from using the M116-based Flash-Crash however, mainly the metal body, from which potentially dangerous fragments may break when employing the device in hostage rescue situations.\n", "Retro Helix mostly relies on a third-person perspective. The controls are mapped without regard to the character's current position or direction faced. Unlike the original Fear Effect, however, Retro Helix offers players the option of a more traditional control scheme. At the player's disposal is a small arsenal of weapons, including a variety of firearms – including pistols, shotguns, and assault rifles, specialty equipment such as a hand-held EMPs and a taser, and one unique melee weapon for each character.\n", "Bullets will not penetrate most objects, but they will break glass. Explosives or heavy gunfire can be used to destroy wooden doors, and (in the case of explosives) potentially kill anyone within the blast radius on the other side. Depending on a target's armor, it is generally possible to neutralize a threat with one or two well-placed shots.\n", "In chronological order (with issue and date of first appearance):\n\nSection::::Modern Age Flash enemies.\n", "Section::::\"League of Legends\".:2016.\n", "Section::::Gameplay.:Multiplayer.\n\nBoth \"Super Smash Flash\" and \"Super Smash Flash 2\" feature standard multiplayer battles, both against other players on the same machine and against computer-controlled characters with configurable difficulty levels.\n\nThe original game was very limited by its software Flash capacity; aside only one multiplayer mode (crowned as \"Melee\" mode), matches were limited for only two human players per match; the other remaining two slots could be filled with CPU entries only. The camera was only able to follow player one, leaving player two at a noticeable disadvantage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05237	Why is the thought of spitting in to a cup and swallowing it disgusting when we swallow own saliva all the time?	My psychology teacher once said (if Is remember correctly) that when something that is a part of your body (like saliva, blood, nasal mucus,...) but you seperate it from your body, you will recognize this as not part of your body anymore (subconciously). Thus you won't lick, swallow of whatever that. Some people have this to a more pronounced effect than others, but generally speaking: seperated from the body is not yours anymore, and therefore dirty.	[ "Chew and Spit is often associated with and may be a potential gateway to more severe dieting behaviors. Individuals who use CS as a compensatory behavior are more likely to be diagnosed or develop eating disorders. The likelihood is dependent upon the severity of food obsession present. Treatments to eliminate the behavior of chewing and spiting have not yet been developed. However, given the correlation with eating disorders, research suggest treatments that are used for eating disorders such as, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, may also be effective for eliminating Chewing and Spitting behaviors. \n\nSection::::Frequency and tendency.\n", "He wants me to ask him about what it is like for him – about how offended the tongue is, held down by iron, how the need to spit is so deep you cry for it. She already knew about it, had seen it time after time in the place before Sweet Home. Men, boys, little girls, women. The wildness that shot up into the eye the moment the lips were yanked back. Days after it was taken out, goose fat was rubbed on the corners of the mouth but nothing to soothe the tongue or take the wildness out of the eye.\n", "There are some places where spitting is a competitive sport, with or without a projectile in the mouth. For example, there is a Guinness World Record for cherry pit spitting and cricket spitting, and there are world championships in Kudu dung spitting.\n\nSection::::Gleeking.\n\nGleeking (also gleeting, geeking, gleeping, glitting, gleaking, glicking, glything, glanding, geezing, cobra spitting, venoming, lizard spitting, gland glop) is the projection of saliva from the sublingual gland upon compression by the tongue.\n", "BULLET::::3. Mixed aphagia: When presented with food, the animal initially does not react positively or negatively. However, when food is placed in the mouth, the animal demonstrates active aphagia, spitting out the food and refusing to eat thereafter.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nChew and Spit has not received much attention in the research industry regarding treatment, long term effects of chewing and spitting, and its associations with other behaviors and eating disorders. More research is needed on his topic to further understand the effect this behavior has on individuals physically and psychologically.\n", "In the first half of the 20th century the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, the precursor to the American Lung Association, and state affiliates had educational campaigns against spitting to reduce the chance of spreading tuberculosis.\n\nAfter coffee cupping, tea tasting and wine tasting, the sample is spit into a 'spit bucket' or spittoon.\n\nSection::::Competitions.\n", "From \"Life of Diogenes\": \"Someone took him [Diogenes] into a magnificent house and warned him not to spit, whereupon, having cleared his throat, he spat into the man's face, being unable, he said, to find a meaner receptacle.\"\n\nSection::::Philosophy.:Diogenes as dogged or dog-like.\n", "The following behavioural classifications result from studies performed on rats, in which lesions were made on the lateral hypothalamus region in the brain. \n\nBULLET::::1. Passive aphagia: An animal with passive aphagia will not respond to food if it is presented. However, if food is inserted into the mouth, the animal will chew.\n", "Gleeking may occur spontaneously due to accidental tongue pressure on the sublingual gland while talking, eating, yawning, or cleaning the teeth. Gleeking can also be induced, for instance, by pressing the underside of the tongue upwards against the palate, then pushing the tongue forward while simultaneously moving the jaw slightly forward; or by yawning deeply and pressing the tongue against the palate. Practice is usually required to induce gleeking consistently, and induction is more likely to be successful under conditions of salivary stimulation.\n\nSection::::Spitting as a protection against evil.\n", "Chew and spit\n\nChew and Spit (CHSP or CS) is a compensatory behavior associated with several eating disorders that involves the chewing of food and spitting it out before swallowing, often as an attempt to avoid ingestion of unwanted or unnecessary calories. CS can be used as a way to taste food viewed as “forbidden” or unhealthy. Individuals who partake in CS typically have an increased desire for thinness, increased lack of control (LOC) and body dissatisfaction. CS can serve different functions such as replacing vomiting and/or binging or as an additional behavior to many eating disorders. \n\nbr\n\nbr\n", "Cognitive bias in animals\n\nCognitive bias in animals is a pattern of deviation in judgment, whereby inferences about other animals and situations may be affected by irrelevant information or emotional states. It is sometimes said that animals create their own \"subjective social reality\" from their perception of the input. In humans, for example, an optimistic or pessimistic bias might affect one's answer to the question \"Is the glass half empty or half full?\"\n", "Spitting upon another person, especially onto the face, is a global sign of anger, hatred, disrespect or contempt. It can represent a \"symbolical regurgitation\" or an act of intentional contamination.\n\nSection::::In the Western world.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduced interest in usual pastimes\n\nEspecially in patients with progressive dementia, it may affect feeding. Patients may continue to chew or hold food in their mouths for hours without swallowing it. The behavior may be most evident after these patients have eaten part of their meals and no longer have strong appetites.\n\nSection::::Symptoms and signs.:Differentiation from other disorders.\n", "Such a habit also existed in some Eastern European countries like Romania, and Moldova, although it is no longer widely practiced. People would gently spit in the face of younger people (often younger relatives such as grandchildren or nephews) they admire in order to avoid \"deochi\", an involuntary curse on the individual being admired or \"strangely looked upon\", which is claimed to be the cause of bad fortune and sometimes malaise or various illnesses. In Greece, it is customary to \"spit\" three times after making a compliment to someone, the spitting is done to protect from the evil eye. This applies to all people, it is not just between mothers and children. The spitting is light and from a distance, so it is not actual spitting on the face etc. of the person—which if done is derogatory. (Nowadays, one is more likely to just say \"ftou, ftou\", an interjection imitating the sound of spitting.) This practice sometimes extended to spitting on living plants and animals so as to protect them from sudden death or diseases, and spells which were claimed to break the curse of the evil eye exist.\n", "Michel Foucault cites Artemidorus' \"Oneirocritica\" as identifying the act of \"taking [one's] sex organ into one's [own] mouth\" as one of three ways to commit \"relations with oneself.\" Artemidorus thought that dreams of this \"unnatural\" act portended the death of one's children, loss of one's mistresses, or extreme poverty.\n\nSection::::Physical aspects.\n", "Umaiyyah bin Makshi reported: \"The Prophet was sitting while a man was eating food. That man did not mention the Name of God till only a morsel of food was left. When he raised it to his mouth, he said, \"Bismillah awwalahu wa akhirahu\". The Prophet smiled at this and said, \"Satan had been eating with him but when he mentioned the Name of God, Satan vomited all that was in his stomach\".\n", "BULLET::::- Vomiting was not a regular part of Roman dining customs. In ancient Rome, the architectural feature called a \"vomitorium\" was the entranceway through which crowds entered and exited a stadium, not a special room used for purging food during meals.\n", "Phagophobia\n\nPhagophobia is a psychogenic dysphagia, a fear of swallowing. It is expressed in various swallowing complaints without any apparent physical reason detectable by physical inspection and laboratory analyses. An obsolete term for this condition is choking phobia, but it was suggested that the latter term is confusing and it is necessary to distinguish the fear of swallowing (i.e., of the propulsion of bolus) from fear of choking.\n", "There are no prominent or ancient rhetoricians who explicitly discussed the use of \"paradeigmas\", but it can be seen clearly in various examples of literature.\n\nHomer's \"The Iliad\" (24.601–619) – Achilles is trying to encourage Priam to eat rather than continue to weep for his dead son Hector. He brings up Niobe, a woman that had lost twelve children but still found the strength to eat. He is trying to counsel Priam to do what he should by using Niobe as a \"paradeigma\", an example to quide behavior.\n", "Section::::Reciprocal inhibition.\n", "Two characters sit at a table. Character #1 has a cup of coffee in hand.\n\nCharacter 1: Did they ever find that missing toxic sludge?\n\nCharacter 2: Yes...\n\nCharacter 2: Someone poured it into the coffee urn.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Literary.\n\nBULLET::::- The Macmillan Book of Proverbs says the proverb is referenced in \"Don Quixote\" by Cervantes in 1605. However, although some English translations use the proverb, what is in the original text is a different, though similar, proverb: \"Del dicho al hecho hay gran trecho\" (More easily said than done).\n\nBULLET::::- In English, \"many things happen between the cup and the lip\" is first found in Robert Burton's \"The Anatomy of Melancholy\" (1621-1651).\n", "In Gestalt therapy, the concept of \"introjection\" is not identical with the psychoanalytical concept. Central to Fritz and Laura Perls' modifications was the concept of \"dental or oral aggression\", when the infant develops teeth and is able to chew. They set \"introjection\" against \"assimilation\". In \"Ego, Hunger and Aggression\", Fritz and Laura Perls suggested that when the infant develops teeth, he or she has the capacity to chew, to break apart food, and assimilate it, in contrast to swallowing before; and by analogy to experience, to taste, accept, reject or assimilate.\n", "BULLET::::- It was used as well in William Makepeace Thackeray's \"Pendennis\" in 1850.\n\nBULLET::::- The phrase appears numerous times in the Chronicles of Barsetshire series (1855-1867) by Anthony Trollope, especially in connection with the engagement of Lily Dale to Adolphus Crosbie in The Small House at Allington and the engagement of Grace Crawley to Major Grantly in The Last Chronicle of Barset.\n\nBULLET::::- A played version of the phrase is also attributed to W.V.O. Quine: There is many a slip betwixt subjective cup and objective lip.\n", "Section::::Possible reasons.\n\nThe Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder Association of South Africa collectively concluded that nose picking (and mucophagy) are passing behaviors. Andrade and Srihari studied persons who were more apt to suffer from \"habitual and obsessive–compulsive behaviors.\" They discovered that those with compulsive issues showed correlations between nose picking and self-mutilation motives. Diagnoses have also included passive–aggressive personality disorder and schizophrenia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03193	Why do most foods, drinks etc have to be refrigerated AFTER ONE use? What happens to the contents after just one use?	In many cases, the contents have been pasteurized. So they're "clean" and "free" of bacteria sealed as they are. The second you open it, they become exposed to bacteria. Refrigeration slows the growth of bacteria.	[ "Just as temperature increases speed up reactions, temperature decreases reduce them. Therefore, to make explosives stable for longer periods, or to keep rubber bands springy, or to force bacteria to slow down their growth, they can be cooled. That is why shelf life is generally extended by temperature control: (refrigeration, insulated shipping containers, controlled cold chain, etc.) and why some medicines and foods \"must\" be refrigerated. Since such storing of such goods is temporal in nature and shelf life is dependent on the temperature controlled environment, they are also referred to as cargo even when in special storage to emphasize the inherent time-temperature sensitivity matrix.\n", "Once opened for consumption, the product is immediately exposed to atmospheric oxygen and floating dust particles containing bacteria and mold spores, and all protections from the preservation process are immediately lost. At room temperature, mold and bacteria growth resumes almost immediately, and warmer temperatures can lead to an explosion of growth that rapidly degrades the food product. This organism growth can result in the accumulation of poisonous bacterial substances in the food product such as botulin, that lead to food poisoning, sickness, or death.\n", "Section::::Enforcement.:Regulations in the European Union.:Regulations in the UK.\n\nAccording to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs dates must be in the day/month or day/month/year format. Technical expertise should be hired for regular end of shelf life safety and quality testing. Shelf life trials should be conducted using the same ingredients, equipment, procedures and manufacturing environment as will be used during the actual production. \n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Regulation in the US.\n", "Preservatives and antioxidants may be incorporated into some food and drug products to extend their shelf life. Some companies use induction sealing and vacuum/oxygen-barrier pouches to assist in the extension of the shelf life of their products where oxygen causes the loss.\n\nThe DoD Shelf-Life Program defines shelf-life as\n", "Section::::Accelerating methods for shelf life prediction.\n", "The total period of time beginning with the date of manufacture, date of cure (for elastomeric and rubber products only), date of assembly, or date of pack (subsistence only), and terminated by the date by which an item must be used (expiration date) or subjected to inspection, test, restoration, or disposal action; or after inspection/laboratory test/restorative action that an item may remain in the combined wholesale (including manufacture's) and retail storage systems and still be suitable for issue or use by the end user. Shelf-life is not to be confused with service-life (defined as, A general term used to quantify the average or standard life expectancy of an item or equipment while in use. When a shelf-life item is unpacked and introduced to mission requirements, installed into intended application, or merely left in storage, placed in pre-expended bins, or held as bench stock, shelf-life management stops and service life begins.)\n", "Shelf life is often specified in conjunction with a specific product, package, and distribution system. For example, an MRE field ration is designed to have a shelf life of three years at and six months at .\n\nSection::::Temperature control.\n", "BULLET::::- Keep the container closed and the contents contained for the specified shelf life until time of opening\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a barrier to dirt, oxygen, moisture, etc. Control of permeation is critical to many types of products: foods, chemicals, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Keep the product secure from undesired premature opening\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a means of reclosing or reusing the container\n\nBULLET::::- Assist in dispensing and use of product\n", "Aging (food)\n\nAging (American English) or ageing (British English), in the context of food or beverages, is the leaving of a product over an extended period of time (often months or years) to aid in improving the flavor of the product. Aging can be done under a number of conditions, and for a number of reasons:\n\nSection::::Drying.\n", "Oxygen scavengers, carbon dioxide generators, ethanol generators, etc. are available to help keep the atmosphere in a package at specified conditions.\n\nSection::::Temperature monitor.\n\nSome temperature indicators give a visual signal that a specified temperature has been exceeded. Others, Time temperature indicators, signal when a critical accumulation of temperature deviation over time has been exceeded. When the mechanism of the indicator is tuned to the mechanism of product degradation, these can provide valuable signals for consumers.\n", "Shelf life depends on the degradation mechanism of the specific product. Most can be influenced by several factors: exposure to light, heat, moisture, transmission of gases, mechanical stresses, and contamination by things such as micro-organisms. Product quality is often mathematically modelled around a parameter (concentration of a chemical compound, a microbiological index, or moisture content).\n", "Nearly all chemical reactions can occur at normal temperatures (although different reactions proceed at different rates). However most reactions are accelerated by high temperatures, and the degradation of foods and pharmaceuticals is no exception. The same applies to the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds. Nitroglycerine is notorious. Old explosives are thus more dangerous (i.e. liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives. Rubber products also degrade as sulphur bonds induced during vulcanization revert; this is why old rubber bands and other rubber products soften and get crispy, and lose their elasticity as they age.\n", "BULLET::::- Use by Date – 'Use by date' must be followed by a day and/or month which the product must be consumed by. This is to be applied on perishable foods that usually would be kept cold: fish, meat, dairy products, and 'ready to eat' salads.\n", "BULLET::::- Barrier protection – A barrier to oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile and safe for the duration of the intended shelf life is a primary function. A barrier is also implemented in cases where segregation of two materials prior to end use is required, as in the case of special paints, glues, medical fluids, etc.\n", "Bathroom products and toiletries usually state a time in months from the date the product is opened, by which they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., \"12M\" means use the product within 12 months of opening). Similarly, some food products say \"eat within X days of opening\".\n\nSection::::Parallel names.:Open dating.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nShelf life is the recommended maximum time for which products or fresh (harvested) produce can be stored, during which the defined quality of a specified proportion of the goods remains acceptable under expected (or specified) conditions of distribution, storage and display.\n", "The usually quoted rule of thumb is that chemical reactions double their rate for each temperature increase of because activation energy barriers are more easily surmounted at higher temperatures. However, as with many rules of thumb, there are many caveats and exceptions. The rule works best for reactions with activation energy values around 50 kJ/mole; many of these are important at the usual temperatures we encounter. It is often applied in shelf life estimation, sometimes wrongly. There is a widespread impression, for instance in industry, that \"triple time\" can be simulated in practice by increasing the temperature by , e.g., storing a product for one month at simulates three months at . This is mathematically incorrect (if the rule was precisely accurate the required temperature increase would be about ), and in any case the rule is only a rough approximation and cannot always be relied on.\n", "The First expired, first out logic is a type of stock rotation that enable organizations to get a distribution process optimization, able to minimize the waste generation of finished and yet marketable products.\n\nSection::::Perishable drugs: charity and waste management.\n\nPerishable goods (like foods and drugs) lose all their use value after the expiration date and can't be bought nor sold as their commercial price and value falls to zero. As the drug or food expiration date comes forth, any perishable good loses its value day-by-day.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "A common example of this treatment is the management of perishable products in a shelf display: Products with deadlines closest consumption should be used before the other. Foods and pharmaceutical drugs can be sold at a discounted price, and, near the expiration date, they can be destinated to humanitarian aids to the neighbours or to the more distant foreign countries. Perishable goods can also be collected through single donations or some charities.\n", "The Canadian Food Inspection Agency produces a \" Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising\" which sets out a \"Durable Life Date\". The authority for producing the guide comes from the Food and Drugs Act. The guide sets out what items must be labelled and the format of the date. The month and day must be included and the year if it is felt necessary and must be in the format year/month/day. However, there is no requirement that the year be in four digits.\n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Regulations in Hong Kong.\n", "For some foods, health issues are important in determining shelf life. Bacterial contaminants are ubiquitous, and foods left unused too long will often be contaminated by substantial amounts of bacterial colonies and become dangerous to eat, leading to food poisoning. However, shelf life alone is not an accurate indicator of how long the food can safely be stored. For example, pasteurized milk can remain fresh for five days after its sell-by date if it is refrigerated properly. However, improper storage of milk may result in bacterial contamination or spoilage before the expiration date.\n", "Controlled Atmospheric Storage (CA): \"CA storage is a non-chemical process. Oxygen levels in the sealed rooms are reduced, usually by the infusion of nitrogen gas, from the approximate 21 percent in the air we breathe to 1 percent or 2 percent. Temperatures are kept at a constant . Humidity is maintained at 95 percent and carbon dioxide levels are also controlled. Exact conditions in the rooms are set according to the apple variety. Researchers develop specific regimens for each variety to achieve the best quality. Computers help keep conditions constant.\"\n", "Both drugs and foods are equally necessary for the law enforcement of the universal right to life, and, if not reused, they contribute to an expensive waste management form, namely the food waste or the drug waste.\n", "Refrigerate after opening\n\nThe term refrigerate after opening is an instruction on commercial preserved food products to cool the container after it has been opened and the contents exposed to open air.\n\nMoist foods are commonly preserved using canning and vacuum sealing to kill off any bacteria and molds, and to prevent further growth by removing oxygen. Dry-product containers are often preserved with heating and filling the empty container spaces with an inert nonreactive gas such as nitrogen.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01072	How will the many tiny amounts of cryptocurrencies left in users wallets after transactions affect the respective currencies over time?	This is a problem, because each wallet with funds in (even 1 satoshi or similar minimum multiple) has to be indexed. In general, this index has to be held in RAM on every computer running the cryptocurrency software. For bitcoin, this is a big problem, as the list of wallets with funds (the UTXO set) needs hundreds of MB of RAM. In the case of bitcoin, many of these funds are "trapped" due to high transaction fees, and there is no way to spend them or merge them into more compact wallets. The result has been that the size of this UTXO set has been growing rapidly. In contrast, for cryptocurrencies with much lower fees like bitcoin cash, the UTXO set is much smaller and hasn't been growing, because it is cost effective to use these small wallets. We are still in early days, but one of the ways that this is being dealt with in bitcoin is to charge users a "small payment fee", to make sure that a newly received payment is always big enough to spend. For example, if a shop wants to sell a $20 item with bitcoin, they would add a $10 "small payment fee" to take the value up to $30. That extra $10 would cover the bitcoin transaction fees needed to merge that payment into a more compact wallet. Effectively, it is a way of getting the buyer to pay 2 transaction fees - 1 fee to pay the seller, and 1 fee to allow the seller to spend the payment.	[ "Transaction fees for cryptocurrency depend mainly on the supply of network capacity at the time, versus the demand from the currency holder for a faster transaction. The currency holder can choose a specific transaction fee, while network entities process transactions in order of highest offered fee to lowest. Cryptocurrency exchanges can simplify the process for currency holders by offering priority alternatives and thereby determine which fee will likely cause the transaction to be processed in the requested time.\n", "When firms negotiate contracts with set prices and delivery dates in the face of a volatile foreign exchange market, with rates constantly fluctuating between initiating a transaction and its settlement, or payment, those firms face the risk of significant loss. Businesses have the goal of making all monetary transactions profitable ones, and the currency markets must thus be carefully observed.\n\nApplying public accounting rules causes firms with transnational risks to be impacted by a process known as \"re-measurement\". The current value of contractual cash flows are remeasured on each balance sheet.\n\nSection::::Types of foreign exchange risk.:Translation risk.\n", "The validity of each cryptocurrency's coins is provided by a blockchain. A blockchain is a continuously growing list of records, called \"blocks\", which are linked and secured using cryptography. Each block typically contains a hash pointer as a link to a previous block, a timestamp and transaction data. By design, blockchains are inherently resistant to modification of the data. It is \"an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way\". For use as a distributed ledger, a blockchain is typically managed by a peer-to-peer network collectively adhering to a protocol for validating new blocks. Once recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without the alteration of all subsequent blocks, which requires collusion of the network majority.\n", "There are also purely technical elements to consider. For example, technological advancement in cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin result in high up-front costs to miners in the form of specialized hardware and software. Cryptocurrency transactions are normally irreversible after a number of blocks confirm the transaction. Additionally, cryptocurrency private keys can be permanently lost from local storage due to malware, data loss or the destruction of the physical media. This prevents the cryptocurrency from being spent, resulting in its effective removal from the markets.\n", ", over 1,800 cryptocurrency specifications existed. Within a cryptocurrency system, the safety, integrity and balance of ledgers is maintained by a community of mutually distrustful parties referred to as miners: who use their computers to help validate and timestamp transactions, adding them to the ledger in accordance with a particular timestamping scheme.\n", "When the notification was tapped, the software claimed that the device was \"uncertified\" and needed to mine \"LOSCoins\", which were a virtual currency and could not actually be spent. Affected builds also had a preinstalled \"Wallet\" app that showed the current balance of LOSCoins.\n", "There is no mining process in Billon architecture. Instead, genesis blocks in Billon's blockchain are created by authorised issuers, primarily licensed banks that exchange paper or electronic money into their digital equivalents. Money has a form of a file with Billon specified crypto-protocol standard. This allows interoperability between multiple blockchains storing money issued by different banks. Once a blockchain is created and transferred by the bank to the first user, further circulation is done entirely on peer-to-peer basis without any further involvement from the issuing bank.\n", "The exchanges can send cryptocurrency to a user's personal cryptocurrency wallet. Some can convert digital currency balances into anonymous prepaid cards which can be used to withdraw funds from ATMs worldwide while other digital currencies are backed by real-world commodities such as gold.\n", "Most cryptocurrencies are designed to gradually decrease production of that currency, placing a cap on the total amount of that currency that will ever be in circulation. Compared with ordinary currencies held by financial institutions or kept as cash on hand, cryptocurrencies can be more difficult for seizure by law enforcement. This difficulty is derived from leveraging cryptographic technologies.\n\nSection::::Architecture.:Blockchain.\n", "Multisignature wallets require multiple parties to sign a transaction for any digital money can be spent. Multisignature wallets are designed to have increased security. \n\nSection::::Wallet types.:Key derivation.\n\nSection::::Wallet types.:Key derivation.:Deterministic wallet.\n", "When attempting to design transactions with a digital coin, you run into the \"double-spending problem.\" Once data have been created, reproducing them is a simple matter of copying and pasting. Most digital currencies solve the problem by relinquishing some control to a central authority, which keeps track of each account’s balance. This was an unacceptable solution for Szabo. \"I was trying to mimic as closely as possible in cyberspace the security and trust characteristics of gold, and chief among those is that it doesn’t depend on a trusted central authority,\" he said.\n\nSection::::Bitcoin speculation.\n", "As with other futures, the conventional maturity dates are the IMM dates, namely the third Wednesday in March, June, September and December. The conventional option maturity dates are the first Friday after the first Wednesday for the given month.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Hedging.\n\nInvestors use these futures contracts to hedge against foreign exchange risk. If an investor will receive a cashflow denominated in a foreign currency on some future date, that investor can lock in the current exchange rate by entering into an offsetting currency futures position that expires on the date of the cashflow.\n", "In January 2019 Asgardia by voting chose the basket of currencies. Using the results of this voting, the Ministry of Finance and its counterpart, the parliamentary Finance Committee, will analyse and examine how the Solar may be freely exchanged against those currencies in open markets and at what future exchange rates.\n\nThe following 12 currencies have been selected: US Dollar; Euro; British Pound; Japanese Yen; Canadian Dollar; Swiss Franc; Hong Kong Dollar; Mexican Peso; Australian Dollar; Singapore Dollar; Norwegian Krone; Swedish Krona.\n\nSection::::Economy.:Economic Forum.\n", "On 21 November 2017, the Tether cryptocurrency announced they were hacked, losing $31 million in USDT from their primary wallet. The company has 'tagged' the stolen currency, hoping to 'lock' them in the hacker's wallet (making them unspendable). Tether indicates that it is building a new core for its primary wallet in response to the attack in order to prevent the stolen coins from being used.\n", "Internal, regional, and international political conditions and events can have a profound effect on currency markets.\n", "Cryptocurrency wallet\n\nA cryptocurrency wallet is a device, physical medium, program or a service which stores the public and/or private keys and can be used to track ownership, receive or spend cryptocurrencies. The cryptocurrency itself is not in the wallet. In case of bitcoin and cryptocurrencies derived from it, the cryptocurrency is decentrally stored and maintained in a publicly available ledger called the \"blockchain\".\n\nSection::::Functionality.\n", "In April 2017 research highlighted three major threats to Monero users' privacy. The first relies on leveraging the ring signature size of zero, and ability to see the output amounts. The second, described as \"Leveraging Output Merging\", involves tracking transactions where two outputs belong to the same user, such as when a user is sending the funds to himself (\"churning\"). Finally the third threat, \"Temporal Analysis\", shows that predicting the right output in a ring signature could potentially be easier than previously thought.\n", "Currency risk is the risk that foreign exchange rates or the implied volatility will change, which affects, for example, the value of an asset held in that currency. Currency fluctuations in the marketplace can have a drastic impact on an international firm's value because of the price effect on domestic and foreign goods, as well as the value of foreign currency denominate assets and liabilities. When a currency appreciates or depreciates, a firm can be at risk depending on where they are operating and what currency denominations they are holding. The fluctuation in currency markets can have effects on both the imports and exports of an international firm. For example, if the euro depreciates against the dollar, the U.S. exporters take a loss while the U.S. importers gain. This is because it takes less dollars to buy a euro and vice versa, meaning the U.S. wants to buy goods and the EU is willing to sell them; it's to expensive for the EU to import from U.S. at this time.\n", "Section::::Design.:Fungibility.\n\nWallets and similar software technically handle all bitcoins as equivalent, establishing the basic level of fungibility. Researchers have pointed out that the history of each bitcoin is registered and publicly available in the blockchain ledger, and that some users may refuse to accept bitcoins coming from controversial transactions, which would harm bitcoin's fungibility. For example, in 2012, Mt. Gox froze accounts of users who deposited bitcoins that were known to have just been stolen.\n\nSection::::Design.:Scalability.\n", "Individuals and institutions who own equities, government bonds, cash, or other assets denominated in foreign currencies are exposed to fluctuations in the foreign exchange market. This is an unrewarded risk: the volatility in valuation of an international portfolio is generally increased by adding currency exposure, yet there is no risk premium earned for that added volatility in the long term. Thus investors with international portfolios often hedge their currency risk, normally using forward currency contracts, currency swaps, currency futures contracts, or currency options.\n\nSection::::Currency hedging.:Passive currency overlay.\n", "Bitcoin prices were negatively affected by several hacks or thefts from cryptocurrency exchanges, including thefts from Coincheck in January 2018, Coinrail and Bithumb in June, and Bancor in July. For the first six months of 2018, $761 million worth of cryptocurrencies was reported stolen from exchanges. Bitcoin's price was affected even though other cryptocurrencies were stolen at Coinrail and Bancor as investors worried about the security of cryptocurrency exchanges.\n\nSection::::Design.\n\nSection::::Design.:Units.\n", "If the cardholder chooses to pay in their home currency, the DCC provider will cause the cardholder’s account to be debited by the transaction amount in the home currency, and the merchant's account to be credited with the amount in the local currency. At regular periods, usually monthly, the merchant would also be credited with the commission for DCC transactions. The exchange rate risk is borne by the DCC provider, which may carry that risk or set up some hedging arrangement to minimise or transfer that risk. \n", "Some experts predict various types of VCs will continue to increase, and the demand for the financial system to adopt methods of accepting these currencies will continue to grow. In 2011, Microsoft's Director of Corporate Affairs sent a letter to the Reserve Bank of Australia asking, \"whether the domestic payments infrastructure could be modified or adjusted in some way to facilitate and manage the exchange of value beyond traditional currencies\".\n", "Advantages of asset backed cryptocurrencies are that coins are stabilized by assets that fluctuate outside of the cryptocurrency space, that is, the underlying asset is not correlated, reducing financial risk. Bitcoin and altcoins are highly correlated, so that cryptocurrency holders cannot escape widespread price falls without exiting the market or taking refuge in asset backed stablecoins. Furthermore, such coins, assuming they are managed in good faith, and have a mechanism for redeeming the asset/s backing them, are unlikely to drop below the value of the underlying physical asset, due to arbitrage.\n", "BULLET::::- Coincheck NEM tokens worth $400 million were stolen in 2018\n\nBULLET::::- Zaif $60 million in Bitcoin, Bitcoin Cash and Monacoin stolen in September 2018\n\nSection::::Notable theft.:Currencies.\n\nIn 2016, known as the DAO event, an exploit in the original Ethereum smart contracts resulted in multiple transactions, creating additional $50 million. Subsequently the currency was forked into Ethereum Classic, and Ethereum, with the latter continuing with the new blockchain without the exploited transactions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19405	If there were just one insurance company for a category like cars, home, health, etc, wouldn't rates for everyone be lower, since there would be a much larger pool of participants, and it wouldn't have to spend on marketing?	If there was only one insurance company, and it wasn't the government, then wouldn't they increase everyone's rates because no one has a choice to go somewhere else? More money for the company at no risk.	[ "Insurers would be able to bring their products to market more quickly because they would only have to obtain approval from a single regulatory body, rather than in multiple states as they do now under the patchwork quilt of state regulation. And consumers, who often move from state to state in today's economy, would benefit from more stable insurance premiums and consistent administration and regulation of their insurance policies.\n", "In the United States, each state has its own regulatory, jurisdictional and legislative bodies, and there are advantages and disadvantages for an insurance company conducting businesses in different states. For example, some states have restrictions on how much rate increase that an insurance company can charge for the risks on which it takes. Such risk can severely hamper the insurance entity's profitability and operation.\n\nIn DFA, jurisdiction risk is reflected in two ways.\n", "Risk which can be insured by private companies typically shares seven common characteristics:\n\nBULLET::::1. Large number of similar exposure units: Since insurance operates through pooling resources, the majority of insurance policies are provided for individual members of large classes, allowing insurers to benefit from the law of large numbers in which predicted losses are similar to the actual losses. Exceptions include Lloyd's of London, which is famous for ensuring the life or health of actors, sports figures, and other famous individuals. However, all exposures will have particular differences, which may lead to different premium rates.\n", "A feature which is sometimes common in group insurance is that the premium cost on an individual basis is not individually risk-based. Instead it is the same amount for all the insured persons in the group. So, for example, in the United States and elsewhere, often all employees of an employer receiving health or life insurance coverage pay the same premium amount for the same coverage regardless of their age or other factors, even though the total group premium will be calculated by reference to the actual (or estimated) age distribution etc. of the group. In contrast, under private individual health or life insurance coverage in the U.S. and elsewhere, different insured persons will pay different premium amounts for the same coverage based on their age, location, pre-existing conditions, etc.\n", "The advantage of the insurance group system is that a group has increased survivability over the long run than a single insurance company. If any one company in the group is hit with too many claims and fails, the company can be quietly placed into \"runoff\" (in which it continues to exist only to process remaining claims and no longer writes new coverage) but the rest of the group continues to operate.\n", "Group policies may be attractive to consumers because the average price per policy is often lower. Carriers are interested in gaining customers and will cut prices a bit to take account of their lower costs.\n", "In the United States, the most prevalent form of self-insurance is governmental risk management pools. They are self-funded cooperatives, operating as carriers of coverage for the majority of governmental entities today, such as county governments, municipalities, and school districts. Rather than these entities independently self-insure and risk bankruptcy from a large judgment or catastrophic loss, such governmental entities form a risk pool. Such pools begin their operations by capitalization through member deposits or bond issuance. Coverage (such as general liability, auto liability, professional liability, workers compensation, and property) is offered by the pool to its members, similar to coverage offered by insurance companies. However, self-insured pools offer members lower rates (due to not needing insurance brokers), increased benefits (such as loss prevention services) and subject matter expertise. Of approximately 91,000 distinct governmental entities operating in the United States, 75,000 are members of self-insured pools in various lines of coverage, forming approximately 500 pools. Although a relatively small corner of the insurance market, the annual contributions (self-insured premiums) to such pools have been estimated up to 17 billion dollars annually.\n", "There are several public and private sector insurance providers that either operate solo or have partnered with foreign insurance companies to sell unit linked insurance plans in India. The public insurance providers include LIC of India, SBI Life and Canara while and some of the private insurance providers include Aegon Life, Edelweiss Tokio Life Insurance, Reliance Life, ICICI Prudential, HDFC Life, Bajaj Allianz, Aviva Life Insurance,Max life insurance , Kotak Mahindra Life, and DHFL Pramerica Life Insurance.\n\nSection::::Tax benefits.\n", "States regulate small group premium rates, typically by placing limits on the premium variation allowable between groups (rate bands). Insurers price to recover their costs over their entire book of small group business while abiding by state rating rules. Over time, the effect of initial underwriting \"wears off\" as the cost of a group regresses towards the mean. Recent claim experience—whether better or worse than average—is a strong predictor of future costs in the near term. But the average health status of a particular small employer group tends to regress over time towards that of an average group. The process used to price small group coverage changes when a state enacts small group reform laws.\n", "There are two extreme positions. One is to charge everyone the same premium estimated by the overall mean formula_12 of the data. This makes sense only if the portfolio is homogeneous, which means that all risks cells have identical mean claims. However, if the portfolio is heterogeneous, it is not a good idea to charge a premium in this way (overcharging \"good\" people and undercharging \"bad\" risk people) since the \"good\" risks will take their business elsewhere, leaving the insurer with only \"bad\" risks. This is an example of adverse selection.\n", "Premiums can vary significantly by age. In states that allow medical underwriting, an individual's health information may be used in determining whether to cover the individual and the premium to be paid. However, under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, effective since 2014, insurers are prohibited from discriminating against or charging higher rates for any individuals based on pre-existing medical conditions. For individuals who pass individual medical underwriting where it is used, the average premiums they pay are lower than the average paid for employer-sponsored coverage (this comparison is based on the entire premium for employer-sponsored coverage, including both the employee and employer contributions). Factors that may contribute to this include: differences in age; less generous coverage in the individual market (higher beneficiary cost sharing); and a tendency for individual consumers to only buy benefits that they expect to need and use while group coverage may provide some benefits that most beneficiaries do not use. Individual policyholders are also more likely to report being in excellent health than are people covered by employer-sponsored health insurance, which may be a contributing factor. Premiums in the individual market rose less rapidly over the period 2002-2005 than did out-of-pocket premiums in the employer-sponsored market (17.8% versus 34.4%). The increase was larger for family policies than for single policies (25.3% for family policies; the increase for single policies was not statistically significant). These comparisons did not adjust for changes in benefit levels.\n", "By 2012 Indian Insurance is a US$72 billion industry. However, only two million people (0.2% of the total population of 1 billion) are covered under Mediclaim. With more and more private companies in the sector, this situation is expected to change. ECGC, ESIC and AIC provide insurance services for niche markets. So, their scope is limited by legislation but enjoy some special powers. \n", "A common problem with assigned risk is that some states' assigned risk plans only provide coverage for that state, causing businesses whose employees travel to other states to have various issues, including but not limited to the possibility of an uncovered claim from an employee claiming another state's benefits. If unable to secure a voluntary policy providing multiple state coverage, it is always possible to purchase a separate state's Worker's Compensation fund or NCCI assigned risk to fill the coverage gap, but this can be unfairly cost inefficient as some payroll is inevitably rated for in more than one policy - causing the premium to be much higher than if a voluntary coverage had been obtained. \n", "With regard to claimants themselves, proponents of private insurance argue that competition will force private insurers to treat claimants as fairly as possible, since insureds will simply change providers if they feel mistreated. The counterargument to this is, given that all private insurers have similar profit pressures, they will all be similarly reluctant to pay benefits in order to increase their profit margins, thus resulting in insureds being poorly served no matter which insurer they choose - whereas a public insurer operating on a long-run break-even basis would have more flexibility to fully compensate claimants.\n", "In unregulated competitive markets for individual health insurance, risk-rated premiums are observed to differ across subgroups of insured people, which are defined by rating factors such as age, gender, family size, geographic area (because costs of care may be higher or lower in some coverage areas than others) occupation, length of contract period, the level of deductible, health status at time of enrollment, health habits (smoking, drinking, exercising) and, via differentiated bonuses for multiyear no-claim, to prior costs.\n", "National schemes have the advantage that the pool or pools tend to be very very large and reflective of the national population. Health care costs, which tend to be high at certain stages in life such as during pregnancy and childbirth and especially in the last few years of life can be paid into the pool over a lifetime and be higher when earnings capacity is greatest to meet costs incurred at times when earnings capacity is low or non existent. This differs from the private insurance schemes that operate in some countries which tend to price insurance year on year according to health risks such as age, family history, previous illnesses, and height/weight ratios. Thus some people tend to have to pay more for their health insurance when they are sick and/or are least able to afford it. These factors are not taken into consideration in NHI schemes. In private schemes in competitive insurance markets, these activities by insurance companies tend to act against the basic principles of insurance which is group solidarity.\n", "Although premiums can be rated across many subgroups of insured people, a sponsor may not want to subsidize all observed premium rate variation, in practice. The total set of risk factors used by insurers to rate their premiums can be divided in two subsets: the subset of risk factors that cause premium rate variation that the sponsor decides to subsidize, the risk factors; and the subset that causes premium rate variations which the sponsor does not want to subsidize, the \"N(on-subsidy)\"-type risk factors.\n", "4. Don’t be dazzled by higher investment returns. Don’t let higher investment returns replace disciplined underwriting as base rates creep up on both sides of the Atlantic. Notionally, splitting the business into insurance and asset management operations, and monitoring each separately, is one way to achieve this.\n\n5. Don’t rely on \"the big one\" to push prices upwards. The spectacular insured loss should not be used as an excuse to raise prices in unrelated lines of business. Regulators, rating agencies, and analysts – not to mention insurance buyers – are increasingly resisting such behaviour.\n", "Different countries use different methodologies to calculate the solvency ratio, and have different requirements. For example, in India insurers are required to maintain a minimum ratio of 1.5.\n", "Also there are quota share insurance programs. Where the benefit and the premiums are divided proportionally among the insured. For example, three companies take out a $1,000,000 fire insurance policy on a quota share basis with company A assuming 50% ($500,000), company B 30% ($300,000), and company C 20% ($200,000). If the annual premium was $5,000, company A would receive $2,500 in premium, B would receive $1,500, and C would receive $1,000. Company A would pay 50% of any one claim, Company B would pay 30% of any one claim, and Company C would pay 20% of any one claim.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Can insurance companies maintain profitability in the years to come? Insurance companies still rely on the employer based book of business which is in constant flux with the implementation of the Affordable Care Act, some insurance companies need to reduce premiums due to regulatory pressures on excess revenue, the market place itself is changing from insured to self-insured, from comprehensive to high-deductible plan design.\n", "Many states allow medical underwriting of applicants for individually purchased health insurance. An estimated 5 million of those without health insurance are considered \"uninsurable\" because of pre-existing conditions. A number of proposals have been advanced to limit the effect of underwriting on consumers and improve access to coverage. Each has its own advantages and limitations. One 2008 study found that people of average health are least likely to become uninsured if they have large group health coverage, more likely to become uninsured if they have small group coverage, and most likely to become uninsured if they have individual health insurance. But, \"for people in poor or fair health, the chances of losing coverage are much greater for people who had small-group insurance than for those who had individual insurance.\" The authors attribute these results to the combination in the individual market of high costs and guaranteed renewability of coverage. Individual coverage costs more if it is purchased after a person becomes unhealthy, but \"provides better protection (compared to group insurance) against high premiums for already individually insured people who become high risk.\" Healthy individuals are more likely to drop individual coverage than less-expensive, subsidized employment-based coverage, but group coverage leaves them \"more vulnerable to dropping or losing any and all coverage than does individual insurance\" if they become seriously ill.\n", "The cost of adding an additional insured to a property or liability insurance policy is generally low, as compared to the costs of the original premium. The underwriting departments of insurance companies, rightly or wrongly, often view the additional risk associated with additional insureds as marginal. Additional insurance coverage and endorsements are the subject of frequent disagreements, misunderstandings, and litigation. The disagreements are often about whether the additional insurance coverage should cover \"independent negligence\" by the additional insured, or should only cover liabilities caused by the named insured's acts.\n", "The financial risks providers accept in capitation are traditional insurance risks. Provider revenues are fixed, and each enrolled patient makes a claim against the full resources of the provider. In exchange for the fixed payment, physicians essentially become the enrolled clients' insurers, who resolve their patients' claims at the point of care and assume the responsibility for their unknown future health care costs. Large providers tend to manage the risk better than do smaller providers because they are better prepared for variations in service demand and costs, but even large providers are inefficient risk managers in comparison to large insurers. Providers tend to be small in comparison to insurers and so are more like individual consumers, whose annual costs as a percentage of their annual cash flow vary far more than do those of large insurers. For example, a capitated eye care program for 25,000 patients is more viable than a capitated eye program for 10,000 patients. The smaller the roster of patients, the greater the variation in annual costs and the more likely that the costs may exceed the resources of the provider. In very small capitation portfolios, a small number of costly patients can dramatically affect a provider's overall costs and increase the provider's risk of insolvency.\n", "In Canada group insurance is usually purchased through larger brokerage firms because brokers receive better rates than individual companies or unions.\n\nThere may be slight differences in terms of administration and market related practices worldwide, even though the concept may be the same. For example, In India, broker procured group term insurance, unlike Canada, does not intrinsically have any price advantage to the buyer i.e. the Master Policy Holder.\n" ]	[ "Insurance rates would go down if all people used the same company. ", " If there were just one insurance company, everyone's rates might be lower." ]	[ "Insurance rates would go up if there was only one insurance company for people to use. ", " If there was only one insurance company, they may increase everyone's rates." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Insurance rates would go down if all people used the same company. ", " If there were just one insurance company, everyone's rates might be lower." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Insurance rates would go up if there was only one insurance company for people to use. ", " If there was only one insurance company, they may increase everyone's rates." ]
2018-09458	How do Psychics fool people so convincingly?	Many tend to do cold reading, and convince people they are real through that manner.(Cold reading is the practice of 'predicting' things that can/have happened to anyone. I.E. "I sense you have lost an older male relative. He is here, watching over you.) People will also give away tiny details that the 'psychics' can use to be even more convincing, to the point people will eventually believe anything they say. And of course now there's Google so if they know who they appointments with beforehand...	[ "Section::::Belief in psychic detectives.\n", "The evidence presented for psychic phenomena is not sufficiently verified for scientific acceptance, and there exist many non-paranormal alternative explanations for claimed instances of psychic events. Parapsychologists, who generally believe that there is some evidence for psychic ability, disagree with critics who believe that no psychic ability exists and that many of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena such as mediumism, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading, hot reading, or even self-delusion. Cold reading techniques would include psychics using flattery, intentionally making descriptions, statements or predictions about a person vague and ambiguous, and surreptitiously moving on to another prediction when the psychic deems the audience to be non-responsive. Magicians such as James Randi, Ian Rowland and Derren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, but they present physical and psychological explanations as opposed to paranormal ones.\n", "BULLET::::- In Voices to Visions magazine, Mark Edward states that \"common sense should tell us what these charlatans (psychics) do is an act and nothing more; otherwise, they would be ruling the planet.\" Concerning the ghost hunting shows, Edward thinks that there would be more interest in finding out what is really making noises in these homes but first they need to \"turn the f****ing lights on...and (stop) promulgating obvious storytelling.\"\n", "Edward has been very public about exposing celebrity psychics and the techniques they use to fool their audiences. On the premiere episode of , he demonstrated how television psychics, John Edward, James Van Praagh, and Rosemary Altea, convinced their subjects that they were actually communicating with the dead. On Inside Edition, he showed how Theresa Caputo used similar techniques to give the appearance that she can contact the deceased. He also appeared in the Halloween 2017 episode of Adam Ruins Everything with Adam Conover, in which he explained cold reading. Often, what is perceived as psychic powers, is nothing more than a simple magic trick, as in Uri Geller’s famous spoon bending trick. Edward performed one of several possible techniques in the TV series, Weird or What? \n", "Cold reading also explains why psychics have consistently failed scientific tests of their powers. By isolating them from their clients, psychics are unable to pick up information from the way those clients dress or behave. By presenting all of the volunteers involved in the test with all of the readings, they are prevented from attributing meaning to their own reading, and therefore can't identify it from readings made for others. As a result, the type of highly successful hit rate that psychics enjoy on a daily basis comes crashing down and the truth emerges – their success depends on a fascinating application of psychology and not the existence of paranormal abilities.\n", "One of the most enduring historical references to what some consider to be psychic ability is the prophecies of Michel de Nostredame (1503–1566), often Latinized to Nostradamus, published during the French Renaissance period. Nostradamus was a French apothecary and seer who wrote collections of prophecies that have since become famous worldwide and have rarely been out of print since his death. He is best known for his book \"Les Propheties\", the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Taken together, his written works are known to have contained at least 6,338 quatrains or prophecies, as well as at least eleven annual calendars. Most of the quatrains deal with disasters, such as plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, invasions, murders, droughts, and battles – all undated.\n", "The subject matter of this book caused ITV's program \"This Morning\" to invite Edward to speak about \"supernatural swindlers\" on May 1, 2014.\n\nA \"Carmel\" \"Pine Cone\" newspaper article noted, \"The book has stirred up attention both in the United States and abroad\", and, \"His message is that so-called psychics don’t have supernatural powers—they're just master manipulators and are well versed in saying what people want to hear—and that most of them are simply frauds.\"\n", "Section::::Scientific studies.\n", "Marks and Kammann give detailed descriptions of experiments conducted by parapsychology researchers as well as performances by psychic entertainers outside of the laboratory during the 1970s. Many of these included some of the most widely known psychic performers of the time, including Uri Geller, Kreskin, and Ingo Swann. In their attempts to replicate the studies of other researchers, the authors discover methodological flaws in the original trials that lead them to the conclusion that no evidence for psychic phenomena has yet been produced. They then discuss psychological research that attempts to explain why people believe in such phenomena in spite of this lack of evidence.\n", "In March 2018, skeptical activist Susan Gerbic published an article in \"Skeptical Inquirer\" summarizing a number of techniques which she says are used by psychics, such as Edward, to achieve their effects.\n", "Skeptics have challenged the veracity of the claims of psychic readings, largely through disclosure of the methods. Psychologist Richard Wiseman's 2011 book \"Paranormality: Why We See What Isn't There\" noted the tricks of the trade, and Wiseman noted in a podcast appearance that the disclosure generated negative feedback from the psychic community.\n", "Peter Evans of \"New Scientist\" reviewed the book shortly after its first publication in 1980, stating that: \"The really interesting question from the scientific standpoint, and one that the authors write about absorbingly in their last few chapters is 'Why do people, including eminent scientists, insist on being so gullible?' . . . Why? Because they want Uri to succeed.\"\n", "Section::::Official police responses.:In the United States.\n", "Paranormal investigator Joe Nickell believes Van Praagh uses tactics such as hot reading, or gleaning information from sitters beforehand. Group readings improve the odds that at least one person in the audience will identify with a general statement made with conviction. Shows are edited before airing to show only what appear to be hits and removing anything that does not reflect well on the medium.\n", "Although there are documented cases where individuals claiming psychic abilities have assisted police in solving crimes, there is considerable skepticism in regard to the general use of psychics under these circumstances. Many police departments around the world have released official statements saying that they do not regard psychics as credible or useful on cases.\n\nSection::::Prominent cases.\n", "In December 2016, Nicki Swift released a video, \"Proof That Hollywood Medium Is Totally Fake\", where she provides a point-by-point analysis of Tyler Henry's \"psychic readings\". Swift details how his con works, and references Gerbic's \"Skeptical Inquirer\" analysis of Henry: \"According to Susan Gerbic of the Skeptical Inquirer, by telling clients he's communicating with their [dead] loved ones, he's exploiting their pain as a 'grief vampire'.\"\n\nSection::::Skeptical activism.:Psychic activism.:Tim Braun.\n", "In the 1970s, many of the students in their University of Otago psychology lectures had suggested to both Marks and Kammann that psychics, particularly Kreskin, were genuine and represented the cutting edge of psychological research. As they put it, \"(W)e began our studies on ESP after numerous students had suggested we 'wake up' to psychic reality\". At the time, surveys were showing what seemed to the authors to be a startlingly large percentage of people who believed psychic phenomena were or might be -real. Far from setting out to disprove psychic phenomena, \"(W)e considered it entirely possible that the psychology of perception was about to go through a psychic revolution, and if so, we wanted to be included. But over the next three years of research, when we examined each dazzling claim of ESP, or psychokinesis (PK), we discovered that a simple, natural explanation was far more credible than a supernatural or paranormal one.\" Regardless of the preferences of the authors, they followed the evidence they found where it led them. As they state in chapter eight, \"It is never the scientist’s own conclusion that is important but the quality of his evidence.\"104\n", "Reacting to Operation Pizza Roll, Thomas John criticized Gerbic's methodology: \"For Susan to come to a reading and get a two-minute reading and say, well, 'I made a fake post about my dog, Buddy, and my father who died,' it’s really not any sort of scientific testing of psychic powers. First off, someone will have to be a scientist to do a scientific experiment, not someone who used to be a photographer at Sears.\"\n\nSection::::Awards and honors.\n\nBULLET::::- \"In the Trenches\" award at the 2012 Skeptic's Toolbox\n", "Ron Tebo, proprietor of the YouTube debunking channel SciFake, has appeared on numerous programs saying Caputo engages in several forms of deception, including sending staff members to interview audience members in advance in order to be able to acquire knowledge to claim communication with the dead.\n\nIn March 2018, skeptical activist Susan Gerbic published an article in \"Skeptical Inquirer\" summarizing a number of techniques which she says are used by psychics, such as Caputo, to achieve their effects.\n", "By the late twentieth century psychics were commonly associated with New Age culture. Psychic readings and advertising for psychics were very common from the 1960s on, as readings were offered for a fee and given in settings such as over the phones, in a home, or at psychic fairs.\n\nSection::::Popular culture.\n\nSection::::Popular culture.:Belief in psychic abilities.\n", "Nickell asked several researchers to investigate the claims of psychic detectives, then collected their reports in \"Psychic Sleuths: ESP and Sensational Cases\". None of the reports give any credibility to the psychics and Nickell concludes they are either self-deluded or frauds. Many use cold reading in their conversations with police detectives, getting the officers to reveal details about the investigation that the psychic then includes in a prediction. Others use retrofitting; that is, throwing out several vague clues during the investigation and, when the case is solved, showcasing the clues that had any relationship to the solution and ignoring those that were irrelevant.\n", "To assess the claims of psychic crime-solving, the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (now Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) established a task force of investigators. The group recorded many failures by psychics to provide useful information to criminal investigators, and felt that psychics may use \"retrofitting\" (or after-the-fact matching), offering vague clues, and then trying to retroactively fit them to details that are only discovered later. In addition to cases of retrofitting, the apparent use of cold reading (a psychic's fishing for information while appearing to gain it paranormally), exaggeration, and examples where the psychic has used non-psychic sources of information, were also reviewed.\n", "There is a long history of psychic detectives in horror and crime fiction, and in other genres as well. One of the earliest forms of the genre was the character Flaxman Low, created in 1897 by mother and son Kate and Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard. The Prichards wrote their stories at the behest of the press baron Cyril Pearson for his monthly \"Pearson's Magazine\", though they were disconcerted to find the tales promoted by Pearson as \"real\". The collected work was published as \"The Experiences of Flaxman Low\" in 1899.\n", "In a 2019 segment of \"Last Week Tonight\", Edward and other prominent TV psychics were featured. Several clips of Edward attempting cold reading and failing to get \"hits\" were included, as well as a clip of Edward telling an audience member, \"I can only tell you what they're showing me, and if he's calling your mother a bitch, I'm gonna pass that on.\" John Oliver criticized the predatory nature of the psychic industry, as well as the media for promoting psychics, because this convinces viewers that psychic powers are real, and so enables neighborhood psychics to prey on grieving families. Oliver said \"...when psychic abilities are presented as authentic, it emboldens a vast underworld of unscrupulous vultures, more than happy to make money by offering an open line to the afterlife, as well as many other bullshit services.\"\n", "The JREF has issued the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge to James Van Praagh, Allison DuBois, Sylvia Browne, Carla Baron, John Edward, and others if they can prove their abilities in controlled experiments.\" through ABC News, Time.com and AOL News. Ben Radford with CSICOP quotes Magician James Randi who challenges \"James Van Praagh and Allison DuBois [whom] have turned the huckster art of ‘cold reading' into a multi-million-dollar industry, preying on families' deepest fears and regrets,” he says in a statement announcing the challenge. “They should be embarrassed by the transparent performances.”\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23217	Can people who aren’t super tech savvy see what I’m looking at if I’m connected to their WiFi?	There is a way to see history by device if you log into the router. But not sure if all routers have this. Just play it safe, don't watch porn at your grandparents house.	[ "The OIF has held many interoperability demonstrations over the years, typically at the OFC and/or ECOC trade shows. Recent demonstrations have included multi-vendor interoperation for several of the CEI-56G reaches, CEI-112G VSR links, the CFP2-ACO interface, and FlexE.\n\nSection::::Compliance Testing.\n\nA compliance program for several of the OIFs control place interfaces was initiated in 2016. Major compliance tests with multiple vendors were held in the labs of multiple carriers in 2017 and 2018.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- OIF Home Page\n\nBULLET::::- OIF Interoperability Agreements\n\nBULLET::::- OIF Technical White Papers\n\nBULLET::::- OIF Educational White Papers\n\nBULLET::::- OIF Events Calendar\n", "BULLET::::- Conformance: the equipment conforms to specific critical elements of the IEEE 802.11 standard. Conformance testing usually involves standalone analysis of individual products and establishes whether the equipment responds to inputs as expected and specified. For example, conformance testing is used to ensure that Wi-Fi equipment protects itself and the network when the equipment detects evidence of network attacks.\n", "BULLET::::- Support for remote sensors\n\nBULLET::::- Support for networks with hidden SSIDs\n\nBULLET::::- Support for external USB Wi-Fi adapters via the External Adapter Support Environment (EASE)\n\nBULLET::::- Additional organization options for scan results\n\nBULLET::::- Dark and light themes\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n\nDue to limitations of Apple's CoreWLAN framework, the standard version of WiFi Explorer is unable to detect hidden networks (except when connected to it) and does not support external USB Wi-Fi adapters. The Pro edition supports passive scanning, which can detect hidden networks, and can make use of external adapters via the External Adapter Support Environment (EASE).\n\nSection::::System requirements.\n", "The growth in mobile and associated platforms and services (e.g.: Mobile gaming has experienced 20x growth in 2010-2012) has generated a need for unmoderated remote usability testing on mobile devices, both for websites but especially for app interactions. One methodology consists of shipping cameras and special camera holding fixtures to dedicated testers, and having them record the screens of the mobile smart-phone or tablet device, usually using an HD camera. A drawback of this approach is that the finger movements of the respondent can obscure the view of the screen, in addition to the bias and logistical issues inherent in shipping special hardware to selected respondents. A newer approach uses a wireless projection of the mobile device screen onto the computer desktop screen of the respondent, who can then be recorded through their webcam, and thus a combined Video-in-Video view of the participant and the screen interactions viewed simultaneously while incorporating the verbal think aloud commentary of the respondents.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nUses for monitor mode include: geographical packet analysis, observing of widespread traffic and acquiring knowledge of Wi-Fi technology through hands-on experience. It is especially useful for auditing unsecure channels (such as those protected with WEP). Monitor mode can also be used to help design Wi-Fi networks. For a given area and channel, the number of Wi-Fi devices currently being used can be discovered. This helps to create a better Wi-Fi network that reduces interference with other Wi-Fi devices by choosing the least used Wi-Fi channels.\n", "Specifically, the certification process requires conformance to the IEEE 802.11 radio standards, the WPA and WPA2 security standards, and the EAP authentication standard. Certification may optionally include tests of IEEE 802.11 draft standards, interaction with cellular-phone technology in converged devices, and features relating to security set-up, multimedia, and power-saving.\n", "The majority of modern smartphones are able to browse websites, some with browsing experiences similar to those of desktop computers. The W3C Mobile Web Initiative identifies best practices to help websites support mobile phone browsing. Many companies use these guidelines and mobile-specific code like Wireless Markup Language or HTML5 to optimize websites for viewing on mobile devices.\n\nSection::::Drawbacks of applying traditional web analytics.\n", "Increasingly in the last few years (particularly ), embedded Wi-Fi modules have become available that incorporate a real-time operating system and provide a simple means of wirelessly enabling any device which has and communicates via a serial port. This allows the design of simple monitoring devices. An example is a portable ECG device monitoring a patient at home. This Wi-Fi-enabled device can communicate via the Internet.\n\nThese Wi-Fi modules are designed by OEMs so that implementers need only minimal Wi-Fi knowledge to provide Wi-Fi connectivity for their products.\n", "BULLET::::- Zone 8 - 1 Stonegate Wall mount Lamp\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 9 - 6 Grape Lane Wall mount Bracket\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 9 - 54 Low Petergate Wall mount Lamp\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 9 - 2 Minster Yard Lamppost\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 10 - 17 Back Swinegate CCTV Camera mount\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 10 - 14 Swinegate CCTV Camera Mount\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 10 - 28 Stonegate CCTV Camera Mount\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 10 - 1 Kings Square CCTV Camera Mount Zone 11 - 65 Goodramsgate Wall mount Lamp Zone 11 - 34 Goodramsgate Lamppost\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 11 - 27 Goodramsgate Wall mount Lamp\n", "Images can be forced to work for mobile web analytics, provided that the transmitted image is always unique. The level of information recorded from these transmissions depends on the architecture provided by the supplier, and not all image beacon solutions are the same.\n\nSection::::Collecting mobile web analytics data.:Link redirection.\n\nLink redirection is an important method of tracking mobile visitor activities. It is the only reliable way to record clicks from advertising, search, and other marketing activities. It also records visitors clicking on links to leave a site. This method helps address the lack of HTTP referrer information on mobile.\n", "BULLET::::- Section 11.1 Quarterly Wireless Scan: Scan all sites with CDEs whether or not they have known WLAN APs in the CDE. Sampling of sites is not allowed. A WIPS is recommended for large organizations since it is not possible to manually scan or conduct a walk-around wireless security audit of all sites on a quarterly basis\n\nBULLET::::- Section 11.4 Monitor Alerts: Enable automatic WIPS alerts to instantly notify personnel of rogue devices and unauthorized wireless connections into the CDE.\n", "Several contact inquiries were received of which Schalow helped to address with applied technology specifications and standards. Some of these acknowledgements and inquiries included Orange County, FL Public Library, AUCD, and MCI’s SVP Technology Vint Cerf who was referred by a DC netpreneur. Vint asked his staff to read the paper for any possible alignment. Schalow also had discussions with Intel’s Visual Processing, Mobility, Business and Wafer Mfg Automation Researchers. He helped devise recommendations to Andy Grove for his daily use of voice recognition software due to his mild motor impairment disabilities as a senior computer user.\n", "In May 2017, researchers from the Chaos Computer Club posted a video showing that the S8's iris recognition system can be fooled with a contact lens and a suitable photograph of an eye. Samsung told \"BBC News\" that it was \"aware of the issue\", and stated that \"If there is a potential vulnerability or the advent of a new method that challenges our efforts to ensure security at any time, we will respond as quickly as possible to resolve the issue\".\n\nSection::::Issues.:SMS message reception failures.\n", "Signify lighting company (formerly Philips Lighting) has developed a VLC system for shoppers at stores. They have to download an app on their smartphone and then their smartphone works with the LEDs in the store. The LEDs can pinpoint where they are located in the store and give them corresponding coupons and information based on which aisle they are on and what they are looking at.\n\nSection::::Home and building automation.\n", "On January 13, 2014, Zugara announced a new technology for in-store retailers called \"Virtual Style Sense\". In partnership with Samsung, this Virtual Dressing Room technology for in-store retailers debuted at the National Retail Conference's Big Show in New York.\n\nSection::::Products.:Virtual Style Sense.:Critical Acclaim.\n\nBULLET::::- TIME magazine cited the Webcam Social Shopper as one of the few useful Augmented Reality applications that could be advantageous to both retailers and consumers.\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Company called the Webcam Social Shopper 'the future'.\n\nSection::::Products.:Virtual Style Sense.:Online Retail Results.\n", "Users can select different video streams pulled from the WAMI system's vast field of view and, with the help of advanced data compression techniques, watch them live on their computer screens or handheld devices. In some systems, users can also designate \"watchboxes\" within the sensor's field of view to provide automated alerts should the system detect movement in the area.\n", "The PrinTao module is already included in the SilverFast Ai / DC / HDR Studio versions.\n\nSection::::Products.:Optional features.\n\nAs marked in the table above, some products are available with \\additional features:\n\nSection::::Products.:Optional features.:Multi-Exposure (ME).\n", "WiFi Explorer\n\nWiFi Explorer is a wireless network scanner tool for macOS that can help users identify channel conflicts, overlapping and network configuration issues that may be affecting the connectivity and performance of Wi-Fi networks.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "There is a \"General Preferences Window\" where users can change the color and fonts and can customize the app. There is a \"Network Preferences Window\" where the user can change servers and add commons. Users can update their personal details here and can add or remove nicknames.\n\nUsers can edit, add or remove servers on the \"Network Data Window\".\n\nSection::::Development History.\n", "BULLET::::- TypePad\n\nBULLET::::- Vox\n\nBULLET::::- Walmart\n\nBULLET::::- Webshots\n\nBULLET::::- Windows Live\n\nBULLET::::- YouTube\n\nBULLET::::- Zenfolio\n\nSection::::Scanner support.\n\nSome portable document scanners such as the Doxie Go + Wi-Fi and the Xerox Mobile Scanner make use of an Eye-Fi card to provide Wi-Fi capability for document upload. Eye-Fi support for the Xerox scanner was discontinued with the end of support for older generation cards; the scanner continued to be sold as the Xerox Mobile Scanner SD, without Eye-Fi support.\n\nSection::::Awards and accolades.\n\nEye-Fi has won the following recognition:\n\nBULLET::::- \"CNET Best of CES\" at CES Consumer Electronics Show 2010\n", "At the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2014, ActiveVideo and BrightLine demonstrated the ability to bring interactive brand experiences from American Express and L’Oreal to Roku devices. Light Reading pointed out that in a demonstration at CES, the same L’Oreal ad written in HTML5 provided the same interactive on a Roku box and on a QAM-based cable set-top box.\n", "Within a specific webpage or software application (\"app\"), the discoverability of a feature, content or link depends on a range of factors, including the size, colour, highlighting features, and position within the page. When colour is used to communicate the importance of a feature or link, designers typically use other elements as well, such as shadows or bolding, for individuals who cannot see certain colours. Just as traditional paper printing created other physical locations that stood out, such as being \"above the fold\" of a newspaper versus \"below the fold\", a web page or app's screenview may have certain locations that give features additional visibility to users, such as being right at the bottom of the web page or screen. \n", "BULLET::::- Verifying network configurations\n\nBULLET::::- Finding locations with poor coverage in a WLAN\n\nBULLET::::- Detecting causes of wireless interference\n\nBULLET::::- Detecting unauthorized (rogue) access points\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nSome of the unique features that the program implements are:\n\nBULLET::::- Continuous scanning mode\n\nBULLET::::- GPS logging (when a device supports it)\n\nBULLET::::- Email scan results\n\nBULLET::::- Email attachments (OS 3.0 only) in NetStumbler .ns1, CSV, or Google Earth KML formats\n\nBULLET::::- Option to filter hotspots by signal strength and location accuracy\n\nBULLET::::- Displays detailed information about each network, including name/SSID, signal strength, raw RSSI value, security and authentication modes (WEP/WPA/WPA2), location, MAC address\n", "Street lamps can be used to display advertisements for nearby businesses or attractions on cellular devices as an individual passes through. A customer walking into a store and passing through the store's front lights can show current sales and promotions on the customer's cellular device.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Education.\n", "This type of showcase is becoming more popular as see-through screens are becoming cheaper and more available .The SparkFun Transparent OLED Breakout allows you to easily control the display using the I2C protocol and includes a voltage step-up to generate the panel's 12V driving voltage from Qwiic's 3.3V bus. To make things even easier, we've thrown together an Arduino library so that doing things like changing the speedometer read out is as easy as calling \"setSpeedometer()\" in your sketch. Utilizing our handy Qwiic system, no soldering is required to connect it to the rest of your system. However, we still have broken out 0.1\"-spaced pins in case you prefer to use a breadboard \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15226	Why do some pipes make strange noises or vibrate violently when the water is turned on?	water can't be compressed very much. In old pipes, when you shut off the water, all the water that's currently in the pipe is still moving and slams into the valve at the end of the pipe, making a loud sound. Newer pipes add a little air filled bit above the pipe that the water can flow into instead.	[ "Section::::Cause and effect.:Related phenomena.\n\nSteam distribution systems may also be vulnerable to a situation similar to water hammer, known as \"steam hammer\". In a steam system, a water hammer most often occurs when some of the steam condenses into water in a horizontal section of the piping. Steam picks up the water, forming a \"slug\", and hurls this at high velocity into a pipe fitting, creating a loud hammering noise and greatly stressing the pipe. This condition is usually caused by a poor condensate drainage strategy.\n", "As water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade by chemical reactions and biological processes. Corrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects. Release of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of \"red water\" at the tap. Release of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of \"blue water\" and/or a metallic taste. Release of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or from brass fixtures. Copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are regulated to protect consumer health.\n", "Air causes irritating system noises, as well as interrupting proper heat transfer to and from the circulating fluids. In addition, unless reduced below an acceptable level, the oxygen dissolved in water causes corrosion. This corrosion can cause rust and scale to build up on the piping. Over time these particles can become loose and travel around the pipes, reducing or even blocking the flow as well as damaging pump seals and other components.\n\nSection::::Air elimination.:Water-loop system.\n\nWater-loop systems can also experience air problems. Air found within hydronic water-loop systems may be classified into three forms:\n\nSection::::Air elimination.:Water-loop system.:Free air.\n", "BULLET::::- In both old and new designs, even mostly directly-coupled operational amplifier circuits, feedback through the power supply rails can generate ultrasonic oscillations that vary in amplitude at a low frequency (squegging) due to the power supply voltage sagging as oscillations build up (the long time constant coming from the power supply reservoir capacitor) in such a way that the low frequency is audible even though the high frequency fundamental is not. Such problems can be difficult to diagnose.\n", "At home, a water hammer may occur when a dishwasher, washing machine or toilet shuts off water flow. The result may be heard as a loud bang, repetitive banging (as the shock wave travels back and forth in the plumbing system), or as some shuddering.\n", "Older sewer lines of small diameter, typically , are made by the union of a number of short sections. The pipe segments may be made of cast iron, with to sections, but are more often made of vitrified clay pipe (VCP), a ceramic material, in , & sections. Each iron or clay segment will have an enlargement (a \"bell\") on one end to receive the end of the adjacent segment. Roots from trees and vegetation may work into the joins between segments and can be forceful enough to break open a larger opening in terra cotta or corroded cast iron. Eventually a root ball will form that will impede the flow and this may cleaned out by a cutter mechanism or plumber's snake and subsequently inhibited by use of a chemical foam - a \"rooticide\".\n", "Other causes of water hammer are pump failure and check valve slam (due to sudden deceleration, a check valve may slam shut rapidly, depending on the dynamic characteristic of the check valve and the mass of the water between a check valve and tank). To alleviate this situation, it is recommended to install non-slam check valves as they do not rely on gravity or fluid flow for their closure. For vertical pipes, other suggestions include installing new piping that can be designed to include air chambers to alleviate the possible shockwave of water due to excess water flow.\n", "Water and gas taps have adjustable flow: gate valves are more progressive; ball valves more coarse, typically used in on-off applications. Turning a valve knob or lever adjusts flow by varying the aperture of the control device in the valve assembly. The result when opened in any degree is a choked flow. Its rate is independent of the viscosity or temperature of the fluid or gas in the pipe, and depends only weakly on the supply pressure, so that flow rate is stable at a given setting. At intermediate flow settings the pressure at the valve restriction drops nearly to zero from the Venturi effect; in water taps, this causes the water to boil momentarily at room temperature as it passes through the restriction. Bubbles of cool water vapor form and collapse at the restriction, causing the familiar hissing sound. At very low flow settings, the viscosity of the water becomes important and the pressure drop (and hissing noise) vanish; at full flow settings, parasitic drag in the pipes becomes important and the water again becomes silent.\n", "BULLET::::- Preventing cavitation: When a machine is in contact with a fluid, it may be susceptible to cavitation. The sounds of gas bubbles imploding is the source of the noise. Ships and submarines which have screws that \"cavitate\" are more vulnerable to detection by sonar.\n\nBULLET::::- Preventing water hammer: In hydraulics and plumbing, water hammer is a known cause for the failure of piping systems. It also generates considerable noise. A valve that abruptly opens or shuts is the most common cause for water hammer.\n", "Pinhole leaks with pitting initiating on the exterior surface of the pipe, can occur if copper piping is improperly grounded or bonded. The phenomenon is known technically as \"stray current corrosion\" or \"electrolytic pitting\". Pin-holing due to poor grounding or poor bonding occurs typically in homes where the original plumbing has been modified; homeowners may find that a new plastic water filtration device or plastic repair union has interrupted the water pipe's electrical continuity to ground, when they start seeing pinhole water leaks after a recent install. Damage occurs rapidly, usually becoming obvious about six months after the ground interruption. Correctly installed plumbing appliances will have a copper bonding jumper cable connecting the interrupted pipe sections. Pinhole leaks from stray current corrosion can result in high plumbing bills and require the replacement of the entire water line. The cause is fundamentally an electrical defect, not a plumbing defect; once the plumbing damage is repaired, an electrician should promptly be consulted to evaluate the grounding and bonding of the entire plumbing and electrical systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Steam hammer : Steam hammer, the pressure surge generated by transient flow of super-heated or saturated steam in a steam-line due to sudden stop valve closures is considered as an occasional load. Though the flow is transient, for the purpose of piping stress analysis, only the unbalanced force along the pipe segment tending to induce piping vibration is calculated and applied on the piping model as static equivalent force.\n", "In areas that are situated on or near to geological fault lines it is common practice to protect the plant from potential earthquake activity. In such plant there will be a very large requirement for dynamic restraints. Fluid disturbance can be caused by the effect of pumps and compressors or occasionally fluid in a liquid state entering a pipe intended for the transportation of gas or steam. Some system functions such as rapid valve closure, pulsation due to pumping and the operation of safety relief valves will cause irregular and sudden loading patterns within the piping system. The environment can cause disturbance due to high wind load or in the case of offshore oil and gas rigs, impact by ocean waves.\n", "Leakage may also mean an unwanted transfer of energy from one circuit to another. For example, magnetic lines of flux will not be entirely confined within the core of a power transformer; another circuit may couple to the transformer and receive some leaked energy at the frequency of the electric mains, which will cause audible hum in an audio application.\n", "Section::::Dissolved Gas Analysis.\n", "Cold water pitting of copper tube\n\nCold water pitting of copper tube occurs in only a minority of installations. Copper water tubes are usually guaranteed by the manufacturer against manufacturing defects for a period of 50 years. The vast majority of copper systems far exceed this time period but a small minority may fail after a comparatively short time.\n", "The insulating liquid is in contact with the internal components. Gases, formed by normal and abnormal events within the transformer, are dissolved in the oil. By analyzing the volume, types, proportions, and rate of production of dissolved gases, much diagnostic information can be gathered. Since these gases can reveal the faults of a transformer, they are known as \"fault gases\". Gases are produced by oxidation, vaporization, insulation decomposition, oil breakdown and electrolytic action.\n\nSection::::Sampling.\n\nSection::::Sampling.:Oil sample tube.\n", "BULLET::::- Water Hammer : Water hammer (or more generally, fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly (momentum change). Water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe. It's also called hydraulic shock.\n", "A water main break happens when a hole or crack develops in a main and causes it to rupture. They typically result from the external corrosion of the pipe. The water typically finds its way to the surface due to the extreme amount of pressure the water is under. Millions of gallons of water can flow from a single break. In order to get the break under control, the water is shut off and the section of pipe that ruptured is replaced.\n", "Gases are produced by degradation of the transformer oil and solid insulating materials. Gases are generated at a much more rapid rate whenever an electrical fault occurs [4]. Normal causes of fault gases are classified into three categories: Corona or partial discharge, thermal heating and arcing. These faults can be detected by evaluating the quantities of hydrocarbon gases, hydrogen and oxides of carbon that are present in the transformer. Different gases can serve as markers for different types of faults. The concentration and the relation of individual gases allow a prediction of whether a fault has occurred and what type it is likely to be [5].\n", "Section::::Mitigating measures.\n\nWater hammer has caused accidents and fatalities, but usually damage is limited to breakage of pipes or appendages. An engineer should always assess the risk of a pipeline burst. Pipelines transporting hazardous liquids or gases warrant special care in design, construction, and operation. Hydroelectric power plants especially must be carefully designed and maintained because the water hammer can cause water pipes to fail catastrophically.\n\nThe following characteristics may reduce or eliminate water hammer:\n\nBULLET::::- Reduce the pressure of the water supply to the building by fitting a regulator.\n", "Section::::Circulator pump potential side effects.\n\nIt is important to take note of the increased heat in the piping system, which in turn increases system pressure. Piping that is sensitive to the water condition (i.e., copper, and soft water) will be adversely affected by the continual flow. Although water is conserved, the parasitic heat loss through the piping will be greater as a result of the increased heat passing through it.\n\nSection::::Quantitative measures of function.\n", "BULLET::::- Bursting discs, restriction orifices, strainers and filters, steam traps, moisture traps, sight-glasses, silencers, flares and vents, flame arrestors, vortex breakers, eductors\n\nBULLET::::- Process piping, sizes and identification, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Pipe classes and piping line numbers\n\nBULLET::::- Flow directions\n\nBULLET::::- Interconnections references\n\nBULLET::::- Permanent start-up, flush and bypass lines\n\nBULLET::::- Pipelines and flowlines\n\nBULLET::::- Blinds and spectacle blinds\n\nBULLET::::- Insulation and heat tracing\n\nBULLET::::- Process control instrumentation and designation (names, numbers, unique tag identifiers), including:\n\nBULLET::::- Valves and their types and identifications (e.g. isolation, shutoff, relief and safety valves, valve interlocks)\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – A gas leak on Cable 1 occurred at Oteranga Bay. It was repaired in the 1982/83 summer.\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – Cable 2's Oteranga Bay end joint exploded, spilling insulating oil into the switchyard.\n", "The usual test for microphonism in electron tubes is to tap the tube with a finger, light mallet, or small rubber ball while working as amplifier or oscillator.\n\nSection::::Avoiding microphonism.\n\nIn order to avoid microphonism, particularly in the input stages of high-gain amplifiers, design engineers used to shock-mount the tube-socket assemblies in these stages by means of small rubber grommets placed in the screw holes, leaving them in a \"floating\" situation.\n", "BULLET::::- Offshore storms and pipes: As large waves pass over shallowly buried pipes, water pressure increases above it. As the trough approaches, pressure over the pipe drops and this sudden and repeated variation in pressure can break pipes. The difference in pressure for a wave with wave height of about 10 m would be equivalent to one atmosphere (101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi) pressure variation between crest and trough and repeated fluctuations over pipes in relatively shallow environments could set up resonance vibrations within pipes or structures and cause problems.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05594	What is the difference between a Bomb Cyclone and a Superstorm?	“Superstorm” is not a technical term. Informally, it means a storm that is particularly powerful or significant. A “cyclone” is an area of low-pressure air surrounded by rotating wind. A hurricane or tropical storm is one type of cyclone. A cyclone that forms outside the tropics is called an “extratropical” cyclone. There tend to be some distinct differences in structure and behavior between tropical and extratropical cyclones. A “bomb cyclone” is an extratropical cyclone that strengthens very quickly in a short period of time. The specific criterion is a calculation involving a drop in air pressure over a 24-hour period, with the minimum pressure drop depending on the latitude. “Superstorm” has been used for decades as a term to spice up weather reports. Hurricanes have names assigned by NOAA; this makes is much easier for a news station to offer a compelling narrative for people to watch over time. But the U.S. doesn't get hurricanes in the winter. Calling a bad piece of winter weather a “superstorm” (sometimes with an unofficial name) makes for good television, although it's easy to overdo it and wear out the term “superstorm”. Recently, media outlets have been referring to some winter storms using the evocative-but-technically-accurate term “bomb cyclone”. Unlike the subjective “superstorm”, there is a scientific basis for calling a storm a “bomb cyclone”. Presumably, these media outlets are hoping to re-engage viewers who are tired of “superstorms”.	[ "The term \"weather bomb\" is popularly used in New Zealand to describe dramatic or destructive weather events. Rarely are the events actual instances of explosive cyclogenesis, as the rapid deepening of low pressure areas is rare around New Zealand. This use of \"bomb\" may lead to confusion with the more strictly defined meteorological term. In Japan, the term is used both academically and commonly to refer to an extratropical cyclone which meets the meteorological \"bomb\" conditions.\n", "Although their cyclogenesis is totally different from that of tropical cyclones, bombs can produce winds of 74–95 mph, the same order as the first categories of the Saffir-Simpson scale and give heavy precipitation. Even though only a minority of the bombs become so strong, some have caused significant damage.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn the 1940s and 1950s, meteorologists at the Bergen School of Meteorology began informally calling some storms that grew over the sea \"bombs\" because they developed with a great ferocity rarely seen over land. \n", "By the 1970s, the terms \"explosive cyclogenesis\" and even \"meteorological bombs\" were being used by MIT professor Fred Sanders (building on work from the 1950s by Tor Bergeron), who brought the term into common usage in a 1980 article in the \"Monthly Weather Review\". In 1980, Sanders and his colleague John Gyakum defined a \"bomb\" as an extratropical cyclone that deepens by at least (24 sin φ/ sin 60°)mb in 24 hours, where φ represents latitude in degrees. This is based on the definition, standardised by Bergeron, for explosive development of a cyclone at 60°N as deepening by 24mb in 24 hours. Sanders and Gyakum noted that an equivalent intensification is dependent on latitude: at the poles this would be a drop in pressure of 28 mb/24 hours, while at 25 degrees latitude it would be only 12 mb/24 hours. All these rates qualify for what Sanders and Gyakum called \"1 bergeron\".\n", "BULLET::::- Columbus Day Storm of 1962, Pacific Northwest windstorm\n\nBULLET::::- Great Storm of 1975, central and southeast United States\n\nBULLET::::- Braer Storm of January 1993, North Atlantic\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 Storm of the Century, eastern North America\n\nBULLET::::- Hanukkah Eve windstorm of 2006, Pacific Northwest windstorm\n\nBULLET::::- Great Coastal Gale of 2007, a series of three powerful Pacific Northwest storms\n\nBULLET::::- January 2008 North American storm complex, Pacific extratropical cyclone over North America\n\nBULLET::::- October 2009 North American storm complex, extratropical cyclone over western North America\n", "The thunderstorm system can be divided into two zones in the figure to the left: the precipitation-free zone, located on the left where the airmass has a widespread up motion, and the precipitation zone, on the right where the airmass is sinking. At the point where the two zones meet, there is a wall cloud that could initiate tornadoes. Moreover, even the cumulus congestus associated with a supercell thunderstorm can be very dangerous. Tornadoes can be produced up to from the main cell.\n", "While there is a gradation with respect to thunderstorm severity, there is little quantitative difference between a significant shower generated by a cumulus congestus and a small thunderstorm with a few thunderclaps associated with a small cumulonimbus. For this reason, a glider pilot could exploit the rising air under a thunderstorm without recognising the situation - thinking instead that the rising air was due to a more benign variety of cumulus. However, forecasting thunderstorm severity is an inexact science; in numerous occasions, pilots got trapped by underestimating the severity of a thunderstorm that suddenly strengthened.\n\nSection::::General hazards to aircraft.\n", "Explosively deepening cyclones south of 50°S often show equator-ward movement, in contrast with the poleward motion of most Northern Hemisphere bombs. Over the year, 45 cyclones on average in the Northern Hemisphere and 26 in the Southern Hemisphere develop explosively, mostly in the respective hemisphere's winter time. Less seasonality has been noticed in bomb cyclogenesis occurrences in the Southern Hemisphere.\n\nSection::::Other uses of \"weather bomb\".\n", "Section::::Concerns regarding severe deep moist convection.:Tornadoes.\n\nA tornado is a dangerous rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and the base of a cumulonimbus cloud (thundercloud), or a cumulus cloud in rare cases. Tornadoes come in many sizes but typically form a visible condensation funnel whose narrowest end reaches the earth and surrounded by a cloud of debris and dust.\n", "Section::::Mesoscale.\n\nThe following types of cyclones are not identifiable in synoptic charts.\n\nSection::::Mesoscale.:Mesocyclone.\n", "Explosive cyclogenesis\n\nExplosive cyclogenesis (also referred to as a weather bomb, meteorological bomb, explosive development, bomb cyclone or bombogenesis) is the rapid deepening of an extratropical cyclonic low-pressure area. The change in pressure needed to classify something as explosive cyclogenesis is latitude dependent. For example, at 60° latitude, explosive cyclogenesis occurs if the central pressure decreases by 24 mbar (hPa) or more in 24 hours. \n\nThis is a predominantly maritime, winter event, but also occurs in continental settings, even in the summer. This process is the extratropical equivalent of the tropical rapid deepening.\n", "BULLET::::- January 2010 North American winter storms, a group of unusually-powerful extratropical cyclones that affected California and the Contiguous United States\n\nBULLET::::- October 2010 North American storm complex, extratropical cyclone that impacted North America\n\nBULLET::::- November 2011 Bering Sea cyclone, cyclone that affected Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Sandy (informally referred to as a \"superstorm\" by the media), an Atlantic hurricane that became an extremely powerful extratropical cyclone over the Eastern United States\n\nBULLET::::- January 2013 Northwest Pacific cyclone, extratropical cyclone\n\nBULLET::::- March 2014 nor'easter, an extremely powerful extratropical cyclone that acquired a wind field four times the size of Hurricane Sandy's\n", "BULLET::::- Convective SIGMET – A convective SIGMET implies severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, and low level wind shear. Issued for severe surface weather (including surface winds greater than or equal to , hail at the surface greater than or equal to in diameter, or tornadoes); embedded thunderstorms; line of thunderstorms; thunderstorms greater than or equal to VIP level 4 affecting 40% or more of an area at least .\n", "It has since been reproduced in high-resolution runs with the mesoscale version of the Unified Model. The sting jet is distinct from the usual strong-wind region associated with the warm conveyor belt and main cold front. There are indications that conditional symmetric instability also plays a role in its formation but the importance of these processes remains to be quantified.\n\nOne North Atlantic storm, Cyclone Tilo (November 6–11, 2007) has also been analysed and found not to display a sting jet, despite displaying strong surface winds and a fractured cold front.\n\nSection::::Globally.\n", "The storm developed so quickly, that it was declared to be a weather 'bomb', which is an extremely fast developing storm that drops at least one millibar of pressure per hour for 24 hours—a phenomenon more commonly seen over water than land.\n", "In 1993, journalist and author Sebastian Junger planned to write a book about the 1991 Halloween Nor'easter storm. Technically, this storm was an extratropical cyclone. In the course of his research, he spoke with Bob Case, who had been a deputy meteorologist in the Boston office of the National Weather Service at the time of the storm. Case described to Junger the confluence of three different weather-related phenomena that combined to create what Case referred to as the \"perfect situation\" to generate such a storm:\n\nBULLET::::- warm air from a low-pressure system coming from one direction\n", "The HP supercell has a much heavier precipitation core that can wrap all the way around the mesocyclone. These are especially dangerous storms, since the mesocyclone is wrapped with rain and can hide a tornado (if present) from view. These storms also cause flooding due to heavy rain, damaging downbursts and weak tornadoes, although they are also known to produce strong to violent tornadoes. They have a lower potential for damaging hail than Classic and LP supercells, although damaging hail is possible. It has been observed by some spotters that they tend to produce more cloud-to-ground and intracloud lightning than the other types. Also, unlike the LP and Classic types, severe events usually occur at the front (southeast) of the storm. The HP supercell is the most common type of supercell in the United States east of Interstate 35, in the southern parts of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in Canada, and in the central portions of Argentina and Uruguay.\n", "A mesocyclone is a vortex of air, to in diameter (the mesoscale of meteorology), within a convective storm. Air rises and rotates around a vertical axis, usually in the same direction as low-pressure systems in both northern and southern hemisphere. They are most often cyclonic, that is, associated with a localized low-pressure region within a supercell. Such storms can feature strong surface winds and severe hail. Mesocyclones often occur together with updrafts in supercells, where tornadoes may form. About 1,700 mesocyclones form annually across the United States, but only half produce tornadoes.\n\nSection::::Mesoscale.:Tornado.\n", "Binary interaction is seen between nearby extratropical cyclones when within of each other, with significant acceleration occurring when the low-pressure areas are within of one another. Interactions between their circulations at the 500 hPa level (18,000 feet above sea level) behave more predictably than their surface circulations. This most often results in a merging of the two low-pressure systems into a single extratropical cyclone, or can less commonly result in a mere change of direction of one or both of the cyclones. The precise results of such interactions depend on factors such as the size of the two cyclones, their distance from each other, and the prevailing atmospheric conditions around them.\n", "No suitable storms formed in the 1962 season. Next year, Stormfury began by conducting experiments on cumulus clouds. From August 17 to 20 of that year, experiments were conducted in 11 clouds, of which six were seeded and five were controls. In five of the six seeded clouds, changes consistent with the working hypothesis were observed.\n", "The size of a geomagnetic storm is classified as moderate (−50 nT minimum of Dst −100 nT), intense (−100 nT minimum Dst −250 nT) or super-storm (minimum of Dst −250 nT).\n\nSection::::History of Theory.\n", "Before the early 1990s, the phrases \"storm of the century\" or \"perfect storm\" were generally used to describe unusually large or destructive storms. The term \"superstorm\" was employed in 1993 by the National Weather Service to describe a Nor'easter in March of that year. The term is most frequently used to describe a weather pattern that is as destructive as a hurricane, but which exhibits the cold-weather patterns of a winter storm.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Great Gale of 1880, northwest United States\n\nBULLET::::- North Sea flood of 1953, A powerful system that triggered severe flooding in the British Isles and Netherlands\n", "In 2008, Tropical Cyclone Fame began orbiting Tropical Cyclone Gula with the stronger storm, Gula, absorbing Fame. In 2012, Cyclone Giovanna and Tropical Storm Hilwa interacted in a Fujiwara interaction; Giovanna was pulled to the north, while Hilwa was pulled to the south. In 2019, Severe Tropical Storm Lorna interacted with a tropical low in the Australian region cyclone basin until Lorna absored the smaller tropical low later that day.\n\nSection::::Tropical cyclones.:Examples.:South Pacific Ocean.\n\nDuring January 1998, Cyclones Susan and Ron interacted with each other, before Susan absorbed Ron on January 9.\n\nSection::::Extratropical cyclones.\n", "Cyclones are not unique to Earth. Cyclonic storms are common on Jovian planets, such as the Small Dark Spot on Neptune. It is about one third the diameter of the Great Dark Spot and received the nickname \"Wizard's Eye\" because it looks like an eye. This appearance is caused by a white cloud in the middle of the Wizard's Eye. Mars has also exhibited cyclonic storms. Jovian storms like the Great Red Spot are usually mistakenly named as giant hurricanes or cyclonic storms. However, this is inaccurate, as the Great Red Spot is, in fact, the inverse phenomenon, an anticyclone.\n", "Section::::Synoptic scale.:Upper level types.:TUTT cell.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n" ]	[ "A Bomb Cyclone and a Superstorm are two distinct phenomena.", "A superstrom is a technical term." ]	[ "Superstorm is an informalt term denoting any storm that is powerful or significant, thus a Bomb Cyclone could also be a Superstorm.", "Superstorm is not a technical term, it just means any powerful storm." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A Bomb Cyclone and a Superstorm are two distinct phenomena.", "A superstrom is a technical term." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Superstorm is an informalt term denoting any storm that is powerful or significant, thus a Bomb Cyclone could also be a Superstorm.", "Superstorm is not a technical term, it just means any powerful storm." ]
2018-13571	How are dams built? It seems to me like the issue of all the water they must hold back would make it extremely difficult.	Sometimes the river is temporarily redirected during construction, but remember that the massive wall of water only exists after the dam is finished. Before that it's just a river at the bottom of a valley. If the dam has a bypass at the bottom, it can remain open until the dam is completed so the water level doesn't rise. Once the dam is closed, the reservoir will fill.	[ "Without a reservoir, flooding of the upper part of the river does not take place. As a result, people remain living at or near the river and existing habitats are not flooded. Any pre-existing pattern of flooding will continue unaltered, presenting a flood risk to the facility and downstream areas.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:\"Unfirm\" power.\n", "Dams can severely reduce the amount of water reaching countries downstream of them, causing water stress between the countries, e.g. the Sudan and Egypt, which damages farming businesses in the downstream countries, and reduces drinking water.\n\nFarms and villages, e.g. Ashopton can be flooded by the creation of reservoirs, ruining many livelihoods. For this very reason, worldwide 80 million people (figure is as of 2009, from the Edexcel GCSE Geography textbook) have had to be forcibly relocated due to dam construction.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Limnology.\n", "BULLET::::- Horsetooth Dam – Horsetooth Reservoir, built as part of the Colorado-Big Thompson project\n\nBULLET::::- John Martin Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- McNulty Reservoir Dam\n\nBULLET::::- McPhee Dam – McPhee Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Morrow Point Dam – Morrow Point Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Elbert Forebay Dam\n\nBULLET::::- Navajo Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Olympus Dam in Estes Park, Colorado, built as part of the Colorado-Big Thompson project\n\nBULLET::::- Quincy Reservoir, in Aurora\n\nBULLET::::- Ralston Dam\n\nBULLET::::- Ridgway Dam – Ridgway Reservoir, built as part of the Dallas Creek Project\n\nBULLET::::- Silver Jack Dam – Silver Jack Reservoir, part of the Bostwick Park Project\n\nBULLET::::- Trinidad Dam\n", "BULLET::::- Lake Darling Dam, Lake Darling, Souris River, United States Fish and Wildlife Service\n\nBULLET::::- Dec Lacs#2, part of the Des Lacs National Wildlife Refuge Complex, United States Fish and Wildlife Service\n\nBULLET::::- Dickinson Dam, Edward Arthur Patterson Lake, United States Bureau of Reclamation\n\nBULLET::::- Garrison Dam, Lake Sakakawea, USACE\n\nBULLET::::- Heart Butte Dam, Lake Tschida, USBR\n\nBULLET::::- Jamestown Dam, Jamestown Reservoir, USBR\n\nBULLET::::- Oahe Dam, Lake Oahe (extending into North Dakota from South Dakota), USACE\n\nBULLET::::- Pipestem Dam, Pipestem Lake, USACE\n\nBULLET::::- Renwick Dam, Lake Renwick, Pembina County Water Resource District\n\nDrayton dam in Drayton, ND – Drayton County\n", "BULLET::::- Elk River Dam — Woods Reservoir; on the Elk River; finished in 1952 by the Corps of Engineers, to provide cooling water for the U.S. Air Force's Arnold Engineering Development Center\n\nBULLET::::- Fall Creek Falls Dam — Fall Creek Falls Reservoir; on Falls Creek; finished in 1970 by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Loudoun Dam — Fort Loudoun Lake; on the Tennessee River; finished in 1943 by the TVA\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Patrick Henry Dam — Fort Patrick Henry Lake; on the South Fork Holston River; finished in 1953 by the TVA\n", "BULLET::::- The Lake Manatali reservoir formed by the Manantali dam in Mali, West Africa intersects the migration routes of nomadic pastoralists and withholds water from the downstream savanna. The absence of the seasonal flood cycle causes depletion of grazing land, and is also drying the forests on the floodplain downstream of the dam.\n\nBULLET::::- After the construction of the Kainji Dam in Nigeria, 50 to 70 percent of the downstream area of flood-recession cropping stopped.\n\nSection::::Impact below dam.:Potential for disaster.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Disadvantages.:Siltation and flow shortage.\n\nWhen water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a flood and fail.\n", "BULLET::::- Lost Creek Lake & William L. Jess Dam – Rogue River\n\nBULLET::::- McGuire Reservoir – Nestucca River\n\nBULLET::::- McNulty Reservoir (Malheur County, Oregon)\n\nBULLET::::- North Fork Reservoir – Clackamas River\n\nBULLET::::- Owyhee Reservoir – Owyhee River\n\nBULLET::::- Oxbow Dam – Snake River\n\nBULLET::::- Pelton Dam – Deschutes River\n\nBULLET::::- Phillips Lake – Powder River\n\nBULLET::::- Prineville Reservoir & Bowman Dam a.k.a. Prineville Dam – Crooked River\n\nBULLET::::- Silverton Reservoir – Silver Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Thief Valley Reservoir – Powder River\n\nBULLET::::- Upper McNulty Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Warm Springs Reservoir – Malheur River\n\nBULLET::::- Wickiup Reservoir – Deschutes River\n\nSection::::South Carolina.\n", "BULLET::::- Lower Monumental Lock and Dam, Lake Herbert G. West, lower Snake River\n\nBULLET::::- Masonry Dam, Chester Morse Lake, Cedar River\n\nBULLET::::- McNary Dam – Lake Wallula (between Washington and Oregon)\n\nBULLET::::- Merwin Dam – Lake Merwin\n\nBULLET::::- Mossyrock Dam – Riffe Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Priest Rapids Dam – Priest Rapids Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Rock Island Dam – Rock Island Pool\n\nBULLET::::- Rocky Reach Dam – Lake Entiat\n\nBULLET::::- Ross Dam and Ross Lake – Skagit River, Seattle City Light\n\nBULLET::::- Roza Dam – Yakima River\n\nBULLET::::- Swift Dam – Swift Reservoir\n", "The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in \"Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia\" that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to \"release the waters\" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.\n", "The potential power at a site is a result of the head and flow of water. By damming a river, the head is available to generate power at the face of the dam. Where a dam may create a reservoir hundreds of kilometres long, in run of the river the head is usually delivered by a canal, pipe or tunnel constructed upstream of the power house. Due to the cost of upstream construction, a steep drop is desirable, such as falls or rapids.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Environmental impacts.\n", "BULLET::::- Lake Eucha\n\nBULLET::::- Foss Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Cobb Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Gibson Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Supply Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Fuqua Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Greenleaf Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Grand Lake O' the Cherokees\n\nBULLET::::- Great Salt Plains Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Guthrie Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Heyburn Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Hudson (formerly named Markham Ferry Reservoir)\n\nBULLET::::- Hulah Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Jean Neustadt\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Jed Johnson\n\nBULLET::::- Keystone Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Konawa Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Lawtonka\n\nBULLET::::- Liberty Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lloyd Church Lake\n\nBULLET::::- McGee Creek Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Nanih Waiyah Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake McMurtry\n\nBULLET::::- Mountain Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Murray\n\nBULLET::::- Oklahoma Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Okmulgee Lake\n", "BULLET::::- Crane Prairie Reservoir – Deschutes River\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Lake and Detroit Dam – North Santiam River\n\nBULLET::::- Dexter Reservoir and Dexter Dam – Middle Fork Willamette River\n\nBULLET::::- Devils Lake – D River\n\nBULLET::::- Dorena Reservoir - Row River\n\nBULLET::::- Emigrant Lake – Emigrant Creek, a tributary of Bear Creek (Rogue River)\n\nBULLET::::- Fern Ridge Reservoir – Long Tom River\n\nBULLET::::- Foster Reservoir and Foster Dam – South Santiam River\n\nBULLET::::- Gatehouse, Portland City Reservoir No. 2\n\nBULLET::::- Green Peter Reservoir and Green Peter Dam– Middle Santiam River\n\nBULLET::::- Hells Canyon Reservoir and Hells Canyon Dam – Snake River\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient dams.\n\nEarly dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.\n\nThe earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally and stone wall, supported by a earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.\n", "BULLET::::- North Branch of Kokosing River Lake\n\nBULLET::::- O'Shaughnessy Dam\n\nBULLET::::- Paint Creek Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Piedmont Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Pleasant Hill Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Providence Dam\n\nBULLET::::- Salt Fork Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Senecaville Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Tappan Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Taylorsville Dam\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Jenkins Dam\n\nBULLET::::- William Harsha Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Wills Creek Lake\n\nSection::::Oklahoma.\n\nBULLET::::- Altus City Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Altus-Lugert\n\nBULLET::::- American Horse Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake of the Arbuckles\n\nBULLET::::- Arcadia Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Ardmore City Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Atoka Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Bellcow Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Birch Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Bixhoma\n\nBULLET::::- Black Kettle Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Bluestem Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Boomer Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Broken Bow Lake\n", "List of dams in South Africa\n\nThe following is a partial list of dams in South Africa. \n\nIn South African English (as well as Afrikaans), a dam refers to both the wall as well as the reservoir or lake that builds up as a consequence.\n\nSection::::List of dams (reservoirs).\n\nBULLET::::- N Nett or working capacity\n\nBULLET::::- G Gross or maximum capacity\n\nBULLET::::- I The Bedford and Bramhoek dams form part of the Ingula Pumped Storage Scheme\n\nBULLET::::- D The Driekloof and Kilburn dams form part of the Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme\n", "Dams occasionally break causing catastrophic damage to communities downstream. Dams break due to engineering errors, attack or natural disaster. The greatest dam break disaster happened in China killing 200,000 Chinese citizens. They have also happened in California killing 600 people, Germany during World War II and other countries.\n\nSection::::Impact below dam.:Flood control.\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Woodruff Dam – Lake Seminole; on Apalachicola River; built by USACE\n\nBULLET::::- Kelly Barnes Dam – Toccoa Falls, failed in 1977 killing 39 people\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Blackshear Dam – Lake Blackshear\n\nBULLET::::- Morgan Falls Dam – Bull Sluice Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Nottely Dam – Nottely Reservoir; on the Nottely River; finished in 1942 by the TVA\n\nBULLET::::- Oliver Dam – Lake Oliver\n\nBULLET::::- Richard B. Russell Dam – Richard B. Russell Lake, also in South Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Sinclair Dam – Lake Sinclair\n\nBULLET::::- Wallace Dam – Lake Oconee\n", "BULLET::::- Bilby Ranch Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Binder Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Blind Pony Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Springs Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Bull Shoals Lake (extends into Arkansas)\n\nBULLET::::- Bushwacker Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Cameron City Lakes\n\nBULLET::::- Che-Ru Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Clearwater Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Cooley Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Cottontail Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Fellows Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Flight Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Forest Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Halls Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Sever Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Hunnewell Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Creek Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Kendzora Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Girardeau\n\nBULLET::::- Lake of the Ozarks\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Paho\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Springfield\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Taneycomo\n\nBULLET::::- Little Compton Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Little Dixie Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Little Prairie Community Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Longview Lake\n", "BULLET::::- Antelope Reservoir – Jack Creek, a tributary of Jordan Creek (Owyhee River tributary)\n\nBULLET::::- Applegate Lake – Applegate River\n\nBULLET::::- Blue River Reservoir – Blue River, a tributary of the McKenzie River\n\nBULLET::::- Brownlee Dam – Snake River\n\nBULLET::::- Bull Run Lake and Reservoirs 1 and 2 – Bull Run River\n\nBULLET::::- Chickahominy Reservoir – Chickahominy Creek, a tributary of Silver Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Cooper Creek Reservoir – Cooper Creek, an Umpqua River tributary\n\nBULLET::::- Cottage Grove Lake – Coast Fork Willamette River\n\nBULLET::::- Cougar Reservoir and Cougar Dam – South Fork McKenzie River\n", "BULLET::::- Brushy Creek Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Burtschi\n\nBULLET::::- Canton Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Carl Albert Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Carl Blackwell Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Carl Etling\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Carlton\n\nBULLET::::- Carter Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Cedar Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Chandler Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Checotah\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Chickasha\n\nBULLET::::- Chouteau Lock and Dam\n\nBULLET::::- Claremore Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Clayton Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Clear Creek Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Cleveland City Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Clinton Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Coalgate City Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Comanche Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Copan Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Cordell Reservoir\n\nBULLET::::- Crowder Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Cushing Municipal Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Dahlgren\n\nBULLET::::- Dripping Springs Lake\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Durant\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Ellsworth\n\nBULLET::::- Lake El Reno\n", "Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:\n\nBULLET::::- Permeability of the surrounding rock or soil\n\nBULLET::::- Earthquake faults\n\nBULLET::::- Landslides and slope stability\n\nBULLET::::- Water table\n\nBULLET::::- Peak flood flows\n\nBULLET::::- Reservoir silting\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)\n\nBULLET::::- Impacts on human habitations\n\nBULLET::::- Compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement\n\nBULLET::::- Removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area\n\nSection::::Dam creation.:Impact assessment.\n", "Section::::Impact below dam.:Effects on flood-dependent ecology and agriculture.\n\nIn many low lying developing countries the savanna and forest ecology adjacent to floodplains and river deltas are irrigated by wet season annual floods. Farmers annually plant flood recession crops, where the land is cultivated after floods recede to take advantage of the moist soil. Dams generally discourage this cultivation and prevent annual flooding, creating a dryer downstream ecology while providing a constant water supply for irrigation.\n\n\"Case studies\"\n", "BULLET::::- Bosher's Dam (also called Bosher Dam) – on the James River; first built in 1823\n\nBULLET::::- Clear Creek Dam and Clear Creek Reservoir – on Clear Creek; finished in 1965 by the TVA\n\nBULLET::::- Claytor Dam (hydroelectric) – on the New River; home of Claytor Lake State Park; between Dublin and Radford\n\nBULLET::::- John H. Kerr Dam and John H. Kerr Lake – on the Roanoke River; built by USACE; reservoir covers parts of Virginia/North Carolina border\n\nBULLET::::- Lake of The Woods Dam – near Fredricksburg\n\nBULLET::::- Lake of the Woods Dam Number Two – near Fredricksburg\n", "Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.\n\nSection::::Types of dams.:Other types.:Natural dams.:Beaver dams.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "When dams are constructed it is difficult to do that considering the huge amounts of water the dam holds back." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The massive amounts of water only exist after the dam is finished." ]
2018-00753	When does a cult become an accepted religion?	Christianity was considered a cult until it was adopted as the state religion in Rome by Constantine in the early 300s. Mormonism Is still looked at by many as a cult and not a real Christian sect.	[ "The organisation has attempted to define the term cult by analysing dictionary definitions, and psychological, religious, and secular definitions, however it has found that they are all deficient in some manner. Its current definition of the term cult includes three main points: the group's identity was derived from a major religion, but its practices and belief system are dramatically different; its followers are not bound by a codified belief structure; and the group was founded by an individual who utilised fraudulent means to gain respect and acceptance. In his work \"Understanding New Religious Movements\", Saliba notes that though the organisation's definition of the term cult stems from a theological background, it incorporates sociological and psychological features as well.\n", "In the 1970s, with the rise of secular anti-cult movements, scholars (but not the general public) began abandoning the term \"cult\". According to \"The Oxford Handbook of Religious Movements\", \"by the end of the decade, the term 'new religions' would virtually replace 'cult' to describe all of those leftover groups that did not fit easily under the label of church or sect.\"\n", "Section::::2012-present.\n", "Section::::2004-2012.\n", "Canada, China, France, Germany, and Russia. While these documents utilize similar terminology they do not necessarily include the same groups nor is their assessment of these groups based on agreed criteria. Other governments and world bodies also report on new religious movements but do not use these terms to describe them.\n\nSection::::Austria.\n", "The application of the labels \"cult\" or \"sect\" to religious movements in government documents signifies the popular and negative use of the term \"cult\" in English and a functionally similar use of words translated as \"sect\" in several European languages. Sociologists critical to this negative politicized use of the word \"cult\" argue that it may adversely impact the religious freedoms of group members. At the height of the counter-cult movement and ritual abuse scare of the 1990s, some governments published lists of cults. While these documents utilize similar terminology they do not necessarily include the same groups nor is their assessment of these groups based on agreed criteria. Other governments and world bodies also report on new religious movements but do not use these terms to describe the groups. Since the 2000s, some governments have again distanced themselves from such classifications of religious movements. While the official response to new religious groups has been mixed across the globe, some governments aligned more with the critics of these groups to the extent of distinguishing between \"legitimate\" religion and \"dangerous\", \"unwanted\" cults in public policy.\n", "The Austrian government does not always distinguish sects in Austria as a separate group. Rather, religious groups are divided into three legal categories: officially recognized religious societies, religious confessional communities, and associations. In 2010, the most recent year for which sects were officially distinguished in Austria, the groups included the Church of Scientology, the Unification Church, the Divine Light Mission, Eckankar, Hare Krishna, Osho movement, Sahaja Yoga, Sai Baba, Sri Chinmoy, Transcendental Meditation, Fiat Lux, Universal Life, and The Family International.\n\nSection::::Canada.\n\nThe \"Ant Hill Kids\" (now defunct) founded by Roch Thériault\n", "Governmental lists of cults and sects\n\nThe application of the labels \"cults\" or \"sects\" to (for example) religious movements in government documents usually signifies the popular and negative use of the term \"cult\" in English and a functionally similar use of words translated as \"sect\" in several European languages. Government reports which have used these words include ones from Austria,\n\nBelgium,\n", "By sociological typology, \"cults\" are, like sects, new religious groups. But, unlike sects, they can form without breaking off from another religious group, though this is by no means always the case. The characteristic that most distinguishes cults from sects is that they are not advocating a return to \"pure\" religion but rather the embracing of something new or something that has been completely lost or forgotten (e.g., lost scriptures or new prophecy). Cults are also much more likely to be led by charismatic leaders than are other religious groups and the charismatic leaders tend to be the individuals who bring forth the new or lost component that is the focal element of the cult.\n", "The secular opposition to cults and new religious movements operates internationally, though a number of sizable and sometimes expanding groups originated in the United States. Some European countries, such as France, Germany, Belgium and Switzerland have introduced legislation or taken other measures against cults or \"cultic deviations\".\n\nIn the Netherlands \"cults\", sects, and new religious movements have the same legal rights as larger and more mainstream religious movements. As of 2004, the Netherlands do not have an anti-cult movement of any significance.\n\nSection::::National anti-cult movements.\n\nSection::::National anti-cult movements.:United States.\n", "BULLET::::- 2008:Nepal, the world's only Hindu Kingdom, was declared a secular state by its Constituent Assembly after declaring the state a Republic on 28 May 2008.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: The Church of Scientology in France was fined €600,000 and several of its leaders were fined and imprisoned for defrauding new recruits of their savings. The state failed to disband the church owing to legal changes occurring over the same time period.\n", "Section::::Governmental policies and actions.:United States.\n", "However the term cult does not carry \"legal force\" at the time of the declaration of the association. As recalled by the Minister of Interior (in charge of the Central Bureau of Religious Affairs) to prefects it is only when the administration gives him the benefit of tax advantages as a religious association under the 1905 Act, its nature of worship is regularly recognized.\n\nSection::::Legal system.:Prerequisites.\n\nThe administrative law has established three requirements so that an association can be considered religious under the law of December 9, 1905:\n\nBULLET::::- It must be devoted to \"the exercise of religion.\"\n", "The phenomena of \"cults\" has also entered into the discourses of Christian missions and theology of religions. An initial step in this direction occurred in 1980 when the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization convened a mini-consultation in Thailand. From that consultation a position paper was produced. The issue was revisited at the Lausanne Forum in 2004 with another paper. The latter paper adopts a different methodology to that advocated in 1980.\n", "Section::::Other work.\n", "was authorized by the National Convention on 7 May 1794 as the civic religion of France.\n\nSection::::Religious tenets.\n", "A Canadian Security Intelligence Service report of 1999 discussed \"Doomsday Religious Movements espousing hostile beliefs and having the potential to be violent..\" Groups classified as \"Doomsday Religious Movements\" included:\n\nBULLET::::- the Branch Davidians\n\nBULLET::::- Canada's Order of the Solar Temple\n\nBULLET::::- Aum Shinrikyo (called the \"Aum cult\")\n", "Since at least the early 2000s, most sociologists of religion have used the term \"new religious movement\" to avoid the pejorative undertones of terms like \"cult\" and \"sect\". These are words that have been used in different ways by different groups. For instance, from the nineteenth century onward a number of sociologists used the terms \"cult\" and \"sect\" in very specific ways. The sociologist Ernst Troeltsch for instance differentiated \"churches\" from \"sect\" by claiming that the former term should apply to groups that stretch across social strata while \"sects\" typically contain converts from socially disadvantaged sectors of society.\n", "Section::::Governmental policies and actions.\n", "Section::::Governmental policies and actions.:China.\n", "J. Gordon Melton stated that in 1970, \"one could count the number of active researchers on new religions on one's hands.\" James R. Lewis writes, however, that the \"meteoric growth\" on this field of study can be attributed to the cult controversy of the early 1970s, when news stories about the People's Temple and Heavens Gate were being reported. Because of \"a wave of nontraditional religiosity\" in the late 1960s and early 1970s, academics perceived new religious movements as different phenomena from previous religious innovations.\n\nSection::::Anti-cult movements.\n\nSection::::Anti-cult movements.:Christian countercult movement.\n", "The sociologist Paul Schnabel has argued that the Church of Scientology originated from an \"audience cult\" (the readership of Hubbard's book \"\" and the \"Astounding Science Fiction\" article which had preceded it) into a \"client cult\" (Dianetics) then into a cult movement (the Church of Scientology).\n\nSection::::Cult and/or new religious movements.:Roy Wallis.\n\nThe sociologist Roy Wallis introduced a classification system of new religious movements based on movements' views on and relationships with the world at large.\n", "Section::::History.:CRI labels group a \"cult\".\n", "The term \"cult\" is used in reference to devotion or dedication to a particular person or place. For instance, within the Roman Catholic Church devotion to Mary, mother of Jesus is usually termed the \"Cult of Mary\". It is also used in non-religious contexts to refer to fandoms devoted to television shows like \"The Prisoner\", \"The X-Files\", and \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". In the United States, people began to use \"cult\" in a pejorative manner, to refer to Spiritualism and Christian Science during the 1890s. As commonly used, for instance in sensationalist tabloid articles, the term \"cult\" continues to have pejorative associations.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Ceremony\" and the lawsuit (1991–1994).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24220	How do people develop stage 4 cancer without noticing until it’s too late?	A lot of the symptoms can be masked by other things. One guy I knew didn't find out he had lung cancer until it had metastasized to his ribs. He coughed and ached all the time for years, but he just wrote it off as a result of his constant smoking and age. It wasn't until he went to the ER to get an xray of a 'cracked rib' that 'just wasn't getting better' that he found out at all.	[ "The aims of follow-up are to diagnose, in the earliest possible stage, any metastasis or tumors that develop later, but did not originate from the original cancer (metachronous lesions).\n", "Most people with cancer of unknown primary origin have widely disseminated and incurable disease, although a few can be cured through treatment. With treatment, typical survival with CUP ranges from 6 to 16 months. Survival rates are lower in cases with visceral metastatic disease, ranging from 6 to 9 months. Survival rates are higher when the cancer is more limited to lymph nodes, pleura, or peritoneal metastasis, which ranges from 14 to 16 months. Long-term prognosis is somewhat better if a particular source of cancer is strongly suggested by clinical evidence.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Another potential biomarker may be p27. Survivors with tumors that expressed p27 and performed greater and equal to 18 MET hours per week were found to have reduced colorectal-cancer mortality survival compared to those with less than 18 MET hours per week. Survivors without p27 expression who exercised were shown to have worse outcomes. The constitutive activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway may explain the loss of p27 and excess energy balance may up-regulate p27 to stop cancer cells from dividing.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Survival is directly related to detection and the type of cancer involved, but overall is poor for symptomatic cancers, as they are typically quite advanced. Survival rates for early stage detection are about five times that of late stage cancers. People with a tumor that has not breached the muscularis mucosa (TNM stage Tis, N0, M0) have a five-year survival rate of 100%, while those with invasive cancer of T1 (within the submucosal layer) or T2 (within the muscular layer) have an average five-year survival rate of approximately 90%. Those with a more invasive tumor yet without node involvement (T3-4, N0, M0) have an average five-year survival rate of approximately 70%. Patients with positive regional lymph nodes (any T, N1-3, M0) have an average five-year survival rate of approximately 40%, while those with distant metastases (any T, any N, M1) have an average five-year survival rate of approximately 5% and an average survival time of 13 months.\n", "The average five-year recurrence rate in people where surgery is successful is 5% for stage I cancers, 12% in stage II and 33% in stage III. However, depending on the number of risk factors it ranges from 9 – 22% in stage II and 17 – 44% in stage III.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe signs and symptoms of colorectal cancer depend on the location of the tumor in the bowel, and whether it has spread elsewhere in the body (metastasis). The classic warning signs include: worsening constipation, blood in the stool, decrease in stool caliber (thickness), loss of appetite, loss of weight, and nausea or vomiting in someone over 50 years old. Around 50% of individuals with colorectal cancer do not report any symptoms.\n", "Many of the symptoms of NSCLC can be signs of other diseases, but having chronic or overlapping symptoms may be a signal of the presence of the disease. Some symptoms are indicators of less advanced cases while some may signal that the cancer has spread. Some of the symptoms of less advanced cancer include chronic cough, coughing up blood, chest pain, hoarseness, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, weight loss, and loss of appetite. A few more symptoms associated with the early progression of the disease are feeling weak, being very tired, having trouble swallowing, swelling in the face or neck, and continuous or recurring infections like bronchitis or pneumonia. Signs of more advanced cases include bone pain, nervous system changes (headache, weakness, dizziness, balance problems, seizures), jaundice, lumps near the surface of the body, numbness of extremities due to Pancoast Syndrome, and nausea, vomiting and constipation brought on by hypercalcemia. Some more of the symptoms that indicate further progression of the cancer include shortness of breath, superior vena cava syndrome, trouble swallowing, large amounts of mucus, weakness, fatigue, and hoarseness.\n", "Presence of metastases is determined by a CT scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis. Other potential imaging tests such as PET and MRI may be used in certain cases. Staging of the cancer is based on both radiological and pathological findings. As for most other forms of cancer, tumor staging is based on the TNM system which considers how much the initial tumor has spread and the presence of metastases in lymph nodes and more distant organs. The AJCC 8th edition was published in 2018.\n", "Those who survive cancer develop a second primary cancer at about twice the rate of those never diagnosed. The increased risk is believed to be due to the random chance of developing any cancer, the likelihood of surviving the first cancer, the same risk factors that produced the first cancer, unwanted side effects of treating the first cancer (particularly radiation therapy), and to better compliance with screening.\n", "CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances. The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Section::::Staging.:Five-year survival rates.\n\nThe survival rates for stages I through IV decrease significantly due to the advancement of the disease. For stage I, the five-year survival rate is 47%, stage II is 30%, stage III is 10%, and stage IV is 1%.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The most common metastasis sites for colorectal cancer are the liver, the lung and the peritoneum.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Tumor budding.\n", "In the United States, about 160,000 new cases of colorectal cancer are diagnosed each year. Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer is responsible for approximately 2 percent to 7 percent of all diagnosed cases of colorectal cancer. The average age of diagnosis of cancer in patients with this syndrome is 44 years old, as compared to 64 years old in people without the syndrome.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "There are case reports of rhabdoid carcinomas recurring after unusually long periods, which is unusual for a fast-growing, aggressive tumor type. One report described a very early stage patient whose tumor recurred 6 years after initial treatment. Although rapidly progressive, fulminant courses seem to be the rule in this entity, long-term survival has also been noted, even post-metastectomy in late stage, distant metastatic disease.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Less than 600 genes are linked to outcomes in colorectal cancer. These include both unfavorable genes, where high expression is related to poor outcome, for example the heat shock 70 kDa protein 1 (HSPA1A), and favorable genes where high expression is associated with better survival, for example the putative RNA-binding protein 3 (RBM3).\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nGlobally more than 1 million people get colorectal cancer every year resulting in about 715,000 deaths as of 2010 up from 490,000 in 1990.\n", "In a study of open-access endoscopy in Scotland, patients were diagnosed 7% in Stage I 17% in Stage II, and 28% in Stage III. A Minnesota population was diagnosed 10% in Stage I, 13% in Stage II, and 18% in Stage III. However, in a high-risk population in the Valdivia Province of southern Chile, only 5% of patients were diagnosed in the first two stages and 10% in stage III.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "In addition, patients diagnosed with small cell lung carcinoma has an increased vulnerability to nervous system problems (i.e. \"Lambert-Eaton syndrome\", \"paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration\"), Cushing syndrome and Syndrome of Inappropriate Anti-diuretic Hormone (SIADH) and can demonstrate relevant symptoms .\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "In cases where a metastasis from colorectal cancer is suspected, immunohistochemistry is used to ascertain correct diagnosis. Some proteins are more specifically expressed in colorectal cancer and can be used as diagnostic markers such as CK20 and MUC2. Immunohistochemistry can also be used to screen for Lynch syndrome, a genetic disorder with increased risk of colorectal and other cancers. The diagnosis of Lynch syndrome is made by looking for specific genetic mutations in genes MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2. Immunohistochemical testing can also be used to guide treatment and assist in determining the prognosis. Certain markers isolated from the tumor can indicate specific cancer types or susceptibility to different treatments.\n", "Those with a family history in two or more first-degree relatives (such as a parent or sibling) have a two to threefold greater risk of disease and this group accounts for about 20% of all cases. A number of genetic syndromes are also associated with higher rates of colorectal cancer. The most common of these is hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome) which is present in about 3% of people with colorectal cancer. Other syndromes that are strongly associated with colorectal cancer include Gardner syndrome, and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). For people with these syndromes, cancer almost always occurs and makes up 1% of the cancer cases. A total proctocolectomy may be recommended for people with FAP as a preventative measure due to the high risk of malignancy. Colectomy, removal of the colon, may not suffice as a preventative measure because of the high risk of rectal cancer if the rectum remains.\n", "Carcinomas are usually staged with Roman numerals. In most classifications, Stage I and Stage II carcinomas are confirmed when the tumor has been found to be small and/or to have spread to local structures only. Stage III carcinomas typically have been found to have spread to regional lymph nodes, tissues, and/or organ structures, while Stage IV tumors have already metastasized through the blood to distant sites, tissues, or organs.\n\nIn some types of carcinomas, Stage 0 carcinoma has been used to describe carcinoma \"in situ\", and occult carcinomas detectable only via examination of sputum for malignant cells (in lung carcinomas).\n", "Emotional neglect is linked to advanced cancer stages.\n\nSection::::Considerations.:Current research.\n", "Similar to other lung cancers, according to the American Cancer Society, the most common symptoms of limited-stage of lung cancer are:\n\nBULLET::::- Progressive and persistent cough\n\nBULLET::::- Coughing up blood or rust-coloured sputum\n\nBULLET::::- Shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- Chest pain that is often worse with deep breathing, coughing, or laughing\n\nBULLET::::- Weight loss and loss of appetite\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- New onset of wheezing\n\nBULLET::::- Recurrent respiratory tract infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis\n", "This long-standing model has a hidden assumption: namely, that all cancers inevitably progress. But some pre-clinical cancers will not progress to cause problems for patients. And if screening (or testing for some other reason) detects these cancers, overdiagnosis has occurred.\n\nThe figure below depicts the heterogeneity of cancer progression using 4 arrows to represent 4 categories of cancer progression.\n", "Prognosis depends on how early the cancer is discovered and treated. For the least aggressive grade, about 90% of patients survive more than five years after diagnosis. People usually have a good survival rate at the low grade volume of cancer. For the most aggressive grade, only 10% of patients will survive one year.\n\nTumors may recur in the future. Follow up scans are extremely important for chondrosarcoma to make sure there has been no recurrence or metastasis, which usually occurs in the lungs.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe majority of patients who are diagnosed with lung cancer usually present with locally advanced or metastatic disease. Only about one third of patients have stage I disease when diagnosed. The symptoms that the patient exhibits usually reflect the extent of the cancer's spread. Lung cancers that are discovered early may cause symptoms localized to the respiratory system. However, lung cancer that is advanced will cause patients to experience additional signs and symptoms secondary to the cancer spreading to other organ systems. In order of highest frequency, the most common signs of lung cancer include:\n" ]	[ "It seems impossible that someone with a stage 4 cancer would not notice it until it's too late." ]	[ "Cancer symptoms can be masked by other things." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It seems impossible that someone with a stage 4 cancer would not notice it until it's too late." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cancer symptoms can be masked by other things." ]
2018-12871	Why do humans not have a "mating season"?	This is essentially the question of why human females have _concealed ovulation_. They are only fertile at certain times, but unlike many other animals they don't overtly advertise those fertile times. We don't know for _sure_ why this is so. The hypothesis I think has the most weight is that it developed as a way for females to maintain persistent male investment. In species that advertise when they are fertile, males can seek mating opportunities at that time, and otherwise ignore the female. Assuring paternity in a female's offspring requires little to no investment by the males. In a species like us, with concealed ovulation, males can only be assured of their paternity by constant vigilance. They don't know when a sexual encounter could lead to pregnancy, and therefore have "hang around", and court the female to maintain her interest. This courting would have involved primarily offers of food. This may have even been the precursor to male parental investment. After females developed concealed ovulation to maintain male investment in _them_, it probably became evolutionarily advantageous to simply extend that investment to the resulting offspring. In most of the animal kingdom, fathers don't care about their children. Feelings of paternal love may have ultimately developed because of this change in parental investment in males.	[ "Section::::Seasonality.:Mammals.\n\nMating seasons are often associated with changes to herd or group structure, and behavioural changes, including territorialism amongst individuals. These may be annual (e.g. wolves), biannual (e.g. dogs) or more frequently (e.g. horses). During these periods, females of most mammalian species are more mentally and physically receptive to sexual advances, a period scientifically described as estrous but commonly described as being \"in season\" or \"in heat\". Sexual behaviour may occur outside estrus, and such acts as do occur are not necessarily harmful.\n", "Unlike many other animals, humans do not have a mating season, and both sexes are potentially capable of sexual arousal throughout the year.\n\nSection::::Disorders.\n", "Many animal species have specific mating (or breeding) periods e.g. (seasonal breeding) so that offspring are born or hatch at an optimal time. In marine species with limited mobility and external fertilisation like corals, sea urchins and clams, the timing of the common spawning is the only externally visible form of sexual behaviour. In areas with continuously high primary production, some species have a series of breeding seasons throughout the year. This is the case with most primates (who are primarily tropical and subtropical animals). Some animals (opportunistic breeders) breed dependent upon other conditions in their environment aside from time of year.\n", "Females of most mammalian species display hormonally-induced physical and behavioral signals of their fertility during the fertile window, such as sexual swellings and increased motivation to mate. Some species will not—or cannot—engage in sex at all outside of this window. This phase of sexual receptivity and proceptivity, estrus, is often referred to as being \"in heat\".\n", "The Mating Season\n\nThe Mating season is the seasonal period when a female animal's estrous cycle is active, signaling animals to mate\n\n\"The Mating Season\" may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mating Season\" (novel), a Jeeves and Wooster novel by P. G. Wodehouse\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mating Season\" (play), a 1969 comedy by Sam Cree whose lead actor in a 1976 revival, Sid James, died on stage\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mating Season\" (film), a 1951 American comedy based on the play Maggie by Caesar Dunn\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mating Season\" (1966 film), a Hong Kong Shaw Brothers film\n", "The challenge hypothesis was established based upon data examining seasonal breeders. There are many species, however, who are continuous breeders—namely, species that breed year-round and whose mating periods are distributed throughout the year (e.g., humans). In continuous breeders, females are sexually receptive during estrus, at which time ovarian follicles are maturing and ovulation can occur. Evidence of ovulation, the phase during which conception is most probable, is advertised to males among many non-human primates via swelling and redness of the genitalia.\n", "Monoestrous species, such as bears, foxes, and wolves, have only one breeding season per year, typically in spring to allow growth of the offspring during the warm season to aid survival during the next winter.\n\nA few mammalian species, such as rabbits, do not have an estrous cycle and are able to conceive at almost any arbitrary moment (comparable with humans, who, however, have a menstrual cycle in place of an estrous cycle).\n", "Annual breeding cycles sometimes apply to mammals, with regulating environmental effects including seasonal temperature variation and food availability. Migration patterns of a mammal may sometimes govern breeding times. Mammal breeding in the wild sometimes involves the use of maternity dens for birthing and protection of the young. The polar bear is an example of a mammal who uses a maternity den, whose locations are influenced by migration movements of this species to the seasonal Arctic pack ices. In particular, the polar bears who breed in Wapusk National Park need to migrate to the Hudson Bay pack ice.\n", "Robinson \"et al.\" also report a birth season of December to January for the species in Peru at 4ºS. Why this specific birth season should be chosen by the species in such widely divergent places both north and south of the equator with different phenological cycles must remain for the moment an open question. The newborn quickly acclimates to being carried by the male, and usually goes to the female for nursing only.\n\nSection::::Natural history.:Communication.\n", "Section::::Seasonality.\n", "Observations of females in southern Texas revealed that ovaries are developed by two years of age and the first birth takes place typically a year later, though in a few cases females as young as one-and-a-half years may mate successfully. Females can breed again around a year after parturition. Males in the same location were found to have active testes by the age of three years, that matured considerably by the next year. Males become sexually active at four or five years. Mating may occur throughout the year, with peaks of three to four months. The time of the year when these peaks occur varies geographically. In Texas, a peak is apparent from December to March. In Bharatpur National Park (Rajasthan, India) the breeding season is from October to February, peaking in November and December. The Sariska reserve witnesses a similar peak in December and January.\n", "During the proestral period, increased levels of oestradiol make the female attractive to the male. There is a rise in progesterone during the oestral phase and the female is now receptive. Following this, the level of oestradiol fluctuates and there is a lengthy dioestrous phase during which the female is pregnant. Pseudo-pregnancy frequently occurs in canids that have ovulated but failed to conceive. A period of anoestrus follows pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy, there being only one oestral period during each breeding season. Small and medium-sized canids mostly have a gestation period of 50 to 60 days, while larger species average 60 to 65 days. The time of year in which the breeding season occurs is related to the length of day, as has been demonstrated in the case of several species that have been translocated across the equator to the other hemisphere and experiences a six-month shift of phase. Domestic dogs and certain small canids in captivity may come into oestrus more frequently, perhaps because the photoperiod stimulus breaks down under conditions of artificial lighting.\n", "Season (society)\n\nThe social season, or season, refers to the traditional annual period when it is customary for members of a social elite of society to hold balls, dinner parties and charity events. Until World War I, it was also the appropriate time to be resident in the city rather than in the country in order to attend such events.\n", "BULLET::::- the outward signs of estrous in women (i.e. higher body temperature, breast swelling, sugar cravings, etc.), are often perceived to be less obvious in comparison to the outward signs of ovulation in most other mammals;\n\nBULLET::::- for most mammals, the estrous cycle and its outward signs bring on mating activity; the majority of female-initiated matings in humans coincides with estrous, but humans copulate throughout the reproductive cycle;\n", "Gestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and require care for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for eight to thirteen years in most species (longer in humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season.\n", "Seasonal breeders are distinct from opportunistic breeders, that mate whenever the conditions of their environment become favorable, and continuous breeders, like humans, that mate year-round.\n\nSection::::Timing of seasonal breeding.\n", "Research is fairly consistent in the finding that species with concealed estrus mate at all stages of their ovarian cycle. For instance, mating activity in assamese macaques (\"Macaca assamensis\") has been investigated. The researchers analysed the levels of progesterone in the monkeys, in order to establish the ovarian stage of the female, as progesterone peaks following the fertile window. They found that the females concealed estrus and were sexually receptive during the entire mating season. Concealed estrus and sexual receptivity (at all times of the ovarian cycle) aids paternity confusion. This is because the males are unsure of who mated with the female during her fertile period, and so do not know the identity of the father.\n", "Seasonal breeders are animal species that successfully mate only during certain times of the year. These times of year allow for the optimization of survival of young due to factors such as ambient temperature, food and water availability, and changes in the predation behaviors of other species. Related sexual interest and behaviors are expressed and accepted only during this period. Female seasonal breeders will have one or more estrus cycles only when she is \"in season\" or fertile and receptive to mating. At other times of the year, they will be anestrus, or have a dearth of their sexual cycle. Unlike reproductive cyclicity, seasonality is described in both males and females. Male seasonal breeders may exhibit changes in testosterone levels, testes weight, and fertility depending on the time of year.\n", "For many amphibians, an annual breeding cycle applies, typically regulated by ambient temperature, precipitation, availability of surface water and food supply. This breeding season is accentuated in temperate regions, in boreal climate the breeding season is typically concentrated to a few short days in the spring. Some species, such as the Rana Clamitans (green frog), spend from June to August defending their territory. In order to protect these territories, they use five vocalizations.\n\nSection::::Seasonality.:Fish.\n", "The gestation period of gray langur lasts around 200 days, at least at Jodhpur, India. In some areas, reproduction is year-around. Year-round reproduction appears to occur in populations that capitalize on human-made foods. Other populations have seasonal reproduction.\n", "Many events of the season have traditional expectations with regard to Western dress codes.\n", "Although fertilization ensues immediately after mating, there is little development of the embryo. The delay in embryonic development ensures that birth coincides with a season when food is abundant enough to maintain lactating females, which have a high demand for energy. The delay in embryonic development also permits mating to take place when both males and females are in prime physical condition and have access to good supplies of food.\n", "In humans and bonobos, the female undergoes relatively concealed ovulation so that male and female partners commonly do not know whether she is fertile at any given moment. One possible reason for this distinct biological feature may be formation of strong emotional bonds between sexual partners important for social interactions and, in the case of humans, long-term partnership rather than immediate sexual reproduction. \n", "Raccoons usually mate in a period triggered by increasing daylight between late January and mid-March. However, there are large regional differences which are not completely explicable by solar conditions. For example, while raccoons in southern states typically mate later than average, the mating season in Manitoba also peaks later than usual in March and extends until June. During the mating season, males restlessly roam their home ranges in search of females in an attempt to court them during the three- to four-day period when conception is possible. These encounters will often occur at central meeting places. Copulation, including foreplay, can last over an hour and is repeated over several nights. The weaker members of a \"male social group\" also are assumed to get the opportunity to mate, since the stronger ones cannot mate with all available females. In a study in southern Texas during the mating seasons from 1990 to 1992, about one third of all females mated with more than one male. If a female does not become pregnant or if she loses her kits early, she will sometimes become fertile again 80 to 140 days later.\n", "For most species, reproduction is seasonal. Ovulation coincides with male fertility. This cycle is usually coupled with seasonal movements that can be observed in many species. Most toothed whales have no fixed bonds. In many species, females choose several partners during a season. Baleen whales are largely monogamous within each reproductive period.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02800	How much energy can wind power stations produce?	Kilowatts is a measure of power (that is, energy over time), so it's already time-based. If it can produce 600 kW, that means it can produce 600 kilojoules per second. The "average" home (the kind where they say "this is enough to power X homes") uses 1 kW, so a 600 kW power station could power around 600 homes.	[ "The total capacity for the state as of 2014 was around 1,080 MW, more than double the output of the Anglesea Coal Fired Power Station. Several wind farms are under construction while several more have been proposed and approved. The total potential capacity of wind turbines in Victoria including those currently operational, those under construction, and approved proposals is around 3,600 MW. By comparison, Victoria's total peak electricity usage is around 8,000–10,000 MW.\n\nSection::::Wind farms in Victoria.\n\nThis is a list of wind farms in Victoria, Australia with a generating capacity of more than 4 MW:\n\nBULLET::::- Summary of Victoria-wide total production in MW\n", "786,000 MW (68,379/0.087), they would generate, at a 35% capacity factor, 2.4 million MWh per year – four times use, but might be sufficient to meet summer peaks. In practice it is likely that there are times with almost no wind in the entire region, making this not a practical solution. There were 54 days in 2002 when there was little wind power available in Denmark. The estimated wind power installed capacity potential for Texas, using 100 meter wind turbines at 35% capacity factor, is 1,757,355.6 MW. In locations like British Columbia, with abundant water power resources, water power can always make up any shortfall in wind power.\n", "Wind farms are variable, due to the natural variability of the wind. \n\nFor a wind farm, the capacity factor is determined by the availability of wind, the swept area of the turbine and the size of the generator. \n\nTransmission line capacity and electricity demand also affect the capacity factor. \n\nTypical capacity factors of current wind farms are between 25 and 45%. In the United Kingdom during the five year period from 2011 to 2015 the annual capacity factor for wind was over 30%. \n", "The actual amount of electric power that wind is able to generate is calculated by multiplying the nameplate capacity by the capacity factor, which varies according to equipment and location.\n\nEstimates of the capacity factors for wind installations are in the range of 35% to 44%.\n\nSection::::Wind power capacity and production.:Growth trends.\n", "Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 15–50%; values at the upper end of the range are achieved in favourable sites and are due to wind turbine design improvements.\n", "As the figures given above were published before the turbines had been operational for a full year they are projected rather than recorded figures. Wind speed is not constant, therefore, a wind farm's annual energy production never achieves the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20–40%, with values at the upper end of the range achieved on particularly favourable sites. The expected capacity factor for Fântânele-Cogealac Wind Farm, calculated from the company's projected figures, is 30%.\n", "Online data is available for some locations, and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output. For example, the German nationwide average wind power capacity factor over all of 2012 was just under 17.5% (45,867 GW·h/yr / (29.9 GW × 24 × 366) = 0.1746), and the capacity factor for Scottish wind farms averaged 24% between 2008 and 2010.\n", "Section::::Notable wind turbines on public display.\n\nBULLET::::- Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Blayney Wind Farm, New South Wales has a viewing area and interpretive centre\n\nBULLET::::- Wattle Point Wind Farm, South Australia has an information centre\n\nBULLET::::- Canada\n\nBULLET::::- OPG 7 commemorative turbine is a Vestas V80-1.8MW wind turbine on the site of the Pickering Nuclear Generating Station\n\nBULLET::::- Toronto Hydro - WindShare features a Lagerwey Wind model LW 52 wind turbine at Exhibition Place\n\nBULLET::::- China\n\nBULLET::::- Inner Mongolia's Huitengxile Wind Farm has 14 visitor centers to accommodate wind power tourists to the remote region\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong\n", "Section::::Wind power capacity and production.:Capacity credit, fuel savings and energy payback.\n\nThe capacity credit of wind is estimated by determining the capacity of conventional plants displaced by wind power, whilst maintaining the same degree of system security. According to the American Wind Energy Association, production of wind power in the United States in 2015 avoided consumption of 73 billion gallons of water and reduced emissions by 132 million metric tons, while providing USD 7.3 bn in public health savings.\n", "The 845-megawatt Shepherds Flat Wind Farm in Oregon is the first windpark in the United States to utilize this model as its primary wind turbine.\n\nThe Fantanele-Cogealac wind farm in Romania, constructed in 2008, uses 240 GE 2.5xl wind turbines capable of generating a total of 600 MW, powering a million Romanian households each year.\n\nThe offshore GE 3.6 SL model was installed at the Arklow Bank Wind Park.\n", "Each of Palo Verde’s three reactors is refueled every 18 months, with one refueling every spring and fall. In 2014, a refueling was completed in a record 28 days, compared to the 35 days of downtime that the 2010 capacity factor corresponds to.\n\nSection::::Sample calculations.:Wind farm.\n\nThe Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 2, the world's largest at its inauguration in 2009, has a nameplate capacity of 209.3 MW.\n\nSites with lower capacity factors may be deemed feasible for wind farms, for example the onshore 1 GW Fosen Vind which is under construction in Norway has a projected capacity factor of 39%.\n", "Section::::Wind power by state.\n\nA full listing of all the wind farms in Australia, can be found in List of wind farms in Australia. Relevant state articles are:\n\nBULLET::::- New South Wales wind power\n\nBULLET::::- Queensland wind farms\n\nBULLET::::- South Australia wind power\n\nBULLET::::- Tasmania wind farms\n\nBULLET::::- Victoria wind farms\n\nBULLET::::- Western Australia wind farms\n\nBULLET::::- Installed capacity by state\n\nThe following figures are based on capacity and generation as at the end of 2018. Proposed figures are updated to March 2019.\n", "Certain onshore wind farms can reach capacity factors of over 60%, for example the 44 MW Eolo plant in Nicaragua had a net generation of 232.132 GWh in 2015, equivalent to a capacity factor of 60.2%, while U.S. annual capacity factors from 2013 through 2016 range from 32.2% to 34.7%.\n\nSince the capacity factor of a wind turbine measures actual production relative to possible production, it is unrelated to Betz's coefficient of 16/27 formula_3 59.3%, which limits production vs. energy available in the wind.\n\nSection::::Sample calculations.:Hydroelectric dam.\n", "In 2016 the Norwegian Wind Energy Association (NORWEA) estimated the LCoE of a typical Norwegian wind farm at 44 €/MWh, assuming a weighted average cost of capital of 8% and an annual 3,500 full load hours, i.e. a capacity factor of 40%. NORWEA went on to estimate the LCoE of the 1 GW Fosen Vind onshore wind farm which is expected to be operational by 2020 to be as low as 35 €/MWh to 40 €/MWh. In November 2016, Vattenfall won a tender to develop the Kriegers Flak windpark in the Baltic Sea for 49.9 €/MWh, and similar levels were agreed for the Borssele offshore wind farms. As of 2016, this is the lowest projected price for electricity produced using offshore wind.\n", "By the end of 2011, the United States had installed 46,919 MW of wind power, and generated 94,652 GWh of electricity from wind power in 2010.\n\nThe annual production of a wind turbine is a product of the capacity rating, the capacity factor, and the number of hours in a year. A 200 MW wind farm at 35% capacity factor will generate approximately 613.2 GWh/year.\n", "Fluctuations in load and allowance for failure of large fossil-fuel generating units requires operating reserve capacity, which can be increased to compensate for variability of wind generation.\n\nWind power is variable, and during low wind periods it must be replaced by other power sources. Transmission networks presently cope with outages of other generation plants and daily changes in electrical demand, but the variability of intermittent power sources such as wind power, is more frequent than those of conventional power generation plants which, when scheduled to be operating, may be able to deliver their nameplate capacity around 95% of the time.\n", "BULLET::::- Wind power in Denmark – Melbourne University Press,\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power in Estonia – amounts to an installed capacity of 184 MW, whilst roughly 546 MW worth of projects are currently being developed.\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power in Finland – describes wind power in Finland as part of energy in Finland and renewable energy in Finland.\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power in France –\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power in Germany –\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power in Greece –\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power in Hungary – was 329 MW as of April 2011.\n", "The following table lists some of the largest proposed onshore wind farms, by nameplate capacity.\n\nSection::::Maps of all the coordinates in this article.\n\nNote that the Google map allows the display of the coordinates listed in the individual sections of the article to be turned on and off (use the expand(+) / contract(-) icons and the checkboxes to control which sections, or individual coordinate flags, are displayed). \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of wind farms in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of energy storage projects\n\nBULLET::::- List of offshore wind farms\n\nBULLET::::- Wind ENergy Data & Information (WENDI) Gateway\n", "Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics (among other factors). If wind speed is too low (less than about 2.5 m/s) then the wind turbines will not be able to make electricity, and if it is too high (more than about 25 m/s) the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.\n", "List of onshore wind farms\n\nThis is a list of the largest onshore wind farms that are currently operational, rated by generating capacity. Also listed are onshore wind farms with notability other than size, and largest proposed projects.\n\nSection::::Largest operational onshore wind farms.\n\nThis is a list of the onshore wind farms that are larger than in current nameplate capacity. Many of these wind farms have been built in stages, and construction of a further stage may be continuing at some of these sites. \n\nSection::::Large proposed wind farms.\n", "In addition to the aerodynamic design of the blades, the design of a complete wind power system must also address the design of the installation's rotor hub, nacelle, tower structure, generator, controls, and foundation.\n\nTurbine design makes extensive use of computer modelling and simulation tools. These are becoming increasingly sophisticated as highlighted by a recent state-of-the-art review by Hewitt et al.\n\nFurther design factors must also be considered when integrating wind turbines into electrical power grids.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 100% renewable energy\n\nBULLET::::- Airborne wind turbine\n\nBULLET::::- Cost of electricity by source\n\nBULLET::::- Global Wind Day\n", "There are many large wind farms under construction and these include Sinus Holding Wind Farm (700 MW), Anholt Offshore Wind Farm (400 MW), BARD Offshore 1 (400 MW), Clyde Wind Farm (350 MW), Greater Gabbard wind farm (500 MW), Lincs Wind Farm (270 MW), London Array (1000 MW), Lower Snake River Wind Project (343 MW), Macarthur Wind Farm (420 MW), Shepherds Flat Wind Farm (845 MW), and Sheringham Shoal (317 MW).\n\nWind power in Denmark produced the equivalent of 42.1% of total electricity consumption in 2015, however, use of wind for heating is minor.\n\nSection::::Alternative Sources of Energy.:Solar.\n", "This is a list of wind farms with a nameplate capacity of more than 300MW currently under construction. \n\nSection::::Largest proposed.\n\nThe following table lists largest offshore wind farm areas (by nameplate capacity) that are only at a \"proposal\" stage, and have achieved at least some of the formal consents required before construction can begin.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Jackup rig\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest wind farms in the world\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of offshore wind farms by country\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of offshore wind farms by water area\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power by country\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The Iowa Stored Energy Park, projected to begin commercial operation in 2015, will use wind farms in Iowa as an energy source in conjunction with CAES.\n\nSection::::Wind-solar systems.\n\nSection::::Wind-solar systems.:Wind-solar building.\n\nThe Pearl River Tower in Guangzhou, China, will mix solar panel on its windows and several wind turbines at different stories of its structure, allowing this tower to be energy positive.\n\nSection::::Wind-solar systems.:Wind-solar lighting.\n", "Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA. As of 2011, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the second largest onshore wind farm in the world, producing 781.5 MW of power, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of July 2013, the London Array in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW, followed by Thanet Offshore Wind Project in United Kingdom at 300 MW.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00308	How does stainless steel naturally kill bacteria?	In general, stainless steel [doesn’t exhibit antibacterial propertie]( URL_0 )s. It is frequently used in healthcare because it is easily cleaned, and holds up well to powerful cleaners/disinfectants.	[ "Studies have found prolonged viability of bacteria on stainless-steel surfaces at room temperature. In a specific study, stainless steel was inoculated with 10 CFU/cm \"E. coli\" and \"K. pneumonia\", containing bla and bla (antibiotic-resistant genes) respectively. Thirty days later (at room temperature, 22˚ C), 10 viable cells remained; and, after 100 days, 100 CFU/cm of \"E. coli\" remained.\n", "Unlike copper alloys, stainless steel (S30400) does not exhibit any degree of bactericidal properties. This material, which is one of the most common touch surface materials in the healthcare industry, allows toxic \"E. coli\" O157:H7 to remain viable for weeks. Near-zero bacterial counts are not observed even after 28 days of investigation. Epifluorescence photographs have demonstrated that \"E. coli\" O157:H7 is almost completely killed on copper alloy C10200 after just 90 minutes at 20 °C; whereas a substantial number of pathogens remain on stainless steel S30400.\n\nSection::::Antimicrobial efficacy of copper alloy touch surfaces.:MRSA.\n", "Increased horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is observed simultaneously with cell viability on stainless steel surfaces. HGT is one of the major factors responsible for creating antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This suggests that immediate decontamination of surfaces is important in preventing the spread of antibiotic resistance genes. It has also been shown that horizontal transfer of antibiotic-resistant β-lactamase genes does not occur on antimicrobial copper surfaces. As copper surfaces degrade naked DNA (and plasmid DNA in antibiotic-resistant \"E. coli\" and \"K. pneumonia\"), copper surfaces would halt HGT.\n", "Section::::Antimicrobial efficacy of copper alloy touch surfaces.:\"E. coli\".:Efficacy on copper surfaces.\n\nRecent studies have shown that copper alloy surfaces kill \"E. coli\" O157:H7. Over 99.9% of \"E. coli\" microbes are killed after just 1–2 hours on copper. On stainless steel surfaces, the microbes can survive for weeks.\n", "Horizontal gene transfer has been demonstrated to occur readily on dry surfaces such as stainless steel, but not on copper and copper alloy surfaces. The rate of bacterial death increased proportionally with the percentage of copper in the copper alloy surface. This can be very important in future clinical and community settings, as an increase in copper utilization in hospital room equipment could help to greatly reduce the spread of antibiotic-resistant infection and the horizontal gene transfer of this antibiotic resistance.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Methicillin-resistant staph aureus (MRSA)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clostridium difficile\"\n\nBULLET::::- NDM-1\n\nSection::::External links and further reading.\n", "Bacterial corrosion may appear in form of pitting corrosion, for example in pipelines of the oil and gas industry. Anaerobic corrosion is evident as layers of metal sulfides and hydrogen sulfide smell. On cast iron, a graphitic corrosion selective leaching may be the result, with iron being consumed by the bacteria, leaving graphite matrix with low mechanical strength in place.\n\nVarious corrosion inhibitors can be used to combat microbial corrosion. Formulae based on benzalkonium chloride are common in oilfield industry.\n\nMicrobial corrosion can also apply to plastics, concrete, and many other materials. Two examples are Nylon-eating bacteria and Plastic-eating bacteria.\n", "All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at room temperature. At high concentration and elevated temperature attack will occur and higher alloy stainless steels are required.\n", "Stainless steel nanoparticles have been produced in the laboratory. These may have applications as additives for high performance applications. For examples, sulfurization, phosphorization and nitridation treatments to produce nanoscale stainless steel based catalysts could enhance the electrocatalytic performance of stainless steel for water splitting.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n\nStainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert, but some sensitive individuals develop a skin irritation due to a nickel allergy caused by certain alloys. Stainless steel leaches small amounts of nickel and chromium during cooking.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Argon oxygen decarburization\n\nBULLET::::- Corrugated stainless steel tubing\n\nBULLET::::- Crucible Industries\n", "In contrast, on copper and copper alloy surfaces, rapid death of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, as well as destruction of plasmid and genomic DNA, can be observed. Studies suggest that exposure to dry copper surfaces inhibits the respiration and growth of producers by releasing copper ions.\n", "The rate of total microbial death on four bronzes varied from within 50–270 minutes at 20 °C, and from 180 to 270 minutes at 4 °C.\n\nThe kill rate of \"E. coli\" O157 on copper-nickel alloys increased with increasing copper content. Zero bacterial counts at room temperature were achieved after 105–360 minutes for five of the six alloys. Despite not achieving a complete kill, alloy C71500 achieved a 4-log drop within the six-hour test, representing a 99.99% reduction in the number of live organisms.\n\nSection::::Antimicrobial efficacy of copper alloy touch surfaces.:\"E. coli\".:Efficacy on stainless steel.\n", "Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal–treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. The surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) have also been used in some of the early dental implants.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Energy.\n", "The antimicrobial efficacy of various copper alloys against \"Clostridium difficile\" was recently evaluated. The viability of \"C. difficile\" spores and vegetative cells were studied on copper alloys C11000 (99.9% copper), C51000 (95% copper), C70600 (90% copper), C26000 (70% copper), and C75200 (65% copper). Stainless steel (S30400) was used as the experimental control. The copper alloys significantly reduced the viability of both \"C. difficile\" spores and vegetative cells. On C75200, near total kill was observed after one hour (however, at 6 hours total \"C. difficile\" increased, and decreased slower afterwards). On C11000 and C51000, near total kill was observed after 3 hours, then total kill in 24 hours on C11000 and 48 hours on C51000. On C70600, near total kill was observed after 5 hours. On C26000, near total kill was achieved after 48 hours. On stainless steel, no reductions in viable organisms were observed after 72 hours (3 days) of exposure and no significant reduction was observed within 168 hours (1 week).\n", "In presence of oxygen, aerobic bacteria like \"Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans\", \"Thiobacillus thioparus\", and \"Thiobacillus concretivorus\", all three widely present in the environment, are the common corrosion-causing factors resulting in biogenic sulfide corrosion.\n", "Copper and copper alloy surfaces are an effective means for preventing the growth of bacteria. Extensive U.S. EPA-supervised antimicrobial efficacy tests on \"Staphylococcus aureus\", \"Enterobacter aerogenes\", \"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus\" (MRSA), \"Escherichia coli 0157:H7\", and \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" have determined that when cleaned regularly, some 355 different EPA-registrered antimicrobial copper alloy surfaces: \n\nBULLET::::- Continuously reduce bacterial contamination, achieving 99.9% reduction within two hours of exposure;\n\nBULLET::::- Kill greater than 99.9% of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria within two hours of exposure;\n\nBULLET::::- Deliver continuous and ongoing antibacterial action, remaining effective in killing greater than 99.9% of bacteria within two hours;\n", "\"S. oneidensis\" MR-1 belongs to a class of bacteria known as \"Dissimilatory Metal-Reducing Bacteria (DMRB)\" because of their ability to couple metal reduction with their metabolism. The means of reducing the metals is of particular controversy, as research using scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy revealed abnormal structural protrusions resembling bacterial filaments that are thought to be involved in the metal reduction. This process of producing an external filament is completely absent from conventional bacterial respiration and is the center of many current studies.\n", "BULLET::::- Okabe, S., Odagiri, M., Ito, T., Satoh, H., 2007. Succession of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in the microbial community on corroding concrete in sewer systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, 971-980.\n\nBULLET::::- Mansouri, H., Alavi, S. A., & Fotovat, M. \"Microbial Influenced Corrosion of Corten Steel Compared to Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel in Oily Waste Water by Pseudomonas Aeruginosa.\" JOM, 1-7.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Dialog to odor and biogenic corrosion in sewage, exhaust air arrangements and fermentation gas arrangements\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nKobrin, G., \"A Practical Manual on Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion\", NACE, Houston, Texas, USA, 1993.\n", "Disposable elements of the instrument ensure that issues of contamination are handled easily. The stainless steel body of the instrument allows wash-down with harsh chemicals to meet stringent decontamination requirements. 21 CFR Part 11 compliant software provides a full data audit trail that meets FDA requirements.\n\nApplications include:\n\nBULLET::::- Vaccinology & Vaccine Production\n\nBULLET::::- Virus Quantitation & Stability Assessment\n\nBULLET::::- Gene Therapy Research - Quantitation and Analysis of Viral Vectors\n\nBULLET::::- Microbiology & Virology Research (e.g. Virus-Cell Interactions)\n\nSection::::Products.:qEV.\n", "Subsequent research conducted at the University of Southampton (UK) compared the antimicrobial efficacies of copper and several non-copper proprietary coating products to kill MRSA. At 20 °C, the drop-off in MRSA organisms on copper alloy C11000 is dramatic and almost complete (over 99.9% kill rate) within 75 minutes. However, neither a triclosan-based product nor two silver-based antimicrobial treatments (Ag-A and Ag-B) exhibited any meaningful efficacy against MRSA. Stainless steel S30400 did not exhibit any antimicrobial efficacy.\n", "Studies have been conducted to examine the \"E. coli\" O157:H7 bactericidal efficacies on 25 different copper alloys to identify those alloys that provide the best combination of antimicrobial activity, corrosion/oxidation resistance, and fabrication properties. Copper's antibacterial effect was found to be intrinsic in all of the copper alloys tested. As in previous studies, no antibacterial properties were observed on stainless steel (UNS S30400). Also, in confirmation with earlier studies the rate of drop-off of \"E. coli\" O157:H7 on the copper alloys is faster at room temperature than at chill temperature.\n", "Section::::Types.:Copper alloy surfaces.\n\nCopper-alloy surfaces have intrinsic properties which effectively and quickly destroy microbes and they are being installed in healthcare facilities and in a subway transit system as a protective public health measure in addition to regular cleaning. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has approved the registration of 355 different antibacterial copper alloys that kill \"E. coli\" O157:H7, \"methicillin\"-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (\"MRSA\"), \"Staphylococcus\", \"Enterobacter aerogenes\", and \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The EPA has determined that when cleaned regularly, these copper alloy surfaces:\n\nBULLET::::- Continuously reduce bacterial contamination, achieving 99.9% reduction within two hours of exposure;\n", "BULLET::::- Finally, strain CH34 is adapted to the outlined harsh conditions by a multitude of heavy-metal resistance systems that are encoded by the two indigenous megaplasmids pMOL28 and pMOL30 on the bacterial chromosome(s).\n\nAlso it plays a vital role, together with the species \"Delftia acidovorans\", in the formation of gold nuggets, by precipitating metallic gold from a solution of gold(III) chloride, a compound highly toxic to most other microorganisms.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Article at Live Science\n\nBULLET::::- Type strain of \"Cupriavidus metallidurans\" at Bac\"Dive\" - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase\n", "316 surgical steel is also used in the manufacture and handling of food and pharmaceutical products where it is often required in order to minimize metallic contamination. \n\nThe corrosion resistance properties of all stainless steels is greatly enhanced by the passivation process. ASTM A967 details this process.\n\nSection::::Cutlery grade stainless.\n", "Copper and its alloys demonstrated antimicrobial activities against multiple-antibiotic-resistant nosocomial bacteria and \"C. albicans\" isolated from the hospital, whereas stainless steel and PVC did not. Copper and its alloys showed a marked inhibitory effect (88–98%) on MTB despite the strain's drug resistance. The researchers concluded that the minimum concentration of copper to be an effective antimicrobial agent is 55% for yeasts and bacteria. Higher concentrations of copper were found to be necessary to inhibit MTB.\n\nSection::::Clinical trials.:United Kingdom & Ireland.\n", "In contrast to chrysotile, however, balangeroite has more metal ions than silicon ions and might be in some cases seen as complex iron oxide containing some type of silicate structure in its framework. The surrounding fluid takes in a large number of the cations which are octahedrally coordinated, which unlike amphiboles, may be easily removed. As a consequence, the Mg and Fe are released forcing the silicate structure to become loosely bound and therefore pass into solution. Further tests have been conducted on Balangeroite's ecopersistence and it showed fairly low eco-persistence at neutral pH. Further studies were conducted by imitating weathering in an experiment to predict if weathered fibers retain the toxic potential present in freshly extracted fibers. The tests proved that balangeroite showed removal of Mg and Si which shows a continuous structural severance which extends far beyond the surface.\n", "Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions \"in vivo\".\n" ]	[ "Stainless steel kills bacteria." ]	[ "It doesn't kill bacteria, it is just easy to clean bacteria off, and cleaners do not damage it. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Stainless steel kills bacteria." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It doesn't kill bacteria, it is just easy to clean bacteria off, and cleaners do not damage it. " ]
2018-00754	Is it actually possible for Korea to 'reunite'?	Yes, it is possible. Just as it was possible for East and West Germany to go back to being Germany. That doesn't mean it would be easy, however. There are a lot of practical problems with merging the two states. Even if you assume that the North collapses and the South just takes control (rather than trying to create a new government from scratch) what happens to, say the political prisoners in the north? the regular prisoners? people who get money from the NK government to live on? Do the poorer people in the North automatically qualify for assistance programs from the south? can they join the military? and so on, and so on.	[ "A unified Korea could have great implications for the balance of power in the region, with South Korea already considered by many a regional power. Reunification would give access to cheap labor and abundant natural resources in the North, which, combined with existing technology and capital in the South, would create large economic and military growth potential. According to a 2009 study by Goldman Sachs, a unified Korea could have an economy larger than that of Japan by 2050. A unified Korean military would have the largest number of military reservists as well as one of the largest numbers of military hackers.\n", "Section::::Current status.\n\nEventual political integration of the Koreas under a democratic government from the South is generally viewed as inevitable by the U.S. and South Korea. However, the nature of unification, i.e. through North Korean collapse or gradual integration of the North and South, is still a topic of intense political debate and even conflict among interested parties, who include both Koreas, China, Japan, Russia, and the United States.\n", "Korean reunification () refers to the potential unification of North Korea and South Korea into a single Korean sovereign state. The process towards reunification was started by the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration in June 2000, and was reaffirmed by the Panmunjom Declaration for Peace, Prosperity and Unification of the Korean Peninsula in April 2018. In the Panmunjom Declaration, the two countries agreed to work towards a peaceful reunification of Korea in the future, and the joint statement of the United States President Donald Trump and North Korean Chairman Kim Jong-un at the Singapore Summit in June 2018. \n", "Section::::Comparisons.\n\nThe hypothetical reunification of Korea is often compared to other countries which had divided governments and reunified, including Germany and Vietnam. Like the Koreas, each of these divided countries had a USSR or China aligned communist government and a US/NATO-aligned democratic government. Germany had the communist German Democratic Republic in East Germany and the democratic Federal Republic of Germany in West Germany, and Vietnam had the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam in North Vietnam and the capitalist Republic of Vietnam in South Vietnam.\n\nSection::::Comparisons.:Germany.\n", "In September 2009, Goldman Sachs published its 188th Global Economics Paper named \"\"A United Korea?\"\" which highlighted in detail the potential economic power of a United Korea, which will surpass all current G7 countries except the United States; including Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany and France within 30–40 years of reunification, estimating GDP to surpass $6 trillion by 2050. The young, skilled labor and large amount of natural resources from the North combined with advanced technology, infrastructure and large amount of capital in the South, as well as Korea's strategic location connecting three economic powers, is likely going to create an economy larger than some of the G7. According to some opinions, a reunited Korea could occur before 2050. If it occurred, Korean reunification would immediately raise the country's population to over 70 million.\n", "Section::::Comparisons.:Vietnam.\n", "Despite now being politically separate entities, the governments of North and South Korea have proclaimed the eventual restoration of Korea as a single state as a goal. After the \"Nixon Shock\" in 1971 that led to détente between the United States and China, in 1972 the North and South Korean governments made a 7 · 4 South and North Korea Joint Statement that a representative of each government had secretly visited the capital city of the other side and that both sides had agreed to a North-South Joint Communiqué, outlining the steps to be taken towards achieving a peaceful reunification of the country:\n", "Section::::PSCORE's Work.:International Conferences and Seminars.\n\nIn Seoul there has been an International Youth Conference on North Korean Human Rights, and another human rights conference every April during North Korea Freedom Week. The conferences and seminars hosted by PSCORE aim to raise awareness and educate people on topics related to reunification of the Korean peninsula and human rights in North Korea.\n\nSection::::PSCORE's Work.:Educational Programs.\n", "Every 2–3 months from 2011 to 2015, PSCORE was hosting fundraising rock concerts entitled 'Rock out for a Good Cause' at Club Freebird in the Hongdae area of Seoul. The concerts featured both Korean and expat bands and have been very successful in helping PSCORE gain local recognition for its work, raise funds for various PSCORE programs and giving local talent a stage to play in front of up to 160 people. \n\nSection::::Partners.\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Department of State\n\nBULLET::::- South Korean Ministry of Unification (통일부)\n\nBULLET::::- North Korea Freedom Coalition\n\nBULLET::::- Hans Seidel Stiftung (독일 한스자이델 재단 )\n", "Section::::Post-Korean War.\n", "In September 2009, Goldman Sachs published its 188th Global Economics Paper named \"A United Korea?\" which highlighted in detail the potential economic power of a United Korea, which will surpass all current G7 countries except the United States and Japan within 30–40 years of reunification, estimating GDP to surpass $6 trillion by 2050. The young, skilled labor and large amount of natural resources from the North combined with advanced technology, infrastructure and large amount of capital in the South, as well as Korea's strategic location connecting three economic powers, is likely going to create an economy larger than the bulk of the G7. According to some opinions, a reunited Korea could occur before 2050, or even between 2010 and 2020. If it occurred, Korean reunification would immediately raise the country's population to over 70 million.\n", "In Kim Jong-Un's 2018 New Year's address, a Korean-led reunification was repeatedly mentioned and an unexpected proposal was made for the North's participation in the 2018 Winter Olympics that were held in Pyeongchang County of South Korea, a significant shift after several years of increasing hostilities. Subsequent meetings between North and South led to the announcement that the two Koreas would march together with a unified flag in the Olympics' Opening Ceremony and form a unified ice hockey team, with a total of 22 North Korean athletes participating in various other competitions including figure skating, short track speed skating, cross-country skiing and alpine skiing.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn October 2006, PSCORE was established by young North Korean defectors, South Korean university students, and foreigners in Korea interested in improving human rights in North Korea and the reunification of the Korean peninsula. The organization uses ‘C’ in the acronym ‘PSCORE’ to represent the pre-20th-century spelling \"Corea\", when the two countries were one.\n\nSection::::Objectives.\n", "In 2013, PSCORE began campaigns around Seoul to educate the public on the human rights abuses occurring within North Korea. The campaigns usually feature 20 different information boards which outline different issues. PSCORE volunteers also talk with interested people in order to give them a greater understanding of the current situation. So far campaigns have taken place at Gimpo International Airport, Dongdaemun History and Culture Park Station, Yongsan Station, Itaewon Station, Hongik University and Seoul National University of Education. \n\nSection::::Past actions.\n\nSection::::Past actions.:Fundraising Concerts.\n", "PSCORE also organizes monthly excursions for South Koreans, North Korean defectors and foreigners to meet and participate in cultural activities together.\n\nSection::::PSCORE's Work.:Helping Refugees in China.\n", "BULLET::::1. Unification shall be achieved through independent Korean efforts without being subject to external imposition of interference.\n\nBULLET::::2. Unification shall be achieved through peaceful means, and not through the use of force against each other.\n\nBULLET::::3. As a homogeneous people, a great national unity shall be sought above all, transcending difference in ideas, ideologies, and systems.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 North Korea–United States Hanoi Summit\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Koreas–United States DMZ Summit\n\nBULLET::::- 23880 Tongil (asteroid honoring reunification process)\n\nBULLET::::- Peace Treaty on Korean Peninsula\n\nBULLET::::- Inter-Korean summits\n\nBULLET::::- Korean conflict\n\nBULLET::::- Division of Korea\n\nBULLET::::- Korean Armistice Agreement\n\nBULLET::::- North Korea–South Korea relations\n\nBULLET::::- North Korea and weapons of mass destruction\n\nBULLET::::- Index of Korea-related articles\n\nBULLET::::- OPLAN 5027 and OPLAN 5029\n\nBULLET::::- Panmunjom Declaration\n\nBULLET::::- Korean peace process\n\nBULLET::::- List of international trips made by Kim Jong-un\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Ministry of Unification (South Korea)\n", "According to a 2017 Korea Institute for National Unification, 58% of South Korean citizens had responded that unification is necessary. Among the respondents of the 2017 survey, 14% said 'we really need unification' while 44% said 'we kind of need the unification'. Regarding the survey question of 'Do we still need unification even if ROK and DPRK could peacefully coexist?', 46% agreed and 32% disagreed.\n\nSection::::History.:Thaw in 2018.\n", "Section::::Decline of Pyu city-states.\n", "The first family unions since the end of the Korean War then took place on 20 August when about 330 South Koreans from 89 families, many in wheelchairs, embraced 185 separated relatives from the North at the Mount Kumgang resort, also known as Diamond Mountain. South Korean members of these families returned home on August 22. Between August 24 and August 26, a second round of family reunions occurred when a total of 326 South Koreans from 81 families traveled to Mount Kumgang to meet nearly 100 of their long-separated relatives from the North. On 14 September, the Inter-Korean Liaison Office opened at the Kaesong park location.\n", "Polls show a majority of South Koreans, even those in age groups traditionally seen as being more eager to reunify the peninsula, are not willing to see their living condition suffer in order to accommodate the North. Moreover, about 50% of men in their 20s see North Korea as an outright enemy that they want nothing to do with.\n\nSome scholars, like Paul Roderick Gregory, have suggested that a complete abandonment of Korean reunification may be necessary, in exchange for the North to dismantle its nuclear weapons program and permanently ending the Korean War with a peace treaty.\n\nSection::::Reunification strategies.\n", "Section::::History.:Korean reunification.\n\nWith regard to Korean nationalism, the reunification of the two Koreas is a highly related issue. Ethnic nationalism that is prevalent in Korean society is likely to play a significant role in the unification process, if it does occur. As Gi-Wook Shin claims, “Ethnic consciousness would not only legitimize the drive for unification but it could also be a common ground, especially in the early stages of the unification process, that is needed to facilitate a smooth integration of the two systems.”\n", "Korean reunification (Korean: 남북통일) refers to the hypothetical future reunification of North and South Korea under a single government. South Korea had adopted a sunshine policy towards the North that was based on the hope that one day, the two countries would be re-united in the 1990s. The process towards this was started by the historic June 15th North–South Joint Declaration in August 2000, where the two countries agreed to work towards a peaceful reunification in the future. However, there are a number of hurdles in this process due to the large political and economic differences between the two countries and other state actors such as China, Russia, and the United States. Short-term problems such as a large number of refugees that would migrate from the North into the South and initial economic and political instability would need to be overcome.\n", "The division of the Korean peninsula is one of the last remaining relics of the Cold War. Since the end of the Korean War in 1953, there has been virtually no contact between the citizens of the two countries, including the many families who were divided during the turmoil that engulfed Korea after liberation from Japanese rule and during the three-year Korean War. Many people in both North Korea and South Korea have lost contact with the rest of their family, and are unable to communicate with them due to strict regulations across borders. In the 1980s, South Korea held special programs to reunite divided families.\n", "A scheduled General Assembly debate on the topic in 2002 was deferred for a year at the request of both nations, and when the subject returned in 2003, it was immediately dropped off the agenda.\n\nThe issue did not return to the General Assembly until 2007, following a second Inter-Korean summit held in Pyongyang on October 2–4, 2007. These talks were held during one round of the Six-Party Talks in Beijing which committed to the denuclearization of the Korean peninsula.\n\nSection::::Implications.\n" ]	[ "It might not be possible for Korea to reunite." ]	[ "It is possible for Korea to reunite." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It might not be possible for Korea to reunite.", "It might not be possible for Korea to reunite." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is possible for Korea to reunite.", "It is possible for Korea to reunite." ]
2018-18759	How do lasers work, especially the ones that can cut metal?	The laser source dumps energy into a cavity oscillator. That oscillator produces light that's all the same frequency and aligned in a coherent beam. By putting lots of energy into a very narrow beam, you can make the small spot where the beam hits a piece of metal hot enough to melt the metal. Metals are opaque, aso they have to absorb the energy in light that shines on them.	[ "Depending on the power of the laser, its influence on a working piece differs: lower power values are used for laser engraving and laser ablation, where material is partially removed by the laser. With higher powers the material becomes fluid and laser welding can be realized, or if the power is high enough to remove the material completely, then laser cutting can be performed. Modern lasers can cut steel blocks with a thickness of 10 cm and more or ablate a layer of the cornea that is only a few micrometers thick.\n", "Laser construction\n\nA laser is constructed from three principal parts:\n\nBULLET::::- An energy source (usually referred to as the \"pump\" or \"pump source\"),\n\nBULLET::::- A \"gain medium\" or \"laser medium\", and\n\nBULLET::::- Two or more mirrors that form an \"optical resonator\".\n\nSection::::Pump source.\n", "A continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the application. Millisecond-long pulses are used to weld thin materials such as razor blades while continuous laser systems are employed for deep welds.\n", "The following table shows the ability of different lasers to cut different materials:\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nLasers can be used for welding, cladding, marking, surface treatment, drilling, and cutting among other manufacturing processes. It is used in the automobile, shipbuilding, aerospace, steel, electronics, and medical industries for precision machining of complex parts.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 1965, the first production laser cutting machine was used to drill holes in diamond dies. This machine was made by the Western Electric Engineering Research Center. In 1967, the British pioneered laser-assisted oxygen jet cutting for metals. In the early 1970s, this technology was put into production to cut titanium for aerospace applications. At the same time lasers were adapted to cut non-metals, such as textiles, because, at the time, lasers were not powerful enough to overcome the thermal conductivity of metals.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "Flying optic machines must use some method to take into account the changing beam length from near field (close to resonator) cutting to far field (far away from resonator) cutting. Common methods for controlling this include collimation, adaptive optics or the use of a constant beam length axis.\n\nFive and six-axis machines also permit cutting formed workpieces. In addition, there are various methods of orienting the laser beam to a shaped workpiece, maintaining a proper focus distance and nozzle standoff, etc.\n\nSection::::Machine configurations.:Pulsing.\n", "Laser surface heating is similar to non-contact hot plate welding in that mirrors are placed between components to create a molten surface layer. The exposure duration is usually between 2-10 s. Then the mirror is retracted and the components are pressed together to form a joint. Process parameters for laser surface heating include the laser output, wavelength, heating time, change-over time, and forging pressure and time.\n\nSection::::Laser welding techniques.:Through transmission laser welding (TTLW).\n", "There are many different methods in cutting using lasers, with different types used to cut different material. Some of the methods are vaporization, melt and blow, melt blow and burn, thermal stress cracking, scribing, cold cutting and burning stabilized laser cutting.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Vaporization cutting.\n", "Pulsed lasers which provide a high-power burst of energy for a short period are very effective in some laser cutting processes, particularly for piercing, or when very small holes or very low cutting speeds are required, since if a constant laser beam were used, the heat could reach the point of melting the whole piece being cut.\n\nMost industrial lasers have the ability to pulse or cut CW (continuous wave) under NC (numerical control) program control.\n", "Although laser beam welding can be accomplished by hand, most systems are automated and use a system of computer aided manufacturing based on computer aided designs. Laser welding can also be coupled with milling to form a finished part.\n\nRecently the RepRap project, which historically worked on fused filament fabrication, expanded to development of open source laser welding systems. Such systems have been fully characterized and can be used in a wide scale of applications while reducing conventional manufacturing costs.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Lasers.\n\nBULLET::::- The two types of lasers commonly used are solid-state lasers (especially ruby lasers and lasers) and gas lasers.\n", "Section::::Background.:Casting.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Foundations.\n", "BULLET::::- Electroluminescent wires\n\nBULLET::::- Field-induced polymer electroluminescent\n\nBULLET::::- Laser\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical laser\n\nBULLET::::- Dye laser\n\nBULLET::::- Free-electron laser\n\nBULLET::::- Gas dynamic laser\n\nBULLET::::- Gas laser\n\nBULLET::::- Ion laser\n\nBULLET::::- Laser diode\n\nBULLET::::- Laser flashlight\n\nBULLET::::- Metal-vapor laser\n\nBULLET::::- Nonlinear optics\n\nBULLET::::- Quantum well laser\n\nBULLET::::- Ruby laser\n\nBULLET::::- Solid-state laser\n\nSection::::Luminescence.:Mechanoluminescence.\n\nMechanoluminescence is light resulting from a mechanical action on a solid.\n\nBULLET::::- Triboluminescence, light generated when bonds in a material are broken when that material is scratched, crushed, or rubbed\n\nBULLET::::- Fractoluminescence, light generated when bonds in certain crystals are broken by fractures\n", "Section::::Applications.:Micro-machining.\n\nAmong the applications of femtosecond laser, the microtexturization of implant surfaces have been experimented for the enhancement of the bone formation around zirconia dental implants. The technique demonstrated to be precise with a very low thermal damage and with the reduction of the surface contaminants. Posterior animal studies demonstrated that the increase on the oxygen layer and the micro and nanofeatures created by the microtexturing with femtosecond laser resulted in higher rates of bone formation, higher bone density and improved mechanical stability. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bandwidth-limited pulse\n\nBULLET::::- Femtochemistry\n\nBULLET::::- Frequency comb\n", "There are many different types of lasers including gas, solid states lasers, and excimer.\n\nSome of the most commonly used gases consist of; He-Ne, Ar, and Carbon dioxide laser.\n", "Brittle materials are particularly sensitive to thermal fracture, a feature exploited in thermal stress cracking. A beam is focused on the surface causing localized heating and thermal expansion. This results in a crack that can then be guided by moving the beam. The crack can be moved in order of m/s. It is usually used in cutting of glass.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Stealth dicing of silicon wafers.\n", "BULLET::::- The first type uses one of several solid media, including synthetic ruby (chromium in aluminum oxide), neodymium in glass (Nd:glass), and the most common type, neodymium in yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG).\n\nBULLET::::- Gas lasers use mixtures of gases such as helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide (CO2 laser) as a medium.\n\nBULLET::::- Regardless of type, however, when the medium is excited, it emits photons and forms the laser beam.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Lasers.:Solid state.\n", "Section::::Industrial applications.:Laser engraving of anilox rolls.\n", "Generation of the laser beam involves stimulating a lasing material by electrical discharges or lamps within a closed container. As the lasing material is stimulated, the beam is reflected internally by means of a partial mirror, until it achieves sufficient energy to escape as a stream of monochromatic coherent light. Mirrors or fiber optics are typically used to direct the coherent light to a lens, which focuses the light at the work zone. The narrowest part of the focused beam is generally less than . in diameter. Depending upon material thickness, kerf widths as small as are possible. In order to be able to start cutting from somewhere other than the edge, a pierce is done before every cut. Piercing usually involves a high-power pulsed laser beam which slowly makes a hole in the material, taking around 5–15 seconds for stainless steel, for example.\n", "Fiber lasers are a type of solid state laser that is rapidly growing within the metal cutting industry. Unlike , Fiber technology utilizes a solid gain medium, as opposed to a gas or liquid. The “seed laser” produces the laser beam and is then amplified within a glass fiber. With a wavelength of only 1.064 micrometers fiber lasers produce an extremely small spot size (up to 100 times smaller compared to the ) making it ideal for cutting reflective metal material. This is one of the main advantages of Fiber compared to .\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "BULLET::::- Semiconductors, a type of solid, crystal with uniform dopant distribution or material with differing dopant levels in which the movement of electrons can cause laser action. Semiconductor lasers are typically very small, and can be pumped with a simple electric current, enabling them to be used in consumer devices such as compact disc players. See laser diode.\n\nSection::::Optical resonator.\n", "Other optical devices, such as spinning mirrors, modulators, filters, and absorbers, may be placed within the optical resonator to produce a variety of effects on the laser output, such as altering the wavelength of operation or the production of pulses of laser light.\n", "A laser engraving machine can be thought of as three main parts: a laser, a controller, and a surface. The laser is like a pencil - the beam emitted from it allows the controller to trace patterns onto the surface. The controller direction, intensity, speed of movement, and spread of the laser beam aimed at the surface. The surface is picked to match what the laser can act on.\n", "Section::::Laser sources.\n\nThe types of lasers used in the welding of polymers include CO lasers, Nd:YAG lasers, Diode lasers and fiber lasers. CO lasers are mostly applied to weld thin films and thin plastics due to the high energy absorption coefficients of most plastics. Nd:YAG lasers and Diode lasers produce short wavelength radiation, which transmit through several millimeters of unpigmented polymer. They are used in the transmission laser welding techniques.\n\nSection::::Laser sources.:Carbon dioxide lasers.\n", "\"The Guardian\" and Scientific American provided simplified summaries of the work of Strickland and Mourou: it \"paved the way for the shortest, most intense laser beams ever created\". \"The ultrabrief, ultrasharp beams can be used to make extremely precise cuts so their technique is now used in laser machining and enables doctors to perform millions of corrective\" laser eye surgeries.\n\nSection::::OMEGA laser.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08401	Why do hotplates get red when they are hot?	All matter gives off radiation at various wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. When the steel in your hotplate heats up due to electrical friction from the electrons running through it, the wavelength of the radiation it emits gets shorter and more energetic. It just so happens the steel gets so energetic it starts to emit visible light at the red part of the spectrum. If you were able to heat it up more it would radiate even shorter wavelengths.	[ "BULLET::::- Airdate — 2 September 2015\n\nSection::::Ratings.\n\nBULLET::::- Colour key:\n\n Highest rating during the series br\n\nSection::::Stolen concept.\n", "Some high-powered vacuum tubes (e.g. large transmitter or induction heating tubes) have silica envelopes and/or graphite or zirconium coated tantalum plates which are intended to operate at glowing temperatures and thus employ \"radiation cooling\". The zirconium plate coating acts as a getter, and proper getter action in these tubes depends on the plate running at high temperatures. Such tubes may develop excessive gas content if underloaded for long periods of time. One trade name for this type of plate coating is Eimac's \"pyrovac\".\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In consumer equipment, it is usually a sign of a shorted or badly mistuned load, or a badly out-of-bias condition. When testing, repairing or restoring vacuum tube-based equipment, it is wise to watch the plates of all the tubes for this condition.\n\nSection::::Dangers.\n", "When a vacuum tube is overloaded or operated past its design dissipation, its anode (plate) may glow red. In consumer equipment, a glowing plate is universally a sign of an overloaded tube. However, some large transmitting tubes are designed to operate with their anodes at red, orange, or in rare cases, white heat.\n", "There are two types of hot cathodes:\n\nBULLET::::- Directly heated cathode: In this type, the filament itself is the cathode and emits the electrons directly. Directly heated cathodes were used in the first vacuum tubes. Today, they are used in fluorescent tubes and most high-power transmitting vacuum tubes.\n", "Two types of sulfate-induced hot corrosion are generally distinguished: Type I takes place above the melting point of sodium sulfate and Type II occurs below the melting point of sodium sulfate but in the presence of small amounts of SO.\n", "In modern-day repair and maintenance of early tube-based consumer electronics devices, a glowing plate will be rarely encountered. As a visible symptom of a destructive failure, checking for an overheated tube is essential to ensure the safe and reliable operation of the equipment undergoing maintenance. \n\nMost frequently, a glowing plate overload will be found in rectifiers and output tubes. In particular: \n", "Early hot rolling strip mills did not produce strip suitable for tinning, but in 1929 cold rolling began to be used to reduce the gauge further, which made tinning achievable. The plate was then tinned using the process outlined above.\n\nSection::::Tinning processes.\n\nThere are two processes for the tinning of the black plates: hot-dipping and electroplating.\n\nSection::::Tinning processes.:Hot-dipping.\n", "Examples of hot spares are components such as A/V switches, computers, network printers, and hard disks. The equipment is powered on, or considered \"hot,\" but not actively functioning in (i.e. used by) the system.\n\nElectrical generators may be held on hot standby, or a steam train may be held at the shed fired up (literally hot) ready to replace a possible failure of an engine in service.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n", "Section::::Viewing windows.\n\nIn order to view what is in the hot cell, cameras can be used (but these require replacing on a regular basis) or most commonly, lead glass is used.\n", "Some early digital cameras designed for visible light capture, such as the Associated Press NC2000 and Nikon Coolpix 950, were unusually sensitive to infrared radiation, and tended to produce colours that were contaminated with infrared. This was particularly problematic with scenes that contained strong sources of infrared, such as fires, although the effect could be moderated by inserting a photographic hot mirror filter into the imaging pathway. Conversely, these cameras could be used for infrared photography by inserting a cold mirror filter into the imaging pathway, most commonly by mounting the filter on the front of the lens.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nThis type of cooking equipment is typically powered by electricity; however, gas fired hot plates were not uncommon in the 19th and 20th century and are still available in various markets around the world.\n\nSection::::In scientific research.\n\nIn laboratory settings, hot plates are generally used to heat glassware or its contents. Some hot plates also contain a magnetic stirrer, allowing the heated liquid to be stirred automatically.\n", "Section::::Ballasts.\n\nIn the older style (but still most popular) \"choke ballast\", each end of the lamp has its own cathode and anode, however, once the lamp has started, the plasma flows from one end of the lamp to the other, with each end acting as a single cathode or anode. The starter is a plasma switch itself, and temporarily connects the cathode on one end of the lamp to the anode on the other end of the lamp, causing the lamp ends to heat up quickly, or \"preheat\". Many F71 lamps are still called \"pre-heat bi-pin\" for this reason.\n", "Section::::Process.:Conventional hot plate welding.\n\nThe hot plate welding process can be divided into four phases: matching, heating, change-over, and welding/forging.\n", "Where temperatures are high and the pressure differential is small, a protection tube may be used with a bare thermocouple element. These are often made of alumina or other ceramic material to prevent chemical attack of the platinum or other thermocouple elements. The ceramic protection tube may be inserted into a heavy outer protection tube manufactured from silicon carbide or other material where increased protection is required.\n\nSection::::Flow forces.\n", "Industrial hot plates which incorporate a porous heated plate are referred to as \"heated chucks.\" These plates are used to heat thin sheets evenly by drawing the sheets firmly on the plate with a vacuum. These plates are widely used in the process of manufacturing semiconductors.\n\nHot plates using special material and protective coatings are used in mining and related industries to heat samples of toxic chemicals. Such hot plates are usually referred to as corrosion-resistant hot plates.\n\nHot plates are widely used in the electronics industry as a method of soldering and desoldering components onto circuit boards.\n", "Section::::Industrial hot plates.\n\nHot plates are widely used for many industrial applications. These hot plates vary in size from 2 to over 300 square centimetres.\n\nTypical operating temperatures vary from 100 to 750°C and power requirements are usually in the 120 to 480 volt range. Most industrial hot plates will withstand loads more than 150 pounds.\n", "Section::::Plate types.:Full-wave, or sensitive-tint plate.\n", "In a student laboratory, hot plates are used because baths can be hazards if they spill, overheat or ignite because they have high thermal inertia (meaning they take a long time to cool down) and mantles can be very expensive and are designed for specific flask volumes.\n", "If the tube is overloaded, not only can the plate warp, causing a short to outer grids or beam-shaping elements, but the emissive layer on the cathode will be consumed very quickly. The equipment's power supply and the tube's load (output transformers, flyback transformers, etc.) are likely to be damaged by a sustained overload condition, so power should be immediately disconnected when a glowing plate is found.\n\nSection::::Common Occurrences.\n", "Hot-carrier injection\n\nHot carrier injection (HCI) is a phenomenon in solid-state electronic devices where an electron or a “hole” gains sufficient kinetic energy to overcome a potential barrier necessary to break an interface state. The term \"hot\" refers to the effective temperature used to model carrier density, not to the overall temperature of the device. Since the charge carriers can become trapped in the gate dielectric of a MOS transistor, the switching characteristics of the transistor can be permanently changed. Hot-carrier injection is one of the mechanisms that adversely affects the reliability of semiconductors of solid-state devices.\n\nSection::::Physics.\n", "Hot plates with two heating surfaces are used to fuse plastic pipes. Many of these pipes are over 90-centimeter diameter. The two pipes to be fused are pressed against the plate till the edges are soft. The plate is removed and the two pipes are pressed together and bonded. This process is called \"butt fusion\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bachelor griller\n\nBULLET::::- Blech, a sheet of metal that may be placed over cooking burners to help in the observation of the Jewish Sabbath\n", "The emissive layers on coated cathodes degrade slowly with time, and much more quickly when the cathode is overloaded with too high current. The result is weakened emission and diminished power of the tubes, or in CRTs diminished brightness.\n", "Hot stamping or foil stamping is a printing method of relief printing in which pre-dried ink or foils are transferred to a surface at high temperatures. The non-polluting method has diversified since its rise to prominence in the 19th century to include a variety of colors and processes. After 1970s, hot stamping became one of the important methods of decoration on the surface of Plastic Products. Hot Stamping technology for plastic is now using for Electric Components (including TV frame, Audio components, Refrigerators etc.,) cosmetic containers (lipstick, cream, mascara, shampoo bottle etc), automobile parts (interior and exterior materials). \n\nSection::::History.\n", "Red plague (corrosion)\n\nRed plague is an accelerated corrosion of copper when plated with silver. After storage or use in high-humidity environment, cuprous oxide forms on the surface of the parts. The corrosion is identifiable by presence of patches of brown-red powder deposit on the exposed copper.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09270	What is the difference between the different grades of gasoline?	The higher the number, the more you can compress the gasoline before it ignites. So if your engine is tuned for 93 but you put 87 in, it is possible that the gas/air mix will pre-ignite which is bad for the engine	[ "BULLET::::- the crude oil feed used by the refinery;\n\nBULLET::::- the grade of gasoline (in particular, the octane rating).\n\nThe various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. Some important streams include:\n", "Section::::Measurement methods.:Aviation gasoline octane ratings.\n", "BULLET::::- reformate, produced in a catalytic reformer, has a high octane rating with high aromatic content and relatively low olefin content. Most of the benzene, toluene and xylene (the so-called BTX hydrocarbons) are more valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus removed to some extent.\n\nBULLET::::- catalytic cracked gasoline, or catalytic cracked naphtha, produced with a catalytic cracker, has a moderate octane rating, high olefin content and moderate aromatic content.\n\nBULLET::::- hydrocrackate (heavy, mid and light), produced with a hydrocracker, has a medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.\n", "BULLET::::- Fast Stop Express - Diesel (select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- G500 (Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Hele\n\nBULLET::::- HFN - Hawaii Fueling Network\n\nBULLET::::- Holiday (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Irving Oil (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirkland Signature Gasoline (U.S., Canada, Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirkland Signature - Diesel (U.S., Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Kwik Star\n\nBULLET::::- Kwik Trip\n\nBULLET::::- Marathon\n\nBULLET::::- Metro Petro\n\nBULLET::::- MFA\n\nBULLET::::- Mobil (U.S. and Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ohana Fuels\n\nBULLET::::- Petro-Canada (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Phillips 66\n\nBULLET::::- PUMA (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Puerto Rico)\n\nBULLET::::- QuikTrip (QT)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger Mustang (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger Stallion (U.S., Canada)\n", "Gasoline stability requirements are set by the standard ASTM D4814. This standard describes the various characteristics and requirements of automotive fuels for use over a wide range of operating conditions in ground vehicles equipped with spark-ignition engines.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Energy content.\n\nA gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine obtains energy from the combustion of gasoline's various hydrocarbons with oxygen from the ambient air, yielding carbon dioxide and water as exhaust. The combustion of octane, a representative species, performs the chemical reaction:\n\nchem2 C8H18 + 25 O2 - 16 CO2 + 18 H2O\n\n/chem\n", "BULLET::::- Honda Civic GX CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Honda CR-V CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Kia Pride (4D)CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz B170/B200K NGT (W245) automatic\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz C200K T NGT wagon (S207) automatic\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz E200K NGT sedan (W211) automatic\n\nBULLET::::- Opel Combo 1,6 CNG Comfort\n\nBULLET::::- Opel Zafira 5D 1,6 CNG Comfort (MPV)\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot 405 (SD)CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot 207 (3D/5D/SW/CC) VTi CNG (CH)\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot 308 (3D/5D/SW) VTi CNG (CH)\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot 405 (4D)CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot 807 2,0 CNG (CH)\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot Pars (4D)CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot Partner 1,4 GNV (MPV) man.\n\nBULLET::::- Proton Saga Iswara 1,3 L (modified)\n", "BULLET::::- N 4411 CNG Centroliner Solo\n\nBULLET::::- N 4413/1 CNG, N 4413/2 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- N 4416 CNG Centroliner Solo\n\nBULLET::::- N 4420 CNG Centroliner\n\nBULLET::::- N 4421 CNG Centroliner Gelenk\n\nBULLET::::- N 4426/3 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- New Flyer\n\nBULLET::::- CNG\n\nBULLET::::- C30LF\n\nBULLET::::- C35LF\n\nBULLET::::- C40LF\n\nBULLET::::- LNG\n\nBULLET::::- L30LF\n\nBULLET::::- L35LF\n\nBULLET::::- L40LF\n\nBULLET::::- North American Bus Industries\n\nBULLET::::- 30 LFW CNG\n\nBULLET::::- 35 LFW CNG\n\nBULLET::::- 40 LFW CNG\n\nBULLET::::- COMPO 45 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- 42 BRT CNG\n\nBULLET::::- 60 BRT CNG articulated\n\nBULLET::::- Orion Bus Industries\n\nBULLET::::- I\n\nBULLET::::- V\n\nBULLET::::- VI\n\nBULLET::::- VII\n\nBULLET::::- VII Next Generation\n", "Section::::Chemical composition and energy content.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition and energy content.:Chemical composition.\n\nThe primary component of natural gas is methane (CH), the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon molecule. It may also contain heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane (CH), propane (CH) and butane (CH), as well as other gases, in varying amounts. Hydrogen sulfide (HS) is a common contaminant, which must be removed prior to most uses.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition and energy content.:Energy content.\n", "Section::::Additives.:Oxygenate blending.\n", "Section::::United States, 1946 to present.\n", "BULLET::::- BP (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Breakaway (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Break Time\n\nBULLET::::- Cenex\n\nBULLET::::- Chevron (U.S., Canada, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama)\n\nBULLET::::- CITGO (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Conoco\n\nBULLET::::- Co-op (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Co-op Diesel (Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Costco Wholesale (U.S., Canada, Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Costco Wholesale - Diesel (U.S., Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Couche-Tard (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- CountryMark\n\nBULLET::::- CountryMark Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond Shamrock (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Energy (Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Esso (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Express Mart (U.S. - Wisconsin)\n\nBULLET::::- Exxon\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Stop - Diesel (select locations only)\n", "Presently, fuels used include:\n\nBULLET::::- Petroleum:\n\nBULLET::::- Petroleum spirit (North American term: gasoline, British term: petrol)\n\nBULLET::::- Petroleum diesel.\n\nBULLET::::- Autogas (liquified petroleum gas).\n\nBULLET::::- Compressed natural gas.\n\nBULLET::::- Jet fuel (aviation fuel)\n\nBULLET::::- Residual fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Coal:\n\nBULLET::::- Gasoline can be made from carbon (coal) using the Fischer-Tropsch process\n\nBULLET::::- Diesel fuel can be made from carbon using the Fischer-Tropsch process\n\nBULLET::::- Biofuels and vegetable oils:\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut oil and other vegetable oils.\n\nBULLET::::- Woodgas, from an onboard wood gasifier using solid wood as a fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Biofuels:\n\nBULLET::::- Biobutanol (replaces gasoline).\n\nBULLET::::- Biodiesel (replaces petrodiesel).\n", "BULLET::::- O 405 GN/O 405 GN² CNG\n\nBULLET::::- O 405 NH CNG (Australia Only)\n\nBULLET::::- OC 500 LE 1825 hG modular bus chassis\n\nBULLET::::- Iveco Bus\n\nBULLET::::- Iveco/Irisbus CityClass CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Renault/Irisbus Agora/Agora L GNV\n\nBULLET::::- Irisbus Citelis 12/Citelis 18 GNV\n\nBULLET::::- Isuzu\n\nBULLET::::- Erga Heavy-duty Bus\n\nBULLET::::- Erga Mio Medium-Duty Bus\n\nBULLET::::- MAN\n\nBULLET::::- SL200 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- SL202 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- NL202 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- NL232 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- NL243 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- NL313 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- NG 313 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- NÜ243 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- NÜ313 CNG\n\nBULLET::::- Neoplan\n\nBULLET::::- N 3316 Ü Euroliner\n\nBULLET::::- N 4007 CNG Centro Midigelenk\n\nBULLET::::- N 4409 CNG\n", "BULLET::::- 4.6L Mercury Grand Marquis\n\nBULLET::::- 2004–2005\n\nBULLET::::- 4.0L Explorer Sport Trac\n\nBULLET::::- 4.0L Explorer (4-door)\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Taurus sedan and wagon (2-valve)\n\nBULLET::::- 2002–2004\n\nBULLET::::- 4.0L Explorer (4-door)\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Taurus sedan and wagon\n\nBULLET::::- 3.3L Dodge Caravan\n\nBULLET::::- 2002–2003\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Supercab Ranger pickup 2WD\n\nBULLET::::- 2001\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Supercab Ranger pickup 2WD\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Taurus LX, SE and SES sedan\n\nBULLET::::- 1999 and 2000\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Ranger pickup 4WD and 2WD\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Taurus LX, SE and SES sedan\n\nMany 1995–98 Taurus 3.0L Sedans are also FFVs\n\nNote: * denotes fleet purchase only\n\nSection::::Ford of Europe.\n", "Classes E to H are residual oils for atomizing burners serving boilers or, with the exception of Class H, certain types of larger combustion engines. Classes F to H invariably require heating prior to use; Class E fuel may require preheating, depending on ambient conditions.\n\nSection::::General classification.:Russia.\n", "Class C1 and C2 fuels are kerosene-type fuels. C1 is for use in flueless appliances (e.g. lamps). C2 is for vaporising or atomising burners in appliances connected to flues.\n", "BULLET::::- propane: CH – three carbon and 8 hydrogen\n\nBULLET::::- butane : CH – four carbon and 10 hydrogen\n\nBULLET::::- pentane: CH – five carbon and 12 hydrogen\n\nBULLET::::- hexane : CH – six carbon and 14 hydrogen\n", "ACEA A5/B5 Oil grade refers to synthetic oils.\n\nSection::::Standards.:JASO.\n\nThe Japanese Automotive Standards Organization (JASO) has created their own set of performance and quality standards for petrol engines of Japanese origin.\n", "BULLET::::- straight-run gasoline, commonly referred to as \"naphtha\", which is distilled directly from crude oil. Once the leading source of fuel, its low octane rating required lead additives. It is low in aromatics (depending on the grade of the crude oil stream) and contains some cycloalkanes (naphthenes) and no olefins (alkenes). Between 0 and 20 percent of this stream is pooled into the finished gasoline, because the supply of this fraction is insufficient and its RON is too low. The chemical properties (namely RON and Reid vapor pressure) of the straight-run gasoline can be improved through reforming and isomerisation. However, before feeding those units, the naphtha needs to be split into light and heavy naphtha. Straight-run gasoline can also be used as a feedstock for steam-crackers to produce olefins.\n", "BULLET::::- Biogas\n\nBULLET::::- Blast furnace gas\n\nBULLET::::- Acetylene\n\nSection::::Types.:Natural gas and petroleum gases.\n\nIn the 20th century, natural gas, composed primarily of methane, became the dominant source of fuel gas, as instead of having to be manufactured in various processes, it could be extracted from deposits in the earth. Natural gas may be combined with hydrogen to form a mixture known as HCNG.\n\nAdditional fuel gases can result as a process of refining natural gas or petroleum:\n\nBULLET::::- Propane\n\nBULLET::::- Butane\n\nBULLET::::- Regasified liquefied petroleum gas\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Section::::Maritime fuel classification.\n\nIn the maritime field another type of classification is used for fuel oils:\n\nBULLET::::- MGO (Marine gas oil) - roughly equivalent to No. 2 fuel oil, made from distillate only\n\nBULLET::::- MDO (Marine diesel oil) - A blend of heavy gasoil that may contain very small amounts of black refinery feed stocks, but has a low viscosity up to 12 cSt so it need not be heated for use in internal combustion engines\n\nBULLET::::- IFO (Intermediate fuel oil) A blend of gasoil and heavy fuel oil, with less gasoil than marine diesel oil\n", "Section::::Additives.:Antiknock additives.:Tetraethyllead.\n", "The selection of octane ratings available at the pump can vary greatly from region to region.\n", "BULLET::::- An introduction to the modern petroleum science, and to the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins.\n\nBULLET::::- What's the difference between premium and regular gas? (from The Straight Dope)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Here Comes Winter Gasoline\" R-Squared Energy Blog 14 September 2006\n\nBULLET::::- International Fuel Prices 2005 with diesel and gasoline prices of 172 countries\n\nBULLET::::- EIA—Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update\n\nBULLET::::- World Internet News: \"Big Oil Looking for Another Government Handout\", April 2006.\n\nBULLET::::- Durability of various plastics: Alcohols vs. Gasoline\n\nBULLET::::- Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural petroleum.\n", "Section::::Certification.\n\nFuels have to conform to a specification in order to be approved for use in type certificated aircraft. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) developed specifications for automobile gasoline as well as aviation gasoline. These specifications are ASTM D910 and ASTM D6227 for aviation gasoline and ASTM D439 or ASTM D4814 (latest revision) for automobile gasoline.\n\nSection::::In use.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05006	When I’m looking out the window in a moving car or train, why do the things close to me appear to move quickly while things far away move slower?	This has to do with your field of vision. If drawn our, your field of vision in front of you is basically a triangle, with one tip right between your eyes (it's more accurate to say it's two overlapping triangles, one for each eye, but the overlap is so much in order to provide depth perception that it's almost one triangle instead of two). Now if you take a water bottle or a finger and move it from left to right, the closer that finger is to you, the less it has to move to get out of your field of vision (because it's closer to the tip of the triangle that is your field of vision) The same idea applies to objects outside the moving car or train. That lamp post 3 feet away only needs to move 3 feet to get out of your field of vision, while that mountain will need to move several miles (assuming you are traveling in a straight line and not around the mountain) just to get out of your field of vision.	[ "Suchow and Alvarez explain the role that velocity has on motion silencing in that local retinotopic (of the retina) detectors fixate on specific points in the visual field, and when they are only permitted a short amount of time to process the changes occurring they do not have enough time to detect changes. The effect of velocity explains why silencing is more potent with fast motion on the retina as opposed to slow motion.\n", "BULLET::::- Location constancy refers to the relationship between the viewer and the object. A stationary object is perceived as remaining stationary despite the retina sensing the object changing as the viewer moves (due to parallax). Location constancy is largely influenced by the context in which the object is found. An example of this would be looking at a parked car as you walk towards a building; the car is perceived as remaining stationary as you move forward.\n\nSection::::Auditory.\n", "Two or more stimuli that are switched on and off in alternation can produce two different motion percepts. The first, demonstrated in the figure to the right is \"Beta movement\", often used in billboard displays, in which an object is perceived as moving when, in fact, a series of stationary images is being presented. This is also termed \"apparent motion\" and is the basis of movies and television. However, at faster alternation rates, and if the distance between the stimuli is just right, an illusory \"object\" the same colour as the background is seen moving between the two stimuli and alternately occluding them. This is called the phi phenomenon and is sometimes described as an example of \"pure\" motion detection uncontaminated, as in Beta movement, by form cues. This description is, however, somewhat paradoxical as it is not possible to create such motion in the absence of figural percepts. \n", "For example, when looking out of the window at a moving train, the eyes can focus on a moving train for a short moment (by stabilizing it on the retina), until the train moves out of the field of vision. At this point, the eye is moved back to the point where it first saw the train (through a saccade).\n\nSection::::Near response.\n\nThe adjustment to close-range vision involves three processes to focus an image on the retina.\n\nSection::::Near response.:Vergence movement.\n", "BULLET::::- Depth from motion – One form of depth from motion, kinetic depth perception, is determined by dynamically changing object size. As objects in motion become smaller, they appear to recede into the distance; objects in motion that appear to be getting larger seem to be coming closer. Using kinetic depth perception enables the brain to calculate time-to-crash (aka time-to-collision or time-to-contact – TTC) at a particular velocity. When driving, one is constantly judging the dynamically changing headway (TTC) by kinetic depth perception.\n", "As a result, people tended to misjudge that the speed of their cars was moving slower than the actual speed and felt that other cars were becoming less visible. \n\nWhile in foggy conditions, other cars were reduced in contrast to appear slower than they really were.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nContrast Effect\n\nTheoretically, stepping feet illusion is influenced by the contrast between moving objects and background.\n\nContrast refers to the measured stimulus property of luminance differences.\n\nWhile the background has black and white stripes, then the contrast changes from one line to the next.\n", "Section::::Wholly empirical approach to visual perception.:Motion.\n\nPerception of motion is also confounded by an inverse problem: movement in three-dimensional space does not map perfectly onto movement on the retinal plane. A distant object moving at a given speed will translate more slowly on the retina than a nearby object moving at the same speed, and as mentioned previously size, distance and orientation are also ambiguous given only the retinal image. As with other aspects of perception, empirical theorists propose that this problem is solved by trial-and-error experience with moving stimuli, their associated retinal images and the consequences of behavior. \n", "Effect of target speed on motion perception in TD\n", "Kinesis (biology)\n\nKinesis, like a taxis or tropism, is a movement or activity of a cell or an organism in response to a stimulus (such as gas exposure, light intensity or ambient temperature).\n\nUnlike taxis, the response to the stimulus provided is non-directional. The animal does not move toward or away from the stimulus but moves at either a slow or fast rate depending on its \"comfort zone.\" In this case a fast movement (non-random) means that the animal is searching for its comfort zone but a slow movement indicates that it has found it.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "BULLET::::- Texture gradient – Suppose you are standing on a gravel road. The gravel near you can be clearly seen in terms of shape, size and colour. As your vision shifts towards the more distant part of the road it becomes progressively less easy to distinguish the texture.\n\nRecent advances in computational machine learning now allow monocular depth for an entire scene to be algorithmically estimated from a single digital image by implicitly using one or more of these cues\n\nSection::::Balance.\n", "A second proposed explanation is that the visual system processes moving objects more quickly than flashed objects. This latency-difference hypothesis asserts that by the time the flashed object is processed, the moving object has already moved to a new position. The latency-difference proposal tacitly rests on the assumption that awareness (what the subject reports) is an on-line phenomenon, coming about as soon as a stimulus reaches its \"perceptual end-point\".\n\nSection::::Motion integration and postdiction.\n", "During the segmentation of vertebrate embryos, waves of gene expression sweep across the presomitic mesoderm, the tissue from which the precursors of the vertebrae (somites) are formed. A new somite is formed upon arrival of a wave at the anterior end of the presomitic mesoderm. In zebrafish, it has been shown that the shortening of the presomitic mesoderm during segmentation leads to a Doppler effect as the anterior end of the tissue moves into the waves. This Doppler effect contributes to the period of segmentation.\n\nSection::::Inverse Doppler effect.\n", "When Gibson was a boy, his father would take him out on train rides. Gibson recalled being absolutely fascinated by the way the visual world would appear when in motion. In the direction of the train, the visual world would appear to flow in the same direction and expand. When Gibson looked behind the train, the visual world would seem to contract. These experiences sparked Gibson's interest in optic flow and the visual information generated from different modes of transportation. Later in life, Gibson would apply this fascination to the study of visual perception of landing and flying planes.\n", "Consequently, higher contrast movements look faster than lower contrast. This illusion effect disappears when the street texture is removed because there is no contrast without background. This special illusion shows how the background of the object or the object around it has a significant effect on the perceived speed of the object.\n\nSection::::Historical Background.\n\nStepping feet illusion was initially demonstrated by Stuart Anstis in 2003.\n\nHe proposed that the contrast effect was experienced by drivers in foggy conditions in which the difference in brightness between the car and its surroundings is generally less than a sunny day.\n", "It has been suggested that motion silencing is related to motion blindness, which is another perceptual phenomenon in which salient static objects appear and disappear when they are surrounded by a global moving pattern. In a study which assessed magnetic resonance images of the brain structures involved during motion-induced blindness found there to be activation in the ventral and dorsal pathways, specifically V4 of the ventral pathway and V3A, V3B, and the posterior intraparietal sulcus in the dorsal pathway. In the way that the dorsal pathway processes the moving pattern and in turn suppresses the ventral pathway's representation of the static salient objects, the same processes and patterns of activation may be found in the motion silencing illusion.\n", "Objects in motion within a SAR scene alter the Doppler frequencies of the returns. Such objects therefore appear in the image at locations offset in the across-range direction by amounts proportional to the range-direction component of their velocity. Road vehicles may be depicted off the roadway and therefore not recognized as road traffic items. Trains appearing away from their tracks are more easily properly recognized by their length parallel to known trackage as well as by the absence of an equal length of railbed signature and of some adjacent terrain, both having been shadowed by the train. While images of moving vessels can be offset from the line of the earlier parts of their wakes, the more recent parts of the wake, which still partake of some of the vessel's motion, appear as curves connecting the vessel image to the relatively quiescent far-aft wake. In such identifiable cases, speed and direction of the moving items can be determined from the amounts of their offsets. The along-track component of a target's motion causes some defocus. Random motions such as that of wind-driven tree foliage, vehicles driven over rough terrain, or humans or other animals walking or running generally render those items not focusable, resulting in blurring or even effective invisibility.\n", "The visual system can detect motion both using a simple mechanism based on information from multiple clusters of neurons as well as by aggregate through by integrating multiple cues including contrast, form, and texture. One major source of visual information when determining self-motion is optic flow. Optic flow not only indicates whether an agent is moving but in which direction and at what relative speed.\n\nSection::::Visual cues.:Types of cues.:Motion.:Biological motion.\n", "Section::::Senses during flight.\n", "The Pulfrich effect may likewise be partly explained in this manner, though the actual temporal changes from frame to frame in the films prepared for viewing with the Pulfrich effect do in fact provide some dimensional information to the brain. However, even where no temporal changes are evident in objects in the films being viewed with the Pulfrich effect, the brain appears to apply some depth perception to those areas of the film anyway, as if artificially compensating in a manner that inserts dimensional data where no stereoscopic-like changes are actually available. This may be related to the same processes in the brain that produce the Van Hare Effect.\n", "Outside of the laboratory, you can experience this as well, for example when riding on a train or on the lower deck of a bus. Assume one is looking straight out of the train car's window at the adjacent track. If the train is moving fast enough, the track one is seeing will be just a blur - the angular speed of the track's motion on the retina is too fast for the eye to compensate with optokinetic tracking. Then, one starts looking to the left and right along the track - just as if one was to catch something that was either speeding past on the track or lagging behind. Looking right and left along the adjacent track in fact means that one alternates the gaze between the left and right portions of the track. Changing the point of gaze is done as saccades. If, due to the car's motion, the track is 'escaping' to one's left, a left-going saccade will try to 'catch up' with the track's motion.\n", "Section::::Factors influencing motion silencing.\n", "Section::::Neurophysiology.:The Reichardt-Hassenstein model.\n", "Section::::Definition and types.:Spatial perception.\n", "Section::::Features.:Contrast effects.\n\nA common finding across many different kinds of perception is that the perceived qualities of an object can be affected by the qualities of context. If one object is extreme on some dimension, then neighboring objects are perceived as further away from that extreme. \"Simultaneous contrast effect\" is the term used when stimuli are presented at the same time, whereas \"successive contrast\" applies when stimuli are presented one after another.\n", "Due to the particular types of stimuli and cues used to initiate vertical migration, anomalies can change the pattern drastically.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Everything should move at a constant speed in my vision." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The way your vision works means things that are closer appear to move by faster. " ]
2018-19237	Why did Pilgrims wear buckles on their hats?	Contrary to popular myth, capotains never included buckles on the front of them; this image was created in the 19th century.	[ "The word \"buckle\" enters Middle English via Old French and the Latin \"buccula\" or \"cheek-strap,\" as for a helmet. Some of the earliest buckles known are those used by Roman soldiers to strap their body armor together and prominently on the balteus and cingulum. Made out of bronze and expensive, these buckles were purely functional for their strength and durability vital to the individual soldier. The baldric was a later belt worn diagonally over the right shoulder down to the waist at the left carrying the sword, and its buckle therefore was as important as that on a Roman soldier’s armor.\n", "Aside from the practical use found in Roman buckles, Scythian and Sarmatian buckles incorporated animal motifs that were characteristic to their respective decorative arts. These motifs often represented animals engaged in mortal combat. These motifs were imported by many Germanic peoples and the belt buckles were evident in the graves of the Franks and Burgundies. And throughout the Middle Ages, the buckle was used mostly for ornamentation until the second half of the 14th century where the knightly belt and buckle took on its most splendid form.\n", "Section::::Historical background.\n", "Belt buckles go back at least to the iron age and a gold \"great buckle\" was among the items interred at Sutton Hoo. Primarily decorative \"shield on tongue\" buckles were common Anglo-Saxon grave goods at this time, elaborately decorated on the \"shield\" portion and associated only with men. One such buckle, found in a 7th-century grave at Finglesham, Kent in 1965 bears the image of a naked warrior standing between two spears wearing only a horned helmet and belt.\n", "When preferred materials were scarce during the Great Depression of the 1930s and the two World Wars, buckles became a low priority and manufactures needed to find ways to continue to produce them cheaply. Makers turned to wood as a cheap alternative since it was easily worked by hand or simple machinery by impressing the designs onto the wood. But there were problems using wood. Any attempt to brighten the wood’s dull appearance with painted designs or plasterwork embellishments immediately came off if the buckle were to be washed.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Leather.\n", "The uniform is completed with a golden earring and golden bracelets—which could be sold in hard times and in the Middle Ages could be used to pay the gravedigger if any wanderer should die on his journey. The journeyman carries his belongings in a leather backpack called the \"Felleisen\", but some medieval towns banned those (for the fleas in them) so that many journeyman used a coarse cloth to wrap up their belongings.\n\nSection::::Reception in society.\n", "Shoe buckle\n\nShoe buckles are fashion accessories worn by men and women from the mid-17th century through the 18th century. Shoe buckles were made of a variety of materials including brass, steel, silver or silver gilt, and buckles for formal wear were set with diamonds, quartz or imitation jewels. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "Buckles remained exclusively for the wealthy until the 15th century where improved manufacturing techniques made it possible to easily produce a cheaper molded item available to the general population.\n\nSection::::Components.\n", "In the Philippines, the native Moro people adopted the morion and burgonet design for helmets (as well as chainmail and horn coats) during the Spanish–Moro Wars and the Moro Rebellion. The indigenously produced helmets were usually made of iron or brass and elaborately decorated with floral arabesque designs, usually in silver. They had a large visor and neck guard, movable cheek guards, a high crest and three very tall feathered plumes reaching inserted on the front.\n\nSection::::Cabasset.\n", "Surviving morions from the 1648 Siege of Colchester have been unearthed and preserved at Colchester Castle along with a lobster tail pot, a helmet associated with Cromwell's heavily armored Ironside cavalry.\n\nSome captured Spanish armor was worn by Native Americans as late as the 19th century as protection from bullets and a sign of their status. The most famous of these was the Comanche chief Iron Jacket who lived in Texas and wore armor that originally belonged to a conquistador.\n", "BULLET::::- Contrary to the popular image of the Pilgrim Fathers, the early settlers of the Plymouth Colony in North America did not wear all black, and their capotains (hats) were shorter and rounder than the widely depicted tall hat with a buckle on it. Instead, their fashion was based on that of the late Elizabethan era: doublets, jerkins and ruffs. Both men and women wore the same style of shoes, stockings, capes, coats and hats in a range of colors including reds, yellows, purples, and greens. According to Plimoth Plantation historian James W. Baker, the traditional image was formed in the 19th century when buckles were a kind of emblem of quaintness.\n", "BULLET::::- In both the stage and film versions of the musical \"Man of La Mancha\", the soldiers of the Spanish Inquisition all wear morion helmets, and in the film (but not the play), Don Quixote's helmet is a morion with a makeshift visor artificially attached, as Cervantes describes in his novel \"Don Quixote de la Mancha\". (The play uses a regular knight's helmet with a regular visor.)\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Dances With Wolves\", the Indian chief presents Lt. Dunbar with a morion.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Disney movie \"Pocahontas\", English soldiers like Captain John Smith wear morions.\n", "One 19th century dictionary of classical antiquity states that, \"Among the Romans the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained his freedom he had his head shaved, and wore instead of his hair an undyed pileus.\" Hence the phrase \"servos ad pileum vocare\" is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty (Liv. XXIV.32). The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius, struck A.D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand.\n", "Buckler\n\nA buckler (French \"bouclier\" 'shield', from Old French \"bocle, boucle\" 'boss') is a small shield, up to 45 cm (up to 18 in) in diameter, gripped in the fist with a central handle behind the boss. While being used in Europe since antiquity, it became more common as a companion weapon in hand-to-hand combat during the Medieval and Renaissance periods. Its size made it poor protection against missile weapons (e.g., arrows) but useful in deflecting the blow of an opponent's weapons, binding his arms or hindering his movements.\n", "The iconic morion, though popularly identified with early Spanish explorers and conquistadors, was not in use until after the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés or Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Incas in South America. It was widely used by the Spanish, but thirty to forty years later was also common among foot soldiers of many other European nationalities. Low production costs aided its popularity and dissemination, although officers and elite guards would have theirs elaborately engraved to display their wealth and status.\n", "As well as the crests on helmets described above, cuir bouilli was probably used sculpturally in various contexts, over a wood or plaster framework where necessary. When Henry V of England died in France, his effigy in cuir bouilli was placed on top of his coffin for the journey back to England.\n", "For common soldiers who could not afford mail or plate armor, the gambeson, combined with a helmet as the only additional protection, remained a common sight on European battlefields during the entire Middle Ages, and its decline – paralleling that of plate armor – came only with the Renaissance, as the use of firearms became more widespread, until by the 18th century it was no longer in military use.\n", "BULLET::::- Binder: The buckler could be used to bind an opponent's sword hand and weapon as well as their buckler against their body. The buckler was also very useful in grappling, where it allowed an opponent's arms to be easily wrapped up and controlled.\n\nSection::::Decoration.\n\nIn classical antiquity, bucklers on medals were either used to signify public vows rendered to the gods for the safety of a prince, or that he was esteemed the defender and protector of his people: these were called votive bucklers, and were hung at altars, etc.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adarga\n\nBULLET::::- Lantern shield\n", "The buckle essentially consists of four main components: the frame, chape, bar, and prong. The oldest Roman buckles are of a simple \"D\"-shaped frame, in which the prong or tongue extends from one side to the other. In the 14th century, buckles with a double-loop or \"8\"-shaped frame emerged. The prongs of these buckles attach to the center post. The appearance of multi-part buckles with chapes and removable pins, which were commonly found on shoes, occurred in the 17th century.\n\nSection::::Components.:Frame.\n", "Buckles were not entirely made out of leather because a frame and bar of leather would not be substantial enough to carry a prong or the full weight of the belt and anything the belt and buckle intend to support. However, leather (or dyed suede, more common to match a lady’s garment color) was used more as a “cover-up” for cheap materials to create a product worthy of buying.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Glass.\n", "Two important helmet types to develop in antiquity were the Corinthian helmet and the Roman galea.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages, many different military helmets and some ceremonial helmets were developed, almost all being metal. Some of the more important medieval developments included the great helm, the bascinet, the frog-mouth helm and the armet.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Paire of Spectacles for Sir Humphrey Linde to see his way withall; or, an Answeare to his booke called Via Tuta, a Safe Way\", s.l. 1631. This has been sometimes attributed to Robert Jenison. Humphrey Lynde's \"Via Tuta\", 1628, was answered more fully by John Heigham.\n", "Although it is probable that the traditions formed by the class of objects which we have been considering, and which were equally familiar at Rome and at Constantinople, never entirely died out, still little evidence exists of the use of medals in the Middle Ages. No traces of such objects survive remarkable either for artistic skill or for the value of the metal, and to speak positively of the date of certain objects of lead and pewter which may have been hung round the neck, with a religious intent, is not always easy. But in the course of the twelfth century, if not earlier, a very general practice grew up at well-known places of pilgrimage, of casting tokens in lead, and sometimes probably in other metals, which served the pilgrim as a souvenir and stimulus to devotion and at the same time attested the fact that he had duly reached his destination. These \"signacula\" (enseignes) known in English as \"pilgrims' signs\" often took a metallic form and were carried in a conspicuous way upon the hat or breast. Giraldus Cambrensis referring to a journey he made to Canterbury about the year 1180, ten years after the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, describes himself and his companions returning to London \"\"cum signaculis Beati Thormae a collo suspensis\"\" [with the tokens of St. Thomas hanging round their neck]. Again the author of Piers the Plowman writes of his imaginary pilgrim: \n", "Section::::Description and interpretation.\n\nThe helmet is an example of a three-piece Roman ceremonial cavalry helmet, made of sheet iron covered with silver sheet and partly decorated with gold leaf. Such helmets were worn by Roman auxiliary cavalrymen in displays known as \"hippika gymnasia\" and may also have been worn in battle, despite their relative thinness and lavish decoration. Horses and riders wore lavishly decorated clothes, armour and plumes while performing feats of horsemanship and re-enacting historical and legendary battles, such as the wars of the Greeks and Trojans.\n", "Morion (helmet)\n\nA morion is a type of open helmet originally from the Kingdom of Castile (Spain), used from the beginning 16th to early 17th centuries, usually having a flat brim and a crest from front to back. Its introduction was contemporaneous with the exploration of North, Central and South America. Explorers such as Hernando de Soto and Coronado may have supplied them to their foot soldiers in the 1540s.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[ "The hats Pilgrims wore had buckles on them.", "Pilgrims wore buckles on their hats. " ]	[ "This is a myth - Pilgrims' hats never included buckles.", "Pilgrim captains never wore buckles on their hats. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The hats Pilgrims wore had buckles on them.", "Pilgrims wore buckles on their hats. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "This is a myth - Pilgrims' hats never included buckles.", "Pilgrim captains never wore buckles on their hats. " ]
2018-19902	Why are cicadas so loud?	Mating and eating are their only reason for existence, Cicaidas sound off to each other to swarm, a swarm forms and the constant buzzing begins	[ "Section::::Predator satiation survival strategy.:Impact on other populations.\n", "Giant cicadas produce a remarkably distinct and loud sound, singing primarily at dusk, and less often at dawn in central Texas. It has been known to sing all day and occasionally through the night further south. Its loud, shrill song has been described as a siren or alarm, a whistle, or gas escaping a pressure release valve. Although the giant cicada resides over a large area of land, there is almost no variation in its song throughout its range.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "Australian cicadas are found on tropical islands and cold coastal beaches around Tasmania, in tropical wetlands, high and low deserts, alpine areas of New South Wales and Victoria, large cities including Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane, and Tasmanian highlands and snowfields. Many of them have common names such as cherry nose, brown baker, red eye, greengrocer, yellow Monday, whisky drinker, double drummer, and black prince. The Australian greengrocer, \"Cyclochila australasiae\", is among the loudest insects in the world.\n", "Cicadas feed on sap; they do not bite or sting in a true sense, but may occasionally mistake a person's arm for a plant limb and attempt to feed. Male cicadas produce very loud calls that can damage human hearing.\n", "Section::::Lifecycle.\n", "Cicadomorpha\n\nCicadomorpha is an infraorder of the insect order Hemiptera which contains the cicadas, leafhoppers, treehoppers, and spittlebugs. There are approximately 35,000 described species worldwide. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, and many produce either audible sounds or substrate vibrations as a form of communication. The earliest fossils of cicadomorphs first appear during the Late Permian.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "Predators such as the sarcophagid fly \"Emblemasoma\" hunt cicadas by sound, being attracted to their songs. Singing males soften their song so that the attention of the listener gets distracted to neighbouring louder singers, or cease singing altogether as a predator approaches. A loud cicada song, especially in chorus, has been asserted to repel predators, but observations of predator responses refute the claim.\n\nSection::::In human culture.\n\nSection::::In human culture.:In art and literature.\n", "\"Magicicada\" males typically form large aggregations that sing in chorus to attract receptive females. Different species have different characteristic calling songs. The call of decim periodical cicadas is said to resemble someone calling \"weeeee-whoa\" or \"Pharaoh\". The cassini and decula periodic cicadas (including \"M. tredecula\") have songs that intersperse buzzing and ticking sounds.\n", "Chorus cicadas are commonly found in open forests and woodlands but also sometimes found on buildings, fences or lamp posts. Cicadas prefer sub-tropical, sub-humid and temperate environments.\n\nSection::::Cultural uses.\n\nThe Māori name for cicadas is kihikihi wawa, or matua kihikihi or ngengeti. The meaning of wawa is ‘to roar like the sound of heavy rain’. One Māori haka and folk song, Te Tarakihi (the cicada) is based on the shrill summer-singing of the cicada.\n\nSection::::Life cycle/phenology.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Marteena\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Masamia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Masupha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maua\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Megapomponia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Megatibicen\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Meimuna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Melampsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Melanesiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mendozana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Minilomia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Minipomponia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Miniterpnosia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mirabilopsaltria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Miranha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mogannia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Monomatapa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mosaica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mouia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muansa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mugadina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Munza\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mura\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Murmurillana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Murphyalna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Musimoia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Musoda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Myersalna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Myopsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nabalua\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nablistes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nanopsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nelcyndana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neocicada\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neomuda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neoncotympana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neoplatypedia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neopsaltoda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neopunia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neoterpnosia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neotibicen\" (annual or dogday cicadas)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nggeliana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nigripsaltria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Noongara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nosola\"\n", "Section::::Biology.:Sound production.\n\nMany hemipterans can produce sound for communication. The \"song\" of male cicadas, the loudest of any insect, is produced by tymbal organs on the underside of the abdomen, and is used to attract mates. The tymbals are drumlike disks of cuticle, which are clicked in and out repeatedly, making a sound in the same way as popping the metal lid of a jam jar in and out.\n\nStridulatory sounds are produced among the aquatic Corixidae and Notonectidae (backswimmers) using tibial combs rubbed across rostral ridges.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Life cycle.\n", "The periodical cicadas (\"Magicicada\") make use of predator satiation: they emerge, all at once, at long intervals of 13 or 17 years; their juveniles are probably the longest-lived of all insect development stages. Since the cicadas in any given area exceeds the number predators can eat, all available predators are sated, and the remaining cicadas can breed in peace.\n", "\"Magicicada\" species are edible when cooked. They have historically been eaten by Native Americans, who roasted them in hot ovens, stirring them until they were well browned.\n\nCharles Lester Marlatt wrote in 1907:\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cicada Mania\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Magicicada Lab Exercise for High School AP Biology, College and University Classes\" Multiple field and laboratory exercises that contribute to research on the ecology and evolution of periodical cicadas in collaboration with scientists at the University of Connecticut]\n", "Most cicadas go through a lifecycle that lasts from two to five years. Some species have much longer lifecycles, such as the North American genus, \"Magicicada\", which has a number of distinct \"broods\" that go through either a 17-year, or in some parts of the region, a 13-year lifecycle. The long lifecycles may have developed as a response to predators, such as the cicada killer wasp and praying mantis. A specialist predator with a shorter life cycle of at least two years could not reliably prey upon the cicadas.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Diet.\n", "Section::::Diet.\n\nThis cicada feeds on sap that comes from all trees, though they prefer cottonwood and willow. As nymphs they feed on the sap that comes from the roots of trees.\n\nUsing their sucking, piercing mouthparts, cicadas are able to penetrate the cambium layer of a branch and reach the xylem where the sap is located.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta corticina\" (Bark Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta dolens\" (South-western Bark Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta emmotti\" (Channel Country Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta encaustica\" (Black Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta furcilla\" (Southern Mountain Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta fuscata\" (Small Bark Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta siccana\" (Bulloak Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atrapsalta vinea\" (Clare Valley Squeaker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pauropsalta rubra\" (Sale Squeaker)\n\nGenus \"Auscala\" \n\nBULLET::::- \"Auscala spinosa\" (Creaking Branch Cicada)\n\nGenus \"Birrima\" \n\nBULLET::::- \"Birrima castanea\" (Red Tree-ticker)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Birrima varians\" (Black Tree-ticker)\n\nGenus \"Caliginopsalta\" \n\nBULLET::::- \"Caliginopsalta percola\" (Royal Casuarina Ticker)\n\nGenus \"Chelapsalta\" \n\nBULLET::::- \"Chelapsalta puer\" (Cassinia Cicada)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chelapsalta myoporae\" (Copper Shrub-buzzer)\n\nGenus \"Clinata\" \n", "Adult cicadas can be encountered in summer feeding on sap from trees or shrubs, with their mouthparts well adapted for piercing and sucking.\n", "Section::::Diet.\n\nAdults of \"N. tibicen\" feed on sap from trees using their sucking, piercing mouthparts to reach the xylem of a branch. They are not host specific. As nymphs, they feed on sap from the roots of all trees.\n\nSection::::Natural predators.\n\nCicadas have many predators because of their relatively few defenses. Numerous mammals, reptilians, birds, and arthropods consume cicadas.\n", "Cicadas are not major agricultural pests, but in some outbreak years, trees may be overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of females laying their eggs in the shoots. Small trees may wilt and larger trees may lose small branches. Although in general, the feeding activities of the nymphs do little damage, during the year before an outbreak of periodic cicadas, the large nymphs feed heavily and plant growth may suffer. Some species have turned from wild grasses to sugarcane, which affects the crop adversely, and in a few isolated cases, females have oviposited on food crops such as date palms, grape vines, citrus trees, asparagus, and cotton.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Song.\n", "Cicadas have featured in literature since the time of Homer's \"Iliad\", and as motifs in decorative art from the Chinese Shang dynasty (1766–1122 B.C.). They are described by Aristotle in his \"History of Animals\" and by Pliny the Elder in his \"Natural History\"; their mechanism of sound production is mentioned by Hesiod in his poem \"Works and Days\" \"when the Skolymus flowers, and the tuneful \"Tettix\" sitting on his tree in the weary summer season pours forth from under his wings his shrill song\".\n\nSection::::Interaction with humans.:In mythology and folklore.\n", "The song made by cicadas is the loudest noise made by an insect. The male chorus cicada produces a communication song that is specific to their species, and so species can be identified by their song. A pulse group of their song is made up of five clicks where the central click (third click) is stronger than the two on either side of it. The central click can become two clicks if the cicada is tired and has no energy. These clicks are made by the cicada hitting its wings against the surface it’s sitting on. These pulse groups can be produced quickly and continuously in a prolonged note during chorus sing. It is New Zealand's biggest cicada, their size is averaging around 40 mm.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Notopsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Novemcella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nyara\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odopoea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Okanagana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Okanagodes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oligoglena\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ollanta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oncotympana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onomacritus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onoralna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orapa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orellana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orialella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orientopsaltria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oudeboschia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Owra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oxypleura\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pacarina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pachypsaltria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paectira\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pagiphora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paharia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pakidetta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Palapsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Panialna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Panka\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Papuapsaltria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paradina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paranistria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paranosia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paratalainga\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paratanna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parnisa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parnkalla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parnquila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parvittya\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paulaudalna\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pauropsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Philipsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Physeema\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pictila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pinheya\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pipilopsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Platylomia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Platypedia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Platypleura\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Platypsalta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plautilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plerapsalta\"\n", "The giant cicada is the second largest North American cicada. Like other Texas species, the giant cicada has an appearance that camouflages it into its environment. The insects are usually a combination of black, green, and brown patterns, with brown eyes and brown to green pronotal collar color. Texas cicadas distinguish themselves by sound, rather than appearance.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "The dominant song pitch of \"M. neotredecim\" ranges from 1.25 to 1.90 kHz. (This is similar to the pitch-range of \"M. septendecim\", except that songs of the 17-year species do not extend so far into high frequencies.) \"M. neotredecim\" song frequencies have been observed to displace upward in areas where their range overlaps with the similar \"M. tredecim\", whose dominant song pitch is lower, ranging between 1.00 and 1.25 kHz.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00936	why do beets retain their purple colour after passing through a body, but red wine doesn't?	Red wine doesn’t have the same biochemical reaction as beets. When you drink red wine, your body processes it differently than beets. Red beets contain a chemical called betacyanin that gives them deep purple color. Although most foods are chemically altered by the digestive process in such a way that they lose their coloration, betacyanin breakdown is variable. Factors that influence whether betacyanin passes through your digestive system intact include the acid content of your stomach and the nutrients in other foods eaten along with red beets. -90% of my reply was copied from the inter-webs	[ "Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/l, depending on the grape variety. White wine has much less because red wine is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to extract the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. The composition of wine is different from that of grapes since the extraction of resveratrol from grapes depends on the duration of the skin contact, and the resveratrol 3-glucosides are in part hydrolysed, yielding both \"trans\"- and \"cis\"-resveratrol.\n\nSection::::Occurrences.:Foods.:Selected foods.\n", "Section::::Variants.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Red wine.\n\nThe red-wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin. Red wine is made from dark-colored grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes from anthocyan pigments (also called anthocyanins) present in the skin of the grape; exceptions are the relatively uncommon teinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.\n\nSection::::Variants.:White wine.\n", "Rosé wines are either made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color (maceration or saignée) or by blending red wine with white wine. White and rosé wines extract little of the tannins contained in the skins.\n", "In winemaking, the process of maceration or \"skin contact\" is used to increase the concentration of phenols in wine. Phenolic acids are found in the pulp or juice of the wine and can be commonly found in white wines which usually do not go through a maceration period. The process of oak aging can also introduce phenolic compounds into wine, most notably vanillin which adds vanilla aroma to wines.\n", "When a winemaker desires to impart more tannin and color to red wine, some of the pink juice from the must can be removed at an early stage in what is known as the \"Saignée\" (from French bleeding) method. The red wine remaining in the vats is intensified as a result of the bleeding, because the volume of juice in the must is reduced, and the must involved in the maceration becomes more concentrated. The pink juice that is removed can be fermented separately to produce rosé.\n", "In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark skins are left in contact with the juice just long enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and fermentation continues as if the winemaker was making a white wine.\n", "The stability of these aromas is very dependent on the amount of anthocyanins and other phenolics that protect these compounds from oxidation. One of the reasons why rosés have such a very limited shelf-life is because of their low phenolic levels due to the very limited skin contact and extraction time. Usually within a year of production the levels of 3-mercaptohexanol-1-ol in the wine have dropped to half its fermentation levels with the presence of 3-mercaptohenyl acetate undetectable in most wines. This is why most wine experts recommend that rosés are consumed as soon after release as possible.\n\nSection::::French rosés.\n", "Section::::Winemaking methods.:Decolorization.\n\nAnother method of producing rosé is to severely decolorize a red wine using absorbent charcoal such as activated carbon. This purer form of charcoal obtained by the dry distillation of carbon compounds (such as wood or peat) has a high ratio of surface area to weight that absorbs color compounds as well as other phenolics and colloids in a wine. While it can be used to decolorize a wine, often much more than just color is stripped from the wine which makes this method very rarely used in the production of quality rosés.\n\nSection::::Color.\n", "Although research continues on resveratrol, the concentration in wine seems too low to account for the French paradox.\n\nSection::::Possible explanations.:Explanations based on the high per capita consumption of red wine in France.:Polyphenols.\n\nOligomeric procyanidins have been proposed to offer protection to human vascular cells, with other research indicating that red wine polyphenols reduce absorption of malondialdehyde which is implicated in elevating levels of low-density lipoprotein in the onset of arteriosclerosis.\n", "The red wines of this area are characterized by their deep color, compared to neighboring appellations, and fuller bodies. The wines of Mercurey are noted for their spicy cherry notes but quality can be quite varied. The late 20th century saw an influx in vineyard expansion with some new plantings going on sites less suitable for quality viticulture. This expansion has increased the propensity for lower quality Mercurey which can taste more dilute with weaker fruit flavors. The less common white wines made in the area are characterized by their minerality and apple notes. Well-made examples typically drink at their peak between 5–12 years after vintage.\n", "The color of a red wine will have many variables that influence it besides its exposure to oxygen that pertain to other viticultural aspects such as different growing climates, cultivars, and production methods. For example, wines made from hybrid grapes can range anywhere from light pink to purple due to their chemical composition. Dr. Leo McCloskey, best known for his contributions in developing the Enologix software, points out that \"Chemical ecology says that a wine's flavor, color and fragrance are expressions of its ecosystem.\"\n", "Anthocyanins are phenolic compounds found throughout the plant kingdom, being frequently responsible for the blue to red colors found in flowers, fruits and leaves. In wine grapes, they develop during the stage of \"veraison\" when the skin of red wine grapes changes color from green to red to black. As the sugars in the grape increase during ripening so does the concentration of anthocyanins. In most grapes anthocyanins are found only in the outer cell layers of the skin, leaving the grape juice inside virtually colorless. Therefore, to get color pigmentation in the wine, the fermenting must needs to be in contact with the grape skins in order for the anthocyanins to be extracted. Hence, white wine can be made from red wine grapes in the same way that many white sparkling wines are made from the red wine grapes of Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier. The exception to this is the small class of grapes known as teinturiers, such as Alicante Bouschet, which have a small amount of anthocyanins in the pulp that produces pigmented juice.\n", "Red wine\n\nRed wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored (black) grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from intense violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments (also called anthocyanins) present in the skin of the grape; exceptions are the relatively uncommon teinturier varieties, which produce a red-colored juice. Much of the red-wine production process therefore involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "In 1998, by means of a lengthy trial and error process, an English engineer named John Edmonds rediscovered a process for dyeing with Tyrian purple. He researched recipes and observations of dyers from the 15th century to the 18th century and explored the biotechnology process behind woad fermentation. After collaborating with a chemist, Edmonds hypothesized that an alkaline fermenting vat was necessary. He studied an incomplete ancient recipe for Tyrian purple recorded by Pliny the Elder. By altering the percentage of sea salt in the dye vat and adding potash, he was able to successfully dye wool a deep purple colour.\n", "Section::::Genetics.\n\nThe colours of the petals of the \"Digitalis purpurea\" are known to be determined by at least three genes that interact with each other.\n", "The flesh is the major element of the wine, as it is the part that contains the highest proportion of liquid. The flavours are much less present than in the skin.\n\nSection::::Components of the grape and the must.:The wort.\n\nIn the case of white winemaking the wort is simply the grape juice from the pressing of grape berries.\n\nSection::::Components of the grape and the must.:The wort.:The sugars.\n", "Although red wine and white vine varieties produce similar amounts of resveratrol, red wine contains more than white, since red wines are produced by maceration (soaking the grape skins in the mash). Other winemaking techniques, such as the use of certain strains of yeast during fermentation or lactic acid bacteria during malolactic fermentation, can have an influence on the amount of resveratrol left in the resulting wines. Similarly the use of certain fining agents during the clarification and stabilization of wine can strip the wine of some resveratrol molecules.\n", "In red wine production, pomace is produced after the free run juice (the juice created before pressing by the weight of gravity) is poured off, leaving behind dark blackish-red debris consisting of grape skins and stems. The color of red wine is derived from skin contact during the maceration period, which sometimes includes partial fermentation. The resulting pomace is more alcoholic and tannic than pomace produced from white wine production. Pomace from the Italian wine Amarone is macerated in Valpolicella wine to produce Ripasso.\n", "When rosé wine is the primary product, it is produced with the skin contact method. Black-skinned grapes are crushed and the skins are allowed to remain in contact with the juice for a short period, typically two to twenty hours. The must is then pressed, and the skins are discarded rather than left in contact throughout fermentation (as with red wine making). The longer that the skins are left in contact with the juice, the more intense the color of the final wine.\n", "Finally some white wines can be victims of \"Rosissement\" (pinking). This phenomenon manifests itself in a light rosé colouration of the wine and takes the appearance of a \"stained\" wine or one that is contaminated by the presence of anthocyanins from red wine. Yet this is not so: the phenomenon is due to the presence of a normally colourless dissolved polyphenol which turns pink due to oxidation. An infusion of PVPP generally eliminates the substrate of oxidation. Some varieties are particularly sensitive to pinking: Sauvignon B, Viognier, Grenache B...\n\nSection::::Preparation of wine before packaging.:Use of SO.\n", "In general, wines made from grapes of the Pinot noir and St. Laurent varieties showed the highest level of \"trans\"-resveratrol, though no wine or region can yet be said to produce wines with significantly higher concentrations than any other wine or region. Champagne and vinegar also contain appreciable levels of resveratrol.\n", "The color of a wine can be partly due to co-pigmentation of anthocyanidins with other non-pigmented flavonoids or natural phenols (cofactors or \"copigments\").\n\nRosé wine is made by the practice of saignée (exposing wine to red grape skins for only a short period of time in order to give it a lighter feel closer to that of white wine) or by blending a white wine with a red wine.\n\nSection::::Color evolution.\n\nThe presence of a complex mixture of anthocyanins and procyanidins can increase the stability of color in wine.\n", "The color of the wine mainly depends on the color of the drupe of the grape variety. Since pigments are localized in the center of the grape drupe, not in the juice, the color of the wine depends on the method of vinification and the time the must is in contact with those skins, a process called maceration. The Teinturier grape is an exception in that it also has a pigmented pulp. The blending of two or more varieties of grapes can explain the color of certain wines, like the addition of Rubired to intensify redness.\n", "Most red wines derive their color from grape skins (the exception being varieties or hybrids of non-vinifera vines which contain juice pigmented with the dark Malvidin 3,5-diglucoside anthocyanin) and therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color extraction.\n", "In the \"Botrytis\" infection known as \"noble rot\" (\"\" in French, or \"\" in German), the fungus removes water from the grapes, leaving behind a higher percent of solids, such as sugars, fruit acids and minerals. This results in a more intense, concentrated final product. The wine is often said to have an aroma of honeysuckle and a bitter finish on the palate.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08721	How does a hose work with an attachment? How does it not explode off? Does the water pressure stop?	> Does the water pressure stop? Pressure is static, it doesn't change. When allowed the escape the water will constantly flow out but when stopped it doesn't continually build up. Normal water pressure is about 40-45 psi.	[ "A standard APW extinguisher in the United States contains of water in a stainless steel tank. The water is discharged by means of a ½-inch hose, with a smooth-bore nozzle attached to the tip. They will initially produce a 40–50 foot stream of water, with a discharge time of about 50 seconds.\n", "BULLET::::- Standards set by the National Fire Protection Association require that each length of new double jacket, rubber-lined attack hose must be pressure tested to , but most manufacturers test to . Subsequent to delivery, the hose is tested annually to by the fire department. While the hose is under pressure, it is inspected for leaks and to determine that the couplings are firmly attached.\n\nBULLET::::- After testing the hose is drained, dried, rolled, and shipped to the customer.\n\nBULLET::::- Quality control\n", "Most garden hoses are not rated for use with hot water, and their packaging will often specify whether or not this is the case. Leaving non-reinforced hoses in the hot sun while pressurized can cause them to burst.\n\nHoses used to carry potable water are typically made of NSF International-listed polymers tested and shown not to leach harmful materials into the drinking water, such as the plasticizers (phthalates) used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC, or vinyl) hoses.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "An inspection includes external and internal inspection for damage, corrosion, and correct colour and markings. The failure criteria vary according to the published standards of the relevant authority, but may include inspection for bulges, overheating, dents, gouges, electrical arc scars, pitting, line corrosion, general corrosion, cracks, thread damage, defacing of permanent markings, and colour coding.\n", "There have been thousands of drawings (mostly in comics) of combat frogmen and other scuba divers with two-cylinder twin-hose aqualungs shown with one wide breathing tube coming straight out of each cylinder top with no regulator, far more than of twin-hose aqualungs depicted accurately with a regulator, or of combat frogmen with rebreathers.\n\nSection::::Frogmen.:Errors about frogmen found in public media.:Drawing and artwork.:Twin-hose without visible regulator valve (fictional).\n", "Section::::History.:Decline and fall.\n", "Wet bell handling differs from closed bell handling in that there is no requirement to transfer the bell to and from the chamber system to make a pressure-tight connection, and that a wet bell will be required to maintain a finely controlled speed of descent and ascent and remain at a fixed depth within fairly close tolerances for the occupants to decompress at a specific ambient pressure, whereas a closed bell can be removed from the water without delay and the speed of ascent and descent is not critical.\n", "Section::::The corrugated hose.\n\nCorrugated hoses are pressure and vacuum tight. The permissible operating pressures for hoses with small dimensions reach 380 bar (with a 3-fold burst pressure safety factor). The pressure resistance of large dimensions is lower for technical reasons. Stainless steel models have a temperature resistance of up to approx. 600 °C, depending on the pressure load, and even higher values are possible with special materials. In the low temperature range, stainless steel corrugated hoses can be used down to -270 °C.\n\nSection::::The corrugated hose.:Structure and function.\n", "Whenever a flexible hose is connected to a drinkable water supply, the spigot or tap should be fitted with an approved backflow prevention device, to prevent contaminated water from being siphoned back, in the event of a pressure drop. Many water suppliers require this, and plumbing code may legally require permanently installed backflow preventers.\n\nSection::::Porous or perforated hoses.\n", "Some bladder water guns, such as Speedloaders, Water Worms, and Super Chargers, are inflated with water directly from a garden hose using a quick-fill device (QFD). This allows faster filling, but makes them more limited since they require a hose to work.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "With a history of more than one hundred years, metal hoses have given rise to other flexible line elements, including metal expansion joints, metal bellows and semi-flexible and flexible metal pipes. In Germany alone, there are about 3500 patents relating to metal hoses.\n\nSection::::The origins.\n", "BULLET::::- Alternative energy (solar heat, wind turbines, etc.)\n\nSection::::Properties of metal hoses.\n\nMetal hoses resist high pressures and offer maximum tightness on account of the material from which they are manufactured. Their flexibility lends them tensile and tear strength. Also, they are characterised by their corrosion and pressure resistance, even under extreme conditions such as when exposed to aggressive seawater, strong vibrations and extreme temperatures such as in space or when transporting cooled liquid gas.\n\nSection::::Braiding around metal hoses.\n", "To abandon a type 1 wet bell or stage, the divers simply exit the bell on the side that the umbilicals enter, ensuring that they are not looped around anything. This is reliably done by having the surface tender take up slack while returning to the bell and following the umbilical out the other side, after which the tender can simply raise the diver as if there were no bell. \n", "The standard interstage hose is long, but hoses are standard for Octopus regulators and hoses are popular for technical diving, particularly for cave and wreck penetration where space constraints may make it necessary to swim in single file while sharing gas. Other lengths are also available. Most low pressure ports are threaded 3/8\"UNF, but a few regulators were marketed with one 1/2\"UNF port intended for the primary demand valve. High pressure ports are almost exclusively 7/16\"UNF. There is no possibility of connecting a hose to the wrong pressure port.\n\nSection::::Mechanism and function.:Single-hose two-stage open-circuit demand regulators.:Second-stage or Demand valve.\n", "Alexander flew to Aberdeen, and by the next day he was taken out to the diving support vessel \"Tender Carrier\" in the Thistle Field. On board the \"Carrier\", Alexander ultimately decided to have the jumper hoses blown off with explosives. Explosives experts were brought out to the ship with their gear and divers placed clamshell charges around the jumper hoses. On January 23, 1979, the signal was given and Alexander heard a bang and saw bubbles come to the surface. A diver was sent down to have a look and discovered that, although both charges had gone off, only one of the hoses had been cut.\n", "Twin hose regulators have been superseded almost completely by single hose regulators and became obsolete for most diving since the 1980s.\n", "This type is mentioned here because it is very familiar in comics and other drawings, as a wrongly-drawn twin-hose two-cylinder aqualung, with one wide hose coming out of each cylinder top to the mouthpiece with no apparent regulator valve, much more often than a correctly-drawn twin-hose regulator (and often of such breathing sets being used by combat frogmen): see Frogman#Errors about frogmen found in public media. It would not work in the real world.\n\nSection::::Freediving.\n\nSection::::Freediving.:Documentaries.\n", "Hoses can be used in water or other liquid environments or to convey air or other gases. Hoses are used to carry fluids through air or fluid environments, and they are typically used with clamps, spigots, flanges, and nozzles to control fluid flow.\n\nSpecific applications include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- A garden hose is used to water plants in a garden or lawn, or to convey water to a sprinkler for the same purpose.\n\nBULLET::::- A tough hose is used to water crops in agriculture for drip irrigation\n", "An important variant of the metal hose can be attributed to the inventor Siegfried Frank of Frankfurt, Germany. In 1894, he patented the method of rolling a helical corrugation into a smooth rigid pipe. Heinrich Witzenmann had already made experiments in this direction several years earlier, but did not continue his efforts to create a patentable result. It wasn't until the twenties and thirties of the 20th century that the hotel administrator Albert Dreyer of Lucerne, Switzerland, succeeded in creating a satisfactory annular corrugation for the manufacture of metal corrugated hoses.\n\nSection::::The origins.:Continued development.\n", "The standard diving system had no self contained alternative breathing gas supply. It was possible to switch out air supply hoses underwater, and the air already in the suit and helmet was usually sufficient to keep the diver conscious during the time required to disconnect the old hose and connect the new one, but this procedure could only work if the original hose was still providing an air supply. A severed or blocked hose could not be successfully managed.\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil:\n\nBULLET::::- Person, of Sao Paulo.\n\nBULLET::::- Canada:\n\nBULLET::::- John Date, of Montreal.\n", "Section::::Modern usage.:Types.\n\nThere are several types of hose designed specifically for the fire service. Those designed to operate under positive pressure are called discharge hoses. They include attack hose, supply hose, relay hose, forestry hose, and booster hose. Those designed to operate under negative pressure are called suction hoses.\n\nAnother suction hose, called a soft suction, is actually a short length of fabric-covered, flexible discharge hose used to connect the fire pumper suction inlet with a pressurized hydrant. It is not a true suction hose as it cannot withstand a negative pressure.\n\nSection::::Modern usage.:Raw materials.\n", "Section::::Mobile diving bell.\n", "Hose clamp\n\nA hose clamp or hose clip or hose lock is a device used to attach and seal a hose onto a fitting such as a barb or nipple.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nMany types are available, including :\n\nSection::::Types.:Screw/band (worm gear) clamps.\n", "Section::::Mechanism and function.:Single-hose two-stage open-circuit demand regulators.:First stage.:Balancing.\n", "There are several systems available for repairing holes in fire hoses, the most common being the Stenor Merlin, which offer patching materials for Type 1, 2, and 3 hoses. The patches come in two different sizes and two different colours (red and yellow). The patches are vulcanised onto the hose and usually last the lifetime of the hose.\n\nSection::::Connections.\n" ]	[ "A hose with an attachment should explode off. " ]	[ "Due to pressure being static, the water inside of the hose will constantly flow and when stopped it won't continue to build up, meaning it the attachment won't blow off. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A hose with an attachment should explode off. ", "A hose with an attachment should explode off. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Due to pressure being static, the water inside of the hose will constantly flow and when stopped it won't continue to build up, meaning it the attachment won't blow off. ", "Due to pressure being static, the water inside of the hose will constantly flow and when stopped it won't continue to build up, meaning it the attachment won't blow off. " ]
2018-19893	Why do computers get slower over time?	A few people have explained some ways computers can actually become slower. The other side of this though is that computers often only appear to be slower because the applications they're running become bigger. Part of this is due to natural progression of software. But a lot of it is down to software consuming a lot more processing power and memory space to do the same thing. Go back 30-40 years, programmers had to come up with a lot of clever tricks to make a program that not only worked, but worked within the much narrower confines of the available hardware. Even a very basic word processing application, you have to use a lot of tricks to make that work with a 3MHz CPU and 64KB of memory. When you have 3GHz CPU and 64GB of memory, your code doesn't have to be nearly as efficient... and in reality, a lot of programs aren't as efficient as they used to be, because they simply don't need to be. You can really see this happening with games in particular. PC games in the early 90s only a few dozen MB worth of hard drive space, and required maybe a couple MB of RAM. And yet a lot of retro style games on Steam, with the same level of graphics and sound, and similar levels of content, might take several hundred MB, or even GB of hard drive space, and require at least a GB of RAM. EDIT: Just to clarify one thing, this isn't necessarily a bad thing. Its not like the current generation of software developers are bunch of lazy good for nothing kids or something. 30-40 years ago, making your code efficient as possible was a high priority because the hardware demanded it. Nowadays, it doesn't. Time spent trimming a bunch of fat from your code is generally better spent working to add new functionality or extending an application to new platforms. You could make your code super efficient, but it's not going to make a noticeable difference for users compared to code that is simply adequately efficient. The application having new functionality or working on a new platform is noticeable to users though.	[ "Adrian Kingsley-Hughes, writing for ZDNet, believes that the slow-down over time is due to loading too much software, loading duplicate software, installing too much free/trial/beta software, using old, outdated or incorrect drivers, installing new drivers without uninstalling the old ones and may also be due to malware and spyware.\n\nSection::::NSA backdoor allegations.\n", "BULLET::::- Driven by mass adoption, consumer personal computer specifications increased dramatically during the 1990s, from 512 KB RAM 12 MHz Turbo XTs in 1990, to 25–66 MHz 80486-class processor at the start of the popularization of the World Wide Web mid-decade, to over 1 GHz CPUs with close to a gigabyte of RAM by 2000.\n", "BULLET::::- inotify and synchronization to filesystem are being attempted.\n\nBULLET::::- Strigi's indexing can be stopped manually, and will suspend itself if running on a laptop's batteries, disk drive runs out of space, and/or runs in the background until the CPU is not busy with tasks that the computer-user is waiting on the CPU for.\n\nSection::::Operating systems and desktops.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Public computer\n\nBULLET::::- Portable computer\n\nBULLET::::- Desktop replacement computer\n\nBULLET::::- Quiet PC\n\nBULLET::::- Pocket PC\n\nBULLET::::- List of home computers\n\nBULLET::::- List of computer system manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- Market share of personal computer vendors\n\nBULLET::::- e-waste\n\nBULLET::::- Personal Computer Museum\n\nBULLET::::- Information and communication technologies for development\n\nBULLET::::- Computer virus\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Accidental Empires: How the boys of Silicon Valley make their millions, battle foreign competition, and still can't get a date\", Robert X. Cringely, Addison-Wesley Publishing, (1992),\n\nBULLET::::- \"PC Magazine\", Vol. 2, No. 6, November 1983, ‘'SCAMP: The Missing Link in the PC's Past?‘’\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Another cause of bloat is independently competing standards and products, which can create a demand for integration. There are now more operating systems, browsers, protocols, and storage formats than there were before, causing bloat in programs due to interoperability issues. For example, a program that once could only save in text format is now demanded to save in HTML, XML, XLS, CSV, PDF, DOC, and other formats.\n\nNiklaus Wirth has summed up the situation in Wirth's law, which states that software speed is decreasing more quickly than hardware speed is increasing.\n", "BULLET::::4. Extremely poor hardware and related boot image control standards that forced users into endless \"fixes\" as operating systems and applications clashed – addressed in part by single board computers and simpler more automated re-install procedures, and the rise of software specifically to solve this problem, e.g. Norton Ghost\n\nBULLET::::5. Technology-driven change driven by companies such as Microsoft which profit directly from more rapid \"upgrades\"\n", "The means by which humans interact with computers continues to evolve rapidly. Human–computer interaction is affected by developments in computing. These forces include:\n\nBULLET::::- Decreasing hardware costs leading to larger memory and faster systems\n\nBULLET::::- Miniaturization of hardware leading to portability\n\nBULLET::::- Reduction in power requirements leading to portability\n\nBULLET::::- New display technologies leading to the packaging of computational devices in new forms\n\nBULLET::::- Specialized hardware leading to new functions\n\nBULLET::::- Increased development of network communication and distributed computing\n\nBULLET::::- Increasingly widespread use of computers, especially by people who are outside of the computing profession\n", "The great Moore's law compensator (TGMLC), also known as Wirth's law – generally is referred to as software bloat and is the principle that successive generations of computer software increase in size and complexity, thereby offsetting the performance gains predicted by Moore's law. In a 2008 article in InfoWorld, Randall C. Kennedy, formerly of Intel, introduces this term using successive versions of Microsoft Office between the year 2000 and 2007 as his premise. Despite the gains in computational performance during this time period according to Moore's law, Office 2007 performed the same task at half the speed on a prototypical year 2007 computer as compared to Office 2000 on a year 2000 computer.\n", "Section::::Prevention and management.\n", "These design issues combined with programming errors (e.g. buffer overflows) and the popularity of Windows means that it is a frequent target of computer worm and virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier's \"Counterpane Internet Security\" reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months. In 2005, Kaspersky Lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses, Trojans, back-doors, and exploits written for Windows.\n", "Supercomputer operating systems\n\nSince the end of the 20th century, supercomputer operating systems have undergone major transformations, as fundamental changes have occurred in supercomputer architecture. While early operating systems were custom tailored to each supercomputer to gain speed, the trend has been moving away from in-house operating systems and toward some form of Linux, with it running all the supercomputers on the TOP500 list in November 2017.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Andromeda Strain\" (1971)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Machine That Changed the World\" (1992, TV miniseries)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Triumph of the Nerds: The Rise of Accidental Empires\" (1996)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nerds 2.0.1: A Brief History of the Internet\" (1998)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The First $20 Million Is Always the Hardest\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micro Men\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jobs\" (2013)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Imitation Game\" (2014)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Steve Jobs\" (2015)\n\nSection::::Computers.:Television series.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Computer Chronicles\" (1983 - 2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Halt and Catch Fire\" (2014 - 2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Commodore 64\n\nBULLET::::- Macintosh 128K\n\nBULLET::::- NeXT Computer\n\nBULLET::::- Silicon Valley (2014 - present)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Valley of the Boom\" (2019)\n\nSection::::Hacking.\n", "Section::::Limitations and complications.\n", "In 1988, only 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet \"computer worm\". The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. who said \"he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet\".\n\nSection::::Notable attacks and breaches.:Rome Laboratory.\n", "Finally, the widespread adoption of hard drives and local area networks led to any number of new features being requested from users and developers. By the late 1980s, the list of new upgrades and suggested changes to the existing model was considerable.\n\nSection::::Development.:Pink and Blue.\n", "From both an academic and industrial point of view, the software aging phenomenon has increased. The main focus has been to understand its effects from a verifiable observation and theoretical understanding.\n\n\"\"Programs, like people, get old. We can't prevent aging, but we can understand its causes, take steps to limit its effects, temporarily reverse some of the damage it has caused, and prepare for the day when the software is no longer viable.\"\"\n\nMemory bloating and leaking, along with data corruption and unreleased file-locks are particular causes of software aging.\n\nSection::::Proactive management of software aging.\n", "Applying software patches may help alleviate some concern(s), although the balance between security and performance may be a worthy consideration. Companies performing cloud computing may see a significant decrease in their overall computing power; individuals, however, may not likely see any performance impact, according to researchers.\n\nThe real fix, according to Intel, is by replacing today's processors. Intel further states, \"These changes begin with our next-generation Intel Xeon Scalable processors (code-named Cascade Lake), as well as new client processors expected to launch later this year [2018].\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- BlueKeep (security vulnerability)\n\nBULLET::::- Hardware security bug\n\nBULLET::::- Microarchitectural Data Sampling\n", "BULLET::::- Microsoft Windows operating systems become virtually ubiquitous on IBM PC compatibles.\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft introduces Windows 3.1, Windows 95, and Windows 98 to the market, which gain immediate popularity.\n\nBULLET::::- Macintosh System 7 was released in 1991. For much of the decade, Apple would struggle to develop a next-generation operating system, starting with Copland and culminating in its December 1996 buyout of NeXT and the 1999 release of Mac OS X Server 1.0.\n\nBULLET::::- The development of web browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer makes surfing the World Wide Web easier and more user friendly.\n", "During the Windows 2000 period, the nature of attacks on Windows servers changed: more attacks came from remote sources via the Internet. This has led to an overwhelming number of malicious programs exploiting the IIS services – specifically a notorious buffer overflow tendency. This tendency is not operating-system-version specific, but rather configuration-specific: it depends on the services that are enabled. Following this, a common complaint is that \"by default, Windows 2000 installations contain numerous potential security problems. Many unneeded services are installed and enabled, and there is no active local security policy.\" In addition to insecure defaults, according to the SANS Institute, the most common flaws discovered are remotely exploitable buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Other criticized flaws include the use of vulnerable encryption techniques.\n", "Another longer-term solution is for computers to be composed of less dangerous products and many people disagree. No data has been provided to show that people who agree with the European model have based their agreement on measured outcomes or experience-based scientific method.\n\nSection::::Data security.\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 - Microsoft introduces Windows 95, which gains immediate popularity and makes Windows the standard operating system for most PCs. Windows 98 is even more successful three years later.\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 - The Java programming language is developed by Sun Microsystems (now Oracle).\n\nBULLET::::- The Year 2000 problem (commonly known as Y2K), the computer glitch disaster expected to happen on January 1, 2000.\n\nBULLET::::- The development of web browsers such as Netscape Navigator (originally known as Mosaic) in 1993 and Internet Explorer in 1995 makes surfing the World Wide Web easier and more user friendly.\n", "BULLET::::- Newer systems perform undesirable (especially for individual or non-institutional users) secondary functions such as \"a\") tracking and reporting of user activity and/or \"b\") automatic updating that creates \"back-door\" security vulnerabilities and leaves end users dependent on the good faith and honesty of the vendor providing the updates. This problem is especially acute when these secondary functions of a newer system cannot be disabled.\n\nSection::::Problems posed by legacy computing.\n\nLegacy systems are considered to be potentially problematic by some software engineers for several reasons.\n", "Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of humanitarian aid was needed for efficient use—in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage.\n\nSection::::History.:Contributions.\n", "In February 2005, in an interview for \"The New York Times\", George F. Colony, chief executive of Forrester Research, was the first to introduce the term \"recommerce\" to answer a question about the increase in spending for technology after years budget cuts in large corporations after the Dot Com Bubble bursted: \"There's a lot of shelf-life issues out there. People are a couple of releases behind. Older PCs. There is a move to really go back to - we call it 'recommerce'. Instead of 'ecommerce', it's 'recommerce'\". He said.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Souvlaki\": 1992–1994.\n" ]	[ "Computers get slower over time.", "Computers get slower over time." ]	[ "They do not get slower over time, they just appear slower do to new technology needed to run on them or badly made software.", "They do not get slower over time, they just appear slower do to new technology needed to run on them or badly made software." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Computers get slower over time.", "Computers get slower over time.", "Computers get slower over time." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They do not get slower over time, they just appear slower do to new technology needed to run on them or badly made software.", "They do not get slower over time, they just appear slower do to new technology needed to run on them or badly made software.", "They do not get slower over time, they just appear slower do to new technology needed to run on them or badly made software." ]
2018-16370	Why do computers have a shutdown process instead of just cutting it's own power?	For the same reason that people generally lie down before going to sleep instead of just falling over: To avoid damage. At any given time, a computer is running a lot of programs in the background, and they need to be safely closed before the computer shuts down. Many of them also save their state during their shutdown procedures, so they can resume where they were when the computer comes back on. These programs can be extremely important to the operation of the computer, and if things don't add up when it comes back on, the operating system itself won't run anymore.	[ "Shutdown (computing)\n\nTo shut down or power off a computer is to remove power from a computer's main components in a controlled way. After a computer is shut down, main components such as CPUs, RAM modules and hard disk drives are powered down, although some internal components, such as an internal clock, may retain power.\n\nSection::::Implementations.\n\nThe shutdown feature and command is available in Microsoft Windows, ReactOS, HP MPE/iX, and in a number of Unix and Unix-like operating systems such as Apple macOS.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Microsoft Windows and ReactOS.\n", "In Microsoft Windows and ReactOS, a PC or server is shut down by selecting the Shutdown item from the Start menu on the desktop. Options include shutting down the system and powering off, automatically restarting the system after shutting down, or putting the system into stand-by mode.\n", "While some PCs allow low power settings, there are many situations, especially in a networked environment, where processes running on the computer will prevent the low power settings from taking effect. This can have a dramatic effect on energy use that is invisible to the user. The monitor may have gone into standby mode, and the PC may appear to be idle, but operational testing has shown that on any given day an average of over 50% of an organisation's computers would fail to go to sleep, and over time this happened to over 90% of the machines.\n", "Just like other operating systems, Windows has the option to prohibit selected users from shutting down a computer. On a home PC, every user may have the shutdown option, but in computers on large networks (such as Active Directory), an administrator can revoke the access rights of selected users to shut down a Windows computer. Nowadays there are many software utilities which can automate the task of shutting down a Windows computer, enabling automatic computer control. The Windows Shutdown website lists various software utilities to automate the task of shutting down.\n", "In Windows, a program can shut down the system by calling the codice_3 or codice_4 function.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Apple macOS.\n\nIn Apple macOS the computer can be shut down by choosing \"Shut Down…\" from the Apple Menu or by pressing the power key to bring up the power management dialog box and selecting button \"Shut down\". An administrator may also use the Unix codice_1 command as well. It can also be shut down by pressing [Alt]+[Command]+[Eject optical disc on optical drive] but this will not prompt the user anything at all.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Unix and Linux.\n", "There is also a codice_1 command that can be executed within a command shell window. codice_2 is the command-line shutdown application(located in %windir%\\System32\\shutdown.exe) that can shut down the user's computer or another computer on the user's network. Different parameters allow different functions. More than one parameter can be used at a time for this command.\n", "Power management\n\nPower management is a feature of some electrical appliances, especially copiers, computers, GPUs and computer peripherals such as monitors and printers, that turns off the power or switches the system to a low-power state when inactive. In computing this is known as PC power management and is built around a standard called ACPI. This supersedes\n\nAPM. All recent (consumer) computers have ACPI support.\n\nIn the military, power management often refers to suites of equipment which permit soldiers and squads to share diverse energy sources, powering often incompatible equipment.\n\nSection::::Motivations.\n", "PC power management\n\nPC power management refers to the mechanism for controlling the power use of personal computer hardware. This is typically through the use of software that puts the hardware into the lowest power demand state available. It is an aspect of Green computing.\n\nA typical office PC might use on the order of 90 watts when active (approximately 50 watts for the base unit, and 40 watts for a typical LCD screen); and three to four watts when ‘asleep’. Up to 10% of a modern office’s electricity demand might be due to PCs and monitors.\n", "BULLET::::- Scheduled maintenance tasks causing significant CPU activity\n\nBULLET::::- High network activity\n\nSection::::Software solutions.\n\nOperating systems have built-in settings to control power use. Microsoft Windows supports predefined power plans and custom sleep and hibernation settings through a Control Panel Power Options applet. Apple's OS X includes idle and sleep configuration settings through the Energy Saver System Preferences applet. Likewise, Linux distributions include a variety of power management settings and tools.\n", "Shutdown Day\n\nShutdown Day was an Internet campaign active between 2007 and 2009 which promoted the idea of a holiday when people would go without a computer for the entire day. The benefits attributed to not using a computer for 24 hours range from electricity savings to getting back in touch with friends and nature.\n\nSection::::Establishment.\n\nSection::::Establishment.:Founders.\n", "BULLET::::- APM Suspend: Most devices are powered off, but the system state is saved. The computer can be returned to its former state, but takes a relatively long time. (Hibernation is a special form of the APM Suspend state).\n\nBULLET::::- Off: The computer is turned off.\n\nSection::::Power states.:Device power states.\n\nAPM also defines power states that APM-aware hardware can implement. There is no requirement that an APM-aware device implement all states.\n\nThe four states are:\n\nBULLET::::- Device On: The device is in full power mode.\n", "Resetting the PMU in these circumstances can be a relatively quick and easy fix to some of these issues. There is a keyboard shortcut on newer Apple laptops with an internal battery, nicknamed \"SCOP\". This stands for Shift Control Option Power. This \"reboots\" the PMU software in order to get it working as it should. For Apple laptops with a removable battery, resetting the PMU involves unplugging the power adapter, disconnecting the battery, then holding down the power button for five seconds. Another PMU-related fix would be to reset the logic board, where one removes the backup battery on the board for a few minutes, then reinstalls it, causing the PMU to reset itself with clean, fresh parameters (that need to be corrected, if desired, to its previous state) during the next Mac OS boot (for typical PC users, this is similar to \"resetting the CMOS\").\n", "To retain power, the PD must use at least 5–10 mA for at least 60 ms at a time. If the PD goes more than 400 ms without meeting this requirement, the PSE will consider the device disconnected and, for safety reasons, remove power.\n", "The PMUs functions may become corrupt over time. If this happens, it may become unresponsive and stop performing tasks. The user may not notice the PMUs malfunctions so much as the side effects of the corruption, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Failure to turn on\n\nBULLET::::- Failure to restore from sleep mode\n\nBULLET::::- Failure to recognize connected devices (FireWire, USB, etc.)\n", "Section::::Ancillary services.\n\nThe dynamic controller could also provide other ancillary services, such as aiding blackstart recovery—the ability of a power grid to be brought back to service after a power outage – if programmed with that function. Generally blackstarts are made more difficult because of the large number of reactive loads attempting to draw power simultaneously at start up when voltages are low. This causes huge overloads that trip local breakers delaying full system recovery. The dynamic controller could have these loads \"wait their turn\", as it were, until full power had been restored.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Idle power-down\": This technique exploits gaps in workload demand to shut off components that are idle. When shut down, components cannot do any useful work. The problems unique to this approach are: (1) it costs time and energy to transition between active and idle power-down states, (2) no work can be done in the off state, so power-up must be done to handle a request, and (3) predicting idle periods and adapting appropriately by choosing the right power state at any moment is difficult.\n", "Section::::Windows 'Insomnia' (Sleepless PCs).\n\nThe Windows power management system is based upon an idle timer. If the computer is idle for longer than the preset timeout then the PC may be configured to sleep or hibernate. The user may configure the timeout using the Control Panel. Windows uses a combination of user activity and CPU activity to determine when the computer is idle.\n", "Electricity utilities wish to avoid loss of supply, for which they receive customer complaints or are financially penalised. At the same time they are obligated to maintain and replace their electrical equipment on a regular basis. Due to the hazard to maintenance workers of high voltage, it is normally necessary for portions of the electric power grid to be disconnected from the power supply before being worked upon; this is termed a \"planned outage\".\n", "BULLET::::- Device Power Managed: The device is still powered on, but some functions may not be available, or may have reduced performance.\n\nBULLET::::- Device Low Power: The device is not working. Power is maintained so that the device may be 'woken up'.\n\nBULLET::::- Device Off: The device is powered off.\n\nSection::::CPU.\n", "Section::::Protecting computer systems from power outages.\n", "Power cycling is a standard diagnostic procedure usually performed first when the computer freezes. However, frequently power cycling a computer can cause thermal stress. Reset has an equal effect on the software but may be less problematic for the hardware as power is not interrupted.\n\nSection::::Historical uses.\n", "BULLET::::- On October 2010, during a test run, a fire broke out in the chimney due to clogging. Splits in the cooling system piping triggered a shutdown down of the power plant. The Ceylon Electricity Board decided to institute blackouts to households and Industries for three hours a day until the fault is fully repaired.\n", "When a login session ends, via explicit logout or network disconnection, all processes, including background processes, will by default be terminated, to prevent them from becoming orphan processes. Concretely, when the user exits the launching shell process, as part of shutdown it sends a \"hangup\" signal (SIGHUP) to all its jobs, to terminate all the processes in the corresponding process group. To have processes continue to run, one can either not end the session, or end the session without terminating the processes. A terminal multiplexer can be used to leave a session running but detach a virtual terminal from it, leaving processes running as child processes of the session; the user can then reattach session later. Or, termination can be prevented by either starting the process via the nohup command (telling the process to ignore SIGHUP), or by subsequently running codice_5 with the job id, which either removes the job from the job list entirely, or simply prevents SIGHUP from being sent. In the latter case when the session ends, the child processes are not terminated, either because they are not sent SIGHUP or because they ignore it, and thus become orphan processes, which are then adopted by the init process (the kernel sets the init process as their parent), and they continue running without a session, now called \"daemons\".\n", "Applications can temporarily inhibit this timer by using the \"SetThreadExecutionState\" API. There are legitimate reasons why this may be necessary such as burning a DVD or playing a video. However, in many cases applications can unnecessarily prevent power management from working. This is commonly known as Windows 'Insomnia' and can be a significant barrier to successfully implementing power management.\n\nCommon causes of 'insomnia' include:\n\nBULLET::::- Legacy or non-power management aware applications\n\nBULLET::::- Open file handles on remote computers\n\nBULLET::::- Faulty mice which can cause pointer drift. This makes the operating system believe that a user is present\n", "Normally, the electric power used within the plant is provided from the station's own generators. If all of the plant's main generators are shut down, station service power is provided by drawing power from the grid through the plant's transmission line. However, during a wide-area outage, off-site power from the grid is not available. In the absence of grid power, a so-called black start needs to be performed to bootstrap the power grid into operation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04281	why do popcorn companies put the nutrition information for both popped and unpopped bags?	Two factors here, size and absorption. In the US, the FDA ensures that you are accounting for all the food in your package. This matters because when you pop in the bag, you are changing the product in manner that is going to make the useful food you get out of it different than what they have to account for. Say what???? So in an unpopped bag, they have X amount of popcorn, and Y amount of fat. Then unpopped info is going to add up all the stuff and tell you what's in it. But when you pop it, you're changing the structure of the popcorn and removing it from the bag. When you do that, you're going to leave a lot of stuff behind. The oil/fat the popcorn pops in gets absorbed into the bag, in a measurable way. They then provide you with the average nutrition information of the popped popcorn after accounting for the stuff that gets left behind.	[ "Furthermore, if a variety X exceeds 50%, the label must conspicuously state \"contains up to 60% X\", and so on in 10% increments up to 80%. (The first example given by the FDA is \"contains up to 60% pecans\".) When testing mixed nuts for compliance, the FDA samples at least 24 pounds to reduce sampling error.\n", "The design of a microwave popcorn bag is specifically keyed to avoid popped kernel scorching, an undesirable effect that takes place when popped kernels are heated above .\n", "Unlike the vast majority of breakfast cereals, Corn Pops in the USA had been packaged in a foil-lined bag until the mid-2010s. This helped to prevent the Pops from going stale and from secreting a sticky substance that caused the corn pops to stick together (a problem caused by the method by which the cereal is processed). Honey Smacks, another Kellogg's puffed grain cereal, used the same bag Corn Pops used. However, the Canadian version of Corn Pops had long been packaged in a standard plastic cereal bag, now used for American pops as well.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n", "An early susceptor popcorn bag design was patented by the American company General Mills in 1981 (US Patent #4,267,420).\n\nSection::::Safety issues.\n\nCare in package design is needed for food safety.\n", "In mid-2007, Corn Pops launched its first line extension in many years called \"Chocolate Peanut Butter Pops\". In 2012, \"Cinnamon Corn Pops\" were introduced.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nCorn Pops are made from milled corn. Though the name of the cereal is 'Corn' Pops, since January 2004, its ingredients have included wheat starch, essentially making the cereal multigrain. By 2007, Coconut Oil was added to the US ingredients.\n", "Section::::Practical information.\n\nIn order to increase the effectiveness of PICS bag technology, the following suggestions should be considered:\n\nAs studies show, PICS bags work not only by depriving bruchids of oxygen, but also by dehydrating their environment. Therefore, this technology could be improved by finding additional methods of quickly lowering the moisture content within sealed bags.\n", "However, on the basis of how subsequent Supreme Court opinions, such as \"Gottschalk v. Benson\" and \"Parker v. Flook\", treat \"Funk\", it appears that the opinion is one on patent-eligibility.\n", "Percent composition by weight is a serious matter in the U.S., where mixed nuts have been regulated by the Food and Drug Administration since 1977. Up to that point, the phrase \"mixed nuts\" had been legally meaningless. A 1964 \"Consumer Reports\" investigation of 124 cans of mixed nuts, representing 31 brands bought in 17 American cities, determined that most mixed nuts of the time were mostly peanuts, often 75%; peanutless brands were usually dominated by cashews. Many cans bore misleading labels or were underfilled. \"Consumer Reports\" concluded, \"What's needed of course is a Federal standard of identity...\", detailing a list that of requirements that, with the exception of their desire to limit broken nuts, anticipated the 1977 rules.\n", "This method of triple bagging creates an airtight environment, and seals any insects present in the crop inside the bag. These insects briefly continue to consume oxygen, but as oxygen levels in the bags drop, and CO concentrations rise, the insects stop feeding and quickly die, thereby protecting the crop from further damage.\n", "Cable in the Classroom has used a Pop-Tarts television commercial as an example in its media literacy program for children. They ask adults to watch a Pop-Tarts commercial with their children or students and \"have them look at how much product information is presented and how much is really about lifestyle or attitude.\"\n\nSection::::Recalls.\n\nPop-Tarts have been the subject of various recalls where mislabeling could lead to serious or life-threatening allergic reactions:\n\nBULLET::::- August 4, 1995: 94,500 cases of Smucker's Real Fruit Frosted Strawberry pastries actually contained the Chocolate Fudge variety.\n", "BULLET::::- June - Ikea recalled 3.36 million \"roller\" and \"roman\" shades due to strangulation hazards.\n\nBULLET::::- June - McDonald's recalled the Shrek Forever After drinking glasses due to risks of cadmium poisoning from the glass' paint.\n\nBULLET::::- June - Kellogg issued a voluntary recall of select packages of Kellogg's Corn Pops, Honey Smacks, Froot Loops and Apple Jacks cereals due to \"an uncharacteristic waxy-like taste and smell\" caused by an unnamed substance in the package liners. The taste of the contaminated boxes was described as \"stale, metal, and soap-like\" by consumers.\n", "… Since we conclude that the product claims do not disclose an invention or discovery within the meaning of the patent statutes, we do not consider whether the other statutory requirements…are satisfied.\n\nSection::::Rationale and subsequent developments.\n", "Industry trade groups have raised issues with Pop-Tarts advertising.\n\nIn 2003, the \"Produce for Better Health Foundation\" and the \"United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association\" told the Food and Drug Administration's Obesity Working Group that:\n", "This project was first developed in Cameroon, but it has since spread to twenty-three nations in Africa and Asia. To date, PICS bags have been introduced and are in use in the following nations: Afghanistan, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, and Zambia.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "Less dramatically, some mixed nuts advertise themselves to contain \"less than 50% peanuts\". For a \"60 Minutes\" segment that originally aired in 1997, Andy Rooney tested such a can of Planters brand nuts, pleading boredom on a Saturday. He determined that \"there was a tiny fraction less than six ounces of peanuts . . . amazing precision for a nut factory.\" Later, in 2004, a cockeyed.com \"How much is inside?\" episode estimated that the peanut weight percentage in two such 11.5 oz cans was, in fact, a little over 50%.\n", "On June 25, the company voluntarily began to recall about 28 million boxes of Apple Jacks, Corn Pops, Froot Loops and Honey Smacks because of an unusual smell and flavor from the packages' liners that could make people ill. Kellogg's said about 20 people complained about the cereals, including five who reported nausea and vomiting. Consumers reported the cereal smelled or tasted waxy or like metal or soap. Company spokeswoman J. Adaire Putnam said some described it as tasting stale. However, no serious health problems had been reported.\n", "Combos\n\nCombos, officially called Combos Stuffed Snacks, are cylindrical tubes of cracker, pretzel, or tortilla, available with various fillings.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nCombos Snacks, created in the mid-1970s, are a snack food distributed by Mars, Incorporated, and sold throughout North America. The product was originally created by the Anheuser-Busch brewery's snack food arm, Eagle Snacks, before Mars purchased the assets when Eagle Snacks was dissolved in 1996. Though the pretzel form was produced first, Combos were first released in cracker form. They are also available with tortilla shells.\n\nIn mid-June 2016, some varieties of Combos were affected by an undeclared nut-related recall.\n", "In Episode 14 of Season 2 of How I Met Your Mother, Marshal demands a Snack Pack from a child in Lily's kindergarten class after spraying his pants with juice for blackmailing him with the Super Bowl results.\n\nIn Episode 8 of Season 1 of the Netflix series Stranger Things (Chapter 8: The Upside Down), Dustin and Lucas raid the school cafeteria for a hidden stash of chocolate Snack Packs. \n\nSection::::Flavors.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Pie a la Mode\n\nBULLET::::- Banana\n\nBULLET::::- Banana Cream Pie\n\nBULLET::::- Blueberry Muffin\n\nBULLET::::- Butterscotch\n\nBULLET::::- Caramel Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate Caramel\n", "In 1938, U-I Sugar began marketing directly to the consumer. Instead of selling exclusively in hundredweight bags, they marketed \"attractive 5- and 10-pound bags suitable to the needs of modern housewives\".\n\nSection::::Quotas.\n", "Newer jars of food tend to come with a plastic wrap around the edge of the lid, which is removed when opening, although the springy-cap designs are still in common use.\n\nTamper-evident packaging also extends to protect stores; there are some scale labels for meats and deli products that will tear if removed.\n", "BULLET::::- Cap'n Crunch's Crunch Berries: Cap'n Crunch's Crunch Berries cereal was introduced in 1967 and contained, in addition to the yellow pieces found in the original Cap'n Crunch, spherical red Crunch Berry pieces. There was a version of Crunch Berries available briefly in which the berries, instead of being spherical, were three small berries in a cluster. The Crunch Berry Beast mascot was introduced alongside the cereal. There are currently four Crunch Berry colors: red, green (introduced in 2002), blue, and purple (both introduced in the '90s). All the berry pieces are flavored the same, regardless of color.\n", "In 2003, Market Square Food Company Inc., based in Highland Park, Illinois, began purchasing raw popcorn from K&K Popcorn and popping it. The company would then package the popcorn under the label, \"The World's Tiniest Popcorn We Think.\" Market Square's popcorn went on sale in Iowa in December 2003, and was available in four flavors. Stores also continued to sell K&K's un-popped popcorn, which at that time was made without preservatives, as well as artificial colors and flavors.\n", "During the final sealing process, the bag may be filled with air from a blower or from an inert gas supply such as nitrogen. Inflating the bag helps reduce the crushing of fragile products such as potato chips, while inflating with inert gas helps drive out oxygen and retards the growth of bacteria that would spoil the product. Other product finishes such as hole punching for retail hanging racks will be done concurrently or just after the \"Top Seal\" is made.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Double Stuf Oreo\" – Introduced in 1974, this variety has about double the normal amount of crème filling as the original. Available with various different flavors of crème filling: original, chocolate, peanut butter, cool mint, and birthday cake. In the UK these are called \"Double Stuff Oreos\" (with double 'f') and are only available in original flavor. The \"Golden Double Stuf Oreo\", featuring golden Oreo wafers with a double portion of original vanilla flavored crème, was introduced in 2009.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Football Oreo\" – (American/Canadian) football-shaped Oreo cookies, introduced in 1976.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2015, two women filed a class-action lawsuit in New York against Welch's Fruit Snacks, alleging illegal supplementation with vitamins, in violation of the jelly bean rule. The jelly bean rule prohibits food manufacturers from deceiving consumers into buying candy by adding vitamins and marketing the candy as a healthful food. The licensed manufacturer replied that the complaint is without merit, \"It is a fact that fruit, whether in the form of juices or more recently purees, has always been the first ingredient in Welch’s Fruit Snacks. Our labeling is truthful and gives consumers the information they need to make informed decisions.” The case was voluntarily dismissed in 2017.\n" ]	[ "It is unnecessary to provide nutritional information for both popped and unpopped bags of popcorn when most don't consume unpopped popcorn. " ]	[ "The FDA ensures that consumers see all information for the contents of the product, and when popcorn is popped the nutritional value of it changes, making it necessary to be included." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is unnecessary to provide nutritional information for both popped and unpopped bags of popcorn when most don't consume unpopped popcorn. ", "It is unnecessary to provide nutritional information for both popped and unpopped bags of popcorn when most don't consume unpopped popcorn. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The FDA ensures that consumers see all information for the contents of the product, and when popcorn is popped the nutritional value of it changes, making it necessary to be included.", "The FDA ensures that consumers see all information for the contents of the product, and when popcorn is popped the nutritional value of it changes, making it necessary to be included." ]
2018-24292	Why is music played so loudly at concerts?	To get over the ambient noise. People don't shut up, and hundreds to thousands of people all yammering away that's a lot of noise to get over top of. Go to a busy restaurant, and then sit for a few minutes and listen to how loud it actually gets with so many people talking.	[ "BULLET::::- Jim Walker (2007): “At The Manor we wanted a live drum sound, and so we had to use the old billiard room. It was set up so it was just me and Rotten eye to eye, as I drummed and he sang.”\"\n\n“Public Image”: \n", "Noise created by mobile phones has become a particular concern in live performances, particularly those being recorded. In one notable incident, maestro Alan Gilbert halted the New York Philharmonic in a performance of Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 9 until an audience member's iPhone was silenced.\n\nSection::::Noise as excessive volume.\n\nMusic played at excessive volumes is often considered a form of noise pollution. Governments such as that of the United Kingdom have local procedures for dealing with noise pollution, including loud music.\n", "BULLET::::1. Noise: Because participants gather in the streets and other public areas, the noise can disturb surrounding residents and citizens. Also, loud music contributes to the amount of noise, which is one reason why participants have begun moving to less populated areas in cities.\n", "Playing loud music that can be heard from outside of the property from where it is being played (such as a house, apartment, hotel room, or motor vehicle) is considered to be rude by many people and societies. Among those opposed to the practice, it may result in the loss of respect and possible legal action. But in certain contained settings, such as clubs or concerts, music is often played very loudly, but is viewed as acceptable.\n\nSection::::Consequences.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Criminal.\n", "The application of Acoustic space is very useful in architecture. Some kinds of architecture need a proficient design to bring out the best performances. For example, concert halls, auditoriums, theaters, or even cathedrals.\n", "In organized sports' early years, noise, such as there was, came solely from the cheering of a team's supporters. Early in the history of American football, however, the practice of employing cheerleaders became standard, and these individuals soon began to use megaphones to lead the cheering. Even prior to the era of electronics, the use of horns and cowbells had begun in an attempt to make noise louder than that which could be created through the mere use of the human voice. The invention of the compressed air horn gave fans another weapon in their arsenal. As fan sophistication increased, they learned to make noise in a way which distracted the visiting team to the assistance of their own. College football teams, especially, which had their own marching bands, came to depend upon the band to play loudly at strategic times, which, while hardly sportsmanlike, could be very effective.\n", "Besides their practical implications, public address systems, including megaphones, also had a social impact. Public address systems helped promote women's participation in society. In events like the National Republican and Democratic Conventions of 1920, when electronic public address systems were first becoming popularized, women used these amplifying technologies during roll call of participants. Later, portable electric megaphones extended this equalizing influence to outdoor events. Some protest leaders use electric megaphones to speak to an outdoor crowd or to other protesters.\n", "During 13 to 18 August 2014 the St. Louis County police used LRAD during protests surrounding the police shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri. Reporter Mike Tobin commented while broadcasting from Ferguson, MO on 18 August, \"It doesn't have the effect of crippling people. It's just loud, it's annoying, it lets you know something big and official is coming and that's what's happening now. They can also use it as a loudspeaker to tell people to get out of the way.\"\n", "Section::::Noise as a feature of music.:Traditional music.:Europe.:Percussion ensembles.\n", "Section::::Small venue systems.\n", "Section::::Large venue systems.\n", "Collapses of decorum have occurred often in music history. In 1861 a Paris performance of Richard Wagner's opera \"Tannhäuser\" was deliberately sabotaged by audience members bringing noisemakers. The premiere of Stravinsky's ballet \"The Rite of Spring\" in 1913 prompted catcalls and whistles from the crowd that degenerated into fistfights in the aisles and police intervention. Steve Reich's \"Four Organs\" at Carnegie Hall in 1973 featured audience members sarcastically applauding and shouting to hasten the end of the performance. Conductor Michael Tilson Thomas recalls a woman walking down the aisle and beating her head against the front of the stage, wailing \"Stop, stop! I confess!\"\n", "Sacrificing refers to the pre-history of modern music—the period of purely oral tradition. In historical terms, this period could be dated to anytime before about 1500 AD. This is the period before mass-produced, notated music—a period when the musical tradition exists solely in the memory of people, generally in the form of oral songs and folktales. Here, Attali characterizes music as being contrasted to the \"noise\" of nature—of death, chaos and destruction. In other words, music stands in contrast to all of those natural forces that threaten man and his cultural heritage. The purpose of music in this era is to preserve and transmit that cultural heritage, by using music to reinforce memory. Music in this period is ubiquitous and often tied up in festival. He calls the chapter Sacrificing because in this era, music is a ritualized, structuralized sublimation of the violence of nature.\n", "At classical music concerts, the cardinal principle is to let others listen to the music undisturbed. Instruments and voices are typically unamplified, and the music is rich in detail and includes passages played very softly. Many audience members want to hear everything, and the normal standard of courtesy is simply to be entirely silent while the music is playing. Thus, during this time experienced concertgoers avoid conversation, try to suppress coughs and sneezes until a loud passage arrives, and muffle these with handkerchiefs. Electronic devices are turned off. Concertgoers try to arrive and take seats before the music begins; late arrivals wait until a break between pieces allows seating by an usher.\n", "\"The advent of recording thoroughly shattered representation. First produced as a way of preserving its trace, it instead replaced it as the driving force of the economy of music… for those trapped by the record, public performance becomes a simulacrum of the record: an audience generally familiar with the artist’s recordings attends to hear a live replication… For popular music, this has meant the gradual death of small bands, who have been reduced to faithful imitations of recording stars. For the classical repertory, it means the danger… of imposing all of the aesthetic criteria of repetition—made of rigor and cold calculation—upon representation.\" (Attali, 85) \n", "BULLET::::- Like other noise pollution, constant piped music can be a health hazard. It can depress the immune system while raising blood pressure and levels of stress hormones such as cortisol, increasing the risks of strokes or heart attacks.\n\nBULLET::::- Recent research has highlighted the special problems facing older people who have presbycusis. Presbycusis results in unwanted background noises such as piped music drowning out welcome foreground noise such as conversation.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Concerts can take place at a location not served by the public electricity grid. In these cases, the concert promoters set up emergency power generators.\n\nMany open-air concerts are very loud, and without the insulation of a building or arena to contain the noise, this also takes an amount of planning, to assure that the concert does not bother the neighbors. Often, these events are staged at a distance from residential areas. Many areas have noise regulations in place limiting the areas in which these large events can take place.\n", "Section::::Noise as a feature of music.:Traditional music.:Turkey.\n\nThe Turkish janissaries military corps had included since the 14th century bands called \"mehter\" or \"mehterân\" which, like many other earlier military bands in Asia featured a high proportion of drums, cymbals, and gongs, along with trumpets and shawms. The high level of noise was pertinent to their function of playing on the battlefield to inspire the soldiers. The focus in these bands was on percussion. A full \"mehterân\" could include several bass drums, multiple pairs of cymbals, small kettledrums, triangles, tambourines, and one or more Turkish crescents.\n", "Noise is used as basic tonal material in electronic music.\n", "Police also used a Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD) to remove protesters from an area after warning them several times to disperse. This was believed by city officials to be the first time that an LRAD had been used to disperse protesters within the United States. Since then, LRADs have been used to peacefully disperse crowds on several occasions.\n", "Section::::Noise as a feature of music.:Traditional music.:Europe.\n", "Rudnick's formula for the Matzo Ball atmosphere is to find a large venue that can handle the large crowds, and for the lights to get dimmer and the music to get louder gradually over the course of the night. This allows for easier mingling and conversation earlier in the night before the hip-hop and dance/house music becomes loud enough to encourage dancing.\n\nRudnick rejects the aspects previously associated with Jewish social events, including name tags, announcements, and live bands, because they would be a distraction from mingling, and can inhibit conversation.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"monitor\" system reproduces the sounds of the performance and directs them towards the onstage performers (typically using wedge-shaped monitor speaker cabinets), to help them to hear the instruments and vocals. In British English, the monitor system is referred to as the \"foldback\". The monitor system in a large club may provide 500 to 1000 watts of power to several foldback speakers; at an outdoor concert, there may be several thousand watts of power going to the monitor system.\n", "The band and its new director also clicked over his arrangement of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", which featured the striking effect of a single trumpet playing the first half of the song, joined later by soft woodwinds and tuba, and finally bringing the full power of the brass only in the final verse. When it was played at the \"Big Game\" against California, just eight days after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Barnes said, \"I've never heard such a loud silence.\"\n", "An important aspect of all of these examples of noise in European keyboard and string music before the 19th century is that they are used as sound effects in programme music. Sounds that would likely cause offense in other musical contexts are made acceptable by their illustrative function. Over time, their evocative effect was weakened as at the same time they became incorporated more generally into abstract musical contexts.\n\nSection::::Noise as a feature of music.:Traditional music.:Europe.:Orchestras.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01130	If I have $100k in available credit from credit card companies and/or banks and find out I'm about to die, what stops me from blowing the $100k before I'm dying and how would they recover their losses?	> If I have $100k in available credit from credit card companies and/or banks and find out I'm about to die, what stops me from blowing the $100k before I'm dying Nothing stops you from using your credit. That's what the credit is there for. For you to use. Now, if you use it in a suspicious manner it might get flagged and temporarily blocked, but a quick call should sort that out. > and how would they recover their losses? So your real question is how to creditors get money from deceased debtors. The answer is: they file a claim against the estate, the executor of the state has to sort it out and make sure that all creditors get paid. If there isn't enough money to go around, then there are priorities and such that dictate who gets what and how much. Usually this is determined by the local laws and precedents.	[ "Credit life insurance is a type of credit insurance sold by a lender to pay off an outstanding loan balance if the borrower dies. Once the loan is paid off with the credit life insurance, there would be no claim on the borrower’s estate. Credit life insurance is charged upfront, rather than spread over the life of the loan. A common example of a loan that can include credit insurance is an installment loan.\n", "Extended credit could, despite all efforts made, become uncollectible. In this case a professional Debt collection agency may be hired along with attendant legal, court and other fees. This event is normally dreaded and most Chartered Accountants are reluctant to consider that credit extended has now become uncollectible necessitating a Debt write off if the Receivable has gone bust or a provision if only a lower amount can ultimately be collected?\n\nSection::::Risk of credit.\n", "Moral hazard can also occur with borrowers. Borrowers may not act prudently (in the view of the lender) when they invest or spend funds recklessly. For example, credit card companies often limit the amount borrowers can spend with their cards because without such limits borrowers may spend borrowed funds recklessly, leading to default.\n", "\"Although it has been understood that many people lost largely in Cordage securities through their investments on Mr. Furman's advice, it was always felt that he himself had been deceived as to the value of the property, and much sympathy has always been expressed for him in his misfortunes and his resultant illness, which is now followed by his death.\"\n\nSection::::Career.:Society life.\n", "Securitization of mortgages in America started in 1983 at Salomon Brothers and where the risk of each mortgage passed to the next purchaser instead of remaining with the original mortgaging institution. These mortgages and other debt instruments were put into a large pool of debt, and then shares in the pool were sold to many creditors.\n", "The sale of credit life insurance has been controversial in many cases. For example, consumers are sometimes led to believe credit life insurance is required when added to loan contracts. When a lender sells more credit life insurance than is required to pay off the loan, the cost of the premiums is inflated along with the amount of the loan, which increases the amount of interest charged and the amount the consumer has to repay. \n", "Fundamentally, to assess the safety of a bank's asset portfolio and the adequacy of its Tier 1 capital (and Tier 2 capital), one needs to evaluate whether it is resilient under severely stressing market moves. Because PFE is a measure of credit exposure, the most relevant stress move for PFE are not those where a large trading loss occurs (as they are when considering an institution's market risk). Instead, the scenarios of significant PFE can often be where the institution makes a large \"paper\" profit with a counterparty; and therefore accrues a large unsecured claim on that counterparty (a claim that the counterparty may be unable to pay). For example, a trader might be cheap insurance contracts against a rare but catastrophic risk. The vast majority of the time - and for many years running - the trader will make a small annual loss (the CDS premium) even if the trade has positive expected value. When the rare event occurs, the trader may suddenly have a huge windfall \"profit\" claim against whoever wrote the \"insurance\". And this would mean a sudden increase in the relevance of whether or not the 'insurance writing' counterparty can actual pay. The possibility that the counterparty cannot pay (this huge new claim) would create a systematically important \"difference\" between the theoretical-credit-risk-free profits of the trader (and his institution) and his realized year end profit. Since institutional market risks are hedged, this \"difference\" could impact the institution's capital not merely as a failure to make excess profits, but actually as a significant net loss (due to losses on the offsetting hedge position). And potentially, exposure to such credit losses could make the \"profit-making\" trader's institution fail (and default on its own obligations to other companies) thereby causing other companies to suffer credit risk losses and fail (in the same way). The theoretical potential for a cascading series of institutional failures (caused by sudden rises in PFE) is apparent. The cost of avoiding or dealing with these risks can fall on the public (the vast majority of whom will not gain directly from the institutional profits made while accruing large PFE claims). This is for two main reasons. First, government directly (or indirectly) insures many retail deposits (to prevent bank runs and to promote savings), and many quasi-government agencies (ex : FNMA, Freddie Mac) have de facto government backing. Second, even when a major firm does not have government insured deposits, it can be \"systemically important\" (such as AIG) - its failure would potentially cause panic, destroy market liquidity, and precipitate a crash and potential widespread economic contraction / depression. One plan that is intended to reduce the public cost (& private benefit) of the implicit support to \"too big to fail\" institutions is to reduce the variability and scale of PFE by incentivizing collateralization.\n", "Sometimes the late fees, high annual percentage rates (APRs), and universal default overcome consumers who frequently do not pay off their debt, and the customer declares bankruptcy. If a customer files for bankruptcy, the credit card companies are required to forgive all or much of the debt, unless such discharge of debt is successfully challenged by one or more creditors, or blocked by a bankruptcy judge on legal grounds irrespective of creditors' challenges.\n", "The credit provider will not get back the money lent or property sold, and the court does not have a discretion to order this. This is a drastic remedy and a departure from the common law. It was not previously available in the case of unregistered micro-lenders, and is a significant new remedy readily available to consumers.\n", "Terms and conditions for loan APR and fees vary from state to state and some are comparatively vague. For states that do not cap interest rates for installment loan balances, there are often unconscionable provisions in place.\n\nFor lenders, credit life insurance loss ratios typically reach 44%, meaning 44% of premiums paid on the credit life insurance product are paid back in claims, compared to non-credit insurance product loss ratios of at least 70%. While many states cap interest and loan fees, lenders use products such as credit life insurance to increase profit and the overall cost of loans.\n", "In theory, because credit default swaps are two-party contracts, there is no net loss of wealth. For every company that takes a loss, there will be a corresponding gain elsewhere. The question is which companies will be on the hook to make payments and take losses, and will they have the funds to cover such losses. When investment bank Lehman Brothers went bankrupt in September 2008, it created a great deal of uncertainty regarding which financial institutions would be required to pay off CDS contracts on its $600 billion in outstanding debts. Significant losses at investment bank Merrill Lynch due to \"synthetic CDO\" (which combine CDO and CDS risk characteristics) played a prominent role in its takeover by Bank of America.\n", "Significant resources and sophisticated programs are used to analyze and manage risk. Some companies run a credit risk department whose job is to assess the financial health of their customers, and extend credit (or not) accordingly. They may use in-house programs to advise on avoiding, reducing and transferring risk. They also use third party provided intelligence. Companies like Standard & Poor's, Moody's, Fitch Ratings, DBRS, Dun and Bradstreet, Bureau van Dijk and Rapid Ratings International provide such information for a fee.\n", "This insurance can provide financial protection to the policyholder or their dependents on the repayment of a mortgage due to the policyholder contracting a critical illness condition or on the death of the policyholder. In this type of product design, some insurers may choose to structure the product to repay a portion of the outstanding mortgage debt on the contracting of a critical illness, whilst the full outstanding mortgage debt would be repaid on the death of the policyholder. Alternatively, the full sum assured may be paid on diagnosis of the critical illness, but then no further payment is made on death, effectively making the critical illness payment an 'accelerated death payment'.\n", "Investors in Storm Financial were expected to face large losses, possibly getting none of their funds back. Many of Storm Financial's clients are expected to face economic hardship; a survey of one group of 400 clients indicated two-thirds would be unable to purchase a home after the forced sale of their existing house. The Commonwealth Bank held about 30 percent of the loan business when it collapsed.\n", "There is nothing to prevent a debtor from having his estate sequestrated by an amicable creditor. The debtor may, for instance, arrange with a friend to whom he owes a debt, and whom he is unable to pay, that he (the debtor) will commit an act of insolvency. (He will, for instance, write a letter saying that he cannot meet the debt.) The friend will then apply for compulsory sequestration on the strength of this act of insolvency. An application for compulsory sequestration brought by a creditor who is not at arm's length is generally referred to as “friendly” sequestration.\n", "This Fund is specifically meant to compensate investors who suffer losses resulting from failure of a licensed stockbroker or dealer to meet his contractual obligations. In both the case of the collapse of Nyaga Stock Brokers and the collapse of Discount Securities Limited all genuine claims within the statutory maximum of Sh.50,000 per every investor were compensated.\n", "Elderly people were often targeted by banks such as Westpac and convinced to take out large loans on Ponzi scheme-type property and other investments, often promising high returns as a financial “nest egg”. Many investors lost their savings and/ or homes in through these schemes and some financial institutions have subsequently refused to give borrowers copies of their loan applications.\n", "This scheme will be linked also to the bank accounts opened under the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana scheme. Most of these account had zero balance initially. The government aims to reduce the number of such zero balance accounts by using this and related schemes.\n\nNow all Bank account holders can avail this facility through their net-banking service facility or filling a form at the bank branch at any time of the year.\n\nThe premium is deducted automatically from the insured's bank account. Insured's family members will receive a sum insured of 2 lac Rupees after insured's death.\n\nSection::::Results.\n", "Consumers are entitled to settle their debts in advance at any time, with or without advance notice, after requesting a statement from the credit provider of the amount required to settle the account. No settlement charge is payable for small agreements; interest and other fees are payable only until date of settlement. This means that a consumer may request from the credit provider the balance due, pay the entire amount, and not be penalised for doing so.\n", "However, the debt is still legally valid, and the creditor can attempt to collect the full amount for the time periods permitted under state law, which is usually three to seven years. This includes contacts from internal collections staff, or more likely, an outside collection agency. If the amount is large (generally over $1,500–2,000), there is the possibility of a lawsuit or arbitration.\n\nSection::::Credit card issuers (banks) have several types of costs.:Fraud.\n", "While this process is under way, a consumer may not use his credit facility (for example, his credit card); nor may he enter into another credit agreement. A credit provider who enters into a credit agreement with a consumer while the consumer is under debt review runs the risk of the credit agreement's being declared reckless credit.\n", "Credit risk mainly arises when borrowers are unable to pay due willingly or unwillingly.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nA credit risk can be of the following types:\n\nBULLET::::- Credit default risk – The risk of loss arising from a debtor being unlikely to pay its loan obligations in full or the debtor is more than 90 days past due on any material credit obligation; default risk may impact all credit-sensitive transactions, including loans, securities and derivatives.\n", "The flow on effects of the financial crisis of 2007–08 and nervous reaction of investors lowered overall confidence in the market and saw over 50 finance companies in New Zealand fail by 2010. Hanover applied to the trustee for a repayment freeze or moratorium rather than a receivership. After the repayment freeze Hanover prepared a debt repayment plan, offering to repay investors over a 5-year period. As part of the plan, Hotchin and Watson pledged $96 million of assets. These assets fell in value as property prices declined.\n", "BULLET::::- Bank had signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with LIC for implementation of \"Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana\". In this, LIC will provide life insurance cover of Rs.2 lakh in case of death of the insured person at nominal premium of Rs.330 per annum.\n\nSection::::Corporate strategies.\n", "Collection agency services to their clients include billing, customer service, insurance verification, training, data clearinghouse services and debt purchasing.\n\nThe public and private sectors rely on the recovery of consumer debt. If not repaid, it could destroy America's credit based economy; increase the price for goods and services to cover creditor losses; make credit more expensive and less available for consumers; put companies out of business as recovered debt used for rent, utilities, operations, salaries & benefits; and prompt governments relying on debt collections to increase taxes/cut spending to cover shortfalls. \n" ]	[ "Something could possibly stop one from accessing available credit within their credit card." ]	[ "There is nothing actually stopping one from using available credit normally, however it is possible to experience an issue if one is displaying suspicious activity." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Something could possibly stop one from accessing available credit within their credit card.", "Something could possibly stop one from accessing available credit within their credit card." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is nothing actually stopping one from using available credit normally, however it is possible to experience an issue if one is displaying suspicious activity.", "There is nothing actually stopping one from using available credit normally, however it is possible to experience an issue if one is displaying suspicious activity." ]
2018-00907	What makes an MR layout car more likely to oversteer?	Think less about the weight transfer, and more about where the weight is in relation to the tires. On rear-engined cars the engine weight is out past the rear tires, and so when the cornering car decelerates, the side force of the engine weight is applied to the rear tires alone, which increases their slip angle, too (this decreases available traction.) When you decelerate, think of that as a backwards force acting on the center of gravity. But the car is also rotating, and that rotation is carrying the mass of the engine outside of the line the center of gravity is tracing, and trying to rotate the car further. And the further it steps out, the greater the force it creates trying to rotate the car, which increases slip angle, which decreases available traction, and I think you can see that viscous circle. Rotation increasing, traction decreasing, rotation force increasing. That is your snap oversteer. A good practical way to visual this is to put a pencil on the desk in front of you, pointed directly away from you. If you flick the pencil on the eraser, it moves straight away from you. If you turn the pencil slightly to one side, but still flick directly away from you, the more the pencil is angled, the more of your flick that goes into rotating the pencil and less into moving it away from you. The force of that rear engine is your flick. If it's inline with the direction of travel, no big deal. That's not so true when the car has rotated to a tail-out attitude. If you apply the flick further up the pencil, the initial rotation decreases the further forward you apply the force.	[ "Under hard acceleration, the decreased weight over the front wheels means less traction, sometimes producing a tendency for rear-engined cars to understeer out of a corner.\n\nIn these respects, an RR can be considered to be an exaggeration of MR - harder braking, faster and earlier acceleration, and increased oversteer.\n", "The car is infamous for its \"snap-oversteer\", this notoriety comes from numerous instances where individuals crash their SW20 either on or off the race track due to inexperience with a mid-ship platform, as MR layouts handle very differently in comparison to the common FF or even FR layouts. Even in its revised state the SW20 still has a large enough following that labels it to be a very challenging car to push to its limits, with some even labeling it as \"the most dangerous car that you can buy\", such a label may be true since MR2s are relatively cheaper than most automobiles with an MR platform (Honda NSX, Ferrari F355, Lotus Elise) and that it is readily accessible to more people.\n", "One reason that sports cars are usually rear wheel drive is that power induced oversteer is useful, to a skilled driver, for tight curves. The weight transfer under acceleration has the opposite effect and either may dominate, depending on the conditions. Inducing oversteer by applying power in a front wheel drive car is possible via proper use of \"Left-foot braking.\" In any case, this is not an important safety issue, because power is not normally used in emergency situations. Using low gears down steep hills may cause some oversteer.\n", "In steady-state cornering, front-heavy cars tend to understeer and rear-heavy cars to oversteer (Understeer & Oversteer explained), all other things being equal. The mid-engine design seeks to achieve the ideal center of mass, though front-engine design has the advantage of permitting a more practical engine-passenger-baggage layout. All other parameters being equal, at the hands of an expert driver a neutrally balanced mid-engine car can corner faster, but a FR (front-engined, rear-wheel drive) layout car is easier to drive at the limit.\n", "Excessive weight that is concentrated outside of the wheelbase can interfere with accurate negotiation of corners at high speed. The rear-engined Porsche 911, with its engine far in the rear, was notorious for dangerous oversteer in its early days, and cars with engines far in the front often suffered from the opposite problem of understeer, for which many old American cars with heavy V8 engines were infamous. Front-engined Ferraris, such as the Ferrari 612 Scaglietti place their engines within the wheelbase, so as to avoid the problem of understeer. Reducing overhanging weight in sports cars is usually a priority, with the notable exception of the 911.\n", "The 1989-1999 Toyota MR2 (SW20) is notorious for snap oversteer characteristics, after initial liftoff oversteer, when improper steering inputs were made attempting to correct this non-power-on oversteer, the rear of the MR2 would swing one way, then wildly (and quickly) the other.\n", "While weight distribution and suspension geometry have the greatest effect on measured understeer gradient in a steady-state test, power distribution, brake bias, and front-rear weight transfer will also affect which wheels lose traction first in many real-world scenarios.\n\nSection::::Limit conditions.\n\nWhen an understeer vehicle is taken to the grip limit of the tires, where it is no longer possible to increase lateral acceleration, the vehicle will follow a path with a radius larger than intended. Although the vehicle cannot increase lateral acceleration, it is dynamically stable.\n", "In the 1940s, the Nazis described the Tatra automobile as the \"Czech secret weapon\" due to its treacherous and deadly lift-off oversteer handling characteristics.\n\nAttorney and consumer protection activist Ralph Nader described this type of handling in his 1965 book \"Unsafe at Any Speed\".\n", "In contrast, the excellent handling of the Mini, with its wheels pushed far out at each corner, can be partly credited to its small overhang. The classic Mini and New MINI are automobiles with very little overhang and thus handle very well under extreme conditions. The minimal overhang gives the Mini its bulldog-like stance.\n", "Most of the traits of the RR configuration are shared with the mid-engine rear-wheel-drive, or MR. Placing the engine near the driven rear wheels allows for a physically smaller, lighter, less complex, and more efficient drivetrain, since there is no need for a driveshaft, and the differential can be integrated with the transmission, commonly referred to as a transaxle. The front-engine front-wheel-drive layout also has this advantage.\n", "The location of the engine and driven wheels significantly influence the handling characteristics of a car and are therefore important in the design of a sports car. Traditionally, most sports cars have used rear-wheel drive with the engine either located at the front of the car (FR layout) or in the middle of the car (MR layout). Examples of FR layout sports cars are the Caterham 7, Mazda MX-5, and the Chevrolet Corvette. Examples of MR layout sports cars are the Ferrari 488, Ford GT and Toyota MR2. To avoid a front-heavy weight distribution, many FR layout sports cars are designed so that the engine is located further back in the engine bay, as close to the firewall as possible.\n", "Controlling understeer - During an understeer, the front wheels lose traction during cornering due to excessive throttle and this causes the speed difference between the left and front wheels to decrease. When the vehicle steers outwards from the intended trajectory, VSA intervenes by reducing engine power and if necessary, also braking the inner front wheel\n\nSection::::Safety.:G-CON.\n", "The weight distribution of a vehicle at standstill will affect handling. If the center of gravity is moved closer to the front axle, the vehicle tends to understeer due to tire load sensitivity. When the center of gravity is toward the back of the vehicle, the rear axle tends to swing out, which is oversteer. Weight transfer is inversely proportional to the direction and magnitude of acceleration, and is proportional to the height of the center of gravity. When braking, weight is transferred to the front and the rear tires have less traction. When accelerating, weight will transfer to the rear and decrease front tire traction. In extreme cases, the front tires may completely lift off the ground meaning no steering input can be transferred to the ground at all. \n", "Controlling oversteer – During an oversteer, the rear end of the vehicle will spin out because the rotational speed of the rear wheels exceeds the front wheels. VSA will prevent the vehicle from spinning by braking the outer front wheel to produce an outward moment and stabilize the vehicle.\n", "However, some complained of bugs, including PSU.com's Simon Sayers, who said: \"During packed starting grids on some courses, they’ll bunch up around the first corner and get tangled up like novices holding up everyone behind them.\"\n\nSection::::Reception.:Sales.\n", "Many properties of the vehicle affect the understeer gradient, including tire cornering stiffness, camber thrust, lateral force compliance steer, self aligning torque, lateral weight transfer, and compliance in the steering system. Weight distribution affects the normal force on each tire and therefore its grip. These individual contributions can be identified analytically or by measurement in a Bundorf analysis.\n\nSection::::Vehicle dynamics terminology.:Simple understanding of real-world handling characteristics.\n\nWhile much of this article is focused on the empirical measurement of understeer gradient, this section will be focused on on-road performance.\n", "When an oversteer vehicle is taken to the grip limit of the tires, it becomes dynamically unstable with a tendency to spinout. Although the vehicle is unstable in open-loop control, a skilled driver can maintain control past the point of instability with countersteering, and/or correct use of the throttle or even brakes; this can be referred to as drifting.\n\nSection::::Related measures.\n", "The \"mid-engine, rear-wheel drive\" layout (abbreviated as MR layout) is one where the rear wheels are driven by an engine placed just in front of them, behind the passenger compartment. In contrast to the rear-engined RR layout, the center of mass of the engine is in front of the rear axle. This layout is typically chosen for its low moment of inertia and relatively favorable weight distribution.\n\nSection::::Rear-wheel drive layouts.:Rear-engine, rear-wheel drive.\n", "Section::::Variations.\n\nSuper, sport and race cars frequently have a mid-engined layout, as these vehicles' handling characteristics are more important than other requirements, such as usable space. In dedicated sports cars, a weight distribution of about 50% front and rear is frequently pursued, to optimise the vehicle's driving dynamics – a target that is typically only achievable by placing the engine somewhere between the front and rear axles.br\n", "As Tiff Needell, who road-tested a development car at Silverstone early in 1991, put it: \"the result is oversteer\". However, once accustomed to the characteristics, he went on: \"Through the very tight chicane, the XJR-15 showed excellent change of direction and I was able to pick up power early for the long right hander leading up to Beckett's. This gradually became a long right-hand power slide as my confidence increased.\" Users of the car as a racer in later years would lower the suspension, fit a larger wing and proper tyres to restore race-car dynamics.\n", "BULLET::::- Parallel Parking: Due to the generally poor performances in the last challenge, a full parallel parking challenge is held next, with Tim giving each driver extensive lessons in how to park without hitting anyone or anything. Each driver has ten attempts in the decommissioned police cruiser. Siham is first-up and passes without making a single mistake. Mariah also passes, but takes six attempts. Despite being the best performer in the previous challenge, Tyler completely forgets the lesson and never even comes close to parking up correctly, failing all ten attempts. Jason remembers the lesson and passes on his fifth attempt. Chanie's performance is by far the worst, as she hits more things on her first run alone than all the other drivers combined... and not surprisingly, is oblivious to having hit anything at all, leaving Andrew increasingly convinced that Chanie should quit driving, and she doesn’t have it in her to be a better driver. Like Tyler, all ten of her runs end in failure.\n", "The part of the vehicle used to ram opponents varies. Some drivers use both the front and rear of the vehicle to ram the other competitors. Others tend to use only the rear end of the vehicle, to help protect the engine compartment from damage.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The \"rear-engine, rear-wheel drive\" layout (abbreviated as RR layout) places both the engine and drive wheels at the rear of the vehicle. In contrast to the MR layout, the center of mass of the engine is between the rear axle and the rear bumper. Although very common in transit buses and coaches due to the elimination of the drive shaft with low-floor bus, this layout has become increasingly rare in passenger cars. The Porsche 911 is notable for its continuous use of the RR layout since 1963.\n\nSection::::Four-wheel drive layouts.\n", "These cars are \"mid-ship engined\" vehicles, but they use front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the driver. It is still treated as an FF layout, though, due to the engine's placement still being in the front of the car, contrary to the popular belief that the engine is placed in front of the rear axle with power transferred to the front wheels (an RMF layout). In most examples, the engine is longitudinally mounted rather than the transversely as is common with FF cars.\n\nBULLET::::- Citroën Traction Avant, DS, SM\n\nBULLET::::- Cord 810\n\nBULLET::::- Nissan GT-R LM Nismo\n", "Fixing understeer or oversteer conditions is achieved by either an increase or decrease in grip on the front or rear axles. If the front axle has more grip than a similar vehicle with neutral steer characteristics, the vehicle will oversteer. The oversteering vehicle may be \"tuned\" by hopefully increasing rear axle grip, or alternatively by reducing front axle grip. The opposite is true for an understeering vehicle (rear axle has excess grip, fixed by increasing front grip or reducing rear grip).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00573	Why are police lights sometimes only visible from behind the vehicle?	This configuration is used to warn cars that the police car is on the shoulder, without distracting the cars driving the other direction. Police cars can be very disruptive to traffic flow, and that causes accidents which make more work for the police officers (and ruin someone's day).	[ "Police cars, fire trucks, ambulances or other emergency vehicles have sirens and red lights. On the other hand, private vehicles operated by volunteer fire and rescue squad members (with emergency vehicle identification) responding to an emergency call use blue lights. If an officer pulls a vehicle over for using courtesy lights, the driver will need to provide sufficient identification proving their Emergency Personnel statusbadge, ID number, ID cardand their reasoning for usage of courtesy lights.\n", "Police vehicle marking schemes usually include the word \"Police\" or similar phrase (such as \"State Trooper\" or \"Highway Patrol\") or the force's crest. Some police forces use unmarked vehicles, which do not have any passive visual warnings at all, and others (called stealth cars) have markings that are visible only at certain angles, such as from the rear or sides, making these cars appear unmarked when viewed from the front.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Audible and visual warnings.:Active visual warnings.\n", "Silent cops were placed in the middle of street intersections at cross roads, and turning drivers were expected to drive around one, keeping it to the right of the vehicle when turning right or left. They were also placed in the centre of the terminating street at T-intersections to force drivers turning in or out of the street to be on the correct side of the road rather than cut the corner.\n", "Section::::United Kingdom.:Thermal roof markings.\n\nIn 2004, the UK Home Office, under direction from the Technical and Training Committee of ACPO Air Operations were tasked with improving the recognition and identification of police vehicles amongst other traffic, particularly when operating at night. Colour images show the flashing blue lights but other details are lost, and a thermal camera image would show the vehicles and surroundings, but the livery and roofbar lighting could not be seen. The preferred solution was to make the police vehicle distinguishable when viewed with a thermal camera.\n", "Most police cars, vans and minibuses have aerial roof markings that help aircraft crew identify them. These can include the unique force code, vehicle identifying mark, or police division that the vehicle belongs to.\n", "Official markings also vary by jurisdiction. The side doors and sometimes the hood of a marked police car usually bear the agency's badge or the city seal, often in reflective finish. Markings such as emergency telephone numbers, generic anti-drug or anti-crime messages, or even website URLs are also common. Some agencies also have identification numbers printed on the roofs of patrol cars for tracking from aircraft, or to distinguish specialized units, such as K-9 units or supervisors.\n", "Visual warnings on a police car can be of two types: either \"passive\" or \"active\".\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Audible and visual warnings.:Passive visual warnings.\n", "In Virginia any member of a fire department, volunteer fire company, or volunteer emergency medical services agency and any police chaplain may equip one vehicle owned by him with no more than two flashing or steady-burning red or red and white combination warning light units of types approved by the Superintendent of the State Police.\n\nSection::::Colors.\n", "Marked variants of these cars typically feature a single row of battenburg police markings on each side of car with 'Police' lettering on the front and rear of the vehicle. Force badges or slogans can sometimes be found on the front and sides of marked cars in most areas. Most marked cars also have high-visibility chevrons on the back.\n", "Police vehicles in the United Kingdom have markings of symbols, letters and numbers on their tops to enable aircraft to identify them. These markings show the use of the vehicle, its force code and a vehicle identifying mark or the police division to which the vehicle belongs.\n\nNot every vehicle displays markings, but those involved in response and traffic generally do. This factor stems from guidelines of the Association of Chief Police Officers relating to police air operations and pursuit management.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.:Police vehicles.:Vehicle usage markings.\n", "BULLET::::- In Massachusetts, Police vehicles are only permitted to display blue lights to the front of the vehicle, with white lights being optional. Police vehicles may display to the rear at least one red light and/or amber lights. The law is inverse for fire trucks. Fire trucks are only permitted to display red lights to the front of the vehicle, but may display at least one blue and/or amber light to the rear. Ambulances usually follow the same scheme as fire trucks.\n", "For Police S.W.A.T. use, long-range weapon lights with exceptional range have always been a problem. Tactical weapon lighting companies such as ExtremeBeam for example have created small light duty lights which S.W.A.T. officers are able to mount to their modern weapons giving them an extended range out to beyond 300 meters (325+yards). This has allowed officer to blind suspects and protect officers closer at hand from being detected and thereby allowing for a better resolution of the situation with less lethal force.\n\nSection::::Lighting features.\n", "Some provinces restrict municipal peace officers (the exact title varies by province) to a different color; for instance, red-only in Québec, and amber in Ontario. However, Ontario does permit certain types of provincial enforcement officers, such as Ministry of Transportation, red lights. Officers appointed to enforce the Highway Traffic Act and other statutes use red or red and blue lights as well, such as Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources, City of Yellowknife Municipal Enforcement Division, Iqaluit Municipal Enforcement Dept, Alberta and Saskatchewan Peace officers, University Constables and others. White flashing lights are common as a supplemental light on emergency vehicles, particularly for fire and ambulance vehicles.\n", "Section::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:Rear.:Rear registration plate lamp.\n\nThe rear registration plate is illuminated by a white lamp designed to light the surface of the plate without creating white light directly visible to the rear of the vehicle; it must be illuminated whenever the position lamps are lit.\n\nSection::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:On large vehicles.\n\nLarge vehicles such as trucks and buses are in many cases required to carry additional lighting devices beyond those required on passenger vehicles. The specific requirements vary according to the regulations in force where the vehicle is registered.\n", "The brief was to create a livery for motorway and trunk road police vehicles that would maximise the vehicles's visibility when stopped in both daylight and under headlights from a minimum distance of , and which distinctively marked them as police vehicles.\n\nThe key objectives were to create markings that:\n\nBULLET::::- Enhanced officer and vehicle conspicuity in service (e.g. to prevent collisions when stopped)\n\nBULLET::::- Made police vehicles recognizable at a distance of in daylight\n\nBULLET::::- Assisted in high-visibility policing for public reassurance and deterrence of traffic violations\n\nBULLET::::- Made police vehicles nationally recognizable\n", "IRVs will generally carry equipment and lighting for use at traffic incidents, such as traffic cones, warning signs and basic first aid equipment. Many response cars in the UK now also carry mobile technology which can be linked to police databases and automatic number plate recognition technology.\n\nSection::::Area cars.\n", "Automobile window tinting reduces the \"Visible Light Transmission\" (VLT) through car windows. This can be problematic at night, or when motorists must be able to see through the windows of other vehicles in order to spot hazards. Police also may want to be able to identify the passengers or any potential threat inside a vehicle. Therefore, in many jurisdictions, there are laws to restrict the darkness of tinting.\n\nSection::::Regulations for automotive use.:Factory Tint.\n", "Decorative vehicle lighting\n\nDecorative vehicle lighting is lighting which is intended entirely as a decorative or ornamental addition to a vehicle, rather than lighting which is required for safety (i.e. automotive lighting, bicycle lighting, emergency vehicle lighting).\n\nBlue lights are often prohibited while in motion so that they will not intentionally or unintentionally imitate a police car.\n\nSection::::Recreational vehicles.\n", "Black and white is an American slang term for a police car that is painted in large panels of black and white or generally any \"marked\" police car. Historically, this scheme was much favored by North American police forces because it allowed the unambiguous recognition of patrol units from a significant distance. However, as the color scheme is not standardized, each police agency in Canada, Mexico, and the U.S. can choose their own color scheme. The most common variant of the black and white color scheme is white roof and four white doors, the second most common is white roof and only the two front doors. In Finland and Sweden, the black and white police cars had black roofs to make them visible in high snow.\n", "Police vehicles are often fitted with audible and visual warning systems to alert other motorists of their approach or position on the road. In many countries, use of the audible and visual warnings affords the officer a degree of exemption from road traffic laws (such as the right to exceed speed limits, or to treat red stop lights as a yield sign) and may also suggest a duty on other motorists to move out of the direction of passage of the police car or face possible prosecution.\n", "Patrol units also use red and blue LEDs facing to the rear of the vehicle and in some forward facing pushbars, as well as headlight and tail light flashers. Both the rotating overhead light and the hood light have traditionally been synonymous with the MSP. The rotating red light has been used by the MSP since 1960 and the current style red overhead light has been in use by the agency since 1979. The red overhead lights on some MSP cars are 25–30 years old.\n\nSection::::Patrol vehicles.:Vehicle testing.\n", "The aerodynamic properties of light bars can be important for police applications, as fuel efficiency and drag are concerns in patrol and pursuit. Because of this, some police cars do not have roof mounted lightbars. These ‘slick-top’ cars mount their emergency lights within the cruiser, generally around the periphery of the windshield or into the leading or trailing edge of the roof. Slick-top police cars also lack the silhouette of a lightbar or beacon, making the car harder to identify as a police vehicle from a distance, especially fore and aft. Because of these visual advantages, these vehicles are sometimes referred to as ‘stealth’ vehicles.\n", "MSP vehicles also feature a clear plastic sign, referred to as a \"hood light\" or \"hailer\" or \"shark fin\" on the hood that lights up when activated. The historical use of this hood light dates from the time when a \"side stop\" patrol stop would be initiated by pulling up next to an offender and the Trooper would motion them to pull over in daylight; at night the hood light was illuminated displaying the words \"State Police\" and \"STOP\" (MSP no longer use the \"side stop\").\n", "In order to increase safety, it is best practice to have 360° coverage with the active warnings, improving the chance of the vehicle being seen from all sides. In some countries, such as the United States, this may be mandatory. The roof, front grille, sides and rear of the body, and front fenders are common places to mount emergency lights. A certain balance must be made when deciding on the number and location of lights: too few and the ambulance may not be noticed easily, too many and it becomes a massive distraction for other road users more than it is already, increasing the risk of local accidents.\n", "Most instruments and controls on a dashboard in modern vehicles are illuminated when the headlamps are turned on, and the intensity of light can be adjusted by the driver for comfort. Saab automobiles, for example, have an aircraft-style \"night panel\" function which shuts off all interior illumination save for the speedometer (unless attention is called to a critical situation on another gauge) to improve the driver's night vision.\n\nSection::::On service vehicles.\n\nSection::::On service vehicles.:Emergency vehicle lights.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03272	Why can we see the xenon atoms in the IBM logo but not the atoms of the surface they're on?	For the same reason that you can't clearly see objects far behind the subject of a photograph. The background is not in focus. That is a simplified explanation, but basically still true.	[ "In November 1989, IBM scientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms. The program, called IBM in atoms, used a scanning tunneling microscope to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company initialism. It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "Donald Eigler and Erhard Schweizer of the IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California, discovered the ability using a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to move atoms about the surface. In the demonstration, where the microscope was used in low temperature, they positioned 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to form the acronym \"IBM\". The logo they created measured three billionths of a meter long. They also created chains of xenon atoms similar in form to molecules. It is noted that the demonstrated capacity showed the potential of fabricating rudimentary structures and allowed insights as to the extent of device miniaturization. \n", "IBM (atoms)\n\nIBM in atoms was a demonstration by IBM scientists in 1989 of a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms. A scanning tunneling microscope was used to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company initialism. It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface.\n\nOn Apr 30, 2013 IBM published an article on its website and a video on YouTube called \"A Boy And His Atom: The World's Smallest Movie\".\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "In a suitably formulated developer, electrons are injected to the silver halide crystals only through silver speck (latent image). Therefore, it is very important for the chemical reduction potential of the developer \"solution\" (not the standard reduction potential of the developing agent) to be somewhere higher than the Fermi energy level of small metallic silver clusters (that is, the latent image) but well below the conduction band of unexposed silver halide crystals.\n", "Advances in nanotechnology include IBM in atoms, where a scanning tunneling microscope was used to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company acronym. It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nMajor undertakings at IBM Research have included the invention of innovative materials and structures, high-performance microprocessors and computers, analytical methods and tools, algorithms, software architectures, methods for managing, searching and deriving meaning from data and in turning IBM's advanced services methodologies into reusable assets.\n", "In some cases the limitations of technology have led to serendipitous methods for rendering. Most early graphics devices used vector graphics, which meant that rendering spheres and surfaces was impossible. Michael Connolly's program \"MS\" calculated points on the surface-accessible surface of a molecule, and the points were rendered as dots with good visibility using the new vector graphics technology, such as the Evans and Sutherland PS300 series. Thin sections (\"slabs\") through the structural display showed very clearly the complementarity of the surfaces for molecules binding to active sites, and the \"Connolly surface\" became a universal metaphor.\n", "The use of spheres is often for convenience, being limited both by graphics libraries and the additional effort required to compute complete electronic density or other space-filling quantities. It is now relatively common to see images of surfaces that have been colored to show quantities such as electrostatic potential. Common surfaces in molecular visualization include solvent-accessible (\"Lee-Richards\") surfaces, solvent-excluded (\"Connolly\") surfaces, and isosurfaces. The isosurface in Fig. 5 appears to show the electrostatic potential, with blue colors being negative and red/yellow (near the metal) positive (there is no absolute convention of coloring, and red/positive, blue/negative are often reversed). Opaque isosurfaces do not allow the atoms to be seen and identified and it is not easy to deduce them. Because of this, isosurfaces are often drawn with a degree of transparency.\n", "Rendering of constructive solid geometry is particularly simple when ray tracing. Ray tracers intersect a ray with both primitives that are being operated on, apply the operator to the intersection intervals along the 1D ray, and then take the point closest to the camera along the ray as being the result.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nConstructive solid geometry has a number of practical uses. It is used in cases where simple geometric objects are desired, or where mathematical accuracy is important.\n", "Hyperpolarized xenon can be used by surface chemists. Normally, it is difficult to characterize surfaces with NMR because signals from a surface are overwhelmed by signals from the atomic nuclei in the bulk of the sample, which are much more numerous than surface nuclei. However, nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized by transferring spin polarization to them from hyperpolarized xenon gas. This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure and distinguish from bulk signals.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Other.\n", "IBM researcher Don Eigler was the first to manipulate atoms using a scanning tunneling microscope in 1989. He used 35 Xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo. He shared the 2010 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience for this work.\n\nSection::::Experimental advances.:Advances in interface and colloid science.\n", "In the earliest days, contoured electron density maps were hand drawn on large plastic sheets. Sometimes, bingo chips were placed on the plastic sheets where atoms were interpreted to be.\n\nThis was superseded by the Richards Box in which an adjustable brass Kendrew molecular model was placed front of a 2-way mirror, behind which were plastic sheets of the electron density map. This optically superimposed the molecular model and the electron density map. The model was moved to within the contour lines of the superimposed map. Then, atomic coordinates were recorded using a plumb bob and a meter stick.\n", "A developer solution must have a reduction potential that is strong enough to develop sufficiently exposed silver halide crystals having a latent image center. At the same time, developer must have reduction potential that is weak enough not to reduce unexposed silver halide crystals.\n", "Prismatic surface\n\nA prismatic surface is a surface generated by all the lines that are parallel to a given line and intersect a broken line that is not in the same plane as the given line. The broken line is the \"directrix\" of the surface; the parallel lines are its \"generators\" (or \"elements\"). If the broken line is closed (i.e., a closed polygon), then the surface is a \"closed prismatic surface\".\n", "Nonetheless, H. E. Farnsworth and coworkers at Brown University pioneered the use of LEED as a method for characterizing the absorption of gases onto clean metal surfaces and the associated regular adsorption phases, starting shortly after the Davisson and Germer discovery into the 1970s.\n", "Nanostructured donors can be cast as uniform films that avoid the problems with defects. These would be subject to other issues inherent to quantum dots, notably resistivity issues and heat retention.\n\nSection::::History.:Multiple excitons.\n", "Since the atomic radii (e.g. in Fig. 4) are only slightly less than the distance between bonded atoms, the iconic spheres intersect, and in the CPK models, this was achieved by planar truncations along the bonding directions, the section being circular. When raster graphics became affordable, one of the common approaches was to replicate CPK models \"in silico\". It is relatively straightforward to calculate the circles of intersection, but more complex to represent a model with hidden surface removal. A useful side product is that a conventional value for the molecular volume can be calculated.\n", "Scientists at IBM Almaden have contributed to several scientific discoveries such as the development of photoresists and the quantum mirage effect.\n", "During any drawing operation, there is a \"source\" (the pixels being produced by the paint) and a \"destination\" (the pixels already onscreen). Normally, the source pixels simply overwrite the destination pixels, but the \"composite\" allows this behavior to be changed.\n\nThe composite, given the source and destination pixels, produces the final result that ultimately ends up onscreen. The most common composite is , which can treat the pixels being drawn as partially transparent, so that the destination pixels show through to some degree.\n\nSection::::Basic concepts.:Filling.\n", "Note that this assumes the origin is in the bottom left corner of the screen, with Y up the screen. Many graphics systems have the origin at the top left, with Y down the screen. In this case the lines (1) and (2) should have the y coordinate generation as:\n\nChanges of this sort change the handedness of the axes so it is easy to reverse the chirality of the displayed molecule unless care is taken.\n\nSection::::Algorithms.:Advanced.\n", "On the previous day, scientists with the Critical Fluid Light Scattering Experiment, or ZENO, concluded that they had indeed pinpointed the location of the long-sought-after critical point of xenon. For the next 24 hours, a series of subtle optical measurements were planned to be made in the area surrounding this phenomenon where the xenon behaved as both a liquid and a gas.\n", "One of the most frequently occurring uses of genergy is its use in building structures derived from holographic meshes. These meshes, like genergy, appear in three usable colours: red, blue, and yellow. The colour of the mesh signifies the colour of the genergy required to build it.\n", "A noteworthy attempt to overcome the low speed of graphics displays of the time took place at Washington University in St. Louis, USA. Dave Barry's group attempted to leapfrog the state of the art in graphics displays by making custom display hardware to display images complex enough for large-molecule crystallographic structure solution, fitting molecules to their electron-density maps. The MMS-4 (table above) display modules were slow and expensive, so a second generation of modules was produced for the MMS-X (table above) system.\n", "A convenient property of CSG shapes is that it is easy to classify arbitrary points as being either inside or outside the shape created by CSG. The point is simply classified against all the underlying primitives and the resulting boolean expression is evaluated. This is a desirable quality for some applications such as ray tracing.\n\nSection::::Conversion from meshes to CSG.\n", "Thirdly, even with perfect detectors and ideal geometric conditions, the visibility of special contrast features, such as the images of single dislocations, can be additionally limited by diffraction effects.\n", "In 1988, researchers at IBM's Zürich Research Institute successfully spelled the letters \"IBM\" in xenon atoms on a cryogenic copper surface, grossly validating the approach. Since then, a number of research projects have undertaken to use similar techniques to store computer data in a compact fashion. More recently the technique has been used to explore novel physical chemistries, sometimes using lasers to excite the tips to particular energy states, or examine the quantum chemistry of particular chemical bonds.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00938	Why do people get seasick?	Humans tell if they're stable by two systems: seeing and some organ in the head that has gunk in it and can tell how that gunk is moving around. On a boat, your eyes can't tell you're moving, but the gunk organ knows. Seasickness is that disagreement screwing with your brain.	[ "Seasickness is a form of terrestrial motion sickness characterized by a feeling of nausea and, in extreme cases, vertigo experienced after spending time on a watercraft such as a boat or ship. It is essentially the same as carsickness, though the motion of a watercraft tends to be more regular. It is typically brought on by the rocking motion of the craft or movement while the craft is immersed in water. As with airsickness, it can be difficult to visually detect motion even if one looks outside the boat since water does not offer fixed points with which to visually judge motion. Poor visibility conditions, such as fog, may worsen seasickness. The greatest contributor to seasickness is the tendency for people being affected by the rolling or surging motions of the craft to seek refuge below decks, where they are unable to relate themselves to the boat's surroundings and consequent motion. Some sufferers of carsickness are resistant to seasickness and vice versa. Adjusting to the craft's motion at sea is called \"gaining one's sea legs\"; it can take a significant portion of the time spent at sea after disembarking to regain a sense of stability \"post-sea legs\".\n", "A specific type of motion sickness with similar symptoms but a possibly different etiology is space adaptation syndrome (sometimes referred to as space motion sickness).\n\n\"Nausea\" in Greek means seasickness (\"naus\" means ship).\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThere are various theories that attempt to explain the cause of the condition. \n\nSection::::Cause.:Sensory conflict theory.\n", "Section::::Types.:Motion is felt but not seen.:Seasickness.\n", "Section::::Episode 42 – \"Steel Toe-Cap Amputation\".:Bottle Rocket Blast-Off.\n\nThe Build team attempt to recreate this\n\nwater bottle jetpack from a Japanese game show.\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: November 16, 2005\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Seasickness – Kill or Cure?\n\nBecause Adam and Grant are very susceptible to motion sickness, they test non-pharmaceutical remedies for seasickness by...\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Tailgate Up vs. Tailgate Down.\n\nThis was revisited in \"More Myths Revisited\".\n\nSection::::Episode 43 – \"Seasickness - Kill or Cure\".:Finger in a Barrel.\n", "In these cases, motion is sensed by the vestibular system and hence the motion is felt, but no motion or little motion is detected by the visual system, as in terrestrial motion sickness.\n\nSection::::Types.:Motion is felt but not seen.:Carsickness.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Bad weather.\n", "Inducing vection can also induce motion sickness in susceptible individuals.\n\nSection::::Sea legs, dock rock, or stillness illness.\n", "Biofouling, especially of ships, has been a problem for as long as humanity has been sailing the oceans. The earliest written mention of fouling was by Plutarch who recorded this explanation of its impact on ship speed: \"when weeds, ooze, and filth stick upon its sides, the stroke of the ship is more obtuse and weak; and the water, coming upon this clammy matter, doth not so easily part from it; and this is the reason why they usually calk their ships.\"\n", "Sickness behavior in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. This also limits an animal’s exposure to predators while it is cognitively and physically impaired.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Specific advantages.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Research suggests that this is the body's natural way of adjusting to these systems. The bodies of experienced pilots have adapted to different types of motion experienced during actual flight conditions. When placed into a flight simulator, visual and other stimuli cause their bodies to expect the same motions associated with actual flight conditions. But their bodies instead experience the imperfect motion of the simulator, resulting in sickness.\n", "Motion sickness occurs in connection with travel or movement when an incongruity comes about between visually perceived movement and the vestibular system's sense of bodily movement. Most kinds are considered \"terrestrial\" motion sickness, such as being carsick, airsick, seasick, or sick from reality simulation. Symptoms include dizziness, fatigue, vertigo, depressed appetite, nonspecific malaise, gastrointestinal discomfort, (most commonly) nausea, and nausea-caused vomiting (see Sopite syndrome). If the cause of the nausea is not resolved, the sufferer will usually vomit, but vomiting may not relieve the feeling of weakness and nausea, which means the person might continue to vomit until the underlying cause of the nausea is resolved.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Nystagmus hypothesis.\n", "Air sickness is a kind of terrestrial motion sickness induced by certain sensations of air travel. It is a specific form of motion sickness and is considered a normal response in healthy individuals. It is essentially the same as carsickness but occurs in an airplane. An airplane may bank and tilt sharply, and unless passengers are sitting by a window, they are likely to see only the stationary interior of the plane due to the small window sizes and during flights at night. Another factor is that while in flight, the view out of windows may be blocked by clouds, preventing passengers from seeing the moving ground or passing clouds.\n", "When the vestibular system and the visual system deliver incongruous results, nausea often occurs. When the vestibular system reports no movement but the visual system reports movement, the motion disorientation is often called motion sickness (or seasickness, car sickness, simulation sickness, or airsickness). In the opposite case, such as when a person is in a zero-gravity environment or during a virtual reality session, the disoriented sensation is often called space sickness or space adaptation syndrome. Either of these \"sicknesses\" usually ceases once the congruity between the two systems is restored.\n", "SKISHING description by Paul Melnyk - Montauk, N.Y.: \"It was an extraordinary feeling for me to be floating weightless in this dynamic sea, and I felt as thought I had shed every pound of excess baggage as I rode the tide . . . Fighting a substantial fish while swimming is a unique experience. A balance must be achieved between the hunter and the prey. Any variation to this equilibrium causes a loss of control as the fish pulls. I was kicking hard to keep myself upright, fighting the fish while using my whole body as leverage. . . A swarm of splashing bodies soon surrounded me.\" \n", "This can cause the boat to enter a Death roll, rolling dangerously and if not controlled may lead to a capsize or pitchpole and turning turtle\n\nThe term was first used in a nautical sense in William Dampier's \"New Voyage Around the World\".\n\nSection::::Causes, prevention and cure.\n", "According to sensory conflict theory, the cause of terrestrial motion sickness is the opposite of the cause of space motion sickness. The former occurs when one perceives visually that one's surroundings are relatively immobile while the vestibular system reports that one's body is in motion relative to its surroundings. The latter can occur when the visual system perceives that one's surroundings are in motion while the vestibular system reports relative bodily immobility (as in zero gravity.)\n\nSection::::Cause.:Neural mismatch.\n", "The great liners were comfortable but expensive in fuel and staff. The age of the trans-Atlantic liners waned as cheap intercontinental flights became available. In 1958, a regular scheduled air service between New York and Paris taking seven hours doomed the Atlantic ferry service to oblivion. One by one the vessels were laid up, some were scrapped, others became cruise ships for the leisure industry and still others floating hotels. The sea is still a route by which boat people travel in small, sometimes unseaworthy craft, often having paid money to people smugglers for their passage. Some may be fleeing persecution but most are economic migrants attempting to reach countries where they believe their prospects are brighter.\n", "When hove to, the boat will heel, there will be some drift to leeward and some tendency to forereach, so adequate seaway must be allowed for. In rough weather, this leeway can actually leave a 'slick' effect to windward, in which the waves are smaller than elsewhere. This can make a rest or meal break a little more comfortable at times.\n", "Many losses of sailing ships were caused by sailing, with a following wind, so far into a bay that the ship became trapped upwind of a lee shore, being unable to sail into the wind to leave the bay. Low visibility caused by fog, mist and heavy rain increase the navigator's problems. Cold can cause metal to become brittle and fail more easily. A build-up of ice can cause instability by accumulating high on the ship, or in severe cases, crush the hull if the ship becomes trapped in a freezing sea.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Rogue waves.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "Section::::Humans and the sea.:Travel.\n", "At present a \"fully adequate theory of motion sickness is not presently available\" but contemporary sensory conflict theory, referring to \"a discontinuity between either visual, proprioceptive, and somatosensory input, or semicircular canal and otolith input\", is probably the most thoroughly studied. According to this theory, when the brain presents the mind with two incongruous states of motion; the result is often nausea and other symptoms of disorientation known as motion sickness. Such conditions happen when the vestibular system and the visual system do not present a synchronized and unified representation of one's body and surroundings.\n", "Most astronauts find that their sense of balance is impaired when in orbit because they are in a constant state of weightlessness. This causes a form of motion sickness called space adaptation syndrome.\n\nSection::::System overview.\n\nThis overview also explains acceleration as its processes are interconnected with balance.\n\nSection::::System overview.:Mechanical.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22957	Why we get sweaty palms in situations that you may need exactly the opposite?	The fight-flight response your body makes when it is under stress makes you sweat so that you can keep your body temperature from rising too much.	[ "Antonio Damasio suggests that somatic markers, certain memories that can cause a strong bodily reaction, act as a way to guide decision making as well. For example, when you are remembering a scary movie and once again become tense and your palms might begin to sweat. Damasio argues that when making a decision we rely on our “gut feelings” to assess various options, and this makes us decide to go with a decision that is more positive and stay away from those that are negative. He also argues that the orbitofrontal cortex - located at the base of the frontal lobe, just above the eyes - is crucial in your use of somatic markers, because it is the part in the brain that allows you to interpret emotion.\n", "Some careers present challenges for people with hyperhidrosis. For example, careers that require the use of a knife may not be safely performed by people with excessive sweating of the hands. The risk of dehydration can limit the ability of some to function in extremely hot (especially if also humid) conditions. Even the playing of musical instruments can be uncomfortable or difficult because of sweaty hands.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Endorphins modify core body temperature and trigger mechanisms which allow the body to reduce heat such as sweating and sending blood closer to the body's surface where the blood can be cooled. Postmenopausal symptoms such as hot flushes and night sweats initiated by the fluctuation in endorphins, may cause stress, leading to negativity, depression, and anxiety, which in turn can lead to cognitive decline.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nThe term 'compensatory' is largely misleading, as it indicates that there is a compensatory mechanism that takes effect after sympathectomy, in which the body 'redirects' the sweating from the palms or face to other areas of the body. Sweating after sympathetic surgery is a reflex cycle between the sympathetic system and the anterior portion of the hypothalamus. Reflex sweating will not happen if hand sweating can be stopped without interrupting sympathetic tone to the human brain.\n", "Excessive sweating or focal hyperhidrosis of the hands interferes with many routine activities, such as securely grasping objects. Some focal hyperhidrosis sufferers avoid situations where they will come into physical contact with others, such as greeting a person with a handshake. Hiding embarrassing sweat spots under the armpits limits the sufferers' arm movements and pose. In severe cases, shirts must be changed several times during the day and require additional showers both to remove sweat and control body odor issues or microbial problems such as acne, dandruff, or athlete's foot. Additionally, anxiety caused by self-consciousness to the sweating may aggravate the sweating. Excessive sweating of the feet makes it harder for patients to wear slide-on or open-toe shoes, as the feet slide around in the shoe because of sweat.\n", "In Julie Rawe's \"Time Magazine\" article \"Why Your Boss May Be Sweating the Small Stuff\", she outlines many of the workplace applications of micro-inequities and the ways they influence performance. Rawe states, \"It used to be that [micro-inequities were] tone-deaf moments used to buttress discrimination claims. Now they are becoming the basis for [validating] those claims.\"\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Heat.\n\nThe only mechanism the human body has to cool itself is by sweat evaporation. Sweating occurs when the ambient air temperatures is above 28 °C (82 °F) and the body fails to return to the normal internal temperature. The evaporation of the sweat helps cool the blood beneath the skin. It is limited by the amount of water available in the body, which can cause dehydration.\n", "The challenge and threat hypothesis states that people perform worse on complex tasks and better on simple tasks when in the presence of others because of the type of cardio-vascular response to the task. When performing a simple task in the presence of others, people show a normal cardiovascular response. However, when performing a complex task in the presence of others, the cardiovascular response is similar to that of a person in a threatening position. The normal cardiovascular response serves to improve performance, but the threat-like cardiovascular response serves to impede performance.\n\nSection::::Major theoretical approaches.:Evaluation approach.\n", "In a study conducted by Gary W. Evans and Richard E. Wene, (who work within the field of environmental design and human development) of 139 adult commuters, commuting between New Jersey and Manhattan, (54% male) saliva samples were taken to measure cortisol levels, a hormonal marker of stress. Their research accounts statistically for other possible stressors such as income and general life stress. \n\n“We find that a more proximal index of density is correlated with multiple indices of stress wherein a more distal index of density is not.” \n", "\"Trust\" and \"tact\" are essential for the existence of a \"basic security system, the sustaining (in \"praxis\") of a sense of ontological security, and [thus] the routine nature of social reproduction which agents skilfully organize. The monitoring of the body, the control and use of face in 'face work'—these are fundamental to social integration in time and space.\"\n\nSection::::Duality of structure.:Cycle of structuration.:Explanation.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Heat also effects the viscosity of a fluid inside a capillary. An increase in heat decreases the viscosity of the lumenal fluid. A good example of this action can be observed in the human body during exercise. When a human is exercising, there is an increase in the metabolic rate inside the muscles, creating an increase in heat production. The increase in heat is detected by thermoreceptors, a type of sensory receptor located at various points in body. These receptors send a signal to the brain that tells the body to dilate the blood vessels, including capillaries. This creates a visible change in the number of vessels on the skin. This allows for heat transfer via convection to occur.\n", "This seems counter-intuitive: one usually thinks of those with the most decision-making responsibility as the ones with the most stressful lives. One theory is that the lower one is on the chain of command, the less control one has over his or her life. Not having to take orders on how to perform a task, or when to do it, results in lower heart rate, stress hormones, and blood pressure than being told how and when to perform it.\n", "Human factors influencing the behavior in supply chains are largely unexplored. However, studies suggest that people with increased need for safety and security seem to perform worse than risk-takers in a simulated supply chain environment. People with high self-efficacy experience less trouble handling the bullwhip-effect in the supply chain.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Operational causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Dependent demand processing\n\nBULLET::::- Forecast errors\n\nBULLET::::- Adjustment of inventory control parameters with each demand observation\n\nBULLET::::- Lead time variability (forecast error during replenishment lead time)\n\nBULLET::::- Lot-sizing/order synchronization\n\nBULLET::::- Consolidation of demands\n\nBULLET::::- Transaction motive\n\nBULLET::::- Quantity discounts\n\nBULLET::::- Trade promotion and forward buying\n", "The concept of thermal comfort is closely related to thermal stress. This attempts to predict the impact of solar radiation, air movement, and humidity for military personnel undergoing training exercises or athletes during competitive events. Values are expressed as the wet bulb globe temperature or the discomfort index. Generally, humans do not perform well under thermal stress. People's performances under thermal stress is about 11% lower than their performance at normal thermal wet conditions. Also, human performance in relation to thermal stress varies greatly by the type of task which the individual is completing. Some of the physiological effects of thermal heat stress include increased blood flow to the skin, sweating, and increased ventilation.\n", "Emotional sweating is stimulated by stress, anxiety, fear, and pain; it is independent of ambient temperature. Acetylcholine acts on the eccrine glands and adrenaline acts on both eccrine and apocrine glands to produce sweat. Emotional sweating can occur anywhere, though it is most evident on the palms, soles of the feet, and axillary regions. Sweating on the palms and soles is thought to have evolved as a fleeing reaction in mammals: it increases friction and prevents slipping when running or climbing in stressful situations.\n\nSection::::Sweat.:Stimuli.:Gustatory.\n", "The researchers concluded that power posing induces lasting hormonal changes, which can lead to better outcomes in work-related situations, such as job interviews and wage negotiations.\n\nSection::::Replication failure.\n", "BULLET::::- Emotions in lab studies are usually manipulated and are therefore relatively 'cold' (not intense). Although those 'cold' emotions might be enough to show effects, they are qualitatively different from the 'hot' emotions often experienced during negotiations.\n\nBULLET::::- In real life, people select which negotiations to enter, which affects emotional commitment, motivation and interests —but this is not the case in lab studies.\n\nBULLET::::- Lab studies tend to focus on relatively few well-defined emotions. Real-life scenarios provoke a much wider scale of emotions.\n", "BULLET::::3. Inadequate response: the failure of the body systems to respond to challenge, for example, excess levels of inflammation due to inadequate endogenous glucocorticoid responses.\n\nThe importance of homeostasis is to regulate the stress levels encountered on the body to reduce allostatic load. \n", "Emotions contribute to negotiation processes by signaling what one feels and thinks and can thus prevent the other party from engaging in destructive behaviors and to indicate what steps should be taken next: PA signals to keep in the same way, while NA points that mental or behavioral adjustments are needed.\n", "There are, however, additional uses for expletives on top of developing friendships and building solidarity, such as to get attention or convey urgency. This is particularly the case in the workplace, which was demonstrated by white-collar workers in the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. For women, expletives may also be used to combat gender roles by demonstrating their assertiveness in male-dominated workplaces or to earn respect from their male co-workers.\n", "One study showed that the power of having support from a loved one, or just having social support, lowered stress in individual subjects. Painful shocks were applied to married women's ankles. In some trials women were able to hold their husband's hand, in other trials they held a stranger's hand, and then held no one's hand. When the women were holding their husband's hand, the response was reduced in many brain areas. When holding the stranger's hand the response was reduced a little, but not as much as when they were holding their husband's hand. Social support helps reduce stress and even more so if the support is from a loved one.\n", "Feeling rules gives people the expectancy that individuals of lower status should act in a pitiful and ashamed manner just because of their standing. Feeling rules affect our status because it dictates how one should act just because of their economic/ financial standing.\n", "BULLET::::- Arteriolar vasodilation occurs. The smooth muscle walls of the arterioles relax allowing increased blood flow through the artery. This redirects blood into the superficial capillaries in the skin increasing heat loss by convection and conduction.\n\nSection::::In hot and humid conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Haptic metaphor effects\" occur when physical touch sensations affect responses in a survey or experiment. For example, reviewing job application materials on a heavier clipboard can cause job candidates to seem more important, and briefly holding a warm beverage before an interpersonal interaction can create the perception of others having a warmer personality than briefly holding a cold beverage before an interaction.\n\nSection::::Significance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04363	Why do tablets sometimes feel like they are stuck in our throat after swallowing?	Sometimes your throat gets scratched and swells up a little bit so you feel like the pill is still there. Source: took a tablet. Was convinced it was stuck in my throat. Called NHS direct they told me I had to get it looked at or it could cause a serious infection that could travel to my voice box. Went to hospital. Waited 5 hours. Saw doctor. The doctor I needed wasn’t there. Told to report at 10am the next day. Had to take a day off sick. Turned up to hospital. ENT didn’t start til 11am. Waited til then. Went in. Had tube stuck down nose. No pill in throat. Doctors says it probs just scratched it. £11 spent in hospital parking. Lots of time wasted. 1/7 would not do again.	[ "Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the \"first pass effect\"), making them unsuitable for oral use. Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosa, so that they bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to be given in very high doses or by injection. For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects, the oral route may not be suitable. For example, salbutamol, used to treat problems in the respiratory system, can have effects on the heart and circulation if taken orally; these effects are greatly reduced by inhaling smaller doses direct to the required site of action. A proportion of the population have difficulties swallowing tablets either because they just don't like taking them or because their medical condition makes it difficult for them (dysphagia, vomiting). In such instances it may be better to consider alternative dosage form or administration route.\n", "If a patient has a complex medical history and is of particular high risk it is advised before any treatment to commence, communication with a specialist with regards to the clinical assessment and treatment plan. \n\nIt is also advised for individuals who take bisphosphonates to never allow the tablet to dissolve in the mouth as this causes damage to the oral mucosa. The patient must follow the instructions given with the tablets.\n\nSection::::Management.:Continuing management.\n", "Many drugs as tablets, capsules, or drops are taken orally. Administration methods directly into the stomach include those by gastric feeding tube or gastrostomy. Substances may also be placed into the small intestines, as with a duodenal feeding tube and enteral nutrition. Enteric coated tablets are designed to dissolve in the intestine, not the stomach, because the drug present in the tablet causes irritation in the stomach.\n", "Dry mouth, if severe to the point of causing difficulty speaking or swallowing, may be managed by dosage reduction or temporary discontinuation of the drug. Patients may also chew sugarless gum or suck on sugarless candy in order to increase the flow of saliva. Some artificial saliva products may give temporary relief. \n", "If the active ingredient of a tablet is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an enteric coating can be used, which is resistant to stomach acid, and dissolves in the less acidic area of the intestines. Enteric coatings are also used for medicines that can be negatively affected by taking a long time to reach the small intestine, where they are absorbed. Coatings are often chosen to control the rate of dissolution of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract. Some drugs are absorbed better in certain parts of the digestive system. If this part is the stomach, a coating is selected that dissolves quickly and easily in acid. If the rate of absorption is best in the large intestine or colon, a coating is used that is acid resistant and dissolves slowly to ensure that the tablet reaches that point before dispersing. To measure the disintegration time of the tablet coating and the tablet core, automatic disintegration testers are used which are able to determine the complete disintegration process of a tablet by measuring the rest height of the thickness with every upward stroke of the disintegration tester basket. \n", "The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it is usually taken orally, but can be administered sublingually, buccally, rectally or intravaginally. The tablet is just one of the many forms that an oral drug can take such as syrups, elixirs, suspensions, and emulsions. Medicinal tablets were originally made in the shape of a disk of whatever color their components determined, but are now made in many shapes and colors to help distinguish different medicines. Tablets are often stamped with symbols, letters, and numbers, which enable them to be identified. Sizes of tablets to be swallowed range from a few millimeters to about a centimeter.\n", "Some patients at risk for foreign body ingestion may not be able to give an accurate medical history of ingestion, either due to age or mental illness. It is important that physicians treating these patients recognize the symptoms of esophageal foreign body impaction requiring urgent intervention. Most frequently, these include drooling and the inability to swallow saliva, neck tenderness, regurgitation of food, stridor and shortness of breath if there is compression of the trachea.\n", "Other potential symptoms include: nausea and vomiting, a decreased level of consciousness, and breathing difficulties. Symptoms usually begin within 6 hours of taking the medication by mouth. With extended release formulations symptoms may not occur for up to a day. Seizures are rare in adults but in children occur more often. Hypocalcaemia may also occur.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Another clinical situation where assessment of laryngeal sensation is helpful is in patients complaining of throat pain. Again, when examining the throat of such patients, if everything seemed to be moving well, then clinicians are often befuddled as to what the source of the throat pain is. With sensory testing, one can demonstrate that the throat tissues are numb, signifying some damage to the sensory fibers of the vagus and thereby identify vagus nerve injury as the cause of the patient’s pain. This is called vagus nerve neuralgia and treatment for neuralgia can then commence.\n", "In ancient Greece, such medicines were known as \"katapotia\" (\"something to be swallowed\"), and the Roman scholar Pliny, who lived from 23-79 AD, first gave a name to what we now call pills, calling them \"pilula\".\n", "It is sometimes necessary to split tablets into halves or quarters. Tablets are easier to break accurately if scored, but there are devices called pill-splitters which cut unscored and scored tablets. Tablets with special coatings (for example enteric coatings or controlled-release coatings) should not be broken before use, as this will expose the tablet core to the digestive juices, circumventing the intended delayed-release effect.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Capsule\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmaceutical formulation\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmacy Automation - The Tablet Counter\n\nBULLET::::- Tablet hardness testing\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Caustic chemicals may cause ulceration of the oral mucosa if they are of strong-enough concentration and in contact for a sufficient length of time. The holding of medication in the mouth instead of swallowing it occurs mostly in children, those under psychiatric care, or simply because of a lack of understanding. Holding an aspirin tablet next to a painful tooth in an attempt to relieve pulpitis (toothache) is common, and leads to epithelial necrosis. Chewable aspirin tablets should be swallowed, with the residue quickly cleared from the mouth.\n", "Pills have always been difficult to swallow and efforts long have been made to make them go down easier. In medieval times, people coated pills with slippery plant substances. Another approach, used as recently as the 19th century, was to gild them in gold and silver, although this often meant that they would pass through the digestive tract with no effect. In the 1800s sugar-coating and gelatin-coating was invented, as were gelatin capsules.\n", "If the food that is given is seen to stick to on one side of the throat, which is called food “residue”, that usually means that there is lack of sensation or possibly even a motor/movement problem on that particular side of the throat. The treatment for this discovered throat numbness is to then teach the patient to turn their head to the numb side of their throat when they swallow. This maneuver, called a \"head turn\" effectively closes off the numb side of the throat so when they swallow the food is only exposed to the normal side of the throat, thereby insuring a safer swallow (on the normal side there is no residue so there is no chance of the residue accidentally falling into the vocal folds and then into the lungs (aspiration).\n", "This natural process of swallowing can be disrupted in many ways. The problem can occur when the movements involved in swallowing are restricted due to a tumor, any type of blockage, or paralysis after a stroke. Besides the motor problems, swallowing can be impaired due to sensory dysfunction, meaning when sensation (the ability to feel) is lost or reduced anywhere in the throat area. The loss of sensation can be caused by a problem originating in the brain, such as what happens after certain types of stroke, or it can be a result of a nerve injury or swelling in the actual throat area.\n", "Section::::Tablet properties.\n\nTablets can be made in virtually any shape, although requirements of patients and tableting machines mean that most are round, oval or capsule shaped. More unusual shapes have been manufactured but patients find these harder to swallow, and they are more vulnerable to chipping or manufacturing problems.\n", "Another symptom is harmless numbness and tingling of the body of the tongue and floor of the mouth, which indicates that the lingual nerve, a branch of the mandibular nerve, is anesthetized. Another symptom that can occur is “lingual shock” as the needle passes by the lingual nerve during administration. The patient may make an involuntary movement, varying from a slight opening of the eyes to jumping in the chair. This symptom is only momentary, and anesthesia will quickly occur.\n\nSection::::Injection techniques.\n", "In adults, foreign body aspiration is most prevalent in populations with impaired swallowing mechanisms such as the following: neurological disorders, alcohol use, sedative use, advanced age (most common in the 6th decade of life), and loss of consciousness. \n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nIf foreign body aspiration is suspected, finger sweeping in the mouth is not recommended due to the increased risk of displacing the foreign object further into the airway. \n", "Section::::Symptoms of anesthesia.\n\nAdministration of anesthesia near the mandibular foramen causes blockage of the inferior alveolar nerve and the nearby lingual nerve by diffusion (includes supplying the tongue). This causes patients to lose sensation in:\n\nBULLET::::- their mandibular teeth on one side (via inferior alveolar nerve block)\n\nBULLET::::- their lower lip and chin on one side (via mental nerve block)\n\nBULLET::::- and parts of their tongue and lingual gingival tissue on one side except on the cheek side of the mandibular molars (via lingual nerve block); a buccal block will anesthetize this later tissue area.\n", "BULLET::::- Capping, lamination or chipping. This is caused by air being compressed with the tablet formulation and then expanding when the punch is released: if this breaks the tablet apart, it can be due to incorrect machine settings, or due to incorrect formulation: either because the tablet formulation is too brittle or not adhesive enough, or because the powder being fed to the tablet press contains too much air (has too low bulk density).\n\nBULLET::::- Capping can also occur due to high moisture content.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Tablet compaction simulator.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Trismus: Trismus, also known as lockjaw, affects functions of the oral cavity by restricting opening of the mouth. A double blind, clinical study was done to test the effect of two different medications on post-extraction trismus. The patients who received a corticosteroid by IV had a statistically significant lower level of trismus when compared to patients receiving an NSAID by IV or no medication.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing/packaging.\n", "BULLET::::- Radiotherapy, used to treat head and neck cancer, can cause tissue fibrosis in the irradiated areas. Fibrosis of tongue and larynx lead to reduced tongue base retraction and laryngeal elevation during swallowing\n\nBULLET::::- Infection may cause pharyngitis which can prevent swallowing due to pain.\n\nBULLET::::- Medications can cause central nervous system effects that can result in swallowing disorders and oropharyngeal dysphagia. Examples: sedatives, hypnotic agents, anticonvulsants, antihistamines, neuroleptics, barbiturates, and antiseizure medication. Medications can also cause peripheral nervous system effects resulting in an oropharyngeal dysphagia. Examples: corticosteroids, L-tryptophan, and anticholinergics\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Assessment of adults.\n", "BULLET::::- The sphenomandibular ligament may act as a barrier to the agent if the injection is given too shallow and the lingual nerve is only anesthetized.\n\nBULLET::::- This injection can rarely cause needle tract infections of the pterygomandibular space. This is because the mouth contains many types of bacteria which are normally harmless by virtue of the physical barrier that the mucosa presents. However, if they are inoculated into the tissues during an injection, they can become pathogenic (disease causing).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05240	Why does hot water steam up when you're in the shower even though it's not actually 100C?	there are molecules in water at various energy levels within the whole. while the average might be at 40C, there are a few molecules that are at 100C. the ones that are 100C will evaporate. though the reason you SEE the steam is because those molecules are quickly cooled below the boiling point and condense into tiny drops of water suspended in the air.	[ "For example, if the vapor's partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If the humidity is increased at room temperature, for example, by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about the same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change, and then condenses out as minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.\n", "Though commonly called \"steam cleaning\", no actual steam is involved in the HWE cleaning process apart from steam that may escape incidentally from hot water. When the cleaning solution comes in contact with the carpet, it is 50 to 120 degrees Celsius, depending on the heat available from the cleaning unit. In a modern truck-mounted carpet cleaning machine, water can be heated under pressure to over 150 degrees Celsius, but after passing through high-pressure steel braided hose and several manifolds, the water loses much of its heat.\n", "BULLET::::- STP conditions imply a temperature of 0 °C, at which the ability of water to become vapor is very restricted. Its concentration in air is very low at 0 °C. The red line on the chart to the right is the maximum concentration of water vapor expected for a given temperature. The water vapor concentration increases significantly as the temperature rises, approaching 100% (steam, pure water vapor) at 100 °C. However the difference in densities between air and water vapor would still exist (0.598 vs. 1.27 g/l).\n\nSection::::Properties.:Impact on air density.:At equal temperatures.\n", "By contrast, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. If wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates, the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium, and it becomes \"saturated steam\".\n", "This temporarily superheated water undergoes volume boiling as opposed to pool boiling in conventional boilers where the heating surface is in contact. Thus the water partially flashes to steam with two-phase equilibrium prevailing. Suppose that the pressure inside the evaporator is maintained at the saturation pressure, \"T\".\n\nHere, \"x\" is the fraction of water by mass that vaporizes. The warm water mass flow rate per unit turbine mass flow rate is 1/\"x\".\n", "At room temperature and pressure, the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3%. This percentage increases as the temperature goes up. At 100 °C and atmospheric pressure, equilibrium is not reached until the air is 100% water. If the liquid is heated a little over 100 °C, the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface, but throughout the liquid volume: the water boils.\n\nSection::::Number of phases.\n", "Vapors are created when grease is heated to and beyond its vaporization point. As the vapors cool, the grease condenses and settles on colder surfaces. It is important for occupational safety and health, as well as compliance with local fire codes, to vent such vapors outside the kitchen and outside the building where the kitchen is located.\n", "If the vapor then condenses to a liquid on a surface, then the vapor's latent energy absorbed during evaporation is released as the liquid's sensible heat onto the surface.\n\nThe large value of the enthalpy of condensation of water vapor is the reason that steam is a far more effective heating medium than boiling water, and is more hazardous.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Meteorology.\n", "Section::::Saturated steam.\n\nSaturated steam is steam that is in equilibrium with heated water at the same pressure, i.e., it has not been heated above the boiling point for its pressure. This is in contrast to superheated steam, in which the steam (vapor) has been separated from the water droplets then additional heat has been added.\n\nThese condensation droplets are a cause of damage to steam turbine blades, the reason why such turbines rely on a supply of dry, superheated steam.\n", "In the following table, material data are given for standard pressure of 0.1 MPa (equivalent to 1 bar). Up to 99.63 °C (the boiling point of water at 0.1 MPa), at this pressure water exists as a liquid. Above that, it exists as water vapor. Note that the boiling point of 100.0 °C is at a pressure of 0.101325 MPa (1 atm), which is the average atmospheric pressure.\n\nSection::::Additional data translated from German \"Wasser (Stoffdaten)\" page.:Physical and thermodynamic tables.:Triple point.\n", "Steam\n\nSteam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils or evaporates. Steam is invisible; however, \"steam\" often refers to wet steam, the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as this water vapour condenses. At lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam. \n", "Heated bath\n\nA heated bath is used in the laboratory to allow a chemical reaction to occur at an elevated temperature. \n\nThe heated bath is a fluid placed in an open (metal) pot. Water and silicone oil are the most commonly used fluids. A water bath is used for temperatures up to 100 °C. An oil bath is employed for temperatures over 100 °C.\n", "Section::::Types of steam and conversions.\n\nSteam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, but it is also possible to create steam with solar energy. Water vapor that includes water droplets is described as \"wet steam\". As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates and the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium.\n", "Section::::Energy requirements.\n\nThe energy required to heat water is significantly lower than that needed to vaporize it, for example for steam distillation\n", "Section::::Table of specific latent heats.\n\nThe following table shows the specific latent heats and change of phase temperatures (at standard pressure) of some common fluids and gases.\n\nSection::::Specific latent heat for condensation of water in clouds.\n\nThe specific latent heat of condensation of water in the temperature range from −25 °C to 40 °C is approximated by the following empirical cubic function:\n\nwhere the temperature formula_4 is taken to be the numerical value in °C.\n", "Section::::Cause.:States of water.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "When the lower heating value (LHV) is determined, cooling is stopped at 150 °C and the reaction heat is only partially recovered. The limit of 150 °C is based on acid gas dew-point.\n\nNote: Higher heating value (HHV) is calculated with the product of water being in liquid form while lower heating value (LHV) is calculated with the product of water being in vapor form.\n\nSection::::Relation between heating values.\n", "The scent's Energizing Shower Gel was released exclusively in Europe, in one size—\n\nBULLET::::- 200ml / 6.7 oz\n", "Under certain conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere.\n", "Superheated steam\n\nSuperheated steam is a steam at a temperature higher than its vaporization (boiling) point at the absolute pressure where the temperature is measured.\n", "The condensation of water releases significant amounts of low temperature heat due to the high value of the specific latent heat of the vaporisation of water (more than per ton of water), that can be recovered by the cooler for e.g. district heating purposes.\n\nExcess condensed water must continuously be removed from the circulating water.\n\nThe gas leaves the scrubber at its dew point, so even though significant amounts of water may have been removed from the cooled gas, it is likely to leave a visible stack plume of water vapor.\n\nSection::::Dry scrubbing.\n", "where \"P\", \"P\" are the vapor pressures at temperatures \"T\", \"T\" respectively, Δ\"H\" is the enthalpy of vaporization, and \"R\" is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil.\n", "At similar standard atmospheric pressure and high temperatures, the hydrodynamically-quieter regime of film boiling is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise slowly with temperature. Any contact between fluid and the surface that may be seen probably leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer (\"spontaneous nucleation\"). At higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the critical heat flux, or CHF).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02195	How does friction exist if atoms/molecules never touch each other?	It's not that atoms & molecules don't touch each other, but rather atoms & molecules repelling each other over short distances is how "touching" works. Atoms aren't really little billiard balls with well-defined spherical surfaces. They're fuzzy blobs with electromagnetic fields that get stronger the closer you get. Bring them close enough, and the electrons in their outer shells will repel each other and resist bringing them closer. The only reason we don't notice this is that the distance is infinitesimally tiny compared to the size of everyday objects.	[ "Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing nanomachines. In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface, and measure the forces required. Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly zero temperature (5º K), a modified atomic force microscope was used to drag a cobalt atom, and a carbon monoxide molecule, across surfaces of copper and platinum.\n\nSection::::Dry friction.:Limitations of the Coulomb model.\n", "The layer of oxides and impurities (third body) has a fundamental tribological importance, in fact it contributes to reducing friction. Another fact of fundamental importance regarding oxides is that if you could clean and smooth the surface in order to obtain a pure \"metal surface \", what we would observe is the union of the two surfaces in contact In fact, in the absence of thin layers of contaminants, the atoms of the metal in question, are not able to distinguish one body from another, thus going to form a single body if put in contact.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Friction.:The origin of friction.\n", "The origin of kinetic friction at nanoscale can be explained by thermodynamics. Upon sliding, new surface forms at the back of a sliding true contact, and existing surface disappears at the front of it. Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy, work must be spent in creating the new surface, and energy is released as heat in removing the surface. Thus, a force is required to move the back of the contact, and frictional heat is released at the front.\n\nSection::::Dry friction.:Angle of friction.\n", "New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction. Kinetic friction is now understood, in many cases, to be primarily caused by chemical bonding between the surfaces, rather than interlocking asperities; however, in many other cases roughness effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction. Surface roughness and contact area affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces.\n", "Section::::Dry friction.:Normal force.\n", "between the molecules of the two different surface. As such, friction depends upon\n\nthe nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed together.\n\nFriction always acts parallel to the surface in contact and opposite the direction of\n\nmotion. The friction force can be calculated using the equation.\n\nSection::::Impulse-based contact model.\n", "Friction\n\nFriction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:\n\nBULLET::::- Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into \"static friction\" (\"stiction\") between non-moving surfaces, and \"kinetic friction\" between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features, known as asperities\n", "Section::::Laws of dry friction.\n\nThe elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th to 18th centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws:\n\nBULLET::::- Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.\n\nBULLET::::- Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.\n\nBULLET::::- Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.\n\nSection::::Dry friction.\n", "BULLET::::2. Dynamic friction, which occurs between surfaces in relative motion.\n\nThe study of friction phenomena is a predominantly empirical study and does not allow to reach precise results, but only to useful approximative conclusions. This inability to obtain a definite result is due to the extreme complexity of the phenomenon. If it's studied more closely it presents new elements, which, in turn, make the global description even more complex.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Friction.:Laws of friction.\n\nAll the theories and studies on friction can be simplified into three main laws, which are valid in most cases:\n", "Section::::Contact forces.:Friction.\n\nAnother important contact phenomenon is surface-to-surface friction, a force that impedes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact, or that of a body in a fluid. In this section we discuss surface-to-surface friction of two bodies in relative static contact or sliding contact. In the real world, friction is due to the imperfect microstructure of surfaces whose protrusions interlock into each other, generating reactive forces tangential to the surfaces.\n", "BULLET::::- Finally, at the microscopic and nano-scales, contact mechanics is used to increase our understanding of tribological systems (e.g., investigate the origin of friction) and for the engineering of advanced devices like atomic force microscopes and MEMS devices.\n\nThis page is mainly concerned with the second scale: getting basic insight in the stresses and deformations in and near the contact patch, without paying too much attention to the detailed mechanisms by which they come about.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSeveral famous scientists,engineers and mathematician contributed to our understanding of friction.\n", "The two fundamental ‘laws’ of friction were first published (in 1699) by Guillaume Amontons, with whose name they are now usually associated, they state that:\n\nBULLET::::1. the force of friction acting between two sliding surfaces is proportional to the load pressing the surfaces together\n\nBULLET::::2. the force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact between the two surfaces.\n", "BULLET::::1. First of all, there is the deformation of the separate bodies in reaction to loads applied on their surfaces. This is the subject of general continuum mechanics. It depends largely on the geometry of the bodies and on their (constitutive) material behavior (e.g. elastic vs. plastic response, homogeneous vs. layered structure etc.).\n", "If the overall motion of the bodies is constant, then an overall steady state may be attained. Here the state of each surface particle is varying in time, but the overall distribution can be constant. This is formalised by using a coordinate system that is moving along with the contact patch.\n\nSection::::Solution of rolling contact problems.:Cylinder rolling on a plane, the (2D) Carter-Fromm solution.\n", "The focus of research during the 20th century has been to understand the physical mechanisms behind friction. Frank Philip Bowden and David Tabor (1950) showed that, at a microscopic level, the actual area of contact between surfaces is a very small fraction of the apparent area. This actual area of contact, caused by asperities increases with pressure. The development of the atomic force microscope (ca. 1986) enabled scientists to study friction at the atomic scale, showing that, on that scale, dry friction is the product of the inter-surface shear stress and the contact area. These two discoveries explain Amonton's first law \"(below)\"; the macroscopic proportionality between normal force and static frictional force between dry surfaces.\n", "Kinetic friction, also known as dynamic friction or sliding friction, occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as \"μ\", and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials. However, Richard Feynman comments that \"with dry metals it is very hard to show any difference.\"\n\nThe friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force: formula_18.\n", "Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent. In the presence of friction, some kinetic energy is always transformed to thermal energy, so mechanical energy is not conserved.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe Greeks, including Aristotle, Vitruvius, and Pliny the Elder, were interested in the cause and mitigation of friction. They were aware of differences between static and kinetic friction with Themistius stating in 350 that \"it is easier to further the motion of a moving body than to move a body at rest\".\n", "Section::::Other types of friction.\n\nSection::::Other types of friction.:Rolling resistance.\n\nRolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface caused by deformations in the object or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction. Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001.\n\nOne of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by-products.\n\nSection::::Other types of friction.:Braking friction.\n", "The effect of the time of repose was explained by Pieter van Musschenbroek (1762) by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers meshing together, which takes a finite time in which the friction increases.\n", "BULLET::::- Coefficients of Friction – tables of coefficients, plus many links\n\nBULLET::::- Measurement of friction power\n\nBULLET::::- Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips from the University of New South Wales\n\nBULLET::::- CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics – Values for Coefficient of Friction\n\nBULLET::::- Characteristic Phenomena in Conveyor Chain\n\nBULLET::::- Atomic-scale Friction Research and Education Synergy Hub (AFRESH) an Engineering Virtual Organization for the atomic-scale friction community to share, archive, link, and discuss data, knowledge and tools related to atomic-scale friction.\n\nBULLET::::- Coefficients of friction of various material pairs in atmosphere and vacuum.\n", "Recent theoretical work as well as experimental work performed since the late 1970s has brought to light a remarkable variety of surface diffusion phenomena both with regard to kinetics as well as to mechanisms. Following is a summary of some of the more notable phenomena:\n", "BULLET::::2. Secondly, there is the overall motion of the bodies relative to each other. For instance the bodies can be at rest (statics) or approaching each other quickly (impact), and can be shifted (sliding) or rotated (rolling) over each other. These overall motions are generally studied in classical mechanics, see for instance multibody dynamics.\n\nBULLET::::3. Finally there are the processes at the contact interface: compression and adhesion in the direction perpendicular to the interface, and friction and micro-slip in the tangential directions.\n", "The type of mechanism and the amplitude of surface attraction varies between different materials but are amplified by an increase in the density of \"surface energy\". Most solids will adhere on contact to some extent. However, oxidation films, lubricants and contaminants naturally occurring generally suppress adhesion, and spontaneous exothermic chemical reactions between surfaces generally produce a substance with low energy status in the absorbed species.\n", "Consider a sphere that is pressed onto a plane (half space) and then shifted over the plane's surface. If the sphere and plane are idealised as rigid bodies, then contact would occur in just a single point, and the sphere would not move until the tangential force that is applied reaches the maximum friction force. Then it starts sliding over the surface until the applied force is reduced again.\n", "Despite the relatively recent naming of the field of tribology, quantitative studies of friction can be traced as far back as 1493, when Leonardo da Vinci first noted the two fundamental ‘laws’ of friction. According to da Vinci, frictional resistance was the same for two different objects of the same weight but making contact over different widths and lengths. He also observed that the force needed to overcome friction doubles as weight doubles. However, da Vinci's findings remained unpublished in his notebooks.\n" ]	[ "Friction can not exist because atoms and molecules never touch." ]	[ "Atoms and molecules do touch and when brought close enough try to repel each other." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Friction can not exist because atoms and molecules never touch.", "Friction can not exist because atoms and molecules never touch." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Atoms and molecules do touch and when brought close enough try to repel each other.", "Atoms and molecules do touch and when brought close enough try to repel each other." ]
2018-12285	What the weather may of been like during the time of Pangaea and why?	The far inland is thought to have been very hot and dry. Being too far inland reduces the chance for all that moist air from the ocean to get there. The large ocean would have been a good place for large hurricanes and monsoons to form. You probably wouldn't see anything as drastic as what you seem to be thinking as far as landscape. Like it wouldn't be swamp into sudden desert like in a video game. You'd have more natural borders between the two like we have today most likely. As for continents moving, they're kind of slow. Only a few centimeters every year. Though large earthquakes are known to suddenly shift continents. There was a large earthquake in Japan a while back that moved it something like 8 feet if I remember right.	[ "During the beginning of the Triassic Era, the earth consisted of a giant landmass known as Pangea, which covered about a quarter of earth's surface. Towards the end of the era, continental drift occurred which separated Pangea. At this time, polar ice was not present because of the large differences between the equator and the poles. A single, large landmass similar to Pangea would be expected to have extreme seasons; however, evidence offers contradictions. Evidence suggests that there is arid climate as well as proof of strong precipitation. The planet's atmosphere and temperature components were mainly warm and dry, with other seasonal changes in certain ranges.\n", "It has also been noted Pangea possessed a mountain range that potentially played a similar role in the megamonsoon as the Tibetan Plateau does in the East Asian Monsoon. Model simulations suggest that without the presence of the mountain range, the monsoon circulation would have been substantially weakened. Higher elevations could have intensified the atmospheric circulation by maximizing the surface heating—and subsequently the latent heat release— during the summer rainy season. However, there is still significant uncertainty regarding the extent of the impact this range would have had, because mountain elevations are still unknown.\n\nSection::::Pangean Megamonsoon in the Geologic Record.\n", "The Triassic was generally dry, a trend that began in the late Carboniferous, and highly seasonal, especially in the interior of Pangaea. Low sea levels may have also exacerbated temperature extremes. With its high specific heat capacity, water acts as a temperature-stabilizing heat reservoir, and land areas near large bodies of water—especially oceans—experience less variation in temperature. Because much of Pangaea's land was distant from its shores, temperatures fluctuated greatly, and the interior probably included expansive deserts. Abundant red beds and evaporites such as halite support these conclusions, but some evidence suggests the generally dry climate of was punctuated by episodes of increased rainfall. The most important humid episodes were the Carnian Pluvial Event and one in the Rhaetian, a few million years before the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event.\n", "The main characteristic of Pangea's climate is that its position on Earth was advantageous for starting a cycle of megamonsoonal circulation. The monsoons reached their maximum strength in the Triassic period of the Mesozoic. During the late Carboniferous, there was peat formation in what is currently Europe and the Eastern areas of North America. The wetter, swamp like conditions needed to form peat were contrasted with the dry conditions on the Colorado Plateau. Nearing the end of the Carboniferous the region of Pangea centered on the equator became drier. In the Permian, this dryness was contrasted with seasonal rainfall, and this type of climate became more normal and widespread on the continent. However, during the Triassic, the Colorado Plateau started to regain some moisture and there was a shift in wind direction. Around the same time parts of current day Australia that were found at higher latitudes were much drier and seasonal in character. At the start of the Jurassic the megamonsoon started to fall apart as drying started to happen to Gondwana and the southern portion of Laurasia.\n", "Section::::Monsoon circulation.:Monsoon climate on Pangea.\n\nIn the Northern Hemisphere summer, when the earth’s axial tilt was directed toward the sun, Laurasia would have received the most direct solar insolation. This would have yielded a broad area of warm, rising air and low surface pressure over the continent. Models have suggested that this seasonal low was positioned at 35° latitude, relatively near the Tethys Ocean. In Gondwana, high pressure would have dominated, as the land would have been receiving less solar radiation, and therefore experiencing cooler temperatures. \n", "There is evidence to suggest that the deterioration of northern Pangaea contributed to the Permian Extinction, one of Earth's five major mass extinction events, which resulted in the loss of over 90% of marine and 70% of terrestrial species. There were three main sources of environmental deterioration that are believed to have had a hand in the extinction event.\n", "Little is known about marine life during the existence of Pangaea. Scientists are unable to find substantial evidence or fossilized remains in order to assist them in answering such questions. However, a couple of marine animals have been determined to have existed at the time - the Ammonites and Brachiopods. Additionally, evidence pointing towards massive reefs with varied ecosystems, especially in the species of sponges and coral, have also been discovered.\n\nSection::::Climate change after Pangaea.\n", "During the Jurassic, summer temperatures did not rise above zero degrees Celsius along the northern rim of Laurasia, which was the northernmost part of Pangaea (the southernmost portion of Pangaea was Gondwana). Ice-rafted dropstones sourced from Russia are indicators of this northern boundary. The Jurassic is thought to have been approximately 10 degrees Celsius warmer along 90 degrees East paleolongitude compared to the present temperature of today's central Eurasia.\n\nSection::::Supercontinental climate.:Milankovitch cycles.\n", "The Triassic continental interior climate was generally hot and dry, so that typical deposits are red bed sandstones and evaporites. There is no evidence of glaciation at or near either pole; in fact, the polar regions were apparently moist and temperate, providing a climate suitable for forests and vertebrates, including reptiles. Pangaea's large size limited the moderating effect of the global ocean; its continental climate was highly seasonal, with very hot summers and cold winters. The strong contrast between the Pangea supercontinent and the global ocean triggered intense cross-equatorial monsoons.\n", "During the late Permian, it is expected that seasonal Pangaean temperatures varied drastically. Subtropic summer temperatures were warmer than that of today by as much as 6–10 degrees and mid-latitudes in the winter were less than −30 degrees Celsius. These seasonal changes within the supercontinent were influenced by the large size of Pangaea. And, just like today, coastal regions experienced much less variation.\n", "Section::::Evidence of existence.\n\nFossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents that are now great distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid \"Lystrosaurus\" have been found in South Africa, India and Antarctica, alongside members of the \"Glossopteris\" flora, whose distribution would have ranged from the polar circle to the equator if the continents had been in their present position; similarly, the freshwater reptile \"Mesosaurus\" has been found in only localized regions of the coasts of Brazil and West Africa.\n", "There have been three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the Early-Middle Jurassic (about 175 Ma), when Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to the Pacific in the west. The rifting that took place between North America and Africa produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.\n", "During the Permian, all the Earth's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (\"Panthalassa\", the \"universal sea\"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that existed between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold (\"continental climate\") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.\n", "The continuity of mountain chains provides further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is the Appalachian Mountains chain, which extends from the southeastern United States to the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia.\n\nSection::::Rifting and break-up.\n", "During the Triassic, almost all the Earth's land mass was concentrated into a single supercontinent centered more or less on the equator and spanning from pole to pole, called Pangaea (\"all the land\"). From the east, along the equator, the Tethys sea penetrated Pangaea, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to be closed.\n", "The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north-central Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of Laurasia led much later to the closing of the Tethys Ocean and the widening of the \"Sinus Borealis\", which later became the Arctic Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa and along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were forming that would lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean that would open up in the Cretaceous.\n", "By the late Silurian, North and South China split from Gondwana and started to head northward, shrinking the Proto-Tethys Ocean in their path and opening the new Paleo-Tethys Ocean to their south. In the Devonian Period, Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, causing the Rheic Ocean to shrink. In the Early Carboniferous, northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, the Meseta Mountains and the Mauritanide Mountains. South America moved northward to southern Euramerica, while the eastern portion of Gondwana (India, Antarctica and Australia) headed toward the South Pole from the equator. North and South China were on independent continents. The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided with Siberia. (Siberia had been a separate continent for millions of years since the deformation of the supercontinent Pannotia in the Middle Carboniferous.)\n", "Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved quickly northward, just as India had done more than 40 million years before. Australia is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India are currently moving northeast at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) a year. Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys Seaway; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers-thick ice sheets seen today. Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift.\n", "Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants, fungi, arthropods, and various types of tetrapods. The period saw a massive desert covering the interior of Pangaea. The warm zone spread in the northern hemisphere, where extensive dry desert appeared. The rocks formed at that time were stained red by iron oxides, the result of intense heating by the sun of a surface devoid of vegetation cover. A number of older types of plants and animals died out or became marginal elements.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Pangea.:Climate.\n", "Additionally, many paleoclimate models have attempted to recreate climate patterns on Pangea. These models have yielded results that are comparable with the East Asian Monsoon. For instance, one model reported that the seasonal pressure differential (wintertime high pressure – summertime low pressure) over the continent was 25 millibars, while the Asian pressure varies by 36 millibars on average throughout the year.\n", "By the Early Permian, the Cimmerian plate split from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia, thus closing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, but forming a new ocean, the Tethys Ocean, in its southern end. Most of the landmasses were all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little and the Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the shrinking Paleo-Tethys, until the Middle Jurassic. The Paleo-Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the Cimmerian Orogeny. Pangaea, which looked like a \"C\", with the new Tethys Ocean inside the \"C\", had rifted by the Middle Jurassic, and its deformation is explained below.\n", "Permian period is characterized by the presence of single supercontinent called Pangea. Pangaea stretched from pole to pole, and thus created a single great ocean called Panthalassa, and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, which was located between Asia and Gondwana. The single gigantic continental landmass created climates of extreme continental climate, which is characterized by extreme variations of heat and cold as well as highly seasonal monsoon conditions in some parts of the supercontinent. Not all regions received abundant rainfalls, and deserts were widespread on Pangaea. Such climate patterns favored gymnosperms, over plants that use spore dispersion.\n\nSection::::Historical information / discovery.\n", "During the Permian all the Earth's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (\"Panthalassa\", the \"universal sea\"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold (\"continental climate\") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.\n", "Both the increase in Pangean surface area and the equitable dissemination of the land mass across the hemispheres maximized surface heating during the summer. The stronger the surface heating was, the more extreme the convection. By intensifying rising motion, the central pressure of the summertime surface low would have dropped. This, in turn, increased the hemispheric pressure gradient and amplified the cross-equatorial flow.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02926	Why are we able to better distinguish between individuals of our own species than of others?	Because there's no evolutionary advantage to being able to do that. Way back when, all we needed to know was whether an animal was something that could eat us or something that we could eat. Any information beyond. that wasn't useful enough to retain, whereas identifying individuals of our own species is super important. We're not prey anymore, and with domesticated animals, it is useful to tell individuals apart, but we do that as an individual learned experience. Animal handlers, zookeepers and other people who deal with animals on a regular basis just learn how to recognize individuals of the same species that they deal with regularly. You could show me a picture of a bunch of hippos and they'd all look the same to me, but I can tell my nearly identical cats apart in a split second.	[ "Among human beings, the sense of sight is usually in charge of recognizing other members of the same species, with maybe the subconscious help of smell. In particular, the human brain has a disproportionate amount of processing power dedicated to finely analyze the features of a human face. This is why we are able to distinguish basically all six billions of human beings from each other (barring look-alikes), and a human being from a similar species like some anthropomorphic ape, with only a quick glance.\n", "BULLET::::- Universal appearance across time for a group. Not just an artifact of cultural history. Again, \"species typical\" diagnostic feature.\n\nBULLET::::- No learning of the trait is possible.\n\nBULLET::::- Individual development of a trait rigidly follows a given schedule regardless of the particular experience of the organism.\n", "Intra-species recognition systems are often subtle. For example, ornithologists have great difficulty in distinguishing the chiffchaff from the willow warbler by eye, and there is no evidence that the birds themselves can do so other than by the different songs of the male. Sometimes, intra-species recognition is fallible: in many species of frog, the males are not uncommonly seen copulating with females of the wrong species or even with inanimate objects.\n", "In 1879, Galton’s research was some of the first to indicate that the face is “the sum of a multitude of small details, which are viewed in such rapid succession that we seem to perceive them all at a single glance.” This innate “holistic” perception is one of the main factors that differentiates face recognition from object recognition. To test this and further face superiority research in general, Tanaka and Farah conducted a study where they assessed individuals’ ability to recognize facial features holistically. Participants were given an allotment of time to study several faces and then were tested on their ability to recognize one feature of the face. As the researchers predicted, participants were better able to recognize the feature when it was presented with the whole face, rather than when it was presented in isolation.\n", "Section::::Face recognition.\n\nPerceptual adaptation plays a big role in identifying faces. In an experiment conducted by Gillian Rhodes, the effect of face adaptation was investigated, along with whether visual adaptation affects the recognition of faces. The experiment found that perceptual adaptation does, in fact, affect face recognition. Individuals tend to adapt to common facial features as early as after five minutes of looking at them. This suggests that humans adapt to common facial features, leaving neural resources and space to identify uncommon characteristics and features, which is how humans identify specific faces on a case-by-case basis.\n", "Cross species studies have been conducted where human infants at 6 months of age were familiarized with individual monkeys. When the monkey faces were associated with unique proper name labels, the infants maintained their ability to discriminate between them when retested at nine months of age. If the exposure was just to monkey faces in general, without name labels, the infants were unable to discriminate between them when retested at the nine months mark. This research shows that the individuation process helps to shape and maintain discrimination abilities for categories of familiarity, and is instrumental in the recognition of familiar faces later in life. It also highlights the importance of experience in perceptual narrowing.\n", "Species Identification: The important of species identification is most prominent in animal population that are illegally hunted, harvested, and traded, such as rhinoceroses, lions, and African elephants. In order to distinguish which species is which, mtDNA, or mitochondrial DNA, is the most used genetic marker because it's easier to type from highly decomposed and processed tissue compared to nuclear DNA. Additionally, the mitochondrial DNA has multiple copies per cell, which is another reason it's frequently used. When nuclear DNA is used, certain segments of the strands are amplified in order to compare those to segments of mitochondrial DNA. This comparison is used to figure out related genes and species proximity since distant relatives of animals are closer in proximity in the gene tree. That being said, the comparison process demands precision because mistakes can easily be made due to genes evolving and mutating in the evolution of species.\n", "On the contrary, people appear to incrementally search for files using some form of context.\n\nRecently researchers and web developers have argued that the problem is the\n\nlack of distinguishable appearance: in the traditional computer interface most objects\n\nand locations appear identical. This problem rarely occurs in the real world, where\n\nboth objects and locations generally have easily distinguishable appearance.\n\nDiscriminability was one of the recommendations in the \n\nISO 9241-12 recommendation on presentation of information on visual displays\n\n(part of the overall report on Ergonomics of Human System Interaction),\n", "can play a helpful role in accuracy when there is slight truth to the assumption as well as when\n\nthe observer correctly guesses the gender of the individual.\n\nSection::::Research.:Cross-species.\n", "Chemosensation, which is one of the most primitive senses, has evolved into a specialized sensory system. Humans can not only detect, but also assess, and respond to environmental (chemical) olfactory cues—especially those used to evoke behavioral and sexual responses from other individuals, also known as pheromones. Pheromones function to communicate one's species, sex, and perhaps most importantly one's genetic identity. The genes of the MHC provide the basis from which a set of unique olfactory coding develops.\n", "In the anterior part of the ventral stream, various regions appear to be tuned selectively to identify body parts (extrastriate body area), faces (fusiform face area) (according to a recent paper by Adamson and Troiani (2018) regions of the fusiform face area respond equally to \"food\"), moving bodies (posterior superior temporal sulcus), or even scenes (parahippocampal place area). Neuronal tuning in these areas requires fine discrimination among complex patterns in each relevant category for object recognition. Recent findings suggest that this fine discrimination is a function of expertise and the individual level of categorization with stimuli. Specifically, work has been done by Gauthier \"et al\" (2001) to show fusiform face area (FFA) activation for birds in bird experts and cars in car experts when compared to the opposing stimuli. Gauthier \"et al\" (2002) also utilized a new class of objects called Greebles and trained people to recognize them at individual levels. After training, the FFA was tuned to distinguish between this class of objects as well as faces. Curran \"et al\" (2002) similarly trained people in a less structured class of objects called \"blobs\" and showed FFA selective activation for them. Overall, neurons can be tuned selectively discriminate between certain sets of stimuli that are experienced regularly in the world.\n", "Quine interpreted humanity's \"innate flair for natural kinds\" as intuitive recognition of criteria for judging degrees of similarity among objects. These criteria work instrumentally when applied inductively: \"... why does our innate subjective spacing [grouping] of [existential] qualities accord so well with the functionally relevant [universal] groupings in nature as to make our inductions tend to come out right?\"\n", "our brain are organized in more of a familiar fashion of the objects observed in the environment. Recognition is not only largely driven by object shape and/or views but also by dynamic information. Familiarity can benefit the perception of dynamic point-light displays, moving objects, the sex of faces, and face recognition.\n\nSection::::Recognition memory.:Familiarity.:Recollection.\n\nRecollection shares many similarities with familiarity; however, it is context-dependent, requiring specific information from the inquired incident.\n\nSection::::Impairments.\n", "Female Savannah sparrows, \"Passerculus sandwichensis\", chose MHC-dissimilar males to mate with. Females are more likely to engage in extra-pair relationships if paired with MHC-similar mates and more dissimilar mates are available. Similarly, MHC diversity in house sparrows, \"Passer domesticus\", suggests that MHC-disassortative mate choice occurs.\n\nMHC-mediated mate choice has been shown to exist in Swedish sand lizards, \"Lacerta agilis\". Females preferred to associate with odor samples obtained from males more distantly related at the MHC I loci.\n", "For humans, the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of the sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features.\n", "The strength of an object's social salience may also be underscored when it is the target of a goal-oriented search by an observer. An observer looking for a target object is more attuned to the object’s attributes and will be able to pick them out more rapidly from a crowd.\n\nSection::::Social Salience of People.\n\nThe social salience of an individual is a compilation of that individual's salient attributes. These may be changes to dress or physical attributes with respect to a previous point in time or with respect to the surrounding environment \n", "A considerable amount of information can be gathered about another person by observing his or\n\nher belongings found in their personal living space, including both their physical and virtual\n\nworld. While it may be expected that observed individuals may\n\nmanipulate their personal spaces, it is difficult to obtain a pristine impression even if one\n\nattempts to. Furthermore, most individuals desire to be perceived as they actually are rather than\n\nas their ideal selves. Although consensus among people tends to vary, most people tend to be\n\nrelatively accurate in their personality predictions based on others’ personal spaces. Stereotypes\n", "BULLET::::1. \"The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences in animals.\"\n\nBULLET::::2. The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among human beings.\n\nBULLET::::3. The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among the senses.\n", "Sympatric groups frequently show a greater ability to discriminate between their own species and other closely related species than do allopatric groups. This is shown in the study of hybrid zones. It is also apparent in the differences in levels of prezygotic isolation (by factors that prevent formation of a viable zygote) in both sympatric and allopatric populations. There are two main theories regarding this process: 1) differential fusion, which suggests that only populations with a keen ability to discriminate between species will persist in sympatry; and 2) character displacement, which implies that distinguishing characteristics will be heightened in areas where the species co-occur in order to facilitate discrimination.\n", "Section::::Identification and discrimination tasks.:Identification.\n", "An observer's attention may be drawn to a target as a result of certain general features of that target. These features include:\n\nBULLET::::1. General object attributes – vivid colors, object's proximity to observer\n\nBULLET::::2. Difference between object attribute and its immediate environment.\n\nBULLET::::3. Difference between observer's expectations of an object and the observable attributes of that object.\n\nBULLET::::4. Observer's goal – an object that matches goal-oriented searching.\n", "Until the 2008 study on magpies, self-recognition was thought to reside in the neocortex area of the brain. However, this brain region is absent in non-mammals. Self-recognition may be a case of convergent evolution, where similar evolutionary pressures result in similar behaviours or traits, although species arrive at them via different routes, and the underlying mechanism may be different.\n\nSection::::Animals that have passed.:Mammals.\n\nSection::::Animals that have passed.:Mammals.:Cetaceans.\n", "Section::::The relationship between olfaction and MHC.\n\nMHC-based sexual selection is known to involve olfactory mechanisms in such vertebrate taxa as fish, mice, humans, primates, birds, and reptiles. At its simplest level, humans have long been acquainted with the sense of olfaction for its use in determining the pleasantness or the unpleasantness of one's resources, food, etc. At a deeper level, it has been predicted that olfaction serves to personally identify individuals based upon the genes of the MHC.\n", "The opposite of prosopagnosia is the skill of superior face recognition ability. Scotland Yard has a special criminal investigation unit composed of people, called \"super-recognizers\", with this skill.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Apperceptive.\n", "Gosling's work on social perception seeks to examine the fundamental processes of impression formation through everyday environments. It is hypothesized that much can be explained about a person from a collection of various environmental cues. These cues consist of self- and other- directed identity claims, and interior and exterior behavioral residue, both of which can be found in one’s home, bedroom, work environment, and even one's personal online space. Gosling's work also investigates whether those impressions are correct and representative of the individual. Much of his work focuses on consensus between observers, accuracy of the observers' perceptions, perception agreement between the observer and the individual, and stereotyping.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22910	How do we know as much as we do about space, when it's so far away from us?	Since space is mostly empty and clear, telescopes work incredibly well, including optical ones and ones that focus on radio waves.	[ "Section::::Observational astronomy.\n\nThe main source of information about celestial bodies and other objects is visible light, or more generally electromagnetic radiation. Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere. Specific information on these subfields is given below.\n\nSection::::Observational astronomy.:Radio astronomy.\n", "Section::::Telescopic observations.\n\nThe first exploration of the Solar System was conducted by telescope, when astronomers first began to map those objects too faint to be seen with the naked eye.\n", "Building on NASA's rich history of exploration of Earth's neighborhood and distant planetary systems, we are poised to provide a predictive understanding of our place in the solar system. We do not live in isolation; we are intimately coupled with the Sun and the space environment through Earth's climate system, our technological systems, the habitability of planets and solar system bodies we plan to explore, and ultimately the fate of Earth itself. Variability in this environment affects the daily activities that constitute the underpinning of modern society, including communication, navigation, and weather monitoring and prediction. Because the space environment matters to humans and their technological systems both on Earth and in space, it is essential as a space-faring Nation that we develop an understanding of these space plasma processes.\n", "Origins of the Hubble, named after American astronomer Edwin Hubble, go back as far as 1946. In the present day, the Hubble is used to identify exo-planets and give detailed accounts of events in our own solar system. Hubbles visible-light observations are combined with the other great observatories to give us some of the most detailed images of the visible universe.\n\nSection::::Space research from artificial satellites.:International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory.\n", "Space telescopes are distinct from other imaging satellites pointed toward Earth for purposes of espionage, weather analysis and other types of information gathering. Space observatories are divided into two types: those which map the entire sky (surveys), and those which focus on selected astronomical objects or parts of the sky and beyond.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Optical astronomy was the earliest kind of astronomy. Telescopes paired with a charge-coupled device or spectroscopes are the most common instruments used. The Earth's atmosphere interferes somewhat with optical observations, so adaptive optics and space telescopes are used to obtain the highest possible image quality. In this wavelength range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies and nebulae.\n", "The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.\n", "The roots of astrophysics can be found in the seventeenth century emergence of a unified physics, in which the same laws applied to the celestial and terrestrial realms. There were scientists who were qualified in both physics and astronomy who laid the firm foundation for the current science of astrophysics. In modern times, students continue to be drawn to astrophysics due to its popularization by the Royal Astronomical Society and notable educators such as prominent professors Lawrence Krauss, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Stephen Hawking, Hubert Reeves, Carl Sagan, Neil deGrasse Tyson and Patrick Moore. The efforts of the early, late, and present scientists continue to attract young people to study the history and science of astrophysics.\n", "Historically, observations of transits of Venus were crucial in determining the AU; in the first half of the 20th century, observations of asteroids were also important. Presently the orbit of Earth is determined with high precision using radar measurements of distances to Venus and other nearby planets and asteroids, and by tracking interplanetary spacecraft in their orbits around the Sun through the Solar System.\n\nSection::::Direct measurement.:Parallax.\n", "Section::::International co-operation.\n\nBULLET::::- Participating countries\n\nSection::::Sightings from Earth.\n\nSection::::Sightings from Earth.:Naked eye.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Russia launches the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit, beginning the space age. The US launches its first satellite, Explorer 1, four months later.\n\nSection::::1958.\n\n(July 29) Beginning of the NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), agency newly created by the United States to catch up with Soviet space technologies. It absorbs all research centers and staffs of the NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics), an organization founded in 1915.\n\nSection::::1959.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Paris is the capital of France.\" Many capital cities of countries are considered common knowledge by most people.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Moon orbits the Earth.\" Observation of the moon shows us that this happens. In addition, scientific findings give confirmation. At various periods in history, it was regarded as common knowledge that the Earth is flat and that the Sun orbits the Earth, although these theories were later found to be false.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nAs an offshoot of the disciplines of astronomy and chemistry, the history of astrochemistry is founded upon the shared history of the two fields. The development of advanced observational and experimental spectroscopy has allowed for the detection of an ever-increasing array of molecules within solar systems and the surrounding interstellar medium. In turn, the increasing number of chemicals discovered by advancements in spectroscopy and other technologies have increased the size and scale of the chemical space available for astrochemical study.\n\nSection::::History.:History of Spectroscopy.\n", "Methods have been developed to see into the internal workings of the Sun and understand how the earth's magnetosphere responds to solar activity. Further studies are concerned with exploring the full system of complex interactions that characterize the relationship of the Sun with the solar system. According to NASA, understanding these connections is especially critical as we contemplate our destiny in the third millennium. Heliophysics is needed to facilitate the accelerated expansion of human experience beyond the confines of our earthly home. Recent advances in technology allow us, for the first time, to realistically contemplate voyages beyond the solar system.\n", "Other than electromagnetic radiation, few things may be observed from the Earth that originate from great distances. A few gravitational wave observatories have been constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect. Neutrino observatories have also been built, primarily to study our Sun. Cosmic rays consisting of very high energy particles can be observed hitting the Earth's atmosphere.\n", "Space exploration\n\nSpace exploration is the discovery and exploration of celestial structures in outer space by developing and growing space technology. While the study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned robotic space probes and human spaceflight.\n", "Earth is located within the extended atmosphere of a magnetic variable star that drives the local solar system and sustains life on Earth. The Sun is observed to vary from multiple perspectives. The Sun emits light in the infrared, visible, ultraviolet, and at x-ray energies, and it emits a magnetic field, bulk plasma (the solar wind) and energetic particles moving up to nearly the speed of light, and all of these emissions vary.\n", "Section::::Locations.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Developments and diversity.\n\nIn addition to examination of the universe in the optical spectrum, astronomers have increasingly been able to acquire information in other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The earliest such non-optical measurements were made of the thermal properties of the Sun. Instruments employed during a solar eclipse could be used to measure the radiation from the corona.\n\nSection::::Developments and diversity.:Radio astronomy.\n", "Space physics is distinct from astrophysical plasma and the field of astrophysics, which studies similar plasma phenomena beyond the Solar System. Space physics utilizes in situ measurements from high altitude rockets and spacecraft, in contrast to astrophysical plasma that relies deduction of theory and astronomical observation. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "History of the Deep Space Network\n\nThe forerunner of the DSN was established in January 1958, when JPL, then under contract to the U.S. Army, deployed portable radio tracking stations in Nigeria, Singapore, and California to receive telemetry and plot the orbit of the Army-launched Explorer 1, the first successful U.S. satellite.\n\nNASA (and the DSN by extension) was officially established on October 1, 1958, to consolidate the separately developing space-exploration programs of the US Army, US Navy, and US Air Force into one civilian organization.\n\nSection::::Origin in the 1950s.\n", "BULLET::::- 1935 — The Explorer II balloon reached a record altitude of 22,066 m (72,395 ft), enabling its occupants to photograph the curvature of the Earth for the first time.\n\nBULLET::::- 1944 – Gerard Kuiper discovers that the satellite Titan has a substantial atmosphere\n\nBULLET::::- 1946 – American launch of a camera-equipped V-2 rocket provides the first image of the Earth from space\n\nBULLET::::- 1949 – Gerard Kuiper discovers Uranus's moon Miranda and Neptune's moon Nereid\n\nBULLET::::- 1950 – Jan Oort suggests the presence of a cometary Oort cloud\n", "Understand the causes and subsequent evolution of solar activity that affects Earth's space climate and environment. The climate and space environment of Earth are significantly determined by the impact of plasma, particle, and radiative outputs from the Sun. Therefore, it is essential to understand the Sun, determine how predictable solar activity truly is, and develop the capability to forecast solar activity and the evolution of disturbances as they propagate to Earth.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Heliophysics Integrated Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- NASA video: Understanding The Sun – The Heliophysics Program\n\nBULLET::::- NASA video: Introduction to Heliophysics\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04119	Why do ice cream trucks have really unique and cool ice cream treats, while the grocery store has almost none?	For the same reason as if you went to a Mexican restaurant, you'd find far better variety of Mexican foods than if you went to a diner that happened to serve tacos - It's a specialized endeavor, bringing people in with only one thing in mind - Ice cream and related frozen treats. It's not feasible for a grocery store to stock 40 different types of ice cream bars - tons of stuff is going to remain unsold and eventually wasted. They stick to the highest-volume sellers which for grocery stores, aren't Ninja Turtle Freeze Pops.	[ "BULLET::::- Amy's Ice Creams\n\nBULLET::::- Andy's Frozen Custard\n\nBULLET::::- Angelo Brocato's\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Homemade\n\nBULLET::::- Bakdash\n\nBULLET::::- Baskin-Robbins\n\nBULLET::::- Beacon Drive In\n\nBULLET::::- Ben & Jerry's\n\nBULLET::::- Berthillon\n\nBULLET::::- Big Gay Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Bell Creameries\n\nBULLET::::- Braum's\n\nBULLET::::- Brigham's Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Brooklyn Ice Cream Factory\n\nBULLET::::- Bruster's Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Cadwalader's Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Carl's Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Carvel\n\nBULLET::::- Ciao Bella Gelato Company\n\nBULLET::::- Cold Rock Ice Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Cold Stone Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Coolhaus\n\nBULLET::::- Coppelia\n\nBULLET::::- Cows Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Culver's\n\nBULLET::::- Dairy Queen\n\nBULLET::::- Dipper Dan\n\nBULLET::::- Emack & Bolio's\n\nBULLET::::- Farrell's Ice Cream Parlour\n", "BULLET::::- Meadows Frozen Custard\n\nBULLET::::- Menchie's Frozen Yogurt\n\nBULLET::::- Mikey Likes It Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Mr Whippy\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand Natural\n\nBULLET::::- Newport Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Oberweis Dairy\n\nBULLET::::- Paletería La Michoacana\n\nBULLET::::- Penn State University Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Rita's Italian Ice\n\nBULLET::::- Salt & Straw\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Sanders Confectionery\n\nBULLET::::- Sarris Candies\n\nBULLET::::- Shake Shack\n\nBULLET::::- Shake's Frozen Custard\n\nBULLET::::- Sonic Drive-in\n\nBULLET::::- Sprinkles Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Steve's Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Strickland's Frozen Custard\n\nBULLET::::- Swensen's\n\nBULLET::::- TCBY\n\nBULLET::::- Tastee-Freez\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Drewes\n\nBULLET::::- Toscanini's\n\nBULLET::::- Tropical Sno\n\nBULLET::::- Twistee Treat\n\nBULLET::::- Vic's Ice Cream\n", "Most ice cream vans tend to sell both pre-manufactured ice pops in wrappers, and soft serve ice cream from a machine, served in a cone, and often with a chocolate flake (in Britain) or a sugary syrup flavoured with, for example, strawberry. Soft serve ice cream is served topped with sprinkles for a slight extra charge. While franchises or chains are rare within the ice cream truck community (most trucks are independently owned/run), some do exist.\n", "BULLET::::- Fentons Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Fosters Freeze\n\nBULLET::::- Four Seas Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Freddy's Frozen Custard & Steakburgers\n\nBULLET::::- Friendly's\n\nBULLET::::- G&D's\n\nBULLET::::- Giolitti\n\nBULLET::::- Good Times Burgers & Frozen Custard\n\nBULLET::::- Graeter's\n\nBULLET::::- Grido Helado\n\nBULLET::::- Häagen-Dazs\n\nBULLET::::- Handel's Homemade Ice Cream & Yogurt\n\nBULLET::::- Happy Joe's\n\nBULLET::::- Herrell's Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- High's Dairy Store\n\nBULLET::::- Jeni's Splendid Ice Creams\n\nBULLET::::- KaleidoScoops\n\nBULLET::::- Kopp's Frozen Custard\n\nBULLET::::- Lappert's\n\nBULLET::::- Lares Ice Cream Parlor\n\nBULLET::::- Laura Secord Chocolates\n\nBULLET::::- MADO\n\nBULLET::::- MaggieMoo's Ice Cream and Treatery\n\nBULLET::::- Marble Slab Creamery\n\nBULLET::::- Margie's Candies\n\nBULLET::::- Mauds Ice Creams\n\nBULLET::::- Max and Mina's\n", "Some ice cream distributors sell ice cream products from traveling refrigerated vans or carts (commonly referred to in the US as \"ice cream trucks\"), sometimes equipped with speakers playing children's music or folk melodies (such as \"Turkey in the Straw\"). The driver of an ice cream van drives throughout neighborhoods and stops every so often, usually every block. The seller on the ice cream van sells the ice cream through a large window; this window is also where the customer asks for ice cream and pays. Ice cream vans in the United Kingdom make a music box noise rather than actual music.\n", "Apart from ice cream, ice cream trucks may also sell snow cones, Italian ice or water ice, snacks, sodas, and candy. Many trucks carry a sign, in the shape of a stop sign, that warns other drivers of children crossing the street to buy food or ice cream. They also play music to attract consumers to their trucks. With the advent of social media networking, many ice cream truck operators are redefining the traditional business model. Not satisfied with the traditional approach of cruising for customers, some operators such as gourmet ice cream sandwich maker Coolhaus are developing followings on social media sites and \"announcing\" the location of their trucks.\n", "Like Australia, ice cream vans and sausage sizzles are also common in New Zealand. The most well known ice cream franchise is Mr Whippy, a franchise that originally came from England, and also operates in Australia. Mr Whippy soft-serve ice cream is an iconic symbol of a New Zealand summer to many Kiwis.\n\nSection::::South America.\n\nSection::::South America.:Argentina.\n\nIn Argentina, vendors sell choripan, a barbequeued sausage served wrapped in French bread, or morcipan, using a blood sausage (morcilla) instead.\n", "In some locations, ice cream van operators have diversified to fill gaps in the market for soft drinks, using their capacity for refrigerated storage to sell chilled cans and bottles.\n\nEarly ice cream vans carried simple ice cream, during a time when most families did not own a freezer. As freezers became more commonplace, ice cream vans moved towards selling novelty ice cream items, such as bars and popsicles.\n\nSection::::In the United Kingdom.\n", "Section::::Flavors.\n\nBecause Kline's makes their ice cream every morning and it takes so long to make, they have one special flavor a week. They always make chocolate and vanilla, and rotate in this special flavor. This creates a way for them to compete with the chain ice cream sellers. They choose not to mix flavors but to keep these three simple flavors as well as milkshakes and sundaes. The special flavor of the week is chosen from 12 regulars, including peanut butter, black raspberry, and Oreo. It is posted on the Klein's website, Twitter page, and a sign outside.\n", "Frosty Treats, Inc. is the name of \"one of the largest ice cream truck street vendors\" in the United States. Their trucks uniformly feature a \"Frosty Treats\" logo, typically surrounded by the logos of various frozen snacks sold by the vender. Another feature of the trucks is the \"Safety Clown\", an image of a clown pointing children towards the back of the vehicle. In the mid 1990s, Sony released \"Twisted Metal 2\", a video game that allows players to wreak havoc on simulated streets with a variety of vehicles - including an ice cream truck prominently featuring a logo that says \"Frosty Treats\". The video game ice cream truck is driven by a crazed clown known as Sweet Tooth, one of many featured in the game.\n", "In the United States, hot dogs and their many variations (corn dogs, chili dogs) are perhaps the most common street food, particularly in major metropolitan areas such as New York City. Roasted nuts and gyros are often sold in the cities. Cheesesteaks, breakfast sandwiches, and soft-pretzels are common in Philadelphia. Throughout the US, ice cream is sold out of trucks. Tacos and Tortas are sold from open food stalls. Pizza and egg rolls are available from window counters.\n", "BULLET::::- Horatio G. Loomis, one of the organizers of the Chicago Board of Trade\n\nBULLET::::- Hugh Mason, whose original shop in St. James's Market led directly to the founding of London's Fortnum & Mason\n\nBULLET::::- William Fortnum, whose enterprise as a footman in the household of Anne, Queen of Great Britain in recycling the stubs of the royal candles led to the partnership that became Fortnum & Mason\n\nBULLET::::- O.L. Rapson, the first manager at the Grand Rapids Hotel, and later a grocer in Marlin, Texas.\n\nBULLET::::- John James Sainsbury\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Big-box store\n\nBULLET::::- Bulk foods\n", "Section::::History.:Increased competition.\n", "BULLET::::- Debi Lilly Design - Floral and home décor products\n\nBULLET::::- waterfrontBISTRO - Frozen seafood products\n\nSection::::Operations.\n\nOn average, stores in the Albertsons Companies range between and and almost universally feature a produce department, a meat and seafood counter, a deli, and a bakery, with many of the stores also featuring in-store banks and pharmacies. Larger and newer stores may include enhanced amenities, including Starbucks coffee counters, prepared foods, in-store pizza, salad bars, and juice bars.\n", "List of ice cream parlor chains\n\nThis is a list of notable ice cream parlor chains. Ice cream parlors are places that sell ice cream, gelato, sorbet and/or frozen yogurt to consumers. Ice cream is typically sold as regular ice cream (also called hard-packed ice cream), gelato and soft serve, which is typically dispensed by a machine with a limited number of flavors (e.g. chocolate, vanilla, and a mix of the two). It is customary for ice cream parlors to offer several ice cream flavors and items.\n\nSection::::Ice cream parlor chains.\n\nBULLET::::- Amorino\n\nBULLET::::- Abbott's Frozen Custard\n", "BULLET::::- It is mentioned that Peter Ferrer was a member of the message board and that one of his last posts was about a very big outing to occur in Neptune.\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nThe following music is heard in the episode:\n\nBULLET::::- \"On the 54\" by The Dandelions\n\nBULLET::::- \"This Machine Alone\" by the Fighting Brothers McCarthy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cinnamon Sky\" by Karin Brennan\n\nBULLET::::- \"On the Outside\" by Starsailor\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- Harding's Friendly Markets (Southwestern Michigan)\n\nBULLET::::- Harmons Grocery (Utah)\n\nBULLET::::- Harp's Market (Arkansas, Missouri, Oklahoma) – competes against Walmart in small towns; larger stores include sporting goods\n", "The Hoodsie cup, a small cardboard cup of ice cream, is an iconic product; the term \"Hoodsie\" is occasionally cited as a shibboleth of the Boston-area dialect.\n\nA United States Supreme Court case, \"H.P. Hood and Sons v. DuMond\", was decided in the Hood Company's favor, in which the State of New York was prevented from withholding a license to acquire milk produced in New York, and sold in Massachusetts, based on the dormant commerce clause limitations on state intervention in interstate commerce.\n", "The trucks rolled into Pottsville, Tennessee and finally got a truck stop challenge upon arrival. They were given $300 seed money. Three trucks had moderate customer turnout; the fourth, Pop-A-Waffle, had tons of customers after winning their truck stop. On the second day, Nonna's Kitchenette accidentally backed into a car with their truck and was penalized $250. Momma Grizzly's joined Pop-A-Waffle later in the day but business continued to be slow for most of the trucks.\n", "BULLET::::- Matherne's Supermarkets (Baton Rouge, Louisiana area)\n\nBULLET::::- Mayfair Markets (Hollywood, California)\n\nBULLET::::- McCaffrey's (New Jersey, Pennsylvania)\n\nBULLET::::- Meijer (Midwest)\n\nBULLET::::- Met Foodmarkets (New York City, New Jersey, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Miller's Fresh Foods (North Dakota)\n\nBULLET::::- Morton Williams (New York, New Jersey)\n\nBULLET::::- Mollie Stone's (Bay Area, California)\n\nBULLET::::- Mrs. Green's Natural Market (New York)\n\nBULLET::::- Murphy's Marketplace (New Jersey)\n\nBULLET::::- Nam Dae Mun Farmers Market (Georgia)\n\nBULLET::::- Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage (Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona)\n\nBULLET::::- New Deal Market (California)\n\nBULLET::::- New Deal Supermarket (Jackson, Mississippi)\n", "The trucks arrived at a baseball stadium in Amarillo which set the theme for the weekend. After getting $500 in seed money, they were told to shop and return to the stadium lot to compete head to head for the baseball crowds. They also got a chance to promote their truck during the seventh inning stretch. In the midst of preparing for their chosen ballpark customers, they got a truck stop. Pizza Mike didn't buy enough product for the ballgame and sold out early. On the second day Momma's Grizzly, Pop-A-Waffle, Seoul Sausage, and Coast of Atlanta all ended up at a large grocery store parking lot. Nonna's Kitchenette got steady business at a hardware store, and thanks to this week's speed bump Pizza Mike's got stuck at a park they only meant to serve until 5pm. Seoul Sausage was the only truck who could leave and opted to go back to the baseball stadium after serving the lunch rush at the grocery store.\n", "In some locations built in the 1990s, the \"Hot Eats, Cool Treats\" slogan can be seen printed on windows or near the roof of the building. One such example was a former Dairy Queen Brazier location in Woodinville, Washington, where the slogan was printed near the tops of the windows. This location was converted into a Grill & Chill store around late 2016-2017.\n\nSection::::Stores.:DQ / Orange Julius.\n", "BULLET::::- Big Gay Ice Cream Truck – New York City\n\nBULLET::::- Burger Theory - Adelaide, South Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Chef Jeremiah – Miami, Florida\n\nBULLET::::- Chi'Lantro BBQ – Texas (Austin, Fort Hood, Houston)\n\nBULLET::::- Clover Food Lab – Boston, Massachusetts\n\nBULLET::::- Coolhaus – Southern California, New York City, Austin, and Dallas\n\nBULLET::::- Don Chow Tacos – Los Angeles, California\n\nBULLET::::- Grease Trucks – Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey.\n\nBULLET::::- The Grilled Cheese Truck – southwest United States\n\nBULLET::::- The Habit Burger Grill – as of November 2017, has a fleet of nine food trucks\n", "Also in Scotland, ice cream vans have been used to sell smuggled cigarettes and, in the 1980s Glasgow Ice Cream Wars, as front organizations to sell illicit drugs.\n\nSection::::In the United States.\n", "On the way to northern Arizona, Momma's Grizzly Grub called up Nonna's Kitchenette and Seoul Sausage to propose a team up. The teams were advised to look over their menu and selling strategies because every city is different. They were given $400 seed money. Momma Grizzly's partnership worked well as Lisa from Nonna Kitchenette knew someone who lived in Flagstaff and allowed them to set up three spots downtown, attracting a huge crowd. Pizza Mike's stumbled onto the trucks and set up nearby, as did Barbie Babes later on, who priced their food too low the first day and adjusted for the second day's sales but were hampered by a slow shop and a bad spot. When Mamma Grizzly's sold out and closed early, Barbie Babes took their parking spot.\n" ]	[ "Selling the same ice cream treats is as feasible for grocery stores as it is for ice cream trucks. " ]	[ "Grocery stores stocking 40 different types of ice cream bars is not feasible. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Selling the same ice cream treats is as feasible for grocery stores as it is for ice cream trucks. ", "Selling the same ice cream treats is as feasible for grocery stores as it is for ice cream trucks. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Grocery stores stocking 40 different types of ice cream bars is not feasible. ", "Grocery stores stocking 40 different types of ice cream bars is not feasible. " ]
2018-08435	If you're not supposed to mix conventional and synthetic motor oil, how do they separate it when you recycle it?	The only reason you don't mix them is because then you're not really getting the benefits from the synthetic (and so you're wasting money). URL_0 URL_2 URL_1 There's nothing dangerous about mixing the two. That's a myth. Many synthetic oils are a mix of conventional oils anyway	[ "The diesel is then passed through the Cracking Unit. The Cracking Unit is a device that breaks up the hydrocarbons, that make up the diesel, into smaller sizes. Companies break up the hydrocarbons so that they make the most petroleum-based products, with the amount of supply they have.\n\nSection::::Process.:Mixing with HDS Light Cycle Oil.\n", "The separated oil and vegetation water are then rerun through a vertical centrifuge, working around 6,000 rpm that will separate the small quantity of vegetation water still contained in oil and vice versa.\n\nSection::::Decanter centrifugation.:Three, two, and two and a half phases decanters.\n\nWith the three phases oil decanter, a portion of the oil polyphenols is washed out due to the higher quantity of added water (when compared to the traditional method), producing a larger quantity of vegetation water that needs to be processed.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nBiodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification of the vegetable oil or animal fat feedstock, and other non-edible raw materials such as frying oil, etc. There are several methods for carrying out this transesterification reaction including the common batch process, heterogeneous catalysts, supercritical processes, ultrasonic methods, and even microwave methods.\n", "An alternative, catalyst-free method for transesterification uses supercritical methanol at high temperatures and pressures in a continuous process. In the supercritical state, the oil and methanol are in a single phase, and reaction occurs spontaneously and rapidly. The process can tolerate water in the feedstock, free fatty acids are converted to methyl esters instead of soap, so a wide variety of feedstocks can be used. Also the catalyst removal step is eliminated.\n\nHigh temperatures and pressures are required, but energy costs of production are similar or less than catalytic production routes.\n\nSection::::Production methods.:Ultra- and high-shear in-line and batch reactors.\n", "EIE involves three key steps: pretreatment of oil, introduction of the reaction catalyst and deodorization of the oils.\n\nThe EIE process can be executed in two methods: batch or continuous (single bed or fixed bed). In the batch process, the enzyme activity decreases over time, so flow must be carefully monitored and adjusted over time to maintain conversion. \n", "There are two such process under development by UOP. One using solid biomass feedstocks, and one using bio-oil and fats. The process using solid second-generation biomass sources such as switchgrass or woody biomass uses pyrolysis to produce a bio-oil, which is then catalytically stabilized and deoxygenated to produce a jet-range fuel. The process using natural oils and fats goes through a deoxygenation process, followed by hydrocracking and isomerization to produce a renewable Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene jet fuel.\n\nSection::::Processes.:Oil sand and oil shale processes.\n", "Almost all biodiesel is produced from virgin vegetable oils using the base-catalyzed technique as it is the most economical process for treating virgin vegetable oils, requiring only low temperatures and pressures and producing over 98% conversion yield (provided the starting oil is low in moisture and free fatty acids). However, biodiesel produced from other sources or by other methods may require acid catalysis, which is much slower. Since it is the predominant method for commercial-scale production, only the base-catalyzed transesterification process will be described\n", "Modern mechanical oil mills can process up to 4,000 tons per day in hot pressing processes, and up to 25 tons per day cold pressed. Industrial oil pressing methods usually use a screw to crush the raw materials in a continuous process, before extraction of the oil from the press cake using a centrifuge or a solvent such as hexane.\n", "Recycled motor oil can be combusted as fuel, usually in plant boilers, space heaters, or industrial heating applications such as blast furnaces and cement kilns. When used motor oil is burned as fuel it must be burned at high temperatures to avoid gaseous pollution. Alternatively, waste motor oil can be distilled into diesel fuel or marine fuel in a process similar to oil re-refining, but without the final hydrotreating process. The lubrication properties of motor oil persist, even in used oil, and it can be recycled indefinitely.\n\nSection::::Motor oil.:Used motor oil re-refining.\n", "A sample of the cleaned feedstock is then tested, via titration against a standardized base solution, in order to determine the concentration of free fatty acids present in the vegetable oil sample. These acids are then either removed, typically through neutralization, or esterified, into biodiesel or glycerides.\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Reactions.\n", "Section::::Production.:Solvent extraction.\n\nThe processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the \"newer\" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils. After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about .\n\nSupercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.\n\nSection::::Production.:Hydrogenation.\n", "A fixed bed system is the most common commercial process used for enzymatic interesterification. In a fixed bed process, the blended liquid oil and solid (hard fat) oil flow through a system consisting of an oil purification bed and an enzyme bed. The oil purification bed removes impurities from the oil blend so that the enzyme activity can be maintained at its highest performance. The enzyme bed allows for the enzymatic interesterification of the oil blend as the blend passes through the bed.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.:Enzymatic vs. Chemical Interesterification.\n", "The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.\n\nSection::::Production.:Mechanical extraction.\n", "Ultra- and High Shear in-line or batch reactors allow production of biodiesel continuously, semi- continuously, and in batch-mode. This drastically reduces production time and increases production volume.\n\nThe reaction takes place in the high-energetic shear zone of the Ultra- and High Shear mixer by reducing the droplet size of the immiscible liquids such as oil or fats and methanol. Therefore, the smaller the droplet size the larger the surface area the faster the catalyst can react.\n\nSection::::Production methods.:Ultrasonic reactor method.\n", "Section::::Production methods.:Volatile fatty acids from anaerobic digestion of waste streams.\n\nLipids have been drawing considerable attention as a substrate for biodiesel production owing to its sustainability, non-toxicity and energy efficient properties. However, due to cost reasons, attention must be focused on the non-edible sources of lipids, in particular oleaginous microorganisms. Such microbes have the ability to assimilate the carbon sources from a medium and convert the carbon into lipid storage materials. The lipids accumulated by these oleaginous cells can then be transesterified to form biodiesel.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biodiesel from CO2\n\nBULLET::::- Dehulling\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable oil fuel\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Various stages of converting renewable hydrocarbon fuels produced by hydrotreating is done throughout energy industry. Some commercial examples of vegetable oil refining are NExBTL, H-Bio, the ConocoPhilips process, and the UOP/Eni Ecofining process. Neste Oil is the largest manufacturer, producing 2 million tons annually (2013). Neste Oil completed their first NExBTL plant in the summer 2007 and the second one in 2009. Petrobras planned to use of vegetable oils in the production of H-Bio fuel in 2007. ConocoPhilips is processing of vegetable oil.Other\n", "Final oil separation, or fractionating, separates the oil into three different oil grades: Light viscosity lubricants suitable for general lubricant applications, low viscosity lubricants for automotive and industrial applications, and high viscosity lubricants for heavy-duty applications. The oil that is produced in this step is referred to as re-refined base oil (RRBL).\n\nThe final step is blending additives into these three grades of oil products to produce final products with the right detergent and anti-friction qualities. Then each product is tested again for quality and purity before being released for sale to the public.\n\nSection::::Motor oil.:REOB.\n", "There are several methods to prepare unilamellar liposomes and the protocols differ based on the type of desired unilamellar vesicles. Different lipids can be bought either dissolved in chloroform or as lyophilized lipids. In the case of lyophilized lipids, they can be solubilized in chloroform. Lipids are then mixed with a desired molar ratio. Then chloroform is evaporated using a gentle stream of nitrogen (to avoid oxygen contact and oxidation of lipids) at room temperature. A rotary evaporator can be used to form a homogeneous layer of liposomes. This step removes the bulk of chloroform. To remove the residues of trapped chloroform, lipids are placed under vacuum from several hours to overnight. Next step is re-hydration where the dried lipids are re-suspended in the desired buffer. Lipids can be vortexed for several minutes to insure that all the lipid residues get re-suspended. SUVs can be obtained in via two methods. Either by sonication (for instance with 1 second pulses in 3 Hz cycles at a power of 150 W) or by extrusion. In extrusion method, the lipid mixture is passed through a membrane for 10 or more times. Depending on the size of the membrane, either SUVs or LUVs can be obtained. Keeping vesicles under argon and away from oxygen and light can extend their lifetime.\n", "As reported on 04/02/2006 by Discover Magazine, a Carthage, Missouri plant was producing of oil made from 270 tons of turkey entrails and 20 tons of hog lard. This represents an oil yield of 22.3 percent. The Carthage plant produces API 40+, a high value crude oil. It contains light and heavy naphthas, a kerosene, and a gas oil fraction, with essentially no heavy fuel oils, tars, asphaltenes, or waxes. It can be further refined to produce No. 2 and No. 4 fuel oils.\n", "Base-catalyzed transesterification reacts lipids (fats and oils) with alcohol (typically methanol or ethanol) to produce biodiesel and an impure coproduct, glycerol. If the feedstock oil is used or has a high acid content, acid-catalyzed esterification can be used to react fatty acids with alcohol to produce biodiesel. Other methods, such as fixed-bed reactors, supercritical reactors, and ultrasonic reactors, forgo or decrease the use of chemical catalysts.\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Product purification.\n", "Different oilseed species possess unique fatty acid profiles. This same principle applies to the oil contents of various oilseeds as well. For example, while canola typically exhibits an oil content of around 40-45 %, soybeans consist of about 20% oil. Despite these specifics, it is important to note that the amount of oil extracted depends on the efficiency of the extraction process (Lardy, 2008). Decreased oil yield is detrimental in the perspective of oil production, yet is potentially beneficial for livestock producers since the leftover cake’s nutritive value is augmented.\n\nSection::::Oil extraction process.\n", "Section::::Future.\n\nA new process to break down polyethylene, a common plastic product found in many consumer containers, is used to make a paraffin-like wax with the correct molecular properties for conversion into a lubricant, bypassing the expensive Fischer–Tropsch process. The plastic is melted and then pumped into a furnace. The heat of the furnace breaks down the molecular chains of polyethylene into wax. Finally, the wax is subjected to a catalytic process that alters the wax's molecular structure, leaving a clear oil.\n", "Next, the diesel is mixed with HDS light cycle oil (LCO). The HDS light cycle oil is a poor diesel fuel due to its high sulfur content and poor engine ignition performance, thus it is mixed with H-Bio. The two are combined to produce the maximum amount of high-quality fuel possible, with the given amount of supply. When HDS Light Cycle Oil and H-Bio are blended, the fluid viscosity is modified for maximum performance, resulting in high-quality diesel. The resulting diesel has great ignition performance with very little sulfur content.\n", "Often, the algae is dehydrated, and then a solvent such as hexane is used to extract energy-rich compounds like triglycerides from the dried material. Then, the extracted compounds can be processed into fuel using standard industrial procedures. For example, the extracted triglycerides are reacted with methanol to create biodiesel via transesterification. The unique composition of fatty acids of each species influences the quality of the resulting biodiesel and thus must be taken into account when selecting algal species for feedstock.\n\nSection::::Fuel production.:Hydrothermal liquefaction.\n", "The patented version of Danimer Scientific's mcl-PHA is known as Nodax™, and it is the primary product developed for commercial manufacturing. Danimer Scientific's Nodax™ PHA is a class of bioplastics produced from bacterial microorganisms that store PHA polyesters for energy in their cell walls. These microbes feed upon plant-based oils procured from non-food sources.\n\nSection::::Background.:Danimer Scientific PHA.:Microorganism & Fermentation.\n\nPlant based oils are transferred to Danimer Scientific’s proprietary bio-reactors. There, the oil is fed to naturally regenerating, soil borne bacteria who produce PHA through biosynthesis.\n\nSection::::Background.:Danimer Scientific PHA.:Reactive Extrusion.\n" ]	[ "Conventional and synthetic motor oil should be separated when it is recycled." ]	[ "There's nothing dangerous about mixing conventional and synthetic motor oils as many synthetic oils are a mix of conventional oils." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Conventional and synthetic motor oil should be separated when it is recycled." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There's nothing dangerous about mixing conventional and synthetic motor oils as many synthetic oils are a mix of conventional oils." ]
2018-00369	When we have an open wound, it gets infected. Our mouth is usually open, why doesn’t that hurt or get infected too?	Because your mouth isn’t a wound. The inside of your mouth still has a protective layer of skin and mucus membrane and stuff over it. It’s thin skin, some of the thinnest anywhere on your body, and there are a LOT of nerve endings on it so it’s sensitive (which is why any cut or sore in your mouth feels huge, even when it’s not) but the skin is complete and unbroken. A wound by definition = broken or damaged skin. If that membrane breaks, then that can get infected - this is actually how HIV is transmitted through oral sex, the virus gets in through a cut or sore in your mouth. But the whole point of HAVING the mucus membrane there is so you won’t.	[ "Primary spaces are the result of direct spread from the infected tooth, while secondary spaces are the result of spread from primary spaces. In the oral cavity, mouth infections from primary spaces can spread to fascial planes between the muscles of mastication (masseter, medial pterygoid, and temporalis) or within the deep neck spaces. The space between the muscles of mastication is collectively known as the masticator space and they are all connected with each other at the back of the throat. Therefore, when an infection spreads to the masticator space, significant swelling, tenderness, and trismus are usually present. Deep neck spaces, another set of secondary spaces, are located between fascial planes that separate the deeper structures of the neck into discrete compartments. They are important because they begin at the back of the throat and depending on the space, can track downwards to the chest cavity or encase the windpipe. Infections that involve the deep neck spaces are rare, but must be treated immediately with surgery to washout the infection because they can compromise the airway and lead to fatal complications like mediastinitis.\n", "Surrounding the oral cavity, there are many different muscles that facilitate chewing, opening the mouth, and swallowing. Each muscle, group of muscles, or separate anatomical compartment is encased in a thin fibrous layer of connective tissue called fascia. Normally, the fascia of adjacent structures are in direct contact with each other. However, air or pus can occupy the space between adjacent fascia, known as fascial planes, and collect over time. As the air pocket or pus enlarges within the fascial planes, the structures surrounding the abnormality can become compressed or shifted out of its normal place. These phenomena of compression and deviation due to a growing infection/air pocket drive the progression of disease into potentially life-threatening situations.\n", "A midline raphe is present in this space making some infections appear unilateral. However without treatment infections can easily spread from one space to the adjacent space.\n\nIf more than half of the size of the C2 vertebra, it may indicate retropharyngeal abscess.\n\nSection::::Relations.\n\nIt is limited above by the base of the skull, and below where the alar fascia fuses with the buccopharyngeal fascia at about the level of T4 and the carina.\n\nRelations of the retropharyngeal space:\n\nBULLET::::- Superior: Base of the skull\n\nBULLET::::- Inferior: Superior mediastinum\n\nBULLET::::- Lateral: Carotid sheath\n\nBULLET::::- Anterior: Buccopharyngeal fascia\n", "A primary space is a potential space between adjacent soft tissue structures that communicate directly with the infected tooth through the eroded bone. In the upper jaw (maxilla), the primary spaces are the buccal and vestibular spaces. The most clinically significant structures that dictate the pattern of infectious spread are the buccinator muscle and the maxillary sinus. Infection that originates above the buccinator’s attachment point with the maxilla will spread laterally into the buccal space. Infection that begins below the buccinator’s attachment point with the maxilla will spread inferiorly into the vestibular space. Rarely, the infection will spread upwards into the maxillary sinus and cause a sinusitis.\n", "Section::::Anatomy of mouth.:Spread of oral infection.\n\nMouth infections spread from the root of the infected tooth through the jaw bones and into potential spaces between the fascial planes of surrounding soft tissue, eventually forming an abscess. These potential spaces are usually empty, but can expand and form a pocket of pus when an infection drains into them. The potential spaces are categorized into primary and secondary spaces.\n\nSection::::Anatomy of mouth.:Spread of oral infection.:Primary space.\n", "BULLET::::- The sphenomandibular ligament may act as a barrier to the agent if the injection is given too shallow and the lingual nerve is only anesthetized.\n\nBULLET::::- This injection can rarely cause needle tract infections of the pterygomandibular space. This is because the mouth contains many types of bacteria which are normally harmless by virtue of the physical barrier that the mucosa presents. However, if they are inoculated into the tissues during an injection, they can become pathogenic (disease causing).\n", "In the lower jaw (mandible), the primary spaces are the sublingual, submandibular, and submental spaces. The location of the mylohyoid dictates the spread of infection. It attaches to the mandible along a line that separates the sublingual and submandibular space. If an infection begins above the mylohyoid’s point of attachment, then the infection will spread to the sublingual space. If the infection originates below the mylohyoid’s point of attachment, then the infection will spread to the submandibular space. The submental space is located behind the mentalis muscles, and infections spread to this space when the oral infection begins at the roots of the mandibular incisors because they are so long.\n", "Deep neck space infections are mouth infections that have spread to the spaces between the connective tissue that separates the compartments of the neck, also known as the deep cervical fascia. When an infection involves the deep neck spaces, patients may report a wide variety of symptoms, including fever, pain with swallowing, inability to swallow, confusion, reduced mobility of the neck, chest pain, shortness of breath, and many other alarming symptoms. If the infection remains untreated or under treated, then even more serious complications can occur like descending necrotizing mediastinitis (infection of the soft tissues that encase the heart) and cervical necrotizing fasciitis (infection of the soft tissues along the throat and cervical spine). The mortality rate of mouth infections that affect the deep neck space and lead to necrotizing mediastinitis or necrotizing fasciitis is high at around a 40-60% mortality rate.\n", "Alveolar osteitis usually occurs where the blood clot fails to form or is lost from the socket (i.e., the defect left in the gum when a tooth is taken out). This leaves an empty socket where bone is exposed to the oral cavity, causing a localized alveolar osteitis limited to the lamina dura (i.e., the bone which lines the socket). This specific type is known as dry socket and is associated with increased pain and delayed healing time.\n", "Mouth infections are most commonly caused by an overgrowth of bacteria that normally populate the oral cavity. In a healthy adult, billions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi reside within the oral cavity and represent more than 500 different species. They are collectively known as the oral microbiome. When healthy, the oral microbiome is in dynamic equilibrium such that no one bacteria or group of organisms dominates. However, certain situations, like a decaying tooth root or a penetrating puncture wound from a fish bone, can generate an environment that disrupts the normal oral microbiome and promote the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Although sore throats (pharyngitis) are caused by viruses and oral yeast infections (candidiasis) are caused by fungi, most mouth infections that lead to swelling and abscesses are caused by bacteria.\n", "In some cases, a tooth abscess may perforate bone and start draining into the surrounding tissues creating local facial swelling. In some cases, the lymph glands in the neck will become swollen and tender in response to the infection. It may even feel like a migraine as the pain can transfer from the infected area. The pain does not normally transfer across the face, only upwards or downwards as the nerves that serve each side of the face are separate.\n", "In a dry socket, healing is delayed because tissue must grow from the surrounding gingival mucosa, which takes longer than the normal organisation of a blood clot. Some patients may develop short term halitosis, which is the result of food debris stagnating in the socket and the subsequent action of halitogenic bacteria. The main factors involved in the development of dry socket are discussed below.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Extraction site.\n", "Dry socket occurs in about 0.5–5% of routine dental extractions, and in about 25–30% of extractions of impacted mandibular third molars (wisdom teeth which are buried in the bone).\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSince alveolar osteitis is not primarily an infection, there is not usually any pyrexia (fever) and cervical lymphadenitis (swollen glands in the neck), and only minimal edema (swelling) and erythema (redness) is present in the soft tissues surrounding the socket.\n\nSigns may include:\n", "Signs and symptoms of a sublingual space infection might include a firm, painful swelling in the anterior part of the floor of the mouth. A sublingual abscess may elevate the tongue and cause drooling or dysphagia (difficulty swallowing). There is usually little swelling visible on the face outside the mouth.\n", "Mouth infections, also known as oral infections, are a group of infections that occur around the oral cavity. They include dental infection, dental abscess, and Ludwig's angina. Mouth infections typically originate from dental caries at the root of molars and premolars that spread to adjacent structures. In otherwise healthy patients, removing the offending tooth to allow drainage will usually resolve the infection. In cases that spread to adjacent structures or in immunocompromised patients (cancer, diabetes, transplant immunosuppression), surgical drainage and systemic antibiotics may be required in addition to tooth extraction. Since bacteria that normally reside in the oral cavity cause mouth infections, proper dental hygiene can prevent most cases of infection. As such, mouth infections are more common in populations with poor access to dental care (homeless, uninsured, etc.) or populations with health-related behaviors that damage one's teeth and oral mucosa (tobacco, methamphetamine, etc). This is a common problem, representing nearly 36% of all encounters within the emergency department related to dental conditions.\n", "Patients with mouth infections usually complain of pain at the affected tooth with or without fevers. Inability to fully open one's mouth, also known as trismus, suggests that the infection has spread to spaces between the jaw and muscles of mastication (masseter, medial pterygoid, and temporalis). If an abscess has formed, swelling, redness, and tenderness will be present. Depending on the location of the abscess, it will be visible intraorally, extraorally, or both. Severe infections with significant swelling may cause airway obstruction by shifting/enlarging soft tissue structures (floor of mouth, tongue, etc.) or by causing dysphagia that prevents adequate clearance of saliva. This is a medical emergency and may require endonasal intubation or tracheotomy to protect one's airway. The development of stridor, shortness of breath, and pooling oral secretions may indicate impending airway compromise due to a worsening mouth infection. Other rare but dangerous complications include osteomyelitis, cavernous sinus thrombosis, and deep neck space infection.\n", "Inflammation is commonly associated with a bacterial infection but can also be due to other insults such as repetitive trauma or in rare cases periodontitis. In the case of penetrating decay, the pulp chamber is no longer sealed off from the environment of the oral cavity.\n", "The presence of dental plaque or infection beneath an inflamed operculum without other obvious causes of pain will often lead to a pericoronitis diagnosis; therefore, elimination of other pain and inflammation causes is essential. For pericoronal infection to occur, the affected tooth must be exposed to the oral cavity, which can be difficult to detect if the exposure is hidden beneath thick tissue or behind an adjacent tooth. Severe swelling and restricted mouth opening may limit examination of the area. Radiographs can be used to rule out other causes of pain and to properly assess the prognosis for further eruption of the affected tooth.\n", "Section::::Complications.:Deep neck space infection.\n", "Section::::Anatomy of mouth.\n\nThe anatomy of the oral cavity affects the progression of infection and dictates the severity of disease. In other words, where the infection starts will determine the pattern of its spread and its catastrophic potential based on the surrounding anatomy.\n\nSection::::Anatomy of mouth.:Oral cavity.\n", "BULLET::::- Pterygoid hamulus: This is a hook-shaped structure protruding postero-laterally from the inferior boundary of the medial plate of the pterygoid process\n\nBULLET::::- Parotid papillae: This is the exiting duct from the parotid gland which is commonly found adjacent to the upper second molar on the buccal mucosa\n\nBULLET::::- Lingual papillae: Seen covering the dorsum of the tongue\n\nBULLET::::- Inflammatory\n\nBULLET::::- Abscess: An abscess is a painful collection of pus, usually caused by a bacterial infection\n\nBULLET::::- Cellulitis: Commonly due to a bacterial infection spreading to the deeper layers of the skin leading to a multitude of complications\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nDental pain and swelling are the two hallmark symptoms of a mouth infection. Fever is sometimes present, but not as frequently as tooth pain or persistent swelling. The swelling will occur at the tooth root or at the spaces occupied by the infection. Other symptoms that usually accompany an infection like increased heart rate, low energy, chills, and sweating may also be present. If infection spreads to the space between the muscles of mastication, then trismus, the inability to completely open one's mouth, will also be present.\n", "Section::::Role in disease.\n\n\"Dialister pneumosintes\" has shown pathogenic potential in various sites of the body including the lung, brain, and dental root canals. It has been isolated from several human infections. The species was first isolated from nasopharyngeal secretions of patients during the flu epidemic of 1918 to 1921. It has been identified in children with gingivitis and young adults with periodontitis. \"D. pneumosintes\" has also been recovered from pus and body fluids and from human bite wounds.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Type strain of \"Dialister pneumosintes\" at Bac\"Dive\" - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase\n", "Viridans alpha-hemolytic \"streptococci\", that are present in the mouth, are the most frequently isolated microorganisms when the infection is acquired in a community setting. In contrast, \"Staphylococcus\" blood stream infections are frequently acquired in a health care setting where they can enter the blood stream through procedures that cause break in the integrity of skin, such as surgery, catheterisation, or during access of long term indwelling catheters or secondary to intravenous injection of recreational drugs.\n\n\"Enterococcus\" can enter the bloodstream as a consequence of abnormalities in the gastrointestinal or genitourinary tracts.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Infection.\n\nDry socket is more likely to occur where there is a pre-existing infection in the mouth, such as necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis or chronic periodontitis. Wisdom teeth not associated with pericoronitis are less likely to cause a dry socket when extracted. The oral microbiota has been demonstrated to have fibrinolytic action in some individuals, and these persons may be predisposed to developing dry sockets after tooth extraction. Infection of the socket following tooth extraction is different from dry socket, although in dry socket secondary infection may occur in addition.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Smoking.\n" ]	[ "The mouth has features of an open wound.", "Mouths don't get infected." ]	[ "The mouth has protective layers of skin and mucus membranes.", "Mouths can get infected." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The mouth has features of an open wound.", "Mouths don't get infected." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The mouth has protective layers of skin and mucus membranes.", "Mouths can get infected." ]
2018-16926	How can planes offer wireless internet when they are 30,000ft high	Satellites. Planes track their own location and communicate with airports using satellites. From there they can use a router to provide local WiFi across the plane.	[ "On October 20, 2009, Apple unveiled an updated AirPort Extreme base station with antenna improvements.\n\nOn June 21, 2011, Apple unveiled an updated AirPort Extreme base station, referred to as \"AirPort Extreme 802.11n (5th Generation)\".\n\nSection::::AirPort routers.:AirPort Express.\n", "On October 20, 2009, Apple unveiled the updated AirPort Extreme and Time Capsule products with antenna improvements (the 5.8 GHz model).\n", "Power beaming of electromagnetic energy such as microwaves, like a power cable, requires a ground-based power source. However, compared to a power cable, power beaming carries much less weight penalty as altitude increases. The technology has been demonstrated on small models but awaits practical development.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Pioneers.\n", "Long range antennas can be hooked up to laptop computers with an external antenna jack - these allow a user to pick up a signal from as far as several kilometers away. Since unsecured wireless signals can be found readily in most urban areas, laptop owners may find free or open connections almost anywhere. While 2.4 and 5.8 GHz antennas are commercially available and easily purchased from many online vendors, they are also relatively easy to make. Laptops and tablets that lack external antenna jacks can rely on external Wi-Fi modems with radios - many requiring only USB or Power over Ethernet (PoE) power connections which the laptop can itself easily provide from its own battery.\n", "An AirPort Extreme base station can serve a maximum of 50 wireless clients simultaneously.\n\nSection::::AirPort routers.:AirPort Extreme 802.11n.\n\nThe AirPort Extreme was updated on January 9, 2007, to support the 802.11n protocol. This revision also adds two LAN ports for a total of three. It now more closely resembles the square-shaped 1st generation Apple TV and Mac Mini, and is about the same size as the mini.\n", "Gogo's ATG network is a cellular (meaning that there is a hand-off when the aircraft moves between service areas) radio network that has more than 200 towers in the continental U.S., Alaska and Canada. The ground stations consist of original Airfone air-ground phone relay stations and newer locations, using the 850 MHz ATG band. Unlike terrestrial cell sites, ATG ground stations project a directional signal up into the air where airplanes are, rather than downward, where terrestrial users are. However the short wavelength used allows segmentation and other \"cellular\" technologies in the same way that terrestrial cellphone technology works. The aircraft communicates with the ground stations through an antenna installed on the underbelly of the fuselage. Equipment in the aircraft's avionics bay converts between proprietary Gogo protocols and standard Wi-Fi, which is distributed into the passenger cabin through multiple interior wireless access point nodes.\n", "On March 3, 2009, Apple unveiled a new AirPort Extreme with simultaneous dual-band 802.11 Draft-N radios. This allowed full 802.11 Draft-N 2x2 communication in both 802.11 Draft-N bands at the same time.\n\nSection::::AirPort Extreme models by generation.:4th generation.\n\nOn October 20, 2009, Apple unveiled an updated AirPort Extreme with antenna improvements.\n\nSection::::AirPort Extreme models by generation.:5th generation.\n\nOn June 21, 2011, Apple unveiled an updated AirPort Extreme, referred to as \"AirPort Extreme 802.11n (5th Generation)\".\n\nThe detailed table of output power comparison between the \"4th generation\" model MC340LL/A and the \"5th generation\" model MD031LL/A can be seen below:\n", "BULLET::::- At El Aguila site an aluminum mesh reflector diameter, center-fed, at El Baúl a fiberglass solid reflector, offset-fed, . On both ends the feeds were 12 dBi Yagis.\n\nBULLET::::- Linksys WRT54G series routers fed the antennas with short LMR400 cables, so the effective gain of the complete antenna is estimated at about 30 dBi.\n\nBULLET::::- This is the largest known range attained with this technology, improving on a previous US record of achieved last year in U.S. The Swedish space agency attained , but using 6 watt amplifiers to reach an overhead stratospheric balloon.\n\nSection::::Notable links.:Peru.\n", "Two forms of transmitting antennas are employed. Most commonly used are standard non-directional vertical antennas. However, an alternate implementation, called \"leaky cable\", is a form of carrier current transmission, which employs long horizonal conductors, commonly run alongside roadways. Stations using a standard antenna are generally limited to a coverage radius of , with an antenna height of no more than 15 meters (49.2 feet), and a maximum power of 10 watts, although critical evacuation systems, such as those in the Florida Keys and near chemical and nuclear facilities, have been granted waivers to exceed that limit for emergency operations, typically for up to 100 watts. \n", "Wiring adds a considerable amount of weight to an aircraft; therefore, researchers are exploring implementing fly-by-wireless solutions. Fly-by-wireless systems are very similar to fly-by-wire systems, however, instead of using a wired protocol for the physical layer a wireless protocol is employed.\n", "In recent years a focus of research has been the development of wireless-powered drone aircraft, which began in 1959 with the Dept. of Defense's RAMP (Raytheon Airborne Microwave Platform) project which sponsored Brown's research. In 1987 Canada's Communications Research Center developed a small prototype airplane called Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP) to relay telecommunication data between points on earth similar to a communications satellite. Powered by a rectenna, it could fly at 13 miles (21 km) altitude and stay aloft for months. In 1992 a team at Kyoto University built a more advanced craft called MILAX (MIcrowave Lifted Airplane eXperiment).\n", "One of the latest uses of HAPS has been for radiocommunication service. Research on HAPS is being actively carried largely in Europe, where scientists are considering them as a platform to deliver high-speed connectivity to users, over . It has gained significant interest because HAPS will be able to deliver bandwidth and capacity similar to a broadband wireless access network (such as WiMAX) while providing a coverage area similar to that of a satellite.\n\nHigh-altitude airships can improve the military's ability to communicate in remote areas such as those in Afghanistan, where mountainous terrain frequently interferes with communications signals.\n", "Onboard batteries would charge during daylight hours through solar panels covering the wings, and would provide power to the plane during night. Ground-based satellite internet dishes would relay signals to and from the aircraft, resulting in a greatly reduced round-trip signal latency of only 0.25 milliseconds. The planes could potentially run for long periods without refueling. Several such schemes involving various types of aircraft have been proposed in the past.\n\nSection::::Challenges and limitations.:Interference.\n", "For earthbound applications, a large-area 10 km diameter receiving array allows large total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density suggested for human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe power density of 1 mW/cm distributed across a 10 km diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power level. This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants. For comparison, a solar PV farm of similar size might easily exceed 10,000 megawatts (rounded) at best conditions during daytime.\n", "The AirPort Extreme has no port for an external antenna.\n\nOn August 7, 2007, the AirPort Extreme began shipping with Gigabit Ethernet, matching most other Apple products.\n\nOn March 19, 2008, Apple released a firmware update for both models of the AirPort Extreme to allow AirPort Disks to be used in conjunction with Time Machine, similar to the functionality provided by Time Capsule.\n\nOn March 3, 2009, Apple unveiled a new AirPort Extreme with simultaneous dual-band 802.11 Draft-N radios. This allows full 802.11 Draft-N 2x2 communication in both 802.11 Draft-N bands at the same time.\n", "The original AirPort Extreme Base Station was so named because of its support for the 802.11g standard of the day, as well as for its ability to serve up to 50 Macs or PCs simultaneously. One feature found in most models of this generation was an internal 56K dial-up modem, allowing homes that lacked a broadband connection to enjoy wireless connectivity, albeit at dial-up speeds. It was the last generation to retain the \"flying saucer\" form factor. Later generations would adopt the short, rounded-square form factor that would be seen until 2013.\n\nSection::::AirPort Extreme models by generation.:1st generation.\n", "Establishing a direct connection to another aircraft or ground node, via a point-to-point link for nodes within LOS or via a Satellite Communications (SATCOM) link for nodes that are beyond line-of-sight is known as tethering. SATCOM links provide connectivity to a network ground entry point. Strike aircraft that accompany C2 aircraft such as an AWACS are tethered via point-to-point links. Finally, C2 or intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissnce (ISR) aircraft may connect via a LOS link directly to a network ground entry point. Each of these tethered alternatives works exactly like a hub or switch that has an entry point to a larger network and allows their connected users access to that network.\n", "Section::::Innovations.:Wi-Fi.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Ku-band satellite.:Gogo Ground to Orbit.\n\nGogo Ground to Orbit uses a Ku-band satellite antenna for the downlink to the plane and Gogo's Air to Ground for uplink from the plane. Ground to Orbit will be in service over the United States and will have peak download speeds of 60 Mbit/s. Virgin America will be the launch partner of the new service. The Ku-band satellite antennas used for GTO are manufactured by ThinKom Solutions.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Ku-band satellite.:2Ku.\n", "Section::::Other types of antenna supports and structures.:Balloons and kites.\n\nA tethered balloon or a kite can serve as a temporary support. It can carry an antenna or a wire (for VLF, LW or MW) up to an appropriate height. Such an arrangement is used occasionally by military agencies or radio amateurs. The American broadcasters TV Martí broadcast a television program to Cuba by means of such a balloon.\n\nSection::::Other types of antenna supports and structures.:Drones.\n\nIn 2013, interest began in using unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) for telecom purposes.\n\nSection::::Other types of antenna supports and structures.:Other special structures.\n", "To use the service, an aircraft only needs a Communications Management Unit (CMU), or equivalent and an HFDL data radio. The CMU is an airborne communications router that interfaces with many aircraft communications systems including SATCOM, VHF, HFDL, FMS and others.\n\nSection::::Global coverage.\n\nToday, HFDL is an air/ground data link standard with coverage in virtually every corner of the globe, approximately where aircraft are never out of touch both in the air and on the ground.\n\nSection::::Evolving technology.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "In late 2009, Lufthansa announced that starting mid-2010 they will re-launch their 'FlyNet' service with Panasonic Avionics' satellite-based broadband technology offering passengers in-flight Internet and cellphone connections. Lufthansa will make use of their existing onboard hardware that had been installed in 2003 by Connexion by Boeing, the now defunct provider of the airline's previous onboard connectivity system.\n\nSection::::Operations.\n", "In 2003 NASA flew the first laser powered aircraft. The small model plane's motor was powered by electricity generated by photocells from a beam of infrared light from a ground-based laser, while a control system kept the laser pointed at the plane.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Beam-powered propulsion\n\nBULLET::::- Beam Power Challenge – one of the NASA Centennial Challenges\n\nBULLET::::- Electricity distribution\n\nBULLET::::- Electric power transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Electromagnetic compatibility\n\nBULLET::::- Electromagnetic radiation and health\n\nBULLET::::- Energy harvesting\n\nBULLET::::- Friis transmission equation\n\nBULLET::::- Microwave power transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Qi (standard)\n\nBULLET::::- Space-based solar power\n\nBULLET::::- Resonant inductive coupling\n\nBULLET::::- Thinned array curse\n", "Section::::AirPort routers.:AirPort Extreme Base Station.\n\nThree different configurations of model A1034 are all called the \"AirPort Extreme Base Station\":\n\n1. M8799LL/A – 2 ethernet ports, 1 USB port, external antenna connector, 1 56k (V.90) modem port\n\n2. M8930LL/A – 2 ethernet ports, 1 USB port, external antenna connector.\n\n3. M9397LL/A – 2 ethernet ports, 1 USB port, external antenna connector, powered over ethernet cable (PoE/UL2043)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22890	Why do the "normal" smoke of the cigarette cause me to cough instantly?	the yellow part of a cigarette is a filter. the smoke coming out of the burning end is the smoke that is straight up from all of the chemicals. this is why second hand smoking is considered more dangerous than regular smoking, it would make sense as to why you cough from the smoke on the burning end because of this reason.	[ "BULLET::::- The abdominal muscles contract to accentuate the action of the relaxing diaphragm; simultaneously, the other expiratory muscles contract. These actions increase the pressure of air within the lungs.\n\nBULLET::::- The vocal cords relax and the glottis opens, releasing air at over 100 mph.\n\nBULLET::::- The bronchi and non-cartilaginous portions of the trachea collapse to form slits through which the air is forced, which clears out any irritants attached to the respiratory lining.\n", "The eugenol in clove smoke causes a numbing of the throat which can diminish the gag reflex in users, leading researchers to recommend caution for individuals with respiratory infections. There have also been a few cases of aspiration pneumonia in individuals with normal respiratory tracts possibly because of the diminished gag reflex.\n\nSection::::Legal status in the United States.\n\nIn the United States, cigarettes were the subject of legal restrictions and political debate, including a proposed 2009 US Senate bill that would have prohibited cigarettes from having a \"characterizing flavor\" of certain ingredients other than tobacco and menthol.\n", "Pipe smoke, like cigar smoke, is usually not inhaled. It is merely brought into the mouth, pumped around oral and nasal cavities to permit absorption of nicotine toward the brain through the mucous membranes, and released. It is normal to have to relight a pipe periodically. If it is smoked too slowly, this will happen more often. If it is smoked too quickly, it can produce excess moisture causing a gurgling sound in the pipe and an uncomfortable sensation on the tongue (referred to as \"pipe tongue\", or more commonly, \"tongue bite\").\n", "The efferent neural pathway then follows, with relevant signals transmitted back from the cerebral cortex and medulla via the vagus and superior laryngeal nerves to the glottis, external intercostals, diaphragm, and other major inspiratory and expiratory muscles. The mechanism of a cough is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Diaphragm (innervated by phrenic nerve) and external intercostal muscles (innervated by segmental intercostal nerves) contract, creating a negative pressure around the lung.\n\nBULLET::::- Air rushes into the lungs in order to equalise the pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- The glottis closes (muscles innervated by recurrent laryngeal nerve) and the vocal cords contract to shut the larynx.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n", "Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes several immediate responses within the heart and blood vessels. Within one minute the heart rate begins to rise, increasing by as much as 30 percent during the first 10 minutes of smoking. Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke exerts negative effects by reducing the blood's ability to carry oxygen.\n", "The active substances in tobacco, especially cigarettes, are administered by burning the leaves and inhaling the vaporized gas that results. This quickly and effectively delivers substances into the bloodstream by absorption through the alveoli in the lungs. The lungs contain some 300 million alveoli, which amounts to a surface area of over 70 m (about the size of a tennis court). This method is not completely efficient as not all of the smoke will be inhaled, and some amount of the active substances will be lost in the process of combustion, pyrolysis. Pipe and Cigar smoke are not inhaled because of its high alkalinity, which are irritating to the trachea and lungs. However, because of its higher alkalinity (pH 8.5) compared to cigarette smoke (pH 5.3), non-ionized nicotine is more readily absorbed through the mucous membranes in the mouth. Nicotine absorption from cigar and pipe, however, is much less than that from cigarette smoke. Nicotine and cocaine activate similar patterns of neurons, which supports the existence of common substrates among these drugs.\n", "Inhaling the vaporized gas form of substances into the lungs is a quick and very effective way of delivering drugs into the bloodstream (as the gas diffuses directly into the pulmonary vein, then into the heart and from there to the brain) and affects the user within less than a second of the first inhalation. The lungs consist of several million tiny bulbs called alveoli that altogether have an area of over 70 m² (about the area of a tennis court). This can be used to administer useful medical as well as recreational drugs such as aerosols, consisting of tiny droplets of a medication, or as gas produced by burning plant material with a psychoactive substance or pure forms of the substance itself. Not all drugs can be smoked, for example the sulphate derivative that is most commonly inhaled through the nose, though purer free base forms of substances can, but often require considerable skill in administering the drug properly. The method is also somewhat inefficient since not all of the smoke will be inhaled. The inhaled substances trigger chemical reactions in nerve endings in the brain due to being similar to naturally occurring substances such as endorphins and dopamine, which are associated with sensations of pleasure. The result is what is usually referred to as a \"high\" that ranges between the mild stimulus caused by nicotine to the intense euphoria caused by heroin, cocaine and methamphetamines.\n", "BULLET::::- Cigarettes: \"Cigarettes\", French for \"small cigar\", are a product consumed through smoking and manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, which are then rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped cylinder. Cigarettes are ignited and inhaled, usually through a cellulose acetate filter, into the mouth and lungs.\n", "In using chewing tobacco—at least types other than tobacco pellets—the consumer usually deposits the tobacco between the cheek and teeth and lightly macerates and sucks the tobacco to allow its juices to flow. Thus when chewing, it is common to spit and discard excess saliva caused by the release of juices from the tobacco, justifying the existence of the spittoon, or cuspidor.\n", "A cough is a protective reflex in healthy individuals which is influenced by psychological factors. The cough reflex is initiated by stimulation of two different classes of afferent nerves, namely the myelinated rapidly adapting receptors, and nonmyelinated C-fibers with endings in the lungs. However it is not certain that the stimulation of nonmyelinated C-fibers leads to cough with a reflex as it's meant in physiology (with its own five components): this stimulation may cause mast cells degranulation (through an asso-assonic reflex) and edema which may work as a stimulus for rapidly adapting receptors.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic approach.\n", "Section::::Types.:Thuoc lao.\n\n\"Thuoc lao\" is a nicotine-rich (although not as strong as mapacho) type of tobacco grown exclusively in Vietnam and is often smoked by Vietnamese rice farmers.\n\nIt is most commonly smoked after a meal on a full stomach to aid in digestion, or along with green tea or local beer (most commonly the cheap \"bia hoi\"). A \"hit\" of thuoc lao is followed by a flood of nicotine to the bloodstream inducing strong dizziness that last several seconds. Even heavy smokers have had trouble with the intense volume of smoke and the side effects include nausea and vomiting.\n", "In Quentin Tarantino's 1992 movie Reservoir Dogs, Mr. White offers Mr. Pink a Chesterfield cigarette in an attempt to calm him. In another Tarantino-penned movie, 1993's True Romance, Clarence Worley's father, Clifford, smokes a Chesterfield before his execution at the hands of Blue Lou Boyle's \"consigliere,\" Vincenzo Coccotti.\n\nIn the 1994 film The Shawshank Redemption, Red (Morgan Freeman) is seen giving a pack of Chesterfield cigarettes to Heywood (William Sadler) after losing the \"\"Fresh Fish\"\" bet. Heywood sniffs the cigarettes and says \"Yes, Richmond, Virginia\".\n", "Light cigarettes essentially fool smoking machines through several techniques. A light cigarette's filter perforated by tiny holes, for instance, is uncovered when smoked by machine, and consequently, the cigarette smoke is heavily diluted with air and causes the machines to report low levels of nicotine and tar. When smoked by human smokers, in contrast, this filter is usually covered by smokers' lips and fingers. Consequently, the filter holes are closed and the light cigarette actually becomes equivalent to a regular cigarette. Some tobacco manufacturers also increased the length of the paper wrap which covers the cigarette filter; this modification serves to decrease the number of \"puffs\" available to the machine test and limits the amount of tobacco that is machine \"smoked\". In reality, however, the tobacco found under this paper wrap which is not \"smoked\" by machine is still available to and smoked by the human smoker.\n", "BULLET::::- Má chaitheann tú tobac le linn toirchis, déantar díobháil don leanbán – \"Smoking when pregnant harms your baby\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cosain leanaí: ná cuir iallach orthu do chuid deataigh an análú – \"Protect children: don’t make them breathe your smoke\"\n\nBULLET::::- Féadann do dhochtúir nó do chógaiseoir cabhrú leat éirí as caitheamh tobac \"Your doctor or your pharmacist can help you stop smoking\"\n\nBULLET::::- Is éasca a bheith tugtha do chaitheamh tobac, ná tosaigh leis – \"Smoking is highly addictive, don’t start\"\n", "BULLET::::- Chemical irritants such as cigarette smoke or other irritants are a common factor that can lead to chronic cough. These irritants typically contribute towards chronic bronchitis.\n\nBULLET::::- Other notable rare causes include: aspiration, bronchiectasis, bronchiolitis, cystic fibrosis, laryngopharyngeal reflux, lung cancer, non-asthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis, sarcoidosis.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n", "Muscarinic signs and symptoms are tightness of the chest, bronchoconstriction, bradycardia, and constriction of the pupils. Salivation, lacrimation, and sweating are all increased, and peristalsis is also increased, leading to nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.\n\nNicotinic symptoms result from the accumulation of acetylcholine at motor nerve endings in skeletal muscle and ganglia. Thus, there is fatigue, involuntary twitching, and muscular weakness, which may affect the muscles of respiration.\n\nAccumulation of acetylcholine in the CNS leads to a variety of signs and symptoms, including tension, anxiety, ataxia, convulsions, restlessness, insomnia and coma.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- He finds some tobacco from a man filling his pipe and a small piece of paper. He then tries to roll his own cigarette, but fails and gets it everywhere.\n\nBULLET::::- He tries to pick up a discarded cigar, but a foot steps on it, flattening it and gets his hand in the process, leaving an imprint on his hand that reads, \"Pussyfoot\".\n\nBULLET::::- He picks up another cigar near an elevator doorway, but a voice calls out \"Goin' up!\" and the door closes on the cigar and as the elevator rises, so does the cigar.\n", "Nicotine poisoning tends to produce symptoms that follow a biphasic pattern. The initial symptoms are mainly due to stimulatory effects and include nausea and vomiting, excessive salivation, abdominal pain, pallor, sweating, hypertension, tachycardia, ataxia, tremor, headache, dizziness, muscle fasciculations, and seizures. After the initial stimulatory phase, a later period of depressor effects can occur and may include symptoms of hypotension and bradycardia, central nervous system depression, coma, muscular weakness and/or paralysis, with difficulty breathing or respiratory failure.\n", "Heading for the corner\n\nAlready running dry\n\nAnd oh, don't let me see you crying\n\n'Cause oh, honey, I'll smoke you 'til I'm dying\n\nViceroy\n\nDon't take me for a fool now\n\nI'm only trying to calm down\n\nJust trying to keep it cool\n\nViceroy\n\nAs it's getting later\n\nHeading for the corner\n\nI'm leaving it to you\n\nAnd oh, don't let me see you crying\n\n'Cause oh, honey, I'll smoke you 'til I'm dying\n\nSection::::Markets.\n", "BULLET::::- Chewing tobacco is the oldest way of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands (\"chew\" or \"chaw\"), or in a shredded form (\"dip\"). When consuming the long, sweetened strands, the tobacco is lightly chewed and compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are placed at the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it can often be called dipping tobacco. Both methods stimulate the salivary glands, which led to the development of the spittoon.\n", "The cough reflex has both sensory (afferent) mainly via the vagus nerve and motor (efferent) components. Pulmonary irritant receptors (cough receptors) in the epithelium of the respiratory tract are sensitive to both mechanical and chemical stimuli. The bronchi and trachea are so sensitive to light touch that slight amounts of foreign matter or other causes of irritation initiate the cough reflex. The larynx and carina are especially sensitive. Terminal bronchioles and even the alveoli are sensitive to chemical stimuli such as sulfur dioxide gas or chlorine gas. Rapidly moving air usually carries with it any foreign matter that is present in the bronchi or trachea. Stimulation of the cough receptors by dust or other foreign particles produces a cough, which is necessary to remove the foreign material from the respiratory tract before it reaches the lungs.\n", "BULLET::::- He picks up a white pipe, but it gets blasted to bits as a target in an amusement park shooting gallery. A barker then says, \"And the little man wins a big cigar!\"\n\nBULLET::::- He looks up to see a janitor on The Empire State Building drop a cigarette. He eagerly holds out his hand to get it, and even tries to use a ladder to get it, but when he does, it's spent completely; nothing but ashes are left of the cigarette.\n", "Coughing is a mechanism of the body that is essential to normal physiological function of clearing the throat which involves a reflex of the afferent sensory limb, central processing centre of the brain and the efferent limb. In conjunction to the components of the body that are involved, sensory receptors are also used. These receptors include rapidly adapting receptors which respond to mechanical stimuli, slowly adapting receptors and nociceptors which respond to chemical stimuli such as hormones in the body. To start the reflex, the afferent impulses are transmitted to the medulla of the brain this involves the stimulus which is then interpreted. The efferent impulses are then triggered by the medulla causing the signal to travel down the larynx and bronchial tree. This then triggers a cascade of events that involve the intercostal muscles, abdominal wall, diaphragm and pelvic floor which in conjunction together create the reflex known as coughing.\n", "Once inside the lungs, bacteria then take advantage of any deficiencies in the immune system (such as due to malnutrition or chemotherapy) and multiply. Patients with VAP demonstrate impaired function of key immune cells, including the neutrophil, both in the blood and in the alveolar space, with this impairment being driven by pro-inflammatory molecules such as C5a. These defects in immune function appear to be casually linked to the development of VAP, as they are seen before clinical infection develops. A combination of bacterial damage and consequences of the immune response lead to disruption of gas exchange with resulting symptoms.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04703	Why Blood turns brown after it dries?	When the liquid from the blood is seeped into the bandaid, the only thing left outside are the dead red blood cells. That is what you are seeing. Also: the brown colour of poo is caused by the dead red blood cells filtered out by your liver. The contents of your guts before this is added is grey.	[ "Section::::Forensic procedure.:Finding and documenting blood residue.\n\nFreshly dried bloodstains are a glossy reddish-brown in color. Under the influence of sunlight, the weather or removal attempts, the color eventually disappears and the stain turns gray. The surface on which it is found may also influence the stain's color.\n", "Upon blood exiting the body, haemoglobin in blood transits from bright red to dark brown, which is attributed to oxidation of oxy-hemoglobin (HbO) to methemoglobin (met-Hb) and ending up in hemichrome (HC). For forensic purposes, the fractions of HbO, met-Hb and HC in a bloodstain can be used for age determination of bloodstains when measured with Reflectance Spectroscopy .\n\nSection::::Hemichrome stability.\n", "As an alternative to punching out a paper disc, recent automation solutions extract the sample by flushing an eluent through the filter without punching it out. An automation including the application of an internal standard prior extraction was developed by the Swiss company CAMAG.\n\nSection::::Dried blood spot testing for HIV infection.\n", "This is the nonspecific killing of blood cells by metabolic by-products of bacteria. This can be seen on a blood agar plate, when the blood surrounding the confluent part of your streak turns green, but there is no change around single colonies. Hemedigestion is seen with the cholera-causing bacteria, \"Vibrio cholerae\".\n", "Once in the laboratory, technicians separate a small disc of saturated paper from the sheet using an automated or manual hole punch, dropping the disc into a flat bottomed microtitre plate. The blood is eluted out in phosphate buffered saline containing 0.05% Tween 80 and 0.005% sodium azide, overnight at 4 °C. The resultant plate containing the eluates forms the \"master\" from which dilutions can be made for subsequent testing.\n", "Fåhræus (a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate) suggested that the Ancient Greek system of humorism, wherein the body was thought to contain four distinct bodily fluids (associated with different temperaments), were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen. A dark clot forms at the bottom (the \"black bile\"). Above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the \"blood\"). Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the \"phlegm\"). The top layer is clear yellow serum (the \"yellow bile\").\n", "The microscopic anatomy shows a lighter staining tissue (when stained with H&E) containing no nuclei with very little structural damage, giving the appearance often quoted as 'ghost cells'. The decreased staining is due to digested nuclei which no longer show up as dark purple when stained with hematoxylin, and denaturation of intracellular proteins will somehow give them a darker pinkish stain eosin.\n\nSection::::Regeneration.\n", "The slide is left to air dry, after which the blood is fixed to the slide by immersing it briefly in methanol. The fixative is essential for good staining and presentation of cellular detail. After fixation, the slide is stained to distinguish the cells from each other.\n", "Hemosiderinuria (syn. haemosiderinuria),the existence of hemosiderin in the urine .Occurs with chronic intravascular hemolysis, in which hemoglobin is released from RBCs into the bloodstream in excess of the binding capacity of haptoglobin. (Haptoglobin binds circulating hemoglobin and reduces renal excretion of hemoglobin, preventing tubular injury.) The excess hemoglobin is filtered by the kidney and reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule, where the iron portion is removed and stored in ferritin or hemosiderin. The tubule cells of the proximal tubule slough off with the hemosiderin and are excreted into the urine, producing a \"brownish\" color. It is usually seen 3–4 days after the onset of hemolytic conditions.\n", "It's important to note that although hemosiderins are also included in the urine in the setting of intravascular hemolytic hemoglobinuria, it will be detected only several days after the onset of the extensive intravascular hemolysis and will remain detectable several days after termination of intravascular hemolysis. The phenomenon tells that the detection of hemosiderin in urine is indicative of either ongoing or recent intravascular hemolysis characterized by excessive hemoglobin and/or met-hemoglobin filtered through the renal glomerulus as well as the loss of hemosiderin-laden necrotic tubular cells.\n", "Serum albumin is commonly measured by recording the change in absorbance upon binding to a dye such as bromocresol green or bromocresol purple.\n\nSection::::Reference ranges.\n\nSerum albumin concentration is typically 35–50 g/L (3.5–5.0 g/dL).\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Hypoalbuminemia.\n\nHypoalbuminemia means low blood albumin levels. This can be caused by:\n\nBULLET::::- Liver disease; cirrhosis of the liver is most common\n\nBULLET::::- Excess excretion by the kidneys (as in nephrotic syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Excess loss in bowel (protein-losing enteropathy, e.g., Ménétrier's disease)\n\nBULLET::::- Burns (plasma loss in the absence of skin barrier)\n\nBULLET::::- Redistribution (hemodilution [as in pregnancy], increased vascular permeability or decreased lymphatic clearance)\n", "Hemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood in vertebrates. Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters the exact color. In vertebrates and other hemoglobin-using creatures, arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states.\n", "Historically, an association between the color of blood and rust occurs in the association of the planet Mars, with the Roman god of war, since the planet is an orange-red, which reminded the ancients of blood. Although the color of the planet is due to iron compounds in combination with oxygen in the Martian soil, it is a common misconception that the iron in hemoglobin and its oxides gives blood its red color. The color is actually due to the porphyrin moiety of hemoglobin to which the iron is bound, not the iron itself, although the ligation and redox state of the iron can influence the pi to pi* or n to pi* electronic transitions of the porphyrin and hence its optical characteristics.\n", "Consumption of dragon fruit (pitaya) or blackberries may also cause red or black discoloration of the stool and sometimes the urine (pseudohematuria). This too, is a differential sign that is sometimes mistaken for hematochezia.\n\nIn infants, the Apt test can be used to distinguish fetal hemoglobin from maternal blood.\n\nOther common causes of blood in the stool include:\n\nBULLET::::- Colorectal cancer\n\nBULLET::::- Crohn's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Ulcerative colitis\n\nBULLET::::- Other types of inflammatory bowel disease, inflammatory bowel syndrome, or ulceration\n\nBULLET::::- Rectal or anal hemorrhoids or anal fissures, particularly if they rupture or are otherwise irritated\n", "BULLET::::- Capsule endoscopy\n\nBULLET::::- CT Scan\n\nMelena is defined as dark, tarry stools, often black in color due to partial digestion of the RBCs.\n\nHematochezia is defined as bright red blood seen in the toilet either inside of, or surrounding the stool.\n", "The macroscopic appearance of an area of coagulative necrosis is a pale segment of tissue contrasting against surrounding well vascularised tissue and is dry on cut surface. The tissue may later turn red due to inflammatory response. The surrounding surviving cells can aid in regeneration of the affected tissue unless they are stable or permanent.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Microscopic.\n", "Dried blood spot specimens are collected by applying a few drops of blood, drawn by lancet from the finger, heel or toe, onto specially manufactured absorbent filter paper. The blood is allowed to thoroughly saturate the paper and is air dried for several hours. Specimens are stored in low gas-permeability plastic bags with desiccant added to reduce humidity, and may be kept at ambient temperature, even in tropical climates.\n", "The color blood red is a dark shade of the color red meant to resemble the color of human blood (which is composed of oxygenated red erythrocytes, white leukocytes, and yellow blood plasma) by cinnabar, a quick silver thermometer analogue display. It is the iron in hemoglobin specifically that gives blood its red color. The actual color ranges from crimson to a dark brown-blood depending on how oxygenated the blood is, and may have a slightly orange hue. Deoxygenated blood, which circulates closer to the body's surface and which is therefore generally more likely to be seen than oxygenated blood, issues from bodily veins in a dark red state, but quickly oxygenates upon exposure to air, turning a brighter shade of red. This happens more quickly with smaller volumes of blood such as a pinprick and less quickly from cuts or punctures that cause greater blood flows such as a puncture in the basilic vein: all blood collected during a phlebotomy procedure is deoxygenated blood, and it does not usually have a chance to become oxygenated upon leaving the body. Arterial blood, which is already oxygenated, is also already a brighter shade of red— this is the blood see from a pulsating neck, arm, or leg wound, and it does not change color upon exposure to air. The color \"blood red\", therefore, covers both these states: the darker deoxygenated color and the brighter oxygenated one. Also, dried blood often has a darker, rust-colored quality: all dried blood has been oxygenated and then desiccated, causing the cells within it to die. This blood is often darker than either shade of red that can be seen in fresh blood. \n", "As detectable levels of myoglobinemia and myoglobinuria occur, blood tests and urine tests may show elevated levels of myoglobin. For example, a urine test strip may reveal a positive result for \"blood\", even though no red blood cells can be identified on microscopy of the urine; this occurs because the reagent on the test strip reacts with myoglobin. The same phenomenon may happen in conditions that lead to hemolysis, the destruction of red blood cells; in hemolysis the blood serum is also visibly discolored, while in rhabdomyolysis it is normal. If kidney damage has occurred, microscopy of the urine also reveals urinary casts that appear pigmented and granular.\n", "Section::::History.:Green fire.\n", "Albumin (when ionized in water at pH 7.4, as found in the body) is negatively charged. The glomerular basement membrane is also negatively charged in the body; some studies suggest that this prevents the filtration of albumin in the urine. According to this theory, that charge plays a major role in the selective exclusion of albumin from the glomerular filtrate. A defect in this property results in nephrotic syndrome leading to albumin loss in the urine. Nephrotic syndrome patients are sometimes given albumin to replace the lost albumin.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Color.:Chlorocruorin.\n\nThe blood of most annelid worms and some marine polychaetes use chlorocruorin to transport oxygen. It is green in color in dilute solutions.\n\nSection::::Color.:Hemerythrin.\n\nHemerythrin is used for oxygen transport in the marine invertebrates sipunculids, priapulids, brachiopods, and the annelid worm, magelona. Hemerythrin is violet-pink when oxygenated.\n\nSection::::Color.:Hemovanadin.\n", "BULLET::::- Liver disease: Lecithin—cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) activity may be decreased in obstructive liver disease. Decreased enzymatic activity increases the cholesterol to phospholipid ratio, producing an absolute increase in surface area of the red blood cell membranes or may be increased red cell membrane fluidity.\n\nBULLET::::- Alpha-thalassemia and beta-thalassemia (hemoglobinopathies)\n\nBULLET::::- Hemoglobin C Disease\n\nBULLET::::- Iron deficiency anemia\n", "The classic sign of PNH is red discoloration of the urine due to the presence of hemoglobin and hemosiderin from the breakdown of red blood cells. As the urine is more concentrated in the morning, this is when the color is most pronounced. This phenomenon mainly occurs in those who have the primary form of PNH, who will notice this at some point in their disease course. The remainder mainly experience the symptoms of anemia, such as tiredness, shortness of breath, and palpitations.\n", "BULLET::::- High levels of fibrin degradation products, including D-dimer, are found owing to the intense fibrinolytic activity stimulated by the presence of fibrin in the circulation.\n\nBULLET::::- The peripheral blood smear may show fragmented red blood cells (known as schistocytes) due to shear stress from thrombi. However, this finding is neither sensitive nor specific for DIC\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21833	Why does the flesh of an apple go brown fairly quick out in the open?	It's exposed to oxygen which activates enzymes (Things that break down parts of other things saliva for example contains a lot of enzymes and it breaks down food in your mouth) that turn it brown in the process. It mainly happens when the skin is not protecting the flesh as oxygen starts the reaction.	[ "As a teenager in the 1870s, the horticulturist Liberty Hyde Bailey grafted Surprise onto a tree in his father's orchard in South Haven, Michigan, using scion wood that had come from Charles Downing. Years later, in his 1928 book \"The Garden Lover\", he wrote: \n\nI set those scions, and for many a year made pilgrimage to the tree and opened the green fruits to be surprised again and again at the pink flesh 'stained with red' as the original \"The Fruit and Fruit Trees of America\" has it.\n", "The apple skin is a yellow, flushed orange, streaked red with russet at the base and apex. The yellow flesh is firm, fine-grained, and sweet with a pear taste. Irregularly shaped and sometimes lopsided, the apple is usually round to conical in shape and flattened at the base with distinct ribbing. Weather conditions during ripening cause a marbling or water coring of the flesh, and in very hot weather, the fruit will ripen prematurely.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "The fruit has smooth, pale green skin, changing to yellowish green when ready to pick, and is lumped and sometimes widely ribbed, with no apple russet. The flesh is off-white, sometimes tinged with green, with a sharp taste. It melts in cooking resulting in a good yellowish puree, used as a base in apple jam or for apple sauce; it is not recommended for pies. It ripens in early mid-season (mid-August in the United Kingdom) and keeps fresh for about one week. It is self-sterile and a good pollinator for other apples.\n", "Sliced apples turn brown with exposure to air due to the conversion of natural phenolic substances into melanin upon exposure to oxygen. Different cultivars vary in their propensity to brown after slicing and the genetically engineered Arctic Apples do not brown. Sliced fruit can be treated with acidulated water to prevent this effect. Sliced apple consumption tripled in the US from 2004 to 2014 to 500 million apples annually due to its convenience.\n\nSection::::Human consumption.:Organic production.\n", "Surprise began to circulate in Europe sometime before 1831, when it was reported growing in the London Horticultural Society Gardens. It was first brought to the United States by German immigrants to the Ohio Valley around 1840 and quickly intrigued plant breeders because of its unusually colored flesh. The horticulturist and landscape designer Andrew Jackson Downing and his brother Charles, a noted pomologist in his own right, had a tree of Surprise in their collection in Newburgh, New York. The Downings were not, in the end, very impressed with Surprise. In the 1890 edition of their book \"The Fruit and Fruit Trees of America\", the Downings wrote it off as a \"small, round, whitish yellow apple of little or no value, but admired by some for its singularity, the flesh being stained with red.\"\n", "When the fruit is soft-ripe/fresh-ripe and still has the fresh, fully mature greenish/greenish-yellowish skin color, the texture is like that of a soft-ripe pear and papaya. If the skin is allowed to turn fully brown, yet the flesh has not fermented or gone \"bad\", then the texture can be custard-like. Often, when the skin turns brown at room temperature, the fruit is no longer good for human consumption. Also, the skin turns brown if it has been under normal refrigeration for too long - a day or two maybe.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Nutritional value.\n", "The fruits are typically similar in appearance to its parent 'Worcester Pearmain', being small-medium in size, with small patches of yellow and largely flushed with crimson, sometimes completely covering the fruit, but tend to be slightly flatter. The flesh (and juice) of some fruit may be pinkish. The tree is a mid-season flowering variety; as with the supposed pollinator 'Beauty of Bath', the fruits mature quickly, by August. Unlike many early apples, the fruits remain on the tree long enough to ensure ripening. \n", "\"Mespilus germanica\" fruits are hard and acidic, but become edible after being softened, 'bletted', by frost, or naturally in storage given sufficient time. Once softening begins, the skin rapidly takes on a wrinkled texture and turns dark brown, and the inside reduces to the consistency and flavour reminiscent of apple sauce. This process can confuse those new to medlars, as a softened fruit looks as if it has spoiled.\n", "BULLET::::- Apple scab: Apple scab causes leaves to develop olive-brown spots with a velvety texture that later turn brown and become cork-like in texture. The disease also affects the fruit, which also develops similar brown spots with velvety or cork-like textures. Apple scab is spread through fungus growing in old apple leaves on the ground and spreads during warm spring weather to infect the new year's growth.\n", "Although several different apple varieties have been given this name in the past, the familiar 'Brown Snout' cultivar of apple is said to have been discovered on the farm of a Mr Dent at Yarkhill, Herefordshire, in the middle of the 19th century. It was subsequently widely propagated by the H. P. Bulmer company of Hereford, and was planted in orchards across the west Midlands and, less commonly, in parts of the West Country. The Brown Snout remains a popular cultivar in traditional cider making.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "The fruits of the apple tree are small, usually symmetrical, and usually spheroidal (about in diameter by in height), with a weight of about . The skin is thick and not very waxy, of a yellow-green colour which becomes red-green when the fruit is exposed to sunlight. The flesh is greenish-white, very firm, and sugary. It is also aromatic and slightly acidic.\n", "To prepare the fruit, seeds are removed. To remove the seeds, apples are cored and cherries, plums and apricots are pitted. Grape skins are separated from the pulp. The pulp is cooked until liquid, then strained to remove the seeds. The strained pulp and skins are then combined and cooked further.\n", "BULLET::::- Walnuts have been used to make a brown dye since antiquity. The Roman writer Ovid, in the first century BC described how the Gauls used the juice of the hull or husk inside the shell of the walnut to make a brown dye for wool, or a reddish dye for their hair.\n", "BULLET::::- Proteins can exert an inhibitory effect on PPO activity by Chelating the essential copper at the active site of PPO through competitive inhibition, inhibiting its activity\n\nBULLET::::- During wine synthesis, the use of Ion-exchange filtration is used to remove the brown color sediments in the solution.\n\nBULLET::::- Arctic Apples have been genetically modified to avoid expressing polyphenol oxidase and thus do not brown\n\nSection::::Non-enzymatic browning.\n", "Other likely descendants of Surprise have been found elsewhere, such as varieties known as Aerlie's Red Flesh (also known as Airlie Red Flesh and Hidden Rose) and Bill's Red Flesh (also known as Scarlet Surprise), both found in abandoned orchards in the Willamette Valley, Oregon.\n", "Among the scab-resistant apples that carry the \"VF Gene\" are:\n\nBULLET::::- Pristine apple\n\nBULLET::::- Rajka (apple)\n\nBULLET::::- Topaz (apple)\n\nSection::::Red-fleshed applecrabs.\n", "As late as 1957, a single tree was said to be still standing on the site of the Bailey family orchard (which had since been replaced with a hospital).\n\nSection::::In apple breeding.\n", "Newton Wonder is a good apple for cooking or for making juice. When cooking the apple is reduced to a puree which may be added to pies, tarts or used as a chutney. The apple produces a sharp but slightly sweet taste when cooked and is best used when ripened in the late season. The crop can be stored for at least 3 months safely retaining its flavour.\n", "A baked apple is one that has been baked in an oven until it has become soft. The core is usually removed and often the resulting cavity is stuffed with other fruits, brown sugar, raisins, or cinnamon, sometimes with a liquor such as brandy.\n\nJohn Claudius Loudon wrote in 1842:\n\nSection::::Eating raw.\n", "Present in the chloroplasts and mitochondria of all parts of an apple, PPO is the major enzyme responsible for enzymatic browning of apples. Due to an increase in consumer demand for pre-prepared fruits and vegetables, a solution for enzymatic browning has been a targeted area of research and new product development. As an example, pre-sliced apples are an appealing consumer product, but slicing apples induces PPO activity, leading to browning of the cut surfaces and lowering their esthetic quality. Browning also occurs in apple juices and purees when poorly handled or processed.\n", "Toffee apples are made by coating an apple with a layer of sugar that has been heated to hard crack stage (depending upon the type of sugar). The most common sugar coating is made from sugar (white or brown), corn syrup, water, cinnamon and red food coloring. Humid weather can prevent the sugar from hardening.\n\nSection::::Regional traditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Australia - the Granny Smith variety of apple is considered ideal for creating the children's treat.\n", "Another horticulturist, Niels Ebbesen Hansen, encountered \"M. niedzwetskyana\" in the Ili valley in what is now Kazakhstan during his 1897 expedition to Russia, and began two breeding programs based on this unusual fruit, one aimed at developing a cold-hardy cooking and eating apple, and the other aimed at developing ornamental crabapples. His efforts resulted in the Almata apple and the Hopa crabapple, among other varieties. Some of these apples, as well as \"M. niedzwetskyana\" itself, are being used for small-scale commercial production of rosé apple ciders.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Backcrossing\n\nBULLET::::- Cider apple\n\nBULLET::::- Crimson Gold\n\nBULLET::::- \"Malus niedzwetskyana\"\n", "Surprise (apple)\n\n'Surprise' is a pink-fleshed apple that is the ancestor of many of the present-day pink/red-fleshed apples bred by American growers.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Cooking apple\n\nA cooking apple, or culinary apple is an apple that is used primarily for cooking, as opposed to a dessert apple, which is eaten raw. Cooking apples are generally larger, and can be tarter than dessert varieties. Some varieties have a firm flesh that does not break down much when cooked. Culinary varieties with a high acid content produce froth when cooked, which is desirable for some recipes. Britain grows a large range of apples specifically for cooking. Worldwide, dual-purpose varieties (for both cooking and eating raw) are more widely grown.\n", "The Court Pendu Plat tree is a spur-bearer with attractive flowers. It has a good resistance to general apple diseases, especially to scab and to mildew, as well as a resistance to frost. The apple is harvested late, usually in October.\n\nSection::::Descendants.\n\n'Court Pendu Plat' is a direct progenitor of the 'Suntan' apple and a more distant ancestor for the 'Flamenco' apple. It may also be an ancestor of the very popular English 'Cox's Orange Pippin', since it shares its intense flavor, flattened shape, coloring and shading.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04103	Why do some children very closely resemble their parents while other children do not resemble their parents at all?	Genetics are complicated. When you are older than five, you will learn about some basic genetic trait probabilities in high school biology. One way to think of it is that there is a certain amount of randomness associated with each conception. Source: am a mailman.	[ "Section::::Examples.\n\nThe genotype-environment model states that as siblings and fraternal twins age, their phenotypes grow apart. This is due to their respective mastery of the passive, evocative, and active interactions. When the siblings are infants, the environments their parents provide are similar. But as they age and begin to evoke responses from their environments, the social and physical elements they encounter start to vary.\n", "An article in \"Newsweek\" mentions research that shows that \"Some water fleas sport a spiny helmet that deters predators; others, with identical DNA sequences, have bare heads. What differs between the two is not their genes but their mothers' experiences. If mom had a run-in with predators, her offspring have helmets, an effect one wag called \"bite the mother, fight the daughter.\" If mom lived her life unthreatened, her offspring have no helmets. Same DNA, different traits. Somehow, the experience of the mother, not only her DNA sequences, has been transmitted to her offspring.\"\n", "In identical twins, this process is different. When siblings are the same age and have the same appearance, some people respond to them identically, despite their different personalities. Twins encounter the same social and physical influences from their environments, whether they have been reared separately or together. Often, this causes them to develop similar niches, though it does not guarantee that they will.\n\nSection::::Contemporary applications.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 1869, Francis Galton published the first empirical work in human behavioural genetics, \"Hereditary Genius\". Here, Galton intended to demonstrate that \"a man's natural abilities are derived by inheritance, under exactly the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world.\" Like most seminal work, he overstated his conclusions. His was a family study on the inheritance of giftedness and talent. Galton was aware that resemblance among familial relatives can be a function of both shared inheritance and shared environments. Contemporary human behavioural quantitative genetics studies special populations such as twins and adoptees.\n", "Section::::Influences on identity.:Parenting influences.\n", "Section::::Criticism and comments.\n", "Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of nonshared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment because of different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family.\n\nSection::::Genetics and environment.:Individual genes.\n", "In this example, which presents an indefinitely extended ordered family, resemblance is seen in shared features: each item shares three features with his neighbors e.g. \"Item_2\" is like \"Item_1\" in respects B, C, D, and like \"Item_3\" in respects C, D, E. Obviously what we call 'resemblance' involves different aspects in each particular case. It is also seen to be of a different 'degree' and here it fades with 'distance': \"Item_1\" and \"Item_5\" have nothing in common.\n\nAnother simple model is described as:\n\n\"Item_1\": A B C br\n\n\"Item_2\": B C D br\n\n\"Item_3\": A C D br\n", "One example of the founder effect is found in the Amish migration to Pennsylvania in 1744. Two of the founders of the colony in Pennsylvania carried the recessive allele for Ellis–van Creveld syndrome. Because the Amish tend to be religious isolates, they interbreed, and through generations of this practice the frequency of Ellis–van Creveld syndrome in the Amish people is much higher than the frequency in the general population.\n\nSection::::Modern synthesis.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n", "Section::::Genetic origin of traits in diploid organisms.\n\nThe inheritable unit that may influence a trait is called a gene. A gene is a portion of a chromosome, which is a very long and compacted string of DNA and proteins. An important reference point along a chromosome is the centromere; the distance from a gene to the centromere is referred to as the gene's locus or map location.\n\nThe nucleus of a diploid cell contains two of each chromosome, with homologous (mostly identical) pairs of chromosomes having the same genes at the same loci.\n", "“Environments, particularly in the form of developmental environments, do not just select for variation, they also create new variation by inﬂuencing development through the liable transmission of non-genetic but heritable information.”\n\nSection::::Developmental Niche Construction.\n", "The personal characteristics that encourage environmental responses, such as appearance, personality, and intellect, are not the same between siblings and fraternal twins because of gene variations. Once siblings can actively interact with their environment and select environments they like, differences between their niches become clear. This process is evident in families where one child is outgoing and lively while the other is timid and cautious.\n\nAccording to Frank Sulloway, a social researcher, most characteristic differences between siblings result from personality variation and non-shared environments, both of which are influenced by:\n\nBULLET::::- parental investment\n", "In older adoptees, they may have been a part of multiple family systems with vastly different dynamics and occupying different roles in each of those systems. In the biological family they may have been the oldest and the caregiver child; in the foster family they may have been the youngest and the foster child, in the adoptive family they might be in the middle and are also the adopted child. This constant change may also be compounded if the race or culture of the families they are placed with differ from their own. This upheaval contributes to the child's genealogical bewilderment by not allowing them to establish a concrete self-concept.\n", "Section::::Evidence from comparative physiology and biochemistry.:Genetics.:Other mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Alpha-amylase gene.\n", "BULLET::::4. Epigenetic effects can alter the genetic expressions in twins through varied factors. The expression of the epigenetic effect is typically weakest when the twins are young and increases as the identical twins grow older.\n", "With the effects of genetic similarity removed, children from the same family often appear no more alike than randomly selected strangers; yet identical twins raised apart are nearly as similar in personality as identical twins raised together. What these findings suggest is that shared family environment has virtually no effect on personality development, and that similarity between relatives is almost entirely due to shared genetics. Although the shared environment (including features like the personality, parenting styles, and beliefs of parents; socioeconomic status; neighborhood; nutrition; schools attended; number of books in the home; etc.) may have a lasting impact at the extremes of parenting practice, such as outright abuse, most personality researchers have concluded that the majority of “average expectable environments” do not have an effect on personality development.\n", "In addition to the existence of plasticity in some aspects of development, genetic-environmental correlations may function in several ways to determine the mature characteristics of the individual. Genetic-environmental correlations are circumstances in which genetic factors make certain experiences more likely to occur. For example, in passive genetic-environmental correlation, a child is likely to experience a particular environment because his or her parents' genetic make-up makes them likely to choose or create such an environment. In evocative genetic-environmental correlation, the child's genetically-caused characteristics cause other people to respond in certain ways, providing a different environment than might occur for a genetically-different child; for instance, a child with Down syndrome may be treated more protectively and less challengingly than a non-Down child. Finally, an active genetic-environmental correlation is one in which the child chooses experiences that in turn have their effect; for instance, a muscular, active child may choose after-school sports experiences that create increased athletic skills, but perhaps preclude music lessons. In all of these cases, it becomes difficult to know whether child characteristics were shaped by genetic factors, by experiences, or by a combination of the two.\n", "Section::::Development.:Paternal lineage (2009–2013).\n", "With de novo mutations and division errors, the relationship between the offspring's altered genes and gene inheritance from the parents is technically spurious. These genetic errors can affect the mind as well as the body and can result in schizophrenia, autism, bi-polar disorder, and cognitive disabilities.\n\nSection::::Disputes.:Prenatal conditions.\n", "Genetic factors appear to regulate some social-emotional developments that occur at predictable ages, such as fearfulness, and attachment to familiar people. Experience plays a role in determining which people are familiar, which social rules are obeyed, and how anger is expressed.\n", "Section::::Fraternal birth order effect.\n", "In 1979, Thomas J. Bouchard began to study twins who were separated at birth and reared in different families. He found that an identical twin reared away from his or her co-twin seems to have about an equal chance of being similar to the co-twin in terms of personality, interests, and attitudes as one who has been reared with his or her co-twin. This leads to the conclusion that the similarities between twins are due to genes, not environment, since the differences between twins reared apart must be due totally to the environment. Psychologist now refer to studies such as this as an Adoption Strategy.\n", "Section::::Parenting practices.\n\nIn social stratification (a specific area of study in sociology) different parenting practices lead children to have different upbringings. Differences in child rearing are identified and associated with different social classes. \n" ]	[ "All children should look like their parents." ]	[ "Genetics are more complicated than that and allow for a lot of variation. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All children should look like their parents." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Genetics are more complicated than that and allow for a lot of variation. " ]
2018-02635	What does the CDC mean when it says 'effectively no risk of transmission'?	It means that in couples where one partner is HIV-positive but is getting the medication to suppress the virus, for every 100 years they are together there is an estimate of 0.0 of the partner getting infected. In addition, the error margin is 0.25, so it's 95% certain that no more than 0.25 infections will happen in every 100 years such a couple is together.	[ "Travelers to or residents of areas where \"N. meningitidis\" is highly endemic or epidemic are at risk of exposure should receive primary immunization against meningococcal disease.\n", "The World Health Organisation accordingly issued a global alert. The WHO update on 28 September 2012 said that the virus did not seem to pass easily from person to person. However, on May 12, 2013, a case of contamination from human to human in France was confirmed by the French Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. In addition, cases of person-to-person transmission have been reported by the Ministry of Health in Tunisia. Two confirmed cases seem to have caught the disease from their late father, who became ill after a visit to Qatar and Saudi Arabia.\n", "A more direct assessment of transmission risks can be provided by a contact study, which is often carried out because of an outbreak (such a study was carried out during the SARS outbreak of 2002–3). The first (or primary) case within a defined group (such as a school or family) is identified and people infected by this individual (called secondary cases) are documented. If the number of susceptibles in the group is \"n\" and the number of secondary cases is \"x\", then an estimation of the transmission risk is\n", "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention considers a person with JCV infection laboratory-confirmed if: JCV isolated from or JCV-specific antigen or genomic sequences detected in tissue, blood, cerebrospinal fluid, or other body fluids; 2) equal or more than 4-fold change in JCV-specific neutralizing antibody titers between acute and convalescent samples; or 3) JCV or LACV IgM antibodies in serum with JCV-specific neutralizing antibodies equal or more than 4-fold higher than LACV-specific neutralizing antibody titers in the same specimen or a later specimen.\n\nJCV-antibody testing has only been available at the CDC and the New York State Department of Health.\n", "¹ Patients with the syndromes or conditions listed below may present with atypical signs or symptoms (e.g.neonates and adults with pertussis may not have paroxysmal or severe cough). The clinician's index of suspicion should be guided by the prevalence of specific conditions in the community, as well as clinical judgment.\n\n² The organisms listed under the column \"Potential pathogens\" are not intended to represent the complete, or even most likely, diagnoses, but rather possible etiologic agents that require additional precautions beyond standard precautions until they can be ruled out.\n\nSection::::Recommendations for specific infections.\n", "In an endemic herd, only a minority of the animals develops clinical signs; most animals either eliminate the infection or become asymptomatic carriers. The mortality rate is about 1%, but up to 50% of the animals in the herd can be asymptomatically infected, resulting in losses in production. Once the symptoms appear, paratuberculosis is progressive and affected animals eventually die. The percentage of asymptomatic carriers that develop overt disease is unknown.\n\nSection::::Human risks.\n\nMAP is capable of causing Johne's-like symptoms in humans, though difficulty in testing for MAP infection presents a diagnostic hurdle.\n", "PTV is a member of the phlebotomus fever subgroup of \"Phleboviruses\", and as the name suggests, causes an acute febrile illness. Acute febrile illness in humans is characterized by a rapid onset of fever that is often accompanied by secondary symptoms such as a headache, chills, myalgias and arthralgias. This illness will last for about 2–5 days and is not considered to be highly virulent in humans, however, testing in Syrian hamsters has revealed high virulence for the PTV-A serotype and a low virulence for the PTV-B serotype. Although relatively low numbers of human infection with this virus have been reported, the virus is of public health interest and further research will need to be conducted.\n", "London1 novel CoV/2012\n\nLondon1_novel CoV/2012 is the name of the novel coronavirus isolated from a Qatari man in London in 2012 who was one of the first patients to come down with what has since been named Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. The Qatari patient had traveled to Saudi Arabia from Qatar. He returned to Qatar, but when he fell ill, he traveled to London for treatment. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency (HPA) named the virus.\n\nSection::::Virology.\n", "BULLET::::- If the infection happens at 40 days, death and mummification may occur. Also in this case, some or all the fetuses are involved, i.e. some of the fetuses can be born healthy and immunotolerant, or else carriers of the disease.\n\nBULLET::::- If the viruses crosses the placenta in the last trimester, neonatal death may occur, or the birth of healthy piglets with a protective pre-colostral immunity.\n\nBULLET::::- Postnatal infection (pigs up to 1 year of age): Infection occurs oro-nasally, followed by a viremic period associated with transitory leucopenia.\n", "The Center for Disease Control (CDC) recommends several measures for the prevention of infection with HCoV-NL63 including: washing hands often with soap and water, avoiding close contact with sick individuals, and not touching the eyes, mouth, or nose.\n\nSection::::Treatment and prognosis.\n", "The health worker probably will not suspect a VHF until more severe signs develop and the patient does not respond to recommended treatment for other illnesses. However, health workers should be aware of the possibility of VHF in a non-outbreak situation. As soon as a VHF is suspected, VHF isolation precautions should begin. This will help reduce the number of people exposed to the VHF.\n\nSection::::Isolation.\n\nIsolating the VHF patient will restrict patient access to health facility staff trained to use VHF isolation precautions. Establish a barrier between the VHF patient and uninfected patients, other health facility staff, and visitors.\n", "Though the agent is thought to be restricted to Africa, emergent cases have been reported elsewhere but nearly always in individuals with a travel history to regions where the agent is endemic. One case of African histoplasmosis has been reported in an otherwise individual from India in the absence of a travel history to endemic countries. The afflicted individual resided in Kerala, an area with an abundant bat populations and a climate similar to that of endemic countries. All age groups are susceptible to infection; however individuals in the third or fourth decade of life as well as children under 10 years of age are at greatest risk. Case reports suggest a strong gender bias in infection, favouring males over females by a factor of two.\n", "On 2 May 2014, the United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) confirmed the first diagnosis of MERS-CoV in the United States in Indiana. The man diagnosed was a healthcare worker who had been in Saudi Arabia a week earlier, and was reported to be in good condition. Another case, a Florida man from the Orlando area, has been reported, and a third Illinois man is as yet asymptomatic but has tested positive for a past infection with the healthcare worker from Indiana. The latter case is the first human-to-human transmission in the United States. On 28 May 2014, the CDC announced that the third person who was found positive for the virus was not infected. The announcement came after a further laboratory analysis by CDC indicating that the person was never infected with the virus.\n", "On 7 May 2013, a case was confirmed in Nord departement of France in a man who had previously traveled to Dubai, United Arab Emirates.\n\nOn 12 May 2013, in a case of human to human transmission, a man previously hospitalized in the same room as the first patient was confirmed by French Ministry of Social Affairs and Health.\n\nFrance reported its first death from MERS near the end of May 2013.\n", "Section::::Virology.:Transmission.\n\nOn 13 February 2013, the World Health Organization stated \"the risk of sustained person-to-person transmission appears to be very low.\" The cells MERS-CoV infects in the lungs only account for 20% of respiratory epithelial cells, so a large number of virions are likely needed to be inhaled to cause infection.\n", "When visiting geographical locations where \"Andes orthohantavirus\" has been documented, such as South America, people should avoid areas of high rodent populations where the virus is more likely to be found and transmitted quickly and easily from rodent to the next. Properly disinfecting living spaces and areas where rodents may have been present will kill the virus before it is able to be contracted. To prevent transmission from contact with infected humans, individuals, infected or not, should hand-wash frequently, abstain from kissing or sexual activity with one another, and avoid sharing spaces of close confinement for long periods of time.\n", "Transmission-based precautions remain in effect for limited periods of time (i.e., while the risk for transmission of the infectious agent persists or for the duration of the illness (Appendix A). For most infectious diseases, this duration reflects known patterns of persistence and shedding of infectious agents associated with the natural history of the infectious process and its treatment. For some diseases (e.g., pharyngeal or cutaneous diphtheria, RSV), transmission-based precautions remain in effect until culture or antigen-detection test results document eradication of the pathogen and, for RSV, symptomatic disease is resolved. For other diseases, (e.g., \"M. tuberculosis\") state laws and regulations, and healthcare facility policies, may dictate the duration of precautions 12). In immunocompromised patients, viral shedding can persist for prolonged periods of time (many weeks to months) and transmission to others may occur during that time; therefore, the duration of contact and/or droplet precautions may be prolonged for many weeks. The duration of contact precautions for patients who are colonized or infected with MDROs remains undefined. MRSA is the only MDRO for which effective decolonization regimens are available. However, carriers of MRSA who have negative nasal cultures after a course of systemic or topical therapy may resume shedding MRSA in the weeks that follow therapy. Although early guidelines for VRE suggested discontinuation of contact precautions after three stool cultures obtained at weekly intervals proved negative, subsequent experiences have indicated that such screening may fail to detect colonization that can persist for 1 year. Likewise, available data indicate that colonization with VRE, MRSA, and possibly MDR-GNB, can persist for many months, especially in the presence of severe underlying disease, invasive devices, and recurrent courses of antimicrobial agents. It may be prudent to assume that MDRO carriers are colonized permanently and manage them accordingly. Alternatively, an interval free of hospitalizations, antimicrobial therapy, and invasive devices (e.g., 6 or 12 months) before reculturing patients to document clearance of carriage may be used. Determination of the best strategy awaits the results of additional studies. See the 2006 HICPAC/CDC MDRO guideline for discussion of possible criteria to discontinue contact precautions for patients colonized or infected with MDROs.\n", "On 4 June 2014, a study published in \"The New England Journal of Medicine\" indicated that camel to human transmission of the virus was possible. In November 2013, a man became ill with MERS after tending to a sick camel. DNA samples taken from the man, who eventually died of the virus, and the sick animal were virtually identical providing very strong evidence the man had got the virus from the camel.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.:Africa.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.:Africa.:Tunisia.\n", "Although transmission-based precautions generally apply in all healthcare settings, exceptions exist. For example, in home care, AIIRs are not available. Furthermore, family members already exposed to diseases such as varicella and tuberculosis would not use masks or respiratory protection, but visiting HCWs would need to use such protection. Similarly, management of patients colonized or infected with MDROs may necessitate contact precautions in acute care hospitals and in some LTCFs when there is continued transmission, but the risk of transmission in ambulatory care and home care, has not been defined. Consistent use of standard precautions may suffice in these settings, but more information is needed.\n", "During the 2009 flu pandemic, many thousands of cases of ILI were reported in the media as suspected swine flu. Most were false alarms. A differential diagnosis of \"probable\" swine flu requires not only symptoms but also a high likelihood of swine flu due to the person's recent history. During the 2009 flu pandemic in the United States, the CDC advised physicians to \"consider swine influenza infection in the differential diagnosis of patients with acute febrile respiratory illness who have either been in contact with persons with confirmed swine flu, or who were in one of the five U.S. states that have reported swine flu cases or in Mexico during the 7 days preceding their illness onset.\" A diagnosis of \"confirmed\" swine flu required laboratory testing of a respiratory sample (a simple nose and throat swab).\n", "HVTN 505 is being conducted to determine the safety and efficacy of a Vaccine Research Center DNA/rAd5 vaccine regimen in healthy males and male-to-female transgender persons who have sex with men. All participants must be fully circumcised, and must have no evidence of previous infection with Adenovirus 5, which is a common virus that causes colds and respiratory infections. Potential participants were tested for antibodies to Adenovirus 5 as part of the screening process to determine their eligibility.\n", "Following the ongoing eradication effort, only 7 cases of BSE were reported worldwide in 2013: 3 in the United Kingdom; 2 in France; 1 in Ireland; and 1 in Poland. This is the lowest number of cases since at least 1988. In 2015 there were at least 6 reported cases (3 were of the atypical H-type).\n\nSection::::Regional elimination established or underway.:Syphilis.\n", "On 6 July 2015, DOH confirmed the second detected case of MERS-CoV in the country. The patient who had contracted the virus was from the Middle East and was referred to the RITM last 4 July 2015. Another person, who was also showing symptoms, was placed in isolation after he had close contact with the said patient; eight others, who also had contacted with the patient, were identified. DOH is in the process of tracking all the people whom the patient had contacted with.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.:Middle East.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.:Middle East.:Saudi Arabia.\n", "BULLET::::1. Contact (sexual or casual) with someone with a diagnosis of SARS within the last 10 days \"or\"\n\nBULLET::::2. Travel to any of the regions identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as areas with recent local transmission of SARS (affected regions as of 10 May 2003 were parts of China, Hong Kong, Singapore and the town of Geraldton, Ontario, Canada).\n\nFor a case to be considered \"probable,\" a chest X-ray must be positive for atypical pneumonia or respiratory distress syndrome.\n", "On 31 May 2013, the Italian health ministry announced its first case of MERS-CoV in a 45-year-old man who had traveled to Jordan. The patient is being currently treated in a hospital in Tuscany and his condition was reported as not life-threatening.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.:Europe.:Spain.\n\nOn 1 November 2013, a woman who had recently traveled to Saudi Arabia for the Hajj, contracted the disease. She is stated to be in stable condition, and investigators from the World Health Organization are investigating whom she came in contact with.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.:Europe.:United Kingdom.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04664	Are the Federalist Papers considered in constitutional law court cases?	They have, sorta. Even Scalia, who was not Mr warm and fuzzy, said 2nd doesn't guarantee ANY weapon. URL_0	[ "The amount of deference that should be given to \"The Federalist Papers\" in constitutional interpretation has always been somewhat controversial. As early as 1819, Chief Justice John Marshall noted in the famous case \"McCulloch v. Maryland\", that \"the opinions expressed by the authors of that work have been justly supposed to be entitled to great respect in expounding the Constitution. No tribute can be paid to them which exceeds their merit; but in applying their opinions to the cases which may arise in the progress of our government, a right to judge of their correctness must be retained.\" In a letter to Thomas Ritchie in 1821, he stated that \"the legitimate meaning of the Instrument must be derived from the text itself; or if a key is to be sought elsewhere, it must be not in the opinions or intentions of the Body which planned & proposed the Constitution, but in the sense attached to it by the people in their respective State Conventions where it recd. all the authority which it possesses.\"\n", "Section::::Judicial use.\n\nFederal judges, when interpreting the Constitution, frequently use \"The Federalist Papers\" as a contemporary account of the intentions of the framers and ratifiers. They have been applied on issues ranging from the power of the federal government in foreign affairs (in \"Hines v. Davidowitz\") to the validity of ex post facto laws (in the 1798 decision \"Calder v. Bull\", apparently the first decision to mention \"The Federalist\"). , \"The Federalist\" had been quoted 291 times in Supreme Court decisions.\n", "In the table below, a selection of Anti-Federalist papers have been contrasted with their Federalist counterparts.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Until the mid-20th century, there was no united series of anti-Federalist papers. The first major collection was compiled by Morton Borden, a professor at Columbia University, in 1965. He \"collected 85 of the most significant papers and arranged them in an order closely resembling that of the 85 Federalist Papers\". The most frequently cited contemporary collection, The Complete Anti-Federalist, was compiled by Herbert Storing and Murray Dry of the University of Chicago. At seven volumes and including many pamphlets and other materials not previously published in a collection, this work is considered, by many, to be the authoritative compendium on the publications.\n", "\"The Federalist Papers\", as a foundation text of constitutional interpretation, are frequently cited by U.S. jurists, but are not law. Of all the essays, No. 78 is the most cited by the justices of the United States Supreme Court.\n", "BULLET::::4. \"The conformity of the proposed constitution to the true principles of republican government\" – covered in No. 37 through No. 84\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Its analogy to your own state constitution\" – covered in No. 85\n\nBULLET::::6. \"The additional security which its adoption will afford to the preservation of that species of government, to liberty and to prosperity\" – covered in No. 85.\n", "Section::::Complete list.\n\nThe colors used to highlight the rows correspond to the author of the paper.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nThe purposes and authorship of \"The Federalist Papers\" were prominently highlighted in the lyrics of \"Non-Stop\", the finale of Act One in the 2015 Broadway musical \"Hamilton\", written by Lin-Manuel Miranda.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- American philosophy\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Anti-Federalist Papers\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Complete Anti-Federalist\"\n\nBULLET::::- List of pseudonyms used in the American Constitutional debates\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Updated 2nd ed., originally published as\n\nBULLET::::- Wills, Gary. \"Explaining America: The Federalist\". Garden City, NJ: 1981.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::History.:Authorship.\n", "Unlike the \"published\" opinions of the United States Courts of Appeals—which are included in the \"Federal Reporter\" series and have full precedential value, binding the lower courts in the relevant judicial circuit and, to a lesser degree, the issuing Court of Appeals—published district court opinions do not constitute binding precedent. They may, however, be viewed as more persuasive than unpublished opinions.\n\nSection::::Electronic sources.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Selle v. Gibb\", 741 F. 2d 896 (7th Cir. 1984) Substantial similarity is not enough in the absence of proof of access. Evidence of access must extend beyond mere speculation. \"De rigueur\", not a Supreme Court case but only of the Court of Appeals of the Seventh Circuit, and therefore binding precedent only within its jurisdiction (Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin).\n", "The Anti-Federalist Papers is the collective name given to works written by the Founding Fathers who were opposed to or concerned with the merits of the United States Constitution of 1787. Starting on 25 September 1787 (8 days after the final draft of the US Constitution) and running through the early 1790s, these anti-Federalists published a series of essays arguing against a stronger and more energetic union as embodied in the new Constitution. Although less influential than their counterparts, \"The Federalist Papers\", these works nonetheless played an important role in shaping the early American political landscape and in the passage of the US Bill of Rights.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The Anti-Federalist papers were written over a number of years and by a variety of authors who utilized pen names to remain anonymous, and debates over authorship continue to this day. Unlike the authors of \"The Federalist Papers\", a group of three men working closely together, the authors of the anti-Federalist papers were not engaged in an organized project. Thus, in contrast to the pro-Constitution advocates, there was no one book or collection of anti-Federalist Papers at the time. The essays were the product of a vast number of authors, working individually rather than as a group. Although there is no canonical list of anti-federalist authors, major authors include Cato (likely George Clinton), Brutus (likely Melancton Smith or Robert Yates or perhaps John Williams), Centinel (Samuel Bryan), and the Federal Farmer (either Melancton Smith, Richard Henry Lee, or Mercy Otis Warren). Works by Patrick Henry and a variety of others are often included as well.\n", "Section::::History.:Publication.\n", "BULLET::::- \"New York Times Co. v. United States\", The federal government's desire to keep the Pentagon Papers classified is not strong enough to justify violating the First Amendment by imposing prior restraints on the material.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Miller v. California\", To be obscene, a work must fail the Miller test, which determines if it has any \"serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.\"\n", "A document can become entrenched in the Constitution if it is mentioned by a document that is already entrenched. There is no conclusive list of documents, or parts of documents, that are entrenched in this way, so courts may expand or restrict this list in the future.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mathews v. Eldridge\", When procedural due process applies, courts must consider the government's interests, the individual's interests, and the likelihood of making an inaccurate decision using the existing procedures as well as the probable value of additional procedural safeguards.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nixon v. General Services Administration\", Congress has the power to pass a law that directs the seizure and disposition of the papers and tapes of a former president that are within the control of the executive branch.\n", "Both Hopkins's and Gideon's editions incorporated significant edits to the text of the papers themselves, generally with the approval of the authors. In 1863, Henry Dawson published containing the original text of the papers, arguing that they should be preserved as they were written in that particular historical moment, not as edited by the authors years later.\n\nModern scholars generally use the text prepared by Jacob E. Cooke for his 1961 edition of \"The Federalist\"; this edition used the newspaper texts for essay numbers 1–76 and the McLean edition for essay numbers 77–85.\n\nSection::::History.:Disputed essays.\n", "Furtwangler notes that as the series grew, this plan was somewhat changed. The fourth topic expanded into detailed coverage of the individual articles of the Constitution and the institutions it mandated, while the two last topics were merely touched on in the last essay.\n", "\"The Federalist Papers\" (specifically Federalist No. 84) are notable for their opposition to what later became the United States Bill of Rights. The idea of adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution was originally controversial because the Constitution, as written, did not specifically enumerate or protect the rights of the people, rather it listed the powers of the government and left all that remained to the states and the people. Alexander Hamilton, the author of Federalist No. 84, feared that such an enumeration, once written down explicitly, would later be interpreted as a list of the \"only\" rights that people had.\n", "Because the essays were initially published in New York, most of them begin with the same salutation: \"To the People of the State of New York\".\n", "The first publication to divide the papers in such a way was an 1810 edition that used a list left by Hamilton to associate the authors with their numbers; this edition appeared as two volumes of the compiled \"Works of Hamilton\". In 1818, Jacob Gideon published a new edition with a new listing of authors, based on a list provided by Madison. The difference between Hamilton's list and Madison's formed the basis for a dispute over the authorship of a dozen of the essays.\n", "BULLET::::- Alexander Hamilton (51 articles: Nos. 1, 6–9, 11–13, 15–17, 21–36, 59–61, and 65–85)\n\nBULLET::::- James Madison (29 articles: Nos. 10, 14, 18–20, 37–58 and 62–63)\n\nBULLET::::- John Jay (5 articles: Nos. 2–5 and 64).\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Fifteen Curious Facts about The Federalist Papers\" by Dan T. Coenen from University of Georgia School of Law (Publication date: 4-1-2007)\n\nBULLET::::2. Bickel, Alexander M. \"The Least Dangerous Branch.\" Yale University Press; 2 Edition, 1986.\n\nBULLET::::3. Act of Settlement, Part III, para. 8 (G.B. 1701).\n\nBULLET::::4. \"See, Robertson v. Baldwin\", 165 U.S. 275, 297 (1897) (Harlan, J., dissenting).\n\nBULLET::::5. \"See e.g.\", 4 Coke, Inst. of the Laws of England 117 (Baron of the Exchequer).\n\nBULLET::::6. \"See e.g., Harcourt v. Fox\", 1 Show. 426 (K.B. 1692) (re: clerk of the peace).\n", "In short, there were no statements in the Constitutional Convention or the state ratifying conventions asserting that the states would have the power to nullify federal laws. On the other hand, the records of these conventions support the idea that the power to declare federal laws unconstitutional lies in the federal courts.\n\nSection::::The Constitution and the theory of nullification.:\"The Federalist Papers\".\n\n\"The Federalist Papers\" do not assert that the states have the power to nullify federal law. On the contrary, they say that the power to declare laws unconstitutional concerning is delegated to federal courts, not the states.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17282	Why are the segments of a primary telescope mirror hexagonal in shape?	Only 3 regular polygons can be used to tile a surface... Squares, triangles and hexagons. Hexagons probably are just the easiest to manage in terms an manufacturing and fragility.	[ "Section::::Primary Mirror.\n\nBoth SALT and HET have an unusual design for an optical telescope. Similar to the Keck Telescopes, the primary mirror is composed of an array of mirrors designed to act as a single larger mirror; however, the SALT mirrors produce a spherical primary, rather than the paraboloid shape associated with a classical Cassegrain telescope. Each SALT mirror is a 1-meter hexagon, and the array of 91 identical mirrors produces a hexagonal-shaped primary 11 x 9.8 meters in size. \n", "They are available in two types: with 90º angle, just like an ordinary star diagonal and with a 45º angle. Such prisms are often used in spotting scopes for terrestrial viewing, mostly with 45º angle. Such telescopes rarely use magnifications over 60x.\n\nSection::::Alignment.\n", "In 1977, when Nelson worked in the Physics Division of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, he was appointed to a five-person committee to design a 10-meter telescope, twice the diameter of the best telescope of the time. He concluded that only a segmented design would be sensible to overcome structural difficulties. His design had 36 hexagonal mirror segments, each six feet in diameter and just three inches thick. This led to the creation of the revolutionary twin 10-meter Keck telescopes.\n", "This PPN was first noticed in the IRAS survey due to its exceptionally cold IRAS color temperatures. It also has a uniquely sharp maximum at 60-μM.\n\nSection::::Point symmetry.\n\nIt is the first bipolar PPN known to have point reflection symmetry (all others being axially symmetric). Point symmetry is a fairly common trait of planetary nebulae as found in NGC 2022, NGC 2371-2, NGC 6309, Cat's Eye Nebula, NGC 6563, Dumbbell Nebula, Saturn Nebula, A24, and Hb5. postulate that point symmetry is either due to the bipolar outflow being directed by a precessing disc or a precessing common envelope binary.\n\nSection::::Naming.\n", "The secondary is typically suspended by X-shaped struts (sometimes called a \"spider\") in the path of light between the source and the primary, but can be mounted on other types of mounts or optical elements such as optical windows, or schmidt and meniscus corrector plates. Employing secondary mirrors in optical systems causes some image distortion due to the obstruction of the secondary itself, and distortion from the spider mounts, commonly seen as cross-shaped diffraction spikes radiating from bright stars seen in astronomical images.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of telescope parts and construction\n\nBULLET::::- Mirror mount\n\nBULLET::::- Point spread function\n", "where formula_16 is the secondary magnification. Note that formula_12 and formula_13 are less than formula_19 (since formula_20), so both mirrors are hyperbolic. (The primary mirror is typically quite close to being parabolic, however.)\n", "BULLET::::- The hexapod known from flight simulators allows motion with six degrees of freedom. For kinematic determinacy each leg consists of a ball set in a trihedral hole in the fixed frame, a ball joining a flat plate in the fixed frame, and a ball joining a trihedral hole in the mobile frame. The mobile part of the leg is connected with a thread which runs in thread of the fixed part.\n\nBULLET::::- A screw-thread join gets kinematic determinacy the same way as any other rotation bearing.\n", "Such a telescope was designed by Rosin and Wynne after World War II. The performances are equal or better than the Ritchey-Chrétien telescope. The spherical secondary can be fringe tested against a spherical concave surface or tested from behind. This is markedly an advantage over the hyperbolic secondary of the Ritchey-Chrétien design.\n", "Contrary to public awareness, the CZA is not a rare phenomenon, but it tends to be overlooked since it occurs so far overhead. It is worthwhile to look out for it when sun dogs are visible, since the same type of ice crystals that cause them (plate-shaped hexagonal prisms in horizontal orientation) are responsible for the CZA.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "The 3.8-metre concave tertiary mirror, also cast from Zerodur, will be an unusual feature of the telescope. Most current large telescopes, including the VLT and the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, use just two curved mirrors to form an image. In these cases, a small, flat tertiary mirror is sometimes introduced to divert the light to a convenient focus. However, in the ELT the tertiary mirror also has a curved surface, as the use of three mirrors delivers a better final image quality over a larger field of view than would be possible with a two-mirror design.\n", "On the other hand, a well-made conventional 90-degree prism star diagonal can transmit as much or more light as a mirror, and do so with higher image contrast since there is no possibility of light scattering from a reflective metallic surface as in a mirror diagonal. Also a prism will never degrade over time as a mirror will since there is no reflective metal coating to degrade from oxidation. However prism diagonals may introduce chromatic aberration when used with short focal-length scopes although this is not a problem with the popular Schmidt-Cassegrain and Maksutov Cassegrain telescopes, which have long focal lengths.\n", "Since the Newtonian reflector is the most common telescope built by amateur telescope makers, large sections of the literature on the subject are devoted to fabrication of the primary mirror. The mirror has to be carefully ground, polished and figured to an extremely accurate shape, usually a paraboloid. Telescopes with high focal ratios may use spherical mirrors since the difference in the two shapes is insignificant at those ratios. The tools used to achieve this shape are surprisingly simple, consisting of a similarly sized glass tool, a series of finer abrasives, and a polishing pitch lap made from a type of tree sap. Through a whole series of random strokes the mirror naturally tends to become spherical in shape. At that point, a variation in polishing strokes is typically used to create and perfect the desired paraboloidal shape.\n", "Maksutov's design notes from 1941 explored the possibility of a 'folded' Cassegrain-type construction with a secondary silvered \"spot\" on the convex side of the meniscus facing the primary mirror. He thought this would create a sealed and rugged optical system suitable for use in schools. This design appeared commercially in Lawrence Braymer's 1954 Questar telescope and in Perkin–Elmer designer John Gregory's competing patent for a Maksutov–Cassegrain. Commercial use of Gregory's design was explicitly reserved for Perkin–Elmer but was published as an amateur telescope design in a 1957 issue of \"Sky and Telescope\" in a and variation. Most Maksutovs manufactured today are this type of 'Cassegrain' design (called either a \"Gregory–Maksutov\" or \"Spot-Maksutov\") that use all-spherical surfaces and have, as secondary, a small aluminized spot on the inner face of the corrector. This has the advantage of simplifying construction. It also has the advantage of fixing the alignment of the secondary and eliminates the need for a 'spider' that would cause diffraction spikes. The disadvantage is that, if all spherical surfaces are used, such systems have to have focal ratios above to avoid aberrations. Also, a degree of freedom in correcting the optical system by changing the radius of curvature of the secondary is lost, since that radius is the same as that of the rear meniscus face. Gregory himself, in a second, faster () design, resorted to aspherization of the front corrector surface (or the primary mirror) in order to reduce aberrations. This has led to other designs with aspheric or additional elements to further reduce off-axis aberration. This type of Maksutov-Cassegrain's high focal ratio and narrower field of view makes them more suitable for lunar and planetary imaging and any other type of observing where a narrow field high power view is a plus, such as resolving tightly packed globular clusters and double stars.\n", "Section::::Astronomical telescope mounts.:Open fork mount.\n\nThe Open Fork mount has a \"Fork\" attached to a right ascension axis at its base. The telescope is attached to two pivot points at the other end of the fork so it can swing in declination. Most modern mass-produced catadioptric reflecting telescopes (200 mm or larger diameter) tend to be of this type. The mount resembles an Altazimuth mount, but with the azimuth axis tilted and lined up to match earth rotation axis with a piece of hardware usually called a \"wedge\".\n", "The magnetic field in HSX is generated by a set of 48 twisted coils arranged in four field periods. HSX typically operates at a magnetic field of 1 Tesla at the center of the plasma column. A set of auxiliary coils is used to deliberately break the symmetry to mimic conventional stellarator properties for comparison. \n\nHSX vacuum vessel is made of stainless steel, and is helically shaped to follow the magnetic geometry. \n", "In 1840, the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle (1812 - 1910) proposed that lower Lowitz arcs were produced as sun dogs are; that is, by sunlight refracting through hexagonal ice crystals. However, in the case of sun dogs, the columnar crystals are oriented vertically, whereas in the case of Lowitz arcs, Galle proposed, the crystals oscillated about their vertical axes.\n", "Projects for future extremely large telescopes (ELTs) generally depend on the use of a segmented primary mirror. While the basic technologies required for segmented telescopes have been demonstrated for the 10m Keck telescope or GTC telescope, ELTs of diameters form 50 to 100 m represent a qualitative change with respect to wave front control related to segmentation in comparison with the current 10 meters technology.\n", "Section::::Architecture.\n\nA key component to Gothic architecture is a strong design principal involving geometry and harmony. The hexafoil design is implemented in various Gothic buildings constructed in the 12th through 16th century. The traditional design is used in cloisters, triforiums and stained glass windows of famous buildings such as Notre-Dame, Salisbury Cathedral, and Regensburg Cathedral. Stone cut-out hexafoils are displayed in a plate tracery style in the Salisbury Cathedral, creating a pattern along the triforium. \n\nSection::::Religion.\n", "Section::::Modern alidade types.\n\nBULLET::::- The alidade is the part of a theodolite that rotates around the vertical axis, and that bears the horizontal axis around which the telescope (or visor, in early telescope-less instruments) turns up or down.\n\nBULLET::::- In a sextant the alidade is the turnable arm carrying a mirror and an index to a graduated circle in a vertical plane. Today it is more commonly called an \"index arm\".\n", "The choice to use a few elongated reflectors rather than many circular dishes is unusual but not original to CHIME: other examples of semi-cylindrical telescopes are the Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope in Australia and the Northern Cross Radio Telescope in Italy. This design was chosen for CHIME as a cost-effective way of arranging close-packed radio antennas so that the telescope can observe the sky at a wide range of angular scales. Using multiple, parallel semi-cylinders gives comparable resolution along both axes of the telescope.\n", "The Cross-axis or English cross axis mount is like a big \"plus\" sign (+). The \"right ascension\" axis is supported at both ends, and the \"declination\" axis is attached to it at approximately midpoint with the telescope on one end of the declination axis and a counter weight on the other.\n\nSection::::Astronomical telescope mounts.:Equatorial platform.\n", "The centerpiece of the TMT Observatory is to be a Ritchey-Chrétien telescope with a diameter primary mirror. This mirror is to be segmented and consist of 492 smaller (1.4 m), individual hexagonal mirrors. The shape of each segment, as well as its position relative to neighboring segments, will be controlled actively.\n", "Section::::Design.:ELT mirror and sensors contracts.\n\nSection::::Design.:ELT mirror and sensors contracts.:Primary mirror.\n\nThe surface of the 39-metre primary mirror will be composed of 798 hexagonal segments, each measuring approximately 1.4 metres across and with 50 mm thickness. Each working day, two segments will be re-coated and replaced to ensure the mirror is always clean and highly reflective.\n", "The late 1970s saw the publication of Adrien Poncet's \"Poncet Platform\", a very simple design for amateur telescope makers that used a pivot point and an inclined plane that made a very low profile \"table\". This type of mount has been a popular retrofit for altazimuth mounted telescopes, such as the common Dobsonian telescope type, adding equatorial tracking for high magnification work and astrophotography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"n\" = 2, 180°: the \"dyad\"; letters Z, N, S; the outlines, albeit not the colors, of the yin and yang symbol; the Union Flag (as divided along the flag's diagonal and rotated about the flag's center point)\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\" = 3, 120°: \"triad\", triskelion, Borromean rings, Mitsubishi logo; sometimes the term \"trilateral symmetry\" is used;\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\" = 4, 90°: \"tetrad\", swastika\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\" = 6, 60°: \"hexad\", Star of David\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\" = 8, 45°: \"octad\", Octagonal muqarnas, computer-generated (CG), ceiling\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12332	what physically happens in the first few seconds after the detonation of a nuclear bomb? Both in the bomb core and the physics of the blast?	Let's consider a simple example, the explosion of a 20 kt implosion device. In such a device, the actual nuclear explosion is typically over in less than 600 nanoseconds, by which time the energy produced from all the fissions will have caused the core the expand to the point where a chain reaction can no longer be sustained. Everything after this is an effect of dumping 84 terajoules of energy in a spherical volume roughly 10 cm in diameter. At the end of the chain reaction, the temperature of the core will be around 60 million Kelvin. In a vacuum, particles at the core surface would fly off unimpeded. In a bomb however, the expanding core is surrounded by other material: bomb components, the bomb casing, and of course air. Thus, the expanding core creates a shock wave: it is expanding so fast that surrounding materials cannot get out of the way in time and instead pile up in front of it. This results in a thin shell of high density surrounding an inner, roughly spherical volume of very low density. This, however, is not what we see in photos of very early fireballs. At the temperatures found in a nuclear fireball, most (roughly 80 & #37;) of the energy is present as low- to mid-energy X-rays.\[note 1\] Air is largely opaque to X-rays, so most of the energy radiated from the surface of the fireball is absorbed by a thin layer of air around it, heating it up and eventually ionising it. Ionised air is relatively transparent to X-rays (and being very hot, will itself emit X-rays), so the radiation can penetrate and heat up the air beyond it. Consequently, much of the early fireball expansion is due to radiative transport. Since it takes time to heat up air, radiative transport occurs much slower than the speed of light, but it is still very rapid: much faster than the expansion of the bomb core discussed earlier, and also faster than the expansion of the newly heated plasma itself. The temperature within the fireball at this point is more or less uniform as the energy is distributed quite evenly, showing a slow drop until the edge, whereupon it drops very rapidly to near ambient temperatures. As such, this sphere of plasma created by radiative transport is known as the isothermal sphere. As the fireball expands via radiative transport, it cools. Intuitively this happens because the same amount of energy is being distributed over a larger and larger volume, so the temperature has to drop. As it cools, it emits radiation of longer wavelengths, to which air is more transparent. Growth by radiative transport slows as a result, and eventually expansion of hot plasma takes over as the primary mechanism by which the fireball grows. Since the plasma is expanding faster than the speed of sound in air, a shock wave forms. This is known as hydrodynamic separation, and it occurs roughly 100 microseconds after the initial explosion. We now turn our attention back to the expanding bomb core. Up to this point, what we've seen so far is a product of the bomb core radiating energy into the air around it. However, slowing expansion by radiative transport means that the expanding shell of bomb material has now had time to catch up with the surface of the fireball, and it joins with the hydrodynamic shockwave around the time separation occurs. The surface of the isothermal sphere at this point is still incredibly hot, around 300,000 K. However, the expanding shock wave compresses and heats up the air as it passes, reaching temperatures of around 30,000 K. At these temperatures, air is ionised and incandescent, but since it is much cooler than the isothermal sphere, it appears dimmer. Ionised air is also opaque to visible light, so it obscures the much brighter isothermal sphere behind it. As the fireball expands, the shocked, incandescent air cools and becomes dimmer. This produces the first dip in brightness that you were wondering about, and in our example it happens at around 11 milliseconds. Eventually the air becomes cool enough that it is no longer opaque to visible light, and the isothermal sphere once again becomes visible. Since it is still very hot and emitting a lot of light, the fireball brightens significantly, producing the second, much longer pulse of light. The shock wave, of course, continues travelling outwards and destroying things in its wake. Everything from this point can more or less be treated as a very large conventional explosion however, so I won't explain it here as I don't think it's what you're asking about. The specific timings of events described depends on the yield and construction details of the bomb itself, but the essential features remain unchanged. \[note 1\]: This is a consequence of Planck’s law, from which the internal energy of a photon gas can be derived. This is found to be proportional to the fourth power of temperature, which means that the amount of energy present as photons climbs very rapidly as temperature increases. The rest of the energy is distributed among other degrees of freedom (e.g. translational and electronic).	[ "Section::::Direct effects.\n\nSection::::Direct effects.:Blast damage.\n", "Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the blast wave in air:\n\nBULLET::::- Static overpressure, i.e., the sharp increase in pressure exerted by the shock wave. The overpressure at any given point is directly proportional to the density of the air in the wave.\n\nBULLET::::- Dynamic pressures, i.e., drag exerted by the blast winds required to form the blast wave. These winds push, tumble and tear objects.\n", "The immediate energy release per atom is about 180 million electron volts (MeV); i.e., 74 TJ/kg. Only 7% of this is gamma radiation and kinetic energy of fission neutrons. The remaining 93% is kinetic energy (or energy of motion) of the charged fission fragments, flying away from each other mutually repelled by the positive charge of their protons (38 for strontium, 54 for xenon). This initial kinetic energy is 67 TJ/kg, imparting an initial speed of about 12,000 kilometers per second. The charged fragments' high electric charge causes many inelastic collisions with nearby atoms, and these fragments remain trapped inside the bomb's uranium pit and tamper until their motion is converted into heat. This takes about a millionth of a second (a microsecond), by which time the core and tamper of the bomb have expanded to plasma several meters in diameter with a temperature of tens of millions of degrees Celsius.\n", "Actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 J/cm, what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.\n", "Rough calculations for the basic ablation effect are relatively simple: the energy from the primary is distributed evenly onto all of the surfaces within the outer radiation case, with the components coming to a thermal equilibrium, and the effects of that thermal energy are then analyzed. The energy is mostly deposited within about one X-ray optical thickness of the tamper/pusher outer surface, and the temperature of that layer can then be calculated. The velocity at which the surface then expands outwards is calculated and, from a basic Newtonian momentum balance, the velocity at which the rest of the tamper implodes inwards.\n", "In the case of Little Boy, the 20% U-238 in the uranium had 70 spontaneous fissions per second. With the fissionable material in a supercritical state, each gave a large probability of detonation: each fission creates on average 2.52 neutrons, which each have a probability of more than 1:2.52 of creating another fission. During the 1.35 ms of supercriticality prior to full assembly, there was a 10% probability of a fission, with somewhat less probability of pre-detonation.\n", "Most bombs do not apparently have tertiary \"stages\"—that is, third compression stage(s), which are additional fusion stages compressed by a previous fusion stage. (The fissioning of the last blanket of uranium, which provides about half the yield in large bombs, does not count as a \"stage\" in this terminology.)\n", "Apart from the intrinsic \"prompt effects\" of nuclear detonations, that of thermal flash, blast and initial radiation releases, if any part of the fireball of the nuclear detonation contacts the ground, in what is known as a surface burst, another, comparatively slowly increasing, radiation hazard will also begin to form in the immediate area.\n", "The following list of prompt critical power excursions is adapted from a report submitted in 2000 by a team of American and Russian nuclear scientists who studied criticality accidents, published by the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, the location of many of the excursions. A typical power excursion is about 1 x 10 fissions.\n\nBULLET::::- Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 21 August 1945\n\nBULLET::::- Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, December 1949, 3 or 4 x 10 fissions\n\nBULLET::::- Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 1 February 1951\n\nBULLET::::- Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 18 April 1952\n\nBULLET::::- Argonne National Laboratory, 2 June 1952\n", "Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy electrons through Compton scattering. For high altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the Earth's magnetic field at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers where they interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a coherent nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.\n", "Primary fragments result from the shattering of a container (e.g., shell casings, kettles, hoppers, and other containers used in the manufacture of explosives and rocket engine housings) in direct contact with the explosive. These fragments usually are small, initially travel at thousands of feet per second, and may be lethal at long distances from an explosion.\n\nSecondary fragments are debris from structures and other items in close proximity to the explosion. These fragments, which are somewhat larger in size than primary fragments and initially travel at hundreds of feet per second, do not normally travel as far as primary fragments.\n", "The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with distance from the explosion. Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron-gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above 50 kt (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.\n", "For subsurface bursts, there is an additional phenomenon present called \"base surge\". The base surge is a cloud that rolls outward from the bottom of the subsiding column, which is caused by an excessive density of dust or water droplets in the air. For underwater bursts, the visible surge is, in effect, a cloud of liquid (usually water) droplets with the property of flowing almost as if it were a homogeneous fluid. After the water evaporates, an invisible base surge of small radioactive particles may persist.\n", "The book contains a brief non-fiction afterword by U.S. Navy Captain William Sanders, regarding EMPs, which includes references to the reports of the United States EMP Commission and the book \"The Effects of Nuclear Weapons\" by Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, published by the United States Department of Defense, which is a technical description based on early nuclear tests.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "The sequence of firing the weapon (with the foam) would be as follows:\n\nBULLET::::1. The high explosives surrounding the core of the primary fire, compressing the fissile material into a supercritical state and beginning the fission chain reaction.\n\nBULLET::::2. The fissioning primary emits thermal X-rays, which \"reflect\" along the inside of the casing, irradiating the polystyrene foam.\n\nBULLET::::3. The irradiated foam becomes a hot plasma, pushing against the tamper of the secondary, compressing it tightly, and beginning the fission chain reaction in the spark plug.\n", "The energy of the nuclear explosion is released in one microsecond. In the following few microseconds, the test hardware and surrounding rock are vaporised, with temperatures of several million degrees and pressures of several million atmospheres. Within milliseconds, a bubble of high-pressure gas and steam is formed. The heat and expanding shock wave cause the surrounding rock to vaporise, or be melted further away, creating a \"melt cavity\". The shock-induced motion and high internal pressure cause this cavity to expand outwards, which continues over several tenths of a second until the pressure has fallen sufficiently, to a level roughly comparable with the weight of the rock above, and can no longer grow. Although not observed in every explosion, four distinct zones (including the melt cavity) have been described in the surrounding rock. The \"crushed zone\", about two times the radius of the cavity, consists of rock that has lost all of its former integrity. The \"cracked zone\", about three times the cavity radius, consists of rock with radial and concentric fissures. Finally, the \"zone of irreversible strain\" consists of rock deformed by the pressure. The following layer undergoes only an elastic deformation; the strain and subsequent release then forms a seismic wave. A few seconds later the molten rock starts collecting on the bottom of the cavity and the cavity content begins cooling. The rebound after the shock wave causes compressive forces to build up around the cavity, called a stress containment cage, sealing the cracks.\n", "BULLET::::2. Energy released in the primary stage is transferred to the secondary (or fusion) stage. The exact mechanism whereby this happens is highly classified. This energy compresses the fusion fuel and sparkplug; the compressed sparkplug becomes critical and undergoes a fission chain reaction, further heating the compressed fusion fuel to a high enough temperature to induce fusion, and also supplying neutrons that react with lithium to create tritium for fusion.\n", "For detonations within the atmosphere, the situation is more complex. Within the range of gamma ray deposition, simple laws no longer hold as the air is [[Ionization\|ionised]] and there are other EMP effects, such as a radial electric field due to the separation of [[Compton scattering\|Compton electron]]s from air molecules, together with other complex phenomena. For a surface burst, absorption of gamma rays by air would limit the range of gamma ray deposition to approximately , while for a burst in the lower-density air at high altitudes, the range of deposition would be far greater.\n\nSection::::Generation.:Weapon yield.\n", "where formula_6 is the altitude of the burst in feet. So the same burst at will be at a pressure of about 0.1 atmospheres, resulting in a fireball on the order of in diameter, about twice the size of one near the ground. For a high altitude burst, say , the fireball will expand to about in diameter.\n\nSection::::Bomb effects.:Outside the atmosphere.\n", "The W80 is physically quite small: the physics package itself is about the size of a conventional Mk.81 bomb, in diameter and long, and only slightly heavier at about .\n\nArmorers have the ability to select the yield of the resulting explosion in-flight, a capability referred to as variable yield, colloquially referred to as \"dial-a-yield\". The minimum yield, perhaps using just the boosted fission primary, is around 5 kilotons of TNT; the highest yield is equivalent to around .\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early development.\n", "BULLET::::- IMP = Impact burst on contact. ( In the event an IMP setting fails, detonation is 1/2 second after impact. )\n\nBULLET::::- DLY = Delay after impact of 0.05 seconds in the fuze explosive train before the shell detonates.\n\nIn all four settings, the high explosive in the mortar shell is detonated by a cascading explosive train of four increasing energies within the fuze. These are the Microdet electric detonator, the explosive lead, the explosive booster, and the delay primer assembly functioning as follows:\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Under such extreme implosion forces materials tend to behave like fluids, so this mock implosion is called a hydrodynamic test, or hydrotest. Standard practice is to take a single stop-action snapshot of the weapon mockup's interior as the molten components rush inward at thousands of meters per second. \n", "Separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage. The fissioning primary produces four types of energy: 1) expanding hot gases from high explosive charges that implode the primary; 2) superheated plasma that was originally the bomb's fissile material and its tamper; 3) the electromagnetic radiation; and 4) the neutrons from the primary's nuclear detonation. The interstage is responsible for accurately modulating the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary. It must direct the hot gases, plasma, electromagnetic radiation and neutrons toward the right place at the right time. Less than optimal interstage designs have resulted in the secondary failing to work entirely on multiple shots, known as a \"fissile fizzle\". The Castle Koon shot of Operation Castle is a good example; a small flaw allowed the neutron flux from the primary to prematurely begin heating the secondary, weakening the compression enough to prevent any fusion.\n", "BULLET::::3. The fusion fuel of the secondary stage may be surrounded by uranium or enriched uranium, or plutonium. Fast neutrons generated by fusion can induce fission even in materials normally not prone to it, such as depleted uranium whose U-238 is not fissile and cannot sustain a chain reaction, but which is fissionable when bombarded by the high-energy neutrons released by fusion in the secondary stage. This process provides considerable energy yield (as much as half of the total yield in large devices). Although it is sometimes considered to be a separate stage, it should not be confused with a true tertiary stage. Tertiary stages are further fusion stages (see below), which have been put in only a handful of bombs, none of them in large-scale production.\n", "The primary is thought to be a standard implosion method fission bomb, though likely with a core boosted by small amounts of fusion fuel (usually 50/50% deuterium/tritium gas) for extra efficiency; the fusion fuel releases excess neutrons when heated and compressed, inducing additional fission. When fired, the plutonium-239 (Pu-239) or uranium-235 (U-235) core would be compressed to a smaller sphere by special layers of conventional high explosives arranged around it in an explosive lens pattern, initiating the nuclear chain reaction that powers the conventional \"atomic bomb\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18279	Why is there a need for a stenographer in court? Cant they just audiorecord the whole process? Plus stenographer is prone to error.	Whatcha gonna do with that audio? You need written recordings of what went down in court. Even if you had the audio, someone still has to sit down and type that out. Plus, a stenographer can sit by and see if something happens.	[ "Section::::Types.\n\nTranscripts may be produced digitally. Transcripts produced by a digital reporter are often less accurate than those produced by a court stenographer. Only a court stenographer has the ability to control the record and get clarification in real time. \n\nA transcript is also any written record of a speech, debate or discussion.\n\nRush transcripts are transcript requests that can be processed and mailed, or picked up, within short time of the request (usually 24 hours or less), provided there are no extenuating circumstances (such as unpaid bills). These expedited transcripts normally cost much more than regular transcripts.\n", "Section::::Check against delivery.\n\nSometimes, the first page of a transcript will have the words \"\"Check Against Delivery\"\" stamped across it, which means that the transcript is not the legal representation of the speech, but rather only the audio delivery is regarded as the official record. This is better explained in the French version of the message – \"Seul le texte prononcé fait foi\", literally \"Only the spoken text is faithful\".\n", "Also in the area just in front of the judge's bench is a stenographer who records proceedings on a stenograph, by typing keys as the witnesses speak, using special shorthand. Alternatively, if there is no stenographer, a tapelogger or shorthand writer will be there to operate the tapes and ensure that a log of the proceedings is kept.\n", "Steno contests are held annually at the NCRA Annual Convention and Exhibition in two categories: Speed and Realtime.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Speed Contest\n\nMark Tod Kislingbury of Houston, Texas, won the 2010 speed contest with an accuracy of 99.228% topping a field of 36 competitors. Deanna Boenau of Sarasota, Florida, won the 2010 realtime contest with an accuracy of 98.667% topping a field of 40 competitors.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Speed Contest\n", "In his first annual report as Chief Justice, Carmody criticised the quality of transcripts which the Government had outsourced to the private sector, noting that the quality was poor and judges often had to rely on audio recordings.\n\nSection::::Chief Justice.:Valedictory remarks of Justice Wilson.\n", "The method of court reporting known as voice writing, formerly called \"stenomask,\" was developed by Horace Webb in the World War II era. Prior to inventing voice writing, Webb was a Gregg shorthand writer. Gregg shorthand is a multi-level process in which the reporter records the proceedings using shorthand, then dictates from his notes into a tape recorder. The dictation process alone requires two hours for every one hour of testimony. After the testimony is transferred to audio tape, a transcriptionist types out an official documentation of the proceedings. Mr. Webb wanted to create a reporting method that allowed court reporters to dictate directly during proceedings, eliminating the shorthand process altogether.\n", "One difference between voice writing court reporters and stenographic court reporters is the method of making the record. The goal of a stenographer is to stenograph verbatim what attorneys, witnesses, and others are saying in a proceeding. The goal of a voice writer is to dictate verbatim what attorneys, witnesses, and others are saying in a proceeding. Though the methods of taking down the record are different, the role and duty requirements of the court reporter are the same. These skills of court reporters are primarily measured through certification exams.\n", "Real-time stenographers are the most highly skilled in their profession. Stenography is a system of rendering words phonetically, and English, with its multitude of homophones (e.g., there, their, they’re), is particularly unsuited to easy transcriptions. Stenographers working in courts and inquiries usually have 24 hours in which to deliver their transcripts. Consequently, they may enter the same phonetic stenographic codes for a variety of homophones, and fix up the spelling later. Real-time stenographers must deliver their transcriptions accurately and immediately. They must therefore develop techniques for keying homophones differently, and be unswayed by the pressures of delivering accurate product on immediate demand.\n", "There is no court reporter in Scotland; normal summary cases are simply minuted by the clerk indicating the disposal. If the case is a solemn (more serious) case involving a jury or if the case has a sexual element then proceedings will be tape recorded which is done under the supervision of the clerk.\n", "Real-time transcription\n\nReal-time transcription is the general term for transcription by court reporters using real-time text technologies to deliver computer text screens within a few seconds of the words being spoken. Specialist software allows participants in court hearings or depositions to make notes in the text and highlight portions for future reference.\n\nTypically, real-time writers can produce text using machines at the rate of at least 200 words per minute. Stenographers can typically type up to 300 words per minute for short periods of time, but most cannot sustain such a speed.\n", "Voice writers have long been available to make the record through the use of a stenomask with a voice silencer and analog tapes. Voice writers not only repeat every word stated by the attorneys, witnesses, judges and other parties to a proceeding but also verbally identify the speaker. They even punctuate the text, describe activities as they take place, and, in some cases, mark exhibits.\n\nNow, however, new technologies are available to them. Digital recording offers a clearer, better-defined soundtrack, making transcription easier and even more accurate.\n", "BULLET::::- Nat Fraser. The expert lipreader's transcript of a surveilled prison conversation between Nat Fraser and his friend, Glenn Lucas, was used by the prosecution to help secure a conviction for Fraser's murder of his wife, Arlene Fraser (Murder of Arlene Fraser). That verdict was overturned in part on the basis of unreliability of that lipreader's evidence. Following successful appeal against his original conviction, on re-trial in 2012 Fraser was again convicted of his wife's murder (\"Fraser v HM Advocate\").\n", "A newer phenomenon is electronic filing, in which lawyers simply upload Portable Document Format electronic documents to a secure Web site maintained either by the court (for example, the U.S. has CM/ECF) or by a private commercial service like LexisNexis. This is convenient in that many courts can now accept filings at all hours, rather than only during regular business hours. Where e-filing is in effect, the filer is normally required to lodge a \"courtesy copy\" (that is, a conventional paper copy) at the chambers of the assigned judge by the next business day. The courtesy copy of the filing is merely used to decide the motion at issue and is discarded when no longer needed, since the electronic file is now the court's master copy of the case file.\n", "Commercially, the most successful system to emerge in the early experimental period of electronic officiating was the \"Cyclops\". Cyclops was a device used only for service line calls but functioned reliably and was used around the world for many years until superseded by video and television technology. The Cyclops system consisted of a series of infrared laser light beams projected, at a centimeter above the ground, to a receiver device across the court and then to a computer. The series of beams were aligned to accurately determine if the ball was inside the service area. This determination was only valid with respect to the main service line and not the side or center service lines. The Cyclops system was used only on show courts and covered only the main service lines.\n", "Prior to taking a deposition, the court reporter administers the same oath or affirmation that the deponent would take if the testimony were being given in court in front of a judge and jury. Thereafter, the court reporter makes a verbatim digital or stenographic record of all that is said during the deposition, in the same manner that witness testimony is recorded in court. Some jurisdictions allow stenomask technology in lieu of traditional stenographic equipment, although many jurisdictions still prohibit stenomask because of its disconcerting effect on some lawyers and witnesses.\n", "BULLET::::- Put the entire docket online in 2005, allowing anyone at any time to check the status of a case, learn about new filings, and locate counsel information.\n\nBULLET::::- Began, in 2006, the closed-captioning of all oral arguments to facilitate access by deaf and hard-of-hearing citizens and to enable public access to unofficial transcripts of all proceedings in a searchable database. Ohio is one of only two state courts in the country with this service.\n", "Another disputed utterance was between a police officer and a suspect. One of the topics of conversation was a third man known as 'Ernie'. The poor signal of the recording made 'Ernie' sound like 'Ronnie'. The surveillance tape presented acoustic problems: an intrusive electronic-sounding cackle, the sound of the car engine, the playing of the car radio, the movement of the target vehicle, and the intrusive noise coincided with the first syllable of the disputed name.\n", "In the past, letters rogatory could not usually be transmitted directly between the applicable courts, and they had to be transmitted via consular or diplomatic channels, which could make the whole process very slow. There have been various international conventions in regard to service of process and taking of evidence.\n", "A court order may be required for telephone voice recording in some areas. Ordinary voice recording in some areas, such as California, requires consent of all parties before the recording can be used in a courtroom or during arbitration. Most meeting minutes are documented in writing by all parties, and the minutes are signed and dated at the end of the meeting.\n", "Electronic evidence has also entered the courtroom as critical forensic evidence. Audio and video evidence must be authenticated by both parties in any litigation by a forensic expert who is also an expert witness who assists the court in understanding details about that electronic evidence.\n\nVoice-mail recordings and closed-circuit television systems produce electronic evidence often used in litigation, more so today than in the past. Video recordings of bank robberies and audio recordings of life threats are presented in court rooms by electronic expert witnesses.\n\nSection::::Role of expert witnesses.:Rules of Evidence and Code of Procedure.\n", "Section::::The law.\n\nIn the UK, a landmark case and appeal (\"R. v Luttrell\" et al., 2004) established the admissibility of lipreading evidence. However, the appeal court also required that the judge should issue a special warning as to its risks and limitations.\n", "Section::::Modern hardware.\n", "Tamhane found the incidents that occur in a lower court to be \"bizarre\" and saw the potential for drama and humour. Another incident which prompted Tamhane to make the film was when a friend had gone to a police station for document submission and had to wait two hours for a printout because the constable did not know how to connect the cable of the printer.\n", "After the deposition, the transcript is then published in the form of a hardcopy booklet, which is provided to the deponent as well as to any party to the suit who wishes to purchase a copy. The booklet will have the case caption (the name of the court, case number, and names of the parties) on the front. Inside, the pages have line numbers along the left margin, so that the parties can precisely cite testimony by page and line in later court documents. Timestamps are inserted into the margin if a video recording is being made; in the event the witness is unavailable for trial, the parties or the court will use the timestamps to identify admissible segments which a video editor will stitch together to present to the jury. Finally, a concordance is automatically generated by the stenographic system's software and included in the back of the booklet.\n", "The process of videokymography offers a particular advantage over methods like videostroboscopy. The process of videostroboscopy has been reported as successful in accuracy, revision, and treatment of diagnoses while its limitations have also been mentioned to involve its reliability on synchronization and inability to produce concrete vibratory cycles. Therefore, examinations of irregular vibratory patterns that may be caused by a vocal disorder are not feasible by videostroboscopy. In this area of examination, videokymography offers an advantage due to its ability to produce vibratory cycles through the use of its high-speed imaging. This makes it an ideal complementary method to videostroboscopy for a patient interested in vocal fold examination or diagnoses.\n" ]	[ "There isn't a need for a stenographer in court because it can be audio recorded.", "Courts don't actually need stenographers, and it would be more beneficial to use an audio recording." ]	[ "Even with audio someone still has to sit down and type it out.", "Written responses are required in court, the audio recording would be useless." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There isn't a need for a stenographer in court because it can be audio recorded.", "Courts don't actually need stenographers, and it would be more beneficial to use an audio recording." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Even with audio someone still has to sit down and type it out.", "Written responses are required in court, the audio recording would be useless." ]
2018-00652	what is the advantage of the multi-rotor design used for drones over that of the conventional helicopter rotor setup?	With two of four rotors spinning opposite directions, it eliminates the need for variable pitch blades and a rotor positioned vertically in order to counter the effects of rotation. That’s where a tail rotor on a helicopter comes in, as it keeps the body of the helicopter from rotating in the *opposite direction as the main rotor by “pushing” against that force. Quad rotors have equal rotors spinning opposite directions, cancelling out rotation.	[ "In the last few decades, small-scale unmanned aerial vehicles have been used for many applications. The need for aircraft with greater maneuverability and hovering ability has led to a rise in quadcopter research. The four-rotor design allows quadcopters to be relatively simple in design yet highly reliable and maneuverable. Research is continuing to increase the abilities of quadcopters by making advances in multi-craft communication, environment exploration, and maneuverability. If these developing qualities can be combined, quadcopters would be capable of advanced autonomous missions that are currently not possible with other vehicles.\n\nSome current programs include:\n", "BULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for take-off and landing: 4\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for aerial operation: 5\n\nBULLET::::- Operating temperature (°C): - 20 to 50\n\nBULLET::::- Deployment time (min): 5 – 10\n\nBULLET::::- Operators: 3 – 4\n\nSection::::Coaxial unmanned helicopter.\n", "M4 quadcopter is a multirotor developed by TTA, and the landing gear of this MAV is a pair of skids. Specification:\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling: 4 km\n\nBULLET::::- Rate of climb: 8 m/s\n\nBULLET::::- Cruise speed: 36 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed: 50 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance: 40 min\n\nBULLET::::- Range: 12 km\n\nBULLET::::- Control radius: 6 km\n\nBULLET::::- Payload: 2 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Max take-off weight: 6.5 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale (speed) allowed for operation: 6 (13.8 m/s)\n\nBULLET::::- Operating temperature: -10 to 50 °C\n\nSection::::M6.\n\nM6 hexacopter is a multirotor developed by TTA, and the landing gear of this MAV is a pair of skids. M6 hexacopter is constructed of carbon fiber. Specification:\n", "BULLET::::- Width: 0.8 m\n\nBULLET::::- Height: 1.3 m\n\nBULLET::::- Empty weight: 50 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Max take-off weight: 90 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Payload + fuel: 40 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel: 10 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Main rotor diameter: 2.6 m\n\nBULLET::::- Power plant: two 15 hp gasoline engines\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed: 100 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Cruise speed: 60–70 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling: 2.5 km\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance: 2 hr with 15 L fuel, 2.6 hr with 20 L fuel, and 3.3 hr with 25 L fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Range @ 60 km/hr: 90 km with 15 L fuel, 150 km with 20 L fuel, and 190 km with 25 L fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Rate of climb: 3 m/s\n", "BULLET::::- Length: 1.65 m\n\nBULLET::::- Height: 0.67 m\n\nBULLET::::- Rotor diameter: 1.8 m\n\nBULLET::::- Empty weight: 3–4 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Rate of climb: 2 m/s\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed: 70 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance: 30 min with 1 kg payload\n\nBULLET::::- Payload: 1–4 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling: 5 km\n\nSection::::EH-3.\n\nEH-3 UAV is an electrically powered unmanned helicopter in conventional helicopter layout, and the landing gear system consists of a pair of skids. EH-3 is a larger cousin of the smaller EH-1 can carry payload twice as much, and it is constructed of carbon fiber.\n\nBULLET::::- Length: 2 m\n\nBULLET::::- Width: 0.2 m\n\nBULLET::::- Main rotor diameter: 1.9 m\n\nBULLET::::- Payload: 8 kg max\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed: 70 km/h\n", "Specification: \n\nBULLET::::- Rotor diameter (m): 2 – 2.5\n\nBULLET::::- Max weight (kg): 50\n\nBULLET::::- Height (m): 1.3\n\nBULLET::::- Length (m): 0.8\n\nBULLET::::- Empty weight (kg): 32 – 34\n\nBULLET::::- Max fuel (kg): 6\n\nBULLET::::- Max payload (kg): 10\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (hr): 1\n\nBULLET::::- Range (km): 90\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed (km/hr): 90@ 10 kg payload, 123 without payload\n\nBULLET::::- Cruise speed (km/hr): 60 – 70\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling (km): 2.5 – 3\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature (°C): -45 to 50\n\nBULLET::::- Power plant: Two 4.7 or 6.5 kW two-stroke gasoline motorcycle engine\n", "BULLET::::- Distance between skids (m): 0.8\n\nBULLET::::- Length (m): 1.7\n\nBULLET::::- Height (m): 1.4\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed (km/hr): 100\n\nBULLET::::- Cruise speed (km/hr): 60 – 70\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (hr): 1 with 15 kg payload, 2 hr with 10 kg payload\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling (km): 2.5\n\nBULLET::::- Range (km): 90 – 120\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind speed allowed for take-off and landing (km/hr): 70\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind speed allowed for flight (km/hr): 36\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature allowed for operation (°C): - 40 to 50\n\nBULLET::::- Propulsion: 10 kW two-stroke gasoline motorcycle engine\n\nSection::::M-18 Gull I.\n", "BULLET::::- Payload (kg): 1.3 (12” rotor version) or 1.7 (15” rotor version)\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (h): 0.25 – 0.5\n\nBULLET::::- Range (km): 10\n\nBULLET::::- Control radius (km): 3 – 10\n\nBULLET::::- Speed (m/s): 10\n\nBULLET::::- Altitude (m): 400\n\nSection::::Magic Talon ZC001.\n\nMagic Talon ZC001 is another member of multirotors developed by FYAT. The most obvious external difference between Magic Talon ZC001 and the other two member of Magic Talon multirotors is that Magic Talon ZC001 lacks the pair of skid as its landing gear.\n\nSection::::Micro Quadcopter.\n", "BULLET::::- Main rotor diameter (m): 1.72\n\nBULLET::::- Length (m): 1.65\n\nBULLET::::- Height (m): 0.6\n\nBULLET::::- Deployment time (min): 5 – 10\n\nBULLET::::- Operators: 3 – 4\n\nSection::::Police unmanned helicopter.\n", "BULLET::::- Ryan YQM-98\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Model 147 Lightning Bug, reconnaissance (1962)\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Q-2\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan KDA\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan YQM-98A Compass Cope R, reconnaissance (1974)\n\nBULLET::::- SA-400 JACKAL\n\nBULLET::::- S-TEC Sentry, reconnaissance (1986)\n\nBULLET::::- SICdrone SD5, unmanned hexacopter, tiltrotor option (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- SICdrone SD10, unmanned hexacopter, tiltrotor option (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- SICdrone SD25, unmanned hexacopter, tiltrotor option (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Sikorsky Cypher, research, (1992)\n\nBULLET::::- Simmonds Aerocessories OQ-11\n\nBULLET::::- Sea Robin XFC\n\nBULLET::::- Sky Sentinel\n\nBULLET::::- Sonex Aircraft Teros\n\nBULLET::::- Swift Engineering, Swift020/021()（2016）\n\nBULLET::::- Systems Integration Evaluation Remote Research Aircraft (SIERRA), research (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Taylorcraft LBT\n\nBULLET::::- TechJect Dragonfly UAV\n", "Micro Quadcopter is a quadrotor developed by FYAT, and the landing gear consists of a pair of skids. Micro Quadcopter is designed to have a relatively longer endurance in comparison to other multirotors of the same class, up to half an hour. The electrically powered quadcopter has some unusual design features in that instead of the usual two-blade rotors adopted by most quadcopters in the world, Micro Quadcopter incorporates four three-blade rotors instead. Another unique feature of Micro Quadcopter is that each rotor is also attached to each other in addition to being attached to the center: each rotor is attached to the rotor next to it by an arm, forming a shape of square enclosing an X, instead of the usual X-shape of most quadcopter. This design was first tested on the FYAT Experimental Quadcopter mentioned above, which proved to be successful and subsequently adopted by Micro Quadcopter.\n", "M-22 is an unmanned coxial helicopter developed by BUAA that externally resemebles a miniature version of the much larger Kamov Ka-137. M-22 utilizes modular design concept so that many of its subsystems are interchangeable, such as different sizes of rotors can be used for the two pairs of rotors. When longer endurance is required, some of payload modules can be removed to make room for more fuel module, while greater payload is needed, fuel tank modules can be removed to make room for larger payload section. The flight control system is a strap down system developed by NUAA, which is shared by earlier M-18.\n", "Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the quadcopter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.\n", "BULLET::::- Empty weight: 18 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Speed: 150 km/hr\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance: 3 – 6 hr\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling: 5 km\n\nBULLET::::- Remote control radius: 90 km\n\nBULLET::::- Power plant: 80 – 150 cc selectable\n\nSection::::Type II.\n", "BULLET::::- Rotor diameter (m): 2\n\nBULLET::::- Length (m): 1.7\n\nBULLET::::- Max take-off weight (kg): 12\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed (m/s): 35\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling (m): 800\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (h): 1\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: catapult\n\nBULLET::::- Recovery: taxiing\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for operation: 4\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature range (°C): -40 to +50\n\nBULLET::::- Propulsion: CYS-40F\n\nSection::::I-50.\n", "Octodecacopter is another UAV under development jointly by GZTZ and SCAU, and it is also primarily intended for agricultural applications such as crop dusting. The octodecacopter has a total of six arms, and landing gear consists of a pair of skids and six legs, each attached from one of the six arms to support the arm. Each of the six Y-shaped arm each with three rotors attached, two of which are at the top tips of the Y shaped arms, and the third rotor is installed in the middle of the leg of the Y shaped arm.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Nostromo Yagua\n\nBULLET::::- Quimar MQ-1 \"Chimango\"\n\nBULLET::::- Quimar MQ-2 \"Bigua\"\n\nSection::::Armenia.\n\nBULLET::::- Krunk UAV\n\nBULLET::::- X-55 (UAV)\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nBULLET::::- AAI Corporation Aerosonde - weather data\n\nBULLET::::- AAI Corporation Aerosonde Mk.1\n\nBULLET::::- AAI Corporation Aerosonde Mk.2\n\nBULLET::::- AAI Corporation Aerosonde Mk.3\n\nBULLET::::- AAI Corporation Aerosonde Mk.4\n\nBULLET::::- Aerosonde Aeroguard\n\nBULLET::::- ADRO Pelican Observer\n\nBULLET::::- AVT Hammerhead Advanced VTOL Aerospace\n\nBULLET::::- BAE Brumby\n\nBULLET::::- BAE Kingfisher\n\nBULLET::::- Coptercam\n\nBULLET::::- Cyber Technology CyberQuad\n\nBULLET::::- Cyber Technology CyberEye\n\nBULLET::::- Cyber Technology CyBird\n\nBULLET::::- Cyber Technology CyberWraith\n\nBULLET::::- Codarra Avatar\n\nBULLET::::- CSIRO Mantis\n\nBULLET::::- GAF Jindivik\n\nBULLET::::- GAF Turana\n\nBULLET::::- Entecho Demipod\n", "Section::::Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Platforms.\n\nSection::::Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Platforms.:Vero.\n\nThe Vero is a multicopter platform designed to carry light—approximately —payloads. Vero has three configurations: quad, hex, and oct. It is primarily used by civilian organizations and features lightweight carbon composite structures for increased speed.\n\nSection::::Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Platforms.:Vero.:Vero Agriculture - V6A.\n\nThe Vero V6A is an agriculture drone designed to be used for pesticide application. It can carry approximately of pesticides.\n\nSection::::Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Platforms.:Vero.:Vero Agriculture - V8A.\n\nThe Vero V8A is a multicopter drone designed to be used for pesticide application. It can carry approximately of pesticides.\n", "Section::::Reduced hazards of flight.\n\nThe U.S. Department of Transportation has published a “Basic Helicopter Handbook”. One of the chapters in it is titled, “Some Hazards of Helicopter Flight'. Ten hazards have been listed to indicate what a typical single rotor helicopter has to deal with. The unique coaxial rotor design either reduces or completely eliminates these hazards. The following list indicates which:\n\nBULLET::::- Settling with power — Reduced\n\nBULLET::::- Retreating blade stall — Reduced\n\nBULLET::::- Medium frequency vibrations — Reduced\n\nBULLET::::- High frequency vibrations — None\n\nBULLET::::- Anti torque system failure in forward flight — Eliminated\n\nBULLET::::- Anti torque system failure while hovering — Eliminated\n", "Each individual drone is not controlled in itself but instead it shares a collective, distributed \"brain,\" travelling in leaderless \"swarms,\" members of which can adapt to changes in drone numbers and remain co-ordinated with their counterparts. Having multiple micro-drones carrying out surveillance is tactically advantageous to simply having one large drone because it is easier for the micro-drones to dodge air defense systems. The drones have the ability to collectively determine whether they have completed a mission, leading some commentators to argue that Perdix drones are artificially intelligent.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n", "BULLET::::- AscTec Pelican, quadrotor for research and development UAV\n\nBULLET::::- birdpilot X-4 Multicopter, lightweight long endures industrial quadcopter for aerial imaging (UAV)\n\nBULLET::::- birdpilot X-8 Multicopter, compact industrial octocopter for aerial imaging (UAV)\n\nBULLET::::- EADS Barracuda, German-led program together with Spain\n\nBULLET::::- EMT Fancopter, reconnaissance\n\nBULLET::::- EMT X-13 \n\nBULLET::::- Fieseler Fi 157, anti-aircraft target drone (1937)\n\nBULLET::::- Globe UAV7 LTE Hexacopter, compact industrial octocopter for aerial imaging (UAV)\n\nBULLET::::- Globe UAV8 LTE Octocopter, compact industrial octocopter for aerial imaging (UAV)\n\nBULLET::::- EMT Luna, reconnaissance\n\nBULLET::::- EMT Luna NG, reconnaissance\n\nBULLET::::- Hyfish\n\nBULLET::::- MIKADO\n", "BULLET::::- de Bothezat helicopter - an American four-rotor helicopter that first flew on December 18, 1922.\n\nBULLET::::- Cierva Air Horse - a British three-rotor \"heavy lift\" helicopter first flying in 1948. Three rotors were used to give a large lift without compromising rotor strength.\n\nBULLET::::- Volocopter designs - a series of German prototype electric multicopters with 16 rotors, the first electric multicopter in the world to achieve manned flight. The large number of low-cost motors make it economical, quiet and provide redundancy with ability to maintain control with up to four failed motors.\n", "BULLET::::- Composite Engineering BQM-167 Streaker, in development (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Composite Engineering MQM-107 Streaker\n\nBULLET::::- Cornelius XBG-3\n\nBULLET::::- Culver PQ-8\n\nBULLET::::- Culver PQ-10\n\nBULLET::::- Culver PQ-14 Cadet\n\nBULLET::::- Culver XPQ-15\n\nBULLET::::- Culver Q-8\n\nBULLET::::- Culver TDC\n\nBULLET::::- Culver TD2C\n\nBULLET::::- Culver TD3C\n\nBULLET::::- Culver Model V, TD4C\n\nBULLET::::- Curtiss KD2C Skeet\n\nBULLET::::- Cyber Defence CyberScout\n\nBULLET::::- DARPA-USN Tactically Exploited Reconnaissance Node ISR UAV\n\nBULLET::::- DARPA Vulture, under development\n\nBULLET::::- Dragonfly DP-4 (1995)\n\nBULLET::::- Dragonfly DP-4X (2003)\n\nBULLET::::- Dragonfly DP-5X (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- Dragonfly DP-6 (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- Dragonfly DP-12 (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Dragonfly DP-14 (2013)\n\nBULLET::::- DRS RQ-15 Neptune, naval reconnaissance (2002)\n", "Two finalists, Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin were selected in the summer of 2003 to come up with a detailed design; ironically, neither company had ever built a full-production rotorcraft. The Northrop Grumman design used the twin-two-blade-rotor \"eggbeater\" scheme usually associated with Kaman helicopters – in fact Kaman has teamed with Northop Grumman on the project – while the Lockheed Martin design used a four-blade rotor with a \"no-tail-rotor (NOTAR)\" jet exhaust in the tail to cancel torque.\n", "BULLET::::- Top I Vision Aerostat\n\nBULLET::::- Silver Arrow Micro-V\n\nBULLET::::- Silver Arrow Sniper\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Skylark - Canister Launched mini-UAV system\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Scout\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Searcher\n\nBULLET::::- IAI General\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Harpy\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Harop\n\nBULLET::::- IAI I-View\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Panther\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Ranger (with Switzerland)\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Heron\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Eitan\n\nBULLET::::- AAI RQ-2 Pioneer (with the USA)\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Hunter (with the USA)\n\nBULLET::::- AAI RQ-7 Shadow\n\nBULLET::::- IAI Bird-Eye\n\nBULLET::::- Elbit Skylark\n\nBULLET::::- Elbit Hermes 90\n\nBULLET::::- Elbit Hermes 180\n\nBULLET::::- Elbit Hermes 450\n\nBULLET::::- Elbit Hermes 900\n\nBULLET::::- Elbit Hermes 1500\n\nBULLET::::- MicroFalcon\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-24142	Why is morning sun less harsh (for plants at least) than afternoon sun?	Im assuming that when the rays enter the atmosphere early in the morning, they enter at an angle where they scatter in the atmosphere. Although, around 12 o’clock the suns rays hit straight at the earths surface, if that makes sense to you.	[ "In humans, body temperature is typically highest during the mid to late afternoon. However, human athletes being tested for physical vigor on exercise machines showed no statistically significant difference after lunch. Owners of factory farms are advised to use buildings with an east–west (as opposed to north–south) orientation to house their livestock, because an east–west orientation generally means thicker walls on the east and west to accommodate the sun's acute angle and intense glare during late afternoon. When these animals are too hot, they are more likely to become belligerent and unproductive.\n\nSection::::Effects on living organisms.:Alertness.\n", "In diurnal animals, it is typical for blood levels of the hormone cortisol—which is used to increase blood sugar and aid metabolism and is also produced in response to stress—to be most stable in the afternoon after decreasing throughout the morning. However, cortisol levels are also the most reactive to environmental changes unrelated to sleep and daylight during the afternoon. As a result, this time of day is considered optimal for researchers studying stress and hormone levels. Plants generally have their highest photosynthetic levels of the day at noon and in the early afternoon, owing to the sun's high angle in the sky. The large proliferation of maize crops across Earth has caused tiny, harmless fluctuations in the normal pattern of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, since these crops photosynthesize large amounts of carbon dioxide during these times and this process sharply drops down during the late afternoon and evening.\n", "Two forms of ADS regulation include environmental induction and biochemical regulatory switches. Under normal conditions, ADS is expressed at low levels in \"Artemisia annua\"; however, when exposed to cold, heat shock, or UV light, the ADS becomes upregulated. Corresponding with this in nature, cold-acclimated \"Artemisia annua\" express higher levels of ADS than plants under normal conditions.\n", "Leaf temperature and air temperature can be very differential and is regarded as the underlying cause of plant dwarfism in alpine regions. Plant leaf temperatures will generally be warmer than air temperatures by day but cooler at night. The greatest differential occurs during spring when solar radiation is high but air temperature is low. Such differentials place the plant under considerable water stress.\n", "Weather events influence biological processes on short time scales. For instance, as the Sun rises above the horizon in the morning, light levels become sufficient for the process of photosynthesis to take place in plant leaves. Later on, during the day, air temperature and humidity may induce the partial or total closure of the stomata, a typical response of many plants to limit the loss of water through transpiration. More generally, the daily evolution of meteorological variables controls the circadian rhythm of plants and animals alike.\n", "While sunlight is not always easily controlled by the gardener, it is an important element of garden design. The amount of available light is a critical factor in determining what plants may be grown. Sunlight will, therefore, have a substantial influence on the character of the garden. For example, a rose garden is generally not successful in full shade, while a garden of hostas may not thrive in hot sun. As another example, a vegetable garden may need to be placed in a sunny location, and if that location is not ideal for the overall garden design goals, the designer may need to change other aspects of the garden.\n", "Plants that open their flowers during the daytime are described as diurnal, while those that bloom during nighttime are nocturnal. The timing of flower opening is often related to the time at which preferred pollinators are foraging. For example, sunflowers open during the day to attract bees, whereas the night-blooming cereus opens at night to attract large sphinx moths.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n", "As solar energy strikes the Earth's surface each morning, a shallow layer of air directly above the ground is heated by conduction. Heat exchange between this shallow layer of warm air and the cooler air above is very inefficient. On a warm summer's day, for example, air temperatures may vary by from just above the ground to waist height. Incoming solar radiation exceeds outgoing heat energy for many hours after noon and equilibrium is usually reached from 3–5 p.m. but this may be affected by a variety of different things such as large bodies of water, soil type and cover, wind, cloud cover/water vapor, and moisture on the ground.\n", "Manipulating growing conditions on plants in cultivation showed that longer daylight (16 hours vs 8 hours) led to development of more flower spikes, indicating that flower initiation was related to day length.\n", "Except for some parasitic plants, all plants need sunlight to survive. However, in general, more sunlight does not always make it easier for plants to survive. In direct sunlight, plants face desiccation and exposure to UV rays, and must expend energy producing pigments to block UV light, and waxy coatings to prevent water loss.\n", "Plants can avoid overheating by minimising the amount of sunlight absorbed and by enhancing the cooling effects of wind and transpiration. Plants can reduce light absorption using reflective leaf hairs, scales, and waxes. These features are so common in warm dry regions that these habitats can be seen to form a ‘silvery landscape’ as the light scatters off the canopies. Some species, such as \"Macroptilium purpureum\", can move their leaves throughout the day so that they are always orientated to avoid the sun (\"paraheliotropism\"). Knowledge of these mechanisms has been key to breeding for heat stress tolerance in agricultural plants.\n", "In some cases, the amount of available sunlight can be influenced by the gardener. The location of trees, other shade plants, garden structures, or, when designing an entire property, even buildings, might be selected or changed based on their influence in increasing or reducing the amount of sunlight provided to various areas of the property.\n", "The site location should also be considered for it's soil conditions as well as sun conditions. Solar conditions being of paramount importance, as above ground gardening is always possible. An area with fair amount of morning sunlight and shade in the afternoon is most ideal. While specifics vary from plant to plant, most do well with 6 to 8 full hours of sunlight.\n", "It previously was believed that flowering is triggered by a night-time drop in temperature of around 5 to 6 degrees over two to four consecutive weeks, usually in the fall, and a day-time drop in temperature to below . Using two \"Phalaenopsis\" clones, Matthew G. Blanchard and Erik S. Runkle (2006) established that, other culture conditions being optimal, flower initiation is controlled by daytime temperatures declining below , with a definite inhibition of flowering at temperatures exceeding . The long-held belief that reduced evening temperatures control flower initiation in \"Phalaenopsis\" was shown to be false. Rather, lower daytime temperatures influence flowering, while night time temperatures do not appear to have any effect.\n", "Earlier studies established that domatia-bearing \"H. brunonis\" plants have greater fruit set, hence greater reproductive success, than \"H. brunonis\" plants without domatia. Plant tissues near domatia received 17% and 9% of their nitrogen from the ants (protective and non-protective) and the earthworm respectively. The absorbed nutrients also travelled to distant branches; hence, fruit set was not different between branches with and without domatia. This study demonstrated that non-protective interlopers in the domatia still contribute to the greater wellbeing of the plant by contributing to plant nutrition.\n\nSection::::Types of ant-plant interactions.:Ants as defense.\n", "Many plants exhibit certain phenomena at specific times of the day; for example, certain flowers open only in the mornings. Plants keep track of the time of day with a circadian clock. This internal clock is synchronized with solar time every day using sunlight, temperature, and other cues, similar to the biological clocks present in other organisms. The internal clock coupled with the ability to perceive light also allows plants to measure the time of the day and so determine the season of the year. This is how many plants know when to flower (see photoperiodism). The seeds of many plants sprout only after they are exposed to light. This response is carried out by phytochrome signalling. Plants are also able to sense the quality of light and respond appropriately. For example, in low light conditions, plants produce more photosynthetic pigments. If the light is very bright or if the levels of harmful ultraviolet radiation increase, plants produce more of their protective pigments that act as sunscreens.\n", "Section::::Irradiance on Earth's surface.\n\nAverage annual solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is roughly 1361 W/m. The Sun's rays are attenuated as they pass through the atmosphere, leaving maximum normal surface irradiance at approximately 1000 W /m at sea level on a clear day. When 1361 W/m is arriving above the atmosphere (when the sun is at the zenith in a cloudless sky), direct sun is about 1050 W/m, and global radiation on a horizontal surface at ground level is about 1120 W/m.\n", "Section::::Effects on living organisms.\n\nSection::::Effects on living organisms.:Hormones and body temperature.\n", "As a hymn for the midday office, the focus of the hymn is physically upon the midday sun. Metaphorically and allegorically the hymn goes from the heat of the sun, to the heat of argument, which the hymn asks God's assistance to avoid. In Christian tradition midday was considered the time when Eve was tempted by Satan and committed the first sin, and so this gives added force to the prayer of the hymn, asking God to protect against strife.\n", "Shade responses display varying strength along a continuum. Most plants are neither extreme shade avoiders or tolerators, but possess a combination of the two strategies; this helps adapt them to their environment. However, the ability to perceive and respond to shade plays a very important role in all plants: they are sessile by nature and access to photosynthetically active radiation is essential for plant nutrition and growth.\n", "Optimal temperatures for physiological processes may be lower than for lower elevation plants, and optimal light intensity for photosynthesis may be higher. Laboratory experiments showed the sierra Nevada alpine flora exhibited characteristic physiological responses. Germination best occurred at temperatures from . In the laboratory, there was strong dormancy control by short photoperiod, compared to lower elevation populations which had dormancy induced by either short \"or\" long photoperiods.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary history and affinities.\n", "Much emphasis is placed on photoperiod when discussing plant development. However, it is the number of hours of darkness that affects a plant’s response to day length.\n\nIn general, a “short-day” is one in which the photoperiod is no more than 12 hours. A “long-day” is one in which the photoperiod is no less than 14 hours. Short-day plants are those that flower when the day length is less than a critical duration. Long-day plants are those that only flower when the photoperiod is greater than a critical duration. Day-neutral plants are those that flower regardless of photoperiod.\n", "Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's cosine; see effect of sun angle on climate.\n", "Section::::Geometry of Sun angle.\n\nWhen sunlight shines on the earth at a lower angle (Sun closer to the horizon), the energy of the sunlight is spread over a larger area, and is therefore weaker than if the Sun is higher overhead and the energy is concentrated on a smaller area.\n", "In other cases, the amount of sunlight is not under the gardener's control. Nearby buildings, plants on other properties, or simply the climate of the local area, may limit the available sunlight. Or, substantial changes in the light conditions of the garden may not be within the gardener's means. In this case, it is important to plan a garden that is compatible with the existing light conditions.\n\nSection::::Elements.:Lighting.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01544	How does our body know when to stop reproducing blood after it has been drawn?	There are many receptors and signalling molecules involved in the process. When you lose blood, the amount of oxygen that travels around the body is reduced (as there is a lower amount of red blood cells). Receptors in your kidneys detect this reduction of oxygen levels and release a hormone known as erythropoieten which stimulates the production of red blood cells. As the red blood cells mature, blood oxygen levels increase, resulting in a reduction of erythropoieten produced, in turn reducing the rate at which red blood cells are produced. The pathway is more complicated than that and involved other things such as blood plasma levels and concentrations of salts.	[ "Section::::Physiology.:Regulators.\n\nFive mechanisms keep platelet activation and the coagulation cascade in check. Abnormalities can lead to an increased tendency toward thrombosis:\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Regulators.:Protein C.\n", "C-reactive protein levels in the blood need to be measured every few days in order to have enough time points to show a repeating fluctuation (a wave-like cycle). This is caused by the synchronous division of T cells over time, with T-effector cells boosting immune activity followed by T-regulatory cells suppressing the immune response. \n", "This is so-called \"steady-state system\". An example is a system in which a protein P that is a product of gene G \"positively regulates its own production by binding to a regulatory element of the gene coding for it,\" and the protein gets used or lost at a rate that increases as its concentration increases. This feedback loop creates two possible states \"on\" and \"off\". If an outside factor makes the concentration of P increase to some threshold level, the production of protein P is \"on\", i.e. P will maintain its own concentration at a certain level, until some other stimulus will lower it down below the threshold level, when concentration of P will be insufficient to make gene G express at the rate that would overcome the loss or use of the protein P.\n", "Hemoglobin Constant Spring\n\nHemoglobin Constant Spring is a variant of Hemoglobin in which a mutation in the alpha globin gene produces an alpha globin chain that is abnormally long. It is the most common nondeletional alpha-thalassemia mutation associated with hemoglobin H disease. The quantity of hemoglobin in the cells is low because the messenger RNA is unstable and some is degraded prior to protein synthesis. Another reason is that the Constant Spring alpha chain protein is itself unstable. The result is a thalassemic phenotype.\n\nHemoglobin Constant Spring is renamed after Constant Spring district in Jamaica.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hemoglobin variants\n", "Section::::Other blood conservation techniques.:Autologous blood cell salvage.\n", "BULLET::::- Delayed hemolytic reactions occur more than 24 hours after a transfusion. They usually occur within 28 days of a transfusion. They can be due to either a low level of antibodies present prior to the start of the transfusion, which are not detectable on pre-transfusion testing; or development of a new antibody against an antigen in the transfused blood. Therefore, delayed haemolytic reaction does not manifest until after 24 hours when enough amount of antibodies are available to cause a reaction. The red blood cells are removed by macrophages from the blood circulation into liver and spleen to be destroyed, which leads to extravascular haemolysis. This process usually mediated by anti-Rh and anti-Kidd antibodies. However, this type of transfusion reaction is less severe when compared to acute haemolytic transfusion reaction.\n", "FcRn extends the half-life of IgG and serum albumin by reducing lysosomal degradation in endothelial cells and bone-marrow derived cells. IgG, serum albumin and other serum proteins are continuously internalized through pinocytosis. Generally, serum proteins are transported from the endosomes to the lysosome, where they are degraded. The two most abundant serum proteins, IgG and serum albumin are bound by FcRn at the slightly acidic pH (6.5), and recycled to the cell surface where they are released at the neutral pH (7.0) of blood. In this way IgG and serum albumin avoids lysosomal degradation. This mechanism provides an explanation for the greater serum circulation half-life of IgG and serum albumin.\n", "Elimination of serum from the culture medium for about 24 hours results in the accumulation of cells at the transition between G quiescence and early G1. This arrest is easily reversible through addition of serum or the deprived nutrient. Upon release, progression through the cell cycle is variable, as some cells remain quiescent while others proceed through the cell cycle at variable rates.\n\nSection::::Other Methods of Synchronization.:Contact Inhibition.\n", "There is a distinctly different electrical pattern involving the contractile cells. In this case, there is a rapid depolarization, followed by a plateau phase and then repolarization. This phenomenon accounts for the long refractory periods required for the cardiac muscle cells to pump blood effectively before they are capable of firing for a second time. These cardiac myocytes normally do not initiate their own electrical potential, although they are capable of doing so, but rather wait for an impulse to reach them.\n", "The rate of progression of the cell cycle is further adjusted by additional signals arising from cellular sensors that monitor environmental conditions (for example, nutrient levels and the oxygen level) or the internal cell status (for example, presence of DNA damage).\n\nSection::::Evolutionary conservation of the cell cycle control system.\n", "In 1985, Zetterberg and Larsson discovered that, in all stages of the cell cycle, serum deprivation results in inhibition of protein synthesis. Only in postmitotic cells (i.e. cells in early G) did serum withdrawal force cells into quiescence (G). In fact, Zetterberg found that virtually all of the variability in cell cycle length can be accounted for in the time it takes the cell to move from the restriction point to S phase.\n\nSection::::Extracellular signals.\n", "Following cannulation and connection to the ECMO circuit, the appropriate amount of blood flow through the ECMO circuit is determined using hemodynamic parameters and physical exam. Goals of maintaining end-organ perfusion via ECMO circuit are balanced with sufficient physiologic blood flow through the heart to prevent stasis and subsequent formation of blood clot.\n\nSection::::Maintenance.\n\nOnce the initial respiratory and hemodynamic goals have been achieved, the blood flow is maintained at that rate. Frequent assessment and adjustments are facilitated by continuous venous oximetry, which directly measures the oxyhemoglobin saturation of the blood in the venous limb of the ECMO circuit.\n", "Section::::Etymology and pronunciation.\n\nThe word \"hemostasis\" (, \"sometimes\" ) uses the combining forms \"hemo-\" and \"-stasis\", New Latin from Ancient Greek αἱμο- \"haimo-\" (akin to αἷμα \"haîma\"), \"blood\", and στάσις stásis, \"stasis\", yielding \"motionlessness or stopping of blood\".\n\nSection::::Steps of mechanism.\n", "\"In vitro\" hemolysis during specimen collection can cause inaccurate laboratory test results by contaminating the surrounding plasma with the contents of hemolyzed red blood cells. For example, the concentration of potassium inside red blood cells is much higher than in the plasma and so an elevated potassium level is usually found in biochemistry tests of hemolyzed blood.\n\nAfter the blood collection process, \"in vitro\" hemolysis can still occur in a sample due to external factors, such as prolonged storage, incorrect storage conditions and excessive physical forces by dropping or vigorously mixing the tube.\n", "Eventually, blood clots are reorganised and resorbed by a process termed \"fibrinolysis\". The main enzyme responsible for this process (plasmin) is regulated by various activators and inhibitors.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Role in immune system.\n", "where formula_11 is the rate of flow that is being calculated. The total amount of dye is:\n\nformula_12\n\nand, letting formula_13, the amount of dye is:\n\nformula_14\n\nThus, the cardiac output is given by:\n\nformula_15\n\nwhere the amount of dye injected formula_16 is known, and the integral can be determined using the concentration readings.\n", "Blood plasma volume may be expanded by or drained to extravascular fluid when there are changes in Starling forces across capillary walls. For example, when blood pressure drops in circulatory shock, Starling forces drive fluid into the interstitium, causing third spacing.\n\nStanding still for a prolonged period will cause an increase in transcapillary hydrostatic pressure. As a result, approximately 12% of blood plasma volume will cross into the extravascular compartment. This causes an increase in hematocrit, serum total protein, blood viscosity and, as a result of increased concentration of coagulation factors, it causes orthostatic hypercoagulability.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Serum potassium levels may also be artificially elevated caused by a release from leukemic blasts during in vitro clotting process, therefore serum potassium levels should be monitored by herparinized (the addition of heparin prevents coagulation) plasma samples in order to obtain accurate results of potassium levels.\n\nDisseminated intravascular coagulation may occur in a significant number of patients with presentation of various degrees of thrombin generation, followed by decreased fibrinogen and increased fibrinolysis.\n", "The ventricles must develop a certain tension to pump blood against the resistance of the vascular system. This tension is called afterload. When the resistance is increased particularly due to stenotic valve damage the afterload must necessarily increase. A decrease in normal vascular resistance can also occur. Different cardiac responses operate to restore homeostasis of the pressure and blood flow.\n\nSection::::Cardiac output.:Contractility.\n", "The first stage of the production process for fetal bovine serum is the harvesting of blood from the bovine fetus after the fetus is removed from the slaughtered cow. The blood is collected aseptically into a sterile container or blood bag and then allowed to clot. The normal method of collection is cardiac puncture, wherein a needle is inserted into the heart. This minimizes \"the danger of serum contamination with micro-organisms from the fetus itself, and the environment\". It is then centrifuged to remove the fibrin clot and the remaining blood cells from the clear yellow (straw) colored serum. The serum is frozen prior to further processing that is necessary to make it suitable for cell culture.\n", "Fetal bovine serum is commercially available from many manufacturers, and because cells grown in vitro are highly sensitive, customers usually test specific batches to check for suitability for their specific cell type. When changing from batch to batch it is usual to adapt the cells to the new batch of material, for example, by mixing 50% of the old serum with 50% of the new serum and allowing the cells to acclimatise to the new material.\n", "Many genes play a role in healing. For instance, in wound healing, P21 has been found to allow mammals to heal spontaneously. It even allows some mammals (like mice) to heal wounds without scars. The LIN28 gene also plays a role in wound healing. It is dormant in most mammals. Also, the proteins MG53 and TGF beta 1 play important roles in wound healing.\n\nSection::::Wound healing.\n\nIn response to an incision or wound, a wound healing cascade is unleashed. This cascade takes place in four phases: clot formation, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation.\n\nSection::::Wound healing.:Clotting phase.\n", "A dramatic turn of events happens when Don Rafael del Junco pays an unsuspecting Maria Dolores a visit after he is given an emergency blood transfusion by Alberto. The meeting of these two characters is the paramount event of the entire drama as Maria Dolores reveals to Don Rafael that Doctor Alberto Limonta, the blood donor is in fact the Del Junco heir sent to his death by his own grandfather.\n", "Human red blood cells are produced through a process named erythropoiesis, developing from committed stem cells to mature red blood cells in about 7 days. When matured, in a healthy individual these cells live in blood circulation for about 100 to 120 days (and 80 to 90 days in a full term infant). At the end of their lifespan, they are removed from circulation. In many chronic diseases, the lifespan of the red blood cells is reduced.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Creation.\n", "Consider a gene that is off (X = 0) for a considerable time, then is switched on (X = 1) by a signal, and then, after some time, it is switched off again (X= 0) by another signal and the product reappears but not immediately until a proper delay tx has elapsed. If a signal switches the gene off temporarily, the product is still present because it also requires a time delay t’. This can be represented graphically as shown in figure H. Using the state table the temporal sequence of states of the system can be represented as shown in figure I.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01608	Why can you feel a heartbeat/pulse in places on your body when you hurt them?	I would assume that the injury causes increased blood flow to the area which the nerves pick up on Edit: I googled it and this appears to be correct	[ "Today it is still not understood precisely how these receptors convert touch into the electrical signals that the nerve fibres transmit to the brain. Interesting are the properties of touch, e.g. frequency and force, to which the receptors respond and how their responsiveness changes with prolonged stimulation. The receptors can be functionally distinguished based on these features:\n\nBULLET::::- The nerve fibers with free nerve endings\n\nBULLET::::- The nerve fibers which end on Merkel cells adapt their responses to touch rapidly\n\nBULLET::::- The nerve fibers which end in the lamellated corpuscles and which are considered slowly adapting\n", "Section::::Pressure modality.:Somatosensory information.:Mechanoreceptors.\n\nThere are four types of mechanoreceptors: Meissner corpuscles and merkel cell neurite complexes, located between the epidermis and dermis, and Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endings, located deep within the dermis and subcutaneous tissue. Mechanoreceptors are classified in terms of their adaptation rate and the size of their receptive field. Specific mechanoreceptors and their functions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Thermoreceptors that detect changes in skin temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- Kinesthetic receptors detect our movements and the position of our limbs.\n\nBULLET::::- Nociceptors that have bare nerve endings that detect tissue damage and give the sensation of pain.\n\nSection::::Pressure modality.:Tests.\n", "BULLET::::- Type I: (small) Low threshold, slow adapting in both static and dynamic settings\n\nBULLET::::- Type II: (medium) Low threshold, rapidly adapting in dynamic settings\n\nBULLET::::- Type III: (large) High threshold, slowly adapting in dynamic settings\n\nBULLET::::- Type IV: (very small) High threshold pain receptors that communicate injury\n\nType II and Type III mechanoreceptors in particular are believed to be linked to one's sense of proprioception.\n\nSection::::Lamellar corpuscle.\n\nLamellar corpuscles, or Pacinian corpuscles, are pressure receptors located in the skin and also in various internal organs. Each is connected to a sensory neuron. \n", "In 1955, DC Sinclair and G Weddell developed peripheral pattern theory, based on a 1934 suggestion by John Paul Nafe. They proposed that all skin fiber endings (with the exception of those innervating hair cells) are identical, and that pain is produced by intense stimulation of these fibers. Another 20th-century theory was gate control theory, introduced by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall in the 1965 \"Science\" article \"Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory\". The authors proposed that both thin (pain) and large diameter (touch, pressure, vibration) nerve fibers carry information from the site of injury to two destinations in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, and that the more large fiber activity relative to thin fiber activity at the inhibitory cell, the less pain is felt.\n", "Sensory feelings, especially pain, are stimuli that can elicit a large response and cause neurological changes in the body. Pain also causes a behavioral change in the body, which is proportional to the intensity of the pain. The feeling is recorded by sensory receptors on the skin and travels to the central nervous system, where it is integrated and a decision on how to respond is made; if it is decided that a response must be made, a signal is sent back down to a muscle, which acts appropriately according to the stimulus. The postcentral gyrus is the location of the primary somatosensory area, the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch.\n", "Current of injury\n\nThe current of injury – also known as the \"demarcation current\" or \"hermann's demarcation current\" – is the electric current from the central part of the body to an injured nerve or muscle, or to another injured excitable tissue. The injured tissue has a negative voltage compared to the central part of the body.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "BULLET::::- The myogenic response of blood vessels. In 1902 Bayliss described that many blood vessels respond to an elevation of transmural pressure by constriction, finally reaching a diameter that is smaller than the initial diameter at the lower pressure. This observation, which had not received much attention at the time, was studied by Folkow as part of his thesis work and subsequently for more than a decade. He described this mechanism as an essential element in vascular control. This is now well-established knowledge in cardiovascular physiology.\n", "With the above-mentioned receptor types the skin can sense the modalities touch, pressure, vibration, temperature and pain. The modalities and their receptors are partly overlapping, and are innervated by different kinds of fiber types.\n\nSection::::Morphology.\n\nCutaneous receptors are at the ends of afferent neurons. They are usually encapsulated in elaborate cellular corpuscles. Generally, they are linked to collagen - fibres networks within the capsule. Ion channels are situated near these networks.\n", "Building on earlier studies, further glimpses of developmental bioelectricity occurred with the discovery of wound-related electric currents and fields in the 1860s, when one of the founding fathers of modern electrophysiology – Emil du Bois-Reymond – reported macroscopic level electrical activities in frog, fish and human bodies. He recorded minute electric currents in live tissues and organisms with a then state-of-the-art galvanometer made of insulated copper wire coils. He unveiled the fast-changing electricity associated with muscle contraction and nerve excitation – the action potentials. At the same time, du Bois-Reymond also reported in detail less fluctuating electricity at wounds – injury current and potential – he made to himself.\n", "The body responds to multiple types of trauma including infection, physical injury, or toxic tissue damage through inflammation. When pain sensation increases, the axon reflex stimulates (and is responsible for) to release of many necessary chemicals that promote local tissue inflammation of the traumatized region. Axon reflex regulates vasodilation, or the extra blood flow to target tissues. Axon reflex allows muscles to contract in the shortest amount of time possible by regulating the signal conduction in the neuromuscular junction.\n", "BULLET::::- High voltage (over about 600 volts). In addition to greater current flow, high voltage may cause dielectric breakdown at the skin, thus lowering skin resistance and allowing further increased current flow.\n\nBULLET::::- Medical implants. Artificial cardiac pacemakers or implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) are sensitive to very small currents.\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-existing medical condition.\n\nBULLET::::- Age and sex.\n", "Pain receptors are known as nociceptors. Two main types of nociceptors exist, A-fiber nociceptors and C-fiber nociceptors. A-fiber receptors are myelinated and conduct currents rapidly. They are mainly used to conduct fast and sharp types of pain. Conversely, C-fiber receptors are unmyelinated and slowly transmit. These receptors conduct slow, burning, diffuse pain.\n", "For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.\n", "The sensory motor cortex provides an alternative pathway for sensing interoceptive stimuli. Although not following the conventional pathway for interoceptive awareness, skin afferents which project to the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices provide the brain with information regarding bodily information. This area of the brain is commonly engaged by gastrointestinal distension and nociceptive stimulation, but it likely plays a role in representing other interoceptive sensations as well. In one study, a patient with bilateral insula and ACC damage was given isoproterenol as a method of exciting the cardiovascular system. Despite damage to putative interoceptive areas of the brain, the patient was able to perceive his heartbeat with similar accuracy compared to healthy individuals; however, once lidocaine was applied to the patient's chest over the region of maximum cardiac sensation and the test was run again, the patient did not sense any change in heartbeat whatsoever. This suggested that somatosensory information from afferents innervating the skin outside of the heart may provide information to the brain about the heart's pounding through the somatosensory cortex.\n", "One of the best-understood roles for bioelectric gradients is at the tissue-level endogenous electric fields utilized during wound healing. It is challenging to study wound-associated electric fields, because these fields are weak, less fluctuating, and do not have immediate biological responses when compared to nerve pulses and muscle contraction. The development of the vibrating and glass microelectrodes, demonstrated that wounds indeed produced and, importantly, sustained measurable electric currents and electric fields. These techniques allow further characterization of the wound electric fields/currents at cornea and skin wounds, which show active spatial and temporal features, suggesting active regulation of these electrical phenomena. For example, the wound electric currents are always the strongest at the wound edge, which gradually increased to reach a peak about 1 hour after injury. At wounds in diabetic animals, the wound electric fields are significantly compromised. Understanding the mechanisms of generation and regulation of the wound electric currents/fields is expected to reveal new approaches to manipulate the electrical aspect for better wound healing.\n", "Section::::How ICG Works.\n\nBULLET::::- Four pairs of electrodes are placed at the neck and the diaphragm level, delineating the thorax\n\nBULLET::::- High frequency, low magnitude current is transmitted through the chest in a direction parallel with the spine from the set of outside pairs\n\nBULLET::::- Current seeks path of least resistance: the blood filled aorta (the systolic phase signal) and both vena cava superior and inferior (the diastolic phase signal, mostly related to respiration)\n\nBULLET::::- The inside pairs, placed at the anatomic landmarks delineating thorax, sense the impedance signals and the ECG signal\n", "It has been found by Elmer J. Lund that establishing an artificial electrical field causing a current mimicking the current of injury could facilitate regeneration. This potential for a regeneration therapy was further studied by Robert O. Becker, who described this work in his book \"The Body Electric\". He found that the current of injury runs through the perineurium – through the myelin sheaths of the peripheral nerves.\n", "Under normal conditions, pain conduction begins with some noxious signal followed by an action potential carried by nociceptive (pain sensing) afferent neurons, which elicit excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. That message is then relayed to the cerebral cortex, where we translate those EPSPs into \"pain.\" Since the discovery of astrocytic influence, our understanding of the conduction of pain has been dramatically complicated. Pain processing is no longer seen as a repetitive relay of signals from body to brain, but as a complex system that can be up- and down-regulated by a number of different factors. One factor at the forefront of recent research is in the pain-potentiating synapse located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and the role of astrocytes in encapsulating these synapses. Garrison and co-workers were the first to suggest association when they found a correlation between astrocyte hypertrophy in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and hypersensitivity to pain after peripheral nerve injury, typically considered an indicator of glial activation after injury. Astrocytes detect neuronal activity and can release chemical transmitters, which in turn control synaptic activity. In the past, hyperalgesia was thought to be modulated by the release of substance P and excitatory amino acids (EAA), such as glutamate, from the presynaptic afferent nerve terminals in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Subsequent activation of AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid), NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and kainate subtypes of ionotropic glutamate receptors follows. It is the activation of these receptors that potentiates the pain signal up the spinal cord. This idea, although true, is an oversimplification of pain transduction. A litany of other neurotransmitter and neuromodulators, such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), galanin, and vasopressin are all synthesized and released in response to noxious stimuli. In addition to each of these regulatory factors, several other interactions between pain-transmitting neurons and other neurons in the dorsal horn have added impact on pain pathways.\n", "Section::::Role in neuropathic pain.\n\nActivation of nociceptors is not necessary to cause the sensation of pain. Damage or injury to nerve fibers that normally respond to innocuous stimuli like light touch may lower their activation threshold needed to respond; this change causes the organism to feel intense pain from the lightest of touch. Neuropathic pain syndromes are caused by lesions or diseases of the parts of the nervous system that normally signal pain. There are four main classes: \n\nBULLET::::- peripheral focal and multifocal nerve lesions\n\nBULLET::::- traumatic, ischemic or inflammatory\n\nBULLET::::- peripheral generalized polyneuropathies\n", "Section::::Role in pain responses.\n\nWhen there is a painful stimulus there are two pathways that can be taken. The nociceptive neurons in lamina 1 become compromised or the WDR neurons become compromised. The WDR neurons can respond to electrical, mechanical, and thermal stimulation. The dorsal cord has faulty plasticity, which encourages the development of neuropathic pain after an injury to a nerve. This allows for the over-excitation discussed previously, resulting in chronic pain. The unique pain pathway of the WDR neurons allows information about the stimulus to be used to map out the intensity of the pain through sensory discrimination.\n", "BULLET::::- Stimulation of sensory receptors in the urinary bladder and rectum may result in sensations of fullness.\n\nBULLET::::- Stimulation of stretch sensors that sense dilation of various blood vessels may result in pain, for example headache caused by vasodilation of brain arteries.\n\nBULLET::::- Cardioception refers to the perception of the activity of the heart.\n\nBULLET::::- Opsins and direct DNA damage in melanocytes and keratinocytes can sense ultraviolet radiation, which plays a role in pigmentation and sunburn.\n\nBULLET::::- Baroreceptors relay blood pressure information to the brain and maintain proper homeostatic blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Perception not based on a specific sensory organ.\n", "Baroreceptor action potentials are relayed to the solitary nucleus, which uses frequency as a measure of blood pressure. Increased activation of the solitary nucleus inhibits the vasomotor center and stimulates the vagal nuclei. The end-result of baroreceptor activation is inhibition of the sympathetic nervous system and activation of the parasympathetic nervous system.\n", "Charles Bell referred to the motor functions of nerve fibers exiting the ventral roots of the spinal cord but did not mention the sensory functions of the dorsal roots. That was in part because his studies were dissectionist and not vivisectionist; pain is elicited and detected best in a conscious animal. A dead, or rendered unconscious, animal would not produce the desired effect when posterior horn fibers, responsible for sensation and transfer of noxious signals, are stimulated. \n", "Early in the 20th century, the purpose of the ampullae was not clearly understood, and electrophysiological experiments suggested a sensibility to temperature, mechanical pressure and possibly salinity. It was not until 1960 that the ampullae were clearly identified as specialized receptor organs for sensing electric fields.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20000	Why do most companies not pay employees weekly?	Running a payroll cycle costs money. It counts money and time to go thru the list of employees and make checks, cash, or bank payments. Biweekly makes it cost 1/2 as much as weekly.	[ "In Botswana, salaries are almost entirely paid on a monthly basis with pay dates falling on different dates of the second half of the month. Pay day usually ranges from the 15th of the month to the last day. The date of disbursement of the salary is usually determined by the company and in some cases in conjunction with the recognized Workers Union.\n", "In India, salaries are generally paid on the last working day of the month (Government, Public sector departments, Multi-national organisations as well as majority of other private sector companies). According to the Payment of Wages Act, if a company has less than 1,000 Employees, salary is paid by the Company on 7th of every month. If a company has more than 1,000 Employees, salary is paid by the 10th of every month.\n", "The BHPH Industry originated primarily in the early 1970s during the United States savings and loan crisis. With many similarities to the current financial crisis (2008 – 2010) credit was difficult to obtain, unemployment was rising & the economy was still in a transformation from a production-based economy to a service-based economy.\n", "Workweek policies are not uniform in the U.S. Many compensation arrangements are legal, and three of the most common are \"wage\", \"commission\", and \"salary\" payment schemes. Wage earners are compensated on a per-hour basis, whereas salaried workers are compensated on a per-week or per-job basis, and commission workers get paid according to how much they produce or sell.\n", "Salaries are negotiated by the respective employees. However, NEC obviously affects the relativity and almost acts as a barometer for salaried staff. Salaries and wages in Zimbabwe are normally paid monthly. Most companies' pay around the 20th does allow various statutory payments and processing for the month end. Government employees are also staggered to ease the cash flow though teachers are paid around mid-month being 16th. Agricultural workers are normally paid on the very last day of the month as they are contract employees.\n", "Section::::History.:Commercial Revolution.\n\nEven many of the jobs initially created by the Commercial Revolution in the years from 1520 to 1650 and later during Industrialisation in the 18th and 19th centuries would not have been salaried, but, to the extent they were paid as employees, probably paid an hourly or daily wage or paid per unit produced (also called piece work).\n\nSection::::History.:Share in earnings.\n", "In the United States, the distinction between periodic salaries (which are normally paid regardless of hours worked) and hourly wages (meeting a minimum wage test and providing for overtime) was first codified by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. Five categories were identified as being \"exempt\" from minimum wage and overtime protections, and therefore salariable—executive, administrative, professional, computer, and outside sales employees. Salary is generally set on a yearly basis. (These employees must be paid on a salary basis above a certain level, currently $455 per week, though some professions -- \"Outside Sales Employee\", teachers and practitioners of law or medicine—are exempt from that requirement.)\n", "When cost accounting was developed in the 1890s, labor was the largest fraction of product cost and could be considered a variable cost. Workers often did not know how many hours they would work in a week when they reported on Monday morning because time-keeping systems were rudimentary. Cost accountants, therefore, concentrated on how efficiently managers used labor since it was their most important variable resource. Now however, workers who come to work on Monday morning almost always work 40 hours or more; their cost is fixed rather than variable. However, today, many managers are still evaluated on their labor efficiencies, and many \"downsizing,\" \"rightsizing,\" and other labor reduction campaigns are based on them.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Philippines, a thirteenth salary, known as thirteenth month pay, is mandated by the Labor Code of the Philippines to be given to (permanent) employees, mainly in December. There is also an option to give in two installments, first in May and then November. The rationale is so that the first tranche in May can aid for the upcoming predominant school year of June to March/April. Some institutions practice adding a \"fourteenth\", \"fifteenth\", and successive bonuses for higher pay grades.\n\nBULLET::::- In Singapore, it is called Annual Wage Supplement (AWS) and is not mandated by the law.\n", "Although the Pay-for-Performance System is \"widely used\" for its \"positive effects\" on employee production, findings of negative side effects like \"dysfunctional competition\" have left employers wondering if this plan should be adopted. Their reasoning in keeping this system in place is related to the need for \"fair managerial control\", a battle many managers are striving to win.\n\nSection::::History.:Other Types of Pay Structures.:Broadbanding Structure.\n", "BULLET::::- the personal service company pays Corporation Tax on the dividends paid to the disguised worker operating through his personal service company and is considerably lower than personal Income Tax. Dividends do not attract National Insurance so therefore the worker would pay no National Insurance.\n\nThe \"Friday to Monday\" argument was semi-valid in 1999 when vast numbers of IT contractors fled into contracting as demand increased significantly. To retain the same workers, companies needed to offer them contracts. Although it is worth noting that as contractors they were paid considerably more, and generated more tax than before.\n", "In order to pay the employee, the staffing firm is paid by the worksite company at an agreed upon bill rate, which can be many percentage points higher than the pay rate.\n\nSection::::Legal issues in the United States.\n", "The United States makes a legal distinction between periodic salaries (which are normally paid regardless of hours worked) and hourly wages (meeting minimum wage requirements and providing for overtime). This was first codified by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. At that time, five categories were identified as being \"exempt\" from minimum wage and overtime protections, and therefore salariable. In 1991, some computer workers were added as a sixth category but effective August 23, 2004 the categories were revised and reduced back down to five (executive, administrative, professional, computer, and outside sales employees).\n", "The duty to pay, and the commensurate right to remuneration, arises not from the actual performance of work, but from the tendering of service.\n\nIt has become a widespread practice for employers to make up remuneration \"packages\" for their higher-paid employees in a tax-effective way, by substituting various benefits (like housing and car allowances) for the cash component of the salary.\n\nThe periodicity of payment depends on the parties’ agreement or on custom.\n\nAn employer may not unilaterally deduct any amount from the remuneration to which an employee is entitled.\n", "Unorganized day labor creates real problems for day laborers: 1 in 3 corner day laborers have experienced theft of wages in the past two months; 1 in 5 experienced a serious worksite injury in the past year. Low wages and poor working conditions, employer abuse, and lack of insurance for work related accidents is common.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Additionally, in the U.S., as an \"independent contractor\" one is obligated to report and pay income taxes on all income generated through one's commercial activities, including the performance of \"micro jobs.\" The U.S. Tax Code, enforced by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), requires all self-employed individuals to file quarterly tax returns detailing (among other things) any and all amounts earned from said activity, estimated annual income (from all sources, including that derived from hourly wages), as well as advance payment of income taxes based upon estimated earnings from said activity. These returns are required to be filed quarterly (every three months), and failure to do so may/will result in penalties and interest being assessed on any unpaid amounts due to the IRS. In addition, failure to estimate annual income within a 10% margin may result in additional penalties being assessed, and failure to meet all of the requirements could result in collection action being initiated by the IRS, which could include wage garnishment and seizure of personal assets, including vehicles, real property and bank accounts.\n", "Section::::Career.:The search for cheap labour.\n", "Successful managers and organizations know that in order to maximize profits, it's absolutely imperative to hire and keep the best employees possible. If a business always tries to maximize profit, it will actively try to reduce expenses whenever possible—including employees’ wages. In fact, most companies pay employees as little as they can get away with paying. This however results in employees who will, in turn, provide as little effort as they can get away with. Many companies nevertheless still stick to the archaic, counterproductive goal of trying to minimize compensation. Though it may seem to be cost effective to apply this profit-first mentality of low-as-possible wages, it ultimately cripples employee performance and engagement, and damages the bottom line.\n", "There is a further complexity in as much as the calculation for employees has to be made on each pay period (for non directors of a company) - so a weekly paid employee will face a charge in any week where earnings exceed one fifty-second of the annual limit. It is therefore possible for a charge to Employees NI to arise on someone who earns below the limit on an annual basis but who has occasional payments above the weekly limit.\n", "Although this system was reportedly dropped around 2000, workers are still subject to a regime of privileges and punishments. Weekly pay is said to be only around $50, given out in cash on Fridays. This amount is only nominal, however, as fines for infractions are commonplace; according to Lawrence Wright, the amount actually paid is often as little as $13 or $14 a week.\n", "Wages and salaries in cash consist of such amounts payable at regular intervals, such as weekly, monthly or other intervals, including payments by results and piecework payments; plus allowances, such as those for working overtime; plus amounts paid to employees away from work for short periods (e.g., on holiday, sick leave, etc.); plus ad hoc bonuses and similar payments; plus commissions, gratuities and tips received by employees.\n", "At the macroeconomic level, though, enough capital had been generated in prior years that “employers found no (financial) difficulty in paying their laborers by the month, the week, or the day, instead of requiring them to await the fruition of their labor in the harvested or marketed product.” (Walker)\n\nUnlike the Physiocrats’ tableau, the money to maintain the subsistence of employees during production did not have to come from previous year’s savings. The wages were so low, however, that workers still lived at barely subsistence level.\n\nSection::::\"Principles of Political Economy\".\n", "While many people do hold a full-time occupation, \"day job\" specifically refers to those who hold the position solely to pay living expenses so they can pursue, through low paying entry work, the job they really want (which may also be during the day). The phrase strongly implies that the day job would be quit, if only the real vocation paid a living wage.\n", "Payment for working on a Sunday is twice the normal wage if the employee is not expected in terms of his/her contract to work on Sundays, however if the employee is expected to work on Sundays in terms of his or her contract, the employee shall receive 1.5 times the normal wage.\n\nSection::::Basic employment rights.:Hours.:Public holiday.\n\nA worker is entitled to double pay only if it is stipulated in the employee's contract that he/ she is expected to work on public holidays.\n\nSection::::Basic employment rights.:Hours.:Meal intervals.\n\nAn employee is entitled to one hour off for every 5 hours of work.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20803	the propellers on an airplane (especially the tips of them) travel faster than the speed of sound but how does the sound barrier not break constantly?	Actually, they don't. Supersonic props were tried at the dawn of the jet age and they were stupid loud from the sonic booms.	[ "Section::::Limitations and solutions.\n\nSection::::Limitations and solutions.:Blade design.\n\nTurboprops have an optimum speed below about , because all propellers lose efficiency at high speed, due to an effect known as wave drag that occurs just below supersonic speeds. This powerful form of drag has a sudden onset, and it led to the concept of a sound barrier when first encountered in the 1940s. In the case of a propeller, this effect can happen any time the propeller is spun fast enough that the blade tips approach the speed of sound, even if the aircraft is motionless on the ground.\n", "There are a number of unmanned vehicles that flew at supersonic speeds during this period, but they generally do not meet the definition. In 1933, Soviet designers working on ramjet concepts fired phosphorus-powered engines out of artillery guns to get them to operational speeds. It is possible that this produced supersonic performance as high as Mach 2, but this was not due solely to the engine itself. In contrast, the German V-2 ballistic missile routinely broke the sound barrier in flight, for the first time on 3 October 1942. By September 1944, V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent.\n", "This steep increase in drag gave rise to the popular false notion of an unbreakable sound barrier, because it seemed that no aircraft technology in the foreseeable future would have enough propulsive force or control authority to overcome it. Indeed, one of the popular analytical methods for calculating drag at high speeds, the Prandtl–Glauert rule, predicts an infinite amount of drag at Mach 1.0.\n", "Wave drag is a sudden rise in drag on the aircraft, caused by air building up in front of it. At lower speeds, this air has time to \"get out of the way\", guided by the air in front of it that is in contact with the aircraft. But at the speed of sound, this can no longer happen, and the air which was previously following the streamline around the aircraft now hits it directly. The amount of power needed to overcome this effect is considerable. The critical mach is the speed at which some of the air passing over the aircraft's wing becomes supersonic.\n", "As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the \"sound barrier\" is easily penetrated, with the right conditions. Among these changes were the introduction of thin swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever-increasing performance. By the 1950s, many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck. Modern aircraft can transit the \"barrier\" without control problems.\n", "On August 21, 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) unofficially exceeded Mach 1 in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base, as observed and reported by the flight crew; the crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (co-pilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H. Edwards (flight test engineer). This was the first supersonic flight by a civilian airliner, and the only one other than those by Concorde or the Tu-144.\n\nSection::::History.:The sound barrier understood.\n", "Here it is the case that \"v\" = \"fλ\".\n\nSection::::Experimental methods.:High-precision measurements in air.\n", "Section::::History.:Breaking the sound barrier.\n\nIn 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top-secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M.52 turbojet powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 sec.\n", "Nevertheless, propeller aircraft \"were\" able to approach the critical Mach number in a dive. Unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons. Most infamously, in the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots flew at full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them. In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse. Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as \"control reversal\". This was solved in later models with changes to the wing. Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made \"pulling out\" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a \"dive flap\" that upset the airflow under these circumstances. Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot, Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. 27 sept 1946. A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union.\n", "Early transonic military aircraft, such as the Hawker Hunter and F-86 Sabre, were designed to fly satisfactorily even at speeds greater than their critical Mach number. They did not possess sufficient engine thrust to break the sound barrier in level flight, but could exceed Mach 1.0 in a dive while remaining controllable. Modern jet airliners, such as Airbus and Boeing aircraft, have maximum operating Mach numbers slower than Mach 1.0.\n", "One bit of evidence presented by Mutke is on page 13 of the \"Me 262 A-1 Pilot's Handbook\" issued by Headquarters Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio as Report No. F-SU-1111-ND on January 10, 1946:\n\nThe comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document. However, it is not clear where these terms came from, as it does not appear the US pilots carried out such tests.\n", "In the Earth's atmosphere, the chief factor affecting the speed of sound is the temperature. For a given ideal gas with constant heat capacity and composition, the speed of sound is dependent \"solely\" upon temperature; see Details below. In such an ideal case, the effects of decreased density and decreased pressure of altitude cancel each other out, save for the residual effect of temperature.\n", "After earning her doctorate, Morawetz spent a year as a research associate at MIT before returning to work as a research associate at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at NYU, for five more years. During this time she had no teaching requirements and could focus purely on research. She published work on a variety of topics in applied mathematics including viscosity, compressible fluids and transonic flows. Even if an aircraft remains subsonic, the air flowing around the wing can reach supersonic velocity. The mix of air at supersonic and subsonic velocity creates shock waves that can slow the airplane.\n", "This condition depends not only on the travel speed of the craft, but also on the temperature of the airflow in the vehicle's local environment. It is formally defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the airflow over an air vehicle or airfoil are supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when most of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds some of the airflow is supersonic, but a significant fraction is not.\n", "If the speed of the jet is equal to sonic velocity the nozzle is said to be choked. If the nozzle is \"choked\" the pressure at the nozzle exit plane is greater than atmospheric pressure, and extra terms must be added to the above equation to account for the \"pressure thrust\".\n\nThe rate of flow of fuel entering the engine is very small compared with the rate of flow of air. If the contribution of fuel to the nozzle gross thrust is ignored, the net thrust is:\n\nformula_3\n", "One of the highest recorded instrumented Mach numbers attained for a propeller aircraft is the Mach 0.891 for a Spitfire PR XI, flown during dive tests at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough in April 1944. The Spitfire, a photo-reconnaissance variant, the Mark XI, fitted with an extended 'rake type' multiple pitot system, was flown by Squadron Leader J. R. Tobin to this speed, corresponding to a corrected true airspeed (TAS) of 606 mph. In a subsequent flight, Squadron Leader Anthony Martindale achieved Mach 0.92, but it ended in a forced landing after over- revving damaged the engine.\n", "The tip of the propeller on many early aircraft may reach supersonic speeds, producing a noticeable buzz that differentiates such aircraft. This is undesirable, as the transonic air movement creates disruptive shock waves and turbulence. It is due to these effects that propellers are known to suffer from dramatically decreased performance as they approach the speed of sound. It is easy to demonstrate that the power needed to improve performance is so great that the weight of the required engine grows faster than the power output of the propeller can compensate. This problem was one that led to early research into jet engines, notably by Frank Whittle in England and Hans von Ohain in Germany, who were led to their research specifically in order to avoid these problems in high-speed flight.\n", "These flow regimes are not chosen arbitrarily, but rather arise naturally from the strong mathematical background that underlies compressible flow (see the cited reference textbooks). At very slow flow speeds the speed of sound is so much faster that it is mathematically ignored, and the Mach number is irrelevant. Once the speed of the flow approaches the speed of sound, however, the Mach number becomes all-important, and shock waves begin to appear. Thus the transonic regime is described by a different (and much more difficult) mathematical treatment. In the supersonic regime the flow is dominated by wave motion at oblique angles similar to the Mach angle. Above about Mach 5, these wave angles grow so small that a different mathematical approach is required, defining the Hypersonic speed regime. Finally, at speeds comparable to that of planetary atmospheric entry from orbit, in the range of several km/s, the speed of sound is now comparatively so slow that it is once again mathematically ignored in the Hypervelocity regime.\n", "The performance of a propeller suffers when transonic flow first appears on the tips of the blades. As the relative air speed at any section of a propeller is a vector sum of the aircraft speed and the tangential speed due to rotation, the flow over the blade tip will reach transonic speed well before the aircraft does. When the airflow over the tip of the blade reaches its critical speed, drag and torque resistance increase rapidly and shock waves form creating a sharp increase in noise. Aircraft with conventional propellers, therefore, do not usually fly faster than Mach 0.6. There have been propeller aircraft which attained up to the Mach 0.8 range, but the low propeller efficiency at this speed makes such applications rare.\n", "John Derry, another de Havilland test pilot, has been called \"Britain's first supersonic pilot,\" because of a dive he made on 6 September 1948 in a DH 108.\n", "In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier. These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations. Wagner stated \"I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1.\"\n", "Section::::Classification of Mach regimes.\n\nWhile the terms \"subsonic\" and \"supersonic\", in the purest sense, refer to speeds below and above the local speed of sound respectively, aerodynamicists often use the same terms to talk about particular ranges of Mach values. This occurs because of the presence of a \"transonic regime\" around M = 1 where approximations of the Navier-Stokes equations used for subsonic design no longer apply; the simplest explanation is that the flow around an airframe locally begins to exceed M = 1 even though the freestream Mach number is below this value.\n", "The above derivation includes the first two equations given in the \"Practical formula for dry air\" section above.\n\nSection::::Details.:Effects due to wind shear.\n", "In transonic flight (Mach numbers greater than about 0.8 and less than about 1.4), wave drag is the result of the formation of shockwaves in the fluid, formed when local areas of supersonic (Mach number greater than 1.0) flow are created. In practice, supersonic flow occurs on bodies traveling well below the speed of sound, as the local speed of air increases as it accelerates over the body to speeds above Mach 1.0. However, full supersonic flow over the vehicle will not develop until well past Mach 1.0. Aircraft flying at transonic speed often incur wave drag through the normal course of operation. In transonic flight, wave drag is commonly referred to as transonic compressibility drag. Transonic compressibility drag increases significantly as the speed of flight increases towards Mach 1.0, dominating other forms of drag at those speeds.\n", "Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is \"told\" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is, in fact, an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that \"information\" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid \"knows\" the object is there by seemingly adjusting its movement and is flowing around it. In a supersonic flow, however, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally reaches the object it strikes it and the fluid is forced to change its properties – temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number—in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-flow velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between the supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics regimes.\n" ]	[ "Airplane propellers travel faster than the speed of sound." ]	[ "Actually, propellers do not travel faster than the speed of sound." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Airplane propellers travel faster than the speed of sound." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Actually, propellers do not travel faster than the speed of sound." ]
2018-02840	So many new design of firearms every year. What exactly are the improvements or goals of those new guns?	Weight, viable composite materials, also projectiles are moving forward quite a lot believe it or not.	[ "BULLET::::- Hypersonic materiel development: the Strategic long range cannon (SLRC), for a hypersonic projectile (\"See Identification friend or foe\" (IFF))\n\nBULLET::::- Targeting with thousand-mile missiles, \"streamlining the sensor-shooter link at every echelon\"—Col (Promotable) John Rafferty, in Integrated fire\n\nBULLET::::- NGCV Next generation combat vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- Much small and lighter ground combat vehicles, optionally unmanned (\"See Dedicated short-range communications\" (DSRC)) for robotic vehicles\n", "BULLET::::- Other military equipment: walkie-talkies, GPS navigation devices, sights, ballistic shields, unmanned aerial vehicles, radars for ships, electric generators, motor transport and spare pieces, repair of the transport and so on. Till June 2016 more than 100 vehicles were bought or repaired.\n\nBULLET::::- Introduction of an electronic system of artillery data exchange and management of gunfire, which was designed by other civil volunteers.\n\nBULLET::::- Training of tankmen and introduction of software for calculating the settings of tank shooting, also designed by volunteers.\n", "BULLET::::- To identify and prepare the system competence and technology for development with the aim of confining launcher time-to-market within 5 years, reducing recurring cost and development risk, while keeping long-term industry competitiveness.\n\nBULLET::::- To promote reusability of existing and new technologies to reduce development costs globally.\n\nBULLET::::- To perform system studies to assess evolutions of operational launchers, future launcher architectures, advanced concepts, select technology and elaborate technology requirements.\n\nBULLET::::- To safeguard critical European industrial capabilities for the safe exploitation of the current launchers and guaranteed access to space.\n\nBULLET::::- To develop environmentally friendly technologies.\n\nSection::::Purpose.:Approach.\n", "BULLET::::- M1204 Future Combat Systems Non-Line-of-Sight Mortar\n\nBULLET::::- M1205 Future Combat Systems Recovery and Maintenance Vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- M1206 Future Combat Systems Infantry Carrier Vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- M1207 Future Combat Systems Medical Vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- M1209 Future Combat Systems Command and Control Vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- M1216 Small Unmanned Ground Vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- M1217 Multifunctional Utility/Logistics and Equipment\n\nBULLET::::- M1218 Multifunctional Utility/Logistics and Equipment\n\nBULLET::::- M1219 Armed Robotic Vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- M1278 Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) Heavy Guns Carrier (HGC)\n\nBULLET::::- M1279 Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) Utility (Utl)\n\nBULLET::::- M1280 Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) General Purpose (GP)\n", "According to a DRDO September 18, 2018 newsletter, it states that the MCIWS is now ready for serial production.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "BULLET::::- Produce all new weapons using Insensitive High Explosive (see TATB and Plastic bonded explosive) and replace all existing weapons which use other explosives (3.1.2)\n\nBULLET::::- Produce new weapons with the full spectrum of security and use control safety features available today, some of which are intrinsic to the basic design of a weapon and cannot possibly be retrofitted into the design of an existing weapon (3.1.3)\n\nBULLET::::- Designs which trade off higher weight and larger volume to maximise: (3.1.4)\n\nBULLET::::- Certification without nuclear testing\n\nBULLET::::- Inexpensive manufacture and disassembly\n\nBULLET::::- Ease of maintenance, surveillance, and disposition\n", "Impending timeframe to utilize the latent benefits of the new technology is deemed a trade-off.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n\nIn his book, \"Is War Necessary for Economic Growth?: Military Procurement and Technology Development\", Vernon W. Ruttan, Regents Professor Emeritus in the Department of Applied Economics at the University of Minnesota, examines the impact of military and defense-related procurement on U.S. technology development. Ruttan identifies the development of six general-purpose technologies:\n\nBULLET::::- Interchangeable parts and mass production\n\nBULLET::::- Military and commercial aircraft\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear energy\n\nBULLET::::- Computers and semi-conductors\n\nBULLET::::- The Internet\n\nBULLET::::- The space industries\n", "Speed of delivery and integration with the weapon systems are now needed for CCDC operations. CCDC now includes the Data and Analysis Center (formerly AMSAA), and must now align with the top six priorities of Futures Command: \n\nBULLET::::1. Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF)\n\nBULLET::::2. Next Generation Combat Vehicles (NGCV)\n\nBULLET::::3. Future Vertical Lift (FVL)\n\nBULLET::::4. Army Network\n\nBULLET::::5. Air & Missile Defense\n\nBULLET::::6. Soldier Lethality\n\nBULLET::::- as well as Multi-Domain Operations (MDO).\n\nSection::::Role and organization.\n", "BULLET::::- 25-kilowatt laser systems to destroy missiles during their terminal phase at range of 5 to 7 km. Status: Will take 5 more years.\n\nBULLET::::- At least 100-kilowatt solid-state laser systems, mounted on aircraft and ships, to destroy missiles in their boost phase itself. Status: Will take a decade.\n\nSection::::Projects.:Combat vehicles & engineering.\n\nSection::::Projects.:Combat vehicles & engineering.:Tanks and armoured vehicles.\n", "BULLET::::- 2008–2013: Designed, manufactured, and tested the Medium caliber 45mm RAVEN Demonstrator and firing mount\n\nBULLET::::- 2005–present: 7.62mm EPG (Externally Powered Gun) designed by Gene Stoner in the early 1970s; updated and developed for today's remote weapon stations\n\nBULLET::::- 2007–present: Developing manufacturing technology to rifle barrels with an explosively bonded Tantalum-Tungsten liner\n\nBULLET::::- 2014–present: Design the Intermediate Caliber CT Carbine\n\nBULLET::::- Small, Medium, and Large Caliber Mann Barrels and Launchers\n\nSection::::Services.\n\nBULLET::::- Complete firing test range encompassing over 650 acres\n\nBULLET::::- Interior and exterior ballistic instrumentation\n\nBULLET::::- Indoor and outdoor firing ranges\n\nBULLET::::- Small arms to 155mm artillery weapons\n", "Section::::Design and development.:Conclusion.\n", "Technical goals for improvement over current vehicles are to:\n\nBULLET::::- Reduce vehicle size and weight by 50 percent\n\nBULLET::::- Reduce crewman needs by 50 percent\n\nBULLET::::- Increase vehicle speed by 100 percent\n\nBULLET::::- Accesses 95 percent of terrain\n\nBULLET::::- Reduce signatures that would be detectable by enemies\n\nFour technical areas as examples where advanced technologies could be developed to meet program objectives are:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Weaponology\" is another similar show broadcast on the Military Channel. Its first season focused on the history of weapons like the sniper rifle, submarines or tanks. Its second season dealt with elite units like the Navy SEALs, the SAS.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Deadliest Warrior\" is a similar program in which information on historical or modern warriors and their weapons are used to determine which of them is the \"deadliest\" based upon tests performed during each episode. As of Season 3, Mack is one of the show's hosts.\n", "BULLET::::- M16A1 assault rifle (5.56×45mm NATO)\n\nBULLET::::- M60D general-purpose machine gun (7.62×51mm NATO)\n\nBULLET::::- M203 under-barrel grenade launcher, as the K201, with minor improvements (40×46mm)\n\nSection::::Firearms.:Own designs.\n\nBULLET::::- USAS-12 automatic combat shotgun (12-gauge)\n\nBULLET::::- K1 assault carbine/submachine gun (.223 Remington)\n\nBULLET::::- K2 assault rifle (5.56×45mm NATO)\n\nBULLET::::- K3 light machine gun (5.56×45mm NATO)\n\nBULLET::::- K4 automatic grenade launcher (40×53mm)\n\nBULLET::::- K5 semi-automatic pistol (9×19mm Parabellum)\n\nBULLET::::- K7 suppressed submachine gun (9×19mm Parabellum)\n\nBULLET::::- XK8 prototype bullpup assault rifle (5.56×45mm NATO)\n\nBULLET::::- XK9 prototype submachine gun (9×19mm Parabellum)\n\nBULLET::::- XK10 prototype submachine gun (9×19mm Parabellum)\n", "Full-rate production has been indefinitely deferred as of 2012.\n\nIn late 2013, the U.S. Army began seeking to reintroduce an airdroppable mobile airborne protected firepower platform to provide fire support for air assault forces, a capability that had been absent since the retirement of the M551 Sheridan in 1997. General Dynamics initially considered modifying the wheeled Stryker MGS to meet the requirement, but the company instead developed the tracked Griffin light tank technology demonstrator as its offering for the Mobile Protected Firepower (MPF) platform, which was unveiled in October 2016.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Stryker\n\nBULLET::::- AMX 10 RC\n\nBULLET::::- AMOS\n", "The S&W M&P15 Sport and S&W M&P15 Whisper were released in 2011. The Smith & Wesson M&P10, a version of the AR-10, was introduced in 2013.\n\nSmith & Wesson's M&P15 Sport II was introduced in 2016. It includes additional features of a forward bolt assist and dust cover not found on the original M&P15 model.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "BULLET::::- automatic electrical caging – A-4 sight\n\nBULLET::::- deactivation of attitude indication system during ground maintenance\n\nBULLET::::- installation of fuel system shutoff valve fail light\n\nBULLET::::- installation of relay in gun camera circuitry\n\nBULLET::::- installation of exterior floodlights\n\nBULLET::::- installation of data recording equipment\n\nBULLET::::- installation of cockpit selectable hi-lo drag bomb capability\n\nBULLET::::- installation of anticollision lights\n\nBULLET::::- relocation of variable rocket depression unit\n\nBULLET::::- automatic throttle positioning in case of throttle linkage failure\n\nBULLET::::- modification of fuel control and addition of extended range afterburner\n\nBULLET::::- modification of engine fuel pump transfer valve\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 Launch of CFIP PhoeniX IRFU\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 Launch of Integra-W and Integra-WS\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 Launch of SG Compact\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Launch of Line of Sight Verification Kit\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Development of Ultra-Low Latency solutions with the key product being –CFIP Low Latency Repeater\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Development of Outdoor Branching Unit (OBU)\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Launch of Integra G, Integra GS\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Release of Spectrum Compact E-band\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Launch of environmental IoT monitoring solution Aranet\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Release of Spectrum Compact V-band\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nSection::::Products.:Integra.\n", "Section::::Need for modernization reform.:Progress toward FOC.\n\nThe CG of Army Futures Command (AFC) is set to announce full operational capability (FOC) 31 July 2019. The progress in the top six priorities being: \n\nBULLET::::- Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF) is a systematic program to extend the artillery's range. The current tests show the range has doubled.\n\nBULLET::::- The Long range hypersonic weapon (LRHW) will use precision targeting data against anti-access area denial (A2AD) radars and other critical infrastructure of near-peer competitors by 2023.\n", "BULLET::::- M16A1, a version of the American M16 rifle\n\nBULLET::::- M1903A1, a variant of the American M1903 Springfield rifle\n\nBULLET::::- M4A1, a variant of the M4 Carbine\n\nBULLET::::- M82A1, M82A1A and M82A1M, three variants of the American Barrett M82 rifle\n\nBULLET::::- M96-A1, a variant of the American Robinson Armaments M96 Expeditionary rifle\n\nBULLET::::- PSG1A1, a variant of the German Heckler & Koch PSG1 sniper rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Steyr AUG A1, a variant of the Austrian 5.56 mm assault rifle\n\nSection::::Robots.\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung SGR-A1, a South Korean military robot sentry\n\nSection::::Shotguns.\n", "BULLET::::- Meteor – replacing AMRAAM as long-range AAM\n\nBULLET::::- ASRAAM and IRIS-T – replacing AIM-9 Sidewinder as short-range AAM\n\nBULLET::::- Land vehicles:\n\nBULLET::::- ASCOD IFV equipping the Austrian, Spanish and British armies, Puma IFV equipping the Germany army\n\nBULLET::::- Patria AMV and GTK Boxer APCs equipping various European armies\n\nBULLET::::- ATF Dingo, Fennek, Iveco LMV tactical vehicles used by various countries\n\nBULLET::::- PzH 2000 – replacing M109 Paladin\n\nBULLET::::- Naval vessels:\n\nBULLET::::- F-100 Class Frigates replacing US designed Knox frigates in Spain, Oliver Hazard Perry frigates in Australia and Dealey class frigates in Norway.\n", "In January 2013, the Army released a Request for Information (RFI) to assess available handgun technologies and U.S. small arms industrial production capacity for the Modular Handgun System. The announcement seeks information “on potential improvements in handgun performance in the areas of accuracy and dispersion out to 50 meters, terminal performance, modularity, reliability, and durability in all environments.” The handgun should have a 90 percent or more chance of hitting in a 4-inch circle out to 50 meters consistently throughout the weapon's lifetime. Ergonomic design should minimize recoil energies and control shot dispersion. Features include, but are not limited to, compatibility with accessory items to include tactical lights, lasers, and sound suppressors. Full ambidextrous controls are required and there was interest in ergonomic designs that could be controlled by female shooters.\n", "BULLET::::- automatic electrical caging - A-4 sight\n\nBULLET::::- deactivation of attitude indication system during ground maintenance\n\nBULLET::::- installation of fuel system shutoff valve fail light\n\nBULLET::::- installation of relay in gun camera circuitry\n\nBULLET::::- installation of exterior floodlights\n\nBULLET::::- installation of data recording equipment\n\nBULLET::::- installation of cockpit selectable hi-lo drag bomb capability\n\nBULLET::::- installation of anticollision lights\n\nBULLET::::- relocation of variable rocket depression unit\n\nBULLET::::- automatic throttle positioning in case of throttle linkage failure\n\nBULLET::::- modification of fuel control and addition of extended range afterburner\n\nBULLET::::- modification of engine fuel pump transfer valve\n", "BULLET::::- Arado Ar 198\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 199\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 231\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 232\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 233 was a twin-engine, high-wing, ten-passenger touring and communications seaplane not built\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 234 Blitz\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 239 Project\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 240\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 296\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 334 Project\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 340 was a twin-engine, twin-boom medium bomber project\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 396\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 430\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 432\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 440\n\nBULLET::::- Arado Ar 532 was a projected development of Ar 432\n", "BULLET::::- Making and developing BD-08 \"Assault Rifle\" and \"LMG\".\n\nBULLET::::- Making BD-14 \"General-purpose machine gun\".\n\nBULLET::::- Making artillery shells of different calibers.\n\nBULLET::::- Grenades.\n\nBULLET::::- Making 60mm and 82mm Mortars.\n\nBULLET::::- Assembling FN-16 MANPADS.\n\nSection::::Indigenous defence industry.:Khulna Shipyard.\n\nBULLET::::- Making Padma-class patrol vessel.\n\nBULLET::::- Building ASW capable Durjoy-class patrol crafts.\n\nBULLET::::- Building Type 056 corvettes indigenously with TOT from China.\n\nSection::::Indigenous defence industry.:Chattogram Dry Dock Limited.\n\nBULLET::::- Construction of six frigates in collaboration with a foreign partner.\n\nSection::::Indigenous defence industry.:Bangabandhu Aeronautical Centre.\n\nBULLET::::- Indigenous UAV development program.\n\nBULLET::::- Training aircraft development program.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Equipment of the Bangladesh Army\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02141	Why can we see the moon but not more than 30 miles?	30 miles? You can go out on a clear night and see the Andromeda galaxy 2.5 million light years away. How far you can see depends on the size and brightness of the thing you're looking at. And on the line of sight. The earth's curvature is the limiting factor for terrestrial objects but there are a few carefully chosen places where you can see over 200 miles in ideal conditions, from one mountain top to another. The longest lines of sight on earth rely on atmospheric refraction to make distant objects appear higher than they would if light moved a straight line.	[ "At a major lunar standstill, the Moon's range of declination, and consequently its range of azimuth at moonrise and moonset, reaches a maximum. As a result, viewed from the middle latitudes, the Moon's altitude at upper culmination (the daily moment when the object appears to contact the observer's meridian) changes in just two weeks – from highest to lowest above the horizon due north or south, depending on the observer's hemisphere. Similarly, its azimuth at moonrise changes from northeast to southeast and at moonset from northwest to southwest. Solar eclipses at ascending node occurs in March, solar eclipses at descending node occurs in September. Lunar eclipses at descending node occurs in March, lunar eclipses at ascending node occurs in September.\n", "When the actual reduction is 1.00 / 1.30, or about 0.770, the perceived reduction is about 0.877, or 1.00 / 1.14. This gives a maximum perceived increase of 14% between apogee and perigee moons of the same phase.\n", "The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around to at perigee (closest) and apogee (farthest), respectively. On 14 November 2016, it was closer to Earth when at full phase than it has been since 1948, 14% closer than its farthest position in apogee. Reported as a \"supermoon\", this closest point coincided within an hour of a full moon, and it was 30% more luminous than when at its greatest distance because its angular diameter is 14% greater and formula_1. At lower levels, the human perception of reduced brightness as a percentage is provided by the following formula:\n", "A full moon is often thought of as an event of a full night's duration. This is somewhat misleading because its phase seen from Earth continuously waxes or wanes (though much too slowly to notice in real time with the naked eye). By definition, its maximum illumination occurs at the moment waxing stops. For any given location, about half of these maximum full moons may be visible, while the other half occurs during the day, when the full moon is below the horizon.\n", "The mean semi-major axis has a value of . The time-averaged distance between Earth and Moon centers is . The actual distance varies over the course of the orbit of the Moon, from at the perigee to at apogee, resulting in a differential range of .\n", "To put this in perspective, the full Moon as viewed from Earth is about °, or 30′ (or 1800″). The Moon's motion across the sky can be measured in angular size: approximately 15° every hour, or 15″ per second. A one-mile-long line painted on the face of the Moon would appear from Earth to be about 1″ in length.\n", "For large ground-based telescopes, the resolution is limited by atmospheric seeing. This limit can be overcome by placing the telescopes above the atmosphere, e.g., on the summits of high mountains, on balloon and high-flying airplanes, or in space. Resolution limits can also be overcome by adaptive optics, speckle imaging or lucky imaging for ground-based telescopes.\n", "The average pair of binoculars will bring the moon approximately as close as can be observed with a 200mm camera lens. The photos below were shot with a 200mm lens. The first photo was taken on 13 November, 2016 at 6:20pm PST, observing the new supermoon just hours before it would officially become the largest supermoon since 1948. The second photo was shot 24 hours later, and the contrast was enhanced to bring out details such as mountainous terrain. The next supermoon will not occur this large until the year 2034.\n\nSection::::Suggested viewing tools.:Telescopes.\n", "BULLET::::- The full moon covers only about 0.2 deg of the sky when viewed from the surface of the Earth. The Moon is only a half degree across (i.e. a circular diameter of roughly 0.5 deg), so the moon's disk covers a circular area of: × (), or 0.2 square degrees.\n\nBULLET::::- Viewed from Earth, the Sun is roughly half a degree across (the same as the full moon) and covers only 0.2 deg as well.\n\nBULLET::::- It would take times the full moon (or the Sun) to cover the entire celestial sphere.\n", "Doppler effect at 144 MHz band is 300 Hz at moonrise or moonset. The doppler offset goes to around zero when the Moon is overhead. At other frequencies other doppler offsets will exist. At moonrise, returned signals will be shifted approximately 300 Hz higher in frequency. As the Moon traverses the sky to a point due south the Doppler effect approaches nothing. By Moonset they are shifted 300 Hz lower. Doppler effects cause many problems when tuning into and locking onto signals from the Moon.\n", "For example, after taking refraction and parallax into account, the observed maximum on 15 September in Sydney, Australia was several hours earlier, and then occurred in daylight. The table on the right shows the major standstills that were actually visible (i.e. not in full daylight, and with the Moon above the horizon) from both London, UK, or Sydney, Australia.\n", "As of mid-2011, the range precision (per session) was believed to be about per reflector, while the orbit of the Moon is being determined to roughly the 15 mm level. The gap between the measurements and the theory could be due to systematic errors in the ranging, insufficient modeling of various conventional effects that become important at this level, or limitations of our theory of gravity. Although it is possible that this discrepancy is due to new physics, the primary suspect is insufficient modeling, since this is known to be both complex and difficult.\n", "The method took advantage of the fact that the Moon is actually closest to an observer when it is at its highest point in the sky, compared to when it is on the horizon. Although it appears that the Moon is biggest when it is near the horizon, the opposite is true. This phenomenon is known as the Moon illusion. The reason for the difference in distance is that the distance from the center of the Moon to the center of the Earth is nearly constant throughout the night, but an observer on the surface of Earth is actually 1 Earth radius from the center of Earth. This offset brings them closest to the Moon when it is overhead.\n", "In practice, there is no official or even consistent definition of how near perigee the full Moon must occur to receive the supermoon label, and new moons rarely receive a supermoon label. Sky and Telescope magazine refers to full Moon which comes within , TimeandDate.com prefers a definition of . EarthSky uses Nolle's definition comparing their calculations to tables published by Nolle in 2000.\n", "To compute the lunar distance precisely, many factors must be considered in addition to the round-trip time of about 2.5 seconds. These factors include the location of the Moon in the sky, the relative motion of Earth and the Moon, Earth's rotation, lunar libration, polar motion, weather, velocity of light in various parts of air, propagation delay through Earth's atmosphere, the location of the observing station and its motion due to crustal motion and tides, and relativistic effects. The distance continually changes for a number of reasons, but averages between the center of the Earth and the center of the Moon.\n", "The Apollo 10 crew are also the humans who have traveled the farthest away from home, some from their homes and families in Houston. While most Apollo missions orbited the Moon at the same from the lunar surface, the distance between the Earth and Moon varies by about , between perigee and apogee, throughout each lunar month, and the Earth's rotation makes the distance to Houston vary by another each day. The Apollo 10 crew reached the farthest point in their orbit around the far side of the Moon at about the same time Earth's rotation put Houston nearly a full Earth diameter away.\n", "During the Apollo missions in 1969, astronauts placed retroreflectors on the surface of the Moon for the purpose of refining the accuracy of this technique. The measurements are ongoing and involve multiple laser facilities. The instantaneous accuracy of the Lunar Laser Ranging experiments can exceed sub-millimeter resolution, and is the most reliable method of determining the lunar distance, to date.\n\nSection::::History of measurement.:Amateur astronomers and citizen scientists.\n", "The Moon's highest altitude at culmination varies by its phase and time of year. The full moon is highest in the sky during winter (for each hemisphere). The 18.61-year nodal cycle has an influence on lunar standstill. When the ascending node of the lunar orbit is in the vernal equinox, the lunar declination can reach up to plus or minus 28° each month. This means the Moon can pass overhead if viewed from latitudes up to 28° north or south (of the Equator), instead of only 18°. The orientation of the Moon's crescent also depends on the latitude of the viewing location; an observer in the tropics can see a smile-shaped crescent Moon. The Moon is visible for two weeks every 27.3 days at the North and South Poles. Zooplankton in the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end.\n", "Section::::Biography.:2-Micron All Sky Survey.\n\nIn 1998, Young was asked to be an official observer for the 2-Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint venture of Caltech (California Institute of Technology) and the University of Massachusetts Amherst (UMass). Young carried out observations for this project at Mount Hopkins (south of Tucson, Arizona) and at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) in Chile until 2000, all the while maintaining his full Table Mountain Observatory responsibilities for JPL.\n\nSection::::Biography.:Near Earth Objects.\n", "Section::::History of measurement.:Parallax.:Occultations.\n\nBy recording the instant when the Moon occults a background star, (or similarly, measuring the angle between the moon and a background star at a predetermined moment) the lunar distance can be determined, as long as the measurements are taken from multiple locations of known separation.\n\nAstronomers O'Keefe and Anderson calculated the lunar distance by observing four occultations from nine locations in 1952. They calculated a mean distance of ; however this value was refined in 1962 by Irene Fischer, who incorporated updated geodetic data to produce a value of .\n\nSection::::History of measurement.:Radar.\n", "These initial experiments were intended to be proof-of-concept experiments and only lasted one day. Follow-on experiments lasting one month produced a mean value of , which was the most accurate measurement of the lunar distance at the time.\n\nSection::::History of measurement.:Laser ranging.\n\nAn experiment which measured the round-trip time of flight of laser pulses reflected directly off the surface of the Moon was performed in 1962, by a team from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a Soviet team at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory.\n", "Atmospheric refraction – the bending of the light from the Moon as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere – alters the observed declination of the Moon, more so at low elevation, where the atmosphere is thicker (deeper).\n\nNot all the maxima are observable from all places in the world – the Moon may be below the horizon at a particular observing site during the maximum, and by the time it rises, it may have a lower declination than an observable maximum at some other date.\n\nSection::::2006 standstill.\n", "A more ambitious project called the \"Aristarchus Campaign\" was conducted during the lunar eclipse of 15 April 2014. During this event, participants were invited to record a series of five digital photographs from moonrise until culmination (the point of greatest altitude).\n", "Mimas was discovered by the astronomer William Herschel on 17 September 1789. He recorded his discovery as follows: \"The great light of my forty-foot [12 m] telescope was so useful that on the 17th of September, 1789, I remarked the seventh satellite, then situated at its greatest western elongation.\"\n\nSection::::Discovery.:Name.\n", "Lunar distance (astronomy)\n\nLunar distance (LD or formula_1), also called Earth–Moon distance, Earth–Moon characteristic distance, or distance to the Moon, is a unit of measure in astronomy. It is the average distance from the center of Earth to the center of the Moon. More technically, it is the mean semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit. It may also refer to the time-averaged distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon, or less commonly, the instantaneous Earth–Moon distance. The lunar distance is approximately a quarter of a million miles ().\n" ]	[ "Can't seem more than 30 miles.", "Humans are unable to see objects that are further than 30 miles away. " ]	[ "The distance you can see is not limited to 30 miles, it is limited by the size and brightness of the object you are trying to view.", "Humans can see plenty of objects further than 30 miles away, it just depends on the brightness of the area in the distance." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Can't seem more than 30 miles.", "Humans are unable to see objects that are further than 30 miles away. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The distance you can see is not limited to 30 miles, it is limited by the size and brightness of the object you are trying to view.", "Humans can see plenty of objects further than 30 miles away, it just depends on the brightness of the area in the distance." ]
2018-18210	Has anyone thought to send a drone to scout North Sentinel Island? What are the ongoing studies conducted on the Sentinelese if there are any?	The Indian Government recognizes the Sentinelese's desire to be left alone. They don't even try to prosecute them on the occasions they have killed trespassers to the island.	[ "In 2014, an aerial expedition followed by a circumnavigation investigated the effects of a forest fire. Important data was gathered and the expedition recorded that the fire did not seem to have affected the populace. They exhibited a balance of ages and sexes, with a number of young children. Friendly hand gestures were noted but the visitors did not go very close to the island. The 2014 expedition also recorded that the Sentinelese had adapted to the changes to their fishing grounds, and were using their canoes to travel up to half a kilometre (a third of a mile) from the shore.\n", "British surveyor John Ritchie observed \"a multitude of lights\" from an East India Company hydrographic survey vessel, the \"Diligent\", as it passed by the island in 1771. Homfray, an administrator, travelled to the island in March 1867.\n\nTowards the end of the same year's summer monsoon season, \"Nineveh\", an Indian merchant ship, was wrecked on a reef near the island. The 106 surviving passengers and crewmen landed on the beach in the ship's boat and fended off attacks by the Sentinelese. They were eventually found by a Royal Navy rescue party.\n", "The first peaceful contact with the Sentinelese was made by Triloknath Pandit, a director of the Anthropological Survey of India, and his colleagues on 4 January 1991. Indian visits to the island ceased in 1997.\n\nThe Sentinelese survived the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and its after-effects, including the tsunami and the uplifting of the island. Three days after the earthquake, an Indian government helicopter observed several islanders, who shot arrows and threw spears and stones at the helicopter. Although the tsunami disturbed the tribal fishing grounds, the Sentinelese appear to have adapted.\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n\nNorth Sentinel Island is inhabited by the Sentinelese. Their population was estimated to be between 50 and 400 individuals in a 2012 report. India's 2011 census indicates 15 residents in 10 households, but that too was merely an estimate, described as a \"wild guess\" by the \"Times of India\".\n\nThey reject any contact with other people, and are among the last people to remain virtually untouched by modern civilisation.\n", "There have been other recorded instances of British administrators visiting the island, including Rogers in 1902, but none of the expeditions after 1880 had any ethnographic purpose, probably because of the island's small size and unfavorable location.\n\nIn 1954, Italian explorer visited the island but did not come across any inhabitants.\n\nSection::::Contact.:Shipwrecks.\n\nIn 1977, MV \"Rusley\" ran aground on the North Sentinel Reefs.\n", "North Sentinel Island\n\nNorth Sentinel Island is one of the Andaman Islands, an archipelago in the Bay of Bengal which also includes South Sentinel Island. It is home to the Sentinelese, a tribe who have rejected, often violently, any contact with the outside world. They are among the last uncontacted people to remain virtually untouched by modern civilization.\n", "The Sentinelese have repeatedly attacked approaching vessels. This resulted in the deaths of two fishermen in 2006 and an American missionary, John Allen Chau, in 2018.\n\nSection::::Geography.\n\nNorth Sentinel lies west of the town of Wandoor in South Andaman Island, west of Port Blair, and north of its counterpart South Sentinel Island. It has an area of about and a roughly square outline.\n", "In an 1899 speech, Richard Carnac Temple, who served as chief commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from 1895 to 1904, reported that he had toured North Sentinel island to capture fugitives, but upon landing discovered that they had been killed by the inhabitants, who retreated in haste upon seeing his party approach.\n", "In January 2006, two fishermen fishing in illegal waters were killed by the Sentinelese when their boat drifted too close to the island. There were no prosecutions.\n", "An expedition led by Maurice Vidal Portman, a government administrator who hoped to research the natives and their customs, accomplished a successful landing on North Sentinel Island in January 1880. The group found a network of pathways and several small, abandoned villages. After several days, six Sentinelese, an elderly couple and four children, were captured and taken to Port Blair. The colonial officer in charge of the operation wrote that the entire group, \"sickened rapidly, and the old man and his wife died, so the four children were sent back to their home with quantities of presents\". A second landing was made by Portman on 27 August 1883 after the eruption of Krakatoa was mistaken for gunfire and interpreted as the distress signal of a ship. A search party landed on the island and left gifts before returning to Port Blair. Portman visited the island several more times between January 1885 and January 1887.\n", "There is significant uncertainty as to the group's size, with estimates ranging between 15 and 500 individuals, but mostly between 50 and 200.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Geography.\n", "Portman visited the island again in 1883, 1885 and 1887.\n\nIn 1896, a convict escaped from the penal colony on Great Andaman Island on a makeshift raft and drifted across to the North Sentinel beach. His body was discovered by a search party some days later with several arrow-piercings and a cut throat. The party did not see any islanders.\n", "After the \"Primrose\" grounded on the North Sentinel Island reef on 2 August 1981, crewmen several days later noticed that some men carrying spears and arrows were building boats on the beach. The captain of \"Primrose\" radioed for an urgent drop of firearms so his crew could defend themselves. They did not receive any because a large storm stopped other ships from reaching them, but the heavy seas also prevented the Islanders from approaching the ship. One week later, the crewmen were rescued by a helicopter under contract to the Indian Oil And Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC).\n", "On 4 January 1991, Triloknath Pandit made the first known friendly contact with the Sentinelese.\n", "The Onge, one of the other indigenous peoples of the Andamans, were aware of North Sentinel Island's existence; their traditional name for the island is \"Chia daaKwokweyeh\". They also have strong cultural similarities with what little has been remotely observed amongst the Sentinelese. However, Onges were brought there by the British during the 19th century, could not understand the Sentinelese language, so a significant period of separation is likely.\n\nSection::::History.:British visits.\n", "Indian exploratory parties under orders to establish friendly relations with the Sentinelese made brief landings on the island every few years beginning in 1967. In 1975 Leopold III of Belgium, on a tour of the Andamans, was taken by local dignitaries for an overnight cruise to the waters off North Sentinel Island. The cargo ship MV \"Rusley\" ran aground on coastal reefs in mid-1977, and the MV \"Primrose\" did so in August 1981. The Sentinelese are known to have scavenged both wrecks for iron. Settlers from Port Blair also visited the sites to recover the cargo. In 1991, salvage operators were authorised to dismantle the ships.\n", "The first recorded visit to the island by a colonial officer was by Jeremiah Homfray in 1867. He recorded seeing naked islanders catching fish with bows and arrows, and was informed by the Great Andamanese that they were Jarawas.\n", "Section::::History.:After independence.\n", "Section::::Contact.:Deaths of two fishermen (2006).\n", "The island is in effect a sovereign area under Indian protection. In 2018, Government of India excluded 29 islands – including the South Sentinel from the Restricted Area Permit (RAP) regime, till 31 December 2022 – in a major effort to boost tourism here. In November 2018, however, the government's Home ministry stated that the relaxation of the prohibition was intended only to allow researchers and anthropologists, with pre-approved clearance, to visit the Sentinel islands. \n\nSection::::Demographics.\n\nThe island is uninhabited but is sometimes used by diving expeditions on account of its remoteness and novelty factor.\n\nSection::::Fauna.\n", "Nominally, the island belongs to the South Andaman administrative district, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In practice, Indian authorities recognise the islanders' desire to be left alone and restrict their role to remote monitoring; they do not prosecute them for killing people. The island is in effect a sovereign area under Indian protection. In 2018, the Government of India excluded 29 islands – including North Sentinel – from the Restricted Area Permit (RAP) regime, until 31 December 2022, in a major effort to boost tourism. In November 2018, however, the government's home ministry stated that the relaxation of the prohibition was intended only to allow researchers and anthropologists, with pre-approved clearance, to visit the Sentinel islands.\n", "South Sentinel is west-northwest of Little Andaman Island in the south of the Andaman chain but south of its counterpart North Sentinel Island. From the limited information available it can be said that South Sentinel Island is a forested coral reef. From a journal written in the 19th century, a Colonel Alcock who passed the island wrote \"[South Sentinel is] raised a few feet and continuous with the corals surrounding it\".\n\nThe island lies southwest from Port Blair. \n\nIt lies immediately south of the passage. \n", "The population faces the potential threats of infectious diseases to which they have no immunity, as well as violence from intruders. The Indian government has declared the entire island and its surrounding waters extending 5 nautical miles (9.26 km) from the island to be an exclusion zone.\n\nSection::::Political status.\n", "The series of contact expeditions continued until 1994, with some of them even attempting to plant coconut trees on the island. The programs were then abandoned for nearly nine years. The Indian government maintained a policy of no deliberate contact, intervening only in cases of natural calamities that might pose an existential threat or to thwart poachers.\n", "The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Protection of Aboriginal Tribes Act of 1956 prohibits travel to the island and any approach closer than five nautical miles (9.26 km) in order to prevent the resident tribespeople from contracting diseases to which they have no immunity. The area is patrolled by the Indian navy. \n" ]	[ "The Indian government should find out what is happening on North Sentinel Island.", "There are ongoing studies conducted on the Sentinelese." ]	[ "The Indian government recognizes the Sentinelese's desire to be left alone.", "India respects their desire to be left alone and does not attempt to contact them in any way." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The Indian government should find out what is happening on North Sentinel Island.", "There are ongoing studies conducted on the Sentinelese." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The Indian government recognizes the Sentinelese's desire to be left alone.", "India respects their desire to be left alone and does not attempt to contact them in any way." ]
2018-05702	Why are sports injuries allowed to be reported in detail	> How does that not violate HIPAA law? HIPAA would prevent a doctor from just handing out detailed information on the injury of a patient, sports icon or otherwise. What HIPAA doesn't prevent is the sports organization which employs that patient releasing details on their injury as per their prior agreement in their employment contract.	[ "\"Accident\" includes assaults on employees and suicides on transport systems (reg.2). The report must be made by the \"quickest practicable means\" and confirmed by a written report within ten days (reg.3(2)). When an accident at work results in a reportable injury that, within a year of the accident, causes the death of the employee, the death itself must be reported, even if the accident and injury have already been reported (reg.4).\n", "BULLET::::- 2018: Tierra del Sol Resort & Golf, Aruba; Haute Harbour Island, Bahamas; Mahogany Bay Resort & Beach Club, Belize; Hermitage Plantation Inn, Nevis\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: Costa Rica, Great Exuma, Kangaroo Island, Kenya, Paradise Island, Puerto Vallarta, St. Lucia\n\nSection::::In other media.\n\nBULLET::::- Beginning in the late 1980s, \"Sports Illustrated\" allowed television specials to be aired which were later released as video versions of its \"Swimsuit Issue\". The first releases were available on VHS or Laser Disc (LD), and later releases have been available on DVD.\n", "BULLET::::- An injury as a result of an accident at work and that person has to be taken to hospital; or\n\nBULLET::::- A major injury as a result of an accident at work that takes place at a hospital;\n\n— or, when an employee:\n\nBULLET::::- Suffers a major injury as a result of an accident at work; or\n\nBULLET::::- Is incapacitated, either under his contract of employment or for seven consecutive days (three days prior to 6 April 2012), because of an accident at work;\n\n— or, there is a dangerous occurrence.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Preseason screening.\n", "Injury Prevention: Athletic taping is recognized as one of the top preventative measures for reduction of injuries in collision sports. These injuries often occur as a result of extrinsic factors such as collision with other players or equipment. Athletic taping has also been shown to reduce the severity in injuries, as well as the occurrence of injury in most sports.\n", "Originally created to respond to physical abuse, reporting systems in various countries began to expand to address sexual and emotional abuse, neglect, and exposure to domestic abuse. This expansion was accompanied by broader requirements for reporting abuse: previously reports were only submitted when an incident caused serious physical injury, but as the definitions changed, more minor physical injuries and developmental and psychological trauma began to be included as well.\n", "In the United States, each state has different statutes of limitation, and within a state different types of injuries may have different statutes of limitation. Rape claims, for example, often have a much longer statute of limitation than other injuries. In some states such as Colorado, the statute of limitations starts to run once the injury is discovered. For example, if you were in a car accident and then 6 months later started having severe back problems, the statute would start when you noticed the injury.\n", "The responsible person, such as an employer, must keep records of reportable incidents and diseases, and other matters specified by the HSE to demonstrate compliance. Records are to be kept for 3 years, either at the place where the relevant work is carried out or at the responsible person's usual place of business. The enforcing authority may demand copies of such records (reg.7/ Sch.4).\n", "Section::::Costs.\n", "Section::::Cerebral contusions.:Prevention in sports.\n", "Since \"Brisson\" had specified the terms under which teams needed to provide screening, plaintiffs seeking to recover began basing their challenges on their lack of knowledge of the risks. These cases generally involved women who had accompanied their husbands or sons to the ballpark. The first such case had been decided the year before, when a Texas appeals court heard \"Keys v. Alamo City Baseball Co.\". Keys had taken her son to a Texas League game in San Antonio, where they both sat in unprotected seats far from the backstop. During the fifth or sixth inning, she was struck in the chest by a foul ball her son had ducked while she had been talking to a friend seated several rows behind her.\n", "It is a defence that the responsible person was not aware of the event requiring reporting or notification and that he had taken all reasonable steps to have such events brought to his notice (reg.11). The burden of proof of such a defence is on the defendant, on the balance of probabilities.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nThe reporting of accidents and ill health at work has long been a legal requirement in the UK. The information enables the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and local government authorities \"to identify where and how risks arise, and to investigate serious accidents\".\n", "Section::::Tort law issues.\n", "Section::::Media coverage.\n\nIn 2012, film producer Steve James created the documentary film \"Head Games\", interviewing former NHL player Keith Primeau, and the parents of Owen Thomas, who hanged himself after sustaining brain damage during his football career at Penn. The documentary also interviewed former athletes Christopher Nowinski, Cindy Parlow, and \"New York Times\" reporter Alan Schwarz, among other athletes, journalists, and medical researchers.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Season analysis.\n", "Typically, minimum requirements for what must be reported include:\n\nBULLET::::- A description of how the reporter learned of the injuries or neglect and of any actions taken to assist\n\nBULLET::::- Information on previous injuries, assaults, neglect or financial abuses (if known)\n\nBULLET::::- The date, time, nature, and extent of the abuse or neglect (if known)\n\nBULLET::::- The date of the report\n\nBULLET::::- The perpetrator's name, address, and relationship to the (possible) victim (if known)\n\nBULLET::::- The reporter's name, agency, position, address, telephone number, and signature.\n", "Section::::Injury.:Prevention.\n", "Section::::Prevention efforts.:NFL.\n\nSean Morey, who was named cochair of the NFL Player Association's Concussion and Traumatic Brain Injury Committee in October 2009, told Brown Alumni Magazine in early 2010 that \"fifty percent of concussions go unreported.\" Morey said that players kept their injuries secret because they felt bound by loyalty and feared job loss.\n\nSince then, the National Football League has made numerous rule changes to reduce the number of concussions suffered by players while making the game safer.\n", "Sports injuries are injuries that occur during sport, athletic activities, or exercising. In the United States, there are approximately 30 million teenagers and children combined who participate in some form of organized sport. Of those, about three million athletes age 14 years and under experience a sports injury annually. According to a study performed at Stanford University, 21 percent of the injuries observed in elite college athletes caused the athlete to miss at least one day of sport, and approximately 77 percent of these injuries involved the lower leg, ankle, or foot. In addition to those sport injuries, the leading cause of death related to sports injuries is traumatic head or neck occurrences. When an athlete complains of pain or an injury, the key to a diagnosis is to obtain a detailed history and examination. An example of a format used to guide an examination and treatment plan is a S.O.A.P note or, subjective, objective, assessment, plan. Another important aspect of sport injury is prevention, which helps to reduce potential sport injuries. It is important to establish sport-specific dynamic warm-ups, stretching, and exercises that can help prevent injuries common to each individual sport. Creating an injury prevention program also includes education on hydration, nutrition, monitoring team members “at risk”, monitoring at-risk behaviors, and improving technique. Season analysis reviews, preseason screenings, and pre-participation examinations are also essential in recognizing pre-existing conditions or previous injuries that could cause further illness or injury. One technique that can be used in the process of preseason screening is the functional movement screen. The functional movement screen can assess movement patterns in athletes in order to find players who are at risk of certain injuries. In addition, prevention for adolescent athletes should be considered and may need to be applied differently than adult athletes. Lastly, following various research about sport injury, it is shown that levels of anxiety, stress, and depression are elevated when an athlete experiences an injury depending on the type and severity of the injury.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Preseason screening.:Functional movement screen.\n", "Section::::First report: \"Keeping Faith with the Student Athlete\".\n", "Sports law in the United States\n\nSports law in the United States overlaps substantially with labor law, contract law, competition or antitrust law, and tort law. Issues like defamation and privacy rights are also integral aspects of sports law. This area of law was established as a separate and important entity only a few decades ago, coinciding with the rise of player-agents and increased media scrutiny of sports law topics.\n\nSection::::Amateur sports law.\n", "In addition, there are many anecdotal reports of various television networks (such as CBS Sports, NBC Sports, and beIN Sport) that will not release highlights of certain sporting events to ESPN, unless the originating U.S. broadcaster's name is displayed on-screen for the entire length of the highlight (for example, \"Courtesy NBC Sports\").\n", "Section::::Types of sport injury.:Soft tissue injuries.\n", "Section::::Response.\n\nSports organizations, leagues, and associations have integrated a catastrophic injury plan as part of their emergency action and emergency management plans, and have also changed rules to prevent or reduce the incidence of catastrophic injuries. Such plans include a notification system, which may be used to contact the family of the injured athlete, athletic coordinators, officials, legal and risk management offices, and institutional insurance carriers. It may also include the formation of a catastrophic injury team, which may include athletic directors, head athletic trainer, team physicians, legal counsel, and media relations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05455	Is the probability of flipping a coin and getting the same result as last time 1/4?	The flips are independent. 1/4 is your chance of getting heads or tails two times in a row, not the chance of getting heads or tails any particular time.	[ "Suppose we were to conduct an experiment where the coin is tossed repeatedly, with outcomes formula_18, and it is assumed each flip's outcome is independent of all the others. That is, they are \"i.i.d.\". Define the sequence of random variables on the coin toss space, formula_19 where formula_20. \"i.e.\" each formula_21 records the outcome of the formula_22'th flip.\n", "Bernoulli came across expected utility by playing the St Petersburg paradox. This paradox involves you flipping a coin until you get to heads. The number of times it took you to get to heads is what you put as an exponent to 2 and receive that in dollar amounts. This game helped to understand what people were willing to pay versus what people were expected to gain from this game.\n", "BULLET::::- Probability of 0 heads in 10 flips of fair coin = 0.00098\n\nBULLET::::- Probability of 1 heads in 10 flips of fair coin = 0.00977\n\nBULLET::::- Probability of 2 heads in 10 flips of fair coin = 0.04395\n\nBULLET::::- Probability of 8 heads in 10 flips of fair coin = 0.04395\n\nBULLET::::- Probability of 9 heads in 10 flips of fair coin = 0.00977\n\nBULLET::::- Probability of 10 heads in 10 flips of fair coin = 0.00098\n\nThe two-sided probability of a result as extreme as 8 of 10 positive difference is the sum of these probabilities:\n", "Section::::Physics.\n\nThe outcome of coin flipping has been studied by the mathematician and former magician Persi Diaconis and his collaborators. They have demonstrated that a mechanical coin flipper which imparts the same initial conditions for every toss has a highly predictable outcomethe phase space is fairly regular. Further, in actual flipping, people exhibit slight bias – \"coin tossing is fair to two decimals but not to three. That is, typical flips show biases such as .495 or .503.\"\n", "Consider the case where a (possibly biased) coin is tossed, corresponding to the probability space formula_13, where the event formula_14 occurs if heads is flipped, and formula_15 if tails. For this particular coin, assume the probability of flipping heads is formula_16 from which it follows that the complement event, flipping tails, has formula_17.\n", "For example, what is the probability of seeing at least one 5 when throwing a pair of dice? An erroneous argument goes as follows: The first die shows a 5 with probability 1/6; the second die shows a 5 with probability 1/6; therefore the probability of seeing a 5 on at least one of the dice is 1/6 + 1/6 = 1/3 = 12/36. However, the correct answer is 11/36, because the erroneous argument has double-counted the event where both dice show 5s.\n", "The probability of obtaining \"h\" heads in \"N\" tosses of a coin with a probability of heads equal to \"r\" is given by the binomial distribution:\n\nSubstituting this into the previous formula:\n\nAnd hence the value of maximum error (E) is given by\n\nSolving for the required number of coin tosses, \"n\",\n\nSection::::Posterior probability density function.:Examples.\n\n1. If a maximum error of 0.01 is desired, how many times should the coin be tossed?\n", "One is often interested in knowing how often one will observe \"H\" in a sequence of \"n\" coin flips. This is given by simply counting: Given \"n\" successive coin flips, that is, given the set of all possible strings of length \"n\", the number \"N\"(\"k\",\"n\") of such strings that contain \"k\" occurrences of \"H\" is given by the binomial coefficient \n\nIf the probability of flipping heads is given by \"p\", then the total probability of seeing a string of length \"n\" with \"k\" heads is\n\nwhere formula_34.\n\nThe probability measure thus defined is known as the Binomial distribution.\n", "Human intuition about conditional probability is often very poor and can give rise to some seemingly surprising observations. For example, if the successive tosses of a coin are recorded as a string of \"H\" and \"T\", then for any trial of tosses, it is twice as likely that the triplet TTH will occur before THT than after it. It is three times as likely that THH will precede HHT, than that THH will follow HHT. (See Penney's game)\n\nSection::::Mathematics.\n", "This method may be extended by also considering sequences of four tosses. That is, if the coin is flipped twice but the results match, and the coin is flipped twice again but the results match now for the opposite side, then the first result can be used. This is because HHTT and TTHH are equally likely. This can be extended to any power of 2.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Checking whether a coin is fair\n\nBULLET::::- Coin flipping\n\nBULLET::::- Feller's coin-tossing constants\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Available from Andrew Gelman's website/a\n", "Section::::Examples.:Why the probability is 1/2 for a fair coin.\n\nIf a fair coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152. The probability of flipping a head after having already flipped 20 heads in a row is . This is an application of Bayes' theorem.\n\nThis can also be shown without knowing that 20 heads have occurred, and without applying Bayes' theorem. Assuming a fair coin:\n\nBULLET::::- The probability of 20 heads, then 1 tail is 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.5\n", "In \"The Black Swan\", Nassim Nicholas Taleb gives the example of risk models according to which the Black Monday crash would correspond to a 36-\"σ\" event:\n", "BULLET::::- Suppose that we have two coins: one coin is fair and the other has two heads. We choose (at random) one of the coins \"first\", and \"then\" perform a sequence of independent tosses of our selected coin. Let \"X\"[\"n\"] denote the outcome of the \"n\"th toss, with 1 for heads and 0 for tails. Then the ensemble average is ( + 1) = ; yet the long-term average is for the fair coin and 1 for the two-headed coin. So the long term time-average is \"either\" 1/2 or 1. Hence, this random process is not ergodic in mean.\n", "The only problem is that we don't have room in log space for a binary counter that goes up to 2. To get around this we replace it with a \"randomized\" counter, which simply flips \"n\" coins and stops and rejects if they all land on heads. Since this event has probability 2, we expect to take 2 steps on average before stopping. It only needs to keep a running total of the number of heads in a row it sees, which it can count in log space.\n", "per round, where \"D\" is the \"k\"th (positive finite) payout, \"p\" is the (non-zero) probability of receiving it, \"w\" is the wealth of the player, and \"c\" is the cost of a ticket. In the standard St. Petersburg lottery, and .\n", "Now the same coin is reused and you are asked to bet on the outcome again.\n\nIf the first flip was tails, there is a 100% chance you are dealing with a fair coin, so the next flip has a 50% chance of heads and 50% chance of tails.\n", "One theoretical problem with this index is that it assumes that the intervals are equally spaced. This may limit its applicability.\n\nSection::::Related statistics.\n\nSection::::Related statistics.:Birthday problem.\n\nIf there are \"n\" units in the sample and they are randomly distributed into \"k\" categories (\"n\" ≤ \"k\"), this can be considered a variant of the birthday problem. The probability (\"p\") of all the categories having only one unit is\n\nIf \"c\" is large and \"n\" is small compared with \"k\" then to a good approximation\n\nThis approximation follows from the exact formula as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Sample size estimates\n", "Note that Efron's dice have different \"average\" rolls: the average roll of A is , while B and D each average , and C averages . The nontransitive property depends on which faces are larger or smaller, but does \"not\" depend on the absolute magnitude of the faces. Hence one can find variants of Efron's dice where the odds of winning are unchanged, but all the dice have the same average roll. For example,\n\nBULLET::::- A: 7, 7, 7, 7, 1, 1\n\nBULLET::::- B: 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5\n\nBULLET::::- C: 9, 9, 3, 3, 3, 3\n", "Section::::Definition.:Finite case.:Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Let formula_1 represent the outcome of a roll of a fair six-sided . More specifically, formula_1 will be the number of pips showing on the top face of the after the toss. The possible values for formula_1 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, all of which are equally likely with a probability of . The expectation of formula_1 is\n", "In the second case where both players have the same number of pennies (in this case 6) the likelihood of each losing is:\n\nSection::::Example of Huygens' result.:Unfair coin flipping.\n\nIn the event of an unfair coin, where player one wins each toss with probability p, and player two wins with probability \"q\" = 1 − \"p\", then the probability of each ending penniless is:\n\nThis can be shown as follows: Consider the probability of player 1 experiencing gamblers ruin having started with formula_8 amount of money, formula_9. Then, using the Law of Total Probability, we have\n", "Die C beats D two-thirds of the time but beats B only one-third of the time. The probability of die C beating A is . So the likelihood of C beating any other randomly selected die is:\n\nFinally, die D beats A two-thirds of the time but beats C only one-third of the time. The probability of die D beating B is (\"only\" when D rolls 5). So the likelihood of D beating any other randomly selected die is:\n", "A simple example of the Van Houtum distribution arises when throwing a loaded dice which has been tampered with to land on a 6 twice as often as on a 1. The possible values of the sample space are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Each time the die is thrown, the probability of throwing a 2, 3, 4 or 5 is 1/6; the probability of a 1 is 1/9 and the probability of throwing a 6 is 2/9.\n\nSection::::Probability mass function.\n", "For example, if the \"a priori\" probability of a biased coin is say 1%, and assuming that such a biased coin would come down heads say 60% of the time, then after 21 heads the probability of a biased coin has increased to about 32%.\n\nThe opening scene of the play \"Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead\" by Tom Stoppard discusses these issues as one man continually flips heads and the other considers various possible explanations.\n\nSection::::Non-examples.:Changing probabilities.\n", "Like Miwin’s set, the probability of A winning versus B (or B vs. C, C vs. A) is . The probability of a draw, however, is , so that only 15 out of 36 rolls lose. So the overall winning expectation is higher.\n\nSection::::Warren Buffett.\n", "Hence, 99.999% of the time, the interval above would contain formula_10 which is the true value of obtaining heads in a single toss.\n\nSection::::Other approaches.\n\nOther approaches to the question of checking whether a coin is fair are available using decision theory, whose application would require the formulation of a loss function or utility function which describes the consequences of making a given decision. An approach that avoids requiring either a loss function or a prior probability (as in the Bayesian approach) is that of \"acceptance sampling\".\n\nSection::::Other applications.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01029	Why are meats like bratwurst and Italian sausages curved, and why isn't it the same case for hot dogs?	Hot dogs are not put in a "natural casing," that is, a piece of intestine material. They are artificially shaped, and straight is a handy shape.	[ "BULLET::::- Urasuki is a common feature of Japanese kitchen knives. While Japanese kitchen knives initially appear as a simple chisel grind (flat on the side facing the food, angled on the other), the apparently flat side is subtly concave, to reduce adhesion, and, further, the apparent chisel cut of the edge is actually a small bevel, as otherwise the edge would be weakened by the concave area above.\n\nBULLET::::- Holes may also be found in a blade, to reduce adhesion further. These are most found in knives for soft cheese, which is particularly soft and sticky.\n", "BULLET::::- Granton knives have semi-circular scallops ground into the edge that alternate on either side of the knife and extend from the edge to the middle of the blade. This design was developed and patented in 1928 by Wm.Grant & Sons Ltd A similar design, \"kullenschliff\" (\"kulle\" is Swedish for \"hill\" (or -more likely- a misspelling of the German word \"Kuhle\" meaning \"hollow\" or \"deepening\"); \"schliff\" meaning \"cut\" or \"grind\" in German), has oval scallops (\"kuhlen\") hollowed-out of one or both sides of the blade above the edge. The Granton design is normally found on meat carving knives but have recently appeared on other types of knives, especially Western variations of the Japanese santoku. The indentations require a certain thickness, so they are more frequently used on thicker, softer blades, rather than on thin, hard ones. The design of scallop-sided blades is an attempt to ease the cutting and separation of meats, cheese, and vegetables.\n", "BULLET::::- St. Louis style ribs (or St. Louis cut spare ribs) have had the sternum bone, cartilage, and rib tips (see below) removed. The shape is almost rectangular.\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City style ribs are trimmed less closely than the St. Louis style ribs, and have the hard bone removed.\n\nSection::::Cuts of pork ribs.:Rib tips.\n", "BULLET::::- Granton knives have semi-circular scallops ground into the edge that alternate on either side of the knife and extend from the edge to the middle of the blade. This design was developed and patented in 1928 by Wm.Grant & Sons Ltd A similar design, \"kullenschliff\" (\"kulle\" is Swedish for \"hill\" (or -more likely- a misspelling of the German word \"Kuhle\" meaning \"hollow\" or \"deepening\"); \"schliff\" meaning \"cut\" or \"grind\" in German), has oval scallops (\"kuhlen\") hollowed-out of one or both sides of the blade above the edge. The Granton design is normally found on meat carving knives but have recently appeared on other types of knives, especially Western variations of the Japanese santoku. The indentations require a certain thickness, so they are more frequently used on thicker, softer blades, rather than on thin, hard ones. The design of scallop-sided blades is an attempt to ease the cutting and separation of meats, cheese, and vegetables. Some retailers have taken to calling these designs \"hollow ground,\" likely confused by the hollowness of the indentations, whereas \"hollow ground\" properly refers to the cross-section of the cutting edge.\n", "Another style of rotisserie is the vertical rotisserie in which the heat is applied directly from the side or, less commonly, convected up from below. In this style of rotisserie, balance of the load is less important than with a horizontal rotisserie; this feature is useful, as the meat is typically shaved off a bit at a time.\n\nSome dishes that are commonly cooked on a vertical rotisserie include:\n\nBULLET::::- Döner kebab from Turkey\n\nBULLET::::- Gyro, from Greece\n\nBULLET::::- Shawarma, from the Middle East and the Arab World\n\nBULLET::::- Taco al pastor, from Mexico\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Lechon\n", "BULLET::::- Rotisserie – meat is skewered on a spit - a long solid rod used to hold food while it is being cooked over a fire in a fireplace or over a campfire, or while being roasted in an oven.\n\nBULLET::::- Searing – technique used in grilling, baking, braising, roasting, sautéing, etc., in which the surface of the food (usually meat, poultry or fish) is cooked at high temperature so a caramelized crust forms.\n\nSection::::Food preparation techniques.:Hot Smoking.\n", "BULLET::::- For best dimensional control (when component requirements are exacting), a secondary drawing operation is added after the extrusion of most metals. Although such an operation is entirely feasible, it does entail additional tooling, handling, and cost. Therefore, the designer should specify liberal enough tolerances, if possible, so that secondary drawing operations are not required.\n\nBULLET::::- If long, thin sections have a critical flatness requirement, variations from flatness are reduced if ribs are added to the section.\n\nSection::::Geometry based guidelines.:Others.\n", "Section::::Preparation.\n\nChicago-style hot dogs are cooked in hot water or steamed before adding the toppings. A less common style is cooked on a charcoal grill and referred to as a \"char-dog\". Char-dogs are easily identifiable because very often the ends of the dog are sliced in crisscross fashion before cooking, producing a distinctive cervelat-style \"curled-x\" shape as the dog cooks. Some hot dog stands, such as the Wieners Circle, only serve char-dogs.\n\nThe typical beef hot dog weighs 1/8 of a pound or and the most traditional type features a natural casing, providing a distinctive \"snap\" when bitten.\n", "BULLET::::- Urasuki is a common feature of Japanese kitchen knives. While Japanese kitchen knives initially appear as a simple chisel grind (flat on the side facing the food, angled on the other), the apparently flat side is subtly concave, to reduce adhesion, and, further, the apparent chisel cut of the edge is actually a small bevel, as otherwise the edge would be weakened by the concave area above.\n\nBULLET::::- Holes may also be found in a blade, to reduce adhesion still further. These are most found in knives for soft cheese, which is particularly soft and sticky.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Type of edge.:Sharpening.\n", "As with most sausages, hot dogs must be in a casing to be cooked. Traditional casing is made from the small intestines of sheep. The products are known as \"natural casing\" hot dogs or frankfurters. These hot dogs have firmer texture and a \"snap\" that releases juices and flavor when the product is bitten.\n\nKosher casings are expensive in commercial quantities in the US, so kosher hot dogs are usually skinless or made with reconstituted collagen casings.\n\nSection::::General description.:Commercial preparation.:Skinless hot dogs.\n", "Several different types of ribs are available, depending on the section of rib cage from which they are cut. Variation in the thickness of the meat and bone, as well as levels of fat in each cut, can alter the flavor and texture of the prepared dish. The inner surface of the rib cage is covered by a layer of connective tissue (pleura) that is difficult to cook tender; it is usually removed before marinating or cooking.\n\nSection::::Cuts of pork ribs.:Baby back ribs.\n", "BULLET::::- marel.com – skinning - information about the current offering of skinners that are still based on Townsend's original design\n\nBULLET::::- marel.com – sausage - information about the current offering of Linkers that are still based on Townsend's original design\n\nBULLET::::- How its made: Bacon – video on the Science Channel showing how Bacon is made. The process incorporates both Townsend Skinner and Townsend Injector\n\nBULLET::::- How its made: Hot Dogs - Video showing how hot dogs are made in using a Townsend Linker\n", "BULLET::::- Dog bone shape, an hourglass with rounded ends\n\nBULLET::::- Hourglass corset\n\nBULLET::::- Ntama\n\nBULLET::::- Hourglass Nebula\n\nBULLET::::- Inverted bell\n\nBULLET::::- Lune, from the Latin word for the Moon\n\nBULLET::::- Maltese Cross curve\n\nBULLET::::- Mushroom shape, which became infamous as a result of the mushroom cloud\n\nBULLET::::- Oval (from the Latin \"ovum\" for egg), a descriptive term applied to several kinds of \"rounded\" shapes, including the egg shape\n\nBULLET::::- Pear shaped, in reference to the shape of a pear, i.e., a generally rounded shape, tapered towards the top and more spherical/circular at the bottom\n", "BULLET::::- Symmetrical cross sections are always preferred to nonsymmetrical cross sections because it contains unbalances stresses which lead to warpage in the part and causes damage to the tools. Sometimes if a part cannot be converted into symmetric shape then two of them are clubbed together to form a symmetric shape and they are cut off in two after extrusion.\n\nSection::::Geometry based guidelines.:Tolerances.\n", "BULLET::::- Country-style ribs are cut from the blade end of the loin close to the pork shoulder. They are meatier than other rib cuts. They contain no rib bones, but instead contain parts of the shoulder blade (scapula).\n\nBULLET::::- Rib roast (or bone-in pork loin rib roast, bone-in loin rib roast, center cut rib roast, prime rib of pork, standing rib roast) is a whole pork loin with the back ribs attached. They can be up to 2 ft long and 6 in thick. They are sold whole or in sections.\n", "Sausage making is an outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers would salt various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They would then stuff them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees.\n\nAn Akkadian cuneiform tablet records a dish of intestine casings filled with some sort of forcemeat.\n", "Rib tips (or brisket) are found at the bottom of the spare ribs by the sternum. The rib tips have a high proportion of cartilage. The rib tips give the spare ribs a rounded appearance. In an attempt to give the meat a more uniform appearance and make it easier to eat, this piece is sometimes removed, and the remaining spare ribs are referred to as \"Saint Louis style ribs\".\n\nSection::::Cuts of pork ribs.:Other cuts and preparations.\n", "In South Africa, a variation of the hot dog is found called a \"boerie roll\" (Afrikaans slang for farmer's roll) or \"boerewors roll\" (Afrikaans slang for farmer's sausage roll). In this variation, a piece of boerewors, often braaid, is placed in a sliced bread roll. The boerie roll can be covered in tomato sauce (ketchup) or a home made tomato and onion relish.\n\nSection::::Asia.\n\nSection::::Asia.:Japan.\n", "In order to facilitate even cooking, the ingredient is cut into small, roughly uniform shapes. Skewers or \"kushi\" are made with bamboo or Japanese cypress, and shape as well as length varies to use for the type of food: flat type is applied for minced meat for example.\n\nBULLET::::- Meat\n\nBULLET::::- Seafood\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable\n\nBULLET::::- Products and prepared\n\nSection::::Seasoning.\n", "BULLET::::- Handi – a deep, wide-mouthed cooking vessel used in north Indian, Pakistani and Bengali cooking. Because there are many specific Indian and Pakistani dishes cooked in this vessel, their names reflect its use, such as \"handi biryani\".\n\nBULLET::::- Karahi – a type of thick, circular, and deep cooking-pot similar in shape to a wok that originated in the Indian subcontinent\n\nBULLET::::- Kazan – a type of large cooking pot used throughout Central Asia, Russia, and the Balkan Peninsula\n\nBULLET::::- Marmite – a traditional crockery casserole vessel found in France, it is known for its \"pot-belly\" shape.\n\nBULLET::::- Mold\n", "Nearly all meatballs (made from pork, beef, fish, etc.) made in Asia differ significantly in texture to their counterparts with European origins. Instead of mincing and forming meats, meat used for making meatballs is pounded until the meat is more or less pulverized. This is also often the case for fillings in steamed dishes. This process is what lends a smooth texture to the meatballs. Pounding, unlike mincing, uncoils and stretches previously wound and tangled protein strands in meat and allows them to cure to a gel with heat in a similar manner as surimi.\n\nSection::::Hong Kong.\n", "Many sources attribute the distinctive collection of toppings on a Chicago-style wiener to historic Maxwell Street and the \"Depression Sandwich\" reportedly originated by Fluky's in 1929. The founders of Vienna Beef frankfurters—the most common brand served today, first sold at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago—and the proprietors of Fluky's were both Jewish, which may account for the wieners being pork-free and kosher-style.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "Section::::United States grading system.\n", "In the North American Meat Processor (NAMP) meat buyers guide, it is item #1114D Beef Shoulder, Top Blade Steak. This variation on the original flat iron cut was identified in 2002 as part of a National Cattlemen's Beef Association initiative, in conjunction with the University of Nebraska and the University of Florida to find lower-priced cuts which could be trimmed into steaks and roasts.\n", "BULLET::::- Button ribs are flat, circular-shaped bones located at the sirloin end of the loin. They are not actually ribs, as they are not taken from the rib cage. The button ribs consist of the last four to six bones on the backbone; they do not have actual ribs connected to them. The meat on the button ribs consists of meat that covers each button and connects them together.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03382	Why do pictures on a wall curl inward/ outward?	This is a best guess based on the information you provided. It might be the humidity not the temperature, wafting steam from hot water near it for a few minutes and see if this results in a change. If it doesn't work try it again when the corner are curled in the opposite direction.	[ "Section::::Matching angles.\n", "Stanton (p. 24) also notes that Jane Frank worked out a method - unspecified - of stiffening the apertures' often jagged edges so that they held their shape and flatness. These creations are a type of \"shaped canvas\", though obviously very different from the shaped canvases of Frank Stella and others more commonly associated with this term.\n", "Section::::Conformation.:Long, sloping pasterns.\n", "The \"stair-shaped\" missing part of the picture at the top right corner originates from the fact that the camera for the top-right quadrant has a magnified view; when its images are scaled down to match the other three cameras, there is necessarily a gap in the rest of that quadrant. This effect is also present on other four-camera Hubble pictures, and can be displayed at any corner depending on how the image has been re-oriented for publication.\n", "CS6 brings the \"straighten\" tool to Photoshop, where a user simply draws a line anywhere on an image, and the canvas will reorient itself so that the line drawn becomes horizontal, and adjusts the media accordingly. This was created with the intention that users will draw a line parallel to a plane in the image, and reorient the image to that plane to more easily achieve certain perspectives.\n", "On the evolution of technique in his illustration, Grossman has said, \"I was impressed by the way David Levine and the Push Pin artists were using line to develop a bulgy three-dimensional feeling in their work. I found an old airbrush in my dad's shop and discovered a jiffy way to outbulge them all. For a while I diligently pursued outline-less-ness as the secret to a real stereoscopic three-dimensional look. I felt my line work belonged to a different world that had nothing to do with the airbrush and went its separate way. Lately I find a strong line reasserting itself in my pictures.\"\n", "Originally, the quality was shown in terms of \"entering\" or \"exiting\" figures, where, from the viewer's point of view, the figure would be pointing towards (downward) or away from (upward) the viewer. Entering figures have the stable quality, while the exiting figures have the mobile quality; when an entering figure is rotated upside-down, it becomes an exiting figure, and vice versa. However, based on this classification, the four figures that point in both directions regardless of rotation have the quality of both entering and exiting, and must be evaluated in terms of its neighbors or generating figures.\n", "Reality is as thin as paper and betrays with all its cracks its imitative character.\" Gordon has taken that rather gnomic attitude and amended it into a series of conscious contemplations, his pictures dealing with all the ways in which people use pictures, see themselves as pictures, become part of the pictorial processes. And in his best work, he slices through that thin paper of reality to reveal things that are not so much imitative as indicative.\n", "Section::::North Wall.\n", "Section::::Conformation.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and importance.\n", "Section::::Activity of the gallery.:Partners and funders.\n", "The frame along with its mounts protects and often makes the art look better. Art work framed well will stay in good condition for a long period of time. Joan Miró once did a work specifically to frame with a flea market frame. Many painters and photographers who work with canvas \"gallery-wrap\" their artwork, a practice wherein the image extends around the edges of the stretched canvas and therefore precludes use of a traditional picture frame, although a floater frame may be used. As picture frames can be expensive when purchased new, some people remove the pictures from a frame and use the frame for other pictures.\n", "Referring to the photo of the cam assembly (often simply called a cam; it was not meant to be disassembled), the holes in the side plates at the lower left are for the assembly's pivot rod, which is fixed to the frame. At the extreme upper left is part of a disconnectable pivot that pulls down on the typing linkage. When installed, down is to the right in the photo, so to speak.\n", "Golden Wheat Line, Homer-Laughlin Company produced the Golden Wheat line between 1949 and 1966. These pieces were added to Duz Detergent boxes as an enticement to buyers. These dishes feature a center picture of wheat bending in the wind, with a trim on the edge in 22k gold.\n\nPartnership Lines \n", "\"One day I was walking on Miami Beach and saw a very large woman wearing the tiniest string bikini I had ever seen, sitting on the beach, knitting. I thought to myself, 'I wish I had a camera.' I suddenly saw photography as a way to capture a moment for storytelling. I kept this thought in my mind, and after college I bought my first camera, a Petri 35mm SLR. I was not a technical person, I often made mistakes like color shifts and grainy pictures. But I realized the mistakes made my photographs look a lot like paintings.\"\n\nSection::::Career.\n", "Mackie line\n\nIn photographic science, a Mackie line is an adjacency or border effect created during development, at the border between areas of high and low densities.\n\nDuring developing, developer remains relatively fresh in an area of low density as less developing takes place, and consequently, developer oxidation product concentration remains relatively low. At the border between high and low density areas the relatively fresh developer diffuses laterally into the high density area and causes there a continuation of development. The result is an increased border density of the high density area.\n", "\"Studio Wall\" was preceded by a work of the same title painted in 1852, an oil on paper now in the Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin. That painting features casts of two arms and a separate hand, the arms arranged so as to suggest a relationship to a body from which they have been removed. \n", "Cow Wallpaper\n\nAndy Warhol's Cow Wallpaper was the first in a series of wallpaper designs he created from the 1960s to the 1980s.\n", "Section::::History.:Planning of the gallery.\n", "Contemplating his encounter with this mysterious force, he draws a square, then two arrows: one pointing left and one pointing right toward both edges. He then pokes a hole through the paper and realizes he needs to run away from the camera, not toward the edges.\n", "Section::::Activity of the gallery.\n\nSection::::Activity of the gallery.:Education.\n", "Picture frame\n\nA picture frame is a decorative edging for a picture, such as a painting or photograph, intended to enhance it, make it easier to display or protect it.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "It also may be seen in the sloping or battered walls of some Tibetan monastery and fortress architecture, as well as that of Bhutan. The lower parts of these walls, approximately one third, have a slight inward curve, but the higher parts are straight. If one builds a whole wall as a straight, sloping surface, it appears to bulge outward. An example in Bhutan is the Dobji dzong. When some collapsed walls of the Punakha dzong were rebuilt, around 1996, this wisdom about optical perceptions appears to have been overlooked or unknown to the restorers and, the rebuilt walls, being straight, appear to bulge, according to Chris Butters, the author of \"The Treasure Revealer of Bhutan\", Bibliotheca Himalayica, 1995.\n", "In furniture making this method is often used in the production of rocking chairs, cafe chairs, and other light furniture. The iconic No. 14 chair by Thonet is a well-known design based on the technique. The process is in widespread use for making casual and informal furniture of all types, particularly seating and table forms. It is also a popular technique in the worldwide production of furniture with frames made of heavy cane, which is commonly imported into European and Western shops.\n" ]	[ "Pictures on the wall curl inward or outward." ]	[ "Pictures don't do this normally. It is porbably something specific happening here." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pictures on the wall curl inward or outward." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pictures don't do this normally. It is porbably something specific happening here." ]
2018-00725	What does it mean that the British coastline's fractal dimension is 1.26?	Fractional dimension of 1.26 basically tells you that coastline has dimension slightly more than 1. So if we use that as our guide, let's say you zoomed into a 1-dimensional line. It would appear longer because you're zoomed in, right? Zoom into a coastline, and it will appear longer than what you'd expect from a line. Like, zoom into a line 2x. It seems 2x longer. Zoom into British coastline 2x? It will appear about 2.4x longer. You notice all sorts of uneven shapes in it which you had ignored while zoomed out, but which now stand out. Zoom in again 2x, and again there are uneven rough details which you had glossed over, and taking those tiny uneven bits into account, again you measure the coastline as 2.4x longer than before. Basically, fractal dimension is a measure of how "rough" the object is. If you have spiky enough surface, it starts to resemble 3d object instead of 2d one. Have squiqqly enough line, and it starts looking like surface instead. Actually, "the squiqqliest line" is so called "space filling curve", which actually totally fills a surface. It's a 2d line because of how squiqqly it is. British coastline is still pretty close to a line, it's not that squiqqly, so its fractal dimension is pretty close to 1.	[ "How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\n\n\"How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\" is a paper by mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot, first published in \"Science\" in 5 May 1967. In this paper, Mandelbrot discusses self-similar curves that have Hausdorff dimension between 1 and 2. These curves are examples of \"fractals\", although Mandelbrot does not use this term in the paper, as he did not coin it until 1975. The paper is one of Mandelbrot's first publications on the topic of fractals.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Shape.\n\nThe United Kingdom's coastline is more broken than coastlines of many other countries. It has a fractal or Hausdorff dimension or 'wiggliness' of 1.25, which is comparatively high; the Australian coastline for example has a fractal dimension of 1.13, and that of South Africa is 1.02.\n", "Near the end of the paper Mandelbrot briefly discusses how one might approach the study of fractal-like objects in nature that look random rather than regular. For this he defines statistically self-similar figures and says that these are encountered in nature.\n\nThe paper is important because it is a \"turning point\" in Mandelbrot's early thinking on fractals. It is an example of the linking of mathematical objects with natural forms that was a theme of much of his later work.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Coastline paradox\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by length of coastline\n", "where \"M\" is a positive constant and \"D\" is a constant, called the dimension, greater than or equal to 1. Intuitively, if a coastline looks smooth it should have dimension close to 1; and the more irregular the coastline looks the closer its dimension should be to 2. The examples in Richardson's research have dimensions ranging from 1.02 for the coastline of South Africa to 1.25 for the West coast of Britain. \n", "In his paper titled How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension published in \"Science\" in 1967 Mandelbrot discusses self-similar curves that have Hausdorff dimension that are examples of \"fractals\", although Mandelbrot does not use this term in the paper, as he did not coin it until 1975. The paper is one of Mandelbrot's first publications on the topic of fractals.\n", "This discussion implies that it is meaningless to talk about the length of a coastline; some other means of quantifying coastlines are needed. Mandelbrot discusses an empirical law discovered by Lewis Fry Richardson, who observed that the measured length \"L\"(\"G\") of various geographic borders was a function of the measurement scale \"G\". Collecting data from several different examples, Richardson conjectured that \"L\"(\"G\") could be closely approximated by a function of the form\n", "Mandelbrot then describes various mathematical curves, related to the Koch snowflake, which are defined in such a way that they are strictly self-similar. Mandelbrot shows how to calculate the Hausdorff dimension of each of these curves, each of which has a dimension \"D\" between 1 and 2 (he also mentions but does not give a construction for the space-filling Peano curve, which has a dimension exactly 2). He notes that the approximation of these curves with segments of length \"G\" have lengths of the form formula_2. The resemblance with Richardson's law is striking. The paper does not claim that any coastline or geographic border actually \"has\" fractional dimension. Instead, it notes that Richardson's empirical law is compatible with the idea that geographic curves, such as coastlines, can be modelled by random self-similar figures of fractional dimension.\n", "In 1968, the Hungarian theoretical biologist Aristid Lindenmayer (1925–1989) developed the L-system, a formal grammar which can be used to model plant growth patterns in the style of fractals. L-systems have an alphabet of symbols that can be combined using production rules to build larger strings of symbols, and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures. In 1975, after centuries of slow development of the mathematics of patterns by Gottfried Leibniz, Georg Cantor, Helge von Koch, Wacław Sierpiński and others, Benoît Mandelbrot wrote a famous paper, \"How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\", crystallising mathematical thought into the concept of the fractal.\n", "Coastlines are less definite in their construction than idealized fractals such as the Mandelbrot set because they are formed by various natural events that create patterns in statistically random ways, whereas idealized fractals are formed through repeated iterations of simple, formulaic sequences.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Coastline problem\n\nBULLET::::- Fractal dimension\n\nBULLET::::- Gabriel's Horn, a geometric figure with infinite surface area but finite volume\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\", a paper by Benoît Mandelbrot\n\nBULLET::::- Paradox of the heap\n\nBULLET::::- Zeno's paradoxes\n", "Furthermore, the measurement of any coastline is subject to variation depending upon the scale of map used. It is a meaningless statistic without knowing the scale of the map being used and the accuracy of the measurement. A larger map scale and smaller unit of measure will result in more detail being revealed and measured and thus a greater length. And because the resultant length increases exponentially faster than the increase of scale of measurement, there is no such thing as \"an approximate answer\" to this question. This is referred to as the coastline paradox. A coastline is fractal-like — which means that it has self-similar properties, similar at every scale — therefore the closer the observer looks, the more detail is revealed, leading to a greater overall length.\n", "There are different kinds of fractals. A coastline with the stated property is in \"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\" That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\n", "In older British and Commonwealth atlases, it was common to show a known area at the same scale, and the usual area to show was either Wales for smaller scales, or Great Britain for larger areas.\n\nThe British comedy show \"The Eleven O'Clock Show\" parodied the use of this measurement, by introducing a news article about an earthquake in Wales, stating that an area the size of Wales was affected. The Radio 4 programme \"More or Less\" introduced the idea of \"kilowales\" – an area 1,000 times the size of Wales. \"The Register\" introduced the nanowales (20.78 m).\n", "In three-dimensional space, the coastline paradox is readily extended to the concept of fractal surfaces whereby the area of a surface varies, depending on the measurement resolution.\n\nSection::::Mathematical aspects.\n", "However, not all curves can be measured in this way. A fractal is, by definition, a curve whose complexity changes with measurement scale. Whereas approximations of a smooth curve tend to a single value as measurement precision increases, the measured value for a fractal does not converge.\n", "The paper examines the coastline paradox: the property that the measured length of a stretch of coastline depends on the scale of measurement. Empirical evidence suggests that the smaller the increment of measurement, the longer the measured length becomes. If one were to measure a stretch of coastline with a yardstick, one would get a shorter result than if the same stretch were measured with a ruler. This is because one would be laying the ruler along a more curvilinear route than that followed by the yardstick. The empirical evidence suggests a rule which, if extrapolated, shows that the measure length increases without limit as the measurement scale decreases towards zero.\n", "Section::::Statistics.:Measuring a coastline.\n\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline. His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\n", "BULLET::::- Each zoom level doubles in both dimensions, so a single tile is replaced by 4 tiles when zooming in. This means that about 22 zoom levels are sufficient for most practical purposes.\n\nBULLET::::- The Web Mercator projection is used, with latitude limits of around 85 degrees.\n\nThe de facto OpenStreetMap standard, known as Slippy Map Tilenames or XYZ, follows these and adds more:\n\nBULLET::::- An X and Y numbering scheme\n\nBULLET::::- PNG images for tiles\n", "The coastline paradox states that a coastline does not have a well-defined length. Measurements of the length of a coastline behave like a fractal, being different at different scale intervals (distance between points on the coastline at which measurements are taken). The smaller the scale interval (meaning the more detailed the measurement), the longer the coastline will be. This \"magnifying\" effect is greater for convoluted coastlines than for relatively smooth ones. Treated as fractals, coastlines can however be measured. For example, the coast of Great Britain has a size of about 28000 km, which is called its Hausdorff measure.\n", "The reason for these inconsistencies is the \"coastline paradox\". Suppose the coast of Britain is measured using a 200 km ruler, specifying that both ends of the ruler must touch the coast. Now cut the ruler in half and repeat the measurement, then repeat:\n", "Goschen formula\n\nThe Goschen formula (or Goschen proportions) was a ratio devised by George Goschen when Chancellor of the Exchequer, to allocate funding for services in Scotland and Ireland compared with England & Wales, and used from 1888.\n\nSection::::Original formulation.\n\nThe Goschen proportions were originally set at 80:11:9, for England & Wales, Scotland, and Ireland respectively. There is disagreement as to whether this was to reflect the proportions in which the three major territories paid probate duty, or whether the ratio was based on population shares.\n", "Whether or not natural landscapes behave in a generally fractal manner has been the subject of some research. Technically speaking, any surface in three-dimensional space has a topological dimension of 2, and therefore any fractal surface in three-dimensional space has a Hausdorff dimension between 2 and 3. Real landscapes however, have varying behaviour at different scales. This means that an attempt to calculate the 'overall' fractal dimension of a real landscape can result in measures of negative fractal dimension, or of fractal dimension above 3. In particular, many studies of natural phenomena, even those commonly thought to exhibit fractal behaviour; do not do so, over more than a few orders of magnitude. For instance, Richardson's examination of the western coastline of Britain showed fractal behaviour of the coastline over only two orders of magnitude. In general, there is no reason to suppose that the geological processes that shape terrain on large scales (for example plate tectonics) exhibit the same mathematical behaviour as those that shape terrain on smaller scales (for instance soil creep).\n", "Section::::Career.:Houses.:Vista Point (1970).\n\nIn the late 1960s, Gwynne's quantity surveyor, Ken Monk, asked him to design a summer house in West Sussex on a strip of land overlooking the Channel. This house was Vista Point, completed in 1970, and designed to take full advantage of the site.\n", "In 2004 Verity was commissioned to design and build a hand-carved map of the United Kingdom to form the paving for the British Memorial Garden in New York's Hanover Square. The Garden commemorates the 67 British victims of the September 11, 2001 attack on the World Trade Center. The map features all the counties of Great Britain, as well as the boroughs of London and British Islands and protectorates. The map is carved from grey flagstone from Caithness and sandstone from Moray, Scotland.\n", "A scientist on the research vessel is credited with pioneering the technique.\n\nSection::::Area.\n\nSection::::Area.:Barn, outhouse, shed.\n", "Long Forties\n\nLong Forties is an area of the northern North Sea that is fairly consistently forty fathoms (240 feet/73 metres) deep.\n\nThus, on a nautical chart with depth shown in fathoms, a long area with many \"40\" notations can be seen.\n\nSection::::Extent.\n\nLong Forties are located between the northeast coast of Scotland and the southwest coast of Norway, centred about 57°N 0°30′E; compare to the Broad Fourteens.\n\nSection::::Economics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21776	how the PS4 can run games like RDR2 Spider-Man and God of war despite being 5 years old. How can it run it so smoothly?	It all boils down to software optimization. Consoles run games at relatively low framerates (and resolution), optimised for viewing on average living room televisions. These lower performance goals, make it easier for games to look good, even on oldish hardware.	[ "Section::::Power usage.\n", "Games marketed by Sony as \"PS4 Pro Enhanced\" have specific optimizations when played on this model, such as 4K resolution graphics and/or higher performance. For games not specifically optimized, an option known as \"Boost Mode\" was added on system software 4.5, which can be enabled to force higher CPU and GPU clock rates on existing games to possibly improve performance.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Internet features.\n", "Section::::Central processing unit.\n\nBULLET::::- CPU: MIPS III R5900-based \"Emotion Engine\", clocked at 294.912 MHz (299 MHz on newer versions), with 128-bit SIMD capabilities\n\nBULLET::::- 250 nm CMOS manufacturing (ending with 65 nm CMOS), 13.5 million transistors, 225 mm² die size, 15 W dissipation (combined EE+GS in SCPH-7500x: 86 mm², 53.5 million transistors) (combined EE+GS+RDRAM+DRAM in SCPH-7900x ended with 65nm CMOS design)\n", "Pre-release reception to the console from developers and journalists was positive. Mark Rein of Epic Games praised the \"enhanced\" architecture of Sony's system, describing it as \"a phenomenal piece of hardware\". John Carmack, programmer and co-founder of id Software, also commended the design by saying \"Sony made wise engineering choices\", while Randy Pitchford of Gearbox Software expressed satisfaction with the amount of high-speed memory in the console. Eurogamer also called the graphics technology in the PS4 \"impressive\" and an improvement from the difficulties developers experienced on the PlayStation 3.\n", "The hardware uses the Emotion Engine CPU, a custom-designed processor based on the MIPS architecture with a floating point performance of 6.2 GFLOPS, and the custom-designed Graphics Synthesizer GPU, with a fillrate of 2.4 gigapixels/second, capable of rendering up to 75 million polygons per second. When accounting for features such as lighting, texture mapping, artificial intelligence, and game physics, it has a real-world performance of 3 million to 16 million polygons per second.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Audio/video.\n", "The power consumption of the initial PlayStation 3 units, based on 90 nm Cell CPU, ranges from 170–200 W during normal use, despite having a 380 W power supply.\n\nThe power consumption of newer 40 GB PlayStation 3 units (65 nm process Cell/90 nm RSX), ranges from 120-140 W during normal use. \n\nThe power consumption of \"slim\" PlayStation 3 (45 nm process Cell/40 nm RSX) ranges from 65-84 W during normal use. \n\nSection::::Power consumption.:Universal power supply.\n", "The PSP is powered by an 1800 mAh battery (1200 mAh on the 2000 and 3000 models) that provides between about three and six hours of gameplay, between four and five hours of video playback, or between eight and eleven hours of audio playback.\n\nSection::::Software.\n\nSection::::Software.:System Software.\n\nThe PSP runs a custom operating system referred to as the System Software, which can be updated over the Internet, or by loading an update from a Memory Stick or UMD. The software cannot be downgraded.\n", "The PlayStation utilises a proprietary video compression unit called MDEC, which is integrated into the CPU, allowing for the presentation of full motion video at a higher quality than other consoles of its generation.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Hardware problems.\n", "The CUH-1200 model update power supply rating reduced from 250W to 230W, with gameplay, and standby download power usages reduced to around 82% of the previous version's values (148.6 to 122W running , 70 to 58W in standby download mode).\n", "Another key area of the game is its programmable pixel shaders. Sony's own \"PlayStation Shader Language\" (PSSL) was introduced on the PlayStation 4. It has been suggested that the PlayStation Shader Language is very similar to the HLSL standard in DirectX 11, with just subtle differences that could be eliminated for the most part through preprocessor macros.\n\nBesides the kernel and related components, other components included and worth mentioning are Cairo, jQuery, Lua, Mono, OpenSSL, WebKit, and the Pixman rendering library. Many of these are open-source software, although the PlayStation 4 is not an open console.\n", "Section::::Software.:Photo management.\n\nBULLET::::- Photo Gallery\n", "Section::::Technology.:Supported System Languages.\n\nArabic, Chinese (Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), Czech, Danish, Dutch, English (United Kingdom), English (United States), French (Canada), French (France), Finnish, German, Greek, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese (Brazil), Portuguese (Portugal), Russian, Romanian, Spanish (Latin America), Spanish (Spain), Swedish, Thai, Turkish, Vietnamese.\n\nSection::::History of updates.\n", "The PS4 features a \"Rest mode\" feature. This places the console in a low-power state, while allowing users to immediately resume their game or app once the console is awoken. The console also is able to download content such as game and OS updates while it is in this state.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Controllers.\n", "On September 7, 2016, Sony unveiled the PlayStation 4 Slim, a smaller version of the console; and a high-end version called the PlayStation 4 Pro, which features an upgraded GPU and a higher CPU clock rate to support enhanced performance and 4K resolution in supported games.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAccording to lead architect Mark Cerny, development of Sony's fourth video game console began as early as 2008.\n", "The Software Development Kit (SDK) is based on LLVM and Clang, which Sony has chosen due to its conformant C and C++ front-ends, C++11 support, compiler optimization and diagnostics.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Graphical shell.\n", "Section::::Games.\n", "Section::::History of updates.\n", "Section::::Home consoles.:PlayStation 4.:Pro model.\n", "The PlayStation 4 has been produced in various models: the original, the Slim, and the Pro. Successive models have added or removed various features, and each model has variations of Limited Edition consoles.\n\nSection::::Hardware revisions.:PlayStation 4 Slim.\n", "Rendering games at 4K resolution is achieved through various rendering techniques and hardware features; PlayStation technical chief Mark Cerny explained that Sony could not \"brute force\" 4K without compromising form factor and cost, so the console was designed to support \"streamlined rendering techniques\" using custom hardware, \"best-in-breed temporal and spatial anti-aliasing algorithms\", and \"many new features from the AMD Polaris architecture as well as several even beyond it\". The most prominent technique used is checkerboard rendering, wherein the console only renders portions of a scene using a checkerboard pattern, and then uses algorithms to fill in the non-rendered segments. The checkerboarded screen can then be smoothed using an anti-aliasing filter. Hermen Hulst of Guerrilla Games explained that PS4 Pro could render something \"perceptively so close [to 4K] that you wouldn't be able to see the difference\".\n", "Section::::Processors and memory.\n\nThe PlayStation 4 uses a semi-custom Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) developed by AMD in cooperation with Sony and is manufactured by TSMC on a 28 nm process node. Its APU is a single-chip that combines a central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU), as well as other components such as a memory controller and video decoder/encoder. The console also includes secondary custom chips that handle tasks associated with downloading, uploading, and social gameplay. These tasks can be handled seamlessly in the background during gameplay or while the system is in sleep mode.\n", "As with its predecessors, the New Nintendo 3DS is compatible with existing DS and 3DS titles. Some software titles, such as \"Xenoblade Chronicles 3D\" and Super Nintendo Entertainment System games released for Virtual Console, are specifically optimized for the device and its upgraded processor and are incompatible with earlier 3DS and 2DS models.\n", "Section::::Hardware.\n\nThe technology in the PlayStation 4 is similar to the hardware found in modern personal computers. This familiarity is designed to make it easier and less expensive for game studios to develop games for the PS4.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Technical specifications.\n\nThe PlayStation 4 uses an Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) developed by AMD in cooperation with Sony. It combines a central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU), as well as other components such as a memory controller and video decoder.\n", "In its first sales announcement of 2015, Sony confirmed on January 4 that it had sold-through 18.5 million PlayStation 4 units. Sony updated the sell-through figures for the system throughout 2015: over 20 million consoles , over 30 million , and over 35 million by the end of 2015. As of May 22, 2016, total worldwide sell-through reached 40 million. As of December 2018, over 91 million consoles and more than 876 million PlayStation 4 games have been sold worldwide.\n\nThe PlayStation 4 holds a market share of at least 70% within all European countries, .\n\nSection::::Hardware revisions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00173	Out of Africa - How does that explain the diverse cultures, body types, eyes, and skin colors present today?	Large amounts of melanin help prevent UV damage to the skin. Wearing more clothes and/or moving to colder/darker areas means loss of melanin makes little difference. Skin gets lighter. People in colder areas have higher body fat content and fattier diets, in order to insulate themselves against the cold. Babies lose the lactase protein as they grow older, causing them to become lactose intolerant. People who domesticated cattle were more likely to retain the lactase gene into adulthood. In all of these situations, you have to take into account that the people that are better attuned to the environment are more likely to have children that survive into adulthood and make up the next generation. Other factors play a part as well. A few survivors of a plague may repopulate, causing the entire population to overwhelmingly share from a smaller pool of different genes. Viking raids may in part explain why Scandinavian countries have a high percentage of blond(e)s. That's only talking about features we can observe. As far as actual genetic comparisons, 2/3 of human history has been spent in Africa. There are groups in Africa that are genetically closer to everyone outside Africa than they are to other groups on the continent.	[ "Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by a high density of cultures. Notable are the, Dogon people from Mali; Edo, Yoruba, Igbo people and the Nok civilization from Nigeria; Kuba and Luba people from Central Africa; Ashanti people from Ghana; Zulu people from Southern Africa; and Fang people from Equatorial Guinea (85%), Cameroon and Gabon; the Sao civilization people from Chad; Kwele people from eastern Gabon, Republic of the Congo and Cameroon.\n", "The evolutionary forces that contribute to patterns of human genetic variation include new mutations, natural selection, sexual selection, genetic drift, population bottlenecks, founder effects, isolation by distance, genetic admixture and barriers to gene flow. The most influential factors affecting human genetic variation are founder effects and isolation by distance.\n", "BULLET::::- 120,000–75,000 years ago: Khoisanid back-migration from Southern Africa to East Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- 100,000 years ago: Earliest structures in the world (sandstone blocks set in a semi-circle with an oval foundation) built in Egypt close to Wadi Halfa near the modern border with Sudan.\n\nBULLET::::- 82,000 years ago: small perforated seashell beads from Taforalt in Morocco are the earliest evidence of personal adornment found anywhere in the world.\n\nBULLET::::- 80,000–70,000 years ago: Recent African origin: separation of sub-Saharan Africans and non-Africans.\n", "Modern humans are thought to have evolved in Africa at least 200 kya (thousand years ago), with some evidence suggesting a date of over 300 kya. Examination of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), Y-chromosome DNA, and X-chromosome DNA indicate that the earliest population to leave Africa consisted of approximately 1500 males and females. It has been suggested by various studies that populations were geographically “structured” to some degree prior to the expansion out of Africa; this is suggested by the antiquity of shared mtDNA lineages. One study of 121 populations from various places throughout the continent found 14 genetic and linguistic “clusters,” suggesting an ancient geographic structure to African populations. In general, genotypic and phenotypic analysis have shown “large and subdivided throughout much of their evolutionary history.”\n", "Section::::Culture.:Art.\n\nThe oldest abstract art in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years in the Cave of Pigeons in Taforalt, eastern Morocco. The second oldest abstract form of art and the oldest rock art is found in the Blombos Cave at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years. Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world.\n", "Cuvier wrote regarding Caucasians:\n\nThe white race, with oval face, straight hair and nose, to which the civilised people of Europe belong and which appear to us the most beautiful of all, is also superior to others by its genius, courage and activity.\n\nRegarding those he termed \"Ethiopian,\" Cuvier wrote:\n", "African American biological variation is also a product of the great Atlantic Diaspora, a movement that was initiated with the social and economic disruptions in Africa preceding the trans-Atlantic trade in enslaved Africans peoples and includes the forced march of prisoners of war to the sea for transport, the dynamics of the horrific Middle Passage and the seasoning process, and the biological and biocultural readjustments of Africans to enslavement in the Americas\n\nSection::::Biohistorical Studies.:Biohistory and gender studies.\n", "Section::::Paleoanthropology.\n\nThe migration of farmers from the Middle East into Europe is believed to have significantly influenced the genetic profile of present-day Europeans. Some recent studies have focused on corroborating current genetic data with the archeological evidence from Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The Natufian culture, which existed about 12,000 years ago, has been the subject of various archeological investigations, as it is generally believed to be the source of the European and North African Neolithic.\n", "Genetic analysis has supported archaeological hypotheses of a large-scale migrations of Bantu speakers into Southern Africa approximately 5 kya. Microsatellite DNA, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and insertion/deletion polymorphisms (INDELS) have shown that Nilo-Saharan speaking populations originate from Sudan. Furthermore, there is genetic evidence that Chad-speaking descendents of Nilo-Saharan speakers migrated from Sudan to Lake Chad about 8 kya. Genetic evidence has also indicated that non-African populations made significant contributions to the African gene pool. For example, the Saharan African Beja people have high levels of Middle-Eastern as well as East African Cushitic DNA.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Human archaeology.:Europe.\n", "The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater genetic drift because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted.\n", "The African diaspora is believed to have begun some 50,000 years ago, long enough for many changes to have occurred in humans remaining in Africa. The genetic trends reported involve humans who left Africa, and their genetic histories. The diversity found outside of Africa may well have been accentuated since populations migrating to new hunting grounds would rarely have had individuals moving backwards into previously settled regions. But within Africa, isolation would have been geographically aided primarily by the Sahara Desert, leaving people in areas not separated by the desert to travel and migrate relatively freely.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Anthropology.:Genetic evidence.:Autosomal DNA.:Admixture analysis.\n", "A Stanford team found the greatest diversity outside Africa among people living in the wide crescent of land stretching from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean to northern India. Not only was the region among the first colonized by the African migrants, they theorize, but the large number of European and East Asian genes among the population indicates that it has long been a human highway, with large numbers of migrants from both directions conquering, trading and generally reproducing along its entire length. The same team also found out that the Bedouin nomads of the Middle East actually have some similarities to Europeans and South Asians\n", "Archaeogenetics is the study of ancient DNA using various molecular genetic methods and DNA resources. Recent advances in this field has made it possible to test several thousand year old human remains. Ancient DNA analysis of a Savanna Pastoral Neolithic fossil excavated at the Luxmanda site in Northern Tanzania found that the specimen carried a large proportion of ancestry related to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture of the Levant, similar to that borne by modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations inhabiting the Horn of Africa. This suggests that the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture bearers may have been Cushitic speakers and were present in the region by the 2nd millennium BCE. Over time, they were gradually absorbed by neighboring communities in the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, historiolinguistics indicate that the makers of the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (Stone Bowl Culture) in the Great Lakes area likely spoke South Cushitic languages. DNA analysis has also confirmed ancestral ties between the Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture bearers and the makers of the Epipaleolithic Iberomaurusian culture of North Africa, the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture of the Levant, the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture of East Africa, the Early Neolithic Ifri N'Ammar culture of Morocco, and the Ancient Egyptian culture of the Nile Valley, with fossils associated with these early cultures all sharing a common genomic component.\n", "Section::::Genetic reconstruction.:Autosomal DNA.\n", "Sarah A. Tishkoff and colleagues analyzed a global sample consisting of 952 individuals from the HGDP-CEPH survey, 2432 Africans from 113 ethnic groups, 98 African Americans, 21 Yemenites, 432 individuals of Indian descent, and 10 Native Australians. A global STRUCTURE analysis of these individuals examined 1327 polymorphic markers, including of 848 STRs, 476 indels, and 3 SNPs. The authors reported cluster results for K=2 to K=14. Within Africa, six ancestral clusters were inferred through Bayesian analysis, which were closely linked with ethnolinguistic heritage. Bantu populations grouped with other Niger-Congo-speaking populations from West Africa. African Americans largely belonged to this Niger-Congo cluster, but also had significant European ancestry. Nilo-Saharan populations formed their own cluster. Chadic populations clustered with the Nilo-Saharan groups, suggesting that most present-day Chadic speakers originally spoke languages from the Nilo-Saharan family and later adopted Afro-Asiatic languages. Nilotic populations from the African Great Lakes largely belonged to this Nilo-Saharan cluster too, but also had some Afro-Asiatic influence due to assimilation of Cushitic groups over the last 3,000 years. Khoisan populations formed their own cluster, which grouped closest with the Pygmy cluster. The Cape Coloured showed assignments from the Khoisan, European and other clusters due to the population's mixed heritage. The Hadza and Sandawe populations formed their own cluster. An Afro-Asiatic cluster was also discerned, with the Afro-Asiatic speakers from North Africa and the Horn of Africa forming a contiguous group. Afro-Asiatic speakers in the Great Lakes region largely belonged to this Afro-Asiatic cluster as well, but also had some Bantu and Nilotic influence due to assimilation of adjacent groups over the last 3,000 years. The remaining inferred ancestral clusters were associated with European, Middle Eastern, Oceanian, Indian, Native American and East Asian populations.\n", "Variations in the \"KITL\" gene have been positively associated with about 20% of melanin concentration differences between African and non-African populations. One of the alleles of the gene has an 80% occurrence rate in Eurasian populations. The \"ASIP\" gene has a 75–80% variation rate among Eurasian populations compared to 20–25% in African populations. Variations in the \"SLC24A5\" gene account for 20–25% of the variation between dark and light skinned populations of Africa, and appear to have arisen as recently as within the last 10,000 years. The Ala111Thr or rs1426654 polymorphism in the coding region of the SLC24A5 gene reaches fixation in Europe, but is found across the globe, particularly among populations in Northern Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia.\n", "According to a 2000 study of Y-chromosome sequence variation, human Y-chromosomes trace ancestry to Africa, and the descendants of the derived lineage left Africa and eventually were replaced by archaic human Y-chromosomes in Eurasia. The study also shows that a minority of contemporary populations in East Africa and the Khoisan are the descendants of the most ancestral patrilineages of anatomically modern humans that left Africa 35,000 to 89,000 years ago. Other evidence supporting the theory is that variations in skull measurements decrease with distance from Africa at the same rate as the decrease in genetic diversity. Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa, and this is thought to be due to bottlenecks during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size.\n", "Section::::Genetic reconstruction.:Pathogen DNA.\n", "Sub-Saharan Africa is the region in Africa situated south of the Sahara where a large number of dark-skinned populations live. Dark-skinned groups on the continent have the same receptor protein as \"Homo ergaster\" and \"Homo erectus\" had. According to scientific studies, populations in Africa also have the highest skin colour diversity. High levels of skin colour variation exists between different populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. These differences depend in part on general distance from the equator, illustrating the complex interactions of evolutionary forces which have contributed to the geographic distribution of skin color at any point of time.\n", "Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within regions, and approximately 90% occurs between regions. Because skin color has been under strong selective pressure, similar skin colors can result from convergent adaptation rather than from genetic relatedness; populations with similar pigmentation may be genetically no more similar than other widely separated groups. Furthermore, in some parts of the world where people from different regions have mixed extensively, the connection between skin color and ancestry has substantially weakened. In Brazil, for example, skin color is not closely associated with the percentage of recent African ancestors a person has, as estimated from an analysis of genetic variants differing in frequency among continent groups.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Archaeogenetics of the Near East\n\nBULLET::::- Behavioral modernity\n\nBULLET::::- Coastal migration\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dawn of Humanity\" (2015 PBS film)\n\nBULLET::::- Early human migrations\n\nBULLET::::- Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic history of Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic history of Italy\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic history of North Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic history of the British Isles\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula\n\nBULLET::::- Hofmeyr Skull\n\nBULLET::::- Human evolution\n\nBULLET::::- Human origins\n\nBULLET::::- Identical ancestors point\n\nBULLET::::- Indo-Aryan migration theory\n\nBULLET::::- Sahara pump theory\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Incredible Human Journey\"\n", "Patterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists discovered a skin-lighting mutation that partially accounts for the appearance of Light skin in humans (people who migrated out of Africa northward into what is now Europe) which they estimate occurred 20,000 to 50,000 years ago. The East Asians owe their relatively light skin to different mutations. On the other hand, the greater the number of traits (or alleles) considered, the more subdivisions of humanity are detected, since traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to the same geographical location. Or as put it:\n", "Skin colour seems to vary mostly due to variations in a number of genes of large effect as well as several other genes of small effect (\"TYR\", \"TYRP1\", \"OCA2\", \"SLC45A2\", \"SLC24A5\", \"MC1R\", \"KITLG\" and \"SLC24A4\"). This does not take into account the effects of epistasis, which would probably increase the number of related genes. Variations in the \"SLC24A5\" gene account for 20–25% of the variation between dark and light skinned populations of Africa, and appear to have arisen as recently as within the last 10,000 years. The Ala111Thr or rs1426654 polymorphism in the coding region of the SLC24A5 gene reaches fixation in Europe, and is also common among populations in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia.\n", "Admixture mapping is a technique used to study how genetic variants cause differences in disease rates between population. Recent admixture populations that trace their ancestry to multiple continents are well suited for identifying genes for traits and diseases that differ in prevalence between parental populations. African-American populations have been the focus of numerous population genetic and admixture mapping studies, including studies of complex genetic traits such as white cell count, body-mass index, prostate cancer and renal disease.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03998	Why is Texas so Conservative Compared to Some Other Southern States?	Texas isn't that red any more, largely due to the demographic shift. For national level elections like president and senators, the state is only weakly right-leaning. Most of the county and state level reps are Republicans because the demographic shift is concentrated in a few cities, leaving the other counties dominated by older, whiter, more conservative voters. This is a problem the Democratic party faces in almost every state, not just Texas.	[ "In the post-Reconstruction era, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Republican Party became non-competitive in the South, due to Democrat-dominated legislatures' disenfranchisement of blacks and many poor whites and Latinos. In Texas, the Democrat-dominated legislature excluded them through passage of a poll tax and white primary. As can be seen on the graph at the following link, voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average.\n", "Politics of Texas\n\nFor approximately 99 years, from after Reconstruction until the 1990s, the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics.\n\nIn a reversal of alignments, since the late 1960s the Republican Party has grown more prominent within the state based on an influx of primarily white voters (the majority in the state) from the Democratic Party. By the mid-1990s, it became the state's dominant political party.\n\nSection::::Cultural background.\n", "The 19th-century culture of the state was heavily influenced by the plantation culture of the \"Old South,\" dependent on African-American slave labor, as well as the \"patron\" system once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies the government's primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving of individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues. These influences continue to affect Texas today. In their book, \"Texas Politics Today 2009-2010,\" authors Maxwell, Crain, and Santos attribute Texas' traditionally low voter turnout among whites to these influences. But beginning in the early 20th century, voter turnout was dramatically reduced by the state legislature's disenfranchisement of most blacks, and many poor whites and Latinos.\n", "Texas, split between the south and southwest regions, has become a consistently Republican state at all levels and is the home state of then President George W. Bush. Economically and racially diverse, Texas includes a huge swath of the Bible Belt where many voters, especially those in rural Texas, identify as born-again or evangelical Christians and therefore tend to vote Republican due to the party's opposition to abortion and gay marriage. Although once part of the Solid South, the last time Texas voted for a Democratic presidential nominee was Jimmy Carter in 1976.\n", "Membership in political parties in Texas has undergone realignment since the late 20th century, following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and renewed participation by minorities in the political system. Jefferson County has been dominated by Democratic voters in presidential elections: prior to 1965 they were majority white and the party has since attracted many minorities. In many parts of Texas, Republican voters have predominated in presidential elections, especially since the turn of the 21st century.\n", "Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized. The state's population grew quickly during this period, with large levels of migration from outside the state. As a part of the Sun Belt Texas experienced strong economic growth, particularly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Texas's economy diversified, lessening its reliance on the petroleum industry. By 1990, Hispanics overtook blacks to become the largest minority group in the state.\n\nSection::::Texas modernizes: 1945–present.:Shift to the Republican Party.\n", "YCT has consistently rated the Texas legislature going back to the 1975 Legislative Session. In doing so, Young Conservatives of Texas has now compiled 38 years worth of ratings of the Texas Senate and Texas Legislature which track the ideological shift in Texas political parties over that time.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as President Lyndon B. Johnson, Vice-President John Nance Garner, Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn, and Senator Ralph Yarborough were Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided into conservative, moderate and liberal factions that vied with one another for power.\n\nSection::::Increasing Republican strength: 1960 to 1990.\n", "In 2018, urban areas averaged 70-30 blue and rural areas 80-20 red. The Gallup poll found that 20% are liberal and 35% moderate. Texas is receiving immigration and coming-of-age voters that are majority-Democrat. If Texas became a competitive state, it would have a very large impact as it is only one of the big 4 states that consistently goes Republican in presidential elections. The most important states are California (55), Texas (38), New York (29), Florida (29), Illinois (20), and Pennsylvania (20).\n", "From 1902 through 1965, Texas had virtually disenfranchised most blacks and many Latinos and poor whites through imposition of the poll tax and white primaries. Across the South, Democrats controlled congressional apportionment based on total population, although they had disenfranchised the black population. The Solid South exercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region.\n", "During the late 20th century, the Republican Party replaced the Democratic Party as the dominant party in the state, as the latter became more politically liberal and as demographic changes favored the former.\n\nSection::::Government and politics.\n\nThe current Texas Constitution was adopted in 1876. Like many states, it explicitly provides for a separation of powers. The state's Bill of Rights is much larger than its federal counterpart, and has provisions unique to Texas.\n\nSection::::Government and politics.:State government.\n", "In its first century Texas was a Democratic bastion, only voting for another party once – in 1928 when anti-Catholic sentiment against Al Smith drove voters to Republican Herbert Hoover. A gradual trend towards increasing social liberalism in the Democratic Party, however, has turned the state (apart from Hispanic South Texas, the Trans-Pecos and several large cities) into a Republican stronghold. Since 1980 Texas has voted Republican in every election.\n\nWinners of the state are in bold.\n\nSection::::Election of 1860.\n", "Section::::Democratic dominance.\n\nFrom 1848 until Dwight D. Eisenhower's victory in 1952, Texas voted for the Democratic candidate for president in every election except 1928, when it did not support Catholic Al Smith. The state had a white majority and Democrats re-established their dominance after the Civil War. In the mid-20th century 1952 and 1956 elections, the state voters joined the landslide for Dwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to the Civil War and Reconstruction).\n", "Section::::Current situation.\n\nRepublicans control all statewide Texas offices, both houses of the state legislature and have a majority in the Texas congressional delegation. \n\nDemocrats benefit heavily from its large cities; Austin, the state capital, votes Democratic, as do El Paso, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio and the Rio Grande Valley. The suburbs of these cities are moderate. \n", "Prior to the mid-20th century Texas was essentially a one-party state, and the Democratic primary was viewed as \"the real election\". The Democratic Party had conservative and liberal factions, which became more pronounced after the New Deal. Additionally, several factions of the party briefly split during the 1930s and 40s.\n", "BULLET::::- Brazoria County, south of Houston, is heavily Republican, especially in rural areas and in central portions of the county, such as Manvel, Alvin, and Angleton. However, Democrats perform strongly in southern portions of the county such as Lake Jackson, Clute, and Freeport due to its large Hispanic population, as well as its large base of unionized refinery workers. Additionally, the northern areas of the county around fast-growing Pearland have recently become more moderate and even Democratic compared to the rest of the county due to its ethnic diversity, as well as large numbers of Northern and West Coast transplants.\n", "The Panhandle and several counties in or west of Midland were one of the first areas of Texas to abandon the state’s “Solid South” Democratic roots; nine counties have not supported a Democrat for president since 1948. The Rolling Plains to the east remained Democratic for substantially longer: even Walter Mondale in 1984 when losing Texas by 27.50 percentage points carried five counties in this region. However, since 2000 this region has swung very rapidly towards the Republican Party due to its population’s intransigent opposition to the liberal social policies of the Democratic Party and by 2016 has become nearly so Republican as the Panhandle.\n", "Section::::Redistricting disputes and the 1990s.\n\nDespite increasing Republican strength in national elections, after the 1990 census, Texas Democrats still controlled both houses of the State Legislature and most statewide offices. As a result, they directed the redistricting process after the decennial census. Although Congressional Texas Democrats received an average of 45 percent of the votes, Democrats consistently had a majority in the state delegation, as they had in every election since at least the end of Reconstruction.\n", "After the Reconstruction era, the Republican Party of Texas gradually lost power, and after the turn of the century, the \"Lily Whites\" pushed blacks out of power. The Democrats passed disfranchising laws near the turn of the century requiring poll taxes be paid prior to voter registration; together with the party establishing white primaries, black voting dropped dramatically, from more than 100,000 statewide in the 1890s, to 5,000 in 1906. Mexican Americans and poor whites were also adversely affected by such measures. For more than 100 years, the Republicans were a minority party in the state.\n", "Like other Southern states, by the late 1870s white Democrats regained control of the state legislature. They passed a new constitution in 1876 that segregated schools and established a poll tax to support them, but it was not originally required for voting.\n\nWithin the Republican Party the \"Lily-white movement\" emerged, a movement to wrest control of the party by whites and eliminate black influence altogether. The movement had its origins in Texas but spread across the nation. This in addition to wider efforts to restrict the influence of non-whites rapidly reversed the fortunes of the black population.\n", "The long-term effects of slavery can be seen to this day in the state's demographics. The eastern quarter of the state, where cotton production depended on thousands of slaves, is considered the westernmost extension of the Deep South. It contains a very significant number of Texas' African-American population. On the other hand, western parts of Texas were still a frontier during the American Civil War. While settled chiefly by Anglo-Southerners after the war; with the history of ranching, some of these parts have been more associated with the Southwest than the South.\n", "John Tower's 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP officeholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican Governor Bill Clements and Senator Phil Gramm (also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white-majority Texas. The last Democratic presidential candidate to win the state was Jimmy Carter in 1976. Previously, a Democrat had to win Texas to win the White House, but in the 1992 election, Bill Clinton won the Oval Office while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable.\n", "Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third-party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back Democrat Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including Senator Phil Gramm, Congressman Kent Hance, and GOP Governor Rick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker.\n", "In 1976, Jimmy Carter became the last Democratic presidential candidate to carry Texas, and the tide was clearly turning when Democrats lost the gubernatorial election of 1978. Bill Clements was the first Republican governor since Reconstruction. By the 1990s Republicans had gained a strong foothold in the state, and throughout the 21st century they have been largely victorious. Currently, both houses of the Texas Legislature feature Republican majorities. At the federal level, Republicans hold both of the state's Senate seats and 24 out of the possible 36 House of Representatives seats allotted to Texas.\n\nSection::::Activities.\n", "Culturally, Northeast Texas is more closely akin to Arkansas, Louisiana, and even Mississippi than it is to West Texas. Northeast Texas is in the Bible Belt creating a strong Fundamentalist Christian sentiment. Though 35% of Texas's population is now Hispanic, African-Americans are still the most populous minority in Northeast Texas. During the Civil Rights Movement several communities clashed over integration. In presidential elections since 1950, both Smith County (county seat Tyler) and Gregg County (county seat Longview) have been reliably Republican.\n" ]	[ "Texas is more conservative than other southern states.", "Texas is more a republican state than other republican states. " ]	[ "Texas faces the same problems as other states with a minority of republicans controlling the state due to the way elections work.", "Texas is not that much of a red state anymore. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Texas is more conservative than other southern states.", "Texas is more a republican state than other republican states. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Texas faces the same problems as other states with a minority of republicans controlling the state due to the way elections work.", "Texas is not that much of a red state anymore. " ]
2018-02368	How can the scientists who photographed a single atom be sure it is only one, and how did they get it?	[In the center of the picture, a small bright dot is visible – a single positively-charged strontium atom. It is held nearly motionless by electric fields emanating from the metal electrodes surrounding it. […] When illuminated by a laser of the right blue-violet color, the atom absorbs and re-emits light particles sufficiently quickly for an ordinary camera to capture it in a long exposure photograph.]( URL_0 ) I think they kept repeating the experiment while reducing the number of atoms trapped. When the number got small enough they could match the level of light. It would step down as the number was reduced. When no more light was visible all the atoms were gone. So they could show a stepping down in light. The last step down before extinguishment must have been one atom. The level above, twice as much light, was two atoms.	[ "\"A Boy And His Atom\" was created by a team of IBM scientists – together with Ogilvy & Mather, IBM's longstanding advertising agency – at the company's Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California. Using a scanning tunneling microscope, Carbon monoxide molecules were manipulated into place on a copper substrate with a copper needle at a distance of 1 nanometer. They remain in place, forming a bond with the substrate because of the extremely low temperature of 5 K (, ) at which the device operates. The oxygen component of each molecule shows up as a dot when photographed by the scanning tunneling microscope, allowing the creation of images composed of many such dots.\n", "The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an \"Ion\" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film.\n\nSection::::Social and cultural implications.\n", "The team created 242 still images with 65 carbon monoxide molecules. The images were combined to make a stop-motion film. Each frame measures 45 by 25 nanometers. It took four researchers two weeks of 18-hour days to produce the film.\n", "The scintillating chambers were assembled into high stacks and long rows. When a signal was detected, it was usually detected in multiple chambers. The timing of each signal from each photomultiplier told the approximate path and speed of the particle. The type of signal and the speed through the \"pool\" of chambers told researchers if they had observed a monopole or merely some common charged particle.\n\nVery important results were obtained by MACRO in other sectors:\n\nBULLET::::1. cosmic rays: flux, composition and shadow of the sun and the moon;\n", "In the judging procedure, the receiver is taken out of the Ganzfeld state and given a set of possible targets, from which they select one which most resembled the images they witnessed. Most commonly there are three decoys along with the target, giving an expected rate of 25%, by chance, over several dozens of trials.\n\nSection::::Analysis of results.\n\nSection::::Analysis of results.:Early experiments.\n", "When an experimentally found diffraction pattern deviates from the mathematically derived Mott scattering, it gives clues as to the size and shape of an atomic nucleus This is because the Mott cross section assumes only point-particle Coulombic and magnetic interactions between the incoming electrons and the target. When the target is a charged sphere rather than a point (as all real protons and nuclei are), additions to the Mott cross section equation (form factor terms) can be used to probe the distribution of the charge inside the sphere.\n", "In 2008 the Titan laser aimed at a 1-millimeter-thick gold target was used to generate positron–electron pairs in large numbers.\n\nSection::::Photon to electron and positron.:Aestheticity.\n\nThe symmetry of the phenomena conforms to the definition of a fractal. Therefore if formula_13 produces quantities of pairs of electrons by a factor of 2, the production itself would become symmetric such that formula_24, where n is the times the phenomena occurs.\n\nSection::::Astronomy.\n", "Section::::History.:Atom Probe Tomography (APT).\n", "Section::::History.:Imaging Atom Probe.\n", "A superposition in the bomb tester is created with an angled half-silvered mirror, which allows a photon to either pass through it, or be reflected off it at a 90-degree angle (see figure 3). There is equal probability it will do either. The photon enters a superposition, in which it does both. The single particle both passes through, and is reflected off the half-silvered mirror. From that moment on, the single photon exists in two different locations.\n", "Air showers of secondary particles generated from a primary cosmic ray hitting the Earth's atmosphere are spread over many kilometres when they hit the ground. An array allows for detection of secondary particles caused by a single cosmic ray at several detectors. The geographic spread of the detectors allows for calculation of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- The total number of particles detected can be used to estimate the number of particles in the air shower and from the model of the energy required to generate those particles, the energy of the primary cosmic ray.\n", "BULLET::::- A second beam splitter identical to the initial one: it's positioned opposite the initial one, at the intersection between the lower path and upper path (after they have been redirected by the ordinary mirrors), at the exit of the box.\n\nBULLET::::- A pair of photon detectors: they're located outside the box, aligned with the second beam-splitter. The photon can be detected at either or neither, but never both.\n\nSection::::How it works.:Part 1: The Superposition.\n", "Drawing on Rutherford's groundbreaking experiments in the early years of the 20th century, ideas for detecting quarks were formulated. Rutherford had proven that atoms had a small, massive, charged nucleus at their centre by firing alpha particles at atoms of gold. Most had gone through with little or no deviation, but a few were deflected through large angles or came right back. This suggested that atoms had internal structure and a lot of empty space.\n", "As that Z = N and Z = N, A = N + N = Z + Z. By making the substitution Z = Z and Z = Z − 1, the mass number can be rewritten in the form 2Z - 1.\n\nExamples of mirror nuclei:\n\nBULLET::::- H and He: \"J\" = 1/2\n\nBULLET::::- C and O: \"J\" = 0\n\nBULLET::::- N and O: \"J\" = 1/2\n\nBULLET::::- Na and Al: \"J\" = 4\n\nBULLET::::- Na and Al: \"J\" = 1\n", "In Europe, Cecil Frank Powell independently used exactly the same method to identify the new particle pi-meson (now pion), but with improved full-tone photographic emulsion plates. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1950 \"for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method\". Powell acknowledge the method developed by Bose and Choudhuri as the first attempt in this field in his 1959 book \"The Study of Elementary Particles by the Photographic Method\".\n\nSection::::Later life.\n", "In 1947, G. D. Rochester and Clifford Charles Butler of the University of Manchester published two cloud chamber photographs of cosmic ray-induced events, one showing what appeared to be a neutral particle decaying into two charged pions, and one which appeared to be a charged particle decaying into a charged pion and something neutral. The estimated mass of the new particles was very rough, about half a proton's mass. More examples of these \"V-particles\" were slow in coming.\n", "In 2001, they repeated the reaction and formed a further 2 atoms in a confirmation of their discovery experiment. A third atom was tentatively assigned to Lv on the basis of a missed parental alpha decay.\n", "If the result is 2, the experiment is repeated. If the photon continues to be observed at C and the bomb doesn't explode, it can eventually be concluded that the bomb is a dud.\n\nWith this process 25% of live bombs can be identified without being detonated, 50% will be detonated and 25% remain uncertain. By repeating the process with the uncertain ones, the ratio of identified non-detonated live bombs approaches 33% of the initial population of bombs. See the \"Experiments\" section below for a modified experiment that can identify the live bombs with a yield rate approaching 100%.\n", "Charge induced shifting causes experimentally measured BEs of XPS peaks to appear at BEs that are greater or smaller than true BEs. Charge referencing is performed by adding or subtracting a \"Charge Correction Factor\" to each of the experimentally measured BEs. In general, the BE of the hydrocarbon peak of the C (1s) XPS signal is used to charge reference (charge correct) all BEs obtained from non-conductive (insulating) samples or conductors that have been deliberately insulated from the sample mount.\n", "BULLET::::- 1947: Berta Karlik, an Austrian physicist, was awarded the Haitinger Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for her discovery of Astatine\n\nBULLET::::- 1952: Photograph 51, an X-ray diffraction image of crystallized DNA, was taken by Raymond Gosling in May 1952, working as a PhD student under the supervision of British chemist and biophysicist Rosalind Franklin; it was critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA.\n", "As the imaging of a nuclear marker is common across many images, a widely used protocol is to segment the nuclei. This can be useful by itself if nuclear measurements are needed or it can serve to seed a watershed which extends the segmentation to the whole image.\n\nAll major segmentation methods have been reported on cell images, from simple thresholding to level set methods. Because there are multiple image modalities and different cell types, each of which implies different tradeoffs, there is no single accepted solution for this problem.\n", "In the last two decades, several computer-automated experiments have been conducted to search for isolated fractionally charged particles. As of 2015, no evidence for fractional charge particles has been found after measuring over 100 million drops.\n\nSection::::Experimental procedure.\n\nSection::::Experimental procedure.:Apparatus.\n", "Atomic fountain\n\nAn atomic fountain is a cloud of atoms that is tossed upwards in the Earth's gravitational field by lasers. If it were visible, it would resemble the water in a fountain. While weightless in the toss, the atoms are measured to set the frequency of an atomic clock.\n", "In 2008, the team at RIKEN conducted the analogous reaction with a lead-206 target for the first time:\n\nThey were able to identify 8 atoms of the new isotope Hs.\n\nIn 2008, the team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) studied the analogous reaction with iron-56 projectiles for the first time:\n\nThey were able to produce and identify 6 atoms of the new isotope Hs. A few months later, the RIKEN team also published their results on the same reaction.\n", "BULLET::::- In the first shootdown of an American military aircraft by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, two Soviet Lavochkin La-11 fighters intercepted and downed a U.S. Navy PB4Y-2 Privateer surveillance plane that was flying over or near the Latvian SSR with ten men on board, the first of over 350 American servicemen lost in Cold War missions.\n\nBULLET::::- Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology showed the first photograph demonstrating the appearance of an atom, using x-rays to simulate a pattern of iron and sulphur atoms, within the mineral marcasite, magnified more than 10,000,000 times.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00074	Why aren't humans born nocturnal?	Why would we be? Humans don’t have senses particularly well-suited to functioning in the dark. We also have adaptations (like sweating and a lack of hair) that make us perform well during the day. All signs point to us working best as diurnal animals.	[ "While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, there is a leading hypothesis out in the evolutionary biology community. Known as the \"bottleneck theory\", it postulates that millions of years ago in the Mesozoic era, many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal characteristics isn't needed anymore due to the evolution of compensatory sensory systems, such as a heightened sense of smell and more astute auditory systems. In a recent study, recently extinct elephant birds and modern day nocturnal kiwi bird skulls were examined to recreate their likely brain and skull formation. They indicated that olfactory bulbs were much larger in comparison to their optic lobes, indicating they both have a common ancestor who evolved to function as a nocturnal species, decreasing their eyesight in favor of a better sense of smell. The anomaly to this theory were anthropoids, who appeared to have the most divergence from nocturnality than all organisms examined. While most mammals didn't exhibit the morphological characteristics expected of a nocturnal creature, reptiles and birds fit in perfectly. A larger cornea and pupil correlated well with whether these two classes of organisms were nocturnal or not.\n", "Nocturnality\n\nNocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is \"nocturnal\", versus diurnal meaning the opposite.\n", "Section::::Human disturbances.:Spatial disturbance.\n", "Climate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat.\n\nSection::::Human disturbances.\n\nThe exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance.\n\nSection::::Human disturbances.:Light pollution.\n", "Nocturnality is a form of crypsis, an adaptation to avoid or enhance predation. One of the reasons that (cathemeral) lions prefer to hunt at night is that many of their prey species (zebra, antelope, impala, wildebeest, etc.) have poor night vision. Many species of small rodents, such as the Large Japanese Field Mouse, are active at night because most of the dozen or so birds of prey that hunt them are diurnal. There are many diurnal species that exhibit some nocturnal behaviors. For example, many seabirds and sea turtles only gather at breeding sites or colonies at night to reduce the risk of predation to themselves and/or their offspring. Nocturnal species take advantage of the night time to prey on species that are used to avoiding diurnal predators. Some nocturnal fish species will use the moonlight to prey on zooplankton species that come to the surface at night. Some species have developed unique adaptations that allow them to hunt in the dark. Bats are famous for using echolocation to hunt down their prey, using sonar sounds to capture them in the dark.\n", "Section::::Human disturbances.:Light pollution.:Rhythmic behaviors.\n\nRhythmic behaviors are affected by light pollution both seasonally and daily patterns. Migrating birds or mammals might have issues with the timing of their movement for example. On a day-to-day basis, species can see significant changes in their internal temperatures, their general movement, feeding, and body mass. These small scale changes can eventually lead to a population decline, as well as hurting local trophic levels and interconnecting species. Some typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance.\n\nSection::::Human disturbances.:Light pollution.:Reproduction.\n", "It was described also c. 1530 by Petrus Apianus in his \"Cosmographicus Liber\", republished later by Gemma Frisius with a widely circulated illustration of the instrument while being used by an observer.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n\nNocturnals have been most commonly constructed of wood or brass.\n", "Nocturnal (disambiguation)\n\nNocturnality describes sleeping during the daytime and being active at night.\n\nNocturnal may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Night owl (person), a person who tends to stay up until late at night\n\nSection::::Astronomy.\n\nBULLET::::- Nocturnal (instrument), a device for determining time from the position of stars\n\nBULLET::::- Nocturnal sects, a category in astrology of sect\n\nSection::::Books.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nocturnal\" (novel), a 2007 podcast and 2012 novel by podcast author Scott Sigler\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nocturnal\" (Varèse), by Edgard Varèse\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nocturnal after John Dowland\", a solo guitar work by Benjamin Britten (opus 70, 1963)\n\nSection::::Music.:Bands.\n\nBULLET::::- Knoc-turn'al (born 1975), rapper\n", "Light pollution is a major issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a \"longer day\", allowing for a longer hunting period, which is detrminental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them.\n\nSection::::Human disturbances.:Light pollution.:Orientation.\n", "Diurnal animals, including squirrels and songbirds, are active during the daytime. Crepuscular species, such as rabbits, skunks, tigers, and hyenas, are often erroneously referred to as nocturnal. Cathemeral species, such as fossas and lions, are active both in the day and at night.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "Initially, most animals were diurnal, but adaptations that allowed some animals to become nocturnal is what helped contribute to the success of many, especially mammals. This evolutionary movement to nocturnality allowed them to better avoid predators and gain resources with less competition from other animals. This did come with some adaptations that mammals live with today. Vision has been one of the most greatly affected senses from switching back and forth from diurnality to nocturnality, and this can be seen using biological and physiological analysis of rod nuclei from primate eyes. This includes losing two of four cone opsins that assists in colour vision, making many mammals dichromats. When early primates converted back to diurnality, better vision that included trichromatic colour vision became very advantageous, making diurnality and colour vision adaptive traits of simiiformes, which includes humans. Studies using chromatin distribution analysis of rod nuclei from different simian eyes found that transitions between diurnality and nocturnality occurred several times within primate lineages, with switching to diurnality being the most common transitions.\n", "Only with the massive extinction at the end of the Cretaceous did the dinosaurs leave the stage open for the establishment of a new fauna of mammals. Despite this, mammals continued to be small-bodied for millions of years. While all the largest animals alive today are mammals, the majority of mammals are still small nocturnal animals.\n\nSection::::Mammalian nocturnal adaptions.\n\nSeveral different features of mammalian physiology appear to be adaptations to a nocturnal lifestyle, mainly related to the sensory organs. These include:\n\nSection::::Mammalian nocturnal adaptions.:Senses.\n\nBULLET::::- Acute sense of hearing, including external pinnae and auditory ossicles.\n", "Nocturnal bottleneck\n\nThe nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis is a hypothesis to explain several mammalian traits. In 1942, Gordon Lynn Walls described this concept which states that placental mammals were mainly or even exclusively nocturnal through most of their evolutionary story, starting with their origin 225 million years ago, and only ending with the demise of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. While some mammal groups have later evolved to fill diurnal niches, the approximately 160 million years spent as nocturnal animals has left a lasting legacy on basal anatomy and physiology, and most mammals are still nocturnal.\n\nSection::::Evolution of mammals.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Gunwitch.\n", "The location of the physical circannual timer in organisms and how it works are almost entirely unknown.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nIn one study performed by Eberhard Gwinner, two species of birds were born in a controlled environment without ever being exposed to external stimuli. They were presented with a fixed Photoperiod of 10 hours of light and 14 hours of darkness each day. The birds were exposed to these conditions for eight years and consistently molted at the same time as they would have in the wild, indicating that this physiological cycle is innate rather than governed environmentally.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Polychrome.\n", "Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Infancy.\n\nFrom birth until the first year, the child is referred to as an infant. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it, but certain aspects are relatively clear.\n\nThe majority of a newborn infant's time is spent in sleep. At first, this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal.\n\nInfants can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs:\n\nBULLET::::- quiet sleep and active sleep (dreaming, when REM sleep occurs)\n", "Even if the nightly course of the stars has been known since antiquity, mentions of a dedicated instrument for its measurement are not found before the Middle Ages. The earliest image presenting the use of a nocturnal is in a manuscript dated from the 12th century. Raymond Lull repeatedly described the use of a \"sphaera horarum noctis\" or \"astrolabium nocturnum\".\n\nWith Martín Cortés de Albacar's book \"Arte de Navegar\", published in 1551 the name and the instrument gained a larger popularity.\n", "Section::::In captivity.\n\nSection::::In captivity.:Zoos.\n\nIn zoos, nocturnal animals are usually kept in special night-illumination enclosures to invert their normal sleep-wake cycle and to keep them active during the hours when visitors will be there to see them.\n\nSection::::In captivity.:Pets.\n", "Nocturnal animals have higher body temperatures, greater activity, rising serotonin, and diminishing cortisol during the night—the inverse of diurnal animals. Nocturnal and diurnal animals \"both\" have increased electrical activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and corresponding secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland, at night. Nocturnal mammals, which tend to stay awake at night, have higher melatonin at night just like diurnal mammals do. And, although removing the pineal gland in many animals abolishes melatonin rhythms, it does not stop circadian rhythms altogether—though it may alter them and weaken their responsiveness to light cues. Cortisol levels in diurnal animals typically rise throughout the night, peak in the awakening hours, and diminish during the day. In diurnal animals, sleepiness increases during the night.\n", " While protection from predators, interspecific interactions, and the harsh environment propose ultimate causes for nocturnal behavior as they increase the species fitness, the proximate causes of nocturnality are linked to the environmental effects on circadian rhythm. While diurnal species are stimulated by the appearance of the sun, in nocturnal species, activity is highly impacted by the degree of moon light available. The presence of a new moon has correlated with inhibition of activity in night monkeys who exhibit lower levels of activity with decreasing levels of moon light. Therefore the lunar cycle has a significant influence on the foraging and a nocturnal behaviors of night monkey species.\n", "The family \"Aotidae\" is the only family of nocturnal species within the suborder Anthropoidea. While the order primates is divided into prosimians; many of which are nocturnal, the anthropoids possess very few nocturnal species and therefore it is highly likely that the ancestors of the family \"Aotidae\" did not exhibit nocturnality and were rather diurnal species. The presence of nocturnal behavior in \"Aotidae\" therefore exemplifies a derived trait; an evolutionary adaptation that conferred greater fitness advantages onto the night monkey. Night monkey share some similarities with nocturnal prosimians including low basal metabolic rate, small body size and good ability to detect visual cues at low light levels. Their responses to olfactory stimulus are intermediate between those of the prosimians and diurnal primate species, however the ability to use auditory cues remains more similar to diurnal primate species than to nocturnal primate species. This provides further evidence to support the hypothesis that nocturnality is a derived trait in the family \"Aotidae\". \n", "Section::::Advantages.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Resource competition.\n\nBeing active at night is a form of niche differentiation, where a species' niche is partitioned not by the amount of resources but by the amount of time (i.e. temporal division of the ecological niche). Hawks and owls can hunt the same field or meadow for the same rodents without conflict because hawks are diurnal and owls are nocturnal. This means they are not in competition for each other's prey.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Predation.\n", "Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven. In addition, many oscillators, such as liver cells, for example, have been shown to respond to inputs other than light, such as feeding.\n\nSection::::Light and the biological clock.\n\nLight resets the biological clock in accordance with the phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.\n\nSection::::Enforced longer cycles.\n", "Nocturnal (instrument)\n\nA nocturnal is an instrument used to determine the local time based on the relative positions of two or more stars in the night sky. Sometimes called a \"horologium nocturnum\" (time instrument for night) or \"nocturlabe\" (in French and occasionally used by English writers), it is related to the astrolabe and sundial. Knowing the time is important in piloting for calculating tides and some nocturnals incorporate tide charts for important ports.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01512	How do movies, TV Series etc get to torrents? Who actually pirates them, upload and how?	People who think others should be able to see them without paying "rip" them, generally either from streaming sites or from DVD/bluray releases (though there are other options, like using a TV-capture card on a live broadcast). Generally they'll transcode them into more manageable formats next, and then they use their own torrent client (usually) to generate a .torrent file from the files they have . This file is very small, so they upload that to one or other of the torrent-indexing sites (or just hand it out to friends) and run their torrent client until there are enough other copies out there that the torrent has become self-sustaining. Sometimes people who do this band together into whole communities, and sometimes they just do it for one thing that they want to make available. That's all.	[ "Section::::Adoption.:Film, video, and music.\n\nBULLET::::- BitTorrent Inc. has obtained a number of licenses from Hollywood studios for distributing popular content from their websites.\n\nBULLET::::- Sub Pop Records releases tracks and videos via BitTorrent Inc. to distribute its 1000+ albums. Babyshambles and The Libertines (both bands associated with Pete Doherty) have extensively used torrents to distribute hundreds of demos and live videos. US industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails frequently distributes albums via BitTorrent.\n", "These types of intermediaries do not host or transmit infringing content, themselves, but may be regarded in some courts as encouraging, enabling or facilitating infringement by users. These intermediaries may include the author, publishers and marketers of peer-to-peer networking software, and the websites that allow users to download such software. In the case of the BitTorrent protocol, intermediaries may include the torrent tracker and any websites or search engines which facilitate access to torrent files. Torrent files don't contain copyrighted content, but they may make reference to files that do, and they may point to trackers which coordinate the sharing of those files. Some torrent indexing and search sites, such as The Pirate Bay, now encourage the use of magnet links, instead of direct links to torrent files, creating another layer of indirection; using such links, torrent files are obtained from other peers, rather than from a particular website.\n", "Disadvantages to download-to-own movies are that they have generally large file sizes, usually from 600MB to over 1GB. They may take a long time to download, and will fill up a hard drive quickly. The movie may be accidentally deleted or lost through a hard drive crash, but with proper back up procedures, and the continuing drop in prices for larger hard drives becoming commonplace, these problems can be minimized.\n", "Section::::Technologies built on BitTorrent.:Throttling and encryption.\n", "In a nutshell, a torrent file is like an index, which facilitates the efficient lookup of information (but doesn't contain the information itself) and the address of available worldwide computers which upload the content. Torrent files themselves and the method of using torrent files have been created to ease the load on servers. With help of torrents, one can download files from other computers which have the file or even a fraction of the file. These \"peers\" allow downloading of the file in addition to, or in place of, the primary server.\n", "The \"archive\" of Pirate Cinema Berlin is said to be growing steadily. Content is mostly obtained via different peer-to-peer file-sharing networks. In late 2008, it contains over 3 TB of compressed, tagged, sorted and searchable video material.\n\nSection::::Melbourne.\n", "BULLET::::- Nastassja Kinski - Maria Nikolaevna Polozov\n\nBULLET::::- Valeria Golino - Gemma Rosselli\n\nBULLET::::- William Forsythe - Prince Ippolito Polozov\n\nBULLET::::- Urbano Barberini - Baron Von Doenhof\n\nBULLET::::- Francesca De Sapio - Mrs. Rosselli\n\nBULLET::::- Jacques Herlin - Pantaleone\n\nBULLET::::- Antonio Cantafora - Richter\n\nBULLET::::- Krzysztof Janczar - Klueber (as Christopher Janczar)\n\nBULLET::::- Christian Dottorini - Emilio\n\nBULLET::::- Alexia Korda - Mrs. Stoltz\n\nBULLET::::- Marinella Anaclerio - Luisa\n\nBULLET::::- Pietro Bontempo - Man with Glasses\n\nBULLET::::- Thierry Langerak - La luna\n\nBULLET::::- Xavier Maly - Pulcinella\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "On September 17, 2013, the company launched \"BitTorrent Bundles for Publishers\", an alpha program for content creators to distribute bundles of any size and file type using the BitTorrent client. The first released bundle was the fantasy feature film \"Overturn: Awakening of the Warrior\" starring Ukrainian Vietnamese actor Ivan Doan\n", "Private torrent trackers are usually invitation only, and require members to participate in uploading, but have the downside of a single centralized point of failure. Oink's Pink Palace and What.cd are examples of private trackers which have been shut down.\n\nSeedbox services download the torrent files first to the company's servers, allowing the user to direct download the file from there. One's IP address would be visible to the Seedbox provider, but not to third parties.\n", "Pantaleone Cippatola – an old man and former opera singer and a regular at the Roselli household, where he occupies a position somewhere between family friend and servant; in spite of his prolonged residence in Germany, he speaks little German\n\nEmilio Roselli, or Emil – younger, and only, brother of Gemma; of weak constitution, he has romantic aspirations for the theatre but his mother wishes him to be set up as a merchant\n", "The company has released \"Bundles\" with artists such as Linkin Park, Pixies, Public Enemy, and Madonna. The Madonna Bundle, entitled \"secretprojectrevolution\", was released on September 24, 2013 and consisted of the 17-minute film of the same name, stills from the film, and an option for those users who submit their email addresses and make a donation that also includes HD and 2K versions of the film, a VICE interview, and a message from Madonna.\n", "List of pirate films\n\nThis is a list of pirate films and series, primarily in the pirate film genre, about the Golden Age of Piracy from the 17th through 18th centuries. The list includes films about other periods of piracy, TV series, and films somewhat tangentially related, such as pirate-themed pornographic films. Films about other types of piracy, such as music piracy, are not included.\n", "BULLET::::- The Internet Archive added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, and all newly uploaded files, in August 2012. This method is the fastest means of downloading media from the Archive.\n\n, BitTorrent had 100 million users and a greater share of network bandwidth than Netflix and Hulu combined. In early 2015, AT&T estimates that BitTorrent represents 20% of all broadband traffic.\n", "Pirated movie release types\n\nPirated movie release types are the different types of pirated movies that end up on the internet. They vary wildly in rarity and quality due to the different sources and methods used for acquiring the video content, in addition to encoding formats. Pirated movie releases may be derived from cams, which have distinctly low quality; screener and workprint discs or digital distribution copies (DDC), telecine copies from analog reels, video on demand (VOD) or TV recordings, and DVD and Blu-Ray rips.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Development.\n", "The BitTorrent specification is free to use and many clients are open source, so BitTorrent clients have been created for all common operating systems using a variety of programming languages. The official BitTorrent client, µTorrent, qBittorrent, Transmission, Vuze, and BitComet are some of the most popular clients.\n", "2008 in piracy\n\n\"See also:\"\n\n2007 in piracy,\n\nother events of 2008,\n\n2009 in piracy and the\n\nlist of 'years of Piracy'.\n", "BULLET::::- Podcasting software is starting to integrate BitTorrent to help podcasters deal with the download demands of their MP3 \"radio\" programs. Specifically, Juice and Miro (formerly known as Democracy Player) support automatic processing of .torrent files from RSS feeds. Similarly, some BitTorrent clients, such as µTorrent, are able to process web feeds and automatically download content found within them.\n\nBULLET::::- DGM Live purchases are provided via BitTorrent.\n\nBULLET::::- VODO, a service which distributes \"free-to-share\" movies and TV shows via BitTorrent.\n\nSection::::Adoption.:Broadcasters.\n", "Modern pirates also use a great deal of technology. It has been reported that crimes of piracy have involved the use of mobile phones, satellite phones, GPS, machetes, AK74 rifles, Sonar systems, modern speedboats, shotguns, pistols, mounted machine guns, and even RPGs and grenade launchers.\n\nSection::::Anti-piracy measures.\n", "Section::::Later years.\n", "\"Steal This Film (Part 2)\" was distributed in a similar manner, but with more trackers and indexes involved, including Isohunt and Mininova. Estimates of the total current downloads of the film hover at around the 6 million mark via bittorrent alone. Since the creators have not attempted to restrict copying, the film is also available on YouTube, Google Video and many other web-based video services.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Search queries.\n", "Section::::Technologies built on BitTorrent.:Web seeding.\n", "Steal This Film\n\nSteal This Film is a film series documenting the movement against intellectual property directed by Jamie King, produced by The League of Noble Peers and released via the BitTorrent peer-to-peer protocol.\n\nTwo parts, and one special The Pirate Bay trial edition of the first part, have been released so far, and The League of Noble Peers is working on \"Steal this Film – The Movie\" and a new project entitled \"The Oil of the 21st Century\".\n\nSection::::Part one.\n", "Comparison of BitTorrent sites\n\nThis is a comparison of BitTorrent sites that includes most of the most popular sites. These sites typically contain multiple torrent files and an index of those files.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nBULLET::::- BitTorrent sites may operate a BitTorrent tracker. Operating a tracker should not be confused with hosting content.\n\nBULLET::::- A directory allows users to browse the content available on a website based on various categories. A directory is also a site where users can find other websites.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07039	How do we know how many of a given ocean species are left in the world?	Its basically impossible to capture every individual in a species and record them to get the value for population size. So to get around this, scientists and staticians take a bunch of samples of individuals from different areas and make stastical inferences about the size of the whole population. A really common method of sampling used is the capture and mark method, where a fish for example will get tagged after being captured and recorded, so that way we can get a more accurate sample without recaptures. Through stastical analysis with softwares like R, combining data from a bunch of areas where the species is know to be present, and through a whole bunch of math, an inference about the whole population size is made. We can never know the true population size, but the goal is to use what we do know to get the closest possible answer.	[ "In a retrospective review in 2011, David Penman and co-authors wrote:\n", "As summarizing remarks, Penman \"et al.\", writing in 2011, stated:\n", "Section::::Modules of Ecosystem Condition.:Fish and Fisheries.\n\nBottom-trawl surveys and pelagic-species acoustic surveys are used to assess changes in fish biodiversity and abundance in LMEs. Fish populations can be surveyed for stock identification, length, stomach content, age-growth relationships, fecundity, coastal pollution and associated pathological conditions, as well as multispecies trophic relationships. Fish trawls can also collect sediment and inform us about ocean-bottom conditions such as anoxia.\n\nSection::::Modules of Ecosystem Condition.:Pollution and Ecosystem Health.\n", "Initially the method of calculation involves assessing the abundance and distribution range of a non-indigenous species (NIS) for a specific area (this can be, for example, an entire regional sea, bay, inlet, lagoon, pond, lake, marina, a sand bank, an aquaculture site etc.). Abundance of a NIS may be ranked as \"low\", \"moderate\" or \"high\"; and the distribution may be scored as \"one locality\" (when a NIS was found only at one locality within the assessment area), \"several localities\", \"many localities\" or \"all localities\" (found at all localities). Combination of the abundance and distribution scores gives five classes of the abundance and distribution range. Once obtained this value aids in calculating an impact on 1) native communities, 2) habitats and, 3) ecosystem functioning. The calculation is based on ecological concepts, e.g. \"key species\", \"type specific communities\", \"habitat alteration, fragmentation and loss\", \"functional groups\", \"food web shift\", etc. Calculations are for a stated time period to enable assessment of temporal changes.\n", "Section::::Project history.\n", "International Census of Marine Microbes\n\nThe International Census of Marine Microbes is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that inventories microbial diversity by cataloging all known diversity of single-cell \n\norganisms including bacteria, Archaea, Protista, and associated viruses, exploring and discovering unknown microbial diversity, and placing that knowledge into ecological and evolutionary contexts.\n\nThe ICoMM program, led by Mitchell Sogin, has discovered that marine microbial diversity is some 10 to 100 times more than expected, and the vast majority are previously unknown, low abundance organisms thought to play an important role in the oceans.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures (ARMS) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs. These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist, where they are left for one year. At the end of the year, the ARMvS is pulled to the surface, along with the species which have inhabited it, for analysis. \n", "The global standard for recording threatened marine species is the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This list is the foundation for marine conservation priorities worldwide. A species is listed in the threatened category if it is considered to be critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. Other categories are near threatened and data deficient.\n\nSection::::Threatened species.:Marine.\n\nMany marine species are under increasing risk of extinction and marine biodiversity is undergoing potentially irreversible loss due to threats such as overfishing, bycatch, climate change, invasive species and coastal development.\n", "CenSeam is a subdivision of the Census of Marine Life program. Organisationally, the components of CenSeam consist of a secretariat (Malcolm Clark, Mireille Consalvey, Ashley Rowden and Karen Stocks) which is hosted by the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research in Wellington, New Zealand; an international steering committee; a taxonomic advisory panel; and two working groups, Data Analysis and Standardisation.\n\nIn 2008 CenSeam began collaborating with the International Seabed Authority to study effects of seabed mining on seamount ecosystems.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Seamount#Conservation\n\nBULLET::::- Bowie Seamount\n\nBULLET::::- Davidson Seamount\n\nBULLET::::- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The Census began in a formal sense with the announcement in May 2000 of eight grants totaling about 4 million US$ to create OBIS, as reported in \"Science\" magazine, 2 June. Meanwhile, an International Scientific Steering Committee was formed in 1999, which by 2001 envisaged \"about half a dozen pilot [field] programs\" for the period 2002-2004 which, along with OBIS and another project called \"History of Marine Animal Populations\" (HMAP), would provide the initial activities of the Census, to be followed by an additional series of field programs in 2005-2007, culminating in an analysis and integration phase in 2008-2010. During the operation of the Census, an additional non-field project was added, the Future of Marine Animal Populations (FMAP), which concentrated on forecasting the future of life in the oceans using modeling and simulation tools.\n", "where \"N\" is the number of individuals at time 1, \"N\" is the number of individuals at time 0, \"B\" is the number of individuals born, \"D\" the number that died, \"I\" the number that immigrated, and \"E\" the number that emigrated between time 0 and time 1. While immigration and emigration can be present in wild fisheries, they are usually not measured.\n", "Individual nations are beginning to note the effect of fishing on seamounts, and the European Commission has agreed to fund the OASIS project, a detailed study of the effects of fishing on seamount communities in the North Atlantic. Another project working towards conservation is CenSeam, a Census of Marine Life project formed in 2005. CenSeam is intended to provide the framework needed to prioritise, integrate, expand and facilitate seamount research efforts in order to significantly reduce the unknown and build towards a global understanding of seamount ecosystems, and the roles they have in the biogeography, biodiversity, productivity and evolution of marine organisms.\n", "Fautin has been called \"the world authority on [sea] anemones\", by Prof. J. Frederick Grassle of Rutgers University, who led the international Census of Marine Life which was completed in 2010. She has personally identified at least 19 new species and has co-created with her husband, Prof. R. W. Buddemeier of the Kansas Geological Survey, an extensive database of hexacorals and related species as part of the census.\n", "When the sample is collected it can be analyzed using a microscope to identify the type of zooplankton or phytoplankton, or a cell count can be undertaken to determine the plankton cell density of the water source.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Marine seasonal succession dynamics.:Seasonal succession in temperate regions.\n", "Census of Coral Reefs\n\nThe Census of Coral Reefs (CReefs) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally. The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems, to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems, and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe. \n", "All spatialized data are visualized either graphically or mapped, and all data can be downloaded. Global fisheries catches from 1950 to the present are available, under explicit consideration of coral reefs, seamounts, estuaries and other critical habitats of fish and marine invertebrates. The data presented, which are all freely available, are meant to support studies of global fisheries trends and the development of sustainable, ecosystem-based fisheries policies.\n", "index of relative population size for the fish. Increases or decreases in the number of adult fish stocks can be detected more rapidly and sensitively by monitoring the ichthyoplankton associated with them, compared to monitoring the adults themselves. It is also usually easier and more cost effective to sample trends in egg and larva populations than to sample trends in adult fish populations.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "By 2008, the IUCN had assessed about 3,000 marine species. This includes assessments of known species of shark, ray, chimaera, reef-building coral, grouper, marine turtle, seabird, and marine mammal. Almost one-quarter (22%) of these groups have been listed as threatened.\n", "BULLET::::- 2001: Through sequencing of the ribosomal RNA gene extracted from marine samples, several European teams discover that eukaryotic picoplankton are highly diverse. This finding followed on the first discovery of such eukaryotic diversity in 1998 by Rappe and colleagues at Oregon State University, who were the first to apply rRNA sequencing to eukaryotic plankton in the open-ocean, where they discovered sequences that seemed distant from known phytoplankton The cells containing DNA matching one of these novel sequences were recently visualized and further analyzed using specific probes and found to be broadly distributed.\n\nSection::::Methods of study.\n", "Future of Marine Animal Populations\n\nThe Future of Marine Animal Populations (FMAP) project was one of the core projects of the international Census of Marine Life (2000–2010). FMAP's mission was to describe and synthesize globally changing patterns of species abundance, distribution, and diversity, and to model the effects of fishing, climate change and other key variables on those patterns. This work was done across ocean realms and with an emphasis on understanding past changes and predicting future scenarios.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::CMFRI’s Major Contributions to the Nation: At a Glance.\n\n• Estimation of the multispecies multi-gear marine fish landings for more than 1200 species covering 1511 fish landing centres on a GIS platform from the EEZ of India for marine fish stock assessment following the self-developed stratified multi-stage random sampling design and maintaining a National Marine Fishery Resources Database which is generated based on continuous and perpetual field data collection on marine fishery resources over decades,\n", "History of Marine Animal Populations\n\nThe History of Marine Animal Populations (HMAP) is an international, interdisciplinary research initiative. It comprises the historical component of the Census of Marine Life and is designed to measure and explain patterns of long-term change in the diversity, distribution and abundance of life in the oceans.\n\nSection::::Aim.\n", "Regional and group estimates have been made, as well:\n\nBULLET::::- 5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide\n\nBULLET::::- \"some 1,300 in Australian Seas\"\n\nBULLET::::- 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa, and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines.\n\nBULLET::::- 669 marine species from California (US)\n\nBULLET::::- 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland\n", "Less common sampling patterns of intermediate domain have also been conducted. This includes a survey region from San Francisco to San Diego which has become increasingly sampled during the spring survey, because the domain covers an expanded region of known sardine spawning grounds. The data from these spring cruise are heavily relied upon for sardine stock assessment and other related research.\n" ]	[ "Scientist know how many of a species is left in the world." ]	[ "The true population size is never known, but scientist use information to get the closest answer." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scientist know how many of a species is left in the world.", "Scientist know how many of a species is left in the world. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The true population size is never known, but scientist use information to get the closest answer.", "The true population size is never known, but scientist use information to get the closest answer." ]
2018-00110	How do they get the softer chocolate inside Lindor truffles?	They make soft chocolate. It's called ganache. In kitchens, you melt chocolate with heavy cream and whip air into it to make it lighter. In general, this melts faster than the solid chocolate on the outside. Edit: Whoops, didn't explain how it gets inside. They use a split mold in order to make a hollow core which is then filled with ganache. You can see when you buy them, they have a very faint line going all the way around. This is left over from the mold. Edit 2: [A lindor truffle pic!]( URL_0 ) I've added a picture for clarity because some people don't see it. Look at the truffle in the back and you'll see the line.	[ "Originally, Lindor was introduced as a bar in 1949 and later in 1967 in form of a ball. Lindor is a type of chocolate produced by Lindt, which is now characterized by a hard chocolate shell and a smooth chocolate filling. It comes in both a ball and a bar variety, as well as in a variety of flavours. Each flavour listed below has its own wrapper colour:\n\nMost of the US Lindor truffles are manufactured in Stratham, New Hampshire.\n", "BULLET::::- The Swiss truffle is made by combining melted chocolate into a boiling mixture of dairy cream and butter, which is poured into molds to set before sprinkling with cocoa powder. Like the French truffles, these have a very short shelf life and must be consumed within a few days of making.\n\nBULLET::::- The French truffle is made with fresh cream and chocolate, and then rolled in cocoa or nut powder.\n\nBULLET::::- The European truffle is made with syrup and a base of cocoa powder, milk powder, fats, and other such ingredients to create an oil-in-water type emulsion.\n", "Chocolate truffle\n\nA chocolate truffle is a type of chocolate confectionery, traditionally made with a chocolate ganache centre coated in chocolate, cocoa powder or chopped toasted nuts (typically hazelnuts, almonds, or coconut), usually in a spherical, conical, or curved shape.\n\nTheir name derives from their resemblance to truffles, edible fungi of the genus \"Tuber\".\n\nSection::::Varieties.\n\nMajor types of chocolate truffle include:\n", "In the U.S. Pacific Northwest, several species of truffle are harvested both recreationally and commercially, most notably, the \"Leucangium carthusianum\", Oregon black truffle; \"Tuber gibbosum\", Oregon spring white truffle; and \"Tuber oregonense\", the Oregon winter white truffle. \"Kalapuya brunnea\", the Oregon brown truffle, has also been commercially harvested and is of culinary note.\n", "The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, and lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to about until final processing.\n", "After this process the beans are much dark and richer. Grinding takes place when the beans are liquefied. This is the base for all chocolate products. The last step of the process cycle is pressing. This is when the beans are mechanically pressed down to extract more of the Cocoa butter. After this process the raw chocolate bars are formed and ready for markets.\n", "Section::::Varieties.:Truffles.\n\nMost commonly in the form of a flaky or smooth chocolate ball or traditionally a truffle-shaped lump, Belgian chocolate truffles are sometimes in encrusted form containing wafers or coated in a high-quality cocoa powder. They contain a soft ganache which is traditionally a semi-emulsion of liquid and therefore has a couple of days shelf-life at low temperatures and/or requires refrigeration. Special truffles sometimes have a fruit, nut or coffee ganache. Rarely they feature a fruit-based liqueur or cream liqueur but remain distinguishable from pralines by their shape and texture in most cases — crossover 'praline-truffles' also exist.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Baumkuchenspitzen.\n\nBaumkuchenspitzen, German for \"tree cake tips\", are miniature versions of baumkuchen that are created from the cake when it is cut in slices and then into pieces that are referred to as \"Spitzen\". These pieces are typically coated in chocolate and sold individually.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Schichttorte.\n", "To prepare the hard variety, the soft chhurpi is wrapped in a jute bag and pressed hard to get rid of the water. After it dries, it is cut into small cuboidal pieces and hung over fire to harden it further.\n\nSection::::Consumption.\n", "They are light brown, square shaped, and made from the same ingredients as \"taai-taai\": rye flour, sugar and anise, and sometimes also cinnamon, and clove. They are fairly chewy, though they harden gradually when exposed to the air.\n", "Dutch process chocolate\n\nDutch process chocolate or Dutched chocolate is chocolate that has been treated with an alkalizing agent to modify its color and give it a milder taste compared to \"natural cocoa\" extracted with the Broma process. It forms the basis for much of modern chocolate, and is used in ice cream, hot cocoa, and baking.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In the United States, Mallomars are produced by Nabisco. A graham cracker circle is overlain with extruded marshmallow, then coated in a thin shell of dark chocolate. Mallomars were introduced to the public in 1913, the same year as the Moon Pie (a confection which has similar ingredients). The first box of Mallomars was sold in West Hoboken, New Jersey (now Union City, New Jersey).\n", "While in the past chefs used to peel truffles, in modern times, most restaurants brush the truffle carefully and shave it or dice it with the skin on so as to make the most of the valuable ingredient. Some restaurants stamp out circular discs of truffle flesh and use the skins for sauces.\n\nSection::::Culinary use.:Truffle oil.\n", "Chocolatiering, the preparing of confections from chocolate, involves the techniques of tempering, molding and sculpting. Tempering is a heat treatment method performed on chocolate involving heating and cooling the chocolate to result in desired characteristics like shininess of the chocolate or 'snap', the way it breaks. Molding is a design technique used in making chocolate pieces that are of a certain shape by taking liquid chocolate and pouring it into a mold and letting it harden. Sculpting is a type of three-dimensional artwork that may involve using molds and pieces of chocolate, and decorating the piece with designs in chocolate.\n", "Section::::Description.:Similar species.\n\n\"Leucangium carthusianum\", the Oregon black truffle, is roughly similar in appearance, habitat, and growing season, but can be distinguished by its darker (charcoal black) peridium. Microscopically, the spores of \"Leucangium\" are larger (60–90 μm) and have a single large oil droplet. \"L. carthusianum\" is also edible and prized for its taste and aroma.\n\nSection::::Habitat and distribution.\n", "BULLET::::- The American truffle is a half-egg-shaped, chocolate-coated truffle, a mixture of dark or milk chocolates with butterfat, and in some cases, hardened coconut oil. Joseph Schmidt, a San Francisco chocolatier, and founder of Joseph Schmidt Confections, is credited with its creation in the mid-1980s.\n\nOther styles include:\n\nBULLET::::- The Belgian truffle or praline is made with dark or milk chocolate filled with ganache, buttercream, or nut pastes.\n", "The chocolate cone itself and the vanilla fondant filling have altered in recent years. The original whips were hand made by ladies extruding chocolate from a piping bag onto a rubber mould, each containing 12 'formers'. This generated the original deeply ridged surface, and the fondant at that time was more dense. The texture of the outside surface is a skeuomorph.\n", "Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are:\n\nBULLET::::- Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal \"seeds\"; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to \"inoculate\" the liquid chocolate with crystals (this method uses the already formed crystals of the solid chocolate to \"seed\" the molten chocolate).\n", "Section::::Cultivation.:In New Zealand and Australia.\n\nThe first black truffles () to be produced in the Southern Hemisphere were harvested in Gisborne, New Zealand, in 1993.\n", "When ingredients are mixed in this way, sometimes for up to 78 hours, chocolate can be produced with a mild, rich taste. Lower-quality chocolate is conched for as little as 6 hours. Since the process is so important to the final texture and flavor of chocolate, manufacturers keep the details of their conching process proprietary.\n", "Cacao pods are harvested by cutting them from the tree using a machete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick. The beans with their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and placed in piles or bins, allowing access to micro-organisms so fermentation of the pectin-containing material can begin. Yeasts produce ethanol, lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid, and acetic acid bacteria produce acetic acid. The fermentation process, which takes up to seven days, also produces several flavor precursors, eventually resulting in the familiar chocolate taste.\n", "They are made from grated sweet potatoes, grated coconut, sugar, flour, coconut milk, and/or water,raisins, ginger, grated nutmeg, salt and essence or vanilla extract. The mixture is combined in a bowl until it thickly coats the back of a spoon. The cooking method is quite simple, but what is often debated is the wrapping. The mixture can be cooked wrapped in foil where others prefer to cook it wrapped in \"coccoloba\" leaves, banana leaves, or seaside grape leaves. Either way the wrapped contents must be boiled in salted water for about 25 minutes or until the mixture in the wrapping is firm. \n", "Traditional recipes for clear toy candy tend to include sugar, cream of tartar or corn syrup, and water. \n\nThe candy's natural color when cooled is yellow. Sometimes natural food coloring is added to make red or green. The molds are greased with olive oil, also referred to as \"sweet oil\", to prevent sticking. \n\nThe mold was removed while the candy was still somewhat soft, and less likely to break. Rough edges were then smoothed off.\n", "A craftsman known as a \"sugar boiler\" then proceeds to \"spin out\", or stretch, the boiling onto a long flat slab, where rollers make sure it is kept rolling until it has set hard enough to maintain its round shape. The process of spinning out is what turns the very thick boiling into the much longer and much thinner final size. Once set, the strings of toffee are cut to length and wrapped in clear paper with a label, known as a \"view\" as it usually has a view of a landmark.\n", "In the Philippines, Fibisco makes a product similar to Mallomars called Choco Mallows that, unlike Mallomars, is available year-round. Likely due to the tropical climate, the \"hard chocolate shell\" of a Choco Mallow is usually just a soft chocolate covering that does not completely harden even after being refrigerated.\n\nSection::::National varieties.:Beso de Negro.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22839	How come our bodies don’t immediately catch a cold/take a awhile to catch a cold again after we’ve gotten over a cold? Why can’t our built up immunity last forever?	Our built up immunity can last a really long time... against viruses that don't change / evolve very much (like polio, chickenpox, etc.). But the cold and flu are constantly changing, they're like viruses on crack cocaine just constantly on the move and lookin' for that next high (in this case, the high would be infecting the host). edit: Sorry I forgot this was ELI5... I suppose it would be inappropriate to reference crackheads in an explanation to a 5 year old > _ >	[ "Some infections, for example those from the common cold and influenza, do not confer any long lasting immunity. Such infections do not give immunization upon recovery from infection, and individuals become susceptible again.\n\nWe have the model:\n\nNote that denoting with N the total population it holds that:\n\nformula_60\n\nit follows that:\n\ni.e. the dynamics of infectious is ruled by a logistic equation, so that formula_62:\n", "When B cells and T cells are activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells develop, and the primary immune response results. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells will \"remember\" each specific pathogen encountered, and can mount a strong secondary response if the pathogen is detected again. The primary and secondary responses were first described in 1921 by English immunologist Alexander Glenny although the mechanism involved was not discovered until later.This type of immunity is both active and adaptive because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Active immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system.\n", "Section::::Viruses and diseases.:Host resistance.:Adaptive immunity of animals.\n\nSpecific immunity to viruses develops over time and white blood cells called lymphocytes play a central role. Lymphocytes retain a \"memory\" of virus infections and produce many special molecules called antibodies. These antibodies attach to viruses and stop the virus from infecting cells. Antibodies are highly selective and attack only one type of virus. The body makes many different antibodies, especially during the initial infection; however, after the infection subsides, some antibodies remain and continue to be produced, often giving the host lifelong immunity to the virus.\n\nSection::::Viruses and diseases.:Host resistance.:Plant resistance.\n", "During a primary infection, long-lived memory B cells are generated, which remain in the body, and provide protection from subsequent infections. These memory B cells respond to specific epitopes on the surface of viral proteins in order to produce antigen-specific antibodies, and are able to respond to infection much faster than B cells are able to respond to novel antigens. This effect shortens the amount of time required to clear subsequent infections.\n", "The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is \"remembered\" by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific \"non-self\" antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by \"memory cells\". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.\n", "Within the host, pathogens can do a variety of things to cause disease and trigger the immune response. Microbes and fungi cause symptoms due to their high rate of reproduction and tissue invasion. This causes an immune response, resulting in common symptoms as phagocytes break down the bacteria within the host. Some bacteria, such as \"H. pylori\", can secrete toxins into the surrounding tissues, resulting in cell death or inhibition of normal tissue function. Viruses, however, use a completely different mechanism to cause disease. Upon entry into the host, they can do one of two things. Many times, viral pathogens enter the lytic cycle; this is when the virus inserts its DNA or RNA into the host cell, replicates, and eventually causes the cell to lyse, releasing more viruses into the environment. The lysogenic cycle, however, is when the viral DNA is incorporated into the host genome, allowing it to go unnoticed by the immune system. Eventually, it gets reactivated and enters the lytic cycle, giving it an indefinite “shelf life” so to speak.\n", "The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. In simple terms, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals. If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.\n", "Section::::Innate and adaptive immune systems.\n\nVertebrate immunity is dependent on both adaptive and innate immune systems. In vertebrates, the innate immune system is composed of cells such as neutrophils and macrophages (which also have a role in the adaptive immune system as antigen presenting cells), as well as molecular pathways such as the complement system which react to microbial non-self. The innate immune system enables a rapid inflammatory response that contains the infection, and it activates the adaptive immune system, which eliminates the pathogen and, through immunological memory, provides long term protection against reinfection.\n", "The body's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system. This comprises cells and other mechanisms that defend the host from infection in a non-specific manner. This means that the cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a generic way, but, unlike the adaptive immune system, it does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host.\n", "The parts of the innate immune system have different specificity for different pathogens.\n\nSection::::Immune evasion.\n\nCells of the innate immune system prevent free growth of microorganisms within the body, but many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade it.\n", "Host resistance pivots around how well a host’s immune system can fight off a disease and rid their body of the pathogens. Although a healthy lifestyle can help a host, infectious diseases seem to evolve so quickly that a new generation of a disease may have emerged before scientists have the chance to make a vaccination for the first generation. Pathogens adapt to the medications and form a resistance to them which causes the new generations of pathogens to be more detrimental than the previous generations. After many generations have emerged, scientists must continuously form new vaccinations to combat the components of the disease that evolve every time a generation appears.\n", "A cold usually begins with fatigue, a feeling of being chilled, sneezing, and a headache, followed in a couple of days by a runny nose and cough. Symptoms may begin within sixteen hours of exposure and typically peak two to four days after onset. They usually resolve in seven to ten days, but some can last for up to three weeks. The average duration of cough is eighteen days and in some cases people develop a post-viral cough which can linger after the infection is gone. In children, the cough lasts for more than ten days in 35–40% of cases and continues for more than 25 days in 10%.\n", "A substantial portion of the immune system is involved in continuously controlling CMV, which drains the resources of the immune system. Death rates from infectious disease accelerate with age, and CMV infection correlates with reduced effectiveness of vaccination. Persons with the highest levels of CMV antibodies have a much higher risk of death from all causes compared with persons having few or no antibodies.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Vaccination.\n", "Once the acute symptoms of an initial infection disappear, they often do not return. But once infected, the person carries the virus for the rest of their life. The virus typically lives dormantly in B lymphocytes. Independent infections of mononucleosis may be contracted multiple times, regardless of whether the person is already carrying the virus dormantly. Periodically, the virus can reactivate, during which time the person is again infectious, but usually without any symptoms of illness. Usually, a person with IM has few, if any, further symptoms or problems from the latent B lymphocyte infection. However, in susceptible hosts under the appropriate environmental stressors, the virus can reactivate and cause vague physical symptoms (or may be subclinical), and during this phase the virus can spread to others.\n", "BULLET::::- Antibody production: All individuals with HIV make antibodies against the virus. In most patients, broadly neutralizing antibodies do not emerge until approximately 2–4 years after the initial infection. At this point, the latent reservoir has already been established and the presence of broadly neutralizing antibodies is not enough to prevent disease progression. In some rare patients, these antibodies emerge earlier and can result in a delayed disease course. These patients, however, are not typically classified as LTNPs, but rather as slow progressors, who will eventually develop AIDS. Induction of broadly neutralizing antibodies in healthy individuals is a potential strategy for a preventive HIV vaccine, as is the elicitation of these antibodies through rationally designed immunogens. Direct production of these antibodies in somatic tissue through plasmid transfection also pose a viable method for making these antibodies available in a large number of humans.\n", "Unlike adaptive and innate immunity, which must sense the infection to be turned on (and can take weeks to become effective in the case of adaptive immunity) intrinsic immune proteins are constitutively expressed and ready to shut down infection immediately following viral entry. This is particularly important in retroviral infections since viral integration into the host genome occurs quickly after entry and reverse transcription and is largely irreversible.\n\nBecause the production of intrinsic immune mediating proteins cannot be increased during infection, these defenses can become saturated and ineffective if a cell is infected with a high level of virus.\n", "Mortality of meningitis-related infections is much lower than mortality associated with sepsis. Because \"C. canimorsus\" induces fulminant sepsis, the faster the diagnosis, the better the chance of survival.\n\nSection::::Evasion of immune system.\n", "In order for a vaccine to be effective, an individual must respond to the pathogens in a vaccine through the adaptive branch of the immune system and that response must be stored in an individual's immunological memory. It is possible for an individual to neutralize and clear a pathogen through the humoral response without activating the adaptive immune response. Vaccines with weaker or fewer strains of a pathogen, as is the case when a vaccine is of poor quality when administered, may primarily elicit the humoral response, and, thus, fail to ensure future immunity.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential epitopes (amino acids and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. This is called antigenic variation. An example is HIV, which mutates rapidly, so the proteins on its viral envelope that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of vaccines directed at this virus. The parasite \"Trypanosoma brucei\" uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response. Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the virion is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such \"self-cloaked\" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as \"non-self\" structures.\n", "Section::::Adaptive immune system.:Immunological memory.\n\nWhen B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This is \"adaptive\" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.\n\nSection::::Physiological regulation.\n", "Section::::Developing immunity.\n\nThe immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and \"remembers\" them. When the virulent version of an agent is encountered, the body recognizes the protein coat on the virus, and thus is prepared to respond, by (1) neutralizing the target agent before it can enter cells, and (2) recognizing and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast numbers.\n", "The use of the immune cycle in treatment through immune synchronisation remains in the very early stages of research, as demonstrated above. According to a 2012 article in Cancer Management and Research, a well timed treatment and the use of agent Interleukin 2 could force the immune system into overdrive, expanding and maximising the period of T-effector cell activity. According to Coventry, \"[t]he immune system works in waves that seems to be switching on and off constantly. And now what we're trying to do is see whether we can identify periods or phases in that cycle where we could target [Melanoma vaccine treatments] more effectively...\"\n", "An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium \"Salmonella\" and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (\"Plasmodium falciparum\") and leishmaniasis (\"Leishmania spp.\"). Other bacteria, such as \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\", live inside a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement. Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response. Some bacteria form biofilms to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, e.g., the chronic \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Burkholderia cenocepacia\" infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis. Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include \"Streptococcus\" (protein G), \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (protein A), and \"Peptostreptococcus magnus\" (protein L).\n", "It has been found that \"Salmonella typhi\" persists in infected mice macrophages that have cycled from an inflammatory state to a non-inflammatory state. The bacteria remain and reproduce without causing further symptoms in the mice, and that this explains why carriers are asymptomatic.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Index case\n\nBULLET::::- Outbreak\n\nBULLET::::- Pandemic\n\nBULLET::::- Virulence\n\nBULLET::::- Epidemic model\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- WHO – Authoritative source of information about global health issues\n\nBULLET::::- Past pandemics that ravaged Europe\n\nBULLET::::- CDC: Influenza Pandemic Phases\n\nBULLET::::- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control – ECDC\n", "Even if the host does develop antibodies, protection might not be adequate; immunity might develop too slowly to be effective in time, the antibodies might not disable the pathogen completely, or there might be multiple strains of the pathogen, not all of which are equally susceptible to the immune reaction. However, even a partial, late, or weak immunity, such as a one resulting from cross-immunity to a strain other than the target strain, may mitigate an infection, resulting in a lower mortality rate, lower morbidity, and faster recovery.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03608	Why does the adhesive inside my nasal strip packaging light up purple in the dark?	This is called triboluminescence. Light is generated through the breaking of chemical bonds in a material when it is pulled apart, crushed, or rubbed. As i'm understanding it, when you're pulling the packaging apart you are exciting the electrons in the adhesive. These excited electrons want to get back to their normal state so they release the extra energy as light.	[ "A thin film of a phosphor, europium thenoyl-trifluoroacetonate, is applied on the surface (e.g. an integrated circuit die) and illuminated by ultraviolet light at 340–380 nm, stimulating fluorescence at mainly 612 nm line. The quantum efficiency of fluorescence decreases exponentially with temperature, differences in emitted light intensity can be therefore used to assess differences on surface temperature, with hot areas showing as darker.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to find cracks and other defects on the surface of a part. Dye tracing, using fluorescent dyes, is used to find leaks in liquid and gas plumbing systems.\n\nSection::::Applications of fluorescence.:Signage.\n\nFluorescent colors are frequently used in signage, particularly road signs. Fluorescent colors are generally recognizable at longer ranges than their non-fluorescent counterparts, with fluorescent orange being particularly noticeable. This property has led to its frequent use in safety signs and labels.\n\nSection::::Applications of fluorescence.:Optical brighteners.\n", "At night, the white section of the building is lighted in pale green and violet and the other half recedes; neon tubes under the front fold provide a slash of changing colored light.\n", "Fluorescent compounds are often used to enhance the appearance of fabric and paper, causing a \"whitening\" effect. A white surface treated with an optical brightener can emit more visible light than that which shines on it, making it appear brighter. The blue light emitted by the brightener compensates for the diminishing blue of the treated material and changes the hue away from yellow or brown and toward white. Optical brighteners are used in laundry detergents, high brightness paper, cosmetics, high-visibility clothing and more.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Absorption-re-emission atomic line filters use the phenomenon of fluorescence to filter light extremely effectively.\n", "Section::::UV ultra violet wristbands.\n\nUV Ultra Violet Sensitive silicone wristbands appear clear/white when out of UV light, but when exposed to ultra violet light such as sunlight the wristbands' color changes to blue or fuchsia. These bands can be used as reminders for people to apply sunscreen or stay in the shade on hot summer days.\n\nSection::::Hospital wristbands.\n", "Nitric oxide concentration can be determined using a chemiluminescent reaction involving ozone. A sample containing nitric oxide is mixed with a large quantity of ozone. The nitric oxide reacts with the ozone to produce oxygen and nitrogen dioxide, accompanied with emission of light (chemiluminescence):\n\nwhich can be measured with a photodetector. The amount of light produced is proportional to the amount of nitric oxide in the sample.\n", "The color of its aqueous solution varies from green to orange as a function of the way it is observed: by reflection or by transmission, as can be noticed in bubble levels, for example, in which fluorescein is added as a colorant to the alcohol filling the tube in order to increase the visibility of the air bubble contained within (thus enhancing the precision of the instrument). More concentrated solutions of fluorescein can even appear red.\n\nIt is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Civil Engineering.\n", "Strongly fluorescent pigments often have an unusual appearance which is often described colloquially as a \"neon color\" (originally \"day-glo\" in the late 1960s, early 1970s). This phenomenon was termed \"Farbenglut\" by Hermann von Helmholtz and \"fluorence\" by Ralph M. Evans. It is generally thought to be related to the high brightness of the color relative to what it would be as a component of white. Fluorescence shifts energy in the incident illumination from shorter wavelengths to longer (such as blue to yellow) and thus can make the fluorescent color appear brighter (more saturated) than it could possibly be by reflection alone.\n", "The common fluorescent lamp relies on fluorescence. Inside the glass tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury. An electric discharge in the tube causes the mercury atoms to emit mostly ultraviolet light. The tube is lined with a coating of a fluorescent material, called the \"phosphor\", which absorbs ultraviolet light and re-emits visible light. Fluorescent lighting is more energy-efficient than incandescent lighting elements. However, the uneven spectrum of traditional fluorescent lamps may cause certain colors to appear different than when illuminated by incandescent light or daylight. The mercury vapor emission spectrum is dominated by a short-wave UV line at 254 nm (which provides most of the energy to the phosphors), accompanied by visible light emission at 436 nm (blue), 546 nm (green) and 579 nm (yellow-orange). These three lines can be observed superimposed on the white continuum using a hand spectroscope, for light emitted by the usual white fluorescent tubes. These same visible lines, accompanied by the emission lines of trivalent europium and trivalent terbium, and further accompanied by the emission continuum of divalent europium in the blue region, comprise the more discontinuous light emission of the modern trichromatic phosphor systems used in many compact fluorescent lamp and traditional lamps where better color rendition is a goal.\n", "Lumi (company)\n\nLumi is a Los Angeles-based company founded by Jesse Genet and Stephan Ango that manufactures packaging and branded supplies. The company got its start developing Inkodye, a photo-reactive vat dye that develops its color through exposure to UV or sunlight.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "photopic eye. Predominantly because of this effect, white light sources such as metal halide, fluorescent, or white LED can produce as much as 3.3 times the visual sky glow brightness of the currently most-common high-pressure sodium lamp, and up to eight times the brightness of low-pressure sodium or amber Aluminium gallium indium phosphide LED.\n", "White light-emitting diodes (LEDs) became available in the mid-1990s as LED lamps, in which blue light emitted from the semiconductor strikes phosphors deposited on the tiny chip. The combination of the blue light that continues through the phosphor and the green to red fluorescence from the phosphors produces a net emission of white light.\n\nGlow sticks sometimes utilize fluorescent materials to absorb light from the chemiluminescent reaction and emit light of a different color.\n\nSection::::Applications of fluorescence.:Analytical chemistry.\n", "Section::::Applications Outside the Membrane.\n", "Section::::Fluorescence in nature.:Abiotic fluorescence.:Common materials that fluoresce.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin B2 fluoresces yellow.\n\nBULLET::::- Tonic water fluoresces blue due to the presence of quinine.\n\nBULLET::::- Highlighter ink is often fluorescent due to the presence of pyranine.\n\nBULLET::::- Banknotes, postage stamps and credit cards often have fluorescent security features.\n\nSection::::Applications of fluorescence.\n\nSection::::Applications of fluorescence.:Lighting.\n", "Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative fingernail \"gels\".\n", "Many photosensitive materials used in technical and industrial applications, such as photoresist, are sensitive only to blue, violet, and ultraviolet light and may be handled under a brighter yellow safelight. Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps sometimes are used in larger industrial darkrooms. They emit nearly monochromatic light at 589 nm (yellow), to which the materials are insensitive; as a result they can be extremely bright while still \"safe\".\n\nThe word \"safe\" in \"safelight\" is relative, as in most cases, a sensitised material eventually will be affected by its safelight if exposed to it for an extended length of time.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Most film has relatively low sensitivity to colors outside the visible range, so light spread in the near ultraviolet (UV) or near infrared (IR) rarely has a significant impact on the image recorded. However, image sensors used in digital cameras commonly are sensitive to a wider range of wavelengths. Although the lens glass itself filters out much of the UV light, and all digital cameras designed for color photography incorporate filters to reduce red and IR sensitivity, the chromatic aberration can be sufficient for unfocused violet light to tint nearby dark regions of the image. Bright cloudy or hazy skies are strong sources of scattered violet and UV light, so they tend to cause the problem.\n", "Fluorescent dyes react with fluorescence under ultraviolet light or other unusual lighting. These show up as words, patterns or pictures and may be visible or invisible under normal lighting. This feature is also incorporated into many banknotes and other documents - e.g. Northern Ireland NHS prescriptions show a picture of local '8th wonder' the Giant's Causeway in UV light. Some producers include multi-frequency fluorescence, such that different elements fluoresce under specific frequencies of light. Phosphorescence may accompany fluorescence and shows an after-glow when the UV light is switched off.\n\nSection::::Registration of features on both sides.\n", "A combination of two fluorophores can be used, with one in the solution and another incorporated to the walls of the container. This is advantageous when the second fluorophore would degrade in solution or be attacked by the chemicals. The emission spectrum of the first fluorophore and the absorption spectrum of the second one have to largely overlap, and the first one has to emit at shorter wavelength than the second one. A downconversion from ultraviolet to visible is possible, as is conversion between visible wavelengths (e.g., green to orange) or visible to near-infrared. The shift can be as much as 200 nm, but usually the range is about 20–100 nm longer than the absorption spectrum. Glow sticks using this approach tend to have colored containers, due to the dye embedded in the plastic. Infrared glow sticks may appear dark-red to black, as the dyes absorb the visible light produced inside the container and reemit near-infrared.\n", "Long and short wavelength light, where the human eye is less sensitive to spatial detail, seem to enhance the effect. This means that if the illusion is created with red or blue lines, black lines, and a white background, the effect will be more intense. This is particularly notable when the colors are more saturated. In contrast to this, green and yellow tend to suppress the effect of neon color spreading when used in the same way. \n\nSection::::Color effects.:Luminance.\n", "Sunlight acts as a bleach through a similar process. High energy photons of light, often in the violet or ultraviolet range, can disrupt the bonds in the chromophore, rendering the resulting substance colorless.\n\nSome detergents go one step further; they contain fluorescent chemicals which glow, making the fabric look literally whiter than white.\n\nSection::::In the natural world.\n\nSection::::In the natural world.:Astronomy.\n", "Gizmodo editor Diaz discussed the correspondence between Apple and a reader about purple flare in pictures taken on iPhone 5 camera. Apple's response to the issue was that it is normal and advised the customer to aim the camera away from bright light sources when taking photos. Tests conducted by TechCrunch indicate that the problem existed on the iPhone 4s but was more distinct and pronounced on the iPhone 5. Consumer Reports found that the purple haze effect occurred on several other manufacturers' phones including the Samsung Galaxy S III and Motorola Droid Razr Maxx, and that it was not less pronounced on the iPhone 4s. The report concluded that digital cameras in general, including higher-end SLRs, can all suffer from lens flare in which a purple-tinted effect was not uncommon.\n", "Section::::Matrix gas effects.\n\nWith a gas chromatograph, filter tube, or other separation technique upstream of the PID, matrix effects are generally avoided because the analyte enters the detector isolated from interfering compounds.\n", "These are standard channel letters, but the neon is covered with a clear acrylic face to keep birds from making a nest as well as to protect the exposed neon from outside elements, i.e., weather, etc. This allows for the exposed neon to be seen, as well as the inside of the channel letter interior itself to add to the dimensional look.\n\nSection::::Channel letter types.:Face-lit channel letters.:Plastic formed Channel Letters.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03843	Why are those cows mesmerized by the girl playing the accordion?	First, cattle aren't nearly as stupid as people think (in fact, most mammals are pretty smart). They are curious about interesting new phenomena in their environment. If you came home and there was a new sculpture in the living room you would probably be curious too. You'd figure it out quickly enough, but the cattle are more just entranced by the novelty of it. Curiosity about the environment tends to serve both predators and prey well. Second, remember cattle are herd animals. They will tend to follow one another. So it really only takes a few to perk up and start checking out something new, for the rest to join in.	[ "In a study at the University of Leicester, Liam MacKenzie and Adrian North found that playing music for dairy cows had an effect on the amount of milk that they produced. Over a nine-week period, dairy cows were exposed to fast ( 120 BPM), slow (< 100 BPM), and no music. Music was played for the cows 12 hours a day from 5 AM to 5 PM. The study found that cows exposed to slow music, like REM's 'Everybody Hurts' or Beethoven's 'Pastoral Symphony,' produced 3% more milk than cows that were exposed to fast music, like Pumping on your Stereo by Supergrass and 'Size of a Cow' by Wonderstuff. Bovine milk production has long been thought to be affected by exposure to music. Some farmers already expose their cows to music to aid in milk production.\n", "Perhaps we will drink \n\na glass of wine \n\nto the health of the comets, \n\nexpiring diamond blood. \n\nOr better still – we’ll get a record player. \n\nWell, to hell with you! - \n\nhornless and ironed! \n\nI want one - to dance one \n\ntango with cows \n\nand to build bridges - \n\nfrom the tears \n\nof bovine jealousy \n\nto the tears \n\nof crimson girls.\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n", "In a study on Holstein–Friesian heifers learning to press a panel to open a gate for access to a food reward, the researchers also recorded the heart rate and behavior of the heifers when moving along the race towards the food. When the heifers made clear improvements in learning, they had higher heart rates and tended to move more vigorously along the race. The researchers concluded this was an indication that cattle may react emotionally to their own learning improvement.\n", "One day a pig in black coat and sunglasses comes to the farm. He then puts up a stand to sell liquor. His first customer is a cow. The cow, after drinking a few ounces, then heads to tell the other animals. They too are instrested as they flock to the stand.\n", "Moo decides to create \"love poems for the needy\". So Minnie and Moo dress up as cupids. The cows have just the right outfits in the barn. Dressed up as cupids, they use Moo's poems to bring love to the barnyard. The poems do not always end up in the right hands, claws, or hooves. Farmer John thinks that the cows were the ones sending the poetry. His wife replied that cows can't write.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Calves are capable of discrimination learning and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the Closed-field Test.\n", "Kamensky had been one of the first Russians to master flight, piloting a Blériot XI after taking lessons from Louis Blériot himself, until a crash in 1912 persuaded him to retire;\n", "Beef-calves reared on the range suckle an average of 5.0 times every 24 hours with an average total time of 46 min spent suckling. There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling activity with peaks between 05:00–07:00, 10:00–13:00 and 17:00–21:00.\n\nStudies on the natural weaning of zebu cattle (\"Bos indicus\") have shown that the cow weans her calves over a 2-week period, but after that, she continues to show strong affiliatory behavior with her offspring and preferentially chooses them for grooming and as grazing partners for at least 4–5 years.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Reproductive behavior.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Current activity (2001–present).\n", "Cattle are very gregarious and even short-term isolation is considered to cause severe psychological stress. When Aubrac and Friesian heifers are isolated, they increase their vocalizations and experience increased heart rate and plasma cortisol concentrations. These physiological changes are greater in Aubracs. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalisations rapidly decline, regardless of the familiarity of the returning cattle, however, heart rate decreases are greater if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously-isolated individual. Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.\n\nSection::::Senses.\n", "As briefly mentioned above, Grandin found it much easier to not only relate to cattle, but to really get into their minds and understand them more than other people. This is most likely the leading reason for her success in the field of animal rights and cattle farm innovations. Even though Grandin finds it difficult to relate to other people, she understands that it is necessary and helpful in many cases. Grandin admits to people that she cannot quite understand them unless they are very straightforward and speak what they mean. She works with people constantly in her endeavors as a professor and lecturer.\n", "There is conflicting evidence for magnetoreception in cattle. One study reported that resting and grazing cattle tend to align their body axes in the geomagnetic North-South (N-S) direction. In a follow-up study, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment. However, in 2011, a group of Czech researchers reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using Google Earth images.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "Cow longevity is strongly correlated with production levels. Lower production cows live longer than high production cows, but may be less profitable. Cows no longer wanted for milk production are sent to slaughter. Their meat is of relatively low value and is generally used for processed meat. Another factor affecting milk production is the stress the cow is faced with. Psychologists at the University of Leicester, UK, analyzed the musical preference of milk cows and found out that music actually influences the dairy cow's lactation. Calming music can improve milk yield, probably because it reduces stress and relaxes the cows in much the same way as it relaxes humans.\n", "A crazed labrador, who is a musician, plays some music on his piano (one of which would be repeated by Krazy in \"Seeing Stars\"). When his piano collapses due to being overplayed, the labrador gobbles some garlic pieces, and delivers a breath onto the instrument. Surprisingly, the piano returns to its normal shape, and the canine musician is able to play again. When he is finished playing, he spots someone outside singing with a voice he finds pretty.\n", "The favoured breed of cow for The Battle is the . Alpine cows such as these are believed to be relatively assertive, and less likely to refuse to fight than cows accustomed to the soft life in the flat lands.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Some growers have found that Rottweilers are especially suited to move stubborn stock that simply ignore Border Collies, Kelpies, and others. Rottweilers use their bodies to physically force the stubborn animal to do its bidding if necessary.\n\nWhen working with sheep, the Rottweiler shows a gathering/fetching style and reams directions easily. It drives sheep with ease.\n\nIn some cases, Rottweilers have begun herding cattle without any experience at all.\n", "The behaviour of bunting within cattle is first observable in calves. As a form of play fighting, a young calf will bunt the flank of its mother. A newborn calf will bunt the mother's udder and this stimulates milk flow. It has been found that when calves are taken from their mothers and raised artificially, the calf will attempt to bunt the artificial teat when milk is not being produced quick enough.\n\nSection::::Bunting in other species.:Horses.\n", "The horns of cattle are \"honest signals\" used in mate selection. Furthermore, horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle. This leads to more stable social relationships.\n\nIn calves, the frequency of agonistic behavior decreases as space allowance increases, but this does not occur for changes in group size. However, in adult cattle, the number of agonistic encounters increases as the group size increases.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Grazing behavior.\n", "A fold of semi-wild Highland cattle was studied, over a period of 4 years. It was found that the cattle have a clear structure and hierarchy of dominance, which reduced aggression. Social standing depended on age and sex, with older cattle being dominant to calves and younger ones, and males dominant to females. Young bulls would dominate adult cows when they reached around 2 years of age. Calves from the top ranking cow were given higher social status, despite minimal intervention from their mother. Playfighting, licking and mounting were seen as friendly contact.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Studio albums and national touring (1992–2000).\n", "Following his work with the rooster, Krazy, for some reason, milks a cow. He then befriends a duckling, and pours the milk into a hole in the ground which the duckling swims in.\n\nAfter spending time with the duckling, Krazy heads to another location where he takes a sock and plays it like an accordion. A pair of hens come and dance with him. They like his performance a lot that they collapse in amusement.\n", "When mixed with other individuals, cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, indicating that kin discrimination occurs and may be a basis of grouping behaviour. It has also been shown using images of cattle that both artificially inseminated and cloned calves have similar cognitive capacities of kin and non-kin discrimination.\n", "BULLET::::- The first breeding phase of the rut takes place between the beginning and the middle of September. This is when the three year and older cows come into estrus. During this time herd bulls bugle to keep their cows close by, they also answer the bugles of satellite bulls to let them know they are still dominant. A herd bull will also bugle while approaching a cow in estrus so the cows become familiar with his bugles.\n", "Cows, as with many mammals, use vocal communication to mediate and strengthen strong mother-infant bonds. Calves often call to their mothers in times of need (hunger, danger), and it is believed that certain calls are used to solicit nursing. McCowan et al. (2002) found that playback of calf vocalizations caused a statistically significant increase (1-2%) in milk production in dairy cows. The cows most responsive to the vocalizations were those cows whose actual infants were closest in age to the calves used for the recordings (less than 1 week old); therefore, it is possible that milk production within a dairy herd could be increased further if multiple playbacks of calf vocalizations were used, varying by age as appropriate for the cows (McCowan 2002). (Young calf playbacks to cows with young calves; older calf playbacks to cows with older calves, etc.) These results highlight an innovative non-chemical method for increasing milk production in dairy cows, and are especially important findings for use on organic dairy farms, as the demand for organic products grows.\n", "Muskoxen have a distinctive defensive behavior: when the herd is threatened, the bulls and cows will face outward to form a stationary ring or semicircle around the calves. The bulls are usually the front line for defense against predators with the cows and juveniles gathering close to them. Bulls determine the defensive formation during rutting, while the cows decide the rest of the year.\n\nSection::::Social behavior and reproduction.:Components of glandular secretions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Cows are mesmerized by girl" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Cows are just curious and decided to check it out. Furthermore, their herd nature will tend to make them all behave similarly. " ]

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